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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
W. B. WILSON, Secretary

WOMEN'S BUREAU
MARY ANDERSON, Director

_,;

BULLETIN OF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU, NO,. 12

•

THE NEW POSITION
OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN
INDUSTRY


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,

I.

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1920

[PUBLIC-N 0. 259-66TH

CONGRESS.]

[H. R. 13229.]

An Act To establish in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known
as the Women's Bureau.

J

B~ it enactea' by the Senate and, House of Representatives of the United
States of .America in Congress assemblea.; That there shall be established in the Department of Labor a bureau to bcJmown as the
Women's B11reau.
SEc. 2. That the saia bureau shall be in cliarge of a director, a
woman, to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice
and consent of the. Senate, who shall receive an annual compensation of $5,000. .It shall be the duty of said b-µ.reau to formulate
standards and policies which shall proJnote the welfare of wageearning women, improve their working conditions, increase their
efficiency, and advance their opportunities for profitable employment. The said bureau shall have authority to investigate and
report to the said department. upon all matters pertaining to the
welfare of women in industry. The director of said bureau may·
from time to time publish the results of these investigations·in such
a manner and to such extent as the Secre(ary of Labor may prescribe.
SEc. 3. That there shall be in said bureau an assistant director,
to be appointed by the Secretary of Labor, who shall receive an
annual co~pensation of $3,500 and shall perform such duties as
shall be prescribed by the director and approved by the Secretary
of Labor.
•
SEc. 4. That there is hereby authorized to be employed by said
bureau a chief clerk and such special agents, assistants, clerks, and
other employees at such rates of compensation and in such numbers
as Congress may from time to time provide by appropriations.
SEc. 5. That the Secretary of Labor is hereb-y directed to furnish
sufficient quarters, office furniture and equipment, for the work of
this bureau.
·
SEc. 6. That this Act shall take effect and be in force from and
after its passage.
Approved, June 5, 1920.


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WOMEN OPERATORS ON PRILL PRESSES,

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
W. B. WILSON, Secretary

WOMEN'S

BUREAU

MARY ANDERSON, Director

BULLET I N OF TH E WO M EN ' S B u ·R EAU , NO. 1 2

THE NEW POSITION
OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN
INDUSTRY


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WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1920


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CONTENTS ..
Page.

Latter of transmittaL ....................................................... .
Introduction ......... .. ....... _... _... ............... - . .. ... .. ... ........ .. .
SECTION

I.

Tim

NEW PusTTION OF WoMEN IN .AMERTClL I)."DUS'rrR.Y.

'\"Vb.at the World War did to industry ..... . . . ........... , .................... .
Shift from peace to wa-T-time production ......... •. --·--·_ ----· ....... .
The demand for quantity prodrr€tiorn .......... --· - · .................. .
What women in American industries did for the World War ... -· .-· .. . .. -· .. . .
Women;s serv~ce ~n war agent ana: im:pl~!llent 11:dustries.... . ........ . ..
Womens service m war food and mbnc rndustnes. -· . ..... . ........... __ .
What the World War did for women in industry .. . .... . ...... . ............. .
Effect of the war on women in the older ind'ustries_. --· ....... . ...........
The opportunity which the World. War brought to women---·.--· ........ .
Conditions under which women are oeing retained in rrew occupactfons. .. .
Summary of salient facts disclosed by the survey.·--·:----· .............. . -· ..
S:&cTION

II.

9

11

STATrsTrcs OF Wo}rEN's INDUSTRIAL EMPLOTiiENT

13
13
14
16

16·
20,
23
24

25
31
34

DURING- A:YD

AFTER THE WAR .

Scope an-d method of inves-tigation .. . ..... - · .. -· ...... __ . _. __ .... ··- - _........ .
ource of data-...... . ...... . .................. _.. _. ____ .. _____ . ........ -· .. _
Wa-r agent amd implement industries an.di wa.r foo<i and mlimi.c industries ... _ .. .
: omen in industry in the _prewar period ............. . ________ .. _.......... _
Trend of woman- labor dlll'mg the-war. ...... ----· ..... _. _. _...... ... _......... _..
All industries . . .................... _.................... __ . ___ ... __ ..... .
Iron and· steel and their p:r:od nets-. _.............. __ .... ___ ... .......... .
MetaHrades other than. iron. anc1 steel._.----·-------· ... _.... _---- ... __ _
Chemical produets ...................... _.... _. . _________ .. _. ......... _.
Other war agent and. implemen.t industries....... - · - · ......... -· ---· __ _
Food, tobacco, and elothing, 1ndust11ies .. __ _--· --· -·· .......... ___ . _.. ___ . _
Em.pill:d~!:~/~~s.t~~l~~i.o~ ~~.'~~~~~- .~~~~-~!.t~-~ ~~~-~~~·.·.·~~ ~ ~ ~ ~-~~ ~~~ :
Iron and steel and their products ... __ . _... ____ .... _....... ___ -· - · _. _....
Metal and metal, products other than iron and steeL ___ . -···. -·. - · - · ...... .
Lumber and its remam1faetuNs. _.. . . __ .. .. _... ___ . . . . __ .......... _. ___ .
Chemical prod aets ...................... _.. __ ........... _. . __ ... __ ...... .
Leather and, its finished products-. ......... _........ ·-----· .. -- · ....... .
Stone, clay, and glass-pr0ducts ......... .. ___ ··-·-· -··-·. ___ ... ___ - -· -··-·
Textiles and izheir p1,oducts ........ _.. . __ ·----- _............. -- - -· .... .
Food·, foo_d Jroducts, and bev.erages-................ ... ... -· -· _... -· ...... .

~~!:;~~t~;!li~~~.·.·.·.·. ~ ~ ~ ~-~ ~: ~ ~ ·~~ ·~====::: ~~~~. ~ ~-~ == ~ ~~::::: ~~ : ~~

Printing, publishing, aml engraving industrie3 ... _.. _.. _.... _. _...... __ ..
Otl:te1• war ind us-trieEJ ........... . ............. __ . _.... _....... _..... __ .. .

i~i;~11~~~~~~:~:: :~~s:·:·~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~::::::::::::::::::::::::

~i]S,~~-~~-:-:-::-:::: : ::: •:::: ~:::::::: ::::: ••::: •::::: ::

Vehicles other than automobiles . ..................... .. ... . ....... . .
Motion-picture and photographic appam.tus--..... . .................. .
Optical goods . . . . ... . ...... _...... . ............. . ............. .. . . .
Surgical rupplfanee8'and a'l•ti:fi ia1 lim.:1 s;_ _____ • _. _ . . . • . • . . . _. _. ___ .. •••
Instruments, scientlli€ and· professionrrJ. ..... ----------- .... -· ..... . .
Den1iaJ, g00ds ... . . . .. .. . . .. .. _. _. . .... .. ......... _............. - ..


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36
36
38
40
4ll

41
42
42
42
42 ,
43
50
52
56
58
(30

G2
G4

G5
(36

69,
'Zr

n
n

73
74
74
74
74
7,5
7,5

75
76
76
76

16
7.6

4

CONTENTS.

Employment and substitution of women during tho World War-Continued.
Page.
Other war industries-Continued.
Ilat,s and caps ............. . ..... .. ..... .. ...... .. ................ .
77
77
F urs ............ . ............. . ................................ , .. .
77
Buttons .............................. .... ......................... .
Musical instruments ..................... .... ...................... .
77
77
Toys and sporting goods ........................................ : .. .
77
Miscellaneous goods ................................ ·_............. .
79
Changes in the labor force by States ............. ......... . ...... ..... .. .
Comparative proportion of women in war agent and implement industries before,
85
during, and after the war ............................. .............. ..... .
90
Relative retention of men and women after si~ning of armistice ....... .. ..... .
Demand for and supply of man and woman labor before and after signing of
90
arnristice ................................................ , .............. .
SECTION

III.

RESULTS OF SUBSTITUTION OF WOMEN ON
AND AFTER THE WAR.

lEN's '\VonK DuRING

Principles of manufacture ............... . ................................. .
Metal-working occupations ................................................ .
Drilling-machine operating ............................................. .
ifim:;~~~rit:i~·~p~;~ti~g:::.·_-.·.·.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Grinding and -polishing metals ............................. .. ........... .
Punch-press operating ....... .. ... ... ................................. .
Miscellaneous machine operating on metals ... ......... . .. ... .. .......... .

g~~~°tlci~~~~.·::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::
Welding .............................................................. .
Soldering ............................ __ .. _._. _______ . ________ . ____ . ___ .
Inspecting ................................. . ................ . ........ .
Bench work and assembling .......................... . ................ .
General factory work .................................................. .

Elec{v~~~~c~J>dYi~ii~t~g.·.·.·_:::.·.·.·.·_·.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Assembling and connecting armatures ............... ..... .... . ......... .
Testing ........................................................ _..... .
Mica work ............................... . ............... .... ........ .
Miscellaneous electrical work ........................................... .

Woo~';_~fJt/;i~k~~~~~~~·.·.·.·.·::::·.·_·.·.·:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Handwork ............................................................ .

CheE~;fo~i~~~!~if~~t~;i~g·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Loading explosives ............................ . ........ . . .. ........... .
Miscellaneous chemical occupations ................... .. ............... .
Rubber-working occupations ............. ·................................. .
Leather-working occupations ......................... ..... ................ .
Textile occupations ............................... . .......... ........ . .. .. .
Abrasive wheel and glass-working occupations ............................... .
Unskilled manual labor .......................... . ......................... .
Miscellaneous occupations ................ . ................... .... . . ....... .
Training s cured by women dming the war ................................ .
List of occupations in which women were substituted for men ............... .

93
94
97
99
101
103
104
105

107
107

no
no
no

nl

n2

113
n3
114

n4
n4

114
116

n7
ll9
121
122
124
126
129
130
132
132
133
134
134
137

APPENDIX A.

Selected letters from employers supplementing or explaining answers to questionnaires concerning results of employment of woman labor during and after
the ,var...................................................................
APPE

DIX B.

Attitude of labor unions toward admission of women to membership, as shown
in excerpts from constitutions and by-laws and in letters written by union
officials ...................................................... . : . . . . . . . .


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153

CONTENTS.

5

CHART.

Chart showing increase or decrease in number of ,,omen employed after second
draft over number employed after first dmft in 14,576 identical firms representing industries as shown in rrables 10 to 21, inclusive ......... Facing page 87

ILLUSTRATIO.r S.
Women operators on drill presses ........•.... . ......... ............ Frontispiece.
Lathe operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Facing page 99
Skilled screw-machine operators in the aircraft industry ............ Fa ing page 100
Toolmake1· ............... ...................... ............. _. _. Facing page 102
Gluing room, wood working establi hm n t _... .. . ...... ...... _. . . . . Fa ing page 116
Women oper:,:i,tors in a GoYernmen t arsenal loading plant ..... .... ... Facing page 123
Loading smokeless powder ...........••......... .........••...... Facing pape 124


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LIST OF TABLES.
8EC'L'IO_

I.

Table N ~-

Pn.ge.

1. Proportion of women on labor force of leading war agent and imple-ment
industries before, during, and after the war...... . ....................
E.C'.FIO~

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

7.
8.
9-.

10.
11.

12.

13.

14.
15.

16.

II.

-umbe1· and percent of woman -wage earners employed in the £:ve principal
woman-employing industries in the United States in 1914 ............. .
Change in labor force dur.ingtJ!i.ewarin pfa:ntsin the iron and steelindus1:ry
and proportion of this industry :represented in the sun·ey, by branch of
industry ....................................................... _.. .. .
Change in labo:r force during the war in plants representing tho manufacture of metal products other tha:n iron and stool, and proportion of
this industry represented in the suryey, by branch of industry .. . _.....
Change in labor force during the w-ar in plants representing the chemical
industry, and propo:ril:ion o:f thiS' in<lustry represented in the survey, by
branch of industry ................. .. ............ .. ............... _.
Cha:nge in labor force- during the war in plants representing seven leading
wa:r· agel'l·t and implement mdustries, and pro-portion of these ind11stl·ies
represented in the sur-vey .................... _....................... .
Change- in Ia:bor force during the war in plants representing the foo1l and
tobacco industr-ies, and proportion of these industries represc:r..tcd in
the survey, by b:ranch of industry ...... . ............................. .
Change in labor force during the war in plan ts re:presen ting the textile,
dothing, shoe, and glove industries, and proportion of these
uetries
rep.resented in the survey, by branch of industry ...................... .
Propo1-tion of women employe-<l and substituted after-the second draft and
increase or decrease in their employment over period after first draft in
war agent and implement and war food and fabric industries .. ..... _.. .
Men and women employed after-the fust and second d:rafts and women substituted on men rs workoradded without substitution after the second draft
in pfanta in the iron and steel industry, by branch of industry ........ .
Men and women employed after the first and second drafts n,nd women substituted on men's work or added without substitution after the second
draft in plants engaged in the manufacture of metal products, other
than iron and steel, by branch of industry .............. ... .......... .
Men and women employed after the fust and second drafts and v.omen substituted on men 's work 01~ added without substitution after the second
draft in plants engaged in the manufacture and 1·emanufacture of lumber,
by branch of industry .. ... .................... . .... _................ .
l\fen and women employed after the :first and second drafts and women substituted on men's work or added mthoutsubstitution after the second draft
in plants ena:aged in the manufacture of chemicals and allied products,
by branch of industry ...................... _......... .. ............. .
Men and women employed aftertheJirst and second drafts and women substituted on men )s work or added without substitution after the second
draft in plants in the leather industry, by branch of industry ...... : .. .
Men and women employed after the first and second drafts and w-0men substituted on men's work or added without substitution after the second
draft in plants· engaged in the manufacture of stone, clay, and glass
products, by branch of industry ..................................... .
Men and women employed after the fast and second drafts and women substituted on men's work or added without substitution after the second
draft in plants engaged in the manufacture of textiles and their products,
by branch of industry ............................................... .


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35

40

44
45
46

47
48

m

49

54

57

5.9

61

63
64

66

68

8

LIST OF TABLES.
Page.

Table ~o.

17. Men and women employed after the first and second drafts and women substituted on men's work or added without substitution after the second
draft in plants engaged in the manufacture of food products, beyerages,
and allied products, by branch of industry ........................... .
18. Men and women employed after the fu·st and second drafts and women substituted on men's work or added without ·substitution after ihe second
draft in plants in the tobacco industry, by branch of industry ......... .
19. Men and women employed after the first and second drafts and women substituted on men's work or added without substitution after the second

70
71

1

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.
26.
27.
28.

i~a~r!~t~£1~c1~f~-~ -~~- ~~~- ~~~~:~~~~ ~~ -~~ ~~~~~ -~~~- :~:-~r- ~~~~-s:
Men and women employed after the first and second drafts and women sub-

stituted on men's work or added 'without substitution after the second
draft in plants in the printing, publishing, and engraving industries,
by branch of industry ............................................... .
Men and women employed after the first and second drafts and women substituted on men's work or added without substitution after the second
~raft in_ plants in 21 war agent and implement or war food and fabric
1:Qdustnes ........................... . . . ............................. .
Men and women employed after the first and second drafts and women substituted on men 's work or added without substitution after the second
draft in plan ts engaged in the iron and steel industries, by States ...... .
Men and women employed after the first and second drafts and women substituted on men 's work or added without substitution after the second
draft in plants engaged in the manufacture of metal and metal products
other than iron and steel, by States ..................... . ... . . . ..... .
Men and women employed after the first and second drafts and women substituted on men 's work or added without substitution after the second
draft in plan ts engaged in the manufacture and remanufacture of lumber,
by States ........................................................... .
Proportion of women on labor force in leading war agent and implement
industries before, durin~, and after the war ........... . . . . . .... . ...... .
Number and/roportion ot men and women wage earners employed before,
during, an after the war in 474 identical firms in leading war agent
and implement industries ....... . ....... . ... . ......... .. ...... ... ... .
Men and women employed in 1,012 firms in four leading war agent and implement industries at the time of the armistice and nine months later . .
Calls for labor and applications for work in four leading occupations and
in all occupations for men and women, as shown in the records of the
United States Employment Service for four weeks previous to signing of
armistice and for four weeks, three months after signing of armistice ... .
SECTION

72

73

78
80

82

89
90

92·

III.

29. Extent and success of substitution of women for men during and after the
30.
31.

32.
33.

war either through direct replacement or through expansion in 562 manufacturing establishments, by occupational groups ......... . . . . . ... , . . .
Extent and success of substitution of women for men during and after the
war either through direct replacement or through expansion in metalworking establishments ..................... . ................ .·...... .
Principal occupations on metals in which women were substituted for men
during the war period, their relative output in these occupations and firms
retaining their services in August, 1919 .... ............ . .. .. .. . . .. . . . .
Extent and success of substitution of women for men during and after the
war either through direct replacement or through expansion in establishments engaged in the manufacture and remanufacture of lumber . .
Extent and success of substitution of women for men during and after the
war either through direct replacement or through expansion in chemical establish men ts .. .. .............. . ... . . ... ................ . ...... .


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95

06
117
122

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

u. s.

DEPARTMENT OF LABOR,
WOMEN'S BUREAU,

Washington, August 27, 1920.
Sm: We submit herewith a report giving the results of an investigation of the new position of women in American industry, based
on statistics of their employment during the war and in the postwar
period. This investigation was initiated by Miss Mary Van Kleeck,
while Director of the Women's Bureau, at the request of Miss
Mary E. McDowell, of Chicago, who, returning from a trip to France
and EnO'land, made on behalf of the War .Work Council of the Young
W omen9s Christian Association, was convinced that more information should be made available about the new outlook for women in
industry in the United States, and the actual effects of the war on
their economic position. Througg the efforts of Miss McDowell
the survey was financed by the War Work Council in view of the
fact that the current appropriation of the Women's Bureau was
too small to include this inquiry in its program. As it was anticipated that statistics secured by Federal departments would form
its basis, however, the War Work Council undertook the study
with the expectation that the report would be published by the
Women's Bureau. The original report, as submitted by the War
Work Council, was revised and condensed by the Women's Bureau.
Respectfully submitted.
MARY ANDERSON, Director.
Hon. W. B. WILSON,
Secretary of Labor.


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INTRODUCTION.
To determine not only what women in :industry in · the United
States did for the World War but also what the World War did for
women in industry this survey was undertaken. Within its main
objective were included many questions from whose answers shot
up gleams or glints of promise or danger. Were great numbers of
women forced mto the labor vacuum created by enlistments and the
military drafts and blown out again by the back rush that started
with the close of the war and demobilization~ Did the women make
their mark on such industries as efficient workers or did the industries leave a scar of failure upon them~ Did the World War,
stripping away the thick padding of industrial tradition as to what
pursuits were and what were not suitable occupations for women,
uncover new capabilities in women for service and new opportunities
for women to serve 1 If the World War has permanently loosened the
century-long grip which the traditional woman-employing industries
have upon ·woman labor, under what conditions are the new industries
placing upon it their lasting hold~ What is the attitude of organized
labor toward the retention of women in the new occupations and
what is the probable influence of this attitude upon the course of
employers and upon the prevailing industrial standards 1 Does the
war-time experience in the employment of woman labor offer available suggestions for so shaping the vocational training of women as
to bring it into full accord with the possibilities of woman labor as
reve·a led by its. emergency service 1 Finally, can the war-born
opportunities for earning a livelihood be made to stimulate tho
sense of self-dependence, growing out of proved skill, which should
be an insurance against misfortune and a source of poised strength
to the growing army of wage-earning women 1
To throw light on these and related questions of equal importance
it was necessary to make a nation-wide survey and to enlist therein
the cooperation of employers in all leading industries. Even with
the ungrudging and unrestricted cooperation of employers and
organization leaders, however, it would not have been possible in
the time and for the money available to uncover the essential
facts had it not been that, without in any way disclosing confidential
matters, access was given to a great mass of pertinent data contained in the records of Government war agencies. 1
1 Because of the availability of this unpublished material the results here presented and the conclusions
drawn concerning the status of women in industry, previous to our entrance into the war, rest, as explained
in Section II of this report (p. 36), upon data from nearly 9,000 firms, employing over 3,000,000 workers
in 1916. The results and conclusions concerning women in industry during the World War rest
upon reports from nearly 15,000 firms, employing auring the "peak load" before the armistice approximately two. an~ a hal~ million W?rkers, or over one-third of the average number of wage earners in all
manufacturmg mdustnes, accordmg to the Umted States Census of Manufactures for 1914. Because of
the generous cooperation of employers the deductions concerning the post-war status of women in industry rests upon reports from over thirteen hundred of these firms, employing in August, 1919, nearly
700,000 workers. The intensive study of the results of substitution is based upon reports from 562 of the
3,558 firms which had substituted during the war and up to August, 1919, over 68,000 women in work
reviously done by men. Although the policy of selecting firms employing 25 wage earners or more
adopted to secure the largest body of workers at a minimum of clerical service) reduces the proportion of
~ rms covered, the per cent of workers included shows that the industries are liberally represented. The
postwar data are fwther supplemented by unpublished records of United States Employment Service.


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12

THE NEW PO ITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

Information in the possession of such Federal bodies a the War
Industries Board and the United States Department of Labor and
its Employment Service was put at the disposal of this survey.
Some of ,t he material covering the period in 1916 immediately preceding our entrance into the war was ~ecured by the National League
for Woman's Service working in official cooperation with the Government. These official and semiofficial records were supplemented
by intensive first-hand field studies of substitution of worn n on
men's work and of the employment of women after the armistice.


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SECTIO:N"

I.

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

WHAT THE WORLD WAR DID TO INDUSTRY.

To get a clear picture of what women in American industries did
for the World War it is necessary to bear in mind just what the
World War did to industry. The great conflict wrenched the whole
industrial machine with great violence, forced extensive readjustments, and a general regearing to make the speed and carry the
load de~anded by the all-nation contest.
SHIFT FROM: PEACE TO WAR-TIME PRODUCTIO

.

This quick shift from a peace to a war footing contributed as much
at first to the dislocation of normal industrial conditions as did the
drafting of millions of men from the ranks of producers to the service
of the Army and Navy. The wheels of industries that had been
turning out plowshares and pruning hooks of peace were suddenly
reversed to make the guns and grenades, the shells and the shrapnel,
the bayonets and bolos, and the other dread "swords and spears"
of modern warfare. For the production of these implements of
destruction the Government drafted the forces and equipment of the
makers of steel and iron, of forging and casting foundries, of producers of hardware for builders and for households. The makers
of bathtubs and plumber supplies, of farm implements arid dairy
utensils; the :fiTms that made cash registers, typewriters, calculating
machines and all the other devices for battling with commercial
figures; the firms that fashioned bird cages, fishing tackle and sporting goods, all filed into the ranks of "war industries n to produce
rifles by the million and cartridges by the billion, bombs by the boat
load, and artillery by the acre. 1
The tremendous range of manufacture required to equip our
forces for actual warfare is reflected in the War Department's official
statement that "in the American ordnance catalogue of supplies
during the recent war there were over a hundred thousand separate
and distinct items." 2
Then the development of aerial warfare involved the virtual creation of a new industry in America. "This meant," says the Assistant Secretary of War in his official report as Director of Munitions,
"not only the equipping of factories, but the procurement and sometimes the actual .production of the raw materials. * * * Wood,
sheet steel, wire, cloth, varnish-these are the principal components
1 For an account of the drift of industry from peace to .war products ser pp. 50-84, of this report.
_ 2 .America's Munitions 1917-18, Report of Benedict Crowell, Assistant Secretary of War, Director of
Munitions, ·w ashington, 1919, p. 21.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

of an airplane. " 3 The war's requirements for each of these product~
were straining the industries without the added demands of the
aerial battle fields, but the mills and factories had not only to produce the planes and their engines, but they had to equip them with
weapons of o:ffense and defense. In further discussion of the requirements of the aerial warfare the Assistant Secretary of War says: 4
The war in the air put added demands upon. ordnance. It required the stripped
machine-gun fixing cartridges so rapidly that their explosions merged into a single
continuous roar, yet each shot so nicely timed that it passed between the flying blades
of the propeller. There· had to be electric heaters for the gun mechanisms to prevent the oil which lubri cated them from becoming congealed in the cold of hjgb
altitudes. The airplane glllls required armor-piercing bullets for use against armored
planes, incendiary bullets to ignite the hydrogen· of the enemy's balloon or to :fire
the gasoline escaping through the wound in the hostile airplane's fuel tank, and
tracer bull,ets to direet the aim of the aeTial gunner. Other equipment for the airman included s-hot counters, to tell him inatantly what quantity of ammunition he
had on hand, and gunsighre,. ingeniously con.hived to correct his aim automatically
for the relative speed and direction of the opposing plane. These were all developments in ordnance lorought about by tne great war,. and in each case they involved
problems for the pro<luetion. organization to aulve. Then. there· were the drop bombs
of aerial warfare, of many •rra<lations- in weight, * * * loomb sjO'hts to de-termine
the moment when the missle must be dropped in order to hit its target, sights which
corrected for the altitude, the wind resistance, and the rate of speed of the airplane,
and mechanisms to suspend the bombs from the plane and to relea~e them 2t the
will of the operator.

*

*

*

It will be noted that the most important articles '~ * * are * * ➔:• of a
noncommercial type. In other words, theyarenotthesortof things that theindustTy
of ni country builds in time of peace, nor learns how t build. 4

Even this vivid account of the swift and complete shift from peace
to war requirements does not touch, of course, the tremendous
demands put upon industry by the requirements of the Navy.
THE DEMAND FOR QUANTITY PRODUCTION.

The strain was enhanced and complicated by the inescapable
urge for unparalleled quantity production in all industries essential to
the prosecution of the war.
The imposing array of supplies required to clothe and feed, to
house and maintain nearly 4-,000,000 men and to provide for transporting them ovetseas constituted in itself a load of submerging
weight. The War Department's official statement previously mentioned visualizes the strain on industry for- subsistence, thus : 0
Consider these millions of soldiers as one composite, gigantic man in khaki ; com~
press the war period into a single hour, the dinner hour;· and it will be seen th:1t the
American :fighter consumed what might be calTed a sizeable meal. Let us say that
he started off with the main course. The roa.st of beef weighed over 800,000-,000
pounds. It was flanked hy a rasher of bacon weighing 150,00(},000 p0tmds. 0Ter
1,000,000,000 pounds of fl.om went into the loaf of bread, while, to spread the bread
there was a lump of l1Utter weiglring 17,500,000 pounds and another lump. of oleomargarine weighing 11,000,000 poun-ds. As a side dish thie giant had over 150,000,000
pounds of baked beans-. " * * The potatoes weighed 187,000,000 pounds. To
add gus-to to his appetite there ware 4-0,000 ,000. pounds oi omons. Then... catt red
over the table were such items as 150,000,000 cans of corn, peas, and string beans;
3'Amei:ica's Munitions, 1917-18, Re-port of Donedict Crowell, Assistant Secretary of War, Director of
Munitions.~ Washington, 1919, pp. 24-3-244~
4

6

Ibid.,];?. 24..
Ibid., p. 435~


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

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*

-:f ,~ 50,000,000 cans of salmon and 750,000 tins of sardines. Then there was a
huge bowl of canned tomatoes, nearly 190,000,000 tins supplying its contents. For
dessert he had 67 ,000,000 pounds of prunes a.nd 40,000,000 pounds of evaporated
peaches and apples . The sugar for sweetening various dishes ·weighed 350,000,000
pounds. He washed it all down with a draft made of 75,000,000 pounds of coffee,
thinned with 200,000,000 cans of evaporated milk. The bill for the meal, paid by
the American publir, amounted to 727,092,430 .44, this figure to December 1, 1918.

America's stocks, flocks, and farms had to supply this food but
America's industries had to prepare it, can it, or pack it in Americanmade containers and ship it overseas.
There were 800,000,000 square yards of cotton textiles alone
exacted by the Army from the cotton mills of America.7 Add to
this the woolen and knit goods required for clothing; the enormous
yardage of silk and cotton and other fabrics for balloons, airplane
wings, tents, and other equipage; the millions of shoes and gloves
and other articles of leather and the tons of rubber goods required
both for wear and warfare, and some idea will be gained of the
straining weight put upon American industries by the production
requirements of the Worlcl War.
Nor was tho strain on the whole industrial machine lessened
because it did not fall upon all parts of the machine alike or in the
same degree. The exigencies of the war did not mean that the textile
mills were to cease making cloth or that the clothing factories were
to stop making clothes _; but it did mean that the factories selected
for Government work had to speed around the spindles and over tho
looms millions upon millions of yards of yarn and cloth of standardized
qualities and uniform colors. It did mean that under the handicap
of this intensified monotony these mills and far-tories had to compete
for labor with the conspicuous "war industri s" whose novelt_ - of
production and whose war wages-free at the start of the drag from
commercial leYels-were a powerful magnet in drawing workers from
the other pursuits. It did mean that these, and other mills equally
handicapped for labor, had to continue to make enou~h of their
peace-time product to supply the needs of the civil population. In
short, the war food and fabric industries,8 as they will be referred to
in this report, had to meet the strain of both war and peace production
with an added handicap in the competition for labor.
On the other hand, the industries which were called upon to eq_uip
the Army and Navy with the weapons of actual warfare-called in
this survey war agent and implement industries 8-had not only
to make a new and often an exclusively war-time product but they
had to meet the demand for speecl and quantity of output far in
excess of the increased demands put upon the textile and other
kindred establishments. For while an army in the field through
excessive wea.r and wastage uses from three to eighteen times as much
wearing apparel as the same number of men in civil life,1° the rate of
consumption of firearms and ammunition, powder and propellants is,
in some cases, over 5,000 times greater than in peace time.11 The
7 America's Munitions, 1917-18, Report of Benedict Crowell, Assistant Secretary oi War, Director oi
Munitions, Washington, 1919, p. 466.
s For further definition of terms "war agent and implement industries'· and "war food and fabric industries" see pp. 38-40 of this report.
10 Based on allowances for number of principal articles of wearing apparel as gi,en in standard budgets
as compared with provisions made for soldiers in the field, shown in statement submitted by the War
Department before Military Affairs Committee, December, 1917.
11 America's Munitions, 19-17-18, Report of Benedict Crowell, Assistant Secretary of War, Director of
Munitions, Washington, 1919, page 29.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOl\i.lEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

uses of these things when ·we are not at wa1-:. are limited chiefly to
practice, display , and sporting purposes. In war time their deadly
mission swells the demands to appalling volumes. As inevitably
does it call for a corresponding production of the hundred thousand
other devices required to make the missiles effective against the
enemy .
None of the articles in the long array of weapons and missiles is
made by hand. Each is the manifold production of cunningly
devised m achines, many of which were already in use for the manufacture of the instruments of/eace, but thousands upon thousands
of which had to be constructe especially to produce the implements
of war. That the driving storm of war orders beat with tremendous
force on the machine-tool industry is confirmed by the official report
of the War Department, which says: 12
With practically all of the manufacturers of the American metal-working industries
clamoring for machine tools, and with some branches of the Government commandeering the machine-tool shops in whole sections of the country, it is evident that the
necessity for the heavier types of machine tools required by the manufacturers of
artillery material offered a weighty problem at the outset.

Altogether the list of material requirements furnishes a complete·
hill of particulars as to what the World War did to industry. It also
brings clearly into view the industrial setting in which women wage
earners were placed by America's entrance into the conflict.
WHAT WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES DID FOR THE WORLD WAR.
WOMEN' S SERVICE IN WAR AGENT AND IMPLEMENT INDUSTRIES.

When the war broke out there was a seasoned, hard-drilled army
of woman workers in manufacturing industries and a woman army
of larger proportions in the other wage-paying activities. N ec0:3s1ty had long before drafted these -women mto the ranks of labor m
factory, mill, office, and store, and had subjected them to the stern
discipline of daily tasks performed under the lock-step system of
modern industrial organization. This daily drill running into years
made them easily available to fill the gaps created by enlistments
and the military drafts and to assist in withstanding the first onrush
of orders for weapons of warfare. But the most rmportant of the
industries which sprang into prominence as war a~ent and implement
industries upon our entrance into the world cont1ict-the industries
most wrenched and strained by the first impact of war orders- were not, except in the case of cartridge making, conspicuous employers of woman labor, though some were among the largest employers of male workers. Furthermore, so far as skilled labor was
concerned, with but few exceptions, woman workers were a negligible
part of the working force in industries from which the blades and
bullets, the guns, grenades, and gases, and all the other implements
of war were requisitioned for the battle fields of the earth, the air,
and the water. The number of women in the iron and steel industry_.:
which was foremost in the manufacture of firearms and ammunition-constituted less than 3 per cent of the working force in 1914, 13
and but little more apparently in 1916. 14 During the war, however,
12 America's Munitions, 1917-18, Report of Benedict Crowell, Assistant Secretary of War, Director of
Munitions Washington, 1919, p . 64.
·
13 United States Census Bureau, Abstract of Census of Manufactw-es, 1914, pp. 531 to 543.
H See Table 25, p. 86.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

17

the proportion of women after the first draft in the iron and steel
plants covered by this survey was double the proportion for 1914,
and more than treble after the second draft. 16
But more striking in some ways than the rate of increase in the
proportion which women constituted of the labcr force is the increase in the actual numbers of women employed during the war
. by the war industry plants covered in this survey. The 2,124 iron
and steel firms included in this survey employed over three-fourths
as many women after the first draft and nearly a third again as many
women after the second draft as were reported for the entire 17,862
firms included in the 1914 Census of Manufactures. 16 Plants engaged in the manufacture of airplanes and airplane parts numbered
but 16 and employed but 1 woman among their 211 wage earners
according to the census of 1914. 16 On the other hand 40 plants which
were includC'd in this survey and which were engaged exclusively in
making planes or parts employed after the second draft 6,108
women in a total of 26,470 wage earners.17 These do not include
any plants making airplanes or parts as just one of a number of
products, uch as the furniture or piano factories that continued to
make furniture or musical instruments while filling orders for airplane struts or propellers; or automobile plants that made also
airplane engine . Nearly 1,300 plants making automobiles and
automobile part -many of them also making airplane engines during the war- reported fewer than 2,300 women workers in 1914,_
whereas the 163 plants included in this survey employed during "the
peak load of the war" 14,402 women. 10 ,17 Again, 1, 352 plants,
representing lumber and its remanufactures in this survey, employed
nearly seven-tenths as many women after the second draft as were
reported by the entire 42,016 plants included in the Census of Manufactures for 1914. 16 In the 111 plants making explosives,1 9 only 73
women were reported by the 1914 census, whereas the 25 plants included in this suney employed nearly 12,000 women after the
second draft. 20 The total 11 021 plants covered by the 1914 census16
as representing the entire chemical and allied products industriesof which the manufacture of explosives is but one branchemployed nearly 24,000 women, while the 737 plants representing
the same industrial group in this survey employed practically
the same number just before the signing of the armistice. 20
o one
might go on down the Ii t shown in the statistical section of this report
and discover the importance of women through the cumulative evidence of the actual and relative numbers employed in the manufacture
of implements and agents of actual combat as the war progressed
and the drafts depleted the ranks of male labor and swelled the volume of war order .
But numbers did not constitute the sole evidence of what· women
in industry did in the manufacture of implements for the World War.
The data collcctC'd in the course of the field studies of this survey
from manufacturers holding important war orders and substituting
1&
11
19
20

See Table 25, p. 86.
See Table 9, p. 54.
United St.l\tes Cen,cms Bureau, Ahstract of Census Mannfactures, 1914, pp. 168 and 535.
Table 13, p. 63.
_

9 47°-2


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN I~DUSTRY.

women in places left vacant by enlisted or drafted men included written statements-some of them in the 'form of letters-concerning
woman labor as a factor in war production. From the letters, for the
publication of which permission was secured, such extracts as the following are illu:minating: 21
The president of a recording and computing machine company
in Ohio states:
In reference to the occupations in which women have replaced men the following
may give you some idea of the diversity of the woTk. In the machine department
women became expert and got out much greater production in running- turret ln.thes,
punch presses, bench lathes, milling machines, drill presses, grindrng machines,
and engraving machines, and in addition to the operation of these machines we taught
them to grind their tools, to act as job setters, and to superintend some of the departments. In the inspection department practically every inspector was a woman.
In the assembly departments, as well as in the inspection depa.rtments, all were
women, and they did better work and got out more production than men whom we
tried on the job at various times without success. We found. too , that we could place
as much, if not morn, dependence in women in coming to their work and remaining
on the job, which accounts for 011r having the lowest turnover in help in any factory
ever heard of which was less than 4 per cent per year. We taught women to inspect
tools and check them over according to the drawings after they came from the tool
shop , in which department women became expert. In the optical department most
of the employees grinding lenses were women who were remarkably successful in the
work. In the assembling of lenses we had none but women on the job, and you will
:find by inquiring at the Ordnance Department that our lenses and prisms were as fine
a any in the world.

A member of a lumber company in Arkansas writes:
We are also frank to say that had we not been able to secure the services of tho
women employed by us during the war we would have been either unable to operate
at all or our operations would have been seriously curtailed.

Concerning women the chief executive in a powder-bag loading
plant in New Jersey writes:
'
·
* * "· we were able to employ not less than 80 per cent women in the

manufacturing operations of the plant and at one time om employees rose to a total
of 6,500 people. Furthermore, we are pleased to state that the enthusiasm, patriotism,
and earnest endeavor of the women workers were the mainstay of this plant, and :1s
we received an Ordnance Flag for production, the results are conclusive of the effectiveness of their work.

That these and many other letters do not I'Cport isolated cases
where women played an important part in the production of ·war
materials, but reflect a general condition, is supported by the tradcjouTnal utterances during and since the war. 22
The official statement of the War Department, moreover, is equally
good, if not better, evidence that the great numbers of wo:men drafted
rnto the war agent and implement industries reflected quality as well
as quantity in the service rendered. They afford the last assurance
that the popular belief in the service rendered by women in these
industries is not the outgrowth of sporadic or exaggerated praisethe wearying outcroppings of masculine proneness to '' compliment the
ladies" regardless of the facts-but is based upon a convincing record
of things done by women in American industry for the World War.
These utterances are the more significant because they occm in the
For excerpts from the.se and other letters from manufacturers see Appendix A, pp. 143-152.
The American Lumberman, June 29, 1918, pp. 32, 37, 53; Feb. 8, 1919. Automotive Industries, July
11, 19~81 p. 71. lron Age, Feb. 6 1 1919, pp. 35'3-3.54. Marhinery, April, 1918, pp. 682-687. Arueriran
Machm1st, Dec.12, 1918, pp. 1066-1070. These references are but random choires from along list of journals
representing the prinripal war agent und implement industries.
21
i2


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

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course of a report 23 in the objective of which women's contribution
to the war did not figure at all. The sole purpose of the report was
to make clear the magnitude of the task confronting the War Department as a result of our entrance into the world conflict. The Assistant
Secretary of War, acting as the Director of Munition , just paused
here and there in the course of his description topoint out the work
women did in the production of war materials. He says: 24
For the successful carrying out of our program for the production of vast quantities
of explosives and propellants, as well as shell loading, the women of America must
be givencreditonaccountof thehighlyimportant part they took in this phase of helping
to win the war. Fully 50 per cent of the number of employees in our explosive plants
were women, who braved the dangers connected with this line of work, to which
they had been, of course, entirely unaccustomed , but whose peril s were not unknown
to them .

During the discussion of the manufacture and imp.ortancc of
hand grenades he says: 25
In the production of this item 19 of every 20 workers weTe women. In fact , no
other item in the entire ordnance field was produced so exclusively by women. Incidentally, at no time during the war was there a strike l.Jl any grenade factory.

In the course of his vivid description of gas-mask production the
Director of Munitions says: 26
Of the 12,000 employees in this plant 8,500 were women. * ·* * The degree of

care required in the manufacture of masks was beyond anything known in normal
industry. * * * After every operation in the manufacture of the face piece there
came an inspection by specially trained women set apart from the operators.
·

As convincing as these incidental declarations, of what women in
industry did for the World War are the illustrations which this official
report contains and which are inserted for the purpose of showing the
processes and machines involved in.the production of important war
:materials. 27 In no case apparently were they chosen with any
thought of recording the service of women in such production, yet
the frequency with which women appear as operators in these illustrations is an eloquent tribute to the part they played in the manufacture of war implements and war agents.
Failures are recorded, of course, and not infrequently, as letters
published in one of the appendices of this report will show and as is
evidenced more clearly by the critical analysis of the results of substitution.28 But a scrutiny of conditions surrounding the recorded
failures, as shQwn in the detailed section of this discussion, will reveal
the failures as eddies in a general drift. It will also reveal the fact
that the failures were not always chargeable to the women themselves. Some were clearly due to ill-advised assignments of women
to tasks without adequate instruction; others to tasks inherently
unsuited to a woman's physique. Loading lumber 20 and wheeling
and shoveling coal are among the occupations performed by women
as a war emergency, and they do not figure conspicuously among the
2 a America's Munitions, 1917-18.
Report of Benedict Crowell, Assistant Eecretary of War, Director
of :Munitions, Wasbington, 1919.
2~ Ibid., p. 125.
2s Ibid,, p. 202,
2&lbid., pp. 426,427.
2 1 Ibid., Inserts opposfte pp. 123, 124 , 246, 247 , 270, 271, 336, 337, 485.
2a See Section III of this report.
29 Concerning work in lumber yards one employer wrote: "For the most part the work in and around
our plant is too heavy for women to perform. There were some places, however, where we could i;ise
negro women to good advantage where the work was light and a minimum of danger."


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

occupations in which women are recorded as making a success or
among those in which women are being retained after the war. The
man who announced his intention of keeping the negro women to
pile lumber because "men always carry one board no matter what
its weight, while women carry two if they can make it," is the exception - fortunatelv for the common weal.
The . critical analysis of the results of substitution will show also
frequent failures because of marked and obvious deficiencies in
equipment and accommodations for woman workers. On the other
hand it is not to be expected that among a great number of women
drawn into new occuJ?ations or new industries the incompetent, the
indifferent; and the mcorrigible will not be present. The world's
wastrels beget girls as well as boys and both make their intermittent
trails through industry in war time as well as in peace time. But all
of these failures combined do not offer a substantial check to the
general stream of evidence of the successful services rendered by
wage-earning women in the Nation's stern task of equipping its
fighting forces with weapons of warfare. The failures from all
causes are too few or· too mconspicuous to challenge the direct testimony of the War Department or of the employers holding important
war orders and making extensive use of woman labor during the war.
They are not enough to overcome the evidence of service presented
by the ·i-ncreasing numbers of women enga~ed in new occupations
during ·the war. Least of all do they bulk large enough to contradict the force of evidence borne by the proportion of firms retaining
women after the signing of the armistice in the occupations and
industries where woman labor was employed at first only as a war
emergency. As this summary is dealing only with the genera,l
drifts in the results of war-time employment of women, the failures
and false starts, which were only eddies having no effect either on
the direction or the momentum of the current, need be discussed in
this summary of what women did in the war only as they serve to
bring out the significance of the general results.
WOMEN'S SERVICE IN WAR FOOD AND FABRIC INDUSTRIES .

ConcerninO' the service of the women in war food and fabric industries, litt1e room remains for argument and less for intelligent
doubt. Except for certain branches of food manufacture- such as
flour making, which in this country passed out of the sphere of
womanly activities when it became a gristmill and factory productwomen constitute from a third to two-thirds of the working forces
in the industries concerned with the business of clothing and feeding
both the fighting and the civilian population. This fact alone would
establish the importance of the service of women in these industries.
But taken in connection with the fact that, as shown in the statistical
section of this discussion, 30 the losses in male labor during the war
were markedly heavier in these industries than the losses in oth er
industries; that the loss of every drafted or enlisted man, not only
subtracted one from the ranks of producers, but, because of the
wear and waste of active warfare, added the equivalent of from 3
30

See pp. 3{H)2.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

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to 18 to the numbeis of consumers, no further data are required to
complete the case for the women who remained in food and fabric
industries.
But the thousands upon thousands of women who left these
industries were by no · means industrial deserters. Inured as they
were to the noise and jar of machinery, the women in textile and
hosiery mills and in other machine-equipped plants were the conspicuous first line in that army of mill and factory drilled women,
previously mentioned as available labor for the establishments whose
battle-field materials were exclusively machine products. In the
emergency created by the shortage of male labor and the excess of
orders ·for weapons of actual warfare, these machine-trained women
in the traditional woman-employing industries were obviously the
first resort of the hard-pressed war agent and implement industries.
That these factory and mill drilled women furmshed liberal quotas
of the needed workers to the wa1~ agent and implement industries is
clearly indicated by the results of this survey. The impressive increases shown in the so-called "war industries" are marked by impressive decreases in the industries which were strongholds of woman
labor before the war, and which were not popularly regarded as
"war industries" at the time of our entrance into the conflict. 31 For
example, 2,104 steel plants covered in this surv~y gained over 16,000
women after the second draft as compared with the number employed after the first draft. 32 During the same period, 1,154 spinning, weaving, and knitting plants covered by this survey lost over
10,000 women. 33 These plants lost even larger proportions of their
male labor, but for this loss the military drafts and enlistments are
easily chargeable in the main. The reduction of women workers,
however, can be charged only to unemployment or to their absorption by other.industries. Even before our entrance into the World
War both ·man and woman labor was conspicuously scarce owing to
the shutting off of immigration, to the large war orders from the
allied nations, and to the resulting stimulation of activity in all industries. The columns upon columns of insistent and persuasive advertisements for woman workers in the fall of 1916 and the spring of
1917 were ample evidence that all the women who needed or wanted
to work~were employed. If there were no other evidence, therefore,
than this survey's revelation of the upward trend of woman labor in
one group of plants and the downward trend in the other, there
would be small hazard in the assumption that ·there happened here
in the early months of the war just what happened in France and
England and Canada, namely, the old strongholds of woman labor
yielded unwillingly but liberally to the war agent and implement industries wherein women had relatively but little footliold
until the outbreak of the war. But the inference from the statistical
results of the survey is sustained by definite reports from employers,
who named as the source of their woman labor supply during the
first months of the war such industries and wage-paying pursuits as
hosiery and other textile mills, canning and packing factories, corset
firms, millinery establishments, domestic service, restaurants,
laundries, offices, stores, and the professions.
31

See Table 9, p. 54.


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32

See Table 3, p. 44.

33

See Table 8, p. 49.

22

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

Still further confirmation i to be found in surveys made during
the early part of 1918. The most important of these is that made
by the National Industrial Conference Board-a federation of assoc_iations of employers. The conclusion of their report concerning
the sources of woman labor supply in the metal trades is summed
up in the declaration that the establishments had up to that time
drawn their woman workers chiefly from other industrial occupations rather than from the ranks of those previously unemployed. 34
The trend away from the old to the ranks of the new industries is
also clearly reflected in the trn,de journals throughout the war. 35
But as the load up"on industry grew with the progress of the war
and as the enlistments and the drafts continued to deplete th ranks
of male producers, the women who could be drawn away from their
familiar employment haunts- the spinning an d weaving and winding
mills, the sewing trades, the pursuits of commerce and the professions-were not enough to fill the gaps in the ranks of labor in plants
whose operations were es ential to the prosecution of the war.
Then began the draft of the wageless women 36 -married women,
some of whom had worked for wages before marriage. Some of
these answered the call for woman labor because they were pressed
by the need of taking the places of brothers or husbands as family
providers. Many of these did double duty, working at night or part
time in factory, spending the rest of the time in family duties and
required rest a t home. ~ome of the married women went into tho
factories from purely patriotic motives; some were drawn by the
novelty of "munitions work." Others who had followed young husbands to training camps were drawn in to the war-order factories of
near-by cities by the appeals from emploJers and by the need of
sustaining or helping to sustain themselves while they stayed by
until their soldiers or sailors were sent overseas.
The trade journals issued during the later months of the war confirmed the evidence developed by this surv-ey of the growing tendency,
as the war progressed, to draw upon the home for woman labor.
The Factory in its issue of November, 1918, pages 831 and 832, saJs:
"\Yomen as part-time workers are considered a.s an available source of supply of
lahor, since it can includ e many skilled workers formerly employed but lost to indnstry through marriage. H. Black Co. is snccessfnlly worldng t wo sets of women.
Sefton Manufacturing Co., Anderson Plant, at Anderson, Ind., manufacturers of corrugated :fiber board, has been succei:,sful in employing man'ied women on bench work.
These women have shorter hours and live near the factory. There are no conveniences for taking care of their children at the factory. The Thomas G. Plant Co.,
Boston, manufacturers of shoes, maintains a day nursery and kinclergarteu in connection with the factory, and after eight months feels that it has more than paid foritself.
It is a great help in keeping married women at work.

Quite aside from the debatable question of policy as to the maintenance of a day nursery by a plant, this quotation clearly shows the
eagerness of industry to attract married women into employment .
.An article in the American Machinist 37 tells how, by advertising
and organized publicity work in the local newspapers of New Haven,
34 National Industrial Conference Board, Wartime Employment of Women in the Metal Trades, Re•
search Report No. 8 1 Boston, 1918.
35 American Machinery, May 20, 1918: Textile World July 21, 1917.
as The term "wageless " rather than " leisure" is .used because most women while not" "-age workers"
before entering the war-order plants were by no means idle or uselessly occupied women.
arsolving New Haven's man-power problem," by Charles L. Edholm, American Machinist, Oct. 17,
_
1918, pp. i21-723.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

23

"an e:ff ort was made to tap new sources in the local supply of woman
workers. The result was a 50 per cent increase in women employed in
the first two weeks of the campaign and a 100 per cent increase in the
first four weeks. It was necessary to make a patriotic appeal, scoring industrial slackers in order to overcome class prejudice against
factory wOTk among women. One of the features of the campaign
was the pairing of part-time workers, so that they supplemented
each other's work both in the plant and in their homes.
But while expressing appreciation of the help secured from the
women untrained in wage-earning pursuits, over and over again the
employers testified to the greater value of the "regular wage-earning
woman'' -the woman accustomed to earning her own living in
industrial or commercial establishments-" the woman dependent
upon her wages for a living." It was rare, indeed, that the manufacturer intrusted with the execution of important war orders
expressed preference for the untrained woman worker over the
woman accustomed to the throb of machinery and at ease in the
atmosphere of factory disciplin . These expressed preferences for the
trained woman do not belittle the service of the untrained woman who
answered the call for help. These wageless women with inadequate
training met the emergency without self-sparing and with masterful
determmation. The preference expressed by manufacturers of war
implements and war agents for the factory, mill, or busine s drilled
woman is but the logical reliance placed upon trained, disciplined
serv_ice as compared with the willing but unaccustomed service of the
nonce.
WHAT THE WORLD WAR DID FOR WOMEN IN INDUSTRY.

What women did for the World War is but half the question.
Equally important and as far-reaching in consequence~ is that which
the World War did to women in industry, not by the deliberate intention of those charged with the responsibility of equipping the fighting
for es but by the accident of discoYery made in a search for an emergency labor supply. After the second draft women were substituted
in men's places by thousands, frankly as a "war emergency." Production had to be maintained by adding to the ranks of industry as
surely as the forces of the Army and Navy had to be swelled by
depleting the ranks of industry. When labor had to be seemed of
whatever sort available, it might have been that by the very force of
numbers women could have filled and held successfully the gaps cut
in the ranks of labor by the drafts and enlistment . If women had
helped to win the war by this method alone, the cost of their service
would be reckoned not only in the strain which the conflict put upon
the health of women in industry but also in the depres ing influence
which such an ineffaceable war record would have exerted upon the
life and labor of the wage-earning woman. If women had held their
own during the war by this method only, then that record would
reveal her individual failurn in spite of the collective success of
massed woman labor as an emergency substitute for drafted and
enlisted male labor. If such had been her war record, then not only
would it have sent her back to her prewar status as soon as men were
available, but it would have kept her in the ruts already worn deep
by woman labor and challenged her every effort at progress for
years to come unless another emergency arose. It would have


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY •

. tamped as proved that which previous to the war had been almost
universally assumed, namely, that women were available for but
small service in industry and could render that service in constricted
pheres only. As the field of industry is enlarging, a record of
demonstrated failure to maintain the level of industrial efficiency
under reasonable conditions would necessarily have sent women
to their old employments or into their homes, wearing the scar of
failure that could not long have been concealed by the flush of pride
in havincr served the Nation as a makeshift during the war. If true,
that wo~d indeed have been a serious and far-reaching consequence
of the World War. For the purpose of this summary certain alient
facts, based on the figures set forth in the stati tical section of this
report, may be pointed out which indicate the success of the introduction of women into industry.
EFFECT OF THE WAR ON WOMEN IN THE OLDER INDUSTRIES.

In the first place, the heavy draft ,vhich the war agent and implement industries made upon factory .and mill drilled women had the
immediate effect of relieving somewhat the congestion in the traditional woman-employing industries where over 75 per cent of all
women in the business of manufacture were concentrated before the
World War. 38 Of course only the current· of succeeding censuses will
show just to what extent the wrench given industry by the World
War has permanently loosened the grip which the textile and sewing
trades have hitherto held upon woman labor. But the results of
this survey disclose some important immediate effects and furnisl).,
on the whole, strong evidence of the trend in permanent results.
The time and money allotted for this survey would not permit an
intensive study of wage scales in industries either old or new to women.
Recently published reports, however, by the National Industrial
Conference Board 39 and by the United States Bureau of Labor
Statistics shed a flood of light on the subject. They reveal a sharp
rise in the wage levels durmg the war, corresponding very closely
with the wages in what were popularly regarded as "war industries."
While the drop in women's wages in the "women's industries" was
greater after the war than the drop in the other industries, the level
was well above the level of 1916. Of course, men's wages increased in
similar proportion during this period in both groups of industries.
The status of woman labor supply in the traditional woman-employing0industries was further revealed in the comments made by employers nine months after the signing of the armistice to agents of this
survey. The burden of all this comment, practically without exception, was the difficulty of getting former woman employees back.
"We have gotten some back, but they have been spoiled by war
wages." "We can't get our women back at the old wages." '·'We
have to be content with a poorer grade of service, because our former
women workers are sticking to their war jobs." The trade .journals
early reflected the growing anxiety in the so-called "women's
industries" over the effect of labor competition created by the
demands of the war. The Textile World Journal, for example, said:
Sre Table 2, p. 40, of this report.
9War-timecbangesin wages. NationallndustrialConfcrcnceBoard. Research Report No. 20, Bo5ton,

311
3

1919.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

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"Women have been able to do such good work in new occupations
that they will likely remain 'on the job' even after normal conditions
as to labor supply have been restored." This article goes on t o say
that women may be regarded as fixtures in the machme shops and
foundries, and that with offers such as they are getting from other
industries the textile and the garment trades can no longer have a
monopoly of fem ale labor. The wages offered in the new occupations
will be an inducement to them to desert the old industries where
they have special qualifications. · Skilled weavers are more apt to
remain fixed in the trade, but this is not so true of spinners and
workers on knit goods . Only by good wages, sanitation, and welfare
equipment can the probable loss of female labor by the textile industries be overcome, in the opinion of this writer. -Moreover, "competition for labor is not a temporary condition, because industrial development is the order of the da{. " 40 All the comment vibrates with the
influence which the trend o woman labor, shown by figures collected
in this survey, has exerted upon the wages of women remaining in
these traditional ·w oman-employing industries.
.
THE OPPORTUNITY WHICH

THE WORLD WAR BROUGHT TO WOMEN.

The second and most important consequence of the war to women
was . the fact that the call of the war to men was the call of opportunity to women to try themselves out in a new kind of service.
While women in industry were serving the Nation in war, they were
demonstrating to themselves, to industry, and to the public to what
extent, if at all, they were caf able of serving in wider fields of industrial responsibility m time o peace. At this point it is essential to
make very clear just what the opportunity was which the war brought
to' woman wage earners. While it is true, as stated before, that
women were an inconsiderable proportion before the ,var of th_e working forces of the iron and steel and other industri~s vd1ich became the
producers of implements and agents of warfare, it car... not he said
that the World War _o pened all of these industries to ,,,omen. Although the relative number of women was insignificant in the pre,var period, the actual numbers mounted into the thousands in some
of these activities. .Women were employed in the metal factories
long before the war. They have been at work in tho · core rooms of
foundries for many years; and have fed automatic presses in cartridge,
hardware, brassware, tin can, and other metal manufactures. They
have operated automatic machines on needles and pins and je\"'rnlry,
have used small drills, and tended power screw_drivers on rifles and
pistols, on typewriters and sewing machine parts- all before the war.
They vamished and lacquered; they wrapped and packed and labeled
years ago in industries whose output was essentially the product of
skilled male 1abor. The war can not be said to have opened these
industries to women. But it did a more in1portant thing in that it
forced the experiment of woman labor in the craft manly occupations in many of these industries where the woman worker had made
little headway during all the years of her presence there, because
she had been pockctrd, so to speak, in the minor or i.!1 the specialized
40 Jncrrasini.r Competition for Icemale Labor, by G. D. ('rain, jr. '£extile World Jomnal, July 21, 1917,
p . S4.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN IJDUSTRY.

and standardized ·processes of manufacture. The machine, set for
her to stamp, to punch, to drill, even to cut or grind at a certain
point, was the extent of her opportunity to serve in the metal factories before the war.
Of course the war resulted in the rapid expansion in the volurne
of woman labor in these well-known repetitive occupations, as it did
in the unskilled and laboring jobs. The preponderance of reports
showing the success of women as substitutes for semiskilled male labor
where muscular strength was not a factor was to be expected and is
significant chiefly as indicating a further breaking down of the industrial tradition that has held women so largely in the spinning, weavjng,
and sewing trades. Of vastly greater importance, however, is the fact
thattheemergencycreated by the shortage of labor cleared the womanworker's way in certain important industries to the" master machines"
and brought to her hand the "key" occupations that control entrance
to desirable positions in many industries. It gave her a chance to be
tried out as a responsible member of the forces of constructive skill.
In the iron and steel and other metal industries, for example, it opened
to her the machine shop and the tool rooms and introduced herthough in limited numbers-into the steelworks and rolling mills.
Instead of" tending" or" tripping" or" feeding work," measured and
marked for her, into a machine especially adjusted or constructed
to perform a specialized or standardized process, the emergency
created by the war forced the experiment of teaching the woman
worker to read bl:ue prints, to understand the characters of different
metals, to grasp the pmposes and capabilities o"f various machine
tools, to adJust their mechanism, to set up, to measure and to mark
-her own work and be responsible for its quality as well as for its quantity. In certain other industries, too, pressed hard by the shortage of
labor and the demands of the war women were given a trial in occupations requiring judgment, precision, and decision. 41
The drafts upon woman labor for these master ·o ccupations were
not heavy, it is tr e, because this country had not been involved in
the war long enough to necessitate heavy drafts and because we had
learned from Europe the wisdom of making "haste slowly" in the
busines.s of drawing skilled labor from important industries. 42 The
critical analysis of the results of substitution to be found in the detailed section of this discussion shows clearly, too, that in a number
of industries the employment of women did not extend much beyond purely repetitive occupations or occupations equally unexactina in the matter of skill.41
~he chemical industry, however, had reached the stage of labor
shortage in June, 1918, which compelled the organization of a campaign-backed by the Chemical Service Section of the Army-to get
1,600 trained women chemists to take the place of men drafted from
important chemical plants. For these positions "real" chemists
were wanted, according to the official call. But the evidence from the
reports collected in August, 1919, indicates that the armistice was
signed before this campaign had a chance to yield material results;
that women in the chemical industries, ·with few exceptions, had not
gone much beyond routine analysis work; and that the great majority
41 See Section III of this report.
.
42 'l'able 3, page 44, shows a gain of 5.2 per cent in male labor after th~ second draft in 2,104 iron and steel
plants.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICA

:r

INDUSTRY.

27

were doing work requiring 1 s skill than is r equired of the routine
analyst.4.3
the other hand, enough plan ts in other industries were forced to
try out women in skilled and responsible occupations to make the
results of the experiment of singular consequence to the permanent
status of women in industry. To avoid misunderstanding or confusion, let it be said again that the burden of comment rests on the
effect of employing women in new and skilled occupations, on her
progress or retrogression, in industry. Did she handle the metal and
run the machines requiring skill in such a way when making guns and
shells and grenades during the war as to make her an obvious labor
asset in the use of both when they were turned again to the m i-m ufacture of locomotives, farm tractors, cash registers, and other instruments of peaceful commerce 1 Did she make airplane parts, cavalry
equipment, sounding and sighting devices for war purposes in such
manner that firms employing her purely as a war emergency are
retaining her for the manufacture of peace-time products whose labor
costs must meet the tests of sharp competition in the world's commercial markets~
For answer to these questions certain essential facts arrest the
· attention. The most important industries in which experiments in
the use of woman labor in skilled work were made wore the iron and
steel and other metal industries, but the machines which women
operated in these industries during the war are used also in many
plants concerned with other lines of manufacture, such as optical
goods, scientific instruments, automobiles and automobile parts,
motor cycles, musical instruments, airplanes and kindred products.
The success or failure of women on a given machine or in a special
occupation, theJ'.'.efore, exerted a more or less direct influence in all
the industries to which the operation of that machine or the pertormanee of that occupation was common. As a consequence, the importance of the industry in which substitution in skilled occupations
occurred is overshadowed by the importance of the occupation itself,
since the occupation is the channel along which the progress of women
from industry to industry is advanced or blocked. In other words,
the craft and not the industry is the line by which to trace the effect
of war-time employment of women in skilled or responsible positions.
In this connection it should be remembered that the machine crafts
and other crafts in which women were employed as skilled workers
are highly organized; that while women are usually not debarred
offi.ciall[-are, in fact, of ten formally declared eligible to membershipthe rea attitude toward the admission of women has been one of indifference generally and the attitude towa.rd the extDnsion of woman
labor in skilled crafts has often been one of positive hostility. 44 There
were some conspicuous exceptions, particularly during the war, but
the significant fact is that they were exceptions. Some of these labor
organizations require a long apprenticeship. For example, the constitution and by-laws of the International Association of Machinists,
which admits women to membership, provides that "any boy e gaging himself to learn the trade of machinist must serve four years. "

On

43 See pp. 121-128 of this report.
•
44 For detailed statement concerning policies of organized labor afiecting the employment of women
_see AppendL.x D, pp.153-158.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

Assuming that the use of the word ':boy" does not bar girls, the actual
fact is that at the time when the shortage in skilled machine labor
suddenly developed to its acute stage an insignificant number of
women had served any such apprenticeship in point of time on the
required range of machines or in the stipulated occupations. For the
qualifications of a machinist as laid down by the above-named
organization involve among other things a" fundamental knowledge
of shaping, sizing, turning, boring or fitting metal parts of machinery
of any character, whether said metal be steel, brass, lead, copper,
aluminum, or bronze, or any substitute used therefor." 45 It also
3iccords the status of machinist to" any person who may have worked
at the trade four years, either as vise hand, lathe hand, planer hand,
slotting-machine hand, milling-machine hand, horizontal or vertical
boring-mill hand, screw-machine hand, operators of Gisholt, Jones &
Lamson, and all other turret lathes, and of gear cutters, floor hand, or
of general erector of machinery." 45 An apprenticeship of four years
would have precluded the development of full-fledged woman
machinists during our participation in the war.
_
Furthermore, when the emergency forced the employment of
women as operators of the machines named in the foregoing quotations, the private and public training institutions of the country had
turned out but an ins1&'nificant number of women with mechanical
training. The plans which did get under way for training women
were not started early enough to produce material results before the
signing of the armistice. Such training as women got for their emergency work, therefore, had to be given chiefly by firms making the
experiment of employing women on skill-exacting work. In the full
light of these circumstances one should read the analysis of reports
froni 562 firms selected for intensive questioning from over 3,500
firms reporting substitutions. These reports reveal the results of
substituting 58,717 women durinO' and since the war. 46 Only in the
light of the specific conditions under which the employment of women
in skilled occupations occurred will an intelligent understanding of
their success or failure be attained. For example, among the occupations in which a number of failures in experiments with women were
reported are lathe operators. The lathe, in a way, is the "parent"
or key machine in a regulation machine shop. It can be set to do the
work that almost all of the well-known specialized machines can do.
Its operation, however, involves more care and more attention than
the operation of the specialized machines. Manifestly it requires the
mechanical grasp involved in the successful operation of all the machines that have been constructed, each to speed a single process of
which the lathe is capable, but which can be done in most cases on
specialized machines by the use of less skilled labor than the lathe
usually requires.
There are operations on other machines which constitute notable
exceptions, as they require more skill than work on the lathe or at
least as much. But on the whole the mastery of the lathe involves
a basic knowledge of, and adaptability to, the use of machine tools.
Furthermore, there are lathes of varying types and sizes on which
metal articles of such wide range in size ana weight are fashioned

1~-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
· ts Constitution and by-laws International Association of Machinists, effective Apr. 1, 1918. Appendix
B, P. 157.

\. •~Table 29, p. 94.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

29

that methods of bringing work in contact with machines vary from
easy, hand manipulation, through more or less muscular effort, to
mechanical ·lifting devices where the metals are too heavy for either
woman or man to lift. When the material handled made muscular
strength an important factor in the successful operation of the lathe,
women usually failed. When the material was so small as to make
the weight unimportant or so great as to be beyond the strength of
either man or woman and to render mechanical lifting devices
necessary, the question of success was then reduced to one of comparative skill. In view of these facts and in view of the lack of
facilities for training at the outbreak of the war, it is significant
that although considerable proportion of failures resulted from
experiments with women lathe operators, still over two-thirds of
the firms making this experiment, and reporting on the subject,
recorded the output of women's lathe worK as equal to or better
than men's; and that more than half of the firms 1'eporting kept
women as lathe operators after the · signing of the armistice. On
other machines requiring a high degree of skill the results were
approximately the same-frequently better. The least favorable
report both with regard to output and retention after the war was
on the women crane operators, although even here, four of the
seven firms reporting recorded the results equal to or better than the
work of men. It is also significant that with the exception of crane
operators where three 8-hour shifts of women were employed in
place of two 12-hour shifts of men, and that of women riveters all
firms reported from 98 to 100 men displaced for every 100 women
employed. This was evidence that the results were not due to the
employment of "three women to do the work of one man or two
men," as has frequently been said. The good faith of these reports
is further evidenced by the fact that with the exception of the crane
op~rators, from 50 per cent to 86 per cent of the firms reporting
were retaining women operators in each of the occupations studied. 47
However, the full significance of these figures is found in the statemen ts of employers showing the extent to which women using these
machines did their own "setting up'' and grinding of tools. On
lathes, millers, drills, grinders, and presses women set up work of
varying kinds in almost every metal industry. That such work
was intrusted to them carries a meaning that commands the attention
of those actively interested in securing equal opportunity for women
dependent on wages for a livelihood. Further significance lies in
the fact, as explamed before, that these metal working occupations
are not confined to any one industry, but run through a wide range
of industrial activity.
What is of equal importance is that the principles involved in
the operation of these metal-working machmes are the same as
those involved in operation of many machines constructed to do
kindred processes on other materials.
As for the emr.loyment of women in skilled occupations other
than the responsible operation of machines in metal-working industries, a study of the critical analysis will show conditions and
results closely parallel to those attending the employment of woman


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.r 'fable 31, p. 96. ·

30

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

labor on skill-exacting machine . Speaking of the work of women
substitutes, the president of a large furniture manufacturing
company says:
After the completion of the war contracts we were naturally anxious to get back
into our regular line. -r, -:.- * Skilled labor being scarce, we distributed these
women (who had been substituted on exacting work as is shown by the full letter
published in Appendix A 48 ) throughout our factory and we now (October, 1919) haYe
women in all our departments, viz: machine, cabinet working, finishing, upholstering,
trimming, etc., and all making good and a big asset to our organization. We believe that there is hardly a line of work in which a woman can not adapt herself if
the right type is selected for the various lines.

Over 77 per cent of the 562 firms intensively questioned reported
satisfactory results from the experiment in the employment of
woman labor. On the whole there is no room for reasonable doubt
that the opportunity thrown open to women by the war resulted
in a clear demonstration of tlieir capability and availability for
service in skilled crafts.
At this point attention should be called to the contention that
the drafts and enlistments had left in the ranks of labor the least
fit physically and therefore the least efficient industrially. Unquestionably this was true of unskilled and semiskilled labor. There
is grave doubt as to its application-or at least to the extent of its
application-to skilled labor in view of the policy of exempting as
far as possible skilled men in important war industries. It is, indeed,
a question as to whether exemption of the most skilled men in
occupations in which women had not yet been substituted would
not leave these women in competition, not with the least efficient
industrially but with the most efficient.
Finally, after the war, the reduction of the labor force-both men
and women-and the relative number of women retained in the new
industries and new crafts should be interpreted with close reference
to the source of the woman labor supply a.uring the war and the
high tension in productive activity. To meet the requirements of war
orders, double and sometimes triple shifts were maintained. At the
signing of the armistice these shifts, when they had been introduced as
a war necessity, were reduced to one shift. The labor forces as a
whole in 1,012 plants in four leading war agent and implement industries included in this survey were cut over 40 per cent by August, 1919.
In other words, the large reduction in labor force as a whole should not
be taken as due altogether to complete shutdowns but frequently as
showing curtailment of double and triple shift work. Particularly
was this so in cases where married and other wageless women had been
induced to work part time or on night shifts. It is to be expected,
therefore, that while the total labor force in plants included in this
survey was reduced about 40 per cent nine months after the signing of
the armistice, 62 out of every 100 men, as against 43 out of every 100
women, remained in the plants. 49 The number of women not regular
wageworkers who went back to their homes after the war would in
itself account for a considerable part of the difference in the proportion of reductions. This seems probable, moreov :r, from the figures 50
taken from the United States Employment Service records, for domestic service, and especially from personal interviews with employers in
48

See letters from employers, Appendix A, pp. 143-152.


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See Table 27, p. 90.

r,o See Table 28, p_. 92.

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMB -r lN A:MERICAN INDUSTRY.

31

nonwar industry plants. All the factors combined, however, did not
exert su:fficien t mfluence to reduce the proportion of women in the new
industries to prewar levels. On the contrary the figures indicate that
the proportion is in some cases more than double that shown by the
1914 Census of Manufactures or by the reports from nearly 9,000 firms
reporting for 1916. 51 That the relative reductions in the numbers of
men and women workers and the permanent gains made by women
over the prewar period fairly represent prevailing conditions is supported by the drift of comment in trade journals after the war. J.E.
Schip1:>er, writing in the Auto~otive Industries for January 30, 1919,
on ''Women can handle exactmg work," says:
A large number of concerns laid off men as well as women upon the termination of the
contract before swinging back into normal manufacture . The temporary lull will
compel the employment of returned soldiers in preference to women but when reconstruction hits its pare the temporary surplus of women will b e reabsorbed. * •x- *
The numbers have decreased temporarily during the past few months, but eYery one
of the women so employed will soon find a job awaiting h er in time of p ace. '~ * *
One of the lessons from the war has b een to show that women can do exacting work.

Conditions confronting industry following the war are so changed,
and chang:e<l in such phases as to render a retention and extension of
woman hbor in skilled crafts more than probable. Millions of tho
men of Europe were killed in the war. The producti ity of million
of others was sharply reduced by varying degrees of disability. The
demands upon our own industries for reconstrYction and development of permanent foreign markets and the growing requirements
of domestic markets, together with the factors operating to reduce the
normal supply of immigrant labor, will soon force the American manufacturers to develop further the latent labor po sibilities revealed by
the war-time experience in the employment of women in skillexacting work.
It is fairly clear that industry is already making use of this woman
labor supply to a marked extent, as shown by the figures set forth in
the stat1 tical section of this survey.
CO.r DITION

U

DER WHICH WO~IEN ARE BEIXG RETAI:N"ED IN _-Ew
OCCUPATIO.i:-s .

Under just what conditions are women remaining in the new crafts
and the new industries? The answer to the question is not academic.
It is fraught with vital significance to the women worker , to industry,
and to tb.e public.
In the fu-st place none of the changes in labor conditions following
the war is likely to correct the inequalities in relative rates of pay
which prevailed during the war. If anything the inequalities, without
a counter influence, may tend to increase.
On the other hand, reports from employers indicate a tendency to
make increasing adjustments in factory accommodations both for the
women already emplo_y_ed and for contemplated enlargements of the
woman labor force. More important than improvements in factory
accommodations are the adjustments that are being made in equipment. Some of these adjustments are made apparently as a result of
the lesson taught by the war ~nd discussed m the foregoing pages,
namely, that women operated successfully small machines requiring


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;,1

See Table I, p. 35, and Table 25, p. 86.

32

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

skill b:ut little or no muscular strength; and the very larae machines 1·
to handle the material for which n~cessitated the use of lifting devices
for either men or women. But when machines unequipped with lifting devices required the handling of material too heavy for a woman
but within a man 's strength, the woman usually failed where the man
succeeded. Lifting devices and fastening devices on more of the
machines calling for the handling of materials of intermediate weights
shorten the gap in the range of machines in which women are not
available because of limited physical strength.
Equipment for comfort and standards of working conditions have
been largely determined by laws enacted by State legislation. This
investigation did not aim to throw light on the effect of labor legislation. It is noteworthy, however, that in the list of occupations 52 in
which women have taken the place of men State legislation was found
to debar women from only two occupations-in core making, where
in a few States the maximum weight to be lifted is .designated, and
in the operation of grinding and polishing machines. The latter
operation affects the work women are domg not in one industry
alone but in all industries in which grinding must be done.
•
The difference between the laws of different States as to the maximum weight which women employed in core making may lift shows
that we have as yet no scientific basis for accurate determination on
this point. Ohio and Pennsylvania set a limit of 15 pounds as comp ared with 25 pounds in New York and 40 in Massachusetts. Scientific tests are needed as a basis for such legislation. It need hardly be
added that the difference in muscular strength between men and
women and the greater danger of strain on vital organs for women
form the basis for regulations of this kind as to the lifting of weights.
The prohibition of the employment of women on grinding and
polishing machines is different in character, since it has been proved to
be possible to have a device which will draw off the du.s t so that the
operator will not breathe it. Moreover, the danger to the lungs is as·
great for men as for women, and for the protection of all workers
exhaust systems of this kind should be required. It is unfortunately
true that it is easier to secure a guard for a machine to prevent an
accident than to compel the drawing off of dust to prevent tuberculosis, for the reason that workmen's compensation laws require the
payment of money to the employee who meets with an accident, but
as yet compensation for disease caused by the work is not required,
except in a very few States. 53 In the interest of the health of both
men and women, safeguards against industrial diseases should be
more e:ff e_ctively demanded. When these are secured it will be found
unnecessary to prohibit the employment of women. This form of
prohibition, however, has never applied to more than one or two
occupations, and is certainly not desirable as compared with a more
comprehensive protection of health for all workers.
r,. In this connection it is significant that the punch presses-the operation of which ordinarily requires little or no skill, and which have
been operated for years by women in the metal-working factoriesare really dangerous machines when not properly guarded, and guard1,2 See pp. 137- 142.
b3 These States are California, Connecticut, Massachusetts, North Dakota, and Wisconsin; Hawaii and
the Federal Government also include occupational diseases in their compensation laws. (Data furnished
by the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics is up to June 28, 1920.)
·


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

33

ing them effectively without making the device unavailable for certain
types of work is a difficult matter. Yet· from the operation of this
machine women are not debarred, while on other machines, some of
them requiring skill, certain States forbid the employment of women.
It is inevitable that inconsistencies of this ·kind are producing results
not intended by the promoters of industrial betterment.
·
The attitude taken by the First International Congress of Working
Women which met in Washington in October and November, 1919,
is of interest in connection with a discussion of women's employment
in hazardous occupations. In the resolutions passed by that representative body of working women from 19 different countries, the
section on hazardous occupations urged the "prohibition of the
employment of women only in trades which can not be made healthy
for women as potential mothers."
.
Second in importance only to the physical conditions and mechanical equipment provided for women retained in the new crafts and
industries are the facilities for t~aining which will be accessible to
women entering the ranks of wage earners.
It requires no stress of argument to make clear that-training schools,
even of very limited scope, can not be maintained profitably under
normal conditions by any but large firms. The exigencies of the war
in many cases compelled many firms of comparatively small peacetime operations to provide training for the women taken on during
the war as substitutes for men. The congestion of war orders-and
the prices usually paid for the work-warranted the expenditure.
Most of these smaller firms discontinu~d the too expensive training
activities at the close of the war.
It is obvious, furthermore, that the training offe_red by such of the.
large firms as are continuing their training facilities for women will
be, in peace time as it was in war time, adapted with special reference
to the output requirements of each firm's own plant. Although public
and private vocational institutions started the training of women for
mechanical occ-µpations during the war, the signing of the armistice
marked the close of much, if not most, of this activity. The stress of
the training is now as in prewar times upon the sewing trades and in
domestic science. As one vocational training officer writes:
All of the States have supervisors of home economics into whose hands they consign
the entire work for women without question , because they say she will ultimately
and in the home , and with that statement they relieve their conscience of any responibility to her as a wage earner.

The attitude of the trade organizations in the crafts which women
have newly entered also has an important bearing on the work which
women have done and will do in these industries. As previously
stated, these crafts in some cases are highly organized so far as the
men are concerned, and the unions have well-defined standards of
working conditions. Among approximately 400,000 members of the
machimsts' union, for example, there were only about 12,500 women
at the end of 1918. During the war women having a month's experience were eligible to union membership according to their classification. According to a high official most of these women were inspectors
and machine tenders; very few were skilled. This official said, furthermore, that while the final reports were not complete "the evidence
9847°-20--3


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34

THE NEW-POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

pointed to a large reduction of women members after the signing of
the armistice.''
The molders' union did not admit women even during the war to
membership and the bars are still up against them. By the rules of
this organization members are fined for teaching a woman any part
of a trade. One of the reasons prompting the molders in their attitude toward the admission of women 1s much the same as that which
prompts legislation prohibiting a hazardous occupation for women
instead of trying to make it safe for them. A further reason is the
fact that core making-the common occupation.performed by women
in foundries-is regarded as one of the stages in the apprenticeship of
a "molder." Unless all the stages of apprenticeship are open to
women the introduction of woman core makers complicates and dis~ rupts trade regulations. 54
The impression should not be left, however, that the end of the war
has found women retrogressing or even standing still in the tradeunion movement in America. The International Congress of Working .
Women from many countries of the world was called in Washington
about a year after the signing of the armistice on the initiative of
American w<;>men in the trade-union movement. This fact alone,
coupled with the effective work of the congress, indicates a live appreciation o:t the pressing issues before the working women of the world
by the working women of America. Furthermore, recent years have
seen steady progress in the organization of women in their traditional
occupations in clothing shop, cigar factory, textile mill, and the like,
and a gradual breaking down of many of the prejudices against women
members on the part of unions in trades which women have recently
entered.
SUMMARY OF SALIENT FACTS DISCLOSED BY THE SURVEY.

The salient facts disclosed by this survey can be summarized in
five brief paragraphs.
First. The p~pular belief that women in industry rendered real
service to the Nation during the war is sustained by the figures
showing the numbers of women employed both in war agent and
hnple:ment industries and in war food and fabric industries, by the
preponderence of evidence from emplo_yers holding important Government contracts, and by the official statement of the Assistant
Secretary of War, acting as Director of Munitions.
Second. The labor shortage and excessive demands on industries
essential to the production of implements and agents of warfare
r-esul ted during the war in(a) A sharp increase in the number of woman workers in these
industries during the war.
(b) A marked decrease in the number of women in the traditional
woman-employing industries, resulting in a relief of the long standing
congestion of woman labor in these pursuits and in part contributing
to a marked increase in the wage scales of the women remaining in
these industries.
(c) The employment of woman labor in other skilled crafts from
which women had been practically debarred before the war.


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s• See .pp 107-109 of this report.

35

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

Third. When the managers of private, Government, and Government-controlled plants were confronted with the necessity of employing women in skill-exacting positions there were practically no
trained women available, because(a) Public and private vocational institutions had given little
encouragement to the training of women in mechanical occupations.
(b) Organized labor policies in fact-although not always in
official regulations-discouraged . apprentice work for women in
skilled occupations.
Fourth. The training of women employed in skilled occupations
during the war was provided principally by the employing firms.
Fifth. The success attending the emergency employment of women
in occupations requiring a high degree of skill and the expansion of
commercial trade, has resulted in the retention of women m most of _
these crafts and industries since the close of the war and bids fair to
encourage a larger use of woman labor in the future.
The changes taking place from 1914 to 1919 in the proportions of
woman employees in the leading war agent and implement industries are shown in the following summary table:
TABLE 1 .-PROPORTION OF WOMEN ON LABOR FORCE OF LEADING WAR AGENT
AND IMPLE MENT INDUSTRIES BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER THE WAR .1
Women per 1,000 wage earners.
Industry.2
1914

~~~1 : le}t~~!1:i~~~~;; ~::: : : : ::::::::::::::
Cars, steam and electric railroad, and railroad repair
shops. .. .... . ......•. . .. . ............ . .. . ..... . ... .
Stone, claydand glass products ..... . ......... . ......
Leather an its finished products ...•............... .
Chemicals and allied products . ..... . ... . ....... ... . .
Metal and metal ;yroducts, other than iron and steel..
Alitomobiles, inc uding bodies and 8 arts ...........
Electrical machinery, apparatus, an supplies . ..... .
Rubber goods .. . .. . . .. . . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . ...... . .......
Carriages, wagons, and m at erials .... . .. ... . . ... .. ...
Agricultural implements........... . .... . .. . .. . . . . . ..
Musical instruments . ...... . .. . .. . ... .. . . . . ... . .... ..
Shipbuild~ including boat-building . . .. . . ... . ....
1
g;i~t ura· ·aoci ·i>iioi oiai>iiic· · ai>iiaiai iis · aii<i·
supplies ... .. .... . .... . .. . .... . .... . . . .............
Instruments, scientific and professional. . . . ... . . . ....
Motor cycles, bicycles, and p arts ... . . . .... . .... . .. . .
Airplanes, seaplanes, and p arts . . . . .. . .......... . ....

~1!~~

Total. .. . ............. .. ....... . . . .... . ........

After
first
draft.3

1916

After
second
draft .a

.
1919 3

29

33
40

61
46

95
94

94

2
39
277
85
150
18
202
205
15

29
115
307
98
149
44
214
277
22
15
165
6
327

55
155
330
142
178

16
154
263

77
2
265

2
59
304
79
148
21
175
187
15
18
81
1
154

270
354
45
43
260
7
371

85
191
43
173
116
2
37
246
2
251

278
156
20
5

277
152
77
36

303
145
66
155

351
171
98
186

347
1~5
91
88

65

77

106

139

100

21

10

114

68

For more det ailed figures and source of data, see Table 25, p. 86.
Industries are arranged in order of importance according to the Census of Manufactures, 1914.
"After first draft" indicates a period 7 to 8 months after the first draft in February-March, 1918; "after
second draft" refers to a period 4 to 5 months after the second draft in October-November, 1918; and 1919
refers to August , 1919, 9 months after t he signing of the armistice.
1

2
3


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SE'JTION

II.

STATISTICS OF WOMEN'S INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT DURING
AND AFTER THE WAR.
SCOPE AND METHOD · OF INVESTIGATION.

This report covers data on the employment of women in the
ma11ufacturing and mechanical departments of all the principal
peace and war time industries. Women _in clerical and mercantile
occupations and in steam and electric railway transportation, as
well as women in technical and professional pursuits were not included in the survey. Even if the facts about women in mercan"tile
and clerical pursuits had been included in the mass of war-time data
available for this study, which was not the case, the factors involved
in their extended employment as a result of the war .differed enough
from those involved in the expansion of woman labor in manufacturing and mechanical occupations to necessitate a different method of
presentation. This was true to an even greater extent of the women
in technical and professional occupations.
Furthermore, the employment of women during the war and since
the •signing of the armistice on steam railr_o ads is comprehensively
covered by the official publications of the United States Railroad
Administration/ while women employed on street railways during
the war have been the subject of special investigation by the Women's
Bureau in the United States Depar1ment of Labor. 2 Neither of
these groups of women is engaged in producing industries, though the
requirements and compensations attaching to many of the occupations are such as -to have made it easily possible to add them to the
groups included in a survey of women in producing industries. Under
the circumstances, however, the duplication did not seem justified
which would have resulted from including in this one-survey with
'YOmen in manufacturing industries the women employed on steam
and electric railroads.
SOURCE OF DATA.

Prewar data pe:rtinent to this survey were made available th.rough
the War Industries Board and through the National League for
Women's Service, which worked during the war in official cooperation
with the Government. Though much of the information in the
hands of these two agencies was of a confidential nature, it was possible to make certain general facts available without in any way
violating official confidences. The prewar data secured from these
official bodies show the number of men and women employed during
the summer and fall of 1916, the departments in which women were
~mployed and the departments in which women could be employed
1 U.S. Railroad Administration, Women's Service Section, Number of Women Employed and the
Character of Their Employment. (Class I Railroads), Washington,. 1919. Also, Annual Report of
Walker D. Hines Director General of Railroads, Washington 1919 _J>P, 59---80.
2 United States l>epartment of Labor, Women's Bureau Bulietin No. 11, Women Street Car Conductors
an d Tirket Agents, Washington, 1920.

36


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

37

in the event of an emergency. Because of the limitation in time
and resources for this survey, only the numbers of men and women
employed in the industrial departments during 1916 were used in
this report. The reports were made by nearly 9,000 firms representing all leading industries and employing over 3,000,0.P0 wage
earners. 3
•
War-time information furnished by these same two agencies shows
the number of men and the number of women employed after the
first . and after the second draft, the number of firms substituting
women for men, the number of women substituted and the number
of firms increasing the woman labor force without substitution.
These data include reports from nearly 15,000 fi1:'Ills representing all
leading industries• and employing nearly 2,500,000 wage earners. 4
The United States Employment Service also made available its unpublished records of the registrations and placements during the
war of men and women workers in every State in the Union, and
further furnished postwar data showing registration and placements
in the 48 States after the signing of the armistice. 5 Figures froni
leading industrial States only were statistically collatBd, however.
Such records were supplemented by an intensive analysis of substitution based on data secured directly through personal interviews
field agents engaged in this survey. In this particular study 562
o the 3,558 firms reporting substitutions during the war were
visited. 6 Establishments were selected for field work in those industries and those localities in which the available war-time data revealed
the greatest substitution of women workers for men. The field
agents also secured data on the retention of women employed nine
months after the armistice in plants in which substitution had
occurred during the war.
To balance this postwar data secured from plants substituting
women questionnaires to the number of 1,600 were sent to firms either
not substituting women or not employing women at all during the
war. A proportionate number of plants in each of these two classes
was chosen, and more than 1,300 of the 1,600 questionnaires were filled
out and returned. 3 In this way a fair estimate was secured of the
relative number of men and women employed after the war in the
industries as a whole, without any misleading inference deduced from
figures from those plants only in which special efforts had been put
forward to introduce women. These questionnaires called for the
number of men and women wage earners employed nine months
before our entrance into the war and nine months after the signing of
the armistice.
·
As the purpose in making a critical study of the results of substitution was to determine the extent to which the war-time employment of women had opened to women new occupations and new
industries, field investigation of substitution in the textile and other
women's industries was not undertaken, except where the product
of these industries was of a distinctly war nature or closely associated
with the manufacture of weapons of offense or defense. These
industries have been and still are strongholds of woman labor. For

bl

3

4
5

See Table 25, p. 8G.
See T ables 9-24.
See Table 28, p.92 .

o See

Section III of this report.


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38

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

example, among the more than 3,300 textile firms included in this
survey, only 23 reported no women, and in most cases this was due to
a temporary suspension of regular operations. The per cent of firms
employing women in the food, shoe, and glove industries was 90, 98,
and 100, respectively. As over 75 per cent of all the women employed
in manufacturing industries listed m the 1914 Census of Manufactures
were engaged in making textiles, wearing apparel, food, and tobacco
products-I not much was left for the war to do in the way of opening·
these inctustries to women. 8 The question of importance to be answered was the extent to which the war deflected from these occupations the current of woman labor which hitherto had flowed with the
momentum of tradition into the factories and mills concerned with
woman's world-old work of clothing and feeding the Nation. Whether
the trend of woman workers during the war was toward or away from
the traditional strongholds of woman labor is shown by the war-time
data as summarized for these industries in Tables 2 to 7.
These figures are supplemented by a series of detailed tables
showing changes in the labor force of both men and women, the extent
of substitution of women on men's work during the war, and the increase in the force of women without substitution. 9 These facts are
given for some 33 leading industries producing for the war, and
cover a wide range of occupations new to women, or traditionally
theirs. For the leading industries the information is shown for their
various branches or subdivisions, also for three large basic industries
by States. It has been thought in presenting this material in detail
that it would be available in this form to students of the subject for
further analyses of the course of women's employment during the war
than have been made in this report.
Some light is thrown upon the extent to which the current of
woman's labor returned to its accustomed channels after the war by
Table 28, which summarizes the data from unpublished records of the
United States Employment Service, showing the applications for jobs
and calls for woman workers in these industries before and after the
signing of the armistice. These records are supported by the reports
of employers already referred to, on the effect of the war on the status
of the woman-labor market after the signing of the armistice in the
industries which before the war monopolized the woman-labor
supply.
.
Data showing the attitude of organized labor toward the admission
of women to membership in unions representing occupations into
which women were introduced as a war emergency consist of definite
utterances by the officers of unions concerned, or of quotations from
the latest copies of their constitutions and by-laws.10
WAR AGENT AND IMPLEMENT INDUSTRIES AND WAR FOOD AND
FABRIC INDUSTRIES.

Using as a basis the official report of the Assistant Secretary of
War made as Director of Munitions and submitted to the Secretary
of War under the title ,:America's Munitions 1917-18," the industries
represented in this survey of approximately 15,000 firms have been
divided into those producing combat and defense materials or their
s See Table 2, p. 40.


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9 See

Tables 9 to 25.

10

See Apprndix B, pp 153-158..

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

39·

operating equipment, and those providing the personal necessities
of the fighting forces. Within these two classes the classifications
of the United States Census of Manufactures, 1914, have been followed both as to terminology and grouping. In the first group are
those industries diverted from their accustomed peace-time product
to the manufacture of guns of all sorts and sizes, including motive
equipment; rifles, pistols, and small-arms ammunition; explosives,
propellants, and acids required for chemical warfare; airplanes,
airplane engines, parts, and other equipment, including radio, telephone, and photographic supplies; balloon and balloon equipment;
electrical apparatus and supplies; gas-defense equipment; surgical
appliances; ships and boats; steam and electric cars; automobiles,
including bodies and parts; and materials and machine tools for
making these implements and agents. Most of these industries were
so conspicuous as" war industries" throughout the war as to obscure
the importance of the textile and textile products and other industries
essential to the winning of the war and the maintenance of the
civilian :r.opulation. As _pointed out in the first section of this report
the textile mills and clothing factories, the boot and shoe plants, and
the establishments concerned with the manufacture and preparation
of food were as indispensable to the winning of the war as the industries which had to turn out the implements and agents of destruction
and defense. But the essential requirements of the civilian population are not fixed in quantity nor invariable in quality, and both were
therefore sharply restricted during the war in the interest of the war.
The policy of providing food, clothing, and personal equipment,
first for the fighting forces, and then for the civilian population,
resulted in curtailing and in some cases suspending the operation of
plants whose equipment could not be converted to the necessary
service of the war or civil life. As a consequence, branches of some
of these industries were omitted from .the list of the Priorities Board,
charged with the duty of allotting fuel, materials, transportation, and
labor to the best advantage of the Nation in prosecuting the war.
On the other hand, many individual plants in these omitted industries
were included in a preference list because they were important to the
equipment of the fighting forces or were engaged in the manufacture
during the war of other essential products. For example, the manufacture of household furniture and of lumber for civil construction
did not appear among "essential industries" on the list of the Priorities Board, but many firms milling lumber for airplanes and many
furniture factories making airplane parts were given preference in
materials and labor. It is plain, tlierefore, that there is no clear
demarcation between the obvious "war industries" popularly so
called, and those generally regarded as "nonwar industries." In
order, however, to distinguish in this discussion the industries chiefly
concerned in the manufacture of actual weapons of offense and
defense, including airplanes and aviation equipment, from the industries equally essential to the equipment of the fighting forces, but
required also during the war to produce for the civilian population,
the first group have been called the "war agent and implement
industries," and the second, tp.e "war food and fabric industri~s."
These terms have been used to avoid the error ,implied in labeling .
the industries concerned in making weapons as "war industries,"
to the exclusion of others equally essential to the war but not con-


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40

THE NEW POSITION OF WOME N IN AM ERICAN I N DUSTRY.

spicuous because, unlike the first group, the general nature of their
products was often not changed by the requirements of the war.
In grouping the firms covered by this survey by industries, the basis
of classification has been the chief product of the plant in 1918 during
the war period, rather than the product before the plant had been
transformed for war purposes. In many cases the product of t he
two periods was identical.
WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN THE PREWAR PERIOD.

Attention should be called at this point to the great concentration
of woman labor before the war in the food and fabric industries.
To get the full significance of the trend of woman labor during the
war, it is essential to bear in mind the hold which these industries h ad
upon woman workers up to our entrance into the conflict. The following table, compiled from the Census of Manufactures of 1914,
shows that of all the women employed in the manufacturing industries
in 1914, three:--fourths were making wearing apparel or its materials,
·
food, or tobacco products.11
T ABLE 2.- NUMBER AND PER CENT OF WOMAN W AGE E ARNERS E MPLOY E D I N THE
F IVE PRINCIPAL WOMAN-E MPLOYING IND USTRIES IN THE UNITE D ST AT E S, 1914.1

Woman ~age earners .
Industrial group.
Number.

P er cent of
t otal in all
in<}ustries.

421,386
352, 486
197,035
98,241
87,721
1,156, 869
1, 539, 190

27. 4.
22. 9
12. 8
. 6. 4
5.7
2

7.5. ~

100. 0

Compiled from U . S. Bureau of Census, Abstract of the Census of Manufactures, 1914, pp . 530-543.
2 The 75.2_per cent inclu des 64 of the 342 divisions into wh ich the 1914 Manufactures Census has separated
all industries. The remaining 24.8 per cent were employed in the other 278 industries.
1

The activities represented in Table 2 include 64 separately' listed industries. There were fewer than 400,000 women scattered throughout the other 278 industries separately listed in the Census of Manufactures of 1914. Furthermore, over half the 116 industries that
employ 10,000 or more wage earners report less than a 10 :per cent
proportion of women on their working forces, the proportion m many
rmportant industries running close to or below 5 per cent. Among
the industries with a larger proportion of woman workers, exclusive
of those shown in Table 2, the most notable in numbers are the paperbox, bookbinding, and printing industries and the manufacture of
electrical machinery and supplies. The really significant exceptions to the 10 per cent rule are the proportions of women on the
prewar working forces in the hardware and tinware industries , in
11 The number of wage earners employed on one representative day (usually Dec. 15, 1914) h as been
used in this table and t hroughout the report where census figures are quoted. These figures inv olve less
duplication and are therefore more accurate t han the average number of wage earners wh ich is perhaps
more frequently ,used. Furthermore, the average number of wage earners is not given b y sex for workers
under 16 years of age , and it would therefore be impossible t o get complete fig ures for women employed
s hould this set of figures have been used.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

41

the · ammunition factories, .in the manufacture of electrical equipment and supplies, and a few more of the smaller branches of the,_
metal trades. They represent the high-water mark attained by·
women before the war in the metal-working plants that sprang into
such sudden and urgent importance as war implement industriBs.
upon our entrance into the war. The proportion of women in these
establishments varied from 13 per cent to 30 per cent, and the extent
to which they had gained a footing in such establishments before the
war undoubtedly exerted its influence when the emergency created
by the war sent the other metal manufacturing firms into a vigorous
campaign for labor.
TREND OF WOMAN LABOR DURING THE WAR.
ALL INDUSTRIES.

The six tables which follow show the trend of woman workers
during the war away froin the traditional strongholds of woman
labor-which are the chief "war food and fabric industries" -to
the "war agent and implement industries." The more important
industri~s have been grouped. in the following . tabl~s, as alrea~y
stated, m accordance with the mformat10n contamed m the official
report of the Assistant Secretary of War concerning the manufacture of war materials. Census data have been introduced here to indicate the proportion of the prewar industry which was covered in
this war-time study. In a {ew cases, such as in the manufacture of
airplanes, firearms, and ammunition, the growth of the industry was
so meteoric during the war period that the group of firms and wage
earners covered in this survey far exceeded in number the 1914 census
figures for the same industries. These were the exception, however,
rather than the rule. The comparison with the census figures for
the m_o st part, however, indicates the extensiveness of the material
made available for this investigation. It will be found that though
often a small percentage of plants appears to be covered, a considerable proportion of the wage earners employed are involved, indicating that the larger and more important plants are included.
Comparison is made in these tables between two periods-the first,
during February and March, 1918, or seven to eigl:tt months after
the first draft, and the second, during October and November, 1918,
or four to five months after the first drawing of the second draft.
The tables are based exclusively on data from firms that reported
after both the first and second drafts. They are important, therefore, principally as showing the percentage of increas·e or decrease in
the woman labor force in identical firms rather than as reflecting the total numbers employed at any given time in a particular in"'."
dustrial group. Except where the numbers of women involved })er
plant are so small as to suggest the probability of employment for
some special service rather than •for manufacturing pro_cesses, the
increase in the number of firms employing women in war agent and
implement industries is significant, since an increase in the number
of firms employing women in industrial departments shows that
there was a spread of woman labor in the industry as a whole, and
not merely in the plants that had previously employed women. The
increase in the number of firms employing women in the war food


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

42

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

and fabric industries was negligible, because practically all plants in
these industries already employed women in the first period shown.
For this reason figures on this point are not presented for these
industries.
IRON AND STEEL AND THEIR PRODUCTS.

Table 3 shows the trend of labor in the chief branches of the iron
and steel industry. In every brancli the force of women showed an
increase between the first and second drafts, ranging from 18 per
cent to ·o ver 200 per cent. In two cases-structural iron work and
engines and pumps-the number of women had tripled, although in
the former instance, because of the small number of women involved,
the increase is of minor significance. In foundries and machine
shops and in firearms and ammunition, the two branches employing largest numbers of women, the increases were 100.6 per cent
and 69.3 per cent, respectively. For the iron and steel industry as a
whole the force of women increased nearly 70 per cent, while for men
the increase was only 5 per cent. The men showed a decrease in 6
of the 12 branches represented.
METAL TRADES OTHER THAN IRON AND STEEL.

Table 4 presents corresponding data for the metal trades other
than iron and steel. In these industries the force of women increased
in every branch except jewelry, and here the decrease was only 1.5
per cent, as compared with a 36.8 per cent decrease in men workers
m this industry, the result being a rise in the importance of women
in the force from 265 to 360 in every 1,000 wage earners employed.
Through all other branches of the metal industry here shown women
gained not only in actual numbers but in the proportion they formed
of the total force. In numbers they increased as a whole 17 per cent
in this industry.
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS.

The manufacture of chemicals and allied products showed an even
greater per cent of increase in women employed than the metal trades,
though neither industry reached the proportion of increase shown in
the iron and steel industry. Here agam the men showed a small
2_er cent of decrease in every branch except explosives, as shown in
Table 5.
OTHER WAR AGENT AND IMPLEMENT INDUSTRIES.

Table 6 presents the same data for seven more of the important
war agent and implement industries. The evidence here bears out
what has already been seen in the manufacture of steel, other metals,
and chemicals, the proportion of increase in the force of women varying from 17 per cent for the stone, clay, and glass industry to 241.1
per cent in the making of automobiles. In the manufacture of agricultural implements a significant increase of 170.1 per cent took place
in the number of women employed after the second draft as compared with the force after the first draft. In addition to its peacetime product which was essential to the m.aintainance of both the
civil and fighting population, this industry manufactured such war


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

43

necessities as tanks, trucks, shells, grenades, and special ordnance.
In four out of the seven industries shown the force of men decreased;
and in the remaining three the increase was proportionately less than
for women, though in actual numbers it exceeded the force of women
because of the preponderance of men in industries of that type.
FOOD, TOBACCO, AND CLOTHING INDUSTRIES.

Tables 7 and 8 indicate the trend of labor in some of the traditional
woman-employing industries. The manufacture of tobacco showed a
decrease in both men and women employed, while the food industries
as a whole showed an increase for both sexes which slightly exceeded
in proportion that shown for the metal trades and stone, clay and
glass products, but fell far behind all other of the newer industries
for women, which have been presented in Tables 3, 5, and 6. As
women already had a fair foothold in some of the metal trades and
in the pottery industry, these exceptions do not destroy the validity
of the inference that the tendency of woman labor during the war
was away from the older food and fabric industries to the newer war
implement industries. This inference is greatly strengthened by the
table showing the trend of labor during the war in the textile, clothing, hand and footwear industries, all of which, with the sole exception
of men's furnishing goods, showed decreases in the force of both men
and women, ranging for women from 3.6 per cent in the cotton-goods
_industry to 27 per cent in the manufacture of hats and caps.


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TABLE 3,-CHANGE IN LABOR FORCE DURING THE WAR IN PLANTS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY AND PROPORTION OF THIS INDU STRY
REPRESENTED IN THE SURVEY, BY BRANCH OF INDUSTRY. _ _

Firms.

Wage earners.
Represented in
this survey.

Change in labor force durin;: the war.

Recresented in
t is SUIVey.

After .first draft.

Wage earners.
Branch of industry.
Total in
industry. 1

Total
in
indusPer
try.I
Num- cent
ber. 2 total.of

Per
Num- cent
of
ber.
total.
Men.

Women.

After second draft.

Firms employingwomen.

j F!Jms employ1ngwomen.

Wage earners.

Per cent inPer
crease ( +) or
Number.
cent of
decrease ( - )
over first draft. Numum- total
inber. eluded
ber.
in this
WomWomSUIVey. Men.
Men.
en.
en.

I

l'cr

Icgl:~!r
o,·er
first
draft.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------ - - - - - - - - Foundry and machine-sho~ products 3_ ••
Crude iron and steel and ro led products ..
Hardware.. ..... ....... .. ........ --... ...
Structrnal iron work ........ . ..... . .. . ...
Stoves and frnnaces .. .... ......... .. . ....
Cutlery and tools....... ... ...... . ........
Engines and pumps.. .... .. ... . . .........
Small machines for home and office uso...
Wire and wire work ... .. ... . .......... ..
Firearms and ammunition ... ... . ........
TinE}ate and ternoplate .. : ....... ... . ....
Spr gs, steel-car and carriage ...... . .. ...

39 , 251 182,697
27 ,605 49,022
63,226 19,326
4 ,022
7,125
47,319
9,455
41,944 30,902
36,995 19,782
31,794 10,519
28,554
6,166
22,235 81,369
5, 18
7,863
3,867
1,876

----

Total. .. .. ......... ....... .. .. ...... 1,006,630 426,102

45. 9
17.6
30.6
14.9
20.0
73. 7
53.5
33.1
21.6

1,175
93
102
1

48. 5

11, 20
587
841
1,27
640
1,061
629
205
606
61
31
84

42.3

17,231 62,104

(5)
(5)

283
98
30
48

74
6
26

10.5 169,768
15.
48,423
12.1 16,415
6,745
6.3
13. 8
9,214
26. 7 26,279
15.6 17,630
14.6
8,684
7.9
5,537
(5)
47,150
19. 4 6,544
1,624
31. 0

5,~
2,911
15
241
3,562
420
1, 8.'35
407
8,017
236
175

423
33
66
40
120
41
23
26
46
6
14

36.0 171,646
35.5 47,694
64. 7 15,262
9. 9
7,072
45.5
7,572
42. 4 25,735
41. 8 18,462
76. 7 6,916
54. 2 5,538
62. 2 67,798
1()().0
7,544
53.8
1,54;3

11,051
976
3,437
53
384
5, 167
1,320
3,308
628
13,571
319
333

+ 1.1
- 1.5
- 7.0
+ 4.8
-17.8
- 2. 1
+ 4. 7
-20.4
(•)
+43.8
+15.3
- 5.0

+100.6
+ 62.9
+ 18. 1
+253.3
+ 59.3
+ 45.1
+214.3
+ 80.3
+ 54.3
+ 69.3
+ 35.2
+ 90.3

491

Hi.1
41
24.2
75
13.6
12
50.0
40 -------142
18.3
54
31. 7
27
17. 4
27
3.8
58
26.1
6 ········
14 ·····---

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---12. 2 364,013 23,927
46
40.2 382,782 40,547 + 5.2 + 69.5
987
16. 7

United States Bureau of Census. Abstract of Census of Manufactrnes, 1914, pp. 516-543. Figures for wage earners give number on Dec. 15, 1914, or nearest representative day.
Represents maximum number employed at either of the two periods covered. The total therefore does not represent necessarily the total employed at one time or the other.
Includes cast iron, wrought pipe, forgings, horseshoes, and plumbers' supplies.
• Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.
.
5 The demands of war so expanded the industry that the number of wage earners included in this survey for the war period exceeded the number reported in the Census
of Manufactures for 1914.
6 As only principal branches of the iron and steel industry are included in this table, the totals do not agree with those in Tables 10 and 22, which include also minor branches
and firms reporting only after the second draft.
1
2

3


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

~

i+:..

TABLE 4.-CHA 1 GE IN LABOR FORCE DURING THE WAR IN PLANTS REPRESENTING THE MAN FACTURE OF METAL PRODUCTS OTHER
THAN IRO
AND STEEL, AND PROPORTION OF THIS INDUSTRY REPRESENTED IN THE SURVEY, BY BRANCH OF INDUSTRY.
Wage earners.

Firms.

Represented in
this survey.

Change in labor force during the war.

Represented in
this survey.

After first draft.

Wage earners.
Branch ofindustry.

Total
Total in
in
industry.I
indusPer
Num- cent
try.1
ber. 2 total.of

Per
Num- cent
of
ber.
total.
Men.

Women.

After second draft.

Firms employingwomen.

Firms employingwomen.

Wage earners.

Percent in·
Per
crease ( +) or
Number.
cent of
decrease ( - )
over first draft.
Num- total
inber. eluded
in this
survey. Men. WornMen. Women.
en.

--- --- - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - Brass, br~mze, and cop:per products.......
Copper, tin, and sheet-iron work .........
Jewelry .......... . .. . . . ..................
Stamped and enameled ware •............
Smelting and refining copper and zinc....
Clocks and watches ......................
Tinware..................................
All other a••••••••••••••••••••••••••••....
Total. ............. . ................
1

day.

35,683
11,1 7
9,008
4,579
22,023
10,419
10,971
33,325

89.4
38.5
31.6
16. 5
79.8
45.1
51.8
54.8

992
4, 527
1,914
270
66
119
294
1,737

1 -t
168
209
34
30
18
64
189

257,862 137,195

53. 2

9,919

896

39,911
29,020
28,523
27, 731
27,594
23,114
21,183
60,786

1 .5
3. 7
10. 9
12. 6
45.5
15.1
21.8
10.9

Number.

Per
cent increase
over
first
draft.

--- ---

28,956
10,295
6,617
3,451
21,935
6,352
7,664
27,791

3,788
814
2,391
1,042
88
4,067
3,307
4,286

72
60
174
25
8
16
48
115

3 .9
35. 7
83. 2
73.5
26.6
88.8
75.0
61. 8

29,817
10,016
4,179
3,248
20,038
5,622
6,587
27,111

5,866
958
2,354
1,331
223
4,178
3,335
4,905

9.0 113,061

19,783

518

57.9 106,618

23,150

+ 3.0
- 2. 7
-36.8
- 5.9
- 8.6
-11.5
-14.l
- 2.4

+ 54.9
+ 17.7
1. 5
+ 27.7
+153.4
+ 2. 7
.8
+
+ 14.4

50
121

- 5.7 + 17.0

558

-

86
66
181
28
10

19.4
10.0
4.0
12.0
25.0

16

----····
4. 2
5. 2
7. 7

United States Bureau of Census. Abstract of Census of Manufactures, 1914, pp. 516-543. Figures for wage earners give number on Dec. 15, 1914, or nearest representative

Represents the maximum number employed at either of the two periods covered. The total therefore does not represent the total employed at one time or the other.
a Except gold and silver reducing and refining, and bell and tin-foil manufacture, which were not covered in this survey.
2


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

H

~

t:,

~
U2

1-3

~

TABLE o .-C~NGE IN LABOR FORCE DURING THE WAR IN PLANTS REPRESENTING THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY AND PROPORTION OF THIS
INDUSTRY REPRESENTED IN THE SURVEY, BY BRANCH OF INDUSTRY.
Wage earners.

Change in labor force during the war.

Firms.

Represented in
this survey.

Represented in
this survey.

Total in
industry.1

Total
in
indusPer
Num- cent of try. 1
ber. 2 total.

After second draft.

After first draft.

Wage earners.
Branch of industry.

~
~

Per
Num- cent
of
ber.
total.
Men.

Women.

Firms employingwomen.

Wage earners.

Per cent inPer
crease ( +) or
Number.
cent of
decrease ( - )
over first draft.
Num- total
inber. eluded
in this
survey. Men. Wom- Men. Women.
en.

Firms employingwomen.

Number.

Per
cent increase
over
first
draft.

- - - --- --- --- - - - - - Chemicals and acids ......................
Petroleum refining •........ ... .......... .
Explosives ................. ....... .. .....
Dyestuffs, extracts, and bluing ...........
All others ................................

36,029
24,938
7,317
3,256
210,696

16,477
24,305
9,276
5,950
40, 14.1

~otal. ............. ................

282,236

96, 1.51

1

day.

19.1

427
176
152
178
10,088

79
23
44
516

16.6
44. 9
15.1
24. 7
5.1

15,336
22,951
7,098
5,625
31,886

1,141
497
1,144
232
5, 972

42
48
16
21
364

59. 2
60. 8
69. 6
47. 7
70. 5

14,749
22,910
7,140
5,473
29,523

1,461
1,395
2,136
477
7,761

-3.8 + 28.0
- .2 +180. 7
+ .6 + 86. 7
-2.7 +105. 6
-7.4 + 30.0

47
59
18
25
404

11.9
22. 9
12. 5
.2
11.0

34.1

11,021

733

6. 7

82,896

8,986

491

67.0

79,795

13,230

-3.7 + 47.2

553

12. 6

45. 7
97.5
(3)
(3)

71

United States Bureau of Census. Abstract of Census of Manufactures 1914, pp. 516-54.'3. Figures for wage earners give number on Dec. 15, 1914, or nearest representative

Represents the maximum number employed at either of the two periods covered. The total therefore does not represent the total employed at one time or the other.
a The demands or the war so expanded the industry tbat the number of wage earners included in this survey for the war period exceeded the number reported in the Census
or Manufactures !or 1914.
2


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H

zt::::!
c!

'(fl

1-3

~

TABLE 6.-CHANGE IN LABOR FORCE DURING THE WAR IN PLANTS REPRESENTING SEVEN LEADING WAR AGENT AND IMPLEMENT INDUSTRIES
AND PROPORTION OF THESE INDUSTRIES REPRESENTED IN THE SURVEY.
Firms.

Wage earners.
Represented in
this survey.

Change in labor force during the war.

ReEfesented in
t ·ssurvey.

After first draft.

Wage earners.
Industry.
Total in
industry.I

Total
in
indusPer
Num- cent of try.I
ber. 2 total.

Per
Num- cent
of
ber.
total.
Men.

Women.

After second draft.

Fhnlsemploying women.

Per cent inPer
crease ( +) or
Number.
cent of
decrease ( - )
over first draft.
Num- total
inber. eluded
in this
survey. Men. WomMen. Women.
en.

- - - --Lumber and its remanufactures . . .. . .. . . .
Stone, claX, and glass products .... . ... ...
Automoblles and parts ... . ... . ... ... . ....
Electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies .••..... . . .. . ... . . . . .. ...... . . . ... .
Agricultural implements ........ . ...... . .
Shipbuilding........ . ....... . .. . ... . .... .
Airplanes, seaplanes, and parts 6 ••••• ••• •

941,100 155,413
381, 296 38,680
129,038 43,053

16.5
10.1
33.4

42,016
15,112
1,271

111,251
49,608
42,735
211

22.6
65.9

1,030
601
1,147
16

25,177
32,689
60,058
14,469

~:~

Firms employingwomen.

Wage earners.

Number.

Per
cent increase
over
first
draft.

--- - - - - --

1,352
322
3144

3.2 147, 312
2.1 34,239
11.3 31,366

7,184
4,441
1,437

625
190
90

46.2 128,953
59. 0 28,272
62.5 38, 151

13,325
5,197
4,902

-12.5 + 85.5
-17.4 + 17.0
+21.6 +241.1

846
211
107

35.4
11.0
16. 7

172
116
72
34

16. 7 19,352
19.3 32,201
6.3 42,317
(4)
10,268

5,277
488
246
1,887

132
37
22
18

76. 7 18,391
31. 9 29,059
30.6 59,646
52.9 11, 773

6,786
1,318
412
2,696

- 5.0 + 28.6
- 9.8 +170. 1
+40.9 + 67.5
+14. 7 + 42.9

155
57
27
26

17.4
54.1
13.6
44. 4

6
7

United States Bureau of Census. Abstract of the Census of Manufactures, 1914, pp. 516-543. Figures for wage earners give number on Dec.15, 1914, or nearest representative
'
Represents the maximum number employed at either o!the two periods covered. The total therefore does not represent the total employed at one time or the other.
a As only identical firms reporting numbers employed after the first and after the second drafts are included in this table, 19 firms reporting only for the period after the second
draft, but employing 131,113 wage earners (of whom 9,500 were women), are omitted.
• The demands of the war so expanded the industry that the number of plants and wage earners included in this survey for the war period exceeded the number reported in the
Census of Manufactures for 1914.
5 As only identical firms reporting numbers employed after the first and after the second drafts are included in this t able, 5 firms not reporting for the period after the first draft,
but employtng 36,186 wage earners after the second draft (634 of whom were women), are omitted.
e This ~oup includes only such firms as were engaged exclusively in the manufacture of airplanesi seaplanes, and parts. F irms engaged in manufacture of furniture, automobiles,
and scientific instruments but making also parts for airplanes were included in their own industria groups.
1 As only identical firms reporting numbers employed after first and after second drafts are included in this t able, 6 firms report ing only for period after second draft, but employing 12,001 wage earners ( of whom 3,412were women) , are omitted.
1

day.

2


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TnLE 7.-CHANGE IN LABOR FORCE DURING THE WAR IN PLA TS REPRESENTING THE IF'OOD A D TOBACCO INDUSTRIES AND PROPORTION
OF THESE INDUSTRIES REPRESENTED I THE SURVEY, BY BRANCH OF I DUSTRY.

Change in labor force during the war.

Firms.

Wage earners.

After second draft.
Branch of industry.

Total in
Industry,l

ReE{esented in
t ·s survey.

Totalin
Industry,l

cent
Number. Per
of total.

cent
Numbcr.2 Per
of total.
Bread and bakery products ........ ......... .........
Slaughtering and meat packing ......................
Confectionery, cocoa, and chocolate ..................
Sugar, b et and cane .................................
Flour-mill and gristmill products ... . ...... ..........
Food preEarations, including starch and glucose .....
Butter, c ease, and condensed milk ...............•..
Co!Ice and spices .....................................
All other food products a_ .••..........•••.•••••••••..

128,119
105,193
74,424
45,962
41,736
27,874
24,0 9
8,288
15,784

Total for food industries ........................
Tobacco and tobacco products ........................
Grand total •....................................

Reg{esented in
t ·s survey.

After first draft.
Number.

Men.

Women.

Men.

Women.

Per cent increase
( + S or decrea e
over first
(draft.
Men.

Women.

- - - ---- - - - - - - - - ---- - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.8
5,957
+26.0
9,023
9, 1 9
4,727
o. 7
25,963
183
11. 7
14,9 0
73,459
26,100
5,791
11,951
12,140
12,732
2,721
1,948

69.8
35.1
12.6
28.6
43.6
52. 9
32.8
12.6

1,279
4,~~
10,788
1,648
7,645
696
1,955

95
289
15
241
102
223
61
49

7.4
5.9
5.8
2.2
6.2
2.9
.8
2.5

55,361
11,253
5,524
9,510
7,679
10,107
1,355
1,352

7,0 1
14, 47
267
991
3,027
1,713
1,228
359

62,006
9,697
4,598
10,426
8,280
10,600
1,339
1,423

11,453
14,012
357
1,525
3, 60
2,132
1,382
5)1

+12.0
-13.8
-16.8
+ 9.6
+ 7.8
+ 4.9
- 1. 2
+ 5.3

+61. 7
- 5.6
+33. 7
+53.9
+27-5
+24.5
+12.5
+42-~

4il,469
1 2,108

161, 22
40,348

34.3
22.2

55,097
13,951

1,258
378

2. 3
2. 7

111,330
17,490

34,240
22,858

117,392
14,634

41,189
20,245

+ 5.4
-16.3

+20.3
-11.4

653,577

202,170

30.9

69,048

1,636

23. 7

128, 20

57,098

132,026

61,434

+ 2.5

+ 7.6

1 United States Bureau of Census. Abstract of
ensus of Manufactures, 1914, pp. 516-543. Figures for wage earners give number on Dec. 15, 1914, or nearest representative
day.
of the two periods covered. The total therefore does nor repr ent the total employed at one time or tte other,
either
at
employed
s Represents the maximum number
3 Canning and preserving were omitted, as the seasonal nature of the industry destroyed the significance of the figures as indicating the effect of the war.


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~

00

TABLE

8.-CHANGE IN LABOR FORCE DURING THE WAR IN PLANTS REPRESENTING THE TEXTILEJ_CLOTHING SHOE, AND GLOVE INDUSTRIES
AND PROPORTION OF THESE INDUSTRIES REPRESENTED IN T HE SURVEY, BY BRANCH 6 F INDUSTRY.
.
Firms.

Wage earn ers.

Change in labor force during the war.
After second draft.

Branch of industry.

Total in
industry.l

ReE{esented in
t ·s survey.

Total in
industry. 1

Number.2 Per cent
of total.

Represented 'in
this survey.

Number. Percent
of total.

I Per

After first draft.
Number.

Men.

Women.

Men.

Women.

cent increase
or decrease
~~~ over first
draft.

Men.

Women.

- - - - ---- ---- ---- - - - Cotton goods .......... ........................ . ......
Woolen and worsted ~oods . ................... . ... .. .
1
:~
~I~~- _s_._·_:::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::
Dyeing and finishin~ textiles . ... ................... ..
Cordage and twine, Jute and linen goods ........... ...

394, 748
168,089
lfi3,438
106,508
46,776
26,612

105,472
68,020
55,331
23, 75.1
11,833
10,669

26. 7
40.5
36.1
22.3
25.3
40.1

1,287
921
1,622
902
507
160

308
244
346
130
63
63

23. 9
26.5
21.3
14. 4
12. 4
39. 4

59,407
37,722
16, 701
9,784
9,141
6,176

46,065
30,298
38,630
13,969
2,692
4,493

53,681
34,591
15,459
8,636
8,298
4,907

44,388
27,522
34,661
12,806
2,56
3,843

- 9.6
- 8.3
- 7.4
-11. 7
- 9.2
-20.5

- 3.6
- 9.2
-10.3
- 8.3
- 4. 6
-14.5

Total for textile industries: .. ..................

896,171

27.'i, 078

30. 7

5,399

1,154

21. 4

138,931

136,147

125,572

125, 788

- 9.6

- 7.6

652
1, 143
323
119

11.5
19. 9
29. 9
21. 6

20,106
13,708
9,454
3,382

36,895
35,535
11,249
6,748

17,566
10,822
7,186
3,579

32,107
30,185
8,208
8,131

-12.6
-21.1
-24.0
+ 5.8

-13.0
-15.1
-27.0
+20.5

2,237

17. 2

:~d~ii

,,

Clothing{ men's, including shirts, collars, and workin!clo hes ....... ....... ......... . .... .............
Clot ing, women and childrens' ............ . .... ... .
¥a ts,. caps, and materi~ls ............. ...............
urrushing goods, men s .............. ...............

243,186
194, 720
42,929
23,220

57,001
49,243
20,703
11,710

23.4
25. 2
48. 2
50.4

5,657
5,731
1,081
Ml

Total for clothing industry .. ...................

'501,055

138,657

27. 5

13,020

46,650

90,427

39,153

78,631

-16.1

-13.0

Boots and shoes .. ....... . ............................
Gloves and mittens, leather ....... ...................

209,992
11,02n

01,:315
9,918

29. 2
90. 0

1,960
352

272
127

13. 9
36.1

37,556
3,597

23,759
6,321

34,196
3,173

23,376
6,199

- 8.9
-11.8

-

-

1. 9

Grand total ...................... ~ . .....•.•.... 1,621, 244

1 4 4,908

29. 9

20,731

3,790

1 .3

I 226,734

256,654

202,094

233,994

-10.9

-

8.8

1

2

· - - - - - - --

---

-

1. 6

nited States Bureau of Census. Abstract of Censu · of Manufactures, 1914, pp. 516-543. Figures for wage earners give number on Dec. 15, 1914, or nearest representative day.
Represents tho maximum number employed at either of the two periods covered. The total therefore does not represent the total employed at one time or the other.


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50

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

EMPLOYMENT AND SUBSTITUTION OF WOMEN DURING THE WORLD
WAR.

The preceding discussion and tables have shown the trend of
woman labor away from her time-honored tasks in textile mill,
clothing shop, and candy factory into the newer environment of the
machine shop, the chemical plant, and the planing mill. The following discussion and tabular material will present the more detailed
facts, for a wider range of industries, regarding the actual changes
in the labor force of men and women, the changes in the proportion
of women employed, and the actual numbers of women substituted
on men's work. These tables (9 to 24) summarize the pertinent
information from 14,671 schedules, officially submitted to the War
Industries Board and other Federal agencies mentioned in the earlier
pages of this report. 12 They show for each industry the number
of men and women employed after the first and after the second
draft, the number of firms employing women after the second draft,
the number of firms substituting women in place of men, and the
number of women substituted, the number of firms expanding the
woman labor force without such substitution, and the number of
women added in this way.
For 12 leading industries the figures are given for all their branches,
and for 21 others the same facts are summarized for each industry
as a whole. For iron and steel, the metal trades, and the lumber
industry, data are also presented by the States in which the plants
are located.
·
The industrial grouping of the United States Census of Manufactures for 1914 was followed in assorting and assembling the
material presented in the tables. The two war periods represented,
namely, February and March, 1918, and October and November,
1918, are the same as those in the tables of the preceding section,
showing the trend of labor during the war in leading industries representative of old and new occupat10ns of women.
It should be borne in mind that the figures on substitutions cover
only those occurring before the signing of the armistice. Also, it
should be remembered that these were the reports direct from the
firms in answer to the specific question as to how many women had
been substituted in men's places. Judging from personal interviews
and letters from several hundreds of the firms, 1t is apparent that
the question was taken quite literally.
If women had been employetl to do work which had previously
been regarded as men's work, but which had not been done in that
plant at all before, the firm's report would show "no substitutions."
Often, too, work which men had been doing exclusively before or
early in the war was so expanded as to require a larger force and
was shared by women, no men having been displaced. Sometimes
these women would not be included as women substituted on men's
work by the firms reporting.
The critical analysis of the results of substitution presented later
reveals the difficult "twilight" zone in the field of substitution.
There was a marked tendency, when doubt clouded the subject, to
report no substitutions, but to record simply an increased number of


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12

See pp. 36-38.

· THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

51

woman employees. The figures for substitution, therefore, shown (in
Tables 9 to 24) are unquestionably well below rather than above the
level of subs ti tu tions which took place·before the signing of the armistice, as they do not include a number of women who were employed in
occupations that had been theexclusiveindustrial province of men before
the war, though the women doing the work had not actually displaced
any men. The work itself had been expa.nded and the women had
been employed to meet the expansion. That this is true is strongly
indicated by the tables prepared in connection with the critical
analysis of substitutions, and arranged by crafts rather than by
industry. 13 These tables summarize d. ata
i secured. by direct questioning of firms in the course of the field work; and therefore present a
more accurate picture of the extent of substitution of women on men's
work.
While the discriminations of the firms as to what were and what
were not substitutions were accepted, the questioning of the field
agent in her interview with the .employer checked the tendency to
ignore all factors except the actual displacement of identifiable men
in reporting the number of substitutions. The 562 firms thus questioned had substituted on men's work up to August, 1919, over
58,000 women, while the entire 3,558 firms reporting without analytical questioning by field agents record approximately 70,000 women
substitutes up to the close of the war. The difference in the relative
number of substitutions reported is too great to be explained entirely
by the difference in periods of time. The records here presented,
therefore, are evidently a conservative measurement of the substitution of women on men's work during the war in the industries represented by this survey.
Furthermore, too great significance should not be attached to the
proportion of firms employing women, because a careful scrutiny of
the tables which follow will reveal evidences of firms employing one or
two women. Before the field work was started and verification of the
documentary material could be made, these cases were regarded as
probable errors, in that the office stenographeror bookkeeper had been
mcluded, and it was thou_ggt_that no women were employed in the
industrial departments. While there were occasional errors of this
sort, in a large number of cases the reports were correct technically, as
the women were employed in the industrial departments, but were
doing work not J?ecuhar to any particular line of manufacture. Sometimes they were m the factory lunch room,either having replaced a man
or having been taken on when the stress of war work made it necessary
to provide lunching facilities. The actual numbers of such women
included in the number substituted and the number employed during
the war was relatively small, but they may materially affect the number of firms employing women. A hundred such women in the more
than half million employed would not weigh heavily in the results, but
they might add a hundred firms that really employed no women in
manufacturing processes.
A close inspection of the following tables will reveal the branches of
the several industries where this circumstance probably exists.
Where a few firms have a large number of men and but two or three
women, it is obvious that the firms have not undertaken to substitute


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13 See

Tables 29-33.

52

THE NEW 'P OSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY •

.

women for men in manufacturing processes to any extent. It is safe
to assume that while the one or two women were not office women, they
were doing special work of some nature. This applies only, of course,
where the women number but one or two in a plant, while the force of
men runs into large numbers. In spite of the slight margin of error to
be reckoned with in treating the number of firms employing women,
the material seems of sufficient value and significance to consider in .
attempting to determine the flow of worn.e n's work into new channels .
. ALL INDUSTRIES.

Table 9 presents a synthesis of the basic data contained in the
succeeding tables. It shows the total number of firms reporting during the war in all the industries included in this survey, the number of
these firms employing women after the second draft, and the number
of them which substituted women, the force of wage earners employed
after the second draft, the number of women employed after the second
draft, the per cent of increase over the·number employed after the first
draft, and the proportion they form of the force as a whole, the total
number of women substituted, and the proportion they form of all
1
women employed.
The 14,629 firms included .in this table employed nearly 2,500,000
wage earners at the height of the war period, of whom 528,229
were women, or a proportion of 228 women for every 1,000
wage earners of both sexes. In the various industries included,
the proportion of women varied from 11 in every 1,000 employed
in shipbuilding to 580 in every 1,000 engaged in manufacturing·
tobacco produots. Aside from tobacco, textiles and clothing, hats
and caps, and buttons, all of which· are traditional em_ployments
for women, the makers of surgical appliances and artificial limbs were
the only ones to employ a force more than half of which was made
up of women. Other industries showing a proportion of 20 per cent
or more of women on their labor force were electrical machinery,
apparatus .and supplies, airplanes, seaplanes and parts, optical
goods, motion picture and photographic apparatus and supplies,
musical instruments, leather goods and its :finished products, rubber
goods, dental goods, fur tanning, dyeing, and its remanufactures, food
and food products, toys and sporting goods, paper and paper products, and J>rinting and publishing. The smallest proportion of
women, aside from shipbuilding, was found in the manufacture of
beverages, of agricultural implements (desi>ite the fact that its force
of women was nearly tripled during the last eight months 9f the
war), in railway repair shops, and in the making of carriages and
wagons and their materials. It is interesting to note that in all of
the industries in which the number of women had been doubled or
better the proportion which they formed of the total labor force was
still less than 10 per cent. In other words, the largest rate of increase was found m the industries in which women formed the least
important part of the force, though the actual increase in numbers
might be smallest here.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

53

In considering the proportion which women form of the labor ·
force in an industry it should be noted that a considerable number of
plants, especially m the war implement industries, did not employ.
women at all. The proportion of women in individual plants, therefore, was usually much higher than that shown for the mdustry as a ,
whole, the figures for the plants employing women being somewhat
neutralized by the figures for those which did not. The same qualification should be borne in mind in considering the proportions of
substitutions. Often less than half the number of plants which employed women were substituting them on men's work. The propor. tion of women substituted in mdividual plants where substitution
occurred was higher, therefore, than the proportion for the industry
as a whole. In the detailed tables which follow this summary table,
figures showing the number of women substituted are shown in
juxtaposition to figures showing the number of women employed in
plants in which substitution occurred. Table 9, however, has attempted to show the extent of substitution in each industry as a
whole.
The proportion of women substituted on men's work was highest
in the manufacture of motor cycles and bicycles where 784 in each
thousand women employed were being used in direct replacement of
men. Other industries with a high proportion of substitutions were,
in order of importance, shipbuilding, the manufacture of cars for
steam and electric railroads, of automobiles, of agricultural implements, and of airplanes and seaplanes. All of these industries were
substituting on men's work more than half the women on their labor
force. They are industries, however, which in actual numbers employ comparatively few women, although they are the same ones
which show the most rapid rate of increase in their woman labor
force. The traditional woman-employing inaustries, such as textiles, food products, and tobacco, of course, did little in the way of
substituting women on men's work. Since the proportion of women
employed was already large, few o_ccupations remained in which
they were not already used, and the tendency in many of these
plants during the war was toward a decrease in numbers employed
despite the heavy demands made on them for production.


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TABLE 9.-PROPORTION OF WOMEN EMPLOYED AND SUBSTITUTED AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT AND INCREASE OR DECREASE IN THEIR EM·
PLOYMENT OVER PEitIOD AFTER FIRST DRAFT, IN WAR AGENT AND IMPLEMENT AND WAR FOOD AND FABRIC INDUSTRIES.l
Wage earners after second draft.

Firms reporting after second draft.

Women.
Industry.

Total.

Number
employing
women.

Number
substituting
women.

Number.

Iron and steel. ........................................ . ....... .....
Metal and metal products other than iron and steel. .•. . .. ..........
Lumber awl its remanufactures ....... . ........................ ... .
Chemicals and allied products . ..... . ................ ... ...... . ... ..
Electrical machinery, ~PP!!-ratus, and supplies....... ... .. .........
Cars, steam and electnc railroad .. . ....... . ...... . ............ .....
Railroad repair shops ............... .. .... . ................ . . . ... ..
Motor cycles, bicr,cles, andJrarts .. .. .. . .. . ....... .. ...............
Automobiles, inc uding bo ·es and parts ............ .. .............
Airplanes, seaplanesd and parts ....................................
Shipbuilding, inclu ing boat building ................... . . ..... ...
Carriages, wagons, and materials ...... .. ......... . .... ........ . ....
Agricultural implements ...........................................
Instruments, scientific and professional ... . ..... ...................

~l~~~~?i~e-and
i?liotograiiliic appai-iitiis- aiici ·stii>j;11iis::::::::::
Musical instruments .... . ........................... . ....... .. .....

Leather and its finished products ... .. .... . ............ . .......... .
Rubber goods ............................................. . ..... ...
Stone, clay, and glass products .......... . ... ... ...................
Surgical apg;iances and artificial limbs ... .. ..................... . .
Dental goo ..... ... ....... ...... ................... ........ ..... .
Textiles and their products .................... ... ... .... ......... .
Hats, caps, and their materials ...... .. ............................
Fur, tanning, dyeing, and its remanufactures ......................
Buttons ............. ............... . .............. ... . .. ..... .....
Food and food ~roducts ............................... .... ........
Tobacco and to acco products ......... ..... ...................... .
Beverages .............................. ...........................


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2,140
896
1,352
737
172
15
10
7
163
40
77
36
116
46
21
32
77
810
83
322
30
14
3,306
323
122
44
1,258
378
314

1,011
5.58
846
557
155
8

6
6
126
32
30
23
67
38
21
30
64
711
76
211
29
14
3,283
312
93
33
1,132
357
163

430
204
470
205
87
8
3
4
62
24
12
10

29
19
11
13
41
231
34
73
7
5
582
27
4
6

395
64
51

I

Total employed.

Total substituted.

Total.

551,854
129, 768
142, 27
166,534
25,177
14,365
4,197
2,927
174, 166
26,470
96,244
3,573
30,377
5,224
1,365
9,519
13,703
107,634
43,246
33.469
3;117
1,681
372,072
15,394
3,420
2,688
158,581
34,879
16,257

60,694
23,150
13,325
23, 260
6,786
836
182
287
14,402
6,108
1,046
162
1,318
892
507
3,339
3,557
35,513
11,688
5,197
1,716
749
206,665
8,208
1,048
1,406
41,189
20,245
506

Number
per 1,000
wage
earners.
110
178
94
140
270
58
43
98
83
231
11
45
43
171
371
351
260
330
270
155
551
446
555
533
306
523
260
580
31

Percent increase ( +)
or decrease Number.
(-) over
first draft.2
+ 69.5
+ 17.0
+ 85.5
+ 47. 2
+ 28.6
+158. 0
+ 32.8
+ 70.8
+241.1
+ 42.9
+ 67.5
+107. 7
+170.1
+ 16. 1
+ 9. 7
+ 18.1
+ 51.9
+ 1.4
+ 17.2
+ 17. 0
+ 31.4
- 3.5
- 8.5
- 37.0
- 7.8
- 7.2
+ 20.3
- 11.4
+ 43.3

19,171
3,752
6,066
3,750
1,385
556
37
225
8,656
3,211
554
51
743
278
103
346
1,048
3,651
1,369
1,092
110
38
5,517
104
26
46
3,055
610
144

Number
per 1,000
women
employed.
316
1112
4,5.'i

161
204
665
203
784
601
526
686
315
664
312
203
104
295
100
117
210
64
51
27
13
25
33
74
30

286

C)1
~

18
2,186
378
827
+ ]. 8
112
135
124
59,622
14,02
235
+ 5. 0
917
65
194
46,618
12, 727
852
72
102
19,234
6,766
637
94
1- - - - - 1 - - - - -1-- - --1-- - - -+ - - - - - l - - - - - + - - - --l•- - - - + - - - - Total.. ..... . ... . . .. ...... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14,629
11,425
2,317,839
52 ,229
228
3,54~
+ 5. 5
6R,ll2
129

Toys and sporting ~oods........ .. .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Paper and paper froducts............................ .... ... . .... .

~~!wa'h:~il;~~~:~~~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::
1
2

53
551

i~i

50
474

~ri

m ,. u

In several of the indn~tries some firI!ls reported only after the socond draft, and the fi~ures in this table include these firms, except in column showing increase or decrease.
This colllllUl represents increase or decrease in identical firms reporting after both :first and second draft.s.


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1-3
~

l,rj

z

l,rj

~
""d

0

Ul
~

1--:3
~
0

z

0

~

~

0

~

t;i:j

z
z
~

~

~

t;i:j

~

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zt:::,
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01
01

56 :

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
IRON AND STEEL AND THEIR PRODUCTS .

The iron and steel industry is the backbone of war-implement
manufacture. In addition to the plants already prepared, by the
nature of their peace-time product, to make weapons of warfare,
those that previously made vaults, safes, radiators, and structural
ironwork produced bombs, grenades, firearms, or heavy artillery.
Factories that had turned out small machines, like sewing machines
or computing machines, helped on smaller parts of shells, gun sights,
optical goods, or scientific instruments. Table 10 shows for the
various branches of this basic industry the changes in the la.bor
force between February and October, 1918, the extent of substitution, and the increase in the number of women without substitution.
In every one of the 15 branches shown in the table, the proportion
of women in firms reporting for both periods increased materially.
For the industry as a whole only 61 women were employed in each.
1,000 wage earners after the first draft, while after the second draft
the proportion had risen to 95 in every 1,000 for the same 2,124
plants and to 110 if 16 additional plants reporting onJy in the second
period were included. Less than half the plants employed women,
however, and less than half the plants employing women substituted
them on men's work. The per cent of women substituted taken in
relation to the entire number of women employed in the industry is
32, while the proportion which they form of women employed in
plants in which substitution occurred is 46 per cent. This indicates
that in firms where substitutions took place nearly one-half of all the
women on their labor force were replacing men or doing work formerly
done only by men. Only 214, or about 10/er cent, of all iron and
steel firms inchided in the survey increase the number of women
without any substitution.


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TABLE 10.-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND DRAFTS AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR
ADDED WITHOUT SUBSTITUTION AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY, BY BRANCH OF
INDUSTRY.
Labor force.

Total.
Branch of industry.

Total
firms
reporting.

After After
first second
draft. draft.

Increase in force of
S
0
~f:ii~n
~~~~~~n:ir~
Total
draft.
second draft.
firms
Number per employ•1----.---.-----1-----,----,---w~~en
1,000 wage
A9tu:~r~umFirm
earners.
After After
~ Women Women Firms Women
after
first second i - - - - - - -1 - - - - - - -1second sub~t1- em- substi- adding em- Women
draft. draft. t!ir s!]i~~ t!ir s!]i.:i draft.
ployed. tuted. women. ployed. added.
draft. draft. draft. draft.

~i!~uste:i:d

lili~~

Women.

Men.

~:~f

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 1- -- 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - ~-- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - ---11----t---·1---•I- - 93
Crude iron and steel rolled products...... ..
283
Cutlery and tools, saws and files... • . . . . . . . . {
1 1
98
Engines and pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . .
74
Firearms and ammunition................. { 114
Foundry and machine-shop products s_.. . . 1,175
102
Hardware. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Locomotives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
Machines for office and home use 4••••••••••
7
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
•
vaults...
and
Safes
9
Scales and balances. _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
.
carriage.............
and
Springs, steel car
8
Stoves and furnaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structural-iron work, including doors and
81
shutters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Tin plate and terneplate .................. . {
48
Wire and wirework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

T~~tfi~cf!~~~ae£.°:f{~~. ~~t-~r- ~~~~.
Total for all plants, including 16 reporting after second draft only .....

48, 670 48,423
30, 902 26,279
2,478
19, 782 .i 7; 630.
81,369 47,150
112,899 .. . .....
182,697 169,768
18,699 16,415
5,046 5,229
10, 224 8,684
254
239
812
763
1,624
1, 76
1,799
7,956 9,214
9,455

49,022
29,841
........
18,050
55, 167
.. . .....
175, 277
19, 326
5,231
10,519
256
829

6,760
6,780

7,125
7,863
7,100
6,166

6,745
6,544

47,694
25, 735
2,220
18, 462
67, 798
93,151
171,646
15,262
5,043
6,916
236
728

5,509
2,911

976
5,167
258
1,320
13,571
19, 748
11,051
3,437

1,835

3,308

174

2

3

8

333

384

21
97
25

53
319

35

.599
3,562

420
8,017

2

17

1,543
7,572

241

7,072
7,544

15
236

175

3

35

12
119

···· ·2:J°
145

·····3i"
151
(3)

20
167
104
67
168
175
60
184

(3)

2

324
13
46
176
48
7
41
14
102

142

22
67

1

1

41

54
58

25
28

14

7
1 7

491
75

29

1
27

17

2

1

5

14
40

12
6
1

4

862
2,~~
1,202
10,843
11,362
7,794
2,061

425
1,135
19
836
2,862
6,604
4,513
677

3,063
1
33

1,457
1

47
4
1,773
29
11 · · · ·
1,820
20

18
510

·os· ······30

1, 701

.... io2· · ·2; 307 · · .. i; 383
18

693

4

1

3

1

7

225

125

20

205
294

53
113

3

7

91
34

78
30

37
303
100
507

37

1
13

128

1
1

1
11

1
1

421

30, 170

12,469

214.

7,161

3,977

430

41,890

19,171

6

14

4
4.

~gg ·· ···ss"
27
212
5,537 ~;ggg ... ·40?°
5,944
, - - - - - - · - - - - - - - - - ----1----1----1---- - - - -----1---1----1----1----1--2, 124 394,256 429,377 370,308 388, 789
2, 140 ........ 551,854 .. . ..... 491, 160

61
995
95
23,948 40,588
===l·= ==i:===l:=== I====

60,694

110

1,011

79

1 When figures are bracketed, the lower one represents firms reportin~ after the second draft only.
s Includes boilers, tanks, cast shapes forged parts, wheels, frogs, machines and machinery, bearings, valves, plumbers' supplies, metal patterns, and jobbing machine-shop work.
The proportion of women employed m the manufacture of these products varies considerably-23 in every 1,000 wage earners for the first period and 37 for the second period in the
making of simple foundry products, such as cast shapes and forged parts; 9 in every 1,000 for the first and 24 for the second period in making boilers and tanks; 32 in every 1,000
for the first and 76 in every 11000 for the second period in the making of machines and machinery; and 67 in every 1,000 for the first and 110 in the second period in the making of
such products as valves, bearmgs, and plumbers' supplies.
3 Less than one in every 1 000 wage earners.
·
• Includes such small machines as cash registers, computing machines, typewriters, and sewing machines.


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58-

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
0

METAL A D METAL PRODUCTS OTHER THAN IRON AND STEEL.

Closely allied to and of equal importance with iron and steel
products are the products made from other metals. These are all
obviously war supporting in nature. The j_ewelry, silverware, watch
and clock firms not only supplied the fighters with wrist watches,
clocks, identification tags, and eating utensils, but in addition made
parts of gas masks, surgical instruments, small gears for bombs,
insignia, Navy speaking apparatus, optical goods, as well as offensive and defensive grenades and shells. Table 11 gives the facts on
changes in the labor force for 19 branches of the metal trades. All ,
branches, with one unimportant exception, showed an increase in
the proportion of women employed. The largest numbers were
employed in the manufacture of brass, bronze, and copper products,
of clocks and watches, and of tinware. The largest proportions were
found in the last two industries and in the making of jewelry, of
needles, pins, and hooks and eyes, and of stamped and enameled
ware. In all these women formed more than a fourth of the entire
force. The smallest proportion of women was found in the smelting
and refining of various metals and in galvanizing. Substitution was
most extensive in the making of aluminum ware; of metal furniture
and office fixtures ; of gas and electric fixtures; and copper, tin, and
sheet-iron work; but these industries all employed a comparatively
small force of women. Substitution of women was less extensive
in these metal trades than in the iron and steel industry, but a larger
proportion of women was to be found in them than in the making
of iron and steel products.


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11.-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND DRAFTS AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR ADDED
WITHOUT SUBSTITUTION AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL PRODUCTS, OTHER THAN
IRON AND STEEL, BY BRANCH OF INDUSTRY.

TABLE

Labor force.
Total.
Branch of industry.

Aluminum ware ...................... .....
Babbitt metal and solder .. . ...............
Brass, bronze, and cop_per products...... .. .
Clocks and watches, mcluding cases and
materials ..... ............... ..... ........
Copper, tininand sheet-iron work •. _... . .. ..
Electroplat g ...•.. . .......................
Galvamzing . .... .... ............. ..........
Gas and electric fixtures, including lamps
and reflectors................•....... .....
Gold and silver leaf and foil ................

te~~~bar;
p!p(i, ·and siieet:::::::::::: : :::::
Meta furniture and office fixtures ..........

Needlesrnflins, hooks and eyes .. ............
Silvers thing and silver and plated ware ••
Smelting and refining cop!.er. . .............
Smelting and refining lea .................
Smeltlna and refininfi zinc . .... ... .... .....
Stampe and ename ed ware . . ... ... ... ... .
Tinware, not elsewhere specified ... .... ... .
Total..... .. ... .... .. . . .......... ... . .


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Total
firms
reporting.

Men.

After
second
draft.

After After
first second
draft . draft.

15 8,766
597
8
184 32,744

9,207
571
35,683

8,096
561
28,956

10,419
11,109
301
273

9,800
10,974
279
285

40
4,010
97
5
209
9,008
2
89
5,035
28
13 3,082
6,715
43
13 11,9 9
9 3,112
17 10,034
4,493
34
64 10,971

4,127
107
6,533
97
5,695
3,043
G,095
10,966
2,510
9,295
4,579
9,922

18
168
17
9

Women.
Actualnumber.

After
first
draft.

--- - - -

Increase in force of
women without substitution after second
draft.

Total
firm
employNumber per
ing
1,000wage women
earners.
after Firms
second substi- Women Women Firms Women Women
em- substi- adding emdraft. tuting
added.
After After
women. ployed. tuted. women. ployed.
first second
draft. draft.

After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

8,408
522
29,817

670
36
3,788

799
49
5,866

76
60
116

87
86
164

11
3
86

6,352
10,295
288
271

5,622
10,:~
281

4,067
814
13
2

4,178
958
23
4

390
73
43
7

426
87
82
14

16
66
5
3

9
18
1
1

3,366
397
10
2

308
3
303
36
159
11
282
90
8
1
7
1
1 ......... ........ ...... . ..

3,434
48
6,617
89
4,906
1,566
5,422
11,950
3,110
9,985
3,451
7,664

3,402
57
4,179
97
5,357
1,443
4,787
10,899
2,501
9,139
3,248
6,587

576
49
2,391

725
50
2,354

144
51
265

176
47
360

29
5
181

9
1
48

448
7
1,230

152
2
218

3
2
29

1,139
802
61

14
62
31

6

896 132,844 129,768 113,061 106,618
1

Substitution of women
on men's work after
second draft.

.... i29' .... 33g' ·····2f ... ··59' ..... i-i'
1,516
1,293
39
2
49
1,042
3,307

1,600
1,308
67
9
156
1,331
3,335

19, 783

23,150

492
193

526
215

3

6

232
301

4
17
291
336

149

178

(1)

5

Less than 1 in every 1,000 wage earners.

7

523

1
2
17

67
47
205

2
13
90

89
31
420

41
7
117

364

51
165

-·····s· ··--aw· -... 25i . ...... i . . .. .. 'f ........1

12
2
36
13
7
4
3 ........
3
3
28
15
50
23
558

646

····-·····4f ..5;469. · · 1,541

204

· · .. isi3· ..... gf
849
1,593

129
260

16,495

3, 752

4

385

······a· .•..•• g" ·······1
..........
······-4
114

······aii

12

894

172

99

3,222

829

60 :

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
LUMBER AND ITS REMANUFACTURES.

Lumber contributed to the war materials for ships, airplanes, and ·
construction work. Furniture, veneer, and wood-turning plants did
special work for airplanes and made saddletrees. These were all industries in which women had been little employed in prewar days.
During the war, however, they made decided gains. In furniture
plants, for example, the proportion of women rose from 55 per 1,000
wage earners after the first draft to 140 after the second draft. For
the industry as a whole the proportion of women more than doubled
between these two periods, but even so women did not reach the proportionate importance which they attained in either iron and steel
or the other metal trades. The proportion of substitutions, however,
was much higher for the lumber industry. Two of the most important branches of . the industry-furniture and lumber products
from saw and planing mills-showed also the highest proportion of
women replacing men, 63 per cent and 77- per cent, respectively.
The proportion of women substituted for the whole industry was 455
per 1,000 women employed. The lumber industry and the metal
trades had approximately the same proportion of firms employing
women- slightly over three-fifths-while the iron and steel industry
fell behind them with less than half. · Table 12 shows the figures for
the lumber industry.


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

T.A.BLE 12.-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND DRAFTS AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S

WORK OR
ADDED WITHOUT SUBSTITUTION AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE AND REMANUFACTURE OF
LUMBER, BY BRANCH OF INDUSTRY.
Labor force.

Total.
Branch ofindustry.

Total
firms
reporting.

Men.

Women.
Actualnumber.

After After
first second
draft . draft.

Substitution of women
on men's work after
second draft.

After After
first second
draft. draft.

After After
first second
draft. draft.

Total
firms
employing
women. Firms Women Women Firms Women
Women
substi- em- substi- adding
em- added.
tuting ployed.
tuted.
women.
ployed.
women.
After After
first second
draft. draft.
Number per
1,000wage
earners.

- - - --- --- - - - - - - - - Baskets and rattan and willow ware .••....
Boxes, cigar and fancy ..•....•.............
Boxes, wooden packing ••••.•••............
Charcoal. ......... : ........... ...... .......
Coffins, burial cases, and undertakers' goods.
8:E~~tkii:::: ::: :: ::: :::::::~::::: ::: : :
Furniture and refrigerators t . ...... ........ .
Lumber and timber pr~ducts from saw and
planing mills and logging establishments ..
Matches ...... ......... ........... ... . . . ... .
Miscellaneous wooden goods, not elsewhere

t!i1!i!~~~~:::::::: ~:::::::::: ::::::::
Wood turned and carved.......... . .... ....
Total. ... .. . ... .. ...... . ..............


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1

--- - - - --- ---

24
1,439
1,230
25
1,220 1,0
102 9,615 9,879
1
391
344
27
1, 698
1,729
49 4,569
4,217
10 1,39
1,263
299 31, 5 4 27,841

1,055
623
9,114
387
1,388
4,245
664
29,836

850
555
8,840
337
1,390
3,751
624
23,941

384
597
501
4
310
324
734
1,748

380
533
1,039
7
339
466
639
3,900

267
49
52
10
183
71
525
65

309
49
105
20
196
111
506
140

21
25
64
1
26
31
10
227

703 92,267
5 1,215

84,073
944

90,998
919

80,042
669

1,269
296

4,031
275

14
244

48
291

2,471
2,122
232
4,8-15

1,933
1,757
232
4,161

1,646
1,~~
4,343

825
389
. .......
502

234
141

-------139
7,184

13,325

46

28
14
4
61

2,523
2,045
232
4,300

1, 352 154,496 142,278 147,312 128,953

Includes life preservers.

590
288

Increase in force of
women without substitution after second
draft.

8
3
38

165
86
891

51
4
543

17
4
159

260
127
3,484

194
14
2,?()3

6
4
8
1
3
1
1
20

367
5

187
3

3,075
101

2,362
35

53
1

595
14

448
4

334
183

23
11

13
2

757
172

219
42

1
4

22
127

3
108

94

846

470

9,658

6,066

107

1,258

761

..... ff .... iii' ..... 6s'

85
98
75
7
18
1

s

156

26
16
38
3
4
1
2
93

. .. .. 3f .... iof ..... if ... ··25· ····42,f .... 33i . ... ... 4. . .. .. sz" ...... is

s Includes show cases, billiard tables, and mirror and picture frames.

62.

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS.

The war made unusually heavy drafts upon the chemical resources of the country, for on them depended the su_pply of explosives.
This demand beoame acute with the shutting off of importations.
Toluol, from which T. N. T. is made, was most needed. The supply
from coke ovens of steel companies was insufficient, so illuminatmg
gas was stripped of this property in 13 of the leading cities of the
country. 13 This reduced the lighting power of gas by over 25 per
cent and the heating power by 6 per cent. Carbon for gas masks was
found in the most concentrated form in coconut and other nut shells
and in the _pits of peaches, plums, and cherries. This was the reason
for the collection of all shells and seeds to be used for gas defenses.
Women were successful in making substantial inroads into the
chemical industry. Their proportion in the industry increased
from 98 in every 1,000 after the first draft to 140 in every 1,000 after
the second draft. Over three-fourths of the firms included women
in their labor force. This is a larger proportion than any of the three
other large war agent and implement industries already considered.
The proportion of substitutions in the chemical industry is approximately the same as for the metal trades, and is smaller than in iron
and steel or lumber products. In the manufaoture of explosives,
the most important of the chemical industries, women took an increasingly significant part. After the first draft thev formed nearly
14 per cent of the working force and after the sec,ond draft the percentage had risen to over 23 in the same plants. The extent of suostitution in these firms, however, was rather low, only 26 per cent of
the women employed being used in men's work. The manufacture
of druggists' preparations, patent medicines and the like, and of
blacking, cleaning, and polishing preparations had the highest proportion of women, each having more than half the force made up of
women. The manufacture of coke, wood distillations, fertilizers, and
petroleum refining all had a very small percentage of women. The
figures for the chemical industry are given in Table 13.
13 America's Munitions, 1917-18.
Report of Benedict Crowell, Assistant Secretary of War, Director
of Munitions. Washington, 1919, p. 107.


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

13.-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FlRST AND SECOND DRAFTS, AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR ADDED
WITHOUT SUBSTITUTION AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS ENGA GED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICALS AND ALLIED PRODUCTS, BY BRANCH OF INDUSTRY.

«'ABLE

Labor force.
Total.
Total
firms
reporting.

Branch of industry.

Baking powder and yeast ..•.••.••••.•.•.•.
Blacking, cleaning, and polishing preparations .•..... .• .....•.•. ..•• ••••• •.••••• •..
Bone, carbon, and lampblack •..•••. •.••.. .
9hemicals and acids ... ••.••• •.••••••••.•... {
Coke .••.•.•..••••••.••••••••.•••••••..•....
Drug grinding . ..••.•.•••••• .•••••••••.•....
Dru~sts' preparations patent medicines, {
pe mery,andcosmetics ...••••••••••••••
Dyestuffs, extracts, and bluing ..••.•.•.•••.
Explosives and fireworks .•••••••••••••••••• {
Fertilizers .••.• .••••.•.•.•••••••••••••••••• •
Gas, illuminating and heating .••••••••••.•.
Grease, tallow, soap, candles, and glue •••.
Ink, printing and writing .•..•••••••••.•..•
Oils ..•.••.•...•.....••••..•.•••.•••••••••.•
Paints and varnishes ...•••••••••••.••.•. •.•
Petroleum refining ...•••...•••••..•••••.••.
Salt ..•.•......................••••....•....
Wood distillation, not including turpentine
androsin ....•.......•.•....•.••..........

3

Men.

Women.
Actualnumber.

After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

After After
first second
draft. draft.

--- ------ --- --518
586
177
409
390

742
348
366
365
701
17
570
661
1,141
71
16,210 15,336 14,749
11 .........
290 .........
300 . ........
8 1,337
10
1,102
1,327
1,087
2
52
2
49
47
50
147
2,793
2,774
5,480
2,687
5,999
850
11
350 ..........
857° 5,950 5,625 5,473
232
44
9,276
7,140
23
8,242
1,144
7,098
12 .......... 72,359 -------· 62,839 ...........
28
4,596
53
2,574
4,543
2,411
4,821
327
4,542
4,494
4,108
48
7,065
1,465
8,129
5,600
5,988
70
17
979
91
966
888
855
191
5,237
5,262
77
5,428
5,730
523
2,930
3,697
3,458 3,174
69
79 23,448 24,305 22,951 22,910
497
7 1,040
72
1,234
958
1, 130
18
8

714
587
16,477

--------

..5:

Substitution of women
on men's work after
second draft.

Total
firms
employNumberper
ing
1,000wage
women
earners.
after Firms Women Women Firms Women
second substi- em- substi- adding em- Women
draft. tuting ployed . tuted. women. ployed. added.
After After
women.
first second
draft. draft.

--- - - - --- - - - - - - --128

302

487
377
40
29
1,461
69
10 ..........
15
7
38
2
3,225
490
500 . ........
477
40
139
2,136
9,520 ..........
163
12
434
68
2,141
207
111
93
468
35
528
141
21
1,395
104
69

247

3

1

119

508
57
90
33
14
41
538
588
80
230
132
63
96
263
115
82
153
57
84

15

5
2
13
1
1

298
37
375
10
1

4

47
1
2
1 .............
2
144
1
1
25
10
18
10
2
2
13
8
41
19
60
18
12
5
45
29
21
57
28
59
6
3

2

1,378
9,520
115
245
1, 779
27
303
284
1,300
77

365
1,154
115
77
242
20
286
70
751
8

······--

------··

1,540

1,467

1,515

9

25

6

16

Tit:"s\ f~~J;!~~;JeJ>ro;N~~ _~~~~~ ~~~~ _

733

91,882

93,025

82,896

79,795

8,986

13,230

98

142

553

201

7, 19

2,586

Total for all plants, includmg 4
reporting after second draft only .. .

737

140

557

205

17,849

3,750


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

--··--·· 166,534 ......... 143,274 -·-··--·

23,260 .........

1

--------

2

1

. ... ... .... ---····· ·······-------·
---·-·-·
1,136
19
52
441
1,430
500
4 --- ----- ........... .........
345
235
41

1,476

-

1

34
1
41
8
33 ····---- ........... ..........
149
17
206
767
6 . .......... -······· ........
1
1
14
4

14

1

Increase in force of
women without substitution after second
draft.

When figures are bracketed the lower one represents firms reporting for the second period only.

9
3

---- ---2
9
10
1
8
10
10
2

107
732
....... ..
5
158
164
35
101
108
40
22

635

·-------2
37
36
6
60
14
21
9

1

25

16

137

3,751

1,537

-·-····- -------- ········

64 ·

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUST RY.
LEATHER AND ITS FINISHED PRODUCTS.

The dependence of civilian life on leather supplies is an index to
the need of the same products to equip the Army and Navy. The
boot and shoe industry and other branches in which finished leather
products are made have long been important employers of woman
labor. In tpe more important branches of the leather industry the
proportion of women employed in plants reporting for this survey
after the second draft ranged from one-third to two-thirds of the
entire force . The proportion of women increased somewhat between
the first and second drafts even in these branches, though this increase
was due rather to a falling oft in the number of men than an addition
to the actual number of women employed. It was in the tanning,
currying, and finishing of the raw leather hides that women had not
heen employed to any extent before the war. That they made some
inroads in to this branch of the industry during the war is evidenced
hv the increase in the proportion of women employed from 70 in
every 1,000 wage earners in the labor force to 105 in every 1,000.
This resulted from an increase of over 44 per cent in the number of
women employed. In this branch of the industry was found the
highest proportion of substitution-42 :per cent in comparison to 12
per cent for boots and shoes, 6 per cent for glovrs, and 25 per cent for
other leather goods. This fact was doubtless due to the newness of
this branch of the industry to women. Table 14 presents the figures
for the manufacture of leather and its products.
TABLE 14-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND
DRAFTS AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR ADDED WITHOUT
SUBSTITUTION AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS I N THE LEATHER INDUSTRY, BY BRANCH OF INDUSTRY.
L ab or force.
Total.
Br~nch of industry.

Total
firms·
r~portmg.

Men.

\Vomen.
.Actual number.

After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

- -- - - - -

-

After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

- -- --

Number per
1,000 wage
earners.
After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

-

--

Boots and shoes ...........•.
Gloves and mittens, leather ..
Leather, tanned, curried,
and finished ...•.....•.•.. .
Leather belting ........•.•...
Leather goods, not elsewhere

272
127

61,315
9,918

57,572
9,372

37,556
3,597

34,196
3,173

23,759
6,321

23,376
6,199

384
637

406
661

185
21

29,207
1,922

28,083
1,129

27,163
1,635

25,128
980

2,044
287

2,955
149

70
149

10~
132

sitFaf:;~iid ·liariiess::::::::

161

8,269
3,476

7,575
3,903

5,952
3,182

5,100
3,544

2,317
294

2,475
359

280
85

327
92

810 114,107 107,634

79,085

I 72,121

135,022

35,513

, 307

330

Total ..................


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44

65

THE NEW PO ITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

TABLE 14-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND
DRAFTS AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR ADDED WITHOUT
SUBSTITUTION AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS IN THE LEATHER INDUSTRY, BY BRANCH OF INDUSTRY-Continued.

Branch of industry.

Total
firms
e~ploymg
women
after
second
draft.

Substitution of women on
men 's work after second
draft.

Increase in force of women
without substitution after
second draft.

Firms
substituting
women.

Firms
adding
women.

Women
employed.

------Boots and shoes ....•.•.•.•...•.
Gloves and mittens, leather ...•.
Leather, tanned, curried, and
finished ...............•...•••.
Leather belting ...........•...•.

~~~T~e!~s:. -~~~. ~~~~~~~~~.
Sa dlery and harness ...•.......

Total. ....................

267
127

121

Women
substituted.

-

-

Women
employed.

-------

Women
added.

-

-

14

18,558
1,313

2,208
86

62
36

2,420
2,104

455
576

110
16

47
4

2,248
45

942
37

25
3

392
52

183

157
34

35

192
86

45
9

914
80

322

10

778
211

711

231

23,153

3,551

180

5,962

1,621

22
63

STONE, CLAY, AND GLASS PRODUCTS.

The erection of new factories, embarkation piers, storage warehouses, and camps utilized all kinds of building materials, both raw
and manufactured. Glass for war buildings, optical and scientific
instruments, and medicine bottles was needed m extra quantities.
Women had never been extensively employed in any branch of this
industry except the pottery trade, but during the war the glass
industry revealed a considerable increase in the number of women,
and even the manufacture of stone products and of clay products,
other than pottery, showed some accessions of women to the force.
These additions were almost entirely replacements of men or on
men's work. These facts are shown in Table 15
9847° -20-


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

-5

66

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

TABLE 15.-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND DRAFTS
AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR ADDED WITHOUT SUBSTITUTION
AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF STONE,
CLAY, AND GLASS PRODUCTS, BY BRANCH OF INDUSTRY.
Labor force.

Total.
Total
firms
r~portmg.

Branch of industry.

Men.

Women.
-Actual number.

After After
first second
draft. draft.

After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

- - - - - - - -- - -Clay products other than pottery .......................
Glass ..................... . ..
Pottery .. .. . . ...............
Stone products . .............
Total. .................

96
127
28
71

7,808
20,659
4,571
5, 642

~ 1

38, 680

Total
firms
e~ploymg
women
after
second
draft.

Branch of industry.

After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

- - - - --

Number per
1,000 wage
earners.
After After
first second
draft. draft.
- - - - --

6,714
17,103
4,393
5,259

7,736
17,732
3,227
5,544

6,528
13,642
3,001
5,101

72
2,927
1,344
98

186
3,461
1, 3:12
158

9
142
294
17

28
202
317
30

33,469

34,239

28,272

4,441

5,197

115

155

- - - - - -- - -

Substit ution of women on
men 's work after second
draft.

Increase in force of women
without substitution after
second draft.

Firms
substituting
women.

Firms
adding
women.

Women
employed.

- -Clay products other than pottery
Glass ...........................
Pottery . . .. ........ . . ..........
Stone products .................

35
114
28
34

14
41
11

Total. ....................

211

Women
substi'tuted.

Women
employed.

Women
added.

- - - - - - - - - - --

7

140
2,285
1,091
82

134
815
63
80

3
20
3
4

17
682
29
13

3
157
10
11

73

3,598

1,092

30

741

181

TEXTILES AND THEIR PRODUCTS.

The word "textiles" carries with it usually the meaning of material for clothing. But the war demanded in addition to the clothing for soldiers and canvas for tents thousands of yards of silk for
bags to hold the loads of smokeless powder, light-weight silk for
parac:!.iutes to fl.oat airplane fl.ares; silk, linen, and cotton for airplane wings; and "sandwich" cloth for balloons. This material was
made not only three-ply, hut the middle section was rubberized by
being run through the spreading machines thirty to thirty-five times
in order to prevent tears and build up a texture strong enough to
resist the seepage of gas. "America's Munitions, 1917-18," states
in regard to textile fabric needs:
Over 100,000,000 yards of denim were bought * * * gauze, about 140,000,000

yards were purchased; sheets and pillowcases were required in such quantities that
at one time every mill in the country whose normal business was the production of
sheeting was working for the Government. There were over 120,000,000 yards of
webbing purchased and nearly 300,000,000 yards of the various kinds of duck. 14

14 America's Munitions, 1917-18.
Report of Benedict Crowell, Assistant Secretary of War, Director of
Munitions. Washington, 1919, p. 468.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

67

Textile equipments for the Army, other than clothing, overcoats,
hats, underclothes, socks, blankets, gauze, towels, etc., included
ha~ersacks, cartridge belts, bandoleers, pack carriers, pistol holsters,
canteen covers, suspenders, buckets, basins, coal and mail bags, gun
slings, tents, barrack bags, and covers for tools. The requirements
for cotton duck and cotton webbing drew on all the mills normally
producing webbing and turned into webbing mills factories that had
been making carpets, lace, tire fabrics, asbestos, brake linings, hose,
lamp wicks, suspenders, garters, neckties, cotton belting, and similar
fabrics. Webbing materials were substituted as much as possible
for leather. After the webbing was secured, heavy sewing machines
had to be built, especially adapted for textile equipment work, the
experts teaching the workers, ·m ostly women, how to make haversacks, cartridge belts, etc. Overall factories used denim and dyed
twilled materials for clothes for soldiers, women's underwear factories made "Q.Ilderclothes for men, and corset factories also made
men's underwear, as well as powder bags for loading plants. The
rope and twine factories produced almost entirely ropes, hawsers, and
cables for airplanes, balloons, submarines, and ships.
In this group of industries woman workers had established previous
to the war a stronger foothold than in any other. Table 16 shows for
the period between the first and second drafts an actual numerical
decrease in women emfloyed in nearly all branches of this industrial
group; but, because o an even larger decrease in the force of men,
women assumed a greater relative importance in the labor force as
a whole. Because of the many occupations already open to women,
the proportion of substitutions in the manufacture of textiles and
their products is very low. Only 27 in each 1,000 women employed
in these industries were engaged on men's work. While 99.3 per
cent of the firms in these industries employed women, only 17.6 per
cent were using women on wor k formerly done by men.


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

TABLE 16.-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND DRAFTS AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN 'S WORK OR
ADDED WITHOUT SUBSTITUTION AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TEXTILES AND THEIR
PRODUCTS, BY BRANCH OF INDUSTRY.
Labor force.
Total.
Branch of industry.

Total
firm s
reporting.

Women.

Men.

Actualnumber.
After After After After
first second first second
draft. draft. draft. draft.

Substitution of women
on men's work after
second draft.

Number per
1,000 wage
earners.

After After After After
first second first second
draft. draft. draft. draft.

Total
firms
employing
womeij
after Firms
Women Firms Women
second substi- Women
em- substi- adding em- Women
draft. tuting ployed.
tuted . women. ployed. added.
women.

--- - - - - --

--- --- --Cotton goods .. .............................
Woolen and worsted goods ... ............ ..
Silk and silk goods .........................
Hosiery and knit goods ...... .. ............
Cordage, twine 1 jute, and linen goods ...... .
Dyeing and finishing textiles ...............
Lace goods and curtains ....................
Suits and coats, men's .....................
Suits and coats, women's . ....... ..........
Shirts, collars, and working clothes ........ .
Furnishing goods, men's ........ ..... ... ...
Muslin underwear, waists, women's and
children's dresses ....................... .
Corsets ............ ........... .. ............

8t~~~~~jet:~~~~~~~,-~~~~~~~::::

Other textile and allied industries 1 ••••.•.•
Total. .......... ...... .... ...........


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

308 105,472
244 68,020
130 23,753
346 55,33~
63 10,669
63 11,833
44
3,573
371 30,258
341 10,607
281 26,743
119 10,130

98,069
62,113
21,442
50,120
8,750
10,866
3,109
26,990
8,097
22,683
11,710

59,407
37,722
9,784
16,701
6,176
9,141
1,383
15,325
7,113
4,781
3,382

53,681
34,591
8,636
15,459
4,907
8,298
1,138
13, 530
5,310
4 036
3:579

46,065
30,298
13, 969
38,630
4,493
2,692
2,190
14,933
3,494
21,962
6,748

44, 388
27,522
12,806
34,661
3,843
2,568
1,971
13,460
2,787
18,647
8,131

437
445
588
698
421
228
613
493
329
821
666

453
443
597
692
439
236
634
499
344 .
822
694

308
239
129
346
62
58
44
366
337
281
119

115
78
49
70
19
24
9
55
12
43
12

23,739
7,928
6,192
8,664
1,290
1,451
698
4,119
67
5,249
5,292

2,234
715
469
545
147
333
41
191
23
181
145

28,544
4,538
5,554
204
16,120

23,872
4,152
4,886

4,721
507
1,367
187
7,778

3,878
442
1,192
159
6,671

23,823
4,031
4,1 7
17
8,342

19,994
3,710
3,694
41
8,342

835
888
754
84
517

838
894
756
205
556

592
24
185
2
191

32
6
9
2
47

2,037
2,585
402
41
3,876

78
89
24
24
278

3,306 411,349 372,072 185,475 165,507 225,874 206,565

549

555

3,283

582

73,630

5,517

593
24
185
2
192

200
15,013

Increase in force of
women without substitution after second
draft.

!Includes manufacture of awnings, tents, sails, bags, horse clothing, flags, etc.

46
49

29
68
9
7
12
56
47
64
26
127
4
36

-----4,446
2,588
1,712
5,491
406
195
380
2,964
728
3,~

471
2,916
250
712
112
59
69
698
201
721
173

5,839

1,232
22
24

200
1,156

... "4i3' "2;1-iii' -----···
4 0
626

33,271

8,304

~

00

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

69

FOOD, FOOD PRODUCTS, AND BEVERAGES.

No explanatory remarks are necessary to couple these industries
with the war. The extract from the report of the Director of Munitions quoted in Section I of this report describes vividly the tremendous demands which the task of feeding the Army made on our
food industries. 15 In addition to these requirements the needs
of the civilian population had to be met. As a consequence, practically every branch of the manufacture of food products increased
its labor force as a whole. The only important exceptions were the
confectionery industry, whose product was generally accepted as a
luxury of prewar days, and the sugar industry, the shortage of whose
product has been felt even in reconstruction days. In the manufacture of beverages, makers of alcoholic liquors, numerically the
most important branch, decreased their force, but this was doubtless due to the artificial limitations of war-time prohibition, rather
than the natural play of supply and demand. Soft-drink manufacturers, on the other hand, increased their force. But despite
occasional decreases in the labor force as a whole, the proportion
of women employed increased in each of the various branches of the
manufacture of food and beverages. The proportion of women
employed after the second draft varied from 21 in every 1,000 at work
in the making of alcoholic beverages to 591 in every 1,000 employed
in the manufacture of confectionery, cocoa, and chocolate. In all
but one branch of the food industries women workers formed more
than one in every eight on the labor force. The manufacture of beverages showed a much higher proportion of substitutions than the food
industries, while the latter exceeded the textile industries in the extent
to which women took men's places. Food products manufacture
has always employed a considerable proportion of women, however,
so that there were comparatively few new occupations into which
they might be introduced.


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1•

See p.14.

TABLE 17.-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND DRAFTS AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR
ADDED WITHOUT SUBSTITUTION' AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF FOOD PRODUCTS,
BEV ERAGES, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS, BY BRANCH OF INDUSTRY
Labor force.
Total.
Branch of industry .

Total
firms
reporting.

Women.

Men.

Actualnumber.
After After
first second
draft. draft.

After After
first second
draft. draft.

After After
first second
draft. draft.

--Bread and bakery products . .... . . . ........
Butter, cheese, and condensed milk.. ...•.. _.
Coffee and spices •• •• •. .. •. • . •. . _• . •.. . .....
Confectionery, cocoafland chocolate.. . ...... .
Cordials,sirupsand avori~extracts ......
Flour-mill and ~istmill
ucts ...........
Food preparations, inc uding starch and
glucose ••.•. •.•• ••• .•. •. •...• . . ..........
La.rd and oleomargarine ... . . . .•.. .. ... . . . ..
Slaughtering and meat packing ... . .. . •....
Sugar, beet and cane . . .•. ·- • . • _•.• . _........
Vinegar •. • • • •• •......... . .• . .. •. •..........

r

Total for foot: products ...• _• .........
Alcoh olic beverages • • •. • •.• .••• . . . . ........
Ice . •...•..••••• •• •• •• •• •• .•.•• · -· ·· ······· ·
Soft drinks .... •. •.••• . .... •. . _•.• ...•......
T otal for beverages .... . . . .....•... . ..
Grand total. ..... .. ...•. . . . ... . . . ....


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Substitution of women
on men's work after
second draft.

,Total
firms
employing
Number per
women
1,000wage
earners.
after Firms
second sub ti- Women Women Firms Women Women
em- substi- adding em- added.
dr,aft . tuting
After After
women. ployed. tuted. women. ployed .
first second
draft. draft.
-------- --- --383
1,208
396
61
4,110
33
344
171
385
203
571
145
167
209
76
1,179
336
58
217
99
508
20
707
14
475
60
76
947
6,145
55
3,789
591
569
282
88
359
51
168
323
323
28
8
98
27
9
518
184
40
94
128
69
873
2 7
182

183
223
61
289
29
241

13,916
11, 20
2 583
26;100
8
10,501

14,9 0 9,189
12, 732 10,107
2,721
1,355
23,709 11,253
874
601
11,951
9,510

9,023
10,600
1,339
9,697
592
10,426

4,727
1,713
1,228
14,847
287
991

5,957
2,132
1,382
14,012
282
1,525

102

10,706
743
62,442
5,791
80

12,140
7 6
73,459
4,955
274

,280
600
62,006
4,598
231

3,027
71
7,0 1
267
1

3,860
186
11,453
357
43

283
96
113
46
13

318
237
156
72
157

1,258 145,570 158, 5 1 111,330 117,392

34,240

41,189

235

260

190
39
124

255
54
197

13
19
66

21
24
103

19

11

95
15
9

179
45
90

14,607 12,125
2,045 2,222
1,892 1,910

314

1 ,544

16,257

1,572 164,114 174, 83

,

7,679
672
55,361
5,524
79

14,417
2,006
1,768

11, 70
2,168
1,713

1 , 191

15,751

353

506

129,521 133,143

34,593

41,695

Increase in force of
women without substitution after second
draft.

211

l

S9

22

78
5

42
4
1

987
114
8,313
279
1

178
80
1,179
146
1

30
2
17
3
3

2,445
54
2,500
16
41

1,132

395

22, 76

3,055

263

11,457

74
22
67

20
6
25

94
29
112

60
10
74

7
8
8

55
12
39

3

11

839
8
863
7
41

--3,625

21
9
16

31

163

51

235

144

23

106

46

238

1,295

4-16

23,111

3,199

286

11,563

3,fi71

-l,

0

71

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
TOBACCO INDUSTRY.

As tobac~o was included among the rations provided by the Army
to the . soldiers, the output of the tobacco factories became a warsupply industry. This is one of the industries in which women
have always played an important part. The proportion of substitutions, th~refore, was very low, lower than in the food industries, but
slightly larger than in the manufactme of textiles and their products.
But even this traditional employer of woman workers showed a slight
increase in the proportion of women employed in the total labor
force between the first and second drafts. Only about 6 per cent
of the firms did not employ women, and, judging from the fact that
they were small and were altogether in the cigar and ci arette industry, they were doubtless often the so-called " buckeye'7shops which
employ only one or two workers, always men who understand the
complete process of creating a hand-made cigar, whereas women are
used in the larger plants when the proQess is subdivided.
TABLE 18.-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND DRAFTS
AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR ADDED WITHOUT SUBSTITUTION
AFTER THE SECOND DR AFT IN PLANTS IN THE TOBACCO INDUSTRY,BY BRANCH
OF INDUSTRY.
Labor force .
Men.

Total.
Branch of industry.

Total
firms
r~portmg.

Women.
Actualnumber.

After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

Number per
1,000 wage
earners.
After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

- -- - - -- -- - - - - Chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff ........ ...
Cigars and cigarettes .........
Total. .................

8,345
32,003

6,388
28,491

3,919
13,571

2,786 4,426
11,848 18,432

3,602
16,643

530
577

564
584

378

40,348

34,879

17,490

14,634 22, 858 j 20,245

566

580

--

Branch of industry.

--

31
347

Total
firms
e~ploymg
women
after
second
drart.

Chewing and smoking tobacco
and snuff . . ... .. .......... . ..
Cigars and cigarettes ............

31
326

Total .... . ............•...

357

!

i

Substitution of women on
men's work after second
draft.

Increase in force of women
without substitution after
second draft.

Firms
substituting
women.

Women
employed.

Women
substituted.

Firms
adding
women.

13

2,288

Women
employed.

Women
added.

4,793

313
297

4

375

51

52

2,731

763

64

7,081

610

56

3,106

987

224

PAPER AND PAPER GOODS.

Paper containers for overseas shipment of food, clothing, etc.,
increased the use of paper enormously, as also did the quantities
used in spreading public information. In the manufacture of paper
goods, especially paper boxes, women have long been employed.


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72

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

In the making of paper itself, however, they are newcomers. Among
the firms covered in this industry in the course of the present survey, 92 per cent of those manufacturing paper products employe.d
women as compared with 73 percent of those producing paper and paper
pulp. As shown in Table 19, however, the force of women engaged
m the paper and paper-pulp industry increased nearly a fifth,
19.4 per cent, during the war period as compared with 1.4 per
cent in miscellaneous paper goods. The proportion of women employed in paper making, nevertheless, did not reach a high figure;
after the first draft they numbered 71 in every 1,000 wage earners,
and after the secqnd draft, 92 in every 1,000. In. making paper
goods, on the other hand, there were 423 women m every 1,000
employed after the first draft and 432 in every 1,000 after the second.
As a consequence of the comparative headway made by women in
the two industries, substitutions of women on :men's work were relatively more numerous in the making of paper itself than of paper
goods, although a larger proportion of firms substituted women on
paper goods than in making paper. At best, however, replacement
of men by women in these industries was slight in amount.
TABLE 19.-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND DRAFTS
AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR ADDED WITHOUT SUBSTITUTION
AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
PAPER AND PAPER GOODS, B Y BRANCH OF INDUSTRY.

Labor force.

Branch of industry

Total
firms
r~portmg.

Women.

Men.

Total.

Actual number.
After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

After
first
draft.

After
second
draft.

Number per
1,000 wage
earners.

After After After After
first second first second
draft. draft. draft. draft.
-- - --- -- 182 35, 415 , 34, 462 32,772 31,307
2,643
71
3,155
92
369 25, 363 25, 160 14,645 14,287 10,718 10,873
423
432

--

Paper and paper pulp .......
Miscellaneous paper goods .. .
Total. .......... . ... . ..

551

Branch of industry.

Tota]
firms
e~ploymg
women
after
second
draft.

60, 778 1 59, 622

47,417 1 45,594

13,361

14,028

220

235
I- -

Substitution of women on
men's work after second
draft.

Increase in force of women
without substitution after
second draft.

Firms
substituting
women.

Firms
adding
women.

Women
employed.

Women
substituted.

Women
employed.

Women
added.

--- -----232
44
1,190
5,016
75
2,351
685

293
467

6,210

760

- - - - -Paper and paper pulp ....••..•.
Mfacellaneous paper goods ....•.

133
341

29
95

Total. •.•.•....... . .... . ..

474

124

1,194

917

119

3,541

PRINTING, PUBLISHING, AND ENGRAVING INDUSTRIES.

In the allied industries of printing, publishing, and engraving
substitution was even less frequent. Women have always been
employed to a certain extent in printing shops, and even :more · ex-


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

73

tensively in bookbinding, which is a part of the/ublishing business.
During the war, accordmg to the plants covere in this survey, the
proportion of women increased somewhat. The printing and publishing firms employed from 254 to 279 women per 1,000 wageearners, while the engraving shops had a proportion of only 94 to
132 per 1,000. These industries suffered a slight decrease during
the war in their force as a whole but increased tlieir number of
women.
TABLE 20-.MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND DRAFTS
AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR ADDED WITHOUT SUBSTITUTION
AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS IN THE PRINTING, PUBLISHING, AND
ENGRAVING INDUSTRIES, BY BRANCH OF INDUSTRY.
.
Labor force.
Total.
Branch nf industry.

Total
firms
r~portmg.

Men.

Women.
Actualnumber.

After After
first second
draft. draft.

After After
first second
draft. draft.

Number per
I,OOOwage
earners.

-

Printin~ and publishing ...•.
Engravmg and diesinking ...

654
51

After After After After
first second first second
draft. draft. draft. draft.
- -- -- -- - - -- -- 47,301 44,577 35,282 32,120 12,019 12,457
254
279
2,201
2,041
1,771
206
1,995
270
94
132

Total. .•.•.•...•.•.•.•.

705

49,502

Branch of industry.

Total
firms
. e~ploymg
women
after
second
draft.

46,618

- -- 37,277

33,891

12,225

12,727

247

273

Substitution of women on
men's work after second
draft.

Increase in force of women
without substit ution after
second draft .

Firms
substituting
women.

Women
employed.

Women
substituted.

Firms
adding
women.

Women
employed.

Women
added.

Printin~ and publishing . .•.•.•.
Engravmg and diesinking .....•.

554
25

188
6

7,109
178

814
38

90
7

1,774
61

348
15

Total. ............ -.: ······

579

194

7,287

852

97

1,835

363

OTHER WAR INDUSTRIES.

The war agent and implement and war food and fabric industries
which employed women in largest numbers during the war have been
shown by their detailed branches in the preceding tables. A large
number of industries remain, both important ones and those of lesser
consequence, whose product is sufficiently uniform to make division
mto branches without significance. The same facts for these industries, 21 in number, as have been given in the 11 preceding tables for
certain leading industries are presented in Table 21, page 78. War
agent and implement industries of considerable importance which
are included in this table are the manufacture of agricultural implements, airplanes, automobiles, electrical machinery and supplies,
and shipbuilding. Other important branches belong to the war food
and fabric industries; and all maJor or minor industries included
had a distinct contribution to make to the war.


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74

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

Agricultural implements.-Agricultural implement factories were
well equipped to do heavy work on trailers, tractors, tanks, and
trucks. The world's pressing need for food, however, did not permit all the plowshares to be melted into swords. In addition to
furnishing enough implements to make possible extra food production, these factories also made shells, grenades, rifles, infantry guns,
and all kinds of special ordnance. At no time during the war did this
industry, according to the facts secured in this survey, become a large
employer of women. The number of women employed in the 116
plants covered increased 170 per cent between the :first and second
drafts, but even after this huge increase the proportion of women was
only 43 in every 1,000 employed. Not quite half the plants had
women on their labor force at all, and only one-quarter were substituting them on men's work. For this small group of firms in which
substitution occurred 76 per cent of the women employed were engaged on men's work, while 56 per cent of the entire number of women
in all firms included were thus substituted. In comparison with many
other industries these represent a high proportion of substitutions.
Airplanes.-The connection of the airplane industry with war demands is obvious. It, probably more than any other one industry,
was a child of war needs. As has already been shown in an earlier
table,1 5 the 1914 Census of Manufactures found in its .country-wide
canvass only 16 plants making airplanes, with a force of 211 workers.
This study alone covered 40 plants, with 26,470 workers, in the year
1918. In so new an industry, created at a time when male labor was
scarce, women made more headway than in some of the older war
implement industries. Certain tasks, such as the work on airplane
wings, seemed well suited to women's deft fingers. In February,
1918, women constituted 169 of each 1,000 workers employed in 34
plants reporting at that time, and 186 in each 1,000 in the same plants
some eight months later. If six additional plants reporting only at
the second period are included, they formed 231 of each 1,000 of the
working force. In spite of the newness of the industry the proportion of substitutions was rather high, nearly 60 per cent of women
employed in all plants covered being used on men's work.
Automobiles.-The automobile industry not only supplied motor
vehicles for the war, such as cars, trucks, ambulances, and tractors,
but extended its activities to include tanks, trailers, rolling kitchens
and laundries, grenades, seacoast guns, recuperators, shells, and
practically every kind of ordnance work. During the war the force
of women, in the automobile plants covered in this study, more than
tripled, and the proportion of women in the total force rose between
the :first and second drafts from 44 to 114 in every 1,000 employed.
This is not a large proportion, but the increases indicate that many
new opportunities were opened to women in this industry during the
war. The proportion of substitutions was also high in the automobile industry, 60 per cent of the women employed being engaged on
men's work.
Electrical machinery.-The y,art which the electrical machinery industry played in the war is ful y described later in the critical analysis
of substitution of women in men's places. 16 It was one of the few


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ls Table

6, p. 47.

16

Seep. 113.

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

75

machinery trades which before the war employed women to any considerable extent. During the war 172 plants in this industry employed 214 women per 1,000 on their labor force after the first draft
and 269 per 1,000 after the second draft. This proportion exceeds
that already shown for the iron and steel industry and the metal
trades.17 In proportion of substitutions the manufacture of electrical
maGhinery and supplies slightly exceeded the metal trades but fell
behind the iron and steel industry.
Shipbuilding.-Shipbuilding was, of course, of tremendous importance to the war, and, as every one knows, experienced a mushroomlike expansion. From the nature of the work involved, however, it
was not adapted to the extensive introduction of woman workers.
That this was the case is borne ·out by the figures for this industry
shown in Table 21, . the per cent of woman workers varying in the
reports for different periods and groups from six-tenths of 1 per 'cent
to 1.1 per cent. Only about one:.third of the firms employed women
at all, and the majority of women in the industry were employed in
those few plants which attempted substitutions.
Rubber goods.-The manufacture of rubber goods belongs to the
class of war food and fabric rather than war implement industries.
It was important, both from the point of view of war needs and of
new industrial opportunities for women. The demand for rubber
clothing for the Army and Navy necessitated the buying of practically the entire output of rubber boot factories. Ponchos and raincoats were manufactured almost exclusively for the Govetnment.
The rubber factories were also the principal makers of balloons and
gas mask parts, as well as of automobile and truck tires. Out of the
23,987 workers employed in 80 rubber plants after the first draft,
6,633 were women, a proportion of 276 •in every 1,000 employed.
After the second draft the proportion had risen in the same plants to
354 per 1,000. Over 90 per cent of the firms employed women after
the second draft and over 40 per cent substituted them on men's
jobs. The proportion of woman workers actually engaged on men's
work, however, was small.
Vehicles other than automobiles.-The manufacturers of street and
steam railway cars and the railroad repair shops not only served the
war by continuing civilian work, but added to their product signal
corps wagons, trucks for guns, ammunition cars, railway trucks,
and airplanes. The output of carriage and wagon plants was transformed to meet war needs by making trench carts, rolling kitchens,
pigeon wagons, supply wagons, bodies and wheels for motor vehicles, trailers, and even some parts of shells. As in these other industries, plants in the motor cycle and bicycle industry were also ready to
supply war vehicles, and were equipped to make parts or the whole
of munitions and warfare implements. This industry showed the
highest proportion of substitutions of women on men's work during
the war of any covered in this investigation . The actual number of
women employed, however, was small. The carriage and wagon
plants and the car and railroad repair shops also had less than 10
p er cent of women on their labor force . The proportion of substitutions was not high for any of these branches except tt.e car shops, in
which 665 per 1,000 women employed were replacing men.


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11 Table

10, p. 57 and Table 11, p . 59.

76

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

. Motion picture anil photographic apparat'us. -Too great importance
can not be assigned to the war contribution of the makers of motion
picture and photographic apparat,us, materials, and supplies. Aerial
photography was one of the leading activities of the air service.
Constant research work and experiments along .t his line were necessary to insure every improvement that could facilitate this activity.
With the manufacture of lenses and new methods of development,
were coupled the· equally important problems of securing sensitive
plates, papers, color filters, photographic chemicals, and testing the
moisture of the air at different altitudes. Special trucks were
equipped with photographic laboratories. for developing and printing
in the field. A considerable proportion of the labor force in this
industry was made up of women, and it increased from 303 to 351 in
each 1,000 between the first and second drafts.
Optical goods.-The optical goods industry in this country was
undeveloped at the beginning of the war. Immediate need of all
kinds of instruments with lenses, especially periscopes, sights, and
fire-control apparatus, necessitated the full production of the factories
doing this work. In addition heavy demands were made on factories
whose equipment could be easily transformed to produce this kind
of goods. Without optical glass, fire-control instruments could not
be made. 16 The manufacture of optical glass requires high precision and accurate control throughout all the factory processes.
Glass firms made _prismatic compasses; auto light and thermometer
establishments helped with quadrant sights, panoramic telescopes
and intricate parts to be assembled into various devices. Though
this is one of the smaller industries in numbers employed, it afforded
women some new and important occupations and opportunities. The
proportion of women increased from 327 to 371 in each 1,000 between
the first and second drafts, and every plant covered in the survey had
women on its force.
.Surgical appliances anil artificial limbs.-With the beginning of
the war, manufacturers of surgical appliances and artificial limbs
had to be ready with these supplies for the hospitals. The industry
employed a considera1?le proportion of women which during the war
grew from 481 to 551 m every 1,000 wage earners emploved.
Instruments, scientific anil professior1al.-The manufacture of
scientific and professional instruments was of prime importance to
the war. Plants that were already producing limited supplies of
instruments were used as laboratories for the making of devices,
and as models for expansion of other plants along these lines. Fewer
women were employed in this work proportionately than on optical
goods or surgical appliances, but 1t exceeded them both ·n the
proportion of women substituted.
Dental goods.-The manufacture of ·dental goods was stimulated
by the care given to the enlisted and drafted men. There was little
variation shown during the war in the proportion of women employed, but even early in the war period women numbered nearly
. half the force, which would seem to indicate that women were not
newcomers in these plants.
1sAmerica's Munitions, 1917-13. Report of Benedict Crowell, Assistant Secretary of War, Director
of Munitions. Washington, 1919. p. 137-139.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

77

Hats and caps.-Among the minor branches of the war food ·and
fabric industries in which women have always played an important
part was the manufacture of hats and caps. These articles are
practically a part of clothing and quite as necessary. Factories
adjusted their machinery to service hats and overseas caps. A
falling off in the labor force of both men and women was nevertheless
noticeable, and served to reduce the proportion of women employed
from 543 to 533 per 1,000 wage earners.
Furs.-The fur industry also had its contribution to make to the
war. In addition to the warm fur clothes which outdoor camp life
requires, aviation made special demands for warm fur-lined hats,
shoes, gloves, and clothes. Women were less important in this than
in other clothing industries, and the war did not seem to advance their
position in it materially.
Buttons.-The need of buttons for soldiers' clothing drafted into
service factories which had been making electrical goods, phonographic records, and billiard balls. In addition to these the button
plants of prewar days were kept busy. In the proportion women
formed of the total force there was an increase during the war from
473 to 523 in each 1,000 wage earners, although the actual number
of women decreased-slightly.
Musical instru,m ents.--The factories whose peace-time product
was musical instruments should not be omitted from an enumeration
of war industries, for they turned out various war products. Factories which made pianos also did special work on wooden parts for
airplanes, and parts of bombs; makers of mechanical players
produced aiming devices, projectors, grenades, and small metal
parts for airplanes. While not important employers of women
they increased their force of women during the war both in actual
:µumbers and in the proportion they formed of the total force.
Toys and sporting goods.-These factories contributed to the war
by making small mirrors for periscopes and other similar devices.
Skate factories in some instances were called upon to make bombs.
Plants in these industries which were covered in this investigation
were small ones with relatively small labor forces. Though women
were not actually numerous on the force, they formed from 34 to
38 per cent of the total wage earners employed.
Miscellaneo7.ls goods.- A group of miscellaneous goods appears in
Table 21. Some of the important and various miscellaneous goods
needed for war supplies were beds, mattresses, brooms, pens, pipes,
roofing materials, and abrasive _papers. In many cases plants that
manufactured articles listed under this group adapted their product
to meet war needs.


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21.-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER FIRST A D SECOND DRAFTS AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR ADDED WITHOUT
SUBSTITUTION AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS IN 21 WAR AGENT AND IMPLEMENT OR WAR FOOD A D FABRIC INDUSTRIES.

TABLE

Labor force.
Total.
Total
firms
reporting.

Industry.

Agricultural implements .... . ..... .........
Airplanes, seaplanes, and parts ............. {
Automobiles, including bodies and parts ... {
Buttons ....• . ......... .............. . ......
Carriages, wagons , and materials ...........
Cars, steam and electric railroad ...........
Dental goods .................. _........ : ..
Electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies .....•...•.......•...................
Fur, tanning, ?ein~, and its remanufacture.
Hats, caps, an their materials . ..... . ..... .
Instruments, scientific and professional. ....
Motion picture and photographic at>paratus
and supfelies ...•.•... .. ....•.... -........
Motor eye es, bicycles, and parts ....•......
Musicalinstruments ...••...........•......
Opticaljoods ............•............•••..
Railroa repair shops .....................•
Rubber goods ...... ... ......•........... : .. {

After After
first second
draft. draft.

After
first
draft.

24,629
4,075
20,703
5,306

9,319
32
7 2,532
77 14,159
1, 412
21
10 4,323
80 23,987
13
72 .42)>6a°
15 ..... .. .
30
2,717
2,29
53
379 21,"553

Actualnumber.
After After
first second
d[aft. draft.

29,059
11,773
8,589
38,151
121, 613
1,2 2
3,411
13,529
932

-------1,437
------··
1,515
78
324
776

1,318
2,696
3,412
4,902
9,500
1,406
162
836
749

1 ,391
2,372
7,1 6
4,332

5,277
1,137
11,249
768

6,786
1,048
8,208
892

9,519
6,492
6,1 0
2,640
2,927
2,364
13, 703 11,i~ 10,146
1,365
858
4,197
4,015
4,186
21,952 17,354 14,180
21,294 ......... 17,378
60,058 42,317 59,646
36,1 6 ......... 35,552
3,117 1,411
1,401
2,1 6 1,4 6 1,359
19,234 14,243 12,468

2,827
168
2,341
462
137
6,633

116 32,6 9 30,377 32,201
34 12,155 14,469 10,268
16 ........ 12,001
144 32, 803 43,053 ·ai;a66.
119 ..... ... 131,113
3,203
2,6
44
. 1,6
3,60
3,573
36
3,530
14,365 11, 114
15 11, 43
1,737 1,6 1
961
14
172
122
323
46

After
second
draft.

25, 177
3,420
15,394
5,224

19,352
2,93
9,454
4,53

488
1,887

--------


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t

16
169

- - - - - - --- - - -

6
10
8
5

980
1,953
3,412
2,713
7,806
573
131
836
317

743
10
799
5
2,412 ------ -16
1,917
6,739 ..........
7
46
51
4
556 ........
4
3

155
93
312
3

7
4
27
19

4,751
100
1,694
699

1,3:

30
6
64
21
6
73
3
25
5
29
50
340

13
4
41
3
33
1
7
5
7
1
102

3,129
283
3,3 6
355
89
6,518
375
174
634
374
344
3,573

346
7
225 .... .....
1,048
8
103
8
1
37
17
994
375 -----···
11
101
453 -------110
10
112
15
51
637

1,510

503

32,972

1,543

526

45,199

22
28
447

43
186
284
114
72
623
46
68
446

57
26
6
107
19
33
23
8
14

214
279
643
145

270
306
633
171

-------44
-------473

3,339
303
361
287
66
98
3,557
166
260
507
327
371
182
32
43
7,772
276
364
3,916 ----····
184
412
6
7
634 ..........
18
481
651
1,716
827
339
378
6,766
339
352
-----170
183
54,368

246
Shipbuilding, including boat building ..... {
-------1,306
Surgical appliances and artificiallim bs .....
812
Toys and sporting goods ................•..
7,310
Miscellaneous goods 2 •••••••••••••••••••••••
Total for jlants reporting after both
first an second drafts ............. 1,827 277,209 297,679 230,031 243,311 47,178
Total for all plants, includin~ 33 reporting after second draft on y ...... 1,860 --·--·-- 498,273 ·······- 426,443 ........ 71,830
1

Increase in force of
Substitution of women
women without subon men's work after
Total
stitution after second
second draft.
firms
draft.
Number per employing
1,000wage
women
earners.
after Firms Women Women Firms Women
second substi- em- substi- adding em- Women
After After draft. tuting ployed.
tuted. women. ployed. added.
first second
women.
draft. draft.

Women.

Men.

-----170

144

29
18
6
51
11

11

When figures are bracketed t he lower one represents firms reporting after the second draft only.
Includes beds, mattresses, brooms, pens, pipes, roofing materials, and abrasive papers.

104
278

9,656

31
38
61
7

311

19,635 ····· ···

270
576

89
452
.........
265
····262· . ........
21
12
5
-------··-···-161
10

-------728

1,010
638
1,399
94

349
206
328
22

72

18

····-·-···----113
44
144
3
614

47
3
134

····20s" -------93
. ·i;203· ---·-··460
320
951

127
292
--8,778
2,965

·······- ·····-··

-:t
00

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

79

CHANGES IN THE LABOR FORCE BY STATES .

For the sake of those interested in the variations in different parts
of the country in the changes· in the labor force, tables showing
similar facts to those presented in the preceding tables are given
here for three of the leading industries by States. It was not possible
to summarize this information about localities for all war agent and
implement and war food and fabric industries combined, since the
data by States were incomplete for some important industries or
reported in such a way by large corporations as to make correct distribution by States impossible. The information, thfkefore, is presented only for the iron and steel industry, the metal trades, and the
manufacture of lumber products. Striking variations in the proportion of women in the same industry between States are doubtless
due quite as much to the local concentration of differing branches of
the industry as to differing attitudes of employers in certain States
toward the employment of woman workers.


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TABLE 22.-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND DRAFTS AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR ADDED
WITHOUT SUBSTITUTION AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS ENGAGED IN THE IRON A~D STEEL INDUSTRY, BY STATES.

Labor force.
Total.
State.

Total
firms
reporting.

After After After
first - second first
draft. draft. draft.

in force of
Substitution of women Increase
women without subon men's work after
stitution after second
second draft .
draft.

Women.

Men.

00
0

Total
firms
employActual numNumber per
ing
b
1,000 wage
women
w
.
After
er.
earners.
s!~~':d Firms
substi- Women om~n Fi.r~s Women Women
1
dd d
I-A-f-te_r__A_f_t-er- l---A-f-t-er--Af-t_e_r draft. tuting em- substi- adding emwomen. ployed. tuted. women. ployed. a e •
first second first second
draft. draft. draft. draft.

s:r;~u~

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - --1---1--.,--1- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - ·- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Alabama ..... . .......... .... .............. .
Arizona .•.... ............... ........•.... ..

Arkansas .................................. .
California ........... ... ............ . ...•.. .
Colorado .................................. .
Connecticut ................ . ............... {
Delaware ................................. .
District of Columbia ....................... .

i~:::.·.::::::: ::::::::::::::: ::::: :: ::::::{
Indiana .............................. .... . .
Iowa .....•.................................
Kansas .............. . ................ .. ... .

~:f~~~~:::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Maryland ........................ . ....... .. {
Massachusetts .............................. {
Michigan .................. ....... .......... {

gi[itr.;~::::::::::: ~:::::::::::::::::::::
Nebraska ................................. .

:~rttt1:~1ina:::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~::


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

5
2
2
69
18
175
11
13
2
16
333
13
32
45
25
17
11
6
12
84
I 2
131
11
5

3
42
4
1
9

1,690
52
84
2,756
1,259
66,776

··2;iag·
2,520
2, 520
63,803

··a:993.
3,532
2,287
3,357
3,544
574

· io: 1ss·
19,742
100
78
3,739
383
25
324

1,526
46
72
2,747
1,158
76,842
10,718
2,486
2,021
2,251
67,175
17,925
6,756
3,656
2,132
3,134
3,442
1,116
29,100
12,468
10,017
22,156
792
87
94
3,844
373
294
273

1,690
52
83
2,702
1,222
55,884

··2:oos·
2,519
2,501
61,421
3,852
3,439
2,275
3,324
3,475
573

--9:2si·
·is:811·
85
77
3,706
373
25
322

1,515
46
66
2,676
1,084
61,435
6,185
2,172
2,020
2,171
62,594
16,021
6, 329
3,418
2,114
3,079
3,363
843

24,000

10,067
9,165
20,103
617
68
91
3,691
350
288
271

11 .... •...

11

11 .......•......•.•.••••••

······i· ······ii· ·····i2· ·····sa· ······2· ······i· ······s· ···-··s·
54
37
10,892
71
1
19
2,382
141
93
12
33
69
1
1, 507
865
15
1
33
10

71
74
15,407
4,533
314
1
80
4,581
1,904
427

20
29

163
33
(2 )
8
37

6

2

64

201
453

126

( 2)

36
68

106
35
26
5
10
19

238

18
55
79
273
5,100
2,401
852
2,053
175
1
~
153
23

26

2
140

44
1

~~
9

26
6

63
65
8
18

23
245
175
193
85
93
221
2
~:
40
62
20
7

28
5
129
1
6
1
4
170
3
14
28

4
2
52
1
2

23
43
13, 12s
4,533
47

········· ········ ········

13 ... .. . 6. . .... 23. . ...... 6
43
3,103 · · · · · 2s · · · .. oos" · · · · ·497
611
15 ...... i .... . 250 ...... 250

8

7
7

4
2
38
2

87
1

~

i,,,-1

f,z

·····4a· ····s14· .... 5ii. ·····20· ····9213· ··· ··125
1

i

12
3
4
2
1 ········
2 ········

175
175 ............. ...... • ....
1
i. ······2· ·······i
~
42
23
1
97
97
19
13
........ ..... ... .. .... i ....... 6. ·······6
................ ·•·•·· • · ........ ·····••·

i ......

t;j

q

[fl

1-3

~

Nortll Dakota .............•........ ........ ,
New York ....... ...................... .... {
Ohio ...................... ........•........
Oklahoma . ... . ... ........ ........ . . ..... . ..
Oregon ...................... ...............
Pennsylvania . . .. . ............. . . .. .. .. .... {
Rhode Island ...................... .....•..
South Carolina ....••................ .......
Tennessee .......... , ...................... .
Texas . .. .. .. .... ...................... .....
Utah ...................... .................
Vermont ...................... .............

:: :: :::: :::: :: :: :::: :: :::
~:ft\f~a:::::
Wisconsin ...... ... . . ............... . .......
Total for jlants re£orting after both
first an second rafts . .. .... . . .. .. .
Total for all plants, including 16 reporting after second draft only .....

58
2
55
456 63,203 69,425
I 2 ......... 11, 308
20
3,024
2,654
767
17
785
22
4,367
2,625
170 67,071 69,643
l 5 ........ 42,617
53 16,247 16,4Jt
38
1
4,766
38
5,~g
719
8
353
306
6
229
227
3
1,901
1,488
46
7,241
7,112
30
202 30,895 34,129

32
60,825

35
63,962

23
2,378

2,607
781
2,578
64,778

2,895
764
4,226
65,932
36,104
13,975
27
4, 08
544
349
221
1,856
6,997
32,344

47
4
47
2,293

......... 10,279 -· --·· --

.........
14,481
38
4,653
711
304
223
1,460
6,922
30,089

2, 124 394,256 429,377 370,308 3 , 789
2, 140

... ..... . 551, 854

1....... . 491,160

........
1,766

..... . ..
113
8
2
4
28
190
06

23
5,463
1,029
129
3
141
3,711
6,513
2,490
4
225
9
4
8
45
244
1,785

23,94

40,588

········

60,694

418
38

. ... ..
18
6
18
34

.. .. ioo·
------24
11
7

18
19
27
26
61

...... .. .

1 When figures are bracketed, the lower one represents firms reporting after the second draft only.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

397
77
91
43
4
32
63
153
162
129
45
16
11
35
24
34
52

2
136
2
11
3
11

91
5
31
1
15
2
3
3
16
14
92

69
1
6
1
2
34
3
9
1

· ·4; 4si · ··2;494·
800
70
1
4
2, 79
1,088
2,176
4
172

1
1
4
7
43

2
2
24
212
1, 431

0
43
1
4
1,790
733
699
4
99

.........

442

29

385

147

10

214

···· ··3·

117
790
12,469

214

10

I

. ........ ··--·-- · . ........
18
1
1
2
7
3
13

1
1

1

22
i ll

2~

...... i .. ...... . ........
32
49
...... s" 132 ······oo

95

995

421

30,170

110

1,011

430

41,890 -19, 171 . ... .. . ..

40
1
1
3

41
2
1
6
13
8
270

5
1 2

7,161

3, 977

.. ...... ....... .. .

s Less than one in every 1,000 wage earners.

23.-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND DRAFTS AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR-ADDED
WITHOUT SUBSTITUTION AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL AND METAL PRODUCTS
OTHER THAN IRON AND STEEL, BY STATES.

TABLE

Labor force.

00
~

increase in force of
0
Total S~ts~~~~~n:~r~
~?l~ii~n"ii!~ust~~d
firms
second draft.
draft.
Total
Number
per
employ-1.
,
.
.
.
.
,
-1--------Actual numfirms
State.
l,OOO wage
w~~en
ber.
report- After After After After
earners.
after Firms
ing.
first second first second
substi- Women Wom~n F~s Women Women
dd d
draft. draft. draft. draft. After After After After sc!~~ft~ tut·ng em- subst1- addwg emwo~en. ployed. tuted . women. ployed. a e ·
first second first second
draft. draft. draft. draft.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -1-- - - - - - - - - - - ---1-----,1 - - -1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ____ ,____ __
Arizona................................... .
26
4
3,838
3,458
3, 22
4
3,432
8
16
23
3
2
12
California .............................. .. ..
52
2,993
2,184
524
2,221
1,660
258
240
772
28
11
255
47
2
Colorado........ .......... ........ ... .. . .. .
13
2,795
2,147
2,785
4
2,084
63
29
10
4
9
3
4
5
Connecticut..... . ....... ... ................
54 29, 796 29,747 23,191 22,173
7,574
222
255
6,605
46
21
6,450
870
4
Delaware..................................
2
110
367
300
33
354
35
267
13
1
33
22
1
Georgia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
3 6
379
379
18
372
18
7
7
3
1
3
1
Men.

Total.

Il!inoic; ..... .. ........ . .................. ...

Indiana................................. . ..
Iowa.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

~~~-~1:7::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

Maryland..................................
Massachusetts............... . ..............

~i~:~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Montana...................................
New Hampshire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NewYork.... . ............................
Ohio........... .. ..........................
Oklahoma..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oregon................... . .................

:i~1:1~L::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Tennessee....... .. .........................
Utah.......................................
Vermont.......... .. .......................
Washington................................

;r:~~~~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Total.................. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

145
4
5

15, 137
4
151

25

1,2~!
3,284
1, 92

3
298
8
2
3
1n
4
3
1
11

i3

14,792
141
143

11,303
2
133

10,498
116
130

1,5t~
3,410
1, 928•

1,1~~
3,103
1, 764

1,4~
3,154
1,644

268
26,707
364
760
62

2 1
26,942
391
730
118

127
22,9 7
344
760
60

i:m
1,737
4,165
63
698

~:m
2,148
3,772
47

i~1 i:~i~
ti~
ti~
3,516
3,373
3,498

!~

1~:~~

~:~i
1,715
4,164
60

553

666

3,834
2

tm

18
51
1
181
128
289
119
18
141
3,720
20

~:m
2,019
3,771
45
513

2,~og
22
1
3
32

3,341
110
22,703
347
730 . .
107
····2·

~:~~ ~:~

1U/

1ili:

Women.

253
290
4,294
72
25
24
177
2
13
119
91
2
78
42
51
3
42
67
1
1
256
55
75
3 · · · · · ·f · · · ·2S<i ·
284
68
147
14
8
266
106
624
179
19
.11
574
132
71
82
8
2
67
32
5
9
1
1
32
171
526
609
3
1
8
157
4,239
139
163
4.1
1,460
55
113
44
3
1
27
_... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
' 32
93 ·
·3
2
9

2,5ro
129
1
2
40

~~~

1. ~~

19,783

23,150

2::

13

(1)

m
60
( 1)

48

43

46

72

1
:~

m

~~ d~~

1

149

Less than 1 in every 1,000 wage earners.

178

524

106

4

2

· · · · ·1s · :::::::: :::::::: ::::::::
75 ....................... .
182
3
38
20
11
2
57
3
14 ...... .. ............... .
7
2
163
23
544
35
1,525
425
27 ...................... . .
.

······g· :::::: :: :::::::. ::::::::

1~
m
1i
m
:
2
1
, 124
102
1
5
5
1 ......... .............. ................... ..... .
1 ...... ....... ........ ........ ........ ......... .
36
1
5
1
1
1
6
3t

1~

:1

- - -11 - -- 1 - - - - 1 - - - - 1- - - - 1 - - - + - - - + - - --i - - - - t - - - - l - - - - 1 - - -

896 132,844 129,768 113,061 106,618

13
1

558

204

16,495

J1

7

····209·

25

3,752 \

99

3,222

829

H

~
t,

q

00

1-3

~

TABLE 24,-MEN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND DRAFTS AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR ADDED
iifTJi,11,{,]JUBSTITUTION AFTER THE SECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE AND REMANUFACTURE OF LUMBER ,

Labor force.
Total.

State.

Alabama . ... .. .......... ........ .... .. .. .. .
Arizona ................................... .
Arkansas ............... ... ... .. .... ...... .
California ................................. .
Colorado .. . ........ . .......... ... ... ...... .
Connecticut . . ............. ................ .
Delaware .......................... ...... . .
Florida ................................... .
Georgia .. .... ...... . ..... .... . . .... . . . .... .
Idaho .......... . ..... .. ..... ..... . ........ .
Illinois ................................. . .. .
Indiana . . . .. .. ..... .. ... . ................. .
Iowa ...................................... .
Kansas ............... ....... ............. .

fi~~~~~r::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::

Maine ............. ...... . ................. .
Maryland ............................... .. .
Massachusetts .......... .... ........... .... .
M:ichigan ...... . .... .. ........... .. ........ .
Minnesota .. . ..... ............ . .......... . .

~i~~~ir~.i:::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Montana .... ........................ . ..... .
~:: ~:~gi~::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Tot al
firms ·
reporting .

8
4
86
37
4
24
4
5
25
2
90
26
18
17
20
14
30
1
15
44

1
36
61
13
26
4

Men.

Substitution of women
on men' s work after
second draft.

Women.

Increase in force of
women without substitution ll.fter second
draft.

Total
firms
employActualnumNumber per
ing
ber.
1,000 wage
women
earners.
after Firms
.
After After After After
second substi- Women Wom~n F1r~s Women Women
first second first second 1- - - , - - - - - 1 - - - . , . . . . - - - 1 draft t t·
em- substi- adding emdd d
draft. draft. draft. ·draft. After After After After
· w~:ef ployed. tuted. women. ployed. a e ·
first second first second
draft. draft. draft. draft.

i------,,----i- - - - = - - - -~ - - - -- - - , - - - - - - - i

339
1,215
10,380
3,605
342
1,051
137
1, 795
2,127
1,937
7,528
1,879
2,291
851
2,662
2, 77S
1,869
80
1,241
6,954
39
5,296
5,635
1,847
1, 719
1,066

320
1,075
10,000
3,280
347
944

123
1,196
2,007
866
7,165
1,953
2,184
957
2,495
2,626
1, 886
59
1,160
7,340
43
4,739
5,848
1,998
1,555
941
1

337
1,214
10,148
3,427
308
918
127
1,774
2,040
1,862
7,028
1,702
2,204
834
2,584
2,771
1,734
80
1,078
6,443
37
5,190
5,327
1,841
1,679
1,039

317
1,074
9,313
3,035
302
828
111
1,122
1,768
804
6,334
1,610
1,855
868
2,114
2,601
1,603
45
947
6,097
40
4,594
5,336
1,979
1,472
913

2
1
232
178
34
133
10
21
87
75
500
177
871
17
78
7

135
163
511
2

106
308
6

40
27

3
1
687
245
45
116
12
74
239
62
831
343
329
89
381
25
283
14
213
1,243
3
145
512
19
83
28

9

6
(1)

(1)

22
49
99
127
73
17
41

39
66
94
38
20
29
3

72

· .. · isi ·
73
51
20
55
3
23
25

Less than one in every 1,000 wage earners.

69
75
130
123
98
62
119
72
116
176
151
93
153
10
150
237
184
169
70

31
88
10
53
30

1 ................ ········
1
53
26
3

21
3
2

13
2

63
21
11
12
14
11
23
1
12
36
1
12
36

19
82

6

17
3

5

17
26

TABLE 24:.-MEN A D WOMEN EMPLOYED AFTER THE FIRST AND SECOND DRAFTS AND WOMEN SUBSTITUTED ON MEN'S WORK OR ADDED
WITHOUT SUBSTITUTION AFTER THE &ECOND DRAFT IN PLANTS ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE A D REMANUFACTURE OF LUMBER,
BY STA TES-Continued.
Labor force.
Total.

State.

Total
firms
re.Portmg.

New York .................................
North Carolina._ ....................... .. . .
Ohio .•................................. . ...
Oklahoma .................................

fi~faif: ::: :::: :: :: :::::::::::::: :::

South Carolina .............................
Tennessee ................................. .
Texas ......................................
Utah .......................................
Vermont ...................................

i~tf:rr~i~:: : ::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Total. ...............................


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

200
32
3
70
49
15
72
15
4
2
100
10
140

in force of
Substitution of women Increase
women without sub•
on men's work after
after second
stitution
second draft.
draft.

Women.

Men.

Total
firms
eil;lployper
Number
mg.
Actual numwomen
1,000 wage
ber.
after Firms
earners.
After After After After
second substi- Women Women Firms Women Women
em- substi- adding em- added.
first second first second
draft. tuting
draft. draft. draft. draft. After After After After
women. ployed. tuted. women. ployed.
first second first second
draft. draft. draft. draft.
--- --- --- - -- - ----------- -----17,155
2, 7
22
2,600
9, 93
5,009
323
4,449
7,724
4, 27
233
73
9,646
1, 67
21,01

14, 745
2,326
249
1, 600
10,254
4,515
291
3,160
7,4 6
4, 264
234
7
9,406
2,747
17, 16

1,352 154,496 142, 27

15, 627
2,63
200
2, 9,669
4,39
319
4,391
7, 2 6
4, 11
219
73
!), 407
1, 831
20,129

12, !)1
1,52
150
2,129
2
206
12
1, 5i9
224
9,723
3,602
611
4
2 6
5
3,110
43
6,321
16
4, 206
217
14
70 .........
239
~. 92
2,52
36
16, 084
9

147,312 12 ,953

7,184

1, 27
197
43
21
5.31
!)13
5
50
1,165
58
17
8
514
219
1,732
13,325

89
54
123
5
23
122
12
13
57
3
60

124
85·
173
13
52
202
17
16
156

19
42

73
103
55
80
97

106
12
3
3
47
3
4
7
49
7
3
1
52
13
97

51

94

846

···-····
25

14

51
4
1
2
22
23

842
167
2
16
344
495

42
157
1
12
260
40

37
4
2
1
32
9
53

1,074
47
16
322
206
1, 373

754
39
3
7
1 2
174
936

470

9,65

........ ........ ····-···
3
4
30

6,066

17
3
1

108
11
13

57
4
2

..... i2 . .... iii" ······65
1
1
2
4
1

1
2
4
75
7

1
1
2
44
4

-------- ......... --------

........ .........
···-····
111
14
6
2
14

10
129

9
64

107

1,258

761

00

~

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

85

COMPARATIVE PROPORTION OF WOMEN IN WAR AGENT AND IMPLEMENT INDUSTRIES BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER THE WAR.

All of the foregoing table~, except Table 2, deal with changes in
the labor force during the war period. Table 25 throws light on the
proportion of women on the labor force in leading war agent and
unplement industries during the war, as compared with the proportion shown by the Census of Manufactures for 1914, the proportion
in the same industries during 1916, and the proportion nine months
after the signing of the armistice. While only about a third of the
firms reporting for 1916 and during our participation in the war are
identical, the numbers are so large in both cases as to make the figures a distinctly valuable index of the change effected by the war.
The firms reporting after the war are all included among those
reporting during the war. A summary of this table has already
been shown in Section I of this report as Table 1.


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TABLE

25.-PR OPO R TION OF WOMEN ON LAB OR FORCE IN LEADIN G WAR AGENT AND IMI'LEMENT INDUSTRIES DEFORE; DURING, AND
AFTER THE WAR.
During participation of U nited States in war-1918. 3
Before the war-1914.'

Before entrance of U nited
States into war-1916.'

After signing of armistire-1919.•
After second draft.

After first draft.

Industry.
Women
Women
Firms
Firms
Total
per
per
wage
1,000 report1,000 reporting.
Ing.
earners. wage
wage
earners.
earners.
- ----- ------2, 124
29
3,006 1,127,568
33
Iron and steel and their products . . .. .. ..... 17,862 1,053,977
271,917
40
1, 352
941,100
1,466
Lumber and its remanufactures . ... . ... . . . . 42,015
21
Cars, steam and electric railroad, and rail357
199,052
2
25
423, 061
2
road repair sho~s ................... .. .. .. 2, 12
322
453
107, 965
59
39
Stone, clay, a_ndK. ~s products .. . ..... . . .... 15, 112 381, 296
784
231,777
10
304
Leather and its mshed products . .... . .. . .. 6, 758 312, 224
277
255,213
674
79
733
282,236
85
Chemicals and allied roducts ... . ..... .... . 11,021
Metal and metal pro ucts other than iron
258,749
14
803
96
150
and steel. .............................. . . 9, 919 257,862
21
144
358
245,705
129,038
18
Automobiles, including bodies and parts . ... 1, 271
Elec_trical machinery, apparatus, and sup:
219
175
172
111,251
126,620
202
phes .......•................ • ............. 1,030
140
187
80
74, 788
104,687
342
205
Rubber goods .•............... . ..•...... . ...
51,223
65
10,462
15
36
15
Carriages, wagons, and materials ... . ........ 5,057
116
89
46,248
18
49,608
601
10
Agricultural implements •..................•
77
118
35,324
81
4 ,696
737
77
Musical instruments .................. ... ...
72
68
45,071
1
1,147
42, 735
2
21
9
3,426
154
314
8,102
265
Motion picture and photographic apparatus
32
26
277
7,796
278
9,883
146
and supplies ... . ....... . .. . ....... . . . ... . .
47
7,232
152
46
7,297
156
307
Instruments, scientific and professional ... . .
9
77
7
5,52
20
78
6,706
Motor cycles, bicycles, and parts . • ..........
12
34
2, 100
211
5
36
16
Airplanes, seaplanes, and parts . . . .... . . . ...
Firms
Total
wage
r~portmg.
earners.

Total
wage
earners.

Women
Firms
per
1,000 r~portmg.
wage
earners.

Total
wage
earners.

Women
Women
Firms Total
per
per
1,000
1,000 report- wage
ing. earners. wage
wage
earners.
earners.

----

i~t~~~~!;-~~~~~~~ ~~~~ -~~-~~~::::::

Total. .....•...•.•............ . ....... 115,862 4,189,207

65

8,703 3,094, 527

77

380 175,137
204 39,954

94
68

6,060
9,131
32,909
35,071

16
154
263

223 67,872
80 142,950

191
43

20
10
6
13
9
15
5

20,53
44,992
2,374
19,494
9,195
52,651
6,393

173
116
2
37
246
2
251

3
25
4
17

6,885
6,599
2,595
8, 64:.!

347
135
91
8

1,324 689,442

100

394,256
154,496

61
46

2,124
1,352

429,377
142,278

95
94

15,761
38,6 0
114,107
91,882

29
115
307
98

25
322
810
733

18,562
33,469
107,634
93,025

55
155
330
142

5
47
72
186

132,844
32, 03

149
44

896
144

129,768
43,0.53

178
114

24,629
23, 9 7
3,60
32,6 9
14,159
42,563
1, 412

214
277
22
15
165
6
327

172
80
36
116
77
72
21

25,177
21,952
3,573
30,377
13, 703
60,058
1,365

270
354
45
43
260
7
371

9,319
5,306
2,532
12, 155

303
145
66
155

32

9,519
5,224
2,927
14,469

351
171
98
186

7,099 1,147,188

106

,099 1,185,510

139

46

7
34
(

85

Fignres compiled from United States Bureau of Census, Abstract of Census of Manufactures, 1914, pp. 516- 543, are for Dec. 15, 1914, or nearest representative day.
Figures made accessible by the War Industries Board and the National League for Woman's Service are for the summer of 1916.
a Figures made accessible by the War Industries Board and the Department of Labor are for February- March, 191 , seven to eight months after the first draft, and for OctoberNovember, 1918, four to five months after the first drawing for second draft.
• Figures secured directly by fiel~ agents engaged in this survey are for August, 1919, nine months after the signing of the armistice.
1
2


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00
~

Railway cars and repair shops combines cars, steam and electric railroad, -and railroad repair shops as shown in Table 21.
Under increase, miscellaneous includes carriages, wagons and materials, optical goods, and toys and sportin 6 goods.
Under decrease, miscellaneous includes t anning, dyeing and remanufacturing of furs, dental goods, beds, mattresses, brooms, pens, pipes, roofing materials, and
abrasive papers.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

87

As revealed in Table 25, the tendency in women's employment in
industries offering them new occupations was toward a consistent
increase in number and proportion from 1914 through the peak period
of productionf_o r the war in October and November, 1918, with a slight
dropping off in the period after the signing of the armistice. This
tendency for these industries as a whole was true in varying degrees of
the individual industries. In some cases the increase in the importance of women on the force was very slight in the period between
1914 and 1916, but took a large leap by February, 1918, some seven
months after the first draft, with an even greater one after the second
draft. Instances of this kind were found in the iron and steel, automobile, musical instrument, and car manufacturing industries. In
some other trades the proportion of women decreased between 1914
and 1916, but rose markedly during the war period. Examples of this
tendency were found in the chemical, electrical machinery, rubber
goods and optical goods industries. In a few industries a decrease
was found between the 1916 status and that after the first draft, but
without exception the period after the second draft showed a marked
increase over that after the first draft. With only one exceptionand that an important one, namely, metal trades-the proportion of
women in the war agent and implement industries included, suffered
a falling off in the postarmistice period. In the metal trades the proportion of women rose from 178 in each 1,000 employed after the
second draft to 191 in each 1,000 nine months after the armistice.
The falling off in the iron and steel industry, the manufacture of stone,
clay, and glass ·products, and of motion-picture apparatus and supplies, however, was negligible. That practically the same industries
remained the chief employers of women after the armistice as before is
evidenced by a listing of the six industries which had the1argest proportion of women after the second draft and after the armistice. For
the first-mentioned period the six industries in order of their importance were the manufacture of optical goods, rubber goods, motionpicture and photographic apparatus and supplies, leather goods,
electrical machinery, and musical instruments. For the postarmistice
period they were the manufacture of motion-picture and photographic
apparatus and supplies, leather goods, optical goods, musical instruments, metal products other than iron and steel, and electrical
machinery. Except for the substitution of metal products for rubber
goods, the group is the same in a slightly altered order. A falling
off in proportion of women was found in the automobile and chemical
industries. The rubber industry, in which women had made marked
progress during the war, also suffered a decided setback with the signing of the armistice. This fact is due, however, to the shutting down
of the gas-mask factories included in this group. In other branches
of this industry women have more than held their own.
The foregoing table is visualized so far as the principal industries
are concerned by the chart on the opposite page.


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88

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

The increasing importance of women in the labor force of war industries is also shown in Table 26, but this table is based only on
data from identical firms reporting for the 1916 period, for the periods
after the first and after the second drafts, and for August, 1919. The
reports from these firms serve to measure the validity of the figures
shown in Table 25, which is based on a much larger but not identical
number of firms.
The large reductions in forces of both men and women after the
armistice must not be taken as indicating shutdowns in plants, or even
as reductions of the regular working forces. In many cases the losses
are due to the elimination of second and third shifts, and in the case
of women the drafting out of part-time and night workers. In fact,
the reports from employers to agents of this survey indicate that large
reduction in the number of woman workers was due to the voluntary
withdrawal of the married woman war workers, and thepart-timeleisure
workers. The revival of the luxury and other peace-time industries
drew, to some extent, both the men and women released by the plants
making exclusive war-time products. It will be noticed, however,
that all these causes combined have not reduced the numbers of women
to the proportion prevailing before the war. Although the proportions of women employed vary somewhat from those shown in Table
25, the tendency observed there in the trend of woman's labor is corroborated by these figures for identical plants, namely, a steady
increase from 1916 through the war with a dropping off after the
armistice.


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Wage earners.
Men.
Firms.

Industry.

Actual number.

Women.
Number per 1,000 employed.

Number per 1,000 employed.

Actµal number.

1916

Iron and steel and their products ..
Metal and metal products other
than iron and steel .............
Lumber and its remanufactures ...
Leather and its finished products ..
Chemicals and allied products .....
Automobiles, including bodies and
parts . . ....... .......... ... ......
Electrical machinery, apparatus,
and supplies .....................
Instruments, scientific and professional. ........................
Other industries 1 •••••.••••••••••.
Total. .......................

After After
After After
After After
After After
first second 1919
1916
1916
first second
1916
first second 1919
flrst second 1919
draft. draft.
draft. draft.
draft. draft.
draft. draft.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - -- - - - - - -

1919

162

87,815

85,863

90,331

70,710

935

892

843

893

6,062

10,403

16,819

8,467

65

108

157

107

62
130
18
33

49,164
26,321
15,493
15,526

45,052
23,114
14,530
24,952

44,807
21,046
13,357
24,122

36,713
25,418
16,914
23,159

848
969
748
965

833
955
714
931

794
886
684
870

820
929
708
936

8,795
850
5,227
562

9,023
1,088
5,807
1,856

11,605
2,701
6,179
3,628

8,065
1,933
6,964
1,582

152
31
252
35

167
45
286
69

206
114
316
131

180
71
292
64

15

6,336

7,163

13,254

9,203

953

941

825

869

311

451

2,814

1,390

47

59

175

131

11

4,549

4,605

4,474

5,312

886

938

767

844

585

307

1,359

985

114

62

233

156

10
30

904
15,213

1,012
19, 903

1,056
19,881

1,103
21,828

926
856

781
818

763
763

824
803

72
2,564

283
4,443

328
6,164

236
ey,370

74
144

219
1 2

237
237

176
197

870

818

857

25,028

33,661

51,597

34,992

102

130

182

143

474 221,321 226,194 232,328 210,360

89

I

1 Includes plants in following industries: 5, airplanes, seaplanes, and parts; 2 bicycles, motor cycles, and parti:;; 1, surgical appliances and artificial limbs; 3, motion pictures and
1
photographic apparatus and supplies; 3, cars, steam and electric railroad; 1, optical g,:;ods; 4, musical instruments; 7, rubber goods; 4, stone, clay, and glass.
'


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. J

j

.

'' ••.

··-

90

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

RELATIVE RETENTION OF MEN AND WOMEN AFTER SIGNING
ARMISTICE.

OF

Further light is thrown upon the _proportion of men and women
retained after the signing of the armistice by Table 27. It is based
on .the reports of over 1,000 identical firms furnishing figures on the
number of men and women employed in November, 1918, and
August, 1919. This table shows that nine months after the signing
of the armistice the 1,012 firms had retained a little more than 60
per cent of the male labor employed before the signing of the armistice, and nearly 45 per cent of the woman labor. The largest reductions both in the man and woman labor forces occurred in the iron
and steel industry and in the manufacture of chemicals and allied
products. In both of these industries the large _plants were engaged on exclusively war-time orders-munitions and explosives. In
these plants, too, were the large majority of part-time woman workers-married women and leisure women-who dropped out of the
ranks of the wage earners at the signing of the armistice. As before
stated, these part-time workers account in large measure, according
to the statement of employers, for the difference in the relative
number of men and women remaining after the signing of the armistice. In this connection the proportion of firms retaining their
women substitutes, as shown in the critical analysis of the results of
substitution, is illuminating. 1
T

:tJ~Jf·A~rn~M1,1i:~M~g¥~:ni~fkPllfT ~i~ 0JhlJi~sTifE !ii~si,'f61FBrn :it~
MONTHS LATER.

-

Wage earners employed i~November, 1918.
Industry.

August, 1919.
Men.

Firms.
Men.

Women.

Women.

Percent
Percent
of pre- Number. of preNumber. armistice
armistice
force.
force.

--lronandsteelsnd their products.
Metal and metal products other
•than iron and steel .......... .
Lumber and its remanufactures
Chemicals and allied products ..

365

244,853

40,916

142,212

58.1

14,123

34.5

202
259
186

62, 132
32,185
89,881

16,177
3,227
14,553

52,891
36,619
32,104

85.1
113. 7
35. 7

12,622
2,671
2,967

78.0
82.8
20. 4

Total. .......•............

1,012

429,051

74,873

263, 826 1

61. 5

32,383

43.3

DEMAND FOR AND SUPPLY OF MAN AND WOMAN LABOR BEFORE AND
AFTER SIGNING OF ARMISTICE.

The best available index of the course of the supply and demand
for labor is to be found in the demands made on the offices of public
employment bureaus by employers and workers. But even such
data as can be found in their records must be considered in the light
of certain qualifications. For example, the official order issued in
August, 1918, requiring employers to engage all common labor
through the offices of the United States Employment Service was


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1

See Table 32, p. 117.

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

91

null and void with the signing of the armistice, and this circumstance may have had as potent an influence in decreasing the number
of calls for labor in the subsequent months as the readjustment of
industrial conditions. Furthermore, because of the speed with
which this service was developed and the novelty of its use to American employers and workers, all industries and all places were not
proportionately represented in its transactions. Nevertheless Table
28, which is based on records of the United States Employment
Service, indicates in some measure the effect of the signing of the
armistice on the calls for man and woman labor in industries which
have been regarded as the special sphere of woman's industrial activities. It is especially noticeable that both the demand for and
supply of labor for domestic and personal service increased after the
armistice. While there was a greater percentage of increase in the
case of men than in the case of women, the actual number of men
involved is insignificant in comparison with the number of women.
The prevalent assumption that some of the old employments of
women reabsorbed at least a part of the woman labor released from
war plants that shut down altogether at the signing of the armistice
receives a degree of support from these figures on domestic service.
In the textile industry, while a greater drop proportionately occurred in the demand for than in the supply of woman workers, the
actual number of women called for by employers was still more than
double the number of women applying for jobs. The situation
among men workers in this industry was quite different. The
number of men applying for work increased after the signing of the
armistice nearly 18 per cent, while the number of calls for men
workers decreased 60 per cent, leaving an actual surplus of workers
over the demands for their services. In the manufacture of food
products and in the tobacco industry the conq.itions of demand and
supply of woman labor were quite similar to those in the tex tile industry, namely, a decrease in both calls and applicants, yet an actual
preponderance of the former over the latter.


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92

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

28.-CALLS FOR LABOR AND APPLICATIONS FOR WORK IN FOUR LEADING OCCUP ATIONS AND IN ALL OCCUPATIONS FOR MEN AND WOMEN,_AS SHOWN IN THE
RECORDS OF THE UNITED STATES EMPLOYMENT SERVICE J:<OR FOUR WEEKS,
PREVIOUS TO SIGNING OF ARMISTICE AND FOR FOUR WEEKS, THREE MONTHS
AFTER SIGNING OF ARMISTICE. 1

TABLE

Workers wanted.
Women.

Men.
After armistice.

Occupation.
Before
armistice.

Num. ber.

Per cent
increase
(+)or
decrease

After armistice.
Before
armistice.·

Number.

(-).

Per cent
increase
(+) or
decrease
(-).

- - -·
3,179
Manufacture of food and food products ....
Manufacture of tobacco products ...........
10
Manufacture of clothing and textiles ....... · 7,262
130
Domestic service .......................... .
All occupatioll'S ... . .... . ................... 1,359,060

64. 2
1,139 365 +3,550.0
60.0
2,903
503 + 286. 9
73. 2
364,030 -

-

1,272
843
20,798
14,007
206,848

932
615
6,124
17,791
100,450

-26.7
-27.0
-70.6
+27.0
-51.4

Applicants for work.
Men.

I

Women.

After armistice.

Occupation.
Before
armistice.

Number.

Per cent
increase
(+) or
decrease

After armistice.
Before
armistice.

Number.

(-).

Per cent
increase
(+)or
decrease
(-).

~

Manufacture of food and food products ....
Manufacture of tobacco products ...........
Manufacture of clothing and textiles .......
Domestic service ...........................
All occupations . ....... ...................... .

926

:n

2,597
146
518,485

1 These data include the leading industrial States.
Feb. 15-Mar. 8, 1919.


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1,255
90
3,059
375
410,669

+ 35.5
+190.3
+ 17. 8
+156. 8
- 20.8

691
553
4,9.50
5,579
91,288

389
222
3,055
9,614
72,659

-43.7
-59.9
-38.3
+72.3
-20.4

The weeks indicated are Oct. 19-Nov. .9, 1918, and

SECTION

III.

RESULTS Oil SUBSTITUTION OF WOMEN ON MEN'S WORK
DURING AND SINCE THE WAR.

PRINCIPLES OF MANUFACTURE.

Throughout the war-industries "in which women were substitu ted
for men many occupations are fundamentally similar. Various
materials were worked into finished products by various m ethods,
but, if the basic material were metal, whether the finished product
was a gun or an instrument; if the basic material were wood, whether
the finished product was an airplane strut or a desk; if the basic
materials were chemicals, whether the :finished products were explosives or baking powders, the same underlyina- principles guided the
composition or dressing or shaping of each basic material into the
:finished product. The machines and machinery operated, the
laboring work involved, the testing, inspecting, sorting, assembling,
and packing required widely differing degrees of skill and experience ;
the work was light or heavy, according to the weight of the sever al
parts made; great or little exactness in workmanship was required,
according to the varying furposes for which the product was to b e
used. But the majority o machines used to work metals, or lumber,
or chemicals, or other materials were built and operated in a like
manner, and the same kinds of hand work had to be done in each
industry. To avoid duplication in description, therefore, analysis
of the occupations in whrnh women replaced men is treated according
to the materials worked upon instead of by industry. Whether a
hole is drilled in a piece of metal in an airplane factory or in a cigar
machinery plant, the work is grouped under "drilling-machine
operators in metal-working occufations." Presses operated to cut
out tin-can blanks in a chemica factory are grouped with presses
operated in factories making metal goods only. Only such occupations as involved working on two or more materials or those
peculiar to an individual industry have been grouped separately on
the tables. A list of the new work done by women in each industry
is given, however, at the close of this section in order that the specific
tasks accomplished by women in each industry may be recorded. .
Of the 562 firms reporting on the occupations in which men were
replaced by women, almost half employed women on metal work.
As shown in Table 29 which follows, 37,683 substitutes, or a little
less than two-thirds of the total number reported, were employed
on this material. The next largest substitution was reported on
chemical work, although the number of firms reporting was much
lower than for wood-working occupations. The 152 wood-working
firms reported a substitution of but 2,545 women, whereas 58 chemical plants substituted 6,935 women. Eleven establishments manu-


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93

94

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

facturing rubber into finished products used 4,959 women in men's
places. New leather w9rking occupations were filled by 1,545
women, while a slightly larger number were engaged on textile work
in men's .places and in airflane and shipbuilding plants. The
substitution in the 22 electrica and 14 stone and glass working establishments reporting was in each case less than 1,000.
In addition to indicating the extent of the substitution of women
on men's work during the war by occupational groups in the establishments covered, Table 29 shows the success or failure of such
substitution as reported by employers.
TABLE 29.-EXTENT AND SUCCESS OF SUBSTITUTION OF WOMEN FOR MEN DURING
AND AFTER THE WAR EITHER THROUGH DIRECT REPLACEMENT OR THROUGH
EXPANSION IN 562 MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS, BY OCCUPATIONAL
GROUPS.
Firms.
Firms reportin ~ women's work.

Occupational group.

Report- Total
ing women
satisfactory Not as satisfacSubsti- num- substi- As
than tory as men's.
tuting ber of tuted. 1 or better
men's.
Not
women. women
comparsubstiable.
tuted.
Per
NumPer
Numcent.
ber.
ber.
cent.
------ --- - ----- --- ---

Metal working .......................
Chemical working ....................
Wo~~e;,:~~~~::::::::::::::::::::
Textile making.......................
Leather workini .. ................ . ..
Electrical workmg .............. . ....
Abrasive material and glass working.
Miscellaneous work on airplanes, seaplanes, ships, and musical instru· ments ..............................
Total ...... . .............. .....

278
58

267

11

10
145
13
18
21
12

152
16
20
22
14
15

- -2

562

50

37,683
6,935
4,959
2,545
1,589
1,545
897
730

14

1,834

533

58,717

- 2- -

212
32
9
91
12
17
18
9

82.8
66. 7
100.0
68. 4
80.0
85.0
90.0
75.0

8

386

44
16

17. 2
33. 3

3
3
2
3

20.0
15. 0
10. 0
25.0

80.0

2

20.0

5

77-4

4113

22.6

63

..... 42· -·-----31. 6

22

10
2
19
1

--------2
2

- - - - - -- - - - - -- - 3

1 Includes women employed only in the 533 firms which reported the number of women substituted as
well as the fact of substitution.
2 Seventeen firms substituting women in metal working occupations also substituted women on chemical,
electrical, wood, textile, or abrasive material and glass working occupations; these did not report the
numbers employed on either substance. Seven firms substituting women in woodworking occupations
also substituted women on textile and miscellaneous work.
a Twenty-two firms substituting women on two materials reported their work to be satisfactory in each

gr?Tto firms substituting women on two materials reported their work to be unsatisfactory in each group.

METAL-WORKING OCCUPATIONS.

In metal-working industries by far the largest replacement occurred
in the machine shop, the department in which metal castings or
forgings are reduced to the sizes and shapes desired by cutting
machines. Very few women were employed in the smelting and
refining of iron ores, copper, or brass, those employed being chemists'
assistants, crane operators, or laborers. Over 1,000 took men's
places in working metals into rods, tubes, bars, sheets, or wire. Less
than 500 were employed in the foundries, largely as core makers, but
also as molders, as laborers, · and as machine operators. Some
women were substituted in the drafting rooms, on layout work, or in
the tool room. Over 1,300 did assembling work. The rest, or about
33,000, worked in the machine shop, operating machines, inspecting,
or doing miscellaneous handwork.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

9fr

The facts regarding the substitution of women in the metal trades
are shown in Table 30:
TABLE 30.-EXTENT AND SUCCESS OF SUBSTITUTION OF WOMEN FOR MEN DURING
AND AFTER THE WAR, EITHER THROUGH DIRECT REPLACEMENT OR THROUGH
EXPANSION, IN METAL-WORKING ESTABLISHMENTS.
Firms reporting
women's work.

Firms.
Branch of industry.

Reporting
number
of women
substituted.

Substituting
women.

Total
women
substituted.

As satisfactory
or better
than
men's.

Not as
satisfactory
as men's.

19 ----------- 17
3 -·-···--···5 -------·-···
6
1
9
3
8
4
2 ................
2
9
10
4
10 ...............
14
4
8
2
5 .............
7 -----------2 ---------···

High explosives and shrapnel shells ........
Metal work on automobiles and parts ......
Machine guns and rifles ....................
Metal work on airplanes and seaplanes .....
Grenades ..................................
Tools ......................................
Brass and bronze products ................
Other sheet-metal products ................
Small office and household machines .......
Agricultural implements ............ . ......
Tin and aluminum containers .............
Machines and machinery parts ............
Rods, tubes, bars, and sheets ..............
Cannon and cannon mounts . ...... . .......
Railway cars and equipment . .. ...........
Cartridge and shot shell . ... ·...............
Hardware and miscellaneous machine-

21
26
3
7
8
12
12
5
11
14
IO
18
10
5
7
2

21
26
3
7
8
12
12
5
11
13
8
18
10
5
7
2

M:~if J~~gug!s op.ticai -and "i>iiotographlc F~~E~~t:~:
~ :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Steam and gasoline engines ................

13

13

521

10

3

6
20
10
1
2
8

5
19
10
1

512
489
370
361
355
325

4
17
8
1
2
6

1
3.
1

11
13
5
6
2
4
5
2
5
1

10

1
4
4
5

1
4
4
5

Torpedoes ........ . ................... . ....
Pistols and revolvers ......................
Wire and wire goods .......................
Metal work on electrical apparatus and
supplies .................. .. ...... . .... ..
Instruments ...... .. ................... . ...
Clocks, watches, and cases .................
Stoves and furnaces .......................
Metal work on musicalinstruments ... . . ...
Motor cycles and bicycles .................
Jewelry .............................. . .....
Metal furniture and fixtures ...............
Metal work in chemical plants .............
Navy floats .......... _._ ....................
Metal work on stone, clay, and glass manufactures .................................
Cutlery and saws ..........................
Silverware and plated ware .......... ......
Smelting and refining iron ore .............
Smelting and refining copper and brass ....

ii~f1~~~~~ -~i~~ ·_ ~:::::::::::::::::::::: : :
Total

1 ····················-·--····-·

2

8
12
4
6
2
3
5
2
5
1

2

2

1
1

1
1

278

267

8,327
5,709
3,197
2,726
2,413
1,578
1, 169
1, 135
1, 060
840
833
783
737
70-1
631
621

······--- ---

------------

8
314
305
10
275
5 ········---265
6 -- ----- --- -2 -----------215
2
152
4
138
138
1
4
127
100 ...... .... ......
63

1

-·-·--------

37,683

212

44

4 -----------61
55
3 -----------37
2
3
2 ···········-20
13 - - - - - -- .. -. -..
9
------------

1 Twenty-five firms substituted women on two different metal products. Each is included only once
on the totals for all metal products. Twenty-two firms did not compare the work of men and women.

About 83 per cent of the firms, comparing the work done by
women on metals with that done by men, stated that they considered
the product of the former to be as satisfactory as, or better than that
of men. Only a few of the firms comparing the results based their
comparisons on output records of men and women working on the
same work at the same time and under identical conditions. In
many plants this was impossible because the men were not kept on
the work after women had been employed in any number. Many
other differentials enter into factory work which make accurate comparisons difficult. The value of the firm's statements is therefore a


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96

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
I

general one and may be regarded as indicating that the output, the
discipline, the contentment, the_attendance, or the turnover of women
workers were all equal or poorer than or better than that of men
workers, or that one or several of these quantities were such as to
offset the other factors in which the sexes appeared to be of equal
value.
Table 31 lists the principal metal-working occupations in which
women were substituted for men and gives facts regarding the extent
of substitution, its success and its permanency.
TABLE 31.-PRINCIPAL OCCUPATIONS ON METALS IN WHICH WOMEN WERE SUBSTITUTED FOR MEN DURING THE WAR PERIOD, THEIR RELATIVE OUTPUT IN THESE
OCCUPATIONS, AND FIRMS RETAINING THEIR SERVICES IN AUGUST, 1919.
Firms substituting women.
Percent of
Total
total firms reporting
sub5tinumber of
tuting
women
women on
substimetals.1
tuted.

Occupation.
Total.

83
81

fs~~:tYMg:::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::
Punch press operating .... ........ . ........

Drilling machme operating ...... . ... ......
:Lathe operating ...........•.... ..... ... ...
Filing and other bench work .••.. .........
Millin~ machine operating •.... . .. .........
Soldermg ..... ... ... .. . . ... ........ ..... ...
Grindini and polishing ....... ............ .
Core ma ing... ....... .... .. . . ..... ........
Gear cutter and shaper operating .. ........
~~;i~f~~a~~~~:-:-:: ::::::::::::::::::::::::

29.9
29.1
25.9
44. 2
32. 7
13. 3
22. 7
5.8
19. l
9.4
3.6
5.0
3. 2
4.0

72
123
91
37
63
16
53
26
10
14
9
11

Women
substituted.

50
43
56
72
53
23
34
8
35
19
8
7
6
5

Firms reporting relative outpnt of
women and men.

Men displaced per
100 women
substituted.

4,721
1,322
1,319
1,278
1,112
824
809
595
429
383
97
97
57
37

100
99
98
100
99
100
99
100
99
99
100
100
81
91

Firms reportin~ on
retention ofwomen
August, 1919.

Per cent reporting women's
output as-

Occupation.
Number.

Equal
to
men's.

Greater
than
men's.

Less
than
men's.

Per cent
Number. retaining
women.

--X1s~rr::~~g:::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::

iupqh press operating. ~ •.................

rilling machme operatmg.•..............
Lathe operating.... .... ............... . . ..
Fi.liJ?g and ~t;-ier bench _work . •............
Millmg mac 1me operatmg......... . ...... .
Soldering ....... .. ...... . ... ........ . .... .
Grindin~d polishing.... .. .. .. . ... .. ....
Core ma · g .... . ..... .. . ....... ....... ...
Gear cutter and shaper operating......... .
Welding ... . .... .. ..... . .. .. . .............

~~~!~~~~~~j~~: ::::::::::::::::::::::::.::

67
68
68
112
83
33
63
12
44
19
10
13
7
11

44.8
20. 9
52. 9
8. 8
51. 5
25.0
56. 3
13. 4
54. 2
14. 5
57.6
15.1
48. 3
16. 7
50. 0
16. 7
47. 7
9.1
63. 2
21.0
10.0
50.0
76. 9
7. 7
42. 9
14.2
63.6 ·---·· · ---

34. 3
38. 3
23. 5
30. 3
31.3
27.3
3fi.0
33. 3
43. 2
15. 8
40.0
15. 4
42. 9
36.4

59
54
49
84
60
26
37
13
32
18
7
12
7
8

71. 2
66. 7
59. 2
65.5
56. 7
65.4
67.6
53.9
68.8
66. 7
85. 7
50.0
28.6
50.0

1 Two hundred and seventy-eight firms in the metal trades reported specifically on the occupations in
which women were substituted for men.

The columns giving the numbers of firms substituting women
during the war period and the proportion of firms retaining their
woman employees in each occupation in the summer of 1919 are more


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

97

significant of the extent of the experiment in the use of woman labor
and the foothold gained than are the figures on numbers of women
substituted and on comparative output. This is true not only because
many firms could not report the exact number employed or retained
in each occupation, but because munitions manufacture plays the
largest part in the numbers substituted in the war period and in the
numbers dismissed after the war ended. It plays but a relatively ·
small part in the number of plants substituting women and in the
varied experience in metal working given to women. Statements
regarding relative output of workers of either sex have great value,
but there can be no better indication of the successful work performed
by women than the retention of their services when the shortage of
male labor was no longer acute.
The occupations shown in this table, together with less important
ones, are described in the following pages and the causes of successes
or failures recorded.
DRILLING-MACHI E OPERATING.

In no single occupation have so many of the firms included substituted women as in drilling-machine operation. One hundred and
twenty-three fir:ms out of 278 reporting on substitution in metal
work employed wo:men in this capacity. Not :many firms kept records of the actual numbers employed on each type of machine in
their shops so the total number of women substituted on drills could
not be ascertained. However, 72 firms reporting definitely on numbers state that 1,278 women did work previously done by men, and
all state that the replacement was one woman for one man.
Drilling involves cutting holes in metal_pieces by means of a revolving, pointed tool. The material to be drilled is placed on the machine
table and held in position by hand if the work is small, or in large
work is securely clamped into place. The tool is attached to a
-spindle. In order that the hole may be drilled at the correct point
and be of exact dimensions, it is customary to have the center and
circumference of each hole drawn and prickpunched in the layout
room before reaching the drill operator. Or, when many duplicate
pieces must be drilled, the manufacturer has a mold, called a "jig,"
made, ~ which holes containing steel bushings or hollow plugs are
the exact counterpart of those desired in the material to be drilled.
When work comes to the operator from the layout room, she enlarges
th~ center of the ~ole with a center punch in order to gui~e the dr~ll
pomt and then adJusts the work and table so that the drill tool will
feed straight into the center mark. The power is switched on and
the drill tool fed into the work by turning a hand lever. The drilling
must be carefully watched in order that it may be of correct dimensions. When jigs are made for work, the operator has only to put
the material into the jig and feed the revolving drill into it.
By far · the largest amount of drilling done by women was jig work,
·although there are sufficient instances of layout work to state that
women have done both kinds well. Drilling with jigs is considered
the easiest work in a machine shop.
In addition to operating the machine, many wo:men fasten the
drill tool in its socket and grind it whenever necessary. In other
9847°-20--7


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY .

.shops men are employed to take care of the setting up and sharpening of tools for the women.
Holes w.ere drilled by women -0n material ranging in size fro:m.
tiny instrument -parts to machine bodies. The finest work was clone
on sensitive ch·ills, the heaviest .o n large rradial drills. On both sizes
wo:men prov.ed successful However, most of .t he work was .done ou
light and m edium. machines having from 1 to 16 spindles. N.ot ·
only were holes ro~h drilled .on these :tnachines, but they w.er.e
rnamed or perfected with a fluted tool to overcome .d rilling defects.
They w.e re tapped to produce internal screw thr.eads. They wer,e
countersunk and counterhored to en:Lwge the upper end .o r to form
a shoulder at the lower end of the hole.
About 70 p er cent of the firms reporting on the relative -output of
men .and women drill operators state that the women did as much
or more wOTk th.an men. Co:m.par.a tively few of the firms reporting
women's output as less than men's stated that women were unsuccessful on cfrilling. In these plants, some of which were small places,
women were changed .about ·on drills, lathes, and milling machines
and had not b eco:me proficient on any one machine. In other
plants reporting failur.es on drilling machines the products made were
engines, gun .carriages, and agricultural hnplemen,ts, on the heavy
parts for which women did not have the necessary physical strength
to tum the feeding levers of the drilling machine without straining.
The other firms gave as the reasons for a lower output of women
than men: "Morning and afternoon r est perjods;" "waiting for men
to fix the machines;" "bre.ak their tools;" "irregular :a ttendance;"
"flirting with :men;"" "waste ti:me." These •Causes of deer.eased output applied n-0t .o nly to <lrilling-machine operators, but to almost
all woman w.orkers in the shop. Flirting, wasting ti:m.e, &11d other
shortcomings in factory .con.duct were .charges brought iby few factories, however.. As the grnat majority of firms stated that women
were more attentive and .conscientioas ·than men, the unfavorable
comments on .conduct in the instances .abov.e noted were undoubtedly
due either to conditions peculiar to the factories concf'rned •Or to the
charaeter of the local labor supply. Irregular attendance occurred
wher.e married women were induced to -ente:i; the factori-es in large
nu:moers, for m:any of these women regarded the -factory work as
secondary in importance to their home duties. Breaking tools or
damaging the machines beyond -the usual a:mount was chargeable
.against the insuffi~ient knowledge or carelessness of the woman
operators.
·
Accurate figures on output for men and women doing ideEJ..t ical
drilling work under the same conditions w:ere secured fr.om three
war-order firms. On drilling h-0les in 3-inc.h trench mortar shells,
w-0na-en's output was 40 p.er ceiD.t .greater th.an men's. 1 Two establishments reported on drilling oil holes in stem _g ears and other
machine p.arts. In one1 men averaged 5·0 oil holes per hour, where.as
wo:men .averag-ed 4 7; in the othar establishment, wom£n .averag-e d 46
per hour ·and ll'len 44. 'T he men doing the wor.k in .the fi;rst establishment had 0000. e:m,p:loyed 3 t0 6 months., the w-0men 1 to 2 months.
On radiusing and reaming the bore of differential pinions,, two
1 F.igures from thig factory were secured by the Women's Branch, Industrial Service Section ·of :Army
Ordnance Department.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

heavy work had installed mechanical devices to aid in lifting and
chucking the pieces.
Although the shapes and sizes of the work done and the sizes and
types of lathes operated by women differed widely, the underlying
prmciples of operation were the same. On engine, toolmakers'
and precision lathes the work to lie turned must first be centered and
a hole drilled in each end so that the work will fit over the lathe
center. In large shops this is done by machine before the work
reaches the lathe operator; in small shops the lathe operator must
find the center and drill the hole. If the surface of the work is not
flat, the lathe operator must level it before she can start on the turning operation. When this is done the work is ready to be set in the
head stock which revolves it, or, in the cases of large work, in a dog,
and the tail stock is moved up into position to hold the work steady.
The cutting tool is fastened into the tool holder at a proper angle
either by hand or by aid of compressed air. When the power is
turned on, the work revolves at a fixed speed against the tool which
is moved laterally with each revolution of the work. On speed
lathes -the tool is held in the hand and pressed against the moving
metal. Eight firms employed women on this type of machine,
whereas 46 firms put them on engine, toolmakers' or precision lathes.
On turret lathes, several tools are held in a turret so that one after
the other can be brought in contact with the work in rapid succession. The operator applies the tools to and removes them from the
work by turning a hand lever, but the turret rotates automatically to
bring each tool into line. Thirty-two firms employed women on this
type of lathe to cut bars or rods which had been put through a hollow
spmdle in the head stock and fastened in a chuck. Of the 20 firms
reJ?orting on the relative output of women and men on these machines, 5 stated that women produced as much; 5 that they
produced more; and 10 stated that women produced less than men.
Automatic screw machines are used to accomplish by cams and
levers what is done by hand on a hand screw machine. Their mechanism is complicated and can only be set up by an experienced machinist.
The few girls operating these machines simply tended a number of
machines.
Although women were employed on lathe operating in factories
making many varied parts, their employment as lathe operators was
heaviest in munitions plants. The kind of work they did successfully in these shops is illustrated in the following list of operations on
shell , bodies. The shells cut by women weighed from 19 to 100pounds, varying with the size of the shell and the distance it had
traveled thr~rngh the. shop on its way from forging to finished shell.
On heavy shells, cham falls or block and tackle were used to lift the
rough forging from the table or truck to the lathe and to lift it out
when the operation was completed. Pneumatic chucks saved adjustment by hand and eliminated physical strain. On the followmg operations marked with an asterisk (*) girls set up the work,
tested the cut, ground the tools, shifted belts, and cleaned machines:
*Rough turning to repair eccentric forgings on shells.
·
.
*Rough tu_rning shell body on e~gine lathe fitted with turret and on turret lathes.
R?~gh fac~ng base end square with body on vertical turret lathe.
~ h facmg basE.; end and finish turning base.
*Bormg and reammg end of thread on turret lathe.


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THE NEW P.OSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

sit at her machine while doing this. Ma.ny firm report that only a
limit of 0.001 inch was allowed on milling work.
To set up work correctly in milling machines requires judgment
and skill, as the arrangement of the cutters, the elevation and angle
of the table, and the speed vary with the character of the work to be
done. To operate the machine after it is set up requires little skill.
While many of the pieces milled by women were done in sufficient
quantity to make the setting up of the machines infrequent, when it
needed to be done, it was done by women in the majority of plants
reporting. Some women were able to set up their machines and grind
the tools after a month in the machine shop; others needed longer
training and experience extending, according to some statements1 to a
year's time.
Women operated milling machines on a variety of operations and
the types of machines used were numerous. Among the operations
performed were:
Millin~ square surface on steering knuckle within limits of 0.001 inch.
Surfacmg, rough and iinish threading and throating chasers within limits ,.Jf 0.001
inch.
Facing and radiusing eievating arch within limit of 0.001 inch.
Milling saw teeth.
Milling pick€t heads weighing 2-3 pounds.
Profiling gun parts.
Plain horizontal mil1€rs, universal, vertical , Lincoln and multicut and straddle
machines were among those operated by women.

All of the 63 firms substituting women for men expressed complete
satisfaction with the milling done by women, as already stated.
'rwenty-two firms, however, believed her output on this and all other
work done by her in thefr plants to be somewhat less than men's.
Their reasons do not apply to milling in particular, but are of a
general nature. Shorter working hours, lack of convenient accommodations, and difficulties in discipline were the prevailing comment,
though in no case was the drawback regarded as serious enough to
mark the work of woman mill operators as even closely approaching
failure. Forty-one fiTms of tho ·e comparing w-0men's and men's
output state that women did as much or. more work than men. One
firm reports that it was able to eliminate a night shift of men when
women did the threading of shell noses on the clay shift. On actual
output another firm reports that men's average per hour on milling
firing pins for fuses was 156, women's 400. In a second firm men
with from 1 to 2¼ years' experience milled 30 oil ways per hour while
women of from 1 to 6 months' experience milled 32 per hour. A third
firm's production records show an average of 58.1 pieces for men
against 70.7 pieces per hour for women.
Twenty-five of the 37 firms reporting are continuing the employment of women on milling machines, some few having increased the
number employed in this capacity since the armistice. It would
appear that, if notJ as one employer said, the "milling -0f small parts
is now a woman's job, ' at least it has become, in the words of another
employer, "as much a woman's a a man's job. '


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T OOLMAKER.
She repairs the teeth for inserted blade cutters, flutes taps and reamers, and does general
milling machine work.
102


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103

GRINDING AND POLISHING METALS.

When only a small amount of metal needs to be removed from work
to bring it to correct measurements or when a smooth surface is
desired, work is ground or polished. This is done by revolving sandstone wheels or wheels covered with sharp angular grains of emery,
corundum, or carborundum against the object or by revolving the
object against the wheel. Grinding differs from other cutting processes in that the surplus metal to be removed is reduced to a powdered state during the grinding. For this reason exhaust hoods are
placed over the wheels to catch and draw off the fine metal particles.
Grinding is done either by hand or machine. Polishing is usually
done by hand. In hand grinding or polishing the workman holds the
piece in his hands and presses it agamst a revolving wheel. Success
depends entirely on the skill and touch of the workman. A machine
grinder is operated like a lathe, the grinding wheel corresponding to
the cutting tool in lathe operating as the part of the machine which
comes in contact with the work. The carriage on which the wheel is
mounted may be moved along the base either by a hand lever or
automatically.
.
Fifty-three firms employed women in grinding and polishing metal
parts for the first time in 1917 or 1918. In addition to this, wherever
l't was the shop practice for machine operators to grind their own
tools, women did this work with hand grinders whenever their cutting tools were dulled. Sharpening the tools takes but a few minutes
during the day, but as the accuracy of the shape of the tools depend
entirely on the skill of the hand grinder, when woman machine operators accomplish this task successfully, it may be considered a real
achievement. Ohio and New York State laws forbid firms to employ
women on abrasive wheels, consequently it was not the general practice in these States to teach women the art of tool grinding. 'l'hese
State restrictions serve not only to exclude women from the occupations of grinding and polishing, but act as a handicap to their employment on all machine tools, since in many machine shops it is
customary for each machine tool operator to grind his or her tools .
In the two States forbidding this, firms must hire extra men to take

care of the women's tools. The reason assigned for the exclusion of
women from this work by people interested in the protection of the
health of women is that the metal dust produced in the operation is
more dangerous to women than to men. All modern grinding and
polishing machines are equipped with exhaust systems which, according to tests made by Dr. L. W. Chaney, of the United States
Bureau of Labor Statistics, an expert in industrial hazards, adequately remove the metal dust from the room. If modern machine
ouilders have eliminated the health hazards on grinding and polishing, it would seem a wiser provision for all States to insist that
adequate exhaust systems be installed so that the health of men as
well as that of women could be safeguarded rather than that the
protection of the health of women be paid for at the needless price of
her exclusion from an occupation that is profitable and .can easily be
made safe and healthful for both men and women.
About 57 per cent of the plants in which women operated grinders
on parts that were being manufactured reported the ouJ,put of women
to be equal to or greater than that of men. Many of the machines


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were automatic, but the work had frequently to be ground to a limit
of 0.002 inch. These operators took their own r eadings, set up and
cared for their machines, and sharpened their stones . One firm reports
that on automatic saw grinding a woman operated 14 machines, while
a man of longer experience operated 5 machines. 2 In another establishment the average output per hour of women on rough and finished
tool grinding was 14.38 pieces per hour, while the men's output was.
8.42 pieces. The women's experience in the factory had not exceeded
4 months; the men's reached 11 months. "Women have better eyes
for symmetry," said a manufacturer who employed them to grind
the bore of cylinders.
A firm that reported a smaller output for women polish ers than for
men polishers stated that the quality of the work done by women
was better than that done by men. The wrist strain was found to
l)e too great on hand grinding of chisel points by another firm. On
very fine metal work, although women did it well, their output was
not as great as that of men. On h eavy work some factories reported
they required assistance in lifting work in and out of the machines,
as no mechanical aids were provided.
Only 32 firms stated whether or not they expected to retain the
services of the women as grinders or polishers. Twenty-two, or over
two-thirds of these, expect to continue employing them in these
capacities.
PUNCH-PRESS

OPERATING.

Presses shape metals in an entirely different manner from tne
machines considered in the foregoing pages, for in them a ram carrying
a punch falls upon the metal which has been placed over a die. The
die determines the external form of the work, the punch the corresponding internal shape. If the punching tool is sharp it cuts the
metal to the required form in one fall; if it is smooth, by steady pressure it will cause the metal to "flow" into the desired length or bend
it into the desired shape.
These machines are not new to women. Women have been blanking
and shearing sheet metal, drawing brass cups into cartridges, curling
the edges of kitchen utensils, swaging and pointing pinsz._, trimming·
and notching for many years before the World War. They have
operated small machines on very light work; they have operated
heavy presses on medium work. 'They have operated machines in
which the traveling ram falls upon the work at the turn of a hand
lever; they have pressed a foot treadle to cause it to fall; they havefed work into machines where the ram was operated by power or by
hydraulic pressure. They have worked at guarded and unguarded
punches. They have had their fingers cut off and their hands mangled, and no State laws have prevented women from working on
punch presses. In a report issued by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the accident frequency rate on machines in fabricating dep artments of the iron and steel industry is greatest on "presses and
punches" of any machines with the sole exception of reamers.a In
2 Figures from this factory were secured by the Women's Branch, Industrial Service Section of Army
Ordnance Department.
a U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. The Safety Movement in the Iron and Steel Industry, 1907 to 1917•.
Bulletin 234, p. 267. W ashington, 1918.


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an earlier report 4 of accidents on machines in 18 firms, _80 per cent
were on punch presses, the rate for women being higher than for men. _
Having already established herself in this occupation before the
war, it is but natural that with the demand for metal workers during
the last years should have come an extension of her employment to
establishments that had previously used .men on presses and to
presses larger in size than those she had been operating.
·
Seventy-two firms reported that they had used women on men's
work on presses during the war. Some of the work was on automatic
presses. This is especially true of cartridge making, where the .brass
piece was cupped, drawn, headed, and tapered on automatic presses
which the operator sometimes fed by hand, but which were more frequently fed automatically. On automatic cartridge machine feeding
one firm r eports that two girls do the work of three men.
Other work was on small foot presses. The worker slips the metal
over the die and brings the punch into position by foot pressure on a
trip. Women's fingers were said to be " better adapted than men's"
to this kind of work on balance wheels forelocks. Still, other machines
cut one revolution before locking, the girl holding the blank with
pincers while the punch repeatedly fell upon it. Copper bands were
pressed on the shells on hy draulic presses. The woman operator
inserted the shell into the press and turned on pressure sufficient to
force the band on the steel. None of the work done required
much skill. On the medium and heavy presses the dies and
punches were · changed by men ; on light presses some factories
employed women to set up all machines. Women cleaned their own
machines. Over 76 per cent of the firms reporting on the relative output of m en and women stated that women's production equal~d or
exceeded men's. Women were retained in 29 of the factories in which
they had been substituted; 23 other factories did not report on postwar labor conditions. The operation of the press is not a highly skilled
occupation; it does not constitute a link in the chain of related and
up-graded occupations and therefore does not offer conspicuous opportunities for profitable advancement. But there is little doubt that
the punch press is the most dangerous machine that women have
operated. Unless the point of operation is safely guarded in an inattentive moment the hand may be caught under the falling punch.
The operations performed on punches are such that what may serve
as a most effective guard for one kind of work might'hinder the cut
on another type of work. Safety engineers have devised several
effective kinds of guards for punch presses, so there is. little excuse
for employing men or women on unguarded machines. Unfortunately, however, some manufacturers content themselves with putting
a frame about the punch which is intended but does not succeed in
keeping the hands away from the punch.
MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE OPERATING ON METALS.

The machine operations treated in the foregoing pages arc common
to all metal machining industries. There are many other machines
used in making special products. Women were employed on these
4 U. S. Bureau ofLabor Statistics. Employment of Women in Metal Trades. Summary of report on
i8rn~.itions of women and child wage earners in the United States. Bulletin 175, p. 319. Washington,


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special machines to a much less extent than on the more generally
used machines. Data on the more important special work done
follows.
Two firms report that women operated hand and automatic planers. ,
While the automatic planing involved no strain after the work had
been set up, the hand planers used foot levers to start the planer bed
on its outward stroke and hand levers to bring it back into position
while radiusing. These girls fastened their work to the planer bed, !
clamped the cutting tools in place with hand wrenches, and operated
the machines. A craneman carried the work to and from the ma- !
chines. One firm employed women to operate Cincinnati shapers on
parts of the breech mechanism.
. Ten firms employed women on automatic gear cutting or shaping
machines to cut spur and bevel gears. These machines were usually
set up by men, since the cutters weighed as high as 100 pounds.
Five firms stated that women's output surpassed men's, one firm
claimed it was equal to men's, and four firms reported the outpu-t of
women as less than men. The reason given for the lessened output
was that the blanks from which gears were cut by women in these
four factories were too heavy for women to put m and out of the
cutters readily. Six out of seven firms reporting on this point are
retaining women as gear cutters or shaper operators.
Six fums reported that women had been substituted on engraving
machines. Power hack saws and burrs were operated to cut off ends
and to remove roughnesses. Automatic slotting machines were used
for screw making. Automatic cutting, honing, and stropping machines were operated by women on razor blades.
Under riveting, four distinct kinds of work were performed by
women for the first time during the war in some establishments. In
six firms women operated a riveting machine which pressed rivets
into two metal plates, thus connecting them securely. The operator
placed the rivet on the plates. By pressing on a foot lever a die was
dropped upon the rivet, closing it. In five firms women worked as a
part of a riveting gang. They heated the rivets at a forge and tossed
them to their fellow workmen. In one plant a woman acting as rivet
heater for two gangs of men was going to quit work because of insufficient pay. But the men chipped in among themselves and raised
her wage to $2 per day, as it was money in their pockets to have her
stay. A woman acted as "holder up'' in only one plant. In this
occupation she pressed a hammer against the head of the rivets while
the riveter beat on the rivet. Eight firms reporting on the 1919 labor
force had retained the woman riveters or rivet heaters.
In turning iron, steel, brass, and copper into rods, bars, wire, or
sheets, machines are used that differ entirely from those used in cutting
forged or cast parts to size. Women were substituted for men on but
a few of these machines. They fed and guided strips through rolls
wn.ich gradually reduced the metal to the desired size, one girl standing on the feeding side, another on the receiving side of the rollers.
They placed tubes between rollers on presses to straighten them.
They cut or trimmed sheets to specified lengths on shearing machines.
They fed plates into slitting machines and removed them after they
had been cut into smaller sizes. Scrap was cut up on alligator shears
and balled on automatic machines. None of this work required
much skill; it is more akin to manual labor. Undoubtedly much of


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it entai1-ed heavy lifting, as two firms state that women were not
strong enough to succeea in their mills. But data on the artnal size
and weight of the ingots handled in the eight mills in whic.h women
were satisfactory were not available.
·
In wire making, whether in wir-e factories or in electrical plant ,
women wound wire on bobbins. The loosely coiled wire was hrought
to their ma-chines, the ends were drawn through swift. and over
trolle:vs onto the revolving bobbins, the operator merely tending the
machine after it• was threaded. The bobbins were then t aken to
stranding machines where the wire was twisted into rope under the
watchful eyes of the woman operators. Other wires wer braided;
that is, insulated with tape and cotton thread. Women tended a
number of braiding machmes, the work con isting of threading the
machine and watching the taping and braiding. If the insulating
is not done correctly, the wire must be pulled back to the place where
the error occurred and the work done over. When these machines
are not equipped with automatic stops pulling heavy wire back on
the reei is heavy work. This and the placing and removing of the
wire spools on the shafts is the only heavy worK entailed in the. e wiremaking occupations, and usually men are employed to attend to these
tasks.
CRANE OPERATING.

This was performed by women in steel works, rolling mills, and in
machine shops, nine firms having employed them in this capacity.
Great difficulty was encountered in securing women who were ahle
and willing to spend their working hours riding high above the floor
in cages, lifting by machines and shifting by machmery heavy pieces
about at the orders of the men. Four of the nine firms did not think
the women employed as able as their men crane operators.
When an efficient woman was secured who could do the work and
liked it, she seems to have made an exceptionally fine crane operator.
She is reported to be a better judge of distance, to be quicker, to be
more careful of the lives of the workers beneath her and to meet with
fewer accidents. At the Watertown Arsenal the men in the forge
shop requested that the woman crane operators be retained. Two of
the seven firms covered which reported on their 1919 labor force
retained their crane women. As a whole, however, thi did not
prove to be an occupation especially well adapted to women.
CORE MAKING.

Women had been employed in foundries as core makers for many
years before the World War. In the last few years, however,
their .employment in this occupation has not only been extended to
factori€s which had nev.er employed woman labor before, but their
services in plants in whi-ch they h.ad worked on simple, light cores for
115 or more years have been used on the more intricate and heavier
cores.
Among the establishments reporting on substitution during the
, war 26 included core making among the new occupations for women
·' in their l_}l.ants. Seven of these firms were making casting:S of agri1 cultural 1mplements; the others were doing a jobbing business in


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castings or making stove, shell, car-wheel, locomotive, automobile,
or grenade castings.
Cores-parts of molds occu:(>ying the spaces that are hollow in the
:finished castings-are made either by hand or machine. The hand
core maker stands or sits on a table on which a supply of sand is available. 3 The mold ..which she uses is made in halves and is. called the
" oore box.'' The halves are securely clamped together while she fills
the hollow box through an aperture with the sana in which adhesive
materials have been mixed by the foreman. With 11. mallet she rams
nails and wire into the sand to add to its firmness. When the sand
has been rammed into all the hollows and several vent holes made
she opens the core box and turns the perfectly formed core out onto a
metal plate. Success depends on the proper ramming of the box and
on the deftness with which the core is turned out. The core will fall
apart if it is not firmly made or its projections and corners will get
broken if the box is opened clumsily. The same care must be bestowed on each core made or it will not turn out a perfect one, in which
case it must be done over again. To be able to make cores of many
shapes quickly and perfectly requires dexterity and experience. The
simplest small cores can be made successfully after a few days'
experience-in fact some women can do them after a few trials-but
experience is needed to learn how to ram and turn the more intricate
shapes.
·
In machine core making, sand is fed into the machine throuo-h
chutes from the floor above or by shovel. It is then blown into the
core box by compressed air. The core maker removes the rammed
box and turns it out onto the plate as in hand core making.
The cores made in foundries vary in size from 1 inch to many
feet and the range in weight is correspondingly large. Lack of
muscular strength in arm and wrjst prevents most women from
making the heavier cores successfully unless mechanical devices are
provided, as she must handle the core box filled with sand easily
and must be able to lift plates with a number of cores to shelves
from which thev can be taken to the bake ovens. The heaviest
core made successfully by hand by women in the 26 firms which
reported replacing women by men weighed 45 pounds. Another
firm stated that on cores in the making of which pivots, hoists, and
hinges were a regular part of the shop equipment, the highest record
held by men on the size under consideration was 70 per day whereas
a woman attained the record inark of 160 per day. On the other
hand, the three firms stating that women's core output averaged
75 to 90 per cent of men's, said, "The work was too heavy for
women.''
Just as the point at which core weights become too great for
women to handle successfully from the viewpoint of output varies
in the opinions of employers, so the amount at which core weights
become too great for women to handle from the viewpoint of health
v aries in fixed standards. Pennsvlvania and Ohio limit the combined weight of core, core box, and plate that women may handle to
1.5 pounds, New York statute fixes a 25-pound limit, whereas Massachusetts limits weights to be lifted by women to 40 pounds. The
Foundry Safety Code of the American Foundrymen's Association and
a Clay is used for loam molding, sand with adhe5ive materials for green sand molding.


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National Founders' Association states, "No fem ale employed in a
foundry shall lift any obj ect exceeding 35 pounds in weigh t unless
she uses m echanical means by which her effort is limited t o 35
pounds."
·
That women make successful core makers not only on small cores
but on m edium-sized cores is evidenced by the fact that over fiv-esixths of the :firms reporting on the comparative output of men and
women stated that the work of women was equal or greater than
men's in qualitv and quantity . There seems to be nothing inherent
in the making of small cores themselves that can be classed as heavy
or unhealthful work, and there is much that is attractive. Opposition to the employment of women as core m akers has arisen from
other causes. First, the molders' union considers core making as
one part of a molder's apprenticeship. Women enter the foundry
as core makers and continue to be core makers through the years,
thus cutting off one stage in the training of the man apprentice.
So opposed are the mold ers to the en try of women in to foundries
that women are not only barred from th eir union but they endeavor
to stop the ex tension of their employment in the industrv .5 Secondly, core making has been frowned upon as an occupation for
women, because it was often done in a corner of the foundry proper
amid heat, smoke, fumes, and dirt, or in a poorly ventilated room
near a bake oven, from which smoke escaped. Advanced foundrymen r ecognize that such a condition entails needless exposure for
either m en or women core makers. The zinc oxide fumes arising
from molten brass cause "brass colic" in both m en and women,
although it is claimed that women and bovs fall victims to the
disease more readily. 6 The smoke in the malleable and gr ay iron
foundry and from bake ovens is irritating to m any workers of both
sexes. Modern foundries have their core rooms entirely cut-off from
the melting and baking rooms. The atmosphere is as free of disturbing or harmful elements as an office room. The sand is fed
through a chute to each worker and the plates are carried to and
from her bench on an overhead trolley or on moving belts. The
noise of machinery of the usual factory 1s absent.
. All core rooms could be as pleasant as m any already are. The
laws of Pennsylvania and New York and r egulations of the Stat e
Board of Health of Massachusetts prohibit the employment of
women in rooms that are not free of the foundry fumes, gases, smoke,
and heat. The laws do not, however, prohibit the making of cor es
in such surroundings as long as women are not the core makers.
Women have been ·so successful in small core making that twothirds of the firms reporting on post war conditions are continuing
to em~lov women in this capacity. In the words of one foundryman_: ! Women have come to stay in the core room. * * * Only
by elevating core making to an attractive occupation can foundrvmen hope to hold the services of efficient women workers." 7
V

• See the International Molders' Union rules expelling members who teach women an y parf of the molders' trade. Appendix B, p. 158.
s Uayhurst, Emery R.i A. M., M. D ., Occupational Brass Poisoning; Brass-fotmder 'Ague, p. 5.
1 Employment of fema e labor in the foundry , by W. L. Churchill, The Foundry , December, 1917, pp.
519-520.


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Fourteen firms reported that women were employed either as
acetylene or as electrjc arc welders in positions at one time held bv
men. These women fused together small steel and aluminum parts,
plates, wires, radiators, shells, and tubes. In acetylene welding the
parts are placed in holders, the torch is lighted and , the flow of
acetylene and oxygen regulated until the correct flame is secured.
The torch is then applied to the edges to be welded. As thev melt,
a wire is heated and allowed to drip over the seam. On tubing,
the torch is held in a machine while the seam of the tube passes
through it automatically. In electric arc welding the two parts are
placed in adjustable holders and are brought close together. As the
current is turned on, it jumps from one piece to the other, causing
them to fuse.
In both tYPes of welding the light which the worker faces is exco sive. Sometimes the eyes are protected by a mica screen placed
between the operator and the work; more frequently colored goggles
served as a protection.
There is considerable sparking in electric welding, which causes
the molten metal to spatter in all directions. 'l'o prevent burns
many women wear gloves and some shield their faces with masks.
About 85 per cent of the firms stated that women's output was
as good or better than men's on thB work done. One shipbuilding
firm found, however, after some experiments, that welding in sh:pbuilding was "too hard, too hot, and too dangerous" for women.
Half of the establishments reporting on 1919 labor conditions had
retained women as welders.
SOLDERING.

Soldering is not new work for women, but 16 firms stated that they
had employed women on this work during the war for the first time.
Most of the firms manufactured various articles of sheet metal, such
as cans, kitchen utensils, lamps, oil stoves, and jewelry. The parts
to be cemented were cleaned and a flux applied. The workers fused
solder on the joint by means of a heated copper bit or a blow-pipe
flame.
·
Although this work require little skill, one-third of the firms
stated that women did less work than men. A little over one-half
of the firms had retained women as solderers in the fall of 1919.
INSPECTING.

Women had earned a reputation as inspectors many years before
the metal working indu tries employed woman labor. Examining
cloth for flaws in weaving, clothing for faults in sewing, food f~r b.ad
spots, and cans for tiny leaks had trained women's eyes, quickened
their sense of touch, and developed the habit of con taut alertness.
But they needed more than this to succeed in the machine and instrument shops. Here very often parts have to be accurate to the
thousandth of an inch. Women employed as inspectors had to learn
how to use gauges, read micrometers, and vermier calipers. Many
learned to read blue prints and to use the scleroscope.


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Eight_y-three firms, or about throo-tenths of the metal manufacturing firms reporting on the occupations in which women were employed
for the first time in their factories, used women as inspectors. Only
50 reported the actual numbers employed in this capacity, but these
alone had 4,721 inspectors-a larger number than was substituted in
any other occupation in metals. Women inspected raw materials,
made floor and final inspections. In shell manufacturing alone they
gauged the external and interior measurements eight times.· For
interior measuring a paddle gauge was used; for the head tap test, a
standard screw; while micrometers told the accuracy of 'the external
cuttings. Thes:e inspectors did not have to lift the heavy shells, for
they were moved past them on rollers. In brass and copper mills,
women inspected and tested rods and tubes after -the drawing and
in the finishing room. All parts of gun sights were scrutinized by
women. Many parts of machine guns, pistols, and revolvers were
g.auged for inaccuracies. Piston rings, gears, screws, and other
machine engine and motor parts were carefully examined. Some
women b.ecame expert in inspecting tools and checking them over
with drawings after they had come from the tool shop. Many other
plants depended very largely on women to catch faulty castings or
machinings.
.
About two-thir-ds of the firms reporting on the relative output of
men and women inspectors declare women to have been as fast or
faster than men. One firm states that its records show women to have
turned out 20 per cent more than men on 3-inch trench-mortar
shells. But more indicative of their real success is the fact that
-over 70 per cent of the firms reporting on 1919 conditions had continued to employ women for inspection work.
BE

:rcu

WORK A

:rn

ASSEMBLING.

Much of the other work done about a foundry or machine shop
is of necessity hand work. When the parts are of a size that can b e
worked on at a bench to advantage, it is commonly called bench
work. Over 13 per cent of the firms reporting on occupations in which
women were substituted for men on metals stated that women were
employed at bench work. Some of the work reported under assembling and inspecting was bench work, and in all _probability some of
the work reported under bench work was assembling or inspecting.
For statistical purposes, however, the three groups are tabulated as
reported on the schedules.
One of the operations which women performed at a bench was
chipping castings. The casting was fastened in a vise unless it was
sufficiently large to be stable without being held. The girl held a
chisel at the point at which the casting was to be cut while she struck
it with a hand hammer or pneumatic hammer. Where the hand hamm.er was used, muscular exertion was necessary; when the blow was
struck with a pneumatic hammer, air furnished the pressure, the
women simply regulating it by pressing on a trigger.
Filing was done by women to a much greater extent than chipping.
Eleven firms reported that women were worked full time on this operation. Here, too, the work is usually fastened in a vise while the ·woman
runs a hand file back and forth in a straight line over the surfaces to
be fiP.ished. Standing is usually 'necessary on outside surface filing,


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as muscular strength must be exerted to finish the surface properly.
Corner filing can sometimes be done while seated, the object being
held between the knees. Seven. out of 10 firms, comparing output,
stated that women did as much or more work than men. Only three
out of eight firms reporting retained women filers in 1919.
Included in bench work, especially in electrical and instrument
factories, is the operation of small drills , small lathes, small punches,
broachers, taps, and reamers. These tools are used to drill, bore, and
finish small or irregular parts. The handsaws were also used to cut
off ends.
A few women were employed in "laying out," that is, ma1·king
pieces in such a manner that the machine operator will know the
exact location and nature of the operation to be performed. This
involved a careful reading of blue prints, and accuracy in the use of
drawing and measuring instruments. It is probably as skilled work
as any performed by women in machine shops, and is therefore
significant, even though but a few women were involved.
Nearly 73 per cent of the firms comparing output stated that
women equaled men on bench work. Approximately two-thirds of
the number of plants reporting on 1919 conditions had retained
women on these operations.
.
Women had been employed as assemblers of small metal parts
before 1914. The war not only extended their employment for the
first time in this capacity to many factories making delicate machines
or instruments, but it sent them into machine shops where parts of
medium size were assembled. During 1918 women were substituted
for men in assembling very delicate instruments, locks, typewriter
parts, sewing-machine parts, adding-machine parts, rifles, airplane
parts, hardware, cutlery, tools, gears, transmissions, and joints of
• automobiles; centrifugal governors, and radiators for engines; electric
motors, switches, and switchboards; bombs and shells; in the assembling of many other parts; and in aiding in machine erection.
Many processes were involved in the assembling done. Not only
were all of the tools named under bench work used by assemblers,
but the machine screw driver and power riveter played important
parts. Soldering or painting or lacquering was sometimes· a part of
the assembler's work.
As shown in Table 33, 81 firms reported that women had worked
in men's places on assembling. Over three-fifths stated that their
output was equal or better than that of their male predecessors.
Two-thirds of the firms reporting on 1919 labor conditions had
retained their women assemblers.
GENERAL FACTORY WORK.

Other handwork done by women in and about metal-working factories did not diff~ in character from that done in factories working
up other materials. Such occupations as fall under laboring, trucking, packing, weighing, cleaning, supervising, elevator operating,
and electrical work will therefore be treated after . discussing the
more specific ty es of work on which women have been substituted
on each materia.
·


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ELECTRICAL OCCUPATIONS.

Much of the work on which women were substituted in electrical
supply manufacturing has been covered in the section on metal working
occupations, for the material for which electrical apparatus is made
is very largely metal. All electrical plants of any size have their own
machine shops and tool rooms, where lathes, millers, grinders, slotters,
and drills were operated by women to some extent during the war for
the first time. In the sheet metal department women were substi. tuted on punch presses and on soldering. In the wire department
women took men's places as winders and braiders. As these occupations have been fully described in the foregoing pages, only such
work as was peculiar to the electrical industry will be treated here.
vVomen had been employed on electrical work for some years before
the World War. The 22 firms stating that 897 women were employed during the war on work which had been done by men previously used their services in occupations in which they had already
been successful in other plants. Consequently the substitution
brought about by war conditions did not open new fields for women
in purely electrical work; it increased the number of plants availing
themselves of women's services on these lines of work and al o increased the size of the parts on which women were used.
The 22 firms substituting women for men during the war employed
women on work in motor, dynamo, generator or transformer manufacture, or in processes in the making of switchboards, wiring supplies, batteries, and electrical instruments. The principal work taken
over by women in these plants is described in the following paragraphs.
WINDING AND INSULATING.

Winding armature coils in form was done by hand. The wire as it
is wound from a spool is tensioned by being clamped between blocks
and then is wound about a shape by hand. After the requisite number of strands have been wound ab:out the shape, they are hammered
until they fit the shape perfectly. The girls cut the ends and remove
and tie the shaped coils.
Coils of various kinds are insulated or "taped" or "wrapped" in
several different ways. The largest coil covered by women-turbine
coils-weighed 59 pounds and were placed on tables. Field coils,
weighing 32 pounds, were held in supports at a convenient height.
On these sizes, the girls wrapped mica strips or cloth tape or varnished
cambric tape by hand. The wrapping must be done so that the ends
and sides of the shaped coils will have the required thickness. In
order that it may be even and tight, a great deal of hand pressure is
necessary. Where the coils were held in supports the woman workers
moved about them. Where they were held on tables the women
had to turn them about in order to cover both sides. Smaller coils
are insulated by _machine. Sometimes the spool of tape is revolved
electrically while the operator moves the coil, to which a tape end has
been attached, in a manner that will give an even wrapping. On
other machines the coils revolve while the operator holds and guides
the tape about it. Insulating with plain tape is easier than insulating
with varnish~d tap~ or mica strips, for the varnished tape is sticky
9847°-20--8


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and makes the hands black, while the mica strips must be applied with
sticker.
Winding magnet spools, transformer coils, and resistance coils consisted of running wire froni reels through a press onto wooden revolving spools or paper shells or tubes. The operator guides the wire hack
and forth so that the spools are wound evenly. Fine wire must he
guided carefully to insure smooth winding, whereas heavy wire falls
into position almost of its own accord. On the other hand, the tension
on the heavier wire is greater and the operator has to exert some muscular effort to control the winding. The winding of compensator
coils is a more com licated process. The core is revolved on a stand
by the left hand while the operator feeds tape around it. Corner
pieces are put on and bound with varnished fiber and wound with
wire. Copper strips are placed on the sides of the core and are soldered, while the entire core is covered with tape.
Women proved as successful as men on each type of winding and
insulating and much better than boys. All wo~t except the lifting
of heavy coils, was light. The only physical di!tlculty encountered
was a callousing of the hands on hand wrapping with varnished fabric.
The spools of wire for winding were brought to and taken from the
woman operators by men.
ASSEMBLING AND CONNECTING ARMATURES .

The assembling of small armatures has been considered women's
work in large electrical plants for a number of years. Medium sized
work had also been done to some extent by them. After 1914 the
numbers of women doing not only the small sizes but the medium
sizes was increased. Armatures having narrowed slots and on which
coils of solid metal were used were also turned over to women to do
•
during the period of labor shortage.
The purposes for which the armature is to be used determines the
method of assembly. Each armature core has a specification tag
attached when it reaches the assembler and the work must be done
accordingly. While there is considerable variation in the assembling,
the followmg description will suffice to indicate the kind of proce ses
involved. The armature cores are placed on blocks or turntables ·
bv men. The girls usually run a file over the sharp corners of the
teeth of the armature core before they insulate the arc with paper
strips. The end supports must also be insulated with tape. The
coils are then inserted according to the sp cifications and hammered
into place, and the insulation folded over the top of the coils. The
leads are turned up radially for attachment to the commutator
lugs. The commutator is brought to the table and set in place on
the armature shaft by men. The leads are then bent down into
the commutator lugs. The girls test with low-powered bulbs to
make sure that the circuit has been completed, and if the windings
are correct the joints are soldered. A laver of insulation is wrapped
over lead windino-s and binding hands applied. In some small
armatures, the girfs also put binding bands around the coil.
This work requires deftness in the use of hand tools and some
muscula.r strength. It is as skilled as any work turned over to
women in the electrical shops. When the work is put into position


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and shifted by men, or automatically, there can be no strain to the
woman assembler.
·
TESTING.

W onum replaced men to some extent in the testing of motors for
resistance and excitation up to 500 volts, and in coil winding te8ting ·
to a much higher voltage. Wrule one girl holds the leads on the
motor, another takes a reading, and a thira makes the entry. Should
anv of the girls touch the ends after the connection has been made
anv accident would occur. There is small possibility of this happening, however, as the girl holding the leads needs both hands to grasp
them in order to make the connections. The coil testers work alorn.
As they test for resistance and insulation up to 5,000 volts, the
dangers of electrocution are ever present in tnis occupation. Girls
had been employed at this work for two years and as yet no accident
has occurred.
MICA WORK.

Women have been employed in the mica depa.rtments of electrical
establishments for many years. A few firms, however, turned some
of their work in this division over to women during the war. Large
presses were then operated by women to cut mica insulation into
aiff erent shapes. The punch was brought into position by pressure
on a trip as in metal punching work. Hand screw macliines were
also used. 1'he fiber strip is fed into the machine automatically.
The operator heats it in a gas iiame while she brings the sliditig
turret, holding the shaping tools into position. After the fiber is
turned, the turret is removed and a cutting tool cuts the strips to
proper length. This machine is like the turret lathe, except that
the _tools shape the heated material by molding rather than by
cuttmg.
.
In one plant women removed the excess compound from the spools
·with an oil-dipped cloth and a knife. The work was very dirty, but
involved neither skill nor strain.
MISCELLANEOUS ELECTRICAL WORK.

Sockets, buttons, keys, plates, and plugs that are made out of a
gum and shellac compound were molded into shape on hot hydraulic
presses by girls. While the work varied with the object to be
shaped, generally speaking, the operations are as follows: At the
side of the operator is an electrically heated plate on which slabs
of the compound are kept at the proper temperature. The girl
screws the parts of her mold together and puts some of the compound in it. The mold i'3 put on a hot-press bed and the ram brought
1nto position and removed by turning a hand screw. The heated
mold is removed with a cloth and the object taken out. This work
is neither difficult nor dangerous, but the heat near these hot, presses
is often excessive.
Gir1' were first employed on lead making in one of the establishments during the war. The leads are made by cutting wires to
1ength and pressi!n~ metal ends on them. The ends are then soldered.
Much of the light bench work was turned over to women. Like
other assembling, this involve·d drilling holes, screwing parts to-


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gether, and painting ends by hand. In one establi~hment flashlight cases were made by women. The tin bottoms were put into
the cans and soldered. The paper tubing was made and joined to
the metal ends. Inspection of varied small parts was also a part
of the work on which women were substituted.
Only two electrical firms expressed general dissatisfaction with
women's work. One firm stated that woman machine workers were
"less reliable and more inclined to floating than men and the discipline in the departments where men and women worked suffered
considerably." Another firm that used 114 women on assembly
and inspection said that their output wa.s 10 to 15 per cent lower
than men's. All the other 18 establishments in which ·the work
of men and women was comparable reported that woman's work
had proved a decided success.
WOODWORKING OCCUPATIONS.

The number of lumber and lumber reworking establishments which
attempted the em2loyment of women during the war on work that had
never been considered within a woman's capacity gives undue importanc~ to the matter of substitution in woodworking occupation~. For
although many firms were forced by acute male labor shortage m their
respective districts to make ventures in woman employment, the numbers of women actually employed per firm were less than in the other
man-dominated industries. The 152 lumber firms reporting on the
occupations in which women were substituted for men employed, during the war, on an average but 17 women in these positions, whereas
the smallest average number substituted in other industries (electrical
occupations) was 41 women. 8 This situation was due in a small degree
to the fact that little expansion in labor forces was necessary between
1914 and 1918 in the lumber industry as a whole, and only such plants
as were essential to the war were later given any place on the preference lists for fuel, material, or labor. But more largely was the
limited substitution due to the character of the work to be done and
the conditions under which the trees were felled and manufactur·ed
into finished lumber. That'' the logging camp is no place for women"
seems to have been the opinion of men who tried to turn over some of
the work in camp t" women. A northwestern sawmill man,ager
states : '' Women were enthusiastic at first but when the novelty wore
off and the weather got bad they were ready to quit. None have
applied for work since." "We found they (women) could not stand
the work of handling lumber, so replaced them at the earliest opportunity," said one manager of a southern sawmill. A planinO'-mill
operator seems to voice the QQinion of other men who attempted substitution in planing mills: "We do not think women should be or can
be successfully employed in lumber manufacture." Many women
· employed in these three branches of the lumber industry seem to have
shared the opinions of their employers with regard to the work they
had done for they left these jobs either before or as soon as the _armistice was signed. Table 32 shows the extent and success of substitutions of women in various branches of the lumber industry.


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32.-EXTENT AND SUCCESS OF SUBSTITUTION OF WOMEN FOR MEN DURlNG
AND AFTER THE WAR EITHER THROUGH DIRECT REPLACEMENT OR THROUGH
EXPANSION IN ESTABLISHMENTS ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE AND REMANUFACTURE OF L'UMBRE.

TAB LE

Firms

Firms.

reporting
work.

\1·omen's

Total

Branch of industry .

:~:ff~ 1!cl~~i;tuted. or bett"er

Reporting
~~t~~- 0~~~;:tn
women. substituted.

than
men's.

ot as
satisfac- Not comtory as parable.
men's.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - - Furniture manufacture ....................
Veneer mauufacturc .......................
Logging ramps, sawmills, and.plauing mills
Woodwork on airplanes aud seaplanes .....
Box making and cooperage ................
Shi~glc, sta v~ barr2l hcadLng, and other
1ml1 by-pro ucts ........................
·w ork on sashes, doors, and other builders'
material .................................
Woodwork on musical instruments ........
:Miscollancous woodwork . .. ......... . ... ..
Total ... . ...... ................ ... . .

l

l

35
17
41
1 7

34
16
37
6

H

6

22
12
18
6
11

14

14

686
457
269
268
213

1
2

1

16

16

197

6

s

2

10
4
10

10
4
10

121
113
221

5
4.

152

l

1·15

7
3

2
9

-·--------- -- -----;3 ---------7
~ -- - I
91 I
42 1
l 19

1 Two firms making furniture also manufactured airplane parts and neither reported on the success
of women' s work.

When smaller lumber was to be handled and the work could be
done under factorv conditions the number of women substituted
during the war was greater, and some of them were retained after
the armistice was signed. But even in these lumber remanufacturing factories the largest numbers of women were employed in
positions requiring little training or skill- positions that had been
held by boys or young m en. A few, however, were employed on
each of the more important woodworking processes. While these
were few in number their work was ·indicative of what women can
or can not do in emeegencies. A short description of the numerous
occupations in which women were substituted for men follows.
Laboring work in lumber yards and mills is considered, however,
with laboring work in all other industries.
MACHINE WORK.

Unlike metal-working machines, many woodworking machines
require not only an operator, but a person to stand at the back of the
machine to remove the :finished stock. The latter p erson is called
an "off-bearer." He must keep the rear of the machine clear of
·stock and pile it on trucks to be taken away. Sometimes he does
the trucking. On certain work he also acts as" examiner," inspecting each piece as it comes out of this machine. Twenty-six firms
employed women in men's positio~s as off-bear~rs during the war.
The 22 reporting on numbers substituted approximately 350 women.
The e worked in planing mills removing boards from the cutting
machines. They took staves and shooks away from machines,
removed veneer from heated rollers, and carried newel posts, door
panels, and chest parts awav from machines. In furniture factories
they worked back of saws, pfanei:s, and sanders. In 19 factories their
w01:k was considered equal to men's, in 7 factories less than
men's had been. The lessened output was due in part to the fact


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

tha.t men holding the e positions did their own trucking, whereas
the woman workers merely kept the machines clear of stock.
-0-venteen firms had retained women in off-bearing positions in the summer
of 1919.
Women were substituted as operators of circular saws, band saws,
jointers, planers, boring machines, mortisers, an<l sanders. The
women employed on each type of machine were few . Sev-en firms
used their services as saw operators, but of these only five reported
on the numbers employed-totaling 15. The circular saws-disks
of steel with saw teeth on their circumferences-were of the ripsaw
and crosscut saw type, the ripsaw hav'ing its teeth ground to cut
with the wood grain, and the crosscut saw cutting across the grain.
The first-mentioned machine was used to cut parts for furniture to
the proIJer width and to saw wedges. The operators, asceTtaining
the width to which the stock was to be cut, clamped a guiding fence
at the given distance from the saw. The saw was raised to the
proper height and the power turned on. As the saw revolved the
operator fed the stock to the machine by hand. When the ripsaw
was used, the stock was held against the gauge fence by the operator
while the table ~oved backward and forward carrying the stock
against the revolvmg saw. The band saw was operated by women
on furniture and to cut holes on ribs for airplane wings and in making
templates. It is an endless band of steel, with saw teeth on one
edge, which passes over and is driven by wheels. The stock had the
shape of the desired cut marked upon it. The operator presses the
wood against the saw, turning it so that the saw follows the outline
as marked. Although four of the seven firms reporting on occupational substitution declared women's work to be as satisfactory as
men's, onlv one firm retained their services after the signing of the
armistice.
Wood-planing machines were operated hy 25 women in four establishments. These machines reduce the stock to the proper thickness.
The machine table was first raised to secure a given cut. The stock
is then pushed into the ma.chine where rollers carried it to cvlindrical
revolving knives a:nd other rollers threw it out of the vmachine.
Jointers were operated to make the bilge in staves and tr11e their
surfaces. The stock was pulled over the revolving cutters by hand,
the operator having to exert uniform pressure on the cut encl of the
board in order that the entire surface would be cut in the same plane.
Slots were cut to receiv:e the ends of other pieces of wood on mortisers.
The stock was rested against the guiding fence and rolled against the
mortising tool for successive cuttings by means of a handwheel.
Boring tools were fed into wood parts to make holes either by turning
a handwheel or by pressure on a foot lever. The firm employing
women on the latter type machine stated that they were unabfe to
operate the machine as continuously as nee Rsary to keep up with
the steady flow of work.
Undoubtedly more women were substituted in sanding machines
than on any other wood-working machine. The exact number
employed can not be ascertained, however, as many firm'"' failed to
s_pecify whether the work done was hand or machine sanding. The
drum sander used required only to pe fed as the feeding rolls carried
the work over revolving sandpaper-covered drums. On the belt
V


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sander, the women had to press a sanded revoh·ing belt against the
stock, a hand block being used for tbis purpose.
Other machines were operated or fed by a smaller number of women
than operated the machines described above. Some of these, like
the "hog machine," were operated automaticall_y, the women merely
watching to see that the material was fed in evenly and that nothing
choked the machine. Others, like the dovetailing and sticker
machines, were similar in operatio~ to the knife and saw-cutting
machines described above. The lathe machines used in turning
stock were similar in mode of operation to the metal-turning lathe .
While among the woodworking machines operated by women
were some of the most dangerous-the circular saw and the jointer- tho safety orders issued by the accident commissions in the several
States in which they were employed undoubtedly afforded them
protection. These orders state that all circular saws and exposed
cutting knives must be guarded with hoods, and devices must be
installed to prevent or lessen the possibility of stock being kicked
out of the machine onto the operator. The modern woodworking
machine is also equipped with exhausts to carry sawdust and chips
out of the machine as fast as they are made. Although agents did
not report on the extent to which w·o odworking machines were
guarded, thev spoke of the freedom from dust in some factory room
in which the~ women worl ed, but also of the dust-laden atmosphere
and shavings-covered floors in the factories where exhausts were
inadeg_uate.
Altliough not important from the viewpoint of numbers, it is
interesting to note that some women were employed in sawmills
to control the movements of lo~s as they passed over the timber deck
down the incline leading to the s-awyers. The work involved the
pressing of buttons or movin&' of hand levers which controlled rolls
or chains. While not hard tne operator had to be alert and very
careful. In a logging camp the women acted as ''signalmen" in the
woods. The engineers operating the log-moving machinery were
stationed at some distance from the man in charge of log moving.
It was necessarv, therefore, to have women signal the orders of the
latter to the f ormor. "Siinalwomen" and "lever-control women"
were reported to have renctered ver_y good service, but they did not
remain at their work when men could be obtained for their positions.
IIANDWORK.

As in other lines of manufacture, so in lumber, the exact number of
women employed in the different occupatiom1 is not obtainable either
because many were shifted from one kind of work to another or becau ' e some factories kept no record of employees by occupation.
However, in the woodworking factories reporting on the number of
women substituted in each occupation, 1,071 women were doing some
kind of handwork other than laboring work as against 795 machine
operators or helpers.
The handwork performed varied with the product manufactured.
Sorting and matching was done in planing mills, veneer mills, and
builders' material mills by 95 women. They sorted boards according
to the grades which had been marked upon them by men or women
graders. Miscellaneous saw-mill stock was picked over, as it passed


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down conveyors, to determine for what product •it could best be used.
In veneer factories, the sorters not only examined the cut pieces, but
piled it up like reams of paper. Barrel factories employed women
to match staves, floor-making mills to match flooring. Much of the
material had to be gotten ready for shipment. Eighty-two women
piled staves, shingles, molding, and floorings on presses or in racks in
required quantities or tied these bundles with cord. These workers
were called bundlers or tiers.
Assembling work was done during the war by 446 women. This
consisted very largely in fitting parts together and ~luing or nailing
them into position. In box factories, women carefully laid glue over
the tenons and other surfaces and fitted each end together. In barrel
factorirs pieces of wood were glued up to make stock wide enough to
be cut into barrel heads. Over 110 women laid veneer by hand on
airplane parts and tool boxes after they had covered the surface with
glue. They were considered a "great success" at this work, which is
light but requires care in matching and placing the veneering. In
airplane factories women worked on ribs, O'luing the web into a slot
cut in the flanges and binding the flange and web more firmly together
by winding linen thread around them. Furniture factories employed
only 68 women in men's places as assemblers, more than half this
number assembling small cabinets, the others acting ·a s cabinetmakers' assistants . Only one woman was reported to have reached
the position of cabinetmaker-or all around furniture assembler.
·
Sound boxes were assembled by women in phonograph factories.
Finishing ranks next to assembling in the numbers of women employed in it during the war for the first time. Unlike assembling, it
was done entirely in furniture factories, airplane and musical instrument factories. There are a number of processes involved in finishing highly polished woods. Women were employed on all of them,
sometimes specializing in one operation, sometimes learning each
branch of :finishing work. The first process on which women were
substituted involved rubbing the stain into the wood and then working in a filler to close the pores. After this the piece was sanded by
hand or machine, the machine sanders outnumbering the hand
sanders. One hundred and twenty-five women applied coats of
varnish to the smoothed parts, being careful to apply just the proper
amount. The final water and oil rubbing and polishing was done by
but 19 women. With the exception of hand sanding, women are
reported to have made a success of :finishing. In hand-sanding five
out of seven firms state that women's output was very much less than
that of their men predecessors.
Before furniture can be shipped it must be wrapped with excelsior
pads or in burlap. Sixty-seven women did this work during the war.
Chairs were the principal article wrapped. They proved successful in
this work in five out of six plants. In the sixth plant it was stated
that the women did not draw the strings tightly enough and had
therefore to be dismissed.
Among the more interesting handwork done by women was the
marking of patterns on wood for the band sawyers. The women had
to use discrimination in picking the lumber for each piece of work.
The pattern must then be laid on the wood so that imperfections in
the wood were avoided and also so that the piece of wood was cut to


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the best advantage. The pattern was then outlined on the wood:
This work was performed by 41 women.
Painting was done in three factories on work in which men had been
employed before 1914. Some women painted pails, others painted
wagons and wheels. Camouflage painting was reported as having
been done by women in one factory.
Although the signing of the armistice and consequent canceling
of orders for airplane parts, ammunition boxes, and other war products lessened the numbers of handworkers needed in veneer mills,
the service rendered as veneer layers, sorters and packers, and kiln
hands by women was so satisfactory that they have been retained in
12 out of 31 factories. One veneer manufacturer states: qWe are
keeping women from the fact that they do their work nicer, and while
it takes more of them to do it, it is a little more satisfactory." Other
factories shared this opinion or considered women's work as good in
quantity as men's work had been.
·
In furniture factories women were retained as finishers in 14 out
of 18 plants, -as packers in 5 out of 6 plants, as pattern markers in
2 out of 3 plants, as. assemblers in 3 plants. The three musical instrument factories substituting women as wood assemblers
and finishers were continuing the employment of women in the summer of 1919. As sorters, bundlers and tiers of staves, lathe and millwork workers, women were dismissed in 8 out of 13 factories reporting on the subject. Although they seem to have made good in
these special capacities, these women could not also be used successfully about the mills and yards for miscellaneous laboring work which
men sorters, bundlers, and tiers had been called upon to do. Their
services were therefore discontinued as soon as men could be gotten
to replace them.
CHEMICAL OCCUPATIONS.

Outside the field of explosive manufacture little substitution of
women occurred in operations peculiar to chemical industries. While
5,151 women were substituted in processes connected with the manufacture and loading of explosives, in the manufacture of fertilizers,
illuminating and heating gas, baking powders, so9,p, drug preparations,
oils, paints and varnishes, carbon and polishing preparations, chemicals, n.cids, dyestuffs, extracts, and the refining of petroleum, 45 firms
reported a substitution of but 1,784 women. Of this number, 473
were engaged in strictly chemical occupations, 838 were laborers, 24
cleaners, 62 were engaged in sewing operations, 9 as truck and auto
drivers, 189 in the packing, wrapping, and shipping of goods, and 189
in miscellaneous occupations not directly related to the chemical
industry. Even among the 473 women first named, but a few were
employed at the same process. For this reason only such occupations -as are characteristic of the kind of chemical work done outside
of explosive manufacture will be described. Table 33 presents the
figures on women's substitution in the manufacture of chemicals.


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Another powder plant reported that women were satisfactorily
employed in the laboratory. Three expert women chemists were
put in charge of 30 to 40 high-school girls who were used as routine
analysts.
A description of the work done by the women in the first-mentioned
plant follows: The powder comes to the finishing-house presses in the
form of cvlindrical blocks about 10 inches in diameter and 1-5 inches
long. Each press has a screen against which the block is placed.
The block is forced through the screen and out of the end th.rough
die heads in circular macaroni-like strips about an eighth of an inch
thick. The powder strips fall from the press into buckets.
The press operator sets up the empty buckets on the press table,
cleans out the dies through which the powder is pressed, and changes
the dies when clogged. She operates the press and regulates the
speed by simple levers. The operator must prevent clogging, regulate the speed so that the powder runs smoothly, and see that the
buckets revolve properly, adjusting any belt which slips. She must
also keep watch of the powder as it runs to be sure that the pins in
the dies are not badly off center.
The cutting-machine operators carry the buckets of pressed powder
from the press table to the cutting table, feeding the free ends of the
powder into the machine. The operator starts and stops the machine by a simple lever and regulates its s:peed by the Rame lever.
The operator removes the tangles in the strmgs and keeps them fed
into the machine as they break off, watches the buckets into which
the cut powder runs, and removes them when filled, placing empty
buckets under the outlet. The machine is fed by hand through perforations in a plate. The entire work of cutting is carried on within
the machine. The operator is responsible for getting her powder cut
as quickly as possible so that it will not dry, for watching the machine
to see that it does not heat, for removing filled buckets, and for
watching a sample of the powder to see that it is properly cut.
The cut powder is fed from a hopper onto a moving belt which
runs down the center of the tables at which the sorters are seated.
The women pick out by hand the defective pieces of powder, allowing
the good powder to run on· down the belt into the bag at the end of
the table.
The temperature in the various drying rooms must be kept constant. Temperature readers record the temperature of the powder
in every car every hour. They regulate this temperature and keep
it at a certain level by adjusting the valves on steam pipes and on
cold-brine pipes. Each operator usually has a number of cars under
her care and goes from house to house looking after them.
Moisture testing is laboratory work, and is done in a specially
oquipped office. The tester weighs out certain amounts of samples
of nitrated cotton, which are placed in a miniature press. After a
time the samples are removed and again weig-hed, t he loss of moisture
being computed by the loss in weight. This operation requires fine,
careful work.


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LOADING EXPLOSIVE,.

Separate plants were maintained for the loading of bags with
powder, and shells with powder and high explosives.
When the metal parts of the shell are completed and assembled
the shell is sent to the loading plant, where it receives its highexplosive charge, and is fitted into a case filled with the proper
amount of propellant powder. Much of the lighter work connected
with the charging of the shell with a high explosive was done by
women, the work varying somewhat with the plants reporting. Two
shell-loading plants reported that 255 women were employed by them.
The shell arrives at the loading plant with a wooden or metal shipping plug screwed in its nose. This plug is removed by a simple
machme operation. The operator lifts the shell, holding the plug
against a revolving shaft set with steel points which grasp the plug
and unscrew it. Except with the very heavy shells, women do this
work easily.
_·
To assist in the handling of the shells in the various processes,
large. plants were equipped with conveyor belts running at a convenient height, from which each shell was removed and upon which
it was placed after the operation had been concluded.
. After the plug has been removed the empty shell is washed in a tank
of hot water ancl caustic soda to remove any grease or grit that might
have gathered. Women did some of this work.
The interior of the shell is then painted, and the next operation
performed by women is the weighing of the empty shell on a small
platform scale and chalking its weight upon the side.
The shell is now ready for filling with the high explosive. In all
cases the pouring and pressing of the high explosive was done by men.
When the main explosive charge has-sufficiently cooled, a cavity is
drilled into the charge into which the steel jacket holding the booster
or detonating charge will be fitted. Women carefully clean the threads
of the shell to remove any-grains of explosive that may have collected.
The next operation which girls perform is the measuring of the booster
cavity with a gauge to aetermine whether it has been accurately
·
drilled and is the correct size.
The booster cavity is shellacked, and the projectile is complete except for the insertion of the booster and fuse,. which usually were
packed separately and not inserted until the shells arrived abroad.
The cartrjdge case into which the projectile is to be inserted is loaded
with smokeless powder. In this process women performed the following operations:
The mouth of the case is first polished. The case is held and turned
·by a lathe chuck. The operator holds an emery cloth within the
mouth of the revolving case, in this way polishing the inside of the
case for several inches. The surface is then wiped clean, and the case
removed from the chuck.
The stamping of the number by a hand press and the applying of
paint to a groove in the case to identify the character of the ~hell are,
simple operations
.
The cartridge cases are shipped to the loading room, where they are
filled with smokeless powder. This is a most important and precise
operation, involving great care and accuracy. The powder is weighed
on carefully adjusted automatic scales, and the measured charge.


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L OADING SMOKELESS POWDER.

From report of Benedict Crowell : America's Munitions, 1917-1918.

THE NEW .POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

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poured through a funnel in to the cartridge case. This work was in
all cases done entirely by women.
The projectiles areflaced in the loaded cases by men, and the edges
ofevery case crimpe to hold the projectile securely.
•
Women are also employed in the packing house, where the finished
shells are placed in cans, and the cans pack:ed in fiber containers.
Shells destined for guns larger than 4.7-inch are not supplied with a
fixed amount of propellant powder in cartridge cases, but are fired
from the guns by the explosion of powder which has been loaded into
silken bags, the number of bags placed in the breach of the gun behind
a projectile depending upon the size of the shell and the distance it is
to be sent.
Four bag-loading plants which closed at the time of the armistice
employed 9,716 women, weighfng powd_er, filling bags, _stitching ~he
ends of the bags by power sewmg machmes, and operatmg putteemg
niachines.
The largest of these plants employed 6,500 workers, 5,200 of whom
were women. From this establishment most enthusiastic reports
were received of the efficient and patriotic service rendered "by women
in this most important and hazardous work.
As in the shell-loading plants, women weighed the powder on automatic or hand scales. It was then distributed to different rooms,
where bags of raw silk with ends made double ply were filled by other
women with the powder which had been weighed out. The openings
in the bags were sewed on machines. The bags were then ~ssembled
and were wrapped together, one bag directly- on top of the other.
This wrapping or putteeing was done by hand or by machine. The
put teeing of the larger charges was done entirely by machine.
Concerning the work done by women in the bag-loading plants, the
Assistant Secretary of War said :9

,.

Filling the bags is a precise and delicate operation. Chances can not be taken or
averages struck. Errors may mean the possible loss of battles. A battery commander
who has figured his range and who is about to drop a number of high-explosive shell
on an enemy battery must know exactly how much powder he has behind his charge.
If more powder is in the bag than he calculates on, he will overshoot his mark; if less,
the shell, instead of dropping upon an enemy battery, may explode in the midst of his
own advancing troops.

- Fuses were usually loaded at separate plants and then shipped to
the shell assembly points to be packed and sent overseas with the projectiles for which they were intended.
One firm reported the employment of 215 women loading fuses.
The women disassembled the metal parts which were shipped mto the
plant. This was done by hand or on a friction machine. The disassembled parts were then set in perforated wooden blocks. The parts
to be loaded were sent down a conveyor past the loading operators .
In one type of fuse loading the operations are very simple and done
by hand. They consist simply in placing detonators, inserting
washers, painting socket threads, and screwing on sockets. The next
operations performed by women on this type of fuse is the wraQPing of
the fuse by tape. Th.is is done by hand or on a machine. The cap
is then crimped on the neck of the fuse by a B attle crimping machine.
The operator simply places the fuse in the position and removes it.
9 America's Munitions, 1917- 18, Report of Benedict Crowell, Assistant Secretary of War, Dir('ct°or of
Munitions, Washington, 1919, p. 113.


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THE NEW POSITIO

:'I'"

OF WOMEN IN A !ERICAN INDUSTRY.

In other types of fuses the parts, except the relay cups receiving
charges of black powder, were loaded by the pellet method. Black
powder is first made into pe11ets by a pelleting machine. These pellets are placed by hand in the parts to be loaded; the parts are set up
in trays and the pellets compressed to the proper density by a press.
The· relay cups are loaded with loose powder. The cups are set
up in frames of six:. The powde1· is deposited by a charging machine
and compressed by .a pressing machine. The parts are taken to the
subassembly room and are fitted together by simple hand work.
The .completed fuse is assembled by bringing together the loaded
components, the other metal parts from the disassembly room and
the detonators.
The work of fuse loading was light and simple; the machines used
were easily operated; the work done by the women required no
strength, but a good deal of skill and dexterity.
One firm reported that 50 women '' did good work'' in the loading
of small cartridges. The propellant powder and bullet are placed
in the cartridge case and the case crimped to hold the bullet in place.
This is done by the operation of a machine fitted with dials, loading
containers and punches. The empty cartridge cases are placed upon
a dial which automatically carries them to a ratchet dial, which,
with the aid of a spring punch, places them in position. The dial
is indexed from one position to another until the loading process is
completed. The first operation is loading the case with powder.
This is held in a large funnel. A slide operated by a crank motion
allows the correct amount of powder to be placed in each case. · As
the case is moved to its next position a small punch drops, packing
the powder~ Another powder charge is then added. The cases are
next transferred to a position under a dial loaded with bullets held
points up. The bullets are placed in the cartridge cases by means
of a punch op rated from a camshaft under the machine. The next
operation crimps the top edge of the case, in order that the bullet
may be securely held, and the loaded cartridge is then ejected from
the machine.
MISCELLANEOUS CHEMICAL OCCUPATIONS.

The following description of some of the work with chemicals on
which women were substituted indicates the general character of
the work on which they were employed during the war in chemical
plants manufacturing products other than explosives.
A plant engaged in the manufacture of glue and fertilizer substituted 10 women grinding bone and 10 more in the handling of glue
nets. The grindmg operation entailed the constant shoveling of
bone into a mill where it was drawn under stones by collectors and
when sufficiently ground automatically discharged. The han<lling
of the glue nets required care and strength, but no special skill.
Cakes of solidified glue were taken to the drying room and placed
upon nets, which are stretched upon frames from 6½ to 8 feet long
and between 3 and 4 feet wide, and which are set one over the other
upon supports about a foot apart. The cakes must be carefully
watched and turned two or three times a day in the drying process,
the frames sliding out like a drawer for this purpose. The nets
must be shifted about from time to time to allow the glue to dry


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evenly. Both the grinding and net handling were found to be too
heavy for the women and they were dismissed.
'fhe substitution by a gas light company of 226 women as lamp
trimmers, meter readers, and repairers, stove adjusters, collectors,
assistant chemists, candlepower testers, and valve regulators resulted
most satisfactorily, and their employment in these capacities will
continue at the wages formerly received by men workers. As lamp
trimmers, meter readers, and repairers, the women were slightly
less satisfactory than men. In the other operations they were
equally efficient.
Another company used 14 women in gas lamp maintenance.
The work consisted of systematic visiting of stores and residences
to clean, adjust, and repair gas lamps. This firm found that women
were less efficient, that they did less work and used more material,
increasing the cost of the lamp. Only two women have been retained.
Their rate of pay is 83 per cent of that given men engaged in the same
occupations.
A soap manufacturer reported 20 women substituted for men in
the operation of automatic machines cutting slabs of soap into cakes.
The slabs were placed on racks on a table-like machine with interchangeable steel cutting heads and pushers, which automatically
cut the slabs, separate and spread the cakes upon the rack, eject the
finished rack from the machine and return to position for the next
frame. The women performed their work satisfactorily, although
their output was only 75 per cent that of the men, and their rate
of pay was fixed at . the same proportion. Women have not been
retained, because the plant is not equipped for the employment of
both men and women.
Girls were substituted for boys in the feeding of automatic soap
stamping and wrapping machines at the same rate of pay by a manufacturer who found his 60 substitutes less efficient than boys, but
retained them because he was unable to secure boys, while another
plant which sub tituted 107 girls at a 40 per cent higher rate on
automatic wrapping and packing machines reported equal output,
greater J·eliability, and higher standards of work.
In the manufacture of cream of tartar and tartaric acid, 15 women
were substituted on centrifugal machine dryers and two as press
operators. Where one man formerly operated one centrifugal
machine, now one man and one woman operate two, the man filling
the machines, the woman washing and emptying. Much better
results were secured by this arrangement, and women are to become
a permanent part of the factory organization. The women tend the
centrifugals better than the men did, and the output has increased.
The two women who were put on presses have done so well that more
are to be employed. Their output has been equal, and the superintendent finds them more reliable. Notwithstanding the success of
these substitutions, the women in this plant receive a rate of pay
approximately 10 per cent lower than the men.
Reports from cotton oil mills indicate that work in these establishments is too heavy for women, the five firms concerned having all
dismissed their woman workers, chiefly colored women, with the
exception of one mill which employed seven colored women crushing
seed. This employment is to be continued as the women did satisfactory work, although it was necessary to substitute two women


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128

.THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

for one man. The operation consists of feeding seeds into the iron
hopper of a hydraulic crusher equipped with belt-driven steel and
iron rolls. The feed is started and stopped by means of a lever clutch
on the feed roll shaft.
Two plants manufacturing paint and varnish used women as can
:fillers. One superintendent who substituted 16 women estimated
their output to be only 65 per cent of that of the men. They were
unable to gauge the filling as accurately, and although employed
only on the lighter cans, it was necessary to give the.m the assistance
of two men to lift and carry. The women are now paid 25 per cent
less than the men receive, but the superintendent stated that their
rate would be raised if they been.me more expert.
Another manufacturer decided that women were not equal to this
work and abandoned the experiment, although his record of production shows the relative output of women to have been 84 per cent.
One woman was substituted as a mill operator, crushing, mixing,
and grinding pigment which had been mixed with oil. Her employer
reports that her work was satisfactory and her output equal to the
output of men on the same operation, but adds that it is so difficult
to get .women capable of doing this work that he will not employ
them further.
In petroleum refining, six firms substituted 545 women, 369 of
whom were laborers. All but 50 of these laborers have been dismissed, as the work was found to be heavy and unsuitable for .women.
In one refinery 25 women were substituted as testers in the laboratory. These women were not chemists, but. were trained to do
simple routine work, ·such as testing for specific gravity by means
of the hydrometer. The girls have given thorough satisfaction, and
their employment will be continued.
Five women geologists were taken on in the places ()f men by
-another oil_producing company. Their work consisted in making
geological contour maps of the producing fields and in general correlation work by means of well records. They are also conduc1ing special investigations. Three women geologists are still employed bythis firm, which has found their work most satisfactory.
However, the women have been employed only in indoor work,
as outdoor work, the manager states, is not suitable for them.
Another interesting and permanent substitution by oil companies
is that of 52 woman service station operators, who are .giving service
equal to that rendered by men displaced and receiving the same
wages.
Ten women were substituted as wax weighers in a chemical plant,
manufacturing blacking. Their rate and output were 75 per cent
of that of the men displaced, and although their work was satisfactory
as a whole, they were less efficient than the men. After the emergency passed these girls were put back on their old work. The sama
factory is retaining in their positions four girls promoted to be
fore women over the women inspectors. Their work has been most
satisfactory.


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RUBBER-WORKING OCCUPATIONS.

The great increase in the employment of women in rubber-working
occupations between 1914 and 1919 was occasioned by the making
of gas masks, a product the manufacture of which was begun during
the war and ended to a large extent after the signing of the armistice.
Although men were employed in rubber factories to make the masks
·during the experimental period, when the work was put on a factory
production basis, it became a woman's industry. The more than
10,000 women employed in making gas masks are not therefore
'included among the women substituted for men in the rubber
industry.
The largest number of women taking men's places in rubber factories were employed in different tire-making processes. In some factories women had been employed in these occupations before the
war; in others the work was undertaken by women after 1917 for the
:first time. Seven rubber-tire factories reported the work on which
women replaced men. Si:x specified the numbers so employed, reporting 1,294 women. The seventh factory placed approximately
3,000 women on tire work and other rubber work that had been done
by men prior to 1917, but this :firm did not specify the number used
on each type of work.
.
Tires are made in different ways by different factories. A brief
description only, therefore, of the fundamental processes involved in
·each occupation in which women replaced m en will be given. Sheets
of rubber-coated fabric were cut into strips by machines operated by
women in three factories. These strips were built up to the desired
thickness for tire builders by another group of women. This was
done by stretching strips over a drum or a table, and after cement
had been applied, by folding other strips over them until the correct
number of layers were cemented together. Other women took men's
places in making inner tubes for tires. These women placed sheets
of rubber over hollow pipes and cemented the edges together. An
aperture for the valve had also to be cut in the rubber. Sizes and
names were stamped on these tubes in another section of the factory,
and when the tubes were complete women boxed them for shipment.
Beads or the parts of the outer shoe of the tire which fit into the
rim grooves were wrapped and trimmed by women, while others cut
and trimmed the tread, or the top piece of rubber in the shoe which
comes in contact with the road. After the tires had b een built up
by men the smaller sizes were finished and inspected by women. As
these tires are built upon an iron core shaped like the inside of the
completed tire and weigh -from 14 pounds up, it was necessary
for firms to employ men to place the tire on the finishers'
wheel or to install lifting jacks to take the tire from the truck to the
wheel. The finishers adjust the tire on the wheel and apply to it
several layers of fabric and gum. After each layer is applied the
finisher holds a roller against it to make it adhere while she spins
the wheel ;:i,bout. The rough edges are then cut off with a knife.
The inspectors placed the tires on spools with the aid of lifting devices
in two factories, but in a third factory they had to do their own lifting.
They examined the tire for flaws as they revolved it about the spool
and then threw it aside. As the tires are constantly being lifted on
9847°-20-9


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THE NEW POSITION OF WO IEN IN A fERICAN INDUSTRY.

and off the spools, the work involves much strain where lifting jacks
or other devices were not used. For special makes of tires wire coils
were taped and cords were cut. Women also prepared patches for
repair kits and aided in tire r epairing. Finally they weighed and
boxed the finished tire. Women had not been dismissed from any
tire-making occupation in the summer of 1919; however, two firms
that employed them as finishers and inspectors, with and without the
assistance of men lifters, stated that as these women dropped out
they would be replaced by men, as the lifting was too severe for them
and it was too expensive to employ men in the capacity of lifters.
The success of women tire makers is said to be due "to their deftness, quickness, and neatness."
Relatively few women were substituted for men in other departments of rubber factories. In one large plant, women replaced men
at the machine which washed rubber and which refined and strained
reclaimed rubber. Other women pulled apart sheets which were
stuck together when they came from the rollers and sprinkled whiting
between them. Six women were substituted for men in bootmaking
'in one plant. They worked as a team, spreading cement on the rubber edges of boot parts and applying these parts to the cloth linings
fitted on wooden lasts. The cemented boot was rolled even by
means _of a hand roller. In another factory rubber dough stamped
into sizes to fit heel molds was put into molds in a hot hydraulic
press by women. When the heels were thoroughly baked, the press
was opened and the hot heels removed. Women wore gloves while
tending this press in order to avoid hand burns.
The only other occupations in which women were reported to have
replaced men was in cutting and splicing fa bric for balloons.
Wherever the work on which women were substituted during the
war in the 11 rubber factories reporting continued during 1919, the
services of women were retained.
LEATHER-WORKING OCCUPATIONS.

Fifteen hundred and forty-five women were engaged to fill places
left vacant by men during the war in 20 leather-working establishments. Of this number, 442 were substituted in tanneries, 1,043 in
shoe factories, and the others in harness, belting, and miscellaneous
leather-goods manufactures. Those employed in tanneries gave satisfactory service and they were being retained in 1919. In shoe factories, however, even though some of the new work done by women
was considered equal to the work which men had done, all but 210 of
the positions in which women were sub~tituted were filled by men as
soon as men were available. The women who had occupied these
positions left voluntarily or were transferred to the fitting and stitchmg departments where the working force had always been composed
of women. One shoe firm which retained about a third of the women
substituted makes this statement concerning the results of their emploJment during war time:
Women carried us through the labor shortage, but are not a permanent proposition,
excepting on the operations mentioned above. 10 The use of women had not previously
been made (in these operations) merely because the departments had always been 100
per cent men, and the introduction of one or two girls into a room of 100 to 150 men
rn Sorting, inspecting, tending machines, and other minor operations.


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would have had an undesirable effect upon the discipline of the room. During, the
last two years, however, this prejudice has been broken down, and we are able to use
a few girls in a large department of men without causing any comment or being considered an rmusuaI thing.

In the seven tanneries reporting on the occupations in which
women were substituted, women were not used until after the skins
had been tanned. Then 289 women were employed either to feed
sheepskin into a machine, which pressed out the superfluous grease,
or to pass pigskins through rollers, which gave them a smooth finish.
Other women measured the size of the skins by hand or in an electrical
measuring machine and recorded its dimensions. Sorters then separated the skins according to quality, while trimmers· cut it into the
more important divisions on a cutting machine. Fifty women looked
over fine upper leather and rubbed down stains and scratches. As
has been stated, women proved very successful in these replacements,
and their services were continued after the signing of the armistice.
The largest r(}placement in shoe factori€s occurred in the cutting
departments. Prior to 1917 women were not employed in these
departments save as skivers of uppers-that is, in fe~ding leather cut
into parts for the uppers of shoes into a machine which finished the
edges. After our entrance into the war, not only was the employment
of women as upper skivers incre,ased and extended to insole skiving,
but they filled places vacated by men in the cutting of uppers, linings,
and trimmings. The cutting of uppers and linings was done almost
entirely by machine. The operator placed the leather or cloth on
the· cutting board of a power press. A die of the required shape was
placed on the material in a manner to permit of cutting the piece or
pieces to the best advantage. By pressure on a foot lever or by pulling a hand lever the head of the machine was brought down on the
die with sufficient force to cut out the material. Tongues, eyelet
facings, and other small parts of uppers were cut out by hand by
"trimming cutters. " Small pieces of leather left over from cutting
the larger parts of the uppers were spread on cutting blocks, the die
placed upon them, and struck with a maul. As soon as men were
available woman cutters were dismissed except in one establishment,
where a few were retained as trimming cutters.
While fewer woman were substituted as "sorters" and " inspectors," 92 out of the 142 reported to have replaced men were retained.
These women sorted ou.t soles according to the texture of the leather.
Heels were examined for wea.ring qualities, counters for imperfect
ones, and uppers for defects. The assembled shoes were looked ov r
by inspectors and arranged in pairs. Woman sorters were considered
as fast workers as men, though woman inspectors turned out only
three-fourths as much work.
Among the other work done by women was the molding of fiber
board into counters or pieces to be placed in tho back of the shoe
between ·the leather and lining. The operator placed a curved counter
into tha mold of her machine. The press head was brought down
upon it by press'Ure on a foot lever and thus molded the piece into the
heel shape. Machines of an automatic character requiring only to
be fed and watched were operated by women in the heel and innersole departments.
In one harness shop an attempt was made to train women to
become harness makers, but it did not prove successful. In another


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NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

-shop they- were employed at finishing harnesses, operating speed
drills, and doing labeling. At this work women did as much or more
than their male predecessors, and their services were continued after
the war was over. A belting manufacturer found thorough satis- · faction with women who had replaced men in his factory as welt
manufacturers. matchers, and sewing-machine operators.
TEXTILE OCCUPATIONS.

.

Although spinning and weaving and sewing have always been done
by woman in the textile industries, the war gave occasion for their
employment in these capacities in shipyards and airplane and sea. plane factories.
Four shipbuilders employed women to spin oakum which was to be
. used for filling seams between the planks of ships or to stitch fabric
into raft covers. The work was done well, but the women were retained in only two firms after the armistice was signed.
· In seven airplane and seaplane factories 1,428 women were
employed on textile work which men had done in the earlier days of
this industry. These girls stitched strips of linen together on sewing
machines, making a double-lapped seam. Enough strips were seamed
to make pieces of fabric longer and wider than the wings of the planes.
Other girls stretched this seamed fabric taut on the wing frame, fastening it by tacking or sewing it to the edges . Many other women
~ere employed to sew taut linen to the fr ame. At this two women
~orked together, one standing on either side of the wing, each taking
a stitch and passing the threaded needle through the linen to the other
side. After the wing was covered with cloth, girls gave it several
coats of a special moisture-proof substance called " dope." A few
·applied varnish over the dope after it had been dried.
After_the signing of the armistice only one of the seven firms reporting had retained any of its women workers. This was due to the fact
that these airplane and seaplane factories closed down or curtailed
their production to such an extent as not to need women. The output
of women on these textile jobs had been considered approximately
equal to the output of men workers.
ABRASIVE-WHEEL AND GLASS-WORKING OCCUPATIONS.

Women wore not reported to have been substituted for men in
stone and clay products factories save in the capacities of laborers and
cleaners . In making various minerals into abrasive wheels, 159
women were used in men's positions. Plate glass and mirror manufacturers reported 28 substitutions, while optical goods makers
employed 501 women on glass work.
In the abrasive-wheel factories three women acted as research
laboratorians. Their work was satisfactorily performed and their
services were retained after the war had ended. Twenty women
molded small wheels by h and and by air pressure. Fif ty-nme edged
disks and cleaned and shaped the rough wheelG on grinders. This
work involved holding the disks or wheels against the revolving
grinding wheels. Sometimes water flowed over the wheels, lessening
the dust thrown into the air but making the hands of the worker sore.
Only 13 women were retained in this occupation in the summer of 1919.
Those remaining worked on the smaller-sized stock. Others employed


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in these factories packed wheels for shipment or wheeled and trucked
sand and other stock.
Mirror and plate glass factories used the few women substituted to
scratch, polish, clean, and pack glass.
So much of the work done in the optical instrument industry during
the war differed from the old peace-time products and so great was the
expansion within the industry that it was difficult to separate the
women employed to fill men's places from those filling new positions.
However, the work done by either group was similar in character. It
. consisted almost entirely m grinding and polishing lenses, mounting
and inspecting them, and in assembling the instrument.
Three out of six firms declared women were appreciably slower than
men at grinding and polishing. At mounting and assembling women
did as much or more work than· men, while at inspection they were
slower than men in two out of three factories . According to the
women's branch in the industrial service section of Army Ordnance
D epartment the shop su_perintendent at the Frankford Arsenal claimed
women surpassed men m engraving and graduating work. In a factory making panoramic sights, the Government officer stated that the
rate of reject10n fell from 50 per cent to 15 per cent when women were
introduced in the shop.
UNSKILLED MANUAL LABOR.

In 68 of the 562 establishments that form the basis of this analysis
of substitution of women in men's places, women were substituted to
·do unskilled manual labor directly connected with manufacturing processes. While the largest number of plan.t s employing women as
laborers were lumber factories, the greatest number of women-838were em:ployed in this capacity in chemical factories.
Regardless of the industry, the work done by the 2,184 women
laborers consisted very lariely in transporting material from one
section of a factory to another on trucks or by wheelbarrow an.din
loading and ·unloading trucks or freight .cars. The character of the
work accomplished can be ascertained by an enumeration of some of
the tasks. For iron and steel mills women unloaded limestone and
scrap iron from freight cars. They wheeled and shoveled sand for
core makers and carried plates and boxes of cores in the foundries.
They- trucked and shoveled fertilizer in chemical factories and put it
into bags. They wheeled and shoveled coal and sand in a gas plant.
They washed barrels and trucks and ·acted as " roustabouts" in cottonseed oil mills. In rubber factories workers were supplied with stock
and the finished work was taken away from them by women. Bricks
and abrasive wheels were carried away from machines in other factories. In the lumber mills women piled boards in layers to permit of
a free circulation of air to dry the lumber. They piled the stock on
trucks and trucked it from factory to yard, from yard to factory, and
from machine to machine. Shipyards employed 403 women to do
beck-and-call service wherever necessary.
None of the work required skill. Some of it involved handling
light parts, but much of it necessitated lifting and pushing heavy materials. In only a few cases were the adual weights hancUed by
women given, the maximum weight pushed being 750 pounds. Because many women could not lift all the sizes of materials han(lied in


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN Al\1ERICMT INDU" TRY.

a factory and therefore had to be assigned onl,r to the lighter work,
or because the physical exertion required was su<>.h that th y could
not do as much work as men, women were not considered a great
success in 35 <;mt of 57 faetories reporting on output. The reason
for their success in 22 factot-:ies may be illustrated by the following
experience :
The women take lumber from piles and put it on trucks. Two women handle the
lumber together. Men always carry one board no matter what its weight; while
women carr-r two if they can make it.

Although 22 firms retained women as laborern, the numbers retained were very much less than the numbers employed by these
firms during the war. The 20 firms reporting on the numbers of
women employed in August, 1919, had 230 women doing this oddjob work.

.
MISCELLANEOUS OGCUPATIONS.

1

Among occupations in which women were substituted, but which
do not fall in the other groupings is the assembling of airplanes and
musical instruments. In the former, the work done by men was
either split into parts so that each woman did only a small part of
the work men had done or the women acted as helpers to the men
erectors. For musical instruments, motors were assembled and installed by 140 women, while others felted interiors, put hinges on
doors, and did other glue assembly work.
A fow women were employed as oilers of engines and machines.
More acted as forewomen in departments where the majority of workers were women. Elevator operators in shops and scale clerks were
frequently named among the new occupations for women.
Throughout the industries a few women were employed in positions left vacant by men as tool-crib attendants, stock-room girls,
p~~ckers, and wrappers in the shipping room, and as shop clerks.
When the parts to be handled were not heavy women succeeded at
thesG tasks.
•
At the time-honored work of sweeping and cleaning a large group
of women were employed. In shipyards, sawmills, and lumber mills
262 women cooked and waited on the table or cl aned the houses in
which the employees lived. On such work women were found to be
mora reliable than men had been.
TRAINING SECURED BY WOMEN DURING THE WAR.

The kind of training secured by women in the plant which substituted them for men during the war was in large part responsible
for their successes or failures in their newly undertaken tasks. The
burden of this training fell upon the shop foremen, for public and
semipublic schools were slow to respond to the widening use of woman
labor and few factories had established schools of their own to train
new workers at the time of our entrance into the war. As the war
pro~ressed, more vestibule schools were organized in factories, and
public or semipublic schools opened a few training courses for the
war agent and war implement industries to women, but in the majority of plants the· employer counted oniy upon his foreman to instruct women beginners in the new occupations.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

135

It was not always easy to pick out skilled workmen. .who could im-part their lmowledge to women successfully, the measure ·of success,
·as far as the employer was concerned being the production records
of each department. Many foremen resented the introduction of
women into their divi ion. and did littl-e to aid them in mastering the
w-ork. Others earnestly believ-ed that women were not mechanically
minded and never would be. When pupils failed to comprehend the
moohanical terms the e foremen used and were too timid to ask further -explanation, such foremen cl aimed this lack of understanding
demonstrated that women could not learn the work. Still other
foremen, particularly young men, were overwhelmed with th-e _task
:assigned them. They lacked the courage to bring poorly done work
back to the girl workers, ·s o while the girls cont,inued to make the
same errors, thoroughly confident that they were doing good work~
unfavorable reports concerning their success were being sent to the
office.
But when the manager or superintendent of the plant insisted that
women must be taught all parts of the operation correctly, when
he watched the foremen as well as the woman workers, changing
foremen when foremen seemed at fault and dismissing women who
seemed incapable, the manager or representative was able to find a
foreman who could be and wished to be a successful instructor of
woman beginners as well as supervisor of his department, as the
results in the foregoing description of woman workers' successes
clearly indicate, .
Firms who had thu to rnly on the individual capabilities of foremen as teachers stated that they had not installed special instruction
courses in their plants either because the working force was too small
to permit of this additional expense or because they believed the
processes were too simple to need class instruction. Six man uf acturers expressed the belief that the overhead expense of giving
thorough instruction to women would be too great to make it worth
while because of the short working life of the average woman. In
this connection it is interesting to consider the lessened turnover,
with the obvious attendant decrease in overhead expense, reported
by firms providing training schools in their plants.
Thirty firms visited by the agents who secured data on substitution reported that they had trained their new woman workers in
vestibule schools during the· war. These plants employed 29,989
women and were distributed among the industries as follows: Iron
and steel, 15; automobiles and parts~ 4; airplanes and parts, 1; electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies, 2; scientific instruments,
3; optical goods, 1; photographic apparatus, 1; chemicals, 1; rubber, 2.
These factory schools varied in size from the modest one set up in
one oorner of a large workroom, where five women at a time were
instructed in the fundamentals of their work, to the pretentious establishment which in three weeks passed 2,500 workers through an
intensive course of training.
A typical school wa equipped with facilities for training about 30
women at one time. Arithmetic, blue-print reading, and the us-e of
measuring instruments were taught in addition to the operation of
the essential machines. The length of the course varied from 10
days to 3 weeks.


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THE NEW- POSITION OF WOMEN. IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

The cost of training has been variously estimated to be from $40
to $200 per ne !v employee, the latter figure including the cost of
necessary additional equipment. One firm discovered the cost of
school training to be less than shop training.
Three firms found that the vestibule school materially r duced the
labor turnover. Women who were not suitable left or were eliminated during the period of instruction. One reported that it resulted
in tremendous saving of time, labor, and materials. Nearly all laid
emphasis upon the importance of careful selection and placement, an
object which to some extent at least was served by the training school.
Favorable reports on the increased efficiency of workers who had
received vestibule school training were made by 27 out of the 30
firms maintaining schools. Dissatisfaction with their school experi,ment was expressed by the 3 remaining employers: One, because
women were found to be unsuccessful on the mechanical operation
assigned them; another, because the women while learning in the
school could not produce as much as while learning in the shop,
where they learned more quickly than the men; while the third,
whose girls attended a service school on full pay, found the cost
excessive because of the large turnover during the training period.
Among those reporting favorable results was the president of a
company employing approximately 4,000 women in mechanical operations on fuses and instruments:
We found that the success of women working in factories depends entirely upon how
they are trained to do the work that they never had any training in. If any special
work is to be done, and any special machine to be operated, the women should be
trained in separate departments, so they can learn the machines and learn the requirements before being placed in the shop on regular work among people who have already
been taught the _operations.

Another employer having 1,000 women on machine work said:
The training school equips women with confidence, thoroughness, knowledge, and
speed.

The vestibule s'chool had become a permanent part of the shop
organization in 17 plants in August, 1919. 'The other 13 schools
were discontinued; 3 for the unsatisfactory results described
above; 4 belonged to purely war industries which ceased operation
when the war ended; and 6 so reduced their force and curtailed
production after the armistice that the expense of maintaining trainin9; schools seemed no longer warranted.
The Federal Board for Vocational Education in its report for the
fiscal year ended June 30, 19·19, states that 10,591 women and girls
were enrolled in trade and industrial courses during the year ended
June 30, 1918, and that 10,284 were enrolled during the year ended
June 30, 1919.11
The review given in this report of the trades taught women in
Federally-aided day schools (which is also indicative of the · trades
taught in the evening and part-time school )-dressmaking, millinery,
lampshade making, power o.ewing machine operating, pasting and
leather work, French edge making, embroidery de$igning, perforating, etc.-reveals clearly that these 20,000 women were not in.:.
structed in tho mechanical tasks which so many other women were
ll

Information obtained from Federal Board for Vocational Education.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOlVIEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

performing in factories during these years.
nection states: 12

137

The report in this con-

The occupations for which training is offered are distinctly women's occupations,
and raise no debatable issues.

A few of the semipublic schools- schools open to the public free
or for a small fee-adapted themselves to the new position of women
in industry to some extent. The Rochester Mechanics Institute not
only opened all its courses to women but issued an appeal to women
to take training which would make of them optical precision operatives. The Franklin Institute of Boston, an evening school, also
admitted women to its courses. Other schools, such as the Carnegie
Institute of Pittsburgh, gave special classes in drafting and automobile mechanics to women students to meet war needs.
But for the most part, the attention of public and semipublic
vocational and technical schools was so overwhelmingly centered on
training men for Army employment and on maintaining the growth
already attained in civilian training, that with a few exceptions they
contributed little to the preparation of women for filling the places
left vacant by men in the war agent and implement industries.
The need of offering wider training in the future to the women industrial workers is, however, beginning to be recognized by these
bodies. The Federal Board for Vocational Education recommends
that:
"A study should be made- of the status of women and girls as
industrial workers to determine the field for training agencies, which
should be used and the subject matter to be included in such training." It also points out that "enlarging the scope of women's
work is a matter of breaking down prejudices and seeking an outlook
toward better opportunities for them and a broader vision of what
technical education may accomplish," and urges State boards to
give careful study to the needs and opportunities for the employment
and training of girls and women. 13
Surely there could be no more opportune time than the present to
demolish entirely the prejudices already well broken down by the
dire need for woman's service during the war and by the confidence
in her ability which her efficient performance has· earned from the
employers of labor.
LIST OF OCCUPATIONS IN WHICH WOMEN WERE SUBSTITUTED FOR
MEN.
1. Blast f urnaces and steel worlcs.-"",faking chemical analyses of steel, operating
crane, loading limestone rock on cars, other laboring jobs about the works.
2. Srnelting and refining of brass and copper.-Making chemical analyses in laboratory, shearing scrap.
3. Metal rod, tube, bar, and sheet rnamifacturing .-Feeding and taking off in rolling
mill, straightening tubes, slitting, trimming, operating press, inspecting in tube mill,
inspecting on draw bench, inspecting finishing room, sorting scrap, cutting up scrap
on alligator shears, balling up scrap on automatic machine, oiling roll engines, grind:..
ing on emery wheels, scoming, inspecting and dqing sheets, packing bars, nailing
cases, assorting nails, riveting hoops, operating stencil machine, weighing, trucking,
operating cranes, testing in laboratory, laboring, machining in repair shop and tool
room, shop clerking.
4. Wire and wire goods rnanufacture.-Winding on bobbins, operating stranding
machine, braiding wire, weaving netting, weighing, inspecting, operating speed
12

Third Annual Report of the Federal Board for Vocation ::il Education, p. 70.


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1:. Ibid.,

pp. 66 and 71.

13-S

THE IBW PO ITIO

OF WO.l\IE

1.J:T Al\-IERICA ~ INDUSTRY.

lathes, operating light power press, ope1:ating light d1·illing machine, brazing (witl1
a brazier), lacquering, filing.
5. Found1'ies (iron, steel, brass, alurninum, etc.).-Core making by ha11cl, core malring
by .machine, spraying cOTes, straightening .and soTting nails, distributing and to core
makers with wheelbarrow and shovel, carrying plates and boxes of cores, taking cores
to and from bake oven conveyors, cleaning and packing cores, sorting castings1 grinding castings, chipping with pneumatic hammer and trimming castings, filing castings
by hand, drilling, molding, pulling up molds from sand hed and emptying them,
inspecting, unloading freight cars of scrap iron, cleaning about yar-0s.
6. Stoves andjurnaces.-Tuming and threading radiato1· nipples, bushes, and p.lugs;
assembling radiators; operating. ha~d-s?rew mac~ine. on _gas. stove parts; op~!·atii:ig
punch press on sheet steel; cuttmg 1n tm shops; 1·1veting m t:m sho-ps; assembling m
tin -shops; soldering; spraying and dipping ; bench wo1::k, as ii.ling, .chipping, etc.
7.. Cannon and cannon rnount rnanujacturing.-Rough boring on gun tubes on gun
lathes ; planing recuperator forgings on heavy·planer operated by hand and :foot lev er;
planing recuperator forgings on poweT-driven planer; planing bars on \Vhitcoml)
planer; shaping of breech mechani m parts on Cincinnati shapel'; finishing surfaces
of small parts on plain milling machine· boring and countersinking on tunet lathe;
rough and finished turning on engine lathe of pinions, spindloo, and tumhlers for gun
carriages, plungers, etc.; 1·ough turning and boring axle ends; drilling holes on s~nsitive and radial drills; .grinding plungers on Landis tool grindeTsi· ru::illing the top,
bottom, face, and radius of elevatin°· arch on horizontal miller; mi ling-parts on ertical miller; forewoman -of drilling d.epa1'tment; opeTating automatic screw lnachine;
slotting on breech mechanism; gear cutting: operating power hack saws; bench w01·khand filing of wheels1 hand stamping, miscellaneous ; inspecting.
_
8. High-explosive or shrapnel shell manufacture.- h ell proper: Hand chipping,
bmrs Teffi:OV~d by pneumatic hammeri r~rngb turning to ~·epair eccen;tric fo1:gings .o~
shells we1gh1ng 19½ to 22 pounds; dn1hng on shell forgmgs; forge mspectmg· w1.t11
gauge; rough turning on engine lathes and on turret lathes; facing base square with
bodv on v.ertical drilling machine; boring and teaming of thread on tmret lathe;
mi111ng internal thread on shell nose; finish turning sl1ell body on engine lathe; boring
and facing on special-purpose lathes; operating Wamer & Swasey screw machines; ·
oper.a.ting Blood lathes; opeTating Tapping lathesi -drilling fixing-screw hole 011 -sensitive drill; operating hand-S('rew machines; assemnling ht e pl-a.tes in .sbell lJase with
hand l1ammer; driving in base plates on pneumatic riveters; sawing off square stems
on power saw; filing burrs; cutting out co_p per lJa11ds on punch presses; notching on
punch press and fitting coppe:r driving band; crimping hand on shell by hydraulic
press; tmning and forming driving band-on engine lathe with special for:ming slides
or on brass la-the; stam._ping name and number on Btiss punch press; notcl11..·ng on
emery wheel or by hand ~ith hammer; waslring on revolving wheel; varnishing with
air-pressure machines; painting by hand ; cleaning with cotton~ inserting I_)hlg with
'hana wrench; marl.i:ng; packing ; passing shell from boxes to tah1es; inspecting shells
after l'Ough turning, rough lJol'ing, finish boring, mouth thTeacling, finish tmning,
basing, band tmning, and final inspection, using ga·uge'B and micl'Ometers; :finish
grinm.ng shell and parts. Fuses: Tuming fuse bodies, drilling, milling, reaming,
turret lathe work, engraving, assembling, polishing, filing and bench work, tool crib
work, inspecting, operating punch press.
9 . .Machine-gun and rijf,e rnanujacture.-Rough and finish turning rifle barrel, profiling gun pa1'ts hand milling on cg1.1n and rifle parts, reaming, power milling, drilling,
operating punch press, polishing, grinding rifle lJarrel, filing, mspecting, assembling.
10. Pistol and revolvet manujacture.-Hand milling, machine milling, grinding and
polishing, drill-pl.'ess operating, bench filing, aBsembling, inspecting.
11. Torpedo manujacture.-Threading and bmring, inspecting and ga.1.1ging, J)olishing, assembling:, bench work (small lathe).
12. Navy float manufacture.-Acetylene welding.
13. Cartridge and gJwt shell manvjacture .1a..._Cartridges: Feeding drawing press,
feeding automatic trimming machine, overating case heading macbine., feeding
mouth annealing machine, feeding head tmning machine, fo ding tapering J>I'ess,
feeding p1imer ~king 12resst fee.ding f!hell P.riming. press, feed~ng bulle~ .assemb~ng
press, plate filling for loadmg maclnnes, mspectmg, operating cartridge-ga,ugmg
machine, operating ca1-tridge-clippin0' machine, pn.cking-. Shot and shell: Paper
shell winding, feeding sizing machine, cutting to length, waterp1·oofing, ins:p:ecting
wads and shells, feeding paper shell assembly press . Bullet jackets: ·Operating
punch press, inspecting.
13 The opening of new plants-in this manufacture makes it difficult to determine where th~ lin11 Of
substitution snould bo drawn.


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14. Metal worlc on trench wa1fare niaterial.-Grenades: Core making, inspecting,
castings, operating lathe on rifle, drilling, inspecting, hammer assembly of springs,
fitting plugs, .wax dipping. Bomb parts: Drilling, inspecting gears, packing gears,
operating power punch press, assemlJling timing devices, assembling bombs., painting bombs, varnishing bon:;ibs, inspecting bombs, acetylene welding.
15. Steam or gasoline engine, turbine and punip manufacture.-Cutting blades on.
presses, assembling blades in 1·otor disks and segments, calking tubes into tube plate&
of condensers, assembling pump parts, drilling on governor parts, turning governor
parts on engine lathes, milling governor parts, grinding governor parts., as.semblmg
governor parts, drilling gasoline engine parts, milling gasoline engine parts, grinding
ga~li~e engin~ parts, OJ?ei:ating s_e miauto~atic lathe, operating tmret lathe, erecting,
pamtmg, bearmg babb1ttmg, filmg, packmg, stockroom·work.
16. Manufacture of machines, machinery, and parts.-Cutting, rough and :finish threading, and throating chasers on milling machines; rough and :finish milling on die blocks;
rough and :finish grinding on die blocks; turning, nulling, threading, drilling, and
screw-machine operatin~ on lathe parts; operating milling machines, grinders, turret
lathes, and doing bencn work on milling ma-chine parts; operating enaine lathes,
drill presses, and doing as.sembling on drilling machine parts; operating lathes, drills,
and automatic machines, and inspecting and assembling tool-grinding machines;
boring, facing, and tmning gear blanks on lathe; cutting gears on Fellows gear shaper;
operating Gleason generator; milling teeth; burring, filing, and inspection of gear cutting machine parts; operating power punch press on looms and other machine parts;
milling on typesetting, cigar, weaving, and other machine parts; drilling (sensitive,
multispindle, radial, and vertical) on cigar, weaving, coal-cutting, and other machine parts; operating hand screw machine on various machine parts; opei-atin~ automatic screw machine on various machine parts; grinding parts of various machines;
inspecting parts of various machines; bench work; filing: painting; assembling of
parts and of machines; packing.
17. Tool manujactu,ring.-Centering, facing on engine lathe , boring on lathe,
rough turning on engine lathe, threading on chasing lathe, profiling, power milling,hand. milling, operating automatic screw machine, operating hand screw machine,
drilling, counterboring , tapping , grinding (rough and finish), filing, polishing, operating punch press , bmring, insl?ecting with gauges and micrometers, pasting and
shellacking, carpentering, wra ppmg.
18. Manufacture of cidlery and saws.-Attending saw-setting machines, milling
hack-saw blades and high speed saws, filing hack-saw blades, punching on hack-saw
blades, grinding on saws, inspecting saw teeth, attending automatic cutting machines
on blades, attending automatic honing machines on blades, attending automatic
stropping machines on blades, drilling, threading bolts , riveting pocket cutlery,
assembling pocket cutlery.
.
19. Manufactiire of small machines.-Sewing machines: Drilling, operating hand
milling machine, inspecting with gauges, grinding, polishing, lapping, as.sembling.
Typewriters: Sample writing, :fitting ribbon, grinding nickel bars, soldering type,
fitting paper feed rolls , fitting segment bars, grinding key levers, reaming and tapping;
drilling, assembling , operating punch press, milling, miscellaneous machine operating,
bench work. Adding machines: Making springs, bench assembling, operating drill
press, operating assembling machines, operating milling machines, spot welding.
Cash reg1Sters: Opei-ating drill pres.s, operating hand screw machine, operating milling
machine, riveting, bench work assembling, inspecting, packing, operating for tests.
20. Manufacture of hardware and miscellaneous machine-shop products.-Bolts, nuts,
and screws: Threading bolts, burring nuts, operating hand screw machine on screws,
operating drill press, inspecting. Locks: Milling, drilling, a embling, wrapping.
Miscellaneous builders' hardware: Operating turret lathe, turning on engine lathe,
shaping milling, operating automatic screw machine, inspecting, assembling, packing.
Valves piston rjngs, and :fittings: Drilling flanges, turning on lathe , threading , rough
grinding, magnet heel grinding, assembling, wrapping. Metal mirrors: Wiping.
Scales: Operating punch pres.s, drilling.
21. Manufacture of agriculturali·mplements.-'l'urning and boring on lathes, operating
turret lathe, milling, drilling, operating hand screw, operating automatic screw
machine, gear cutting, rethreading, grinding, operating punch press, .filing, other
bench work, inspecting, assembling small parts, assembling tractors, assembling
radiators, welding, soldering, heating rivets, dry wiping, painting, packing, bowl
~a.lancing, drafting,_tacking canvas, operating crane, repairing, tool crib work, helping
1n tool room, labormg.
22. Manufacture of railway, street car, and field wagon eq'U,ipment.-Metal work:
Drilling, nulling, heating rivets, sticking rivets, threading bolts, operating drawing .
press. Other work: Handling lumber, operating sanding machine, operating planing


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN A l[ERICAN INDUSTRY.

mac:hine, camouflage painting, painting and putting together boxes, mattTess working, assembling switches, scrubbing and sweeping, tool crib working, shop clerking.
23. Metal work in automob1"le manufactu,re. -Operating engine lathe on ax.le and engine
'!)arts; operating turret lathe; operating speed lathe; milling on engine parts; headin~ and slotting screws; gear cutting; stock chasing; drilling (single and multiplellnlls); operating punch press; straightening; bench work; inspecting; electric welding; acetylene weliliug; soldering; riveting; assembling steering gear, transmissions,,
universal joints, etc.; laboring; upholstering; time keeping.
· 24. Manufactitre of motor cycles and bicycles.-Boring and reaming on lathe.s, drilling,
milling, gear cutting, operating gear hopper, inspecting, sanding, helping rivet machine
operator, assembling wheels and other parts, packing, wrapping, time keeping and
shop office work.
25. Brass and bronze fabrications.-Operating speed lathe, operating engine lathe,
operating turret lathe, operating h and screw machine, operating automatic screw·
machine, operating automatic lathe, <frilling, milling, grinding, cutting and punching
on power and foot pres3es, soldering, spring making, filing, feeding for electroplating1
dusting and shining, assembling, inspecting, wrapping, tool setting, time keeping.
26. Manu,factiire of tin and aluminum containers and utcnsils.-Casting white metal;
cutting sheets on shea1·ing and slitting machines; cutting sheets ou punch presses
(power, fo?t, and hand) ; ~ock sea~ing on draw press;_so!deri1;1g; h ea~ing ; flan~ng;
hthographing labels on tm ; welding; buffing and pohsh1ng; mspectmg · wrappmg;
salvaging with hammers, pincers, and mallet; operating motor truck.
27. Manttfacture of lanterns and miscellaneo11s sheet metal work.-Welding, light
punch press work on lanterns, inspecting, buffing, taping, cementing, soldering,
assembling, testing.
2s·. Aluminum manujacture.-Operating rodding anci. carbon setting machines, help-ing machinists, h elping electricians.
29. Silver manufacture.-Polishing.
30. · Manufactitre of jewelry.-Polishing, autopowcr drops, operating P°'"<:> r presses,
swaging and pointing, operating foot presses, drilling, operating auto presses, stone.
· setting on presses, soldenng.
31. Manufacture of rolled gold.-Operating small lathes, helping with rolling, deaning sheets to plate, drawing and tubing.
32. Manufacture of clocks, watches , and watch cases. -C'utting on jewel lathes, threading, fine dnlling, filing, punching on punch presses (power and foot ), sandpapering
cases, dipping and lacquering, stringing plates for electroplating, assembling, packing,
repairing.
.
33 . Manufacture of needles and pins.-Operatin~ power press, roll threac'iing.
34. Instrument manufacture.-Operating hand screw machine, operating spindle
drill press, assern hling, operating precision lathe, operating turret lathe, operating
punch press, operating bench lathe, operating milling machine, operating grinding
machine, operat~ng engraving machine, inspecting, bench work finishing.
35. :Manufacture of electrical apparatus and supplies.-Mak:ing leads; winding in
form armature coils; winding transformer and resistence coils; winding magnet spools;
insulating or taping coils; connecting commutators; assembling and conne ting armatures; testing for resistance and insulation; operating presses, slitters, and hand screw
machines on mica insulations; cleaning spools; molding on hydraulic presses; spooling tissue; spraying; wiring automobiles; press operating on armature bars and plates,
switchboard parts, and meter covers; rolling punchings; lathe operating on armatme
shoulders and on J._>Unchings; milling machine operating on turbine bucket wheels and
brush holders; drill operating on motor and switchboard parts; screw making on hand
and automatic machines; grinding dies; slotting on automatics; stamping and attaching
name plates; spinning caps; tapping; stranding wire; braiding wire; assembling; filing
and bench work; inspecting; operating millers, lather, drills, and grinders in tool room;
designing tools; stock clerking.
36. Meter and electrical instrument worl~.-Scale drawing, jewel shaping on jewelers'
lathes, wiring instruments, lathe work, drilling, operating automatic slotting and screw
machine, cleaning and attaching back plate of meter to cover.
37. Manufacture of baking powder and yeast.-Operating presses for the separation
o.f liquids from solids, washing and emptying centrifugal machines, removing debris_
38. Manufacture of carbun and polishing preparations .-Weighing wax, forewoman
in charge of inspectors, operating small presses, shipping, machine helping in lithographic press department. .
.
. .
.
.
39. Man-ujacture of chemicals, acids, and dyest1~(Ts.-Repa1rmg and washmg m1tts,
filling cans, reading meters, light inspecting, cleaning and sweeping, sewing filled
bags, packing and shipping, operating elevator, operating power sewing machine,
laboring (handling bark), double seaming cans, side seaming cans, operating small
punch press, feeding slitting machine, labeling, operating power presses, stamping tin.


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40. Manufactilre of sm,okeless powder, ?oading of shells,. bags, f~lses, and _cartrirlges.Smokeless powder manufacture: Operating press, operatmg cuttmg machme, temperature readiug, moisture testing, ether weighing, forewomen, commissary work, laundry
work, bac, repa;.ring, routine analysis. Loading shells: Removing shippinO' plugs,
washing ~1ells, weighing she11s, cleaning threads, gauging, polishing cartridge case
, mouth (using lathe chuck and emery cloth), wiping case, hand-press stamping,
painting groove in cartridge case, weighing powder, loading case with powder, packing
shells. Bag loading: Weighing powder, filling bags, operating power sewing machines
on bags, assembling and wrapping bags. Fuse loading: Disassembling fuse parts,
placing detonators, inserting washers, painting socket threads, screwing sockets,
wrapping fuse with tape, operating Battle crimping machine, operating pelleting
machine, operating charging machine, operating pressing machine. Cartridge loading:
O~erating cartridge loading machine.
.
41. Maniifactv.re of fertilizers.- Sewing bags by hand ; trucking, shoveling, bagging,
and loading; sweeping; grinding bone; coopering; tending dry kiln.
42. Manufacture of illuminating and heating gas.- Shoveling and wheeling coal,
sand, etc.; lamp trimming; meter repairing; stove adjusting: meter reading; col-lecting ; assisting chemists: candlepower testing; valve regulators; stock-room checking; cleaning, acljusting, and repairing gas lamps.
43. Manufacture of grease, tallow, soap, candles, and glue. -Handling glue n ets,
mixing room helpers, operating automatic soap-cutting machine, feeding automatic
soap-stamping machine, feeding automatic soap-wrapping machine, operating auto. matic machines for packing soap powder, stitching and riveting boxes.
44. Manufacture of oils from plant, fish, and animal l?je.-Truckiug, handling bags,
sewing, cleaning fillers, crushing seed, laboring, operating power sewing machine.on
bags, oiling engines, operating grab bot gin, sweeping, assisting in cotton press roo;n .
45. Manufacture of paints and varnishes.-Labeling, shipping, mill operating,
filling cans, rag cutting.
46. Manufacture of druggists' preparations.-Pressing tablets, labeling, janit 1fs'
work.
47. Refining of petroleum.-Operating punch press, operating drill press, tool~house
checking, operatip.g se:t>vice station, testing in laboratory, geological work, drafting,
laboring, waiting on table, ddving electric truck, drhing automobile, driving horses,
cleaning yards.
48. Logging camps.-Signal work, cooking, helping in kitchen and dining room
("flunkies"), taking care of bunk houses.
49. Sawmills.-Controlling chain and live-roll movements, operating hogging
machine, piling lumber, trucking, oiling, cleaning or sweeping, handling lumber in
yard, taking care of boarding house (" flunkies"), shop clerical work.
50. Planing mills.-Off-bearing, grading, !3orting, bundling; tying, marking, loading.
51. Manufacture of shingles and stave~, barrel heads , and other mill by-products. Stock picking, operating cut-off saw, operating jointer, operating small planer, operating matcher, operating barking machine, helping machine feeders, off-bearing,
bundling, tying, shingle packing, loading, laboring.
.
52. Manufacture of sashes, doors, blinds, moldings, and other kinds of builders' rnaterials. - Operating cut-off saw, operating mortising machine, operating sticker machine, machine helping, operating sanding machine, off-beanng, assembling and
pumicing sashes, bundling small moldings, matching parquet flooring, tying flooring,
finishing woodwork, cleat gang work, loading and unloading trucks, glazing.
53. Wooden packing box and cooperage manvjactiae.- Operating boring machine,
operating grooving machine, operating nailing machine, operating matching machine,
operating-stapling machine, helping rip sawyer, off-bearing, printing, painting, laboring, matching and sorting staves, operating sander, helping hoop machine, operating
pail-sealing machine, glmng, putting on wire seals, assembling pail heads, packing,
sweeping.
54. Veneer manufacture.-Operating veneer saw; off-bearing; sorting, inspecting, and
piling; feeding ~nd taking away from dryer; assembling and gluing; splicing; operating borine- machine; feeding dovetailing machine; sawing wedges; operating veneer
taping machine; operating drum sander; stockroom work.
55. Manufacture of furniture.-Marking for sawyers; operating band and circular
saw; operating trimmer; boring; mortising; planing; sanding (belt and drum); operating lathJ; lmob turning; spindle carving; press carving; composition carving;
stenciling; cleaning carving; machine helping; off-bearing; cabinet making; helping
cabinetmakers; nailing and gluing; finishing; staining; filling; varnishing; hand
sanding; rubbing or polishing; sponging; gluing on ornaments; setting mirrors in
frames; assembling small cabinets; making type cases; rubber-stamp molding;
making pads; caning chairs; operating elevator; labodng.


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142

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

56. Manufacture of miscellaneous woodwork.-Wheels: Operating spoke-finishing
machine, boring felloes, sanding felloes, filling spoke crevices, sorting spokes, sawing
spoke handles, planing, painting wheels, trucking and piling, helping. Wagons and
cars: Planing, sanding, painting. Other wooden articles: Making snap flasks by
machine; cork-machine splitting; sandpapering coat hangers; nailing and riveting
ironing boards; laying webs for bee basket'3; gluing, tacking, and trimming linings to
coffins; operating match machine; sweeping.
57. Airplane and seaplane man'l.{,facture.-Metal work: Turning on tu1Tet lathe, turning on speed lathe, drilling, milling engine parts, profiling engine parts, grinding
engine parts, cutting and threading on hand-screw machine, punching on punch press,
filing, layout work, keeping tool room, acetylene and electric welding, brazing,
helping coppersmith, sheet-metal working, coppering struts, tube bending, splicing
cable, wrapping wiTe, soldering wire, enameling, electric riYet heating, scraping,
forewomen, inspecting. Woodwork: Operating band saw, helping jointer, helping
molder, helping strut lathe worker, helping variety sawyer, helping band resawyer,
helping power feed rip sawyer,. helping cabinetmaker, sanding, gluing, finishing,
building small wooden boats, painting and varnishing, assembling webs, constructing
panels. Textile work: Operating sewing machine; covering, gluing, and sewing canvas on wings, etc.; doping; inspecting. Miscellaneous work: Wiring up, assisting
airplane erectors, mechanical drafting, photographing, charting.
58. Manufacture of musical instruments.-Metal work: Operating hand-screw machine, drilling, milling. Woodwork: Helping planers, off-bearing in mill room, helping cabinetmakers, hand sanding, varnishing and staining, assembling sound boxes.
Miscellaneous work: Motor assembling for phonographs, installing motors in phonographs, trimming and fly finishing, felting interiors, string spinning, electroplate
stringing and cleaning, player-action work.
59. Shipbuilding .-Metal work: Electric welding, reamer sha1·pening, bolt and nut
threading and oiling, machine-shop helping, tool keeping. Textile work: Oakum
spinning, asbestos work, raft cover sewing. Miscellaneous: Sorting refuse, sweeping
ships, janitor work in shops, handling lumber, driving automobile, driving truck;
. working in restaurant, working in office.
60. Rubber mn:nufacture.-Running rubber washing machines, running refining and
straining machine, separating rubber sheets, grinding rubber, molding rubber heels;
cutting and splicing fabric for balloons, making boots, cutting fabrics for tires, joining
fabric, making beads, cutting treads, cording tires, :finishing tires, inspecting tires,
making inner tubes, boxing inner tubes and tires, taping wire coils, weighing rubber
and tires, making patches aud repairing tires, trucking, stock labeling and inspecting,
cleaning. _
61. Tanning leather.-Operating putting-out machines, operating rollers, operating
oiling~off machines, measuring skins by liand and machine, sorting skins, trimming,
hand :finishing.
62. Manufacture of shoes, harnesses, and miscellaneous leathe1· goods.-Cutting uppers,
linings, and trimmmgs; skiving uppers and insoles; sorting cut soles, uppers, heels,
etc.; . molding counters; sorting counters; stamping and slashing insoles; gauging
heel lifts; tending heeling machine; inspecti.ng and mating; a8eistant forewomen;
miscellaneous minor operations on shoes; harness maker apprentice; harness finishing;
running speed drills; labeling; operating sewing machines; matching belts; measuring
belts; making welt on belts; operating elevators.
63. Clay and glass manufacture.-Off-bearing brick, polishing aud cleanin~ mirrors,
cleaning and packing glass, making clay rolls, helping iu. puddling, molding small
carborundum wheels by hand and by air pressure, cleaning saggers and resistance
rods, disk finishing, packing, trucking, molding papet· stock, research laboratory work,
sweeping, laboring, shop clerking. Metal work: Drilling, gear hobbing, milling,
operating punch press, bench assembling.
· 64. Manufacture of optical goods and photographic supplies.-Lens grinding and
· polishing; lens mounting; lens inspecting; cutting and markingi bench assembling;
forewomen; winding paper rolls, spooling and machine assembling in photographic
supply factory. Metal work: Operating lathe, operating screw machine, milling,
drilling, grinding, press work, inspecting.


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APPENDIX A.
Selected letters from empwyers (whose names will be fu,rnished upon
request) supplementing or explaining answers to questionnaires concerning the results oJ the empwyment of woman labor during and
after the war.
These letters have b een carefully selected to indicate the conditions
surrounding both succe ses ::i,nd failures of ":oman wo~kers.
.
The president of a recording and computmg machme company 1n
Ohio writ es:
There is no department where light machinery- is used that women can not be
trained to do the same work that men have been doing, and do the work better and
get out greater production. We found that the success of women working in factories
depends entirely on how they are trained to do work that they never had any training
in. If any special work is to be done and any special machine to be operated, the
women should be tra.i ned in separate departments so that they can leaTn the machines
and learn the requirements before being placed in the shop on regular work among
people who have already been taught the operations.
Dming the past four or five years --we have had between 8,000 and 9,000 people
at work, and about half or more than half of the numbe1· of employees were women.
We selected them very carefully before giving them employment and tried to confine
our employment to American girls or American born. 'l'he results of om WOl'k dming
the past several years is Well known in Washington and among certain customers
who ~have seen fit to give us thefr work.
We were released from all Government.work two weeks ago a.nd will now ,get back
to commercial production, and we hope soon to be running full force again, at which
time let me assure you that our force will be composed of as many women as it is
possible for us to get for doing the work.

Tn

ft

lu.ter letter he says :

In reference to the occupations in which women have replaced men, the following
may give you some idea of the diversity of the work: In the machine department
women became expert and got out much greater production in running turret lathes,
punch p1·esses , bench lathes, milling machines, drill presses, grindin~ machines and
engraving machines, and in addition to the operation of these machmes, we taught
them to ~rind their tools, to act as job setters, and to superintend some of the departments. ln the inspection department practically every inspector was a woman.
In the assembly departments, as well as in the inspection departments, all were
women, and they did better work and got out more production than men, whom we
tried on the job at various times without success. We found, too, that we could :place
as much, if not more, dependence in women in coming to their work and remaming
on the job, which accounts for our having the lowest turnover in h elp in any factory
ever heard of, which was less than 4 per cent per year. We taught women to inspect
tools and check them over according to the drawings after they came from the tool
shop, in which department women became expert. In the optical department
most of the employees grinding lenses Were Women, who were remarkably successful
in the work. In the assembling of lenses we had none but Women on the job, and
you will find by inquiring at the Ordnance Department that our lenses and prisms
were as fine as any in the world.
Our experience has taught us many things in the employment of women, which if
properly applied would, in my opinion , bring success in many factories where at the
present time they are practically failures. We are now going into a new field of commeTcial work-manufacturing an article that was never known in this part of the
country, embracing a combination of mechanical and electrical elements, for which
we arc training girls to carry on the work, and the short time they have been on the
work and the development shown by them .:proves again that women, jf properly
trained, can do as wel if not better than men in any kind of mechanical wol'k.
143


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144

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

From a manufacturer of scientific instrumC'nts:
We em.ployed a maximum. of 75 women in our instrument department for about
J4 months on assem.blin~ and bench work in connection with the manufacture of these
jnstruments. This work we had done before in a small way, most of the work being
done by m.en. However , during the war we manufactured these instruments in
large quantities , and a good many of the smaller operations on the instruments were
performed by women.
There was actually no replacement of men on this work, except in a few instances
in our machine department, where women were being taught to operate turret lathes.
Our experience had just really begun in the matter of teaching women to operate
machines when the war came to a conclusion, and our work on these instruments
automatically stopped. "\Ve have no women in our factory at the present time, our
factory work now being done, as before the war, entirely by m.en.
In conclusion , the work that the women performed while we employed them. was
adapted naturally to women, because of its fineness; that is, the parts were small,
and required deftness of fingers as well as patience. The women performed this work
very well, and should we again man ufacturc these same instruments, we would cm ploy
women for this same work.

From a company manufactming bra s and steel goods in Connecticut:
May we explain that we took on women in om plant for the war period only, and
we, therefore, could not compare the :production of women with the production of
men, as they did not work on the same Jobs . We have now entirely discontinued the
war work, and have no women in our plant at all. No changes were necessary in the
machinery or equipment, as we built uo an entirely new department, with new machinery, equipment, etc. , with the express intention of employing women on parti~ular operations.
We would have continued to employ the women had we continued on the work
which we were doing during the war. We might also state that the use of women in
our plant was very successful, and we most certainly would use women in the future
on any similar work or on any work whkh we may take up in the future of a light
character suitable for the employment of women.

Supplementing the forego ing information a later letter states :
At that time we had women working on small sheet-metal parts with the approximate number and operations as follows: Ninety bench drilling, 10 power punch
presses, 80 assembling , 25 inspecting, 10 spring making. Total number in plant June,
1916, 50; total number in plant November, 1918, 320; total number in plant August,
1919, 75.

The secretary and treasurer of
in Tennessee writes:

a metal

manufacturing company

Om employees are practically 100 per cent citizens of the United States. The
women have replaced m en mainly in om sheet metal manufacturing plant. These
are paid by the :piece, the tasks accomplished are the same as by men, and they are
consequently paid the same compensation . They use the same machinery and are
equipped the same.
We expect to continue employment of women in th'3se occupations. They are given
the same training and supervision. We consider them equal to men in point of success.

In a later letter he says:
' We have placed no restrictions whatever on women's employment in om tin factory, and find their attainments up to the average of the masculine labor.

From a steel company in Pennsylvania:
Answering your letter of October 28, we submit the following inrormation in anBwer
to your queries:
.
Total number of male and female employees (exclusive oi clerical forces) in June,
1016-male, 3,556; fem.ale, none; November, 1918, male, 3,658 , female, 131; August,
1919, male, 4,073, female none.
umber of women in different occupations: Machine helpers, 65; motor truckers,
4; galvanize inspectors, 8; nail assorters, 10; engine oilers, 2; weighers, 12; hoop riveters, 6; clerks, 22; stencil-machine operators, 2; total,-131.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AAERICAN INDUSTRY.

145

Relative rate of pay was the same per hour, but the women worked only 81 hours

per day while the men worked 12.

Relative output was the same as men.

In another letter this firm writes:
The women employed gave complete satisfaction, and can be termed as having met
with success, but due to the Government regulations limiting the number of hours that
a woman can work, it was necessary to leave all but clerks go upon the return of soldiers.

From a steel products company in Michigan:
We find women adapt themselves to piecework on light work very nicely, but in
most cases do not compare favorably with men on miscellaneous work requiring the
adjusting of machines, etc.

This firm reported no special training given to women. The firm
also reported the employment of 20 women nine months after the
signing of the armistice as compared with 113 women in January,
1918.

From an employment :manager of a pressed steel company in
Maryland:
Would say, however, that we found our women workers very efficient on the character
of work that we were doing for the Government, but at the present time the character
of our work is such that we have deemed it advisable to employ men onl y.

In a later letter he says:
Supplementing our letter of October 14 and replying to your letter of October 27,
in which you ask for the number and occupations of women employed in Nove.mber,
1918, wish to state that we employed 125 women as drill press and lathe operatoTs and
inspectors on our, war contracts.
•
In August, 1919, there were no women employed in our civilian work at all, for the
reason as stated in my letter of October 14. The number of men employed in August,
1919, was about 400. The total number of employees in August- November, 1918, was
approximately 1,200.
·
In reference tc;> the last paragranh of your letter, regarding the relat ive rate of pay
and output as compared with men on the same job, would state.that the pay was
approximately the same, while the work as turned out by the women, we might say,
had a shade the better. We found that women in these respective positions were more
than encouraging, and should we in the futme undertake work of a similar nature we
would not hesitate to put women back in these positions.

From the general manager of a tool company in Pennsylvania:
Women are not desirable in our work because of lack of physical endmance and
training, nor are they temperamentally capable of attaining the same efficiency in
machine work as a man.
.

From the assistant superintendent of a brass company in Wisconsin:
Occu pations 'in which women hmJe replaced m en (exclusive of clerical force ).
Rate ofpay. 1
i

Occupation .

Rein.ti \"C output.

um-

Remarks.

ber.

-

~fen. \\' omen. Men . Women.
- - -- - - - - - - - - -

Sweeping floors_ ....... . ....
Inspecting and packing . ... .
Inspecting .. .. .. . ...........
Presses . ...... . .. . ..... . . . ...
Trimming machines ..... . ..

3
3
52
5

Small rolls .. . . ·······-- -· ···

5

C'ommoH hibor .. ...... .. ....

99

{

4

S0. 30
0. 30
. 30 --- - - ---·
. 30
. 35
. 325
.35
. 325
. 325
.35

}

.30

{

. 30
. 325

}

P er ct.
100

P er cl .
100
-------- ········100
100
100
100
100
115 '.1.'beso

m:whin cs Yery well
adapted to a woman ·s ::-mall
fingers.
.35
100
90 Not suitable for women on acconn t of weight lifting.
'\Vomen not suitable on account
. 35 ······ · - ...... . ..
of lifting weights .

1 Mon were no longer employed when women were put on these jobs; wage rates, therefore, represent
rates or two different periods.

9847°- 20--10


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· 146

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

There were no changes necessary in machinery or equipment to employ women .
• We do not expect to continue employing women on any of these occupations on
account of the large proportion of our work requiring heavy lifting. The 34 women
now employed we will replace with men as soon as housing conditions and other causes
which cause our present shortage in male labor have been corrected.
I_n regard to the success or failure o.f women employed on above jobs, their work wa.s
satlsfactory.

From the superintendent of a company making weaving machinery
in Massachusetts:
.
Women in our plant are working on drill presses, radial drills, milling machines,
hand-screw machmes, and light bench work. We find we receive best results from
their efforts on drill presses. You understand that this work is not of a heavy nature,
b:irt we feel very much satisfied with the way women are handling the jobs we have
given them.

From an iron company (also handling limestone rock) in Tennessee :
Some time during the summer of 1918 two young ladies applied to our foreman at
our limestone quarry for work, statino- they wanted to help load rock. They were
given employment and worked something like six weeks. This class of work is of
course very hard, and it would be almost impossible for a young lady to do the work of
a man, so the young ladies were given $2 per day (while men were paid $3 per day) and
were allowed to take their time and work as they liked. Will say that their work and
efforts were very creditable; they did much more work than was anticipated. The
young ladies used overalls in theu work.
Answering your questions: The work done was loading limestone rock on small cars.
The women did possibly about two-thirds of the work done by men. No tabulation
was kept along this line.
We can not think that this would be a successful line of work in any way for women.
The young ladies quit of their own accord after some five or six weeks. We think they
found the work too severe.

From the president of an electric and manufacturing company jn
Pennsylvania:
We ordinarily ~se girls on a large variety of what might be termed "electrical work,"
such as winding, insulating, and mica operations. We have for a number of years been
extending the use of girls to mechanical operations such as punch presses on detail
work, small drill presses, mechanical assembling, etc. During the year we extended
the use of girls to numerous other operations, such as running band-saw filing machines,
work on hand-screw machines, and machine tools of various kinds, both in the manufacturing departments and tool rooms. They proved very adaptable, and the results
were quite satisfactory. Wherever the work was of repetition nature and suitable for
them, we found that we were able to secure a greater output from them than from the
class of men or boys who were formerly employed for such work and an occasional girl
developed unusual skill.
It is our practice to pay women the same as men for an equivalent return of work,
and on a good many classes of work which were performed on a piecework basis the
girls eamed more than the men or boys they replaced.
In some cases it was necessary to make a number of changes in the way of safeguards,
particularly in connection with punch presses and screw machines, before permitting
the girls to work on them.
The number of girls we employed during the war wa.s limited only by the supply.
We employed about 2,000 in our main plant, and about 300 of these were working on
operations which had never been performed by girls bE:fore.
.
All the girls who were employed on unusual operations were put through spe<'ial
training rooms and this practice is being continued.
The operations on which we will use women in the future will be determined by
the demands upon us and the supply of labor.

From a manufactnrC'r of dectric motors:
Our product is electric motors, generators, etc .
During the war we employed 100 or more women in the places of men and boys
on light assembly work of various kinds, drill -presses, power presses, milling machines, grinders, hand-screw machines, :md light bench work.
It was necessary to put additional guards on some machines to protect the skirts
and hair of the women operators. In some cases we supplied stools for them to sit on.


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THE. NEW J?OS1T10.N OF WOMEN IN AMERLCAN INDUSTRY.

147

It was also necessary in some departments to put in separate toilet facilities foi: the
women, as previously there had oeen nothing but men in the depaTtment.
We do not expect to continue employing women in place of men in most places.
We now have about 20.
Ou-r experience did not show any ad:vantage in employing women; the machine
workers especially soon beeame less rel'iable and easier '' floaters '' than the men, and
the discipline in the· department where men and women worked together suffered
considerably.
Star.ting rate for women was about 10 p-er cent less than the starting rate for men,
but after they were trained sufficiently to go on piecework, piece rates were the same
for men and women.

From the president of a piano company in Massachusetts:
In reply to your favor of the 8th, we have pt~ctically no women employees now
because we made an arrangement with our men when they came back from the
service that we would use them in place of women.
As to their work, for many reason's· we consider them superior to men, particularly
in those operations which demand rapidity_and· neatness .
We ate pia1111fog as we grow to gradually add women in certain departments where
they are better fitted than men.
We are building pianos and playei:: pianos exclusively.
No change is necessary in machinery or equipment in employment of women.

From the chief executive of a bag-loading plant (explosives) in
New Jersey:
You will be interested to know that throughout the whole of the work, which we
contemplated'from the beginnirig, our pfans were made for the empfoyment of women
in every possible position which it was considered they would be CaJ?abl'e of filling,
ancl in many instances wher~ heavy physical labor would, be reqmred either the
operations were further subdivided or else suftable mechanical means were installed so that these· operations could be success£ully carried out by women workeTS,
and our general experience established a conectness of our ideas, as we weTe able to
employ not less than 80 per cent women in the manufacturing operations of the plant,
and at one time our empfoyees rose to a total number of about 6,500 people .
FlU'thermore, we are pleased to state that the enthusiasm, patriotism:, and earnest
end'eavors of the women workers were the mainstay of this plant, and as we received
an Ordnance flag for production the results are conclusive of the effectiveness of their
work .
Women came to us from all walks of life, many of them never having done manufacturing work before, and were in no wise familiar with factory work and conditions.
We had artists, operatic singers, actresses, moving-picture stars, society women, school
teachers, writers, women reporters, as well as many girls who had previously been
·employed as sales people in the larger stores of the surrounding territory; also a fair
percentage of women from the homes, many of them being mothers of grown families .
We are unabie to give you a percentage basis fov .comparison: of women's work with
the production of man, because of the faet that the work which we were· doing down
here lratl not hitherto been functionaiized f>y the Government or by private manufactUl'ers, and what it was necessary for us to do was to develop an ent irely n<:Jw workin~._force and to evolve the manufacturing process from the· whole cloth.
. .
Every one, both men and women, who came on the plant went through a trammg
course, and we maintained a school of some-considerable proportions, and we increased
our force in the beginning of the work from 500 to 3,000 in three weeks, and passed all
of these people in that period through preliminary training-intensified, of course, by
th'€ fact that their willing cooperation made a successful undertaking.

From the vice president of a tank and pipe company in California:
Replying to youT letter of the 22d' ultimo, would say that for a short time during
the war· we employed 17 female operators in our plant, but replaced them with men
because our installation was such that we had no accommodations for women, and,
although theiT work was very satisfactory, indeed', it seemed to us best not to continue
the experiment, particularly since they all found ready emp:oyment in local canneries
and elsewhere.
The change was made entirely because we- were not able to properly care for them
without expensive addition to our plant. Tne pay of the women employees· was the
same·as that of the men for the sam-e serv-ice·and the output was practicalTy the same.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN I DUSTRY.

From the superintendent of an automobile body corporation in
Ohio:
Your communication of October 8 received in reference to employing girls, and we
wish to say that we did employ 115 girls during the war time on welding and filing
of aeroplane parts. These parts, of course, were very small and intricate. Our regular
standard line of work is so large and heavy that it is impossible for us to use girls on
this work; therefore we do not employ any girls in the factory.
We wish to say in reference to the girls whom we had working on the Government
work that the work which they did was on a par with the work as made by men, and
their services were entirely satisfactory to us from the point of quality as well as
production.

From the manager of a m~dical manufacturing company in Tennessee:
Replying to your letter of October 8 in regard to substituting women during the
period of the war, will say that we did substitute a few women in our packing department for a short time, but found that they were not physically strong, and have dispensed with them entirely in the packing department.

From the.manager of a cottonseed oil company in Oklahoma:
We have your letter of October 18. Commenting and inquiring on our replies to
your questionnaire of October 9, we substituted women in our lint room last season
and they were satisfactory in every regard. We do not, however, expect to use them
this year for this reason: The oil-mill industry in this section, and, in fact, all over
the South; runs on what we call a 12-hour basis, while in this State we are unable to
work the women under State law for a longer period than nine hours. Hence, in order
to make the combination, we had some women who were working an eight-hour shift,
and made the change of shifts irregular as compared with the regular run or the change
fox the .men crew. This was unsatisfactory.
Ifowever, should we ever be able to put the cottonseed oil industry on an eighthour basis, I have no doubt but that women could render efficient service in several
departments of the mill. Particularly in the lint room in cleaning up and carrying
lint from the linters to the balers.
In addition, in om· bag department, we have found women, of comse, most satisfactory on the patching machine.
Have used them for cutting bags and counting and sorting bags, and have found
them in every particular as efficient, and I might say, even more satisfactory than men
in this particular class of work. We are using, at the present time, a small force of
women; one turning, one sewing, and one sorting and counting.

Fro:rn a lumber manufacturing company in Arkansas:
We are manufactmers of hardwood lumber, and during the period of the war
operated sawmills only. We employed during that period a number of negro women
in our plants and on our lumber yards. For the most part the work in and around
our plants is too heavy for women to perform. There were some places, however,
where we could use negro women to fairly good advantage, where the work was light
and a minimum of danger
The negro women employed by us gave fairly satisfactory service, but on account
of the character of work around a sawmill plant, as explained above, a woman can
not do the work in nearly so satisfactory a manner as a man, for the reason that they
are not physically able to do so. However, the women employed hy us showed a
willingness to perform the tasks set for them to the very best of their ability and
strength, and all of them seemed to take a pride in the fact that they were doing war
work. A large number of the women employed by us had husbands in the war.
We are also frank to say that had we not been able to secure the services of the
women employed by us during the war we would have been either unable to operate
at all, or our operations would have been seriously curtailed. As a matter of fact we
are still employing 10 or 15 negro women who worked for us dming the war, and who
seem to prefer this class of work to domestic or farm woTk. We are of the opinion,
however, that the work in an average sawmill manufactming hardwood lumber is
entirely too heavy for a white woman, and also for most negro women.
·
A history of our experience in this line will probably not be so valuable to you as
that of other woodworking plants, where the labor to be performed is not heavy, and
where women could perform such labor to much better advantage than with us.


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From the manager of a manufacturing company in Oregon:
The 25 women referred to came from housekeeping and other work about home and
were all white; they did rrot replace men except in the sense that men were not
available. They were put at work sorting and handling light lumber in the planing
mill department, at approximately 80 per cent of the rate paid men and as near as
we can tell with that or a smaller relative output. There were no changes in machinery
or equipment necessary except lavatories and rest rooms, and the women had no special
training. As soon as the armistice was signed, these women left the work because
they did not especially enjoy it, and were only doing it as a patriotic duty. As far as
we know they went back to their original employment.
We could not say they were either a success or failure in the experiment, but simply
a necessity arising out of the fact that 136 out of our 750 employees went into the
service and some one had to take their places.
s soon as the necessity passed we
went back to our old program.
We do not think women should be or can be successfully employed in lumber manufacturing, although there is a place for them in box factories and other industries connected with the lumber business, where the work is not as heavy as in our operations.

From the president of a company manufacturing kitchen cabinets
in Indiana:
We do not find women as efficient and capable, although there were a few exceptions to the rule.
Our failure to obtain satisfactory. results may have been due largely to our :inex'
perience or the pecul:ia.rit:ies of our system or work.
Girls were used to off-bear on the mac}:l:ines. In using boys for this purpose they
were expected to not only take away the material, but move trucks and keep empty
trucks up to the machines. Our operators :invariably did not ask so much of the girls,
and as a result the output of the machines was seriously handicapped. . .
.· · ;.

From the president of a sled manufacturing. company in Michigan·.
The employment of women up to .date, .in the mechanical arts, is a partial success,
determined solely by the disposition of the :individual employed. We .have had
women do more work in nine hours than our best men have been able to do in 10.
These are exceptional cases.
The great objection to employing women is the fact of the nine-hour limit, and it is
the opinion of the writer that the nine-hour law has done as much to produce the
industrial unrest in this country as any other feature. It is a purely political or class
distinction, which deprives certain :individuals in the United States of the right to
labor as they would like or desire to, and is put up not for the benefit of these women
but for the benefit and at the :instigation of labor universally.
Of course, the ground on which these laws were passed is one of health, but this
might better be conserved if the lavi should re~d that no woman who works in an industry
10 hours a day should do any housework at home. Of course, the writer understands
that this is preposterous, but not any more so than their hours of labor in industry.
The chances are that in the .average :industry of mechanical arts women are much
better off vrorking in a factory 10 hours a day in a sanitary condition than four or five
hours housework in the home in insanitary conditions.
The writer hates to see the foundation of the law camouflaged by something that is
entirely :impractical from any just viewpoint.
It is the writer's opinion that most women of ordinary intelligence, where they
really want to work, or earn wages, and will take hold of any certain job with that
intent, can produce as much on a machine as a man, and very often, in a much more
satisfactory manner. The training that they require in preparation is more a training
of the mind and disposition than of the muscles. Whenever you can instill into the
mind interest in things mechanical, a desire to produce all that is possible a_nd reasonable in the way of necessary movements, a desire to stick to one job until it is learned
how to do it as well as anybody can, you will have ideal workwomen.
The regular habits induced by a studied job are much more conducive to good
health than the irregular conditions of home life. Of course, another form of education must be brought about, and that is that women who work shall remain as high in
the social scale as those who do not work. It is a very, very difficult proposition.
This is proven by the fact that our best workwomen were invariably those who
enlisted during the war time for patriotic motives and quit as soon as the armistice
was signed: the women who did not have to work, but who entered into the labor with
the sole idea of helping as much as they could, regardless of compensation. These
are the women that produced more and got paid for it.


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From a boot and shoe manuafcturer in New Hampshire:
Present production: Men's and boys' shoes, Goodyear and McKay; upper-leather
tannery, sole-leather tannery, leatherboard mill, chemical factory and box factory.
Number of employees: June, 1916, men, 4,000; women 1,200. August, 1919, men,
3,300; women, 2,000.
Number of women on work formerly done by men: August, 1918, 629 (maximum
number); November, 1918, 609; December, 1918J 570; October, 1919, 200.
NOTE.-The increase in women employees over and above the 200 mentioned ia
due to several circumstances, such as the elimination of a large number of men on
such work as hobnailing Army shoes, and the increase in women stitchers due to
release of the war-time restrictions on fancy patterns, perforations, stitching, etc.
Nationality of women in our employ runs about as follows: American and French
Canadian, 70 per cent· Greek, 20 per cent· miscellaneous, 10 per cent.
Occupations in which women hm·e replaced men (pro bably permanently).
Relative rate ofFactory.

Occupation.

Number.
Pay.

Sole leather .... ..... . ........... .
Upper leather tannery .......... .
Do ...................... .. . .
Upper leather cutting ..... . ..... .
Counter ...... ....... ... ......... .
Do . ................ ......... .
Shoe factories .. . ,. .... ....... .. . .
Do .......................... .
Do .......................... .

~g:::::::::::::::::::::::: :::

40

10

Total. ............................................................ •

I

Per cent. Pa cent.

Sort ·sole leather trimmings . . ......... .
Hand finishing .... - · ......•...........

Measuring machine .......•...........
Sort and trim remnants .............. .
Mold counters ............ . . .. ....... .
Sort counters ........................ .
Innersole department ................ .
Tend heeling machine ................ .
Inspecting and mating out ........... .
Assistant forewomen ................. .
Miscellaneous operation ·.... . ........ .

Output.

4
30

5
2
20
25

10
8
46

100
100
100

100

100
100
100
100
100
100

100

100

100
100

100
75
100
100

100
75
100
100

200 ............. ······-···

No changes were necessary in the machines or equipment used, beyond providing
some of the women with womanalls and making the necessary washroom and toilet
provision in departments which had formerly been 100 per cent men.
The operations listed above are tho e which ·will probably continue employin~
women. The 400 odd women used to rnplace men during the labor shortage last
year were on operations where their output, and consequently their rate of pay, ran
from 75 per cent to 80 per cent of that obtained by men. This was due largely to the
physical exertion required. As a war emergency, particularly on upper leathe1·
cutting, it carried us through the period of labor shortage, but when it became possible
to obtain experienced men to do these same operations, the substitution was made.
This change has taken place gradually, many of the women dropping out when their
men came back from military service. On these operations there was always a considerable rotation of employment, and by filling the vacant places by men instead
of putting in other women the change was effected gradually.
.
No additional program for training 01· supervision of women in our plants is contemplated at the present time. We have had for several years a competent medical
service in our plants, and within the last two years have placed employment supervisors in every plant whose duties include supervision of wages, working conditions,
and any other difficulties which the operators may have.
This is partly answered in paragraph 6. Women carried us through the labor
shortage, but are not a permanent proposition except on the operations mentioned
above. The use of women had not been previously made, merely because the departmentt had always been 100 per cent men, and the introduction of one or two
girls into a 1·oom of 100 to 150 men would have had an undesirable effect upon the
discipline of the 1·oom. During the last two years, however, this p1·ejudice has been
broken down, and we are able to use a few girls in a large department of men without
causing any comment or being considered an unusual thing.

From another shoe manufacturer in New Hampshire:
It is true that, in common with othe1· industl'ial establishments, we did employ
quite a number of women dming the war period. Perhaps it would be well to make
clear om· position in this matter in order that the answers to the following questions
may clearly state om· position.


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151

In the first place, we looked upon the employment of these women as a purely
temporary proposition with no idea of making them permanent employees in our
establishment to the exclusion of men who had heretofore worked on certain manufacturing processes. The greater number of these women were employed in the
manufacture of canvas saddle bags, pannier bags, helmet linings, leggings, and articles
of a. similar nature. This work was a "sewing machine proposition" in which the
women would be much more efficient than men in ordinary circumstances. We
believe that most of our women employees looked upon their positions with us as
tempomry, and that the work would cease at the end of hostilities. At the present
time, we know of no positions in the factOTy in which women are holdin~ the positions
that were formerly held by men; in fact, we are back on a normal basis. Following
are the answers to the questions which you have asked:
Our present product is men's and boy's Goodyear welt shoes. The number of
employees, exclusive of clerical force, was in June, 1916, about 1,300, about 60 per
cent of whom were men. The number of employees of August, 1919, exclusive of
c'lerical force, was about 1,200·, with about the same proportion of men employees.
Our report of October 30, 1918, stated that we had employed about a hundred
women in place of men, but these were on minor operations, mostly in the heel and
innersole department, but these places have since been given back to a great extent
to our returning service men. Women were employed in making ol'dnance equipment
which necessitated the installation of many high-powered sewing machines, also
eyeletting and riveting machines.
We are no longeT employing women in these operations, as this work terminated
with the signing of the armistice. We have no special plans for training or supervision other than our established policy of handling new employees.
We are very glad to say that the women who came to us during the war period
were willing, able, and efficient workers, and we regret exceedingly that we could
not make use of the services of many more of these women in our regular lines of
work.

From the third vice president of a harness and saddlery manufactory in Kentucky:
The 11 women we had working in our factory for a short time were not harness
makers, nor had they ever worked at the trade. We employed them with the idea
of schooling them to do the work.
To teach them the trade it was necessary to have a skilled mechanic over them,
but as we could get no expedenced woman harness maker, we dispensed with their
services for the reason that they were not satisfactory working under a foreman.

From a manufacturer of rubber and gas masks:
For your information the following is a statement as to the factory enrollment as
per your request:
November 15, 1918: Females, 2,417; males, 10,645; total, 13,062. October 15, 1919:
Females, 1,702; males, 16,429; total, 18,131.
The loss of 700 female employees is explained as follows: Four hundred female
workers left our employ directly after the armistice was signed. These employees
were women who had responded to the patriotic call for workers on gas masks, who
never had done any actual factory work previous to this call. They represented
women from the best families in the city, both single and married, and who would not
under any circumstances work on the average factory work, although they proved to
be superior to the average factory female worker while engaged upon their particular
war work.
The other 300 were distributed throughout our tire department and several other
departments where men were formerly employed. Owing to the continuous operation
of 21 hours a day in the tire department, it did not prove to be the attractive work for
women. While a great number remained, and are still at work, there is a shrinkage
which we did not attempt to replace with women, giving the jobs to the unemployed
soldier in preference. The work done in the tire department is known as preparing
stock a1:1d covers several operations, such as cutting treads, cutting plies, and cutting
side stn ps.
·

In an earlier "letter. this firm wrote:
Replying to your letter of October 16, I beg to advise that during the war we employed a large number of extra women in the production of gas masks for the Army,
many of whom volunte~red from the city, prompted by patriotic motives, and, as soon
as the war ceased, the1r work was no longer necessary, and they returned to their


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former occupations. We <lid not, as a general rule, employ women to take the place
of men, this not being necessary by reason of the fact that the Government immediately
curtailed the amount of rubber that we were permitted to use, so that our production
was reduced in about the same ration as the available supply of male help.

From the president of a furniture company in New York State:
As we possibly advised you in our previous letter, we are manufacturers of fiue
furniture. During the summer of 1917 we completed a new factory, and about that
time the War Department was looking for factories to undertake various lin es of work
of more or less difficult nature ; the manufacture of suitable rawhide saddletrees being
one of the difficult articles to equip for manufacture. Having an ideal plant for this
purpose and wishing to do something '' to help win the war,'' we equipped and turned
over in record time a large volume of saddletrees. The success we were able to accomplish we feel was largely due to the adaptability of women in the rawhide st.itching
and fitting department. In the past this work had been handled almost entirely by
men and was considered difficult men's work. Before starting, failure was predicted
on account of impossibility to get skilled help. Sailmakers, awning men, leather
workers were all tried and all failed to '' make good."
A certain type of young woman was gradually trained, and in a very short time
mastered this work. Long before the completion of this work our product was considered the best turned out anywhere in the country.
You can appreciate why we are enthusiastic over woman help and their adaptabilitv to almost any line of work.
After the completion of this war contract in February, we naturally were anxious to
get back into our regular line. Our organization being rather disrupted and skilled
men being scarce, we distributed these wo~en throughout our factory, and we now
have women in all departments, viz, machine, cabinetmaking, finishing, upholstery,
trimming, etc., and all are making good and are a big asset to our organization. We
believe there is hardly any line of work in which a woman can not adapt herself, if the
right type is selected for the various lines. Our experience has been that they learn
easier,-are more conscientious, steadier, and more painstaking than men.
In a later letter he says:
\Vhen men were impossible for us to obtain dming the war, we feel that women
' ' saved the day 1 ' for us, as they must also have done in hundreds of other industries, so
you can understand we have every reason to feel most grateful.


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APPENDIX B.

Attitude of labor unions toward admission of women to membership, as
shown in exce1·pts from constitutions and by-laws and in letters
written by union official,s.
NoTE.- The ex.cerpts have been selected with special reference to
the crafts in which women were substituted in men's places during
or since the war. Also, only those unions whose constitutions and
by-laws or whoso officers made plain tho relative bas is upon which
women were admitted are included in the following list.

I.

UNIONS WHOSE CONSTITUTIONS AND BY-LAWS OR WHOSE OFFICERS INDICATE THAT WOMEN ARE AnMITTEn To MEMBERSHIP ON
EQUAL . TERMS WITH MEN.
.
INTERNATIONAL JEWELRY WORKERS' UNION.

Article l, section 1, constitution: "This organization * * * shall be composed ,
of male and female workers organized in local unions or as members at large . * -j(- - *.''
Article 3, se_c tion 1, constitution: "This organization shall have jlll'isdiction over
the following branches of the jeweh·y industry: P latinnm, gold, and silver workers;
chain, bracelet, and locket makers; setters of precious stones, pearls, and imitations
thereof; lapidary workers on precious stones and imitations thereof; designers, engravers, chasers, enamel~rs, and engine turners; emblematic buttons, badges, pins,
banners; society emblems, medal and medallion workers, and assemblers of same;
modelers, casters, polishers, lappers and colorers; platinum, gold, and silver plating
workers; refiners and melters; drop and press hands, and all metal mountings
used in optical goods; makers of platinum, gold, and silver findings; watch and clock
workers, and repairers thereof; watchcase workers, and repairers thereof; cigarette,
vanity, watchcase, mesh bag, and jewel box workers on all metals; the making of all
tools and dies used in the jewelry industry; all metal and celluloid button and jewelry
vanity workers; all those employed in the making of jewelry novelties out of precious
and semiprecious metals of all descriptions."

.

UNI'l'ED BRICK AND CLAY WORKERS OF .A.MERICA.

The general secretary writes under date of January 20, 1920:
Both men and women are eligible to membership in our organization, the women
being employed in the porcelain and pottery plants.
N OTE.-The constitutional provisions for dues, assessments, and benefits <lo not
make discriminations between men and women members.
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF OIL :J<'IELD, GAS WELL, AND REFINERY WORKERS OF
AMERICA.

The international secretary and treasurer ·writes under elate of January 21, 1920:
During the period of the wai-, when women worked in the refineries in the places of
men who were called into service, we took them into our organization on the same
basis as the men.
N OTE. -The current constitution does not mention the subject of admission of
women.
153


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

INTERNATIONAL UNION

OF UNITED

BREWERY,
WORKERS.

FLOUR,

CEREAL,

A~D

SOFT DRINK

The general recording srcretary writes under date of January 19,
1920:
Women are eligible to membership in our intemational union, and we have quite
a few who belong to our union employed in the yeast, vinegar, cereal, and flour mills.
NoTE .-T'he constitutional provisions for dues, assessments, and benefits make no
discrimination between men and women.
AMERICAN FLINT GLASS WORKERS' U

ION.

The secretary-treasurer writes under date of January 17, 1920:
Women are eligible to membership in our organization; that is, in the cutting and
lamp working departments. We have no special rules or laws to govern the work
they perform. Om regular laws apply.
INTER, ATIONAL UNION OF TIMBER WORKERS.

Constitution and working card:
.
Article 1, page 11, section 1: "This body shall include the following workers: All
persons working in the timber industry * * *."
.
Article 16, page 24, section 1: "A uniform initiation fee of $2 shall be charged by
all locals * * *."
Section 2: "The minimum monthly dues of all members shall be $1 per month."

The secretary-treasurer International Union of Timber Workers
.writes under date of January 22, 1920:
Permit me to say that all female workers working in the timber industry are eligible
to membership in om union; in fact, we have several thousand members now.
INTERNATIONAL BROTHERHOOD OF FOUNDRY EMPLOYEES.

Constitution and by-laws, section 1, page 3:
« This organization exercises jurisdiction over all molder's helpers, cupola tenders,
chippers, steel workers, casting cleaners, gangway men, yard men, crane men, flask
makers, blackners, craters, sand cutters, shaker-outs, flask sorters, pattern carriers,
shippers and shipper helpers."
Provisions for dues, assessmeRts, and benefits make no discriminations between
men and women members.

The secretary-tre~surer writes under date of January 19, 1920:
Women are not only eligible to membership in our organization, but we have quite
a number of them in different parts of the country. They are usually employed in
making cores in foundries where light castings are manufactured.
(N OTE.-The jurisdiction over core making as a trade is exercised by the International Moulders' Union which does not admit women.)
METAL POLISHERS' INTER, ATIONAL UNIO, .

The general secretary and editor7 Metal Polishers' Union, writes
on January 21, 1920:
Your letter of .January 17, desiring to know if women are eligible to membership
in our union received. Yes, in every State except New York.
The trade of metal polishing, whereby the operatiYe works on a swiftly reYolYing
emery wheel, causes small particles of the metal that is being polished to circulate
through the air, along with the small particles of the emery or abl'asive dust. This
being inhaled into the lungs causes the respiratory tract and the lungs themselves to
become lacerated and ulcerated, then in breathing in the tubercular bacilli, the weakened lungs, or the diseased lungs, can not throw off the germ, and as a consequence
between 60 and 70 per cent of our members succumb to that dread disease, pulmonary
tuberculosis.


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Our organization is working hard to reduce this by the enactment of laws forcing
exhaust systems to remove this dust. It is a continual fight to have the system
installed and even a much harder fight to have the factory inspectors compel the
manufacturers to keep the exhaust system in an efficient running condition to remove
the dust.
For that reason we discourage women as much as possible from entering this dangerous trade, but whenever the manufacturer insists on hiring- women, we do not insist
on this objective,. but do demand, however, that they shall receive the same rate of
wages for an equal amount of Wol'k performed as the men receive.
International a:c.d local laws of the Metal Polishers' International Union, article 10,
section 1: "There shall be a universal dues of not less than $1.50 per member per
month."

II.

UNIONS WHICH ADMIT WOMEN, BUT ON A REDUCED DUE AND A
REDUCED BENEFIT BASIS.
•

(See note at head of this appendix concerning basis of selections.)
PIANO,

ORGAN

AND

MUSICAL

INSTRUMENT WORKERS'
AMERICA.

INTERNATIONAL

UNION

OF

Article 25, pages 37 and 38, constitution:
"SECTION 1. Female employees of the piano, mgan and musical instrument industry
may be accepted to membership in the international union upon the payment of
one-half the regular initiation fee.
"SEC. 2. All female members shall pay into the funds of the international union
a weekly due of one-half of the regular dues· they shall also pay one-half of all assessments that may be leded from time to time, excepting the annual label assessment,
which they shall be required to pay in fnlL
"SEc. 3. Female members shall be entitled to one-half the amounts of all benefits
paid male members, excepting sick benefit. Female members shall receive one-half
of the amount of sick benefit paid male members, excepting during periods of pregnancy
and for six weeks after confinement, when no sick benefit shall be paid, nor shall any
sick benefit be paid for sickness due to or resultant from pregnancy.
" SEC. 4. Female members in order to be entitled to any of the benefits guaranteed
by our constitution must comply with the general provisions of the constitution by
which male members are governed, excepting as to initiation fee, dues and assessments."

The international president writes on January 21, 1920:
Our organization accepts for membership therein female as well as male employees.
We ask the same wages, the same conditions, for female workers as we do for male
workers.
UNITED LEATHER WORKERS' I N'l'ERNATIONAL UNION.

Constitution, local branches, section 5, page 34 :
"The monthly dues * * * for apprentices and females not less than 60 cerrts. !!
(Full membership $1.15.)
General constitution, section 2l(b), page 12:
"Strike benefits for apprentices and female members shall be $3 per week." (For
full members the benefits range from 5 to $7 per week. )
Section 22(g), page 16:
"Apprentices and female members [shall receive] one-half the amounts [of benefits
granted full members]."
BAKERY AND CONFECTIONERY WORKERS' INTERNATIONAL UNION OF AMERICA.

The international secretary writes on January 28 1920:
1

Women are not barred from becoining members in our organization and receive all
benefits except sick benefits, but on that account they pay less dues than th~ male
members.
About 75 per cent of the candy workers are women, and we have tried hard for the
past few y.ears to organize them with poor results, as that industry has been underpaid
until lately when wages were increased on account of intentions to organize.


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OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUST.RY.

GLASS BLOWERS' ASS OCIATION OF THE UNITED STATE S AND CANADA.

Constitution, article 1, section 4, page 3: .
' 'This association shall exercise jurisdiction over and organize all men and women
employed in and around glass bottle factories, and they shall be governed by such
laws as may hereinafter be arranged and adopted by the Glass Blowers' Association
with the approval of these workmen or their representatives."
·
Article 11, section 67, page 31: * * * ' 'Each· member shall pay assessments as
follows: Members who are making $4 a day and under shall pay one-half the regular
. assessment; members who are making over $4 a day shall· pay the regular assessment.

* * *"

Appendix, section 2, page 42: ' 'It shall be oblis-atory on the part of the memhers _of
the glass factory employees' department to participate in the death beneficiary department, but new members shall n.o t be permitted to join this department until after
the expiration of three months from the time of their admission, after which t'ime they
shall pay one-half the regular assessment and receive one-half the regular benefit, or
they shall pay the regular assessment and participate in the full benefit, at the dis- ·
cretion of the members. Death assessments levied in this department shall be paid
within 30 days after notification by the general secretary. This rule is not to apply
to women members, but it shall be optional with them to join the death beneficiary
department.''

The secretary of the Glass Bottle Blowers' Association of the
United States and Canada writes:
Up to six years ago our association was composed exclusively of skilled glass workers,
bu-t the innovation of machinery and the introduction of other kinds of labor have
forced us to change our charter with the American Federation of Labor, by which we .
now ha".'e jurisdiction over all men and women employed in and around glass factories. ·
W~ have taken in quite a number of women who do not work in the factory; some work
in the packing houses and some in the grinding room and at other work. . .
AMALGAMATED SHEET METAL WORKERS' INTERNATIONAL ALLIANCE.

The general secretary-treasurer w~ites on January 19, 1920:
Wcmen are accepted into our organization from our provisional local unions. -1<· * *
In the general locals, such as those engaged in ship building, in the railroad industry,
and in the building trades shops, there are hardly ever any women employed, as the
wo1·k is quite heavy and particularly on the outside, hazardous, and is not considered
a lucrative field for women.
INTERNA'rIONAL BROTHERHOOD OF ELECTRICAL WORKERS AND TELEPHONE OPERATORS
DEPARTMENT.

flonstitution, article 36, pages 50-51:
' ' SECTION 1. Any female engaged in the manufacture or op·eration of any electrical
apparatus or device may become a member of any local union, subject to all the provisions of this constitution, except as provided for in the following sections of this
article.
' ' SEC. 2. Any local union composed of male and female or female electrical workers
shall be classified and chartered as local union, class B, with a designating number.
''SEc. 3. The local union class B charter and iniation fee for female members shall
be not less than $1.50. The monthly dues shall be not less than 75 cents.
' ' SEC. 4. Each local union, class B, shall pay to the international secretary at the
international office, as per capita tax, the sum of 40 cents out of the monthly dues
collected by the financial secretary from each female member.
' ' SEc. 5. Twelve cents of the monthly per capita tax for female members shall be
placed in the general fund, 4 cents of the per capita in the convention fund, 5 cents of
the per capita tax in the death benefit fund, 5 cents of the per capita shall be placed
in the defense fund, and 14 cents to be placed in the difficulty benefit fund.
"SEC. (1. Every female member of a local union, class B, in fellowship and contbuous good standing in the I. B. E.W. for one year or·more preceding her death
shall, in case of death, be entitled to a funeral benefit in the sum of one hundred and
fifty dollars ($150.00), and shall be exempt from the assessments and debarred from
the benefits as provided in Article XXI, section 1, of this constitution.


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THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY.

157

"SEC. 7. Traveling cards issued to female members 0£ a local union , class B, ~hall
be governed by Article XXTII of this constitution, but in no case can they be deposited
in any L. U. except L. U., class B or class A.
"SEC. 8. All local unions, class B . shall come under the jmisdiction of Shop Electrical Workers.
"SEC. 9. The basis of representation at the I. C. for female members of L. U.'s,
class R, Rhall be one per capita. tax v0te for each female member, and one d elegate
for every one hundred female members or majority fraction thereof. Female members of a local union, Class B, shall not be eligible to the office of president of local
. union composed of male and female members or any international office."
INTERNATIO:N"AL ASSOCIATIO~ Ol? MACHINISTS.

Constitution of the grand lodge, district and subordinate lodges: Article 14, pages
76, 77.
"SECTION. 1. WoII.1cn working in the machine industry under our jnrisdiction shall
be admitted to membership in our association upon making application in accordance
with our constitution , and hy paying one-half of the initiation fee charged journeymen machinists in the re pective localities; and after being admitted to membership,
shall pay not less than 50 cents per month dues. Thirty (30) cents of this amount
shall be forwarded to the grand lodge as per c~pita tax for each member.
"SEC. 2. In the event of assessments being levied by the grand lodge, they shall
pal one-half of the assessment levied upon journeymen machinists.
'SEC. 3. In the event of a strike or lockout they shall receive one-half benefit.s
under the law governing such cases, after being approved by the general executive
board.
"SEC. -4. In the event of death they shall receive one-half of the amount paid
journeymen, as per section 5a, Article 11, of the grand lodge constitution.
·
"SEC. 5. In case of unemployment they shall be entitled to 'out of work 1 stamps · ·
for which the local of which they are members shall pay to the grand lodge 20 cents·
each as per sections l t0 2, a1·ticle 12, grand lo<lge constitution."
·. !
Article IX , page 72, section l: '' Any hoy engaging himself to learn the trade of
machinist must serve four (4) years. * * *"
·

III.

UNIONS WHOSE
OFFICERS DECLARE

CONSTITUTIONS AND BY-LAWS OR WHOSE
TO BE BARRED FROM MEMBERSHIP.

wOMEN

Women have been substituted in men's places in all crafts included, as shown by
the tables in Section II..
~
ELASTIC GORING WEAVERS' AMALGAMATED ASSOCIATION OF 'l'HE UNITED 8TATES.

The general secretary writes on January 21, 1920:
\Vomen are not eligible for membership in om· association at the present timG, as
no women are employed at our branch of the industry.
UNI'l'ED BROTHERHOOD OF C'ARPE)l"TERS A~O .JOINERS.

The generai secretary writes under date of January 19, 1920:
In replying to yours of January 17, I wish to advise that women are not admitted
to membership in the 1Jnited Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America.
PATTERN MAKERS' LEAGUE OF NORTIT AMERICA.

The general president writes on January 19, 1920:
Women do not follow our trarle and they would not be eligible to membership in
our organization.


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158

THE NEW POSITION OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN I ;:rDUSTRY.
INTERNATIO NAL MOULDER,, U~ION OF NORTH AMERICA.

(Exercises jurisdiction over core makers.)
Constitution and rules of order, article 13. section 6, page 37:
"Any member, honorary or active, who devotes his time in part or in whole to the.
instruction of female help in the foundry or at any branch of the ti·adc sha.11 be expelled from this union.''
Among the resolutions passed at the 25th convention are the following as found in
the constitution and rnles of order, page 66:
"13. Resolved, 'l'bat the decision of this convention be the restriction of the further
employmen t of child and woman labor in union core rnoms and founchies, and event•
Hally the elimination of such labor in all founrlries by the example set by union
foundries in the uplifting of humanity .
"Resolved, That we appeal to the worki~men of both countries when deposi;ing
their h!½llots to vote for the candidates who w11J pledge themselves to vote for measures
and legislation which vill eradicate this evil.
"Rcsoli:ed, That the incoming officers be directed to , either by themselves or in
coopera.tion with others in the labor movement, give their best thought and effort in
opposing the employmen t of female and child labor in jobs tecognized distinctivel y
as men's employmen t."


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ADDITIONA L COPIES
OF TRIS PUBLICATION .MAY BE PROCURED ll'ROM
THE SUPERINTENDE NT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT

25 CENT

PER COPY

f
/

PUBLICATIONS OF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU.
BULLETINS.

o. 1. Proposed Employment of Women During the War in the Industries of Tiagara
Falls, . Y. 16 pp. 1918.
No. 2. Labor Laws for Women in Ind ustry in Indiana. 29 pp. 1918.
o. 3. , tandards for the Employment of Women in Industry. 7 pp. 1919.
ro. 4. Wages of Candy Makers in Philadelphia in 1919. 46 pp. 1919.
No. 5. The Eight-Hour Day in Federal and State Legislation. 19 pp. 1919.
No. 6. T.ke Employment of Women in llazardous-Industries in the United States.
.
8 pp. 1919.
o. 7. right-Work Lawsin the United St tes. 4 pp. 1919.
o. . Women in the Government ervice. 37 pp. 1920.
No. 9. Il:'>mc Work in Bridgeport, Conn. 35 pp. 1920.
No. 10. Ilours and Conditions of Work for Women in Industry in Virginia. 32 pp.
1920.

No. 11. Women Street Car Conductors and Ticket Agents.
No. 12. The New Position of Women in Ameriran Industry. 158 pp. 1920.
No. 13. Industrial Opportunities and Training for Women and Girls. 48 pp. 1920.
CHARTS.

No.
No.
No.
-No.

I.
II.
III.
IV.

V.
No.
No. VI.
No. VII.
No. VIII.
No. IX.
X.
No.

Eight-Hour and Eight-and-a-IIalf-IIour Laws for Women Workers.
Nine-Hour Laws for Women Workers.
Ten-llour Laws for Women Workers.
Ten-and-a-Quarter-Hour, T n-and-a-Half-IIour, Eleven-Ilour, and TwelveHour Laws for Women Workers.
Weekly Hour Laws for Women Workers.
(In preparation.)
Night-Work Laws for Women Workers.
Home:Work Laws in the nited States.
Minimum Wage Legislati0nin the United States-April, 1920. 3 sections.
Mothers' Pension Laws in the nited States. 4 sections.

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