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ink* Monthly Labor Review In this issue: U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics July 1994 Perspectives on earnings inequality Women in the work force Pension portability Employment in public schools https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis f l 7I f -« f* '. i t r■ *H 1 "i \ 4 —m x 0 Mf Jr J f m JB U.S. Department of Labor Robert B. Reich, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Katharine G. Abraham, Commissioner The Monthly Labor Review is published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the US Department of Labor Communications on editorial matters should be addressed to the Editor-in-Chief. Monthly Labor Review, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Washington. DC 20212 Phone (202) 606-5900. Subscription price per year— $25 domestic; $31.25 foreign. Single copy, $7 domestic; $8.75 foreign. 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Regional Offices and Commissioners R e g io n 1 C o n n e c tic u t M a in e M a s s a c h u s e tts N e w H a m p s h ire R h o d e Is la n d V e rm o n t A n th o n y J. F e rra ra R e g io n II N e w J e rs e y N e w Y ork P u e rto R ic o V irg in Is la n d s S a m u e l M . E h re n h a lt 10 th F lo o r O n e C o n g re s s S tre e t B o s to n , M A 0 2 1 1 4 -2 0 2 3 P hone (6 1 7 )5 6 5 -2 3 2 7 R oom 808 201 V a ric k S tre e t N e w Y o rk, N Y 1 00 1 4 -4 8 1 1 P h o ne : (2 12 ) 3 3 7 - 2 4 0 0 R e g io n III D e la w a re D is tric t o f C o lu m b ia M a ry la n d P e n n s y lv a n ia V irg in ia W e s t V irg in ia A la n P a is n e r R e g io n IV A la b a m a F lo rid a G e o rg ia K e n tu c k y M is s is s ip p i J a n e t R an k in 3 5 3 5 M a rk e t S tre e t P.O. B o x 1 3 3 0 9 P h ila d e lp h ia , PA 1 9 1 0 1 -3 3 0 9 P h o ne : (2 1 5 ) 5 9 6 - 1 1 5 4 N o rth C a ro lin a S o u th C a ro lin a T ennessee 1371 P e a c h tre e S tre e t, N.E. A tla n ta , G A 3 0 3 6 7 -2 3 0 2 P h o ne : (404) 3 4 7 - 4 4 1 6 R e g io n V Illin o is In d ia n a M ic h ig a n M in n e s o ta O h io W is c o n s in L o is L. O rr 9 th F lo or F e d e ra l O ffic e B u ild in g 2 3 0 S o u th D e a rb o rn S tre e t C h ic a g o , IL 6 0 6 0 4 -1 5 9 5 P h o ne : (3 12 ) 3 5 3 - 1 8 8 0 R e g io n VI A rk a n s a s L o u is ia n a N e w M e x ic o O k la h o m a Texas R o b e rt A . G a d d ie R oo m 221 F e d e ra l B u ild in g 5 2 5 G riffin S tre e t D a lla s , T X 7 5 2 0 2 -5 0 2 8 P h o ne : (2 14 ) 7 6 7 - 6 9 7 0 R e g io n V II Io w a Kansas M is s o u ri N e b ra s k a July cover: “Allies Day, May 1917,” a 1917 oil on canvas by Childe Hassam (1859-1935). Photograph courtesy of the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC Cover design by Melvin B. Moxley https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis R e g io n IX A m e ric a n S a m o a A riz o n a C a lifo rn ia G uam H a w a ii N evada T rust T e rrito ry o f th e P a c ific Is la n d s R e g io n V III C o lo ra d o M o n ta n a N o rth D a k o ta S o u th D a k o ta U ta h W y o m in g R e g io n X A la s k a Id a h o O re g o n W a s h in g to n G u n n ar Engen 1 1 0 0 M a in St. S u ite 6 0 0 K a n s a s C ity, M O 6 4 1 0 5 -2 1 1 2 P h o ne : (8 16 ) 4 2 6 -2 4 8 1 S a m M. H ira b a y a s h i 71 S te v e n s o n S tre e t P.O. B o x 3 7 6 6 S a n F ra n c is c o , C A 9 4 1 1 9 -3 7 6 6 P h o n e : (4 15 ) 7 4 4 - 6 6 0 0 / ink* Monthly Labor Review July 1994 Volume 117, Number 7 Editor-in-Chief Deborah P. Klein Perspectives on earnings inequality Gender-related shifts in the distribution of wages Executive Editor Richard M. Devens, Jr. Managing Editor Anna Huffman Hill Editors Brian I. Baker Leslie Brown Joyner Mary K. Rieg Stephen Singer Paul Ryscavage Earnings in the 1980’s: an occupational perspective Maury Gittleman Women in the work force Women and jobs in recoveries: 1970-93 Shifts in the distribution of jobs during business cycles have a permanent effect on job distribution by gender Production Director John F. Fennell Are women leaving the labor force? Production Manager Dennis L. Rucker Howard V. Hayghe https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 16 Changes in occupational demand accounted for about one-third of the widening earnings gap between more and less educated workers Editorial Assistants Ernestine Patterson Leary Donna R. Smith Production Assistants Cornita S. Alston Catherine D. Bowman Phyllis L. Lott 3 Wage distribution became more unequal during the 1980’s; the middle ‘hollowed’ out for men and ‘filled in’ for women 28 William Goodman 37 Recent interruptions in women’s labor force participation do not appear to signal a reversal of their long-term gain Other articles________________________________________ Employment in public schools: the student-to-employee ratio 40 Employment surged over the 1964-93 period, despite the recession and the aging of baby-boomers Teresa L. Morisi Portability of pension benefits among jobs 45 A worker’s ability to maintain and transfer accumulated pension benefits when changing jobs is not widespread Ann C. Foster Departments Labor month in review M ajor agreements expiring next month Developments in industrial relations Book reviews Current labor statistics 2 51 52 55 59 ib FIssM Labor month in review Employees and health benefits According to Pension and Health Benefits of American Workers, “[T]he majority of workers continued to work for firms that sponsored some type of health benefits plan.” The share of workers whose employ er sponsored a plan had edged down, how ever, from about 81 percent in 1988 to 78 percent in 1993. At the same time, the report notes, the percentage of workers actually receiving health coverage from their own employer was 61 percent in 1993, compared with 65 percent in 1988. Overall, the ratio of work ers participating in a plan to those working for employers that provided one did not change much, so any decline in worker coverage was due to diminishing sponsor ship rather than declining participation. Among those not covered by their em ployers’ plans, about one-half elected not to participate and 38 percent were ineligi ble to participate. The most frequent rea son given for declining to participate was coverage under another plan. The most fre quent reason for ineligibility was part-time status. The report, a joint effort by the Labor Department’s Pension and Welfare Bene fits Administration, the Social Security Ad ministration, the U. S. Small Business Ad ministration and the Pension Benefit Guar anty Corporation, uses data from a special supplement to the April 1993 Current Pop ulation Survey. making it possible for automakers to “unin tentionally achieve a reduction in work hours.” Japan’s autoworkers usually clock the longest annual hours and typify the country’s “diligent worker” image. The fact that annual work hours dropped for the top automakers received much attention. Steel technology Over the past several decades, steel indus try employment has been on a downtrend. b l s Bulletin 2435, Technology and Its Ef fect on the Steel Industry, estimates the av erage annual decline from 1979 to 1992 at 6.1 percent. Over a roughly comparable pe riod, output per employee hour accelerated to an average annual gain of 3.5 percent from the near zero growth registered from 1973 to 1979. The productivity gains were attributed to the growth of highly efficient minimills, the restructuring of integrated producers into a smaller but more modem plant-andequipment base, and the increased use of advanced steelmaking technology. These technologies often reduce employment re quirements and always raise skill and train ing requirements. BLS studied seven specif ic technologies, the impacts of which are shown in table 1 below. NAFTA review office The National Administrative Office in the U.S. Department of Labor serves as the cen tral point of contact for North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) com plaints involving labor issues. The office has up to 60 days to decide if the complaint is valid, and an additional 120 days to issue a report resolving the matter. The National Administrative Office, located in the Bu reau of International Labor Affairs, is headed, on an acting basis, by Jorge PerezLopez. Employment growth in small firms Overall employment increased in Ameri can small establishments in January. The good hiring conditions are expected to continue in the coming months, according to Small Business News, published by the National Federation of Independent Busi ness. Nearly a quarter of the small busi nesses surveyed plan to increase employ ment; only 5 percent anticipate reducing their work forces. Seasonally adjusted em ployment plans of small businesses have weakened slightly since January, but chief economist William Dunkelberg explains that because the January figures were so strong, the decrease had little impact on overall employment. The percentage of small firms with job openings was 21 per cent, seasonally adjusted, the highest level since the mid-1980’s. The hiring of tempo rary or leased workers rose slightly, in part because of the high nonwage costs of hir ing permanent employees and the prefer ence of some workers for less formal work arrangements. Annual work hours reduced in Japan According to Japan’s Monthly Labor Sur vey, average annual hours of work per per son decreased by 59 hours (2.4 percent) over the 1992-93 period. Both scheduled hours and overtime hours dropped. The survey was conducted among 16,700 establishments with 30 or more workers, and 33,000 establishments with 5 or more workers in nine major industries. For the first time, annual work hours of Ja pan’s three automakers— Toyota Motor Corp., Nissan Motor Co., and Mazda Mo tor Corp.— fell below 2,000 hours. The protracted recession in the auto in dustry resulted in a drastic cut in overtime, 2 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 Table 1. Impacts of new steelmaking technologies Technology Improved basic oxygen furnaces...................... Improved electrical furnaces........................... Ladle refining................................................... Continuous casting........................................... Direct casting................................................... New or upgraded rolling, shaping, and finishing facilities.................................... Computer process control................................. Employment requirements Skills/training requirements Little change Some reduction Some increase Reduction Reduction Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher Variable More specialists Higher Higher Gender-related shifts in the distribution of wages The Nation’s wage distribution grew more unequal during the 1980's, with the top and bottom becoming more concentrated at the expense o f the middle; fo r men, the middle “hollowed out ” considerably, while fo r women, the middle actually “filled in, ” with only a small increase in the bottom o f the distribution Paul Ryscavage Paul Ryscavage is a senior labor economist in the Division of Housing and Household Economic Statistics, Bureau of the Census. The views expressed in this article are the author’s and are not attributable to the Bureau of the Census. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis n recent years, U.S. wage earners have faced a variety of changes in the labor market. For example, computers and other information technologies have redefined the nature of many jobs, corporate downsizings and layoffs have altered the career paths of numerous workers, and stiffer global and domestic competition has sharpened concerns over labor costs on the part of employers. These developments and others have produced changes in the shape of the wage distribution and, for many wage earners, their location in it. It is com m on know ledge today th at the N ation’s wage structure became more dispersed and unequal in the 1980’s.1 Not only did the gap between low-wage workers and high-wage work ers widen, but the percentage of workers in the middle of the distribution thinned out, resulting in larger percentages of workers at the bottom and top. Research on growing wage inequality, which Frank Levy and Richard J. M umane re cently reviewed, has been voluminous.2 The cause of growing wage inequality in the 1980’s, however, continues to be the subject of much research, and various explanations have been proposed. A leading candidate has been a shift in the demand for labor in favor of highly skilled and educated workers within industries. Two pairs of researchers— Lawrence F. Katz and I Kevin M. Murphy, and John Bound and George Johnson— have associated these shifts with skillbiased technological change, or changes in tech nology that require well-trained workers.3 The corollary to such shifts, of course, is the collapsing demand for unskilled workers during the 1980’s.4 The growing concentration of workers with low wages and the perception that “middle class” jobs were disappearing also prompted much eco nomic research. Not surprisingly, relative shifts in demand along skill and training dimensions were found to be responsible for the increase in low-wage employment. Gary Burtless recently wrote: “The problem they [unskilled workers] face is not an overabundance of bad jobs . . . but a surplus of unskilled workers in a market re quiring more skill than ever.”5 Some research has fo cu sed on sp ecific g roups. F or ex am ple, McKinley L. Blackburn, David E. Bloom, and Richard B. Freeman examined the declining eco nomic situation of unskilled white men aged 25 to 64 years and unskilled young men aged 25 to 34 years.6 Research of this kind, along with grow ing public concern over the increase in low-wage employment, prompted the Bureau of the Census to publish a report profiling the demographic and social characteristics of workers with low earnings.7 It is understandable why so much attention has been focused on the lower end of the wage dis- Monthly Labor Review July 1994 3 Distribution o f Wages, by Gender tribution: the greater incidence of low-wage employment among those persons who maintain families and households has serious economic and social implications. But changes have also taken place in other parts of the income distribu tion, changes that reflect our ever-evolving so ciety, economy, and labor market. In a rapidly changing world of work, policymakers, the me dia, and the public should be aware of how the various segments of our wage distribution are being affected. In the following descriptive analysis, attention is focused on the gender-related shifts that have taken place in the N ation’s wage distribution in the 1980’s. As has been observed, earnings of women have grown faster, on average, than those of men during the period. But the distributional consequences of these disparate trends have re ceived little attention. The analysis begins with a brief discussion of some issues pertaining to measuring the wage distribution with the data that are analyzed. Changes in the general shapes of the total wage distribution and the wage distributions for men and women between 1979 and 1989 are then dis cussed. S ubsequent sections are devoted to changes in the proportions of men and women employed in specific segments of the distribu tion. These changes are further examined by age, education, and industrial sector, and then changes between 1989 and 1992 are presented. A con cluding section summarizes the findings and sug gests an avenue for further research. Measurement issues and the data Researchers have typically relied on the income and work experience data collected in the March supplement to the Current Population Survey (CPS) to approximate the wage distribution, and I shall do the same here. However, measurement issues exist. First, while the CPS does collect data on income derived from the labor market (for example, wages, salaries, and income from selfem ployment), it does not provide a complete measure of the wage, because noncash compen sation (for instance, certain employer-provided fringe benefits) is excluded. Second, the unit of labor input is difficult to standardize with any accuracy because the measurement of labor sup plied is based on survey respondents’ recall. Third, labor income in the CPS is measured across individuals and not jobs (workers may obviously have more than one job at a point in time or across time), so the basic unit of analysis is the worker. And fourth, data on earnings in the CPS are trun cated at upper limits for purposes of confidenti ality, thereby obscuring actual earnings levels of the highest paid workers.8 Consequently, con 4 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 clusions reached as to how the wage distribu tion has changed must bear these measurement issues in mind. The primary universe for analysis is the an nual wage and salary earnings received from all jobs by persons 15 years of age and older who usually worked 35 or more hours a week for 50 or more weeks in the year in 1979, 1989, and 1992— the universe of full-tim e, year-round workers. (Workers who derived earnings from self-employment are excluded because they re flect, in many instances, returns to capital as well as returns to labor.) This universe has been a popular one for economists to use in exploring inequality, because of the implicit control for hours worked.9 The focus of the analysis to be presented is changes in the distributions between 1979 and 1989. Wage inequality rose signifi cantly between those years, and both years re flect similar stages of the business cycle (reces sions began in the following year). By contrast, data for 1992 are the latest available from the CPS, but they reflect a much different stage of the business cycle. A secondary universe is the annual earnings (wage and salary earnings, plus net income from farms and self-employment) received by men and women employed full time, year round. This universe, which has the same limitations as the previous one, has a much more limited role in the analysis. It is used, first, to measure the long term trend in earnings of men and women aged 15 and older between 1960 and 1992 and, sec ond, to measure trends in the earnings of men and women aged 25 and older, by educational categories, between 1979 and 1989.10 The shapes of the distributions If we assume that the distribution of wage and salary earnings of workers employed usually full time, year round in 1979 and 1989 are rough approximations of the N ation’s wage structure in those years, it is clear that the shape of that wage structure has changed. Table 1 presents the proportions of workers, in constant 1992 dollar earnings intervals, in 1979 and 1989; the mean and median wage and salary earnings for those years; and the Gini index for the same years.11 Chart 1, panel 1, depicts the shape of the distri butions in those years. The earnings distributions in both 1979 and 1989 sketch out a classic picture: distributions that are positively skewed, with a long tail to the right. A closer inspection of the chart and the table reveals the changes that have taken place during the 1980’s. First, while mean earnings of year-round, full-time workers rose from $30,485 to $31,728 (in 1992 dollars), the median in 1989 Chart 1 Distribution of wages and salaries of full-time, year-round workers, 1979 and 1989 (in 1992 dollars) Percent Less than $ 12,000 All workers $24,000 $24,000$36,000 $36,000$48,000 $48,000$60,000 $60,000$72,000 $72,000$84,000 More than $84,000 12, 000 $24,000 $24,000$36,000 $36,000$48,000 $48,000$60,000 $60,000$72,000 $72,000$84,000 More than $84,000 $ 12 , 000 - Percent Less than $ 12,000 $ Percent Less than $ 12,000 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Percent 70 Women $ 12 , 000 - $24,000 $24,000$36,000 $36,000$48,000 $48,000$60,000 $60,000$72,000 $72,000$84,000 More than $84,000 Monthly Labor Review July 1994 5 Distribution o f Wages, by Gender was not much different from what it was in 1979. Second, and as might be expected from the first observation, the Gini index rose from .315 to .345, indicating that the distribution became sub stantially more unequal. And third, the propor tion of workers in the great middle of the distri bution, those who earned between $24,000 and $48,000, declined (as did the proportion of those earning between $12,000 and $24,000), while the proportion of workers earning lower wages and the proportion earning higher wages each in creased.12 These are what most people have come to understand about how the Nation’s wage struc ture changed in the 1980’s. W hen we dip below the surface of these dis tributions and examine the distributions of men and women in the context of the overall distri bution, however, other changes, some of which are not well known, emerge. To begin, shifts in the earnings distribution for men were more pro nounced than in the overall distribution. Both table 1 and chart 1, panel 2, show that the thin ning of the middle— those earning from $24,000 to $48,000— was more severe for men than for all workers: the middle proportion dropped from 53.4 percent of all men in 1979 to 44.9 percent in 1989.13 The proportions with earnings below this range increased from 28.9 percent to 34.6 percent, and the proportions with earnings above the range rose from 17.7 percent to 20.4 percent. So there was a definite thickening in the bottom of the distribution, which dragged down m en’s real median earnings, while the upper part of the distribution became slightly more concentrated, which helped pull up their real mean earnings. Developments in the wom en’s earnings dis tribution were different, even though inequality also increased, as measured by their Gini index. Chart 1, panel 3, shows that the women’s earn ings distribution, in both 1979 and 1989, was Table 1. considerably more compressed than the m en’s, but changes nevertheless took place. In sharp contrast to the situation for men, the proportion of women with earnings between $24,000 and $48,000— the important middle— actually in creased from 26.6 percent to 34.9 percent of women wage and salary workers employed full time, year round during the 1980’s. In other words, these intervals were “filling in” (unlike the situation for men), as were the intervals above the middle (from 1.8 percent to 4.5 percent). The source of this upward movement in the women’s distribution (at least in the sense of net changes) was the large cluster of women in the $12,000to $24,000-a-year range, which declined by more than 10 percentage points. The percentage of women in full-tim e, year-round em ploym ent earning less than $12,000 a year increased slightly, from 14.4 percent to 15.3 percent. The reasons for the distributional develop ments among women are not well understood. It is known, of course, that the earnings of women in the 1980’s advanced more rapidly than those of m en.14 (As shown in table 1, the median wage and salary earnings of men fell from $32,231 to $30,549, or 5.2 percent, while for women, it in creased from $18,960 to $20,932, or 10.4 per cent.) As a consequence, the gender pay gap closed significantly.15 Long-term trends in median annual earnings (wage and salary earnings, plus net income from farm and nonfarm self-employment) for men and women with full-time, year-round employment are shown in chart 2. Both trends were fairly similar over the 1960’s and 1970’s, but then, in the 1980’s, they diverged. An e x p la n a tio n fo r the a c c e le ra tio n in women’s earnings during the 1980’s, at least in terms of higher wages or longer hours, appears to rest entirely on increases in earnings per Distribution of wage and salary earnings of full-time, year-round workers, by gender, 1979 and 1989 [In 1992 dollars] 6 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 Total (in thousands).............. Total (in p e rc e n t)................. 57,209 100.0 72,120 100.0 36,277 100.0 42,987 100.0 20,932 100.0 29,133 100.0 Less than $1 2,00 0............... $12,000 to $23,999 .............. $24,000 to $35,999 .............. $36,000 to $47,999 .............. $48,000 to $59,999 .............. $60,000 to $71,999 .............. $72,000 to $83,999 .............. $84,000 and o v e r................. 8.4 36.2 26.2 17.4 5.9 2.4 1.4 2.1 10.5 34.6 25.0 15.9 7.1 2.6 1.4 2.9 4.9 24.0 29.1 24.3 8.7 3.7 2.1 3.2 7.2 27.4 25.3 19.6 9.9 3.9 2.1 4.5 14.4 57.2 21.2 5.4 1.0 .3 .2 .3 15.3 45.3 24.6 10.3 2.8 .8 .3 .6 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Women Men Total Intervals Mean ..................................... $30,485 $31,728 $36,065 $37,051 $20,816 $23,874 M e d ia n ................................... $26,543 $26,023 $32,231 $30,549 $18,960 $20,932 Gini index ............................. .315 .345 .293 .345 .253 .293 July 1994 hour.16 Beyond this, researchers, such as Bound and Johnson, have speculated that women’s rela tively greater wage growth may have been due to changes in technologies that were more fa vorable to them because of the types of occupa tions they work in, as well as to improvements in the quality of their labor.17 Regarding the latter factor, the proportion of women working full time, year round rose dra matically in the 1980’s (from 43.4 percent to 51.1 percent), and much of this jum p was no doubt related to the growing proportion of college-edu cated women. But even when educational attain ment is controlled for, as in table 2, the earnings of women changed more favorably than did those of their male counterparts over the 1979-89 pe riod.18 Because wages for women were rising faster than for men across educational classes, the occupations and industries (and the nature of the work) in which women are employed be come important in explaining their wage gains and, ultimately, their distributional shifts. Employment by wage and gender The changes in employment of men and women across the wage distribution between 1979 and 1989 can be described in a more qualitative way. We can https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis relabel some of the constant 1992 dollar earnings intervals appearing in table 1 and collapse them into the following employment categories: lowwage employment, or employment yielding annual wage and salary earnings of less than $12,000; lowto-middle-wage employment, or employment yield ing earnings of $12,000 to $23,999; middle-wage employment, or employment yielding $24,000 to $47,999; middle-to-high-wage employment, or employment yielding $48,000 to $59,999; and highwage employment, or employment yielding annual earnings in excess of $60,000 a year.19 Table 3 shows the changing wage distribution in terms of these employment categories in 1979 and in 1989. The changes, of course, are very similar to those depicted in table 1 and chart 1. The proportions of men and the proportions of women falling into the various employment cat egories are quite different from one another, as are the changes between 1979 and 1989: • M iddle-wage employment was hollowing out for men, but filling in for women. • Low-wage and low-to-middle-wage employ ment increased for men, but only low-wage em ployment increased for women. • High-wage and middle-to-high-wage em ployment increased for both men and women. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 7 Distribution o f Wages, by Gender The net changes in these employment catego ries, shown in table 4, highlight important de velopments in the m en’s and women’s wage dis tributions. Although employment in the lower half of the distributions increased for both men and women, the economy was also generating middle-wage to high-wage employment oppor tunities. The gains in m iddle-w age em ploy m e n t— e m p lo y m e n t p a y in g $ 2 4 ,0 0 0 to $48,000— were exclusively among women. Al most 4.6 million additional women entered the middle ranks of the N ation’s wage distribution from 1979 to 1989. And even while employment gains above these pay levels were dominated by men, who increased their numbers in the upper levels of pay by 2.4 million, nearly 1.0 million women moved into the upper ranks of the distri bution as well.20 In the following sections, we examine these gender-related shifts in the employment catego ries by various characteristics. We do this pri marily by examining changes in the proportions. of workers in those categories. Age and education The increase of almost 15 million full-time, yearround wage and salary workers between 1979 and 1989 was nearly equally divided between men (45 percent) and women (55 percent). This was despite the fact that prior to then, full-time, year-round employment had been primarily the domain of men. Table 5 presents the changes that occurred in the employment categories for two broad age classes of men and women: those aged 20 to 29 years and those aged 30 to 54 years. As has been reported in the literature, young workers, espe cially those with few skills, have experienced great difficulty in the job market in recent years.21 The table shows that, although the wage struc ture of young women was more heavily com posed of low -w age and low -to-m iddle-w age employment than that of young men, the situa tion was changing in the 1980’s. All of the de cline in middle-wage employment for men was offset by rising proportions of low-wage and low- Table 2. Mean annual earnings of full-time, year-round workers aged 25 and older, by gender and educational attainment, 1979 and 1989 [In 1992 dollars] W om en M en E d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t P e rc e n t change 1979 1989 Total ....................................... $36,273 $39,145 7.9 Less than 9 y e a r s ............... 24,598 21,558 -1 2 .4 9 to 11 y e a r s ........................ 28,071 25,431 -9 .4 1989 P e rc e n t change $20,641 $24,669 19.5 14,261 14,278 .1 16,491 16,584 .6 1979 12 y e a rs ................................ 32,421 32,008 -1 .2 19,028 20,710 8.8 13 to 15 y e a r s ...................... 36,027 37,444 3.9 21,631 24,982 15.5 16 y e a rs ................................ 46,399 49,630 7.0 25,222 31,282 24.0 17 or more y e a rs ................. 56,137 62,736 11.8 32,096 38,422 19.7 Table 3. Distribution of wage and salary earnings of full-time, year-round workers, by gender and employment categories, 1979 and 1989 E m p lo y m e n t c a t e g o r y 1 G en d er and year T o ta l ( th o u s a n d s ) T o ta l (p e r c e n t) Low w age L o w -to m id d le w a g e M id d le w age M id d le -to h ig h w a g e H ig h w age Total: 1979 ....................... 1989 ....................... Change ..................... 57,209 72,120 14,911 100.0 100.0 — 8.4 10.5 2.1 36.2 34.6 -1 .4 43.7 40.9 -2 .8 5.9 7.1 1.2 5.9 7.0 1.1 Men: 1979 ....................... 1989 ....................... Change ..................... 36,277 42,987 6,710 100.0 100.0 — 4.9 7.2 2.3 24.0 27.4 3.4 53.4 44.9 -8 .5 8.7 9.9 1.2 8.9 10.5 1.6 Women: 1979 ....................... 1989 ....................... Change ..................... 20,932 29,133 8,201 100.0 100.0 — 14.4 15.3 .9 57.2 45.3 -1 1.9 26.7 34.9 8.2 1.0 2.8 1.8 .7 1.7 1.0 1 Categories are defined in terms of 1992 dollars as follows: low wage— annual earnings of less than $12,000; low-tomiddle wage— $12,000 to $23,999; middle wage— $24,000 to $47,999; middle-to-high wage— $48,000 to $59,999; high wage— $60,000 or more. 8 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 Table 4. Employment of full-time, year-round workers, by gender and employment categories, 1979 and 1989 [Numbers in thousands] E m p lo y m e n t c a t e g o r y 1 G en d er and year T o ta l Low w age L o w -to -m id d le w age M id d le w age M id d le -to -h ig h w age H ig h w age Total: 1979 ............................................... 1989 ............................................... Change ............................................. 57,209 72,120 14,911 4,797 7,569 2,772 20,683 24,969 4,286 24,970 29,464 4,494 3,365 5,099 1,734 3,394 5,019 1,625 Men: 1979 ............................................... 1989 ............................................... Change ............................................. 36,277 42,987 6,710 1,783 3,108 1,325 8,710 11,785 3,075 19,388 19,298 -9 0 3,152 4,275 1,123 3,245 4,520 1,275 Women: 1979 .............................................. 1989 .............................................. Change ............................................. 20,932 29,133 8,201 3,014 4,460 1,446 11,974 13,183 1,209 5,582 10,165 4,583 214 824 610 149 499 350 1 Categories are defined in terms of 1992 dollars as follows: low wage— annual earnings of less than $12,000; low-tomiddle wage— $12,000 to $23,999; middle wage— $24,000 to $47,999; middle-to-high wage— $48,000 to $59,999; high wage— $60,000 or more. to-middle-wage employment. By contrast, while there was some increase in low-wage employ ment (from 15.0 percent to 19.4 percent) for young women, there were larger increases in these w om en’s middle-wage em ployment and above (from 20.8 percent to 28.4 percent). Among older men and women, a similar situ ation prevailed. M iddle-wage employment for men aged 30 to 54 was sharply reduced, from 57.2 percent to 48.6 percent of all such men; and while there was some relative increase in em ployment above that level, low-wage and lowto-middle-wage employment among older men increased from 19.7 percent to 26.2 percent. For women in this age range, on the other hand, the decline in low-to-middle-wage employment of 11.9 percentage points was offset by increases in middle-wage, middle-to-high-wage, and highwage employment. (Their net change in lowwage employment was not statistically signifi cant at the 10-percent level.) As mentioned earlier, economists have found that educational attainment became an increas ingly important factor in determining one’s po sition in the wage distribution during the 1980’s. Returns to education (as measured, for example, by relative wage differences between collegeeducated and high school-educated workers) rose sharply in that decade after falling during the 1970’s.22 Table 5 also shows the changing wage distributions of young men and women and older men and women who com pleted 12 or fewer years of school (high school or less) and who completed 16 or more years of school (college or more). The changes reflect this educational effect, but also the effect of gender. For young men and women aged 20 to 29 years with high school educations or less, the propor tions with low-wage employment increased dra https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis matically— from 9.6 percent to 17.4 percent for young men and from 19.0 percent to 28.3 per cent for young women. In addition, for young men, low-to-middle-wage employment became more common. Consequently, job opportunities for young workers with high school educations or less changed radically in the 1980’s. The situ ation was somewhat brighter for their counter parts with college educations— especially young women, for whom there was a large relative in crease into middle-wage employment, from 38.3 percent to 52.6 percent— as a result of the overthe-decade decline in the percentage of low-tomiddle-wage employment. Among young men, there was a modest decline in middle-wage em ployment, from 64.2 percent to 59.9 percent. Older men and women with high school edu cations or less, of course, typically have more work experience than their younger counterparts, and in 1989, smaller proportions of them were in low-wage employment. Nevertheless, lowwage employment and low-to-middle-wage em ployment increased relatively for the men (from 26.8 percent to 38.5 percent), and low-wage employment increased for the women (from 16.2 percent to 18.7 percent). However, the older women also moved into middle-wage employ ment, which increased from 21.7 percent to 26.1 percent of all women in this age and education category. The brightest picture, of course, was for col lege-educated men and women aged 30 to 54 years. While there was a slight increase in the percentage of low-to-middle-wage employment for men (from 7.4 percent to 9.2 percent), their proportions in middle-to-high-wage and highwage employment rose from 42.9 percent to 48.0 percent between 1979 and 1989. College-edu cated women remained concentrated in middle- Monthly Labor Review July 1994 9 Distribution o f Wages, by Gender wage employment paying $24,000 to $48,000 an nually, but they did increase their proportions in m iddle-to-high and high-w age em ploym ent (from 7.4 percent to 15.2 percent). Industrial attachment and education One of the important developments often asso ciated with growing wage inequality has been the changes taking place in the economy’s in dustrial structure. Indeed, “deindustrialization,” or the shift in employment from industries in volved in the production of goods to industries involved in providing services, was considered a primary contributor to greater wage inequalTable 5. ity.23 The fact that wage inequality, however, was increasing within most industries suggested that other forces were at work as well.24 In this sec tion, we examine how the wage distributions of men and women changed across various industries. Table 6 displays the proportions of men and women who worked full time, year round in the five employment categories as of 1979 and 1989, by four broad industrial sectors. Data for the manufacturing industry are displayed separately, because this industry is one of those often fo cused on in discussions such as the present one and because it represents a m ajor part of all goods-producing industries. The other goodsproducing industries are agriculture, forestry and Distribution of wage and salary earnings of full-time, year-round workers aged 20 to 29 years and 30 to 54 years, by employment categories, 1979 and 1989 A g e , g e n d e r, and year T o ta l (th o u s a n d s ) T o ta l (p e r c e n t) E m p lo y m e n t c a t e g o r y 1 Low w age L o w -to m id d le w a g e M id d le w age M id d le -to h ig h w a g e H ig h w age A g e 2 0 to 29 y e a rs Men: 1979 ............................. 1989 ............................. Change ........................... 9,595 10,340 745 100.0 100.0 7.5 13.8 6.3 38.6 44.5 5.9 49.3 37.1 -1 2.2 3.3 2.8 -.5 1.4 1.7 .3 Women: 1979 ............................. 1989 ............................. Change ........................... 6,562 7,469 907 100.0 100.0 15.0 19.4 4.4 64.2 52.3 -1 1 .9 20.1 26.6 6.5 .4 1.1 .7 .3 .7 .4 Men: 1979 ............................. 1989 ............................. Change ........................... 20,525 27,188 6,663 100.0 100.0 2.6 4.3 1.7 17.1 21.9 4.8 57.2 48.6 -8 .6 11.4 12.0 .6 11.7 13.1 1.4 Women: 1979 ............................. 1989 ............................. Change ........................... 10,910 18,158 7,248 100.0 100.0 12.2 12.3 .1 54.4 42.5 -1 1 .9 31.1 39.5 8.4 1.5 3.6 2.1 .9 2.2 1.3 Men: 1979 ............................. 1989 ............................. Change ........................... 5,525 6,171 546 100.0 100.0 9.6 17.4 7.8 43.7 52.8 9.1 44.4 28.1 -1 5 .3 2.3 1.2 -1.1 .9 .5 -.4 Women: 1979 ............................. 1989 ............................. Change ........................... 3,650 3,527 -1 2 3 100.0 100.0 19.0 28.3 9.3 68.6 58.2 -9 .4 12.2 12.9 .7 .1 .5 .4 .1 .2 .1 Men: 1979 ............................. 1989 ............................. Change ........................... 1,751 2,072 321 100.0 100.0 2.4 5.2 2.8 24.0 22.2 -1 .8 64.2 59.9 -4 .3 6.3 7.3 1.0 3.1 5.4 2.3 Women: 1979 ............................. 1989 ............................. Change ........................... 1,375 1,977 602 100.0 100.0 5.2 5.8 .6 54.3 37.1 -1 7.2 38.3 52.6 14.3 1.5 2.7 1.2 .8 1.9 1.1 A g e 3 0 to 5 4 y e a rs A g e 2 0 to 2 9 y e a rs , h ig h s c h o o l o r le s s A g e 2 0 to 29 y ea rs , c o lle g e o r m o re See footnote at end of table 10 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 Table 5. Continued—Distribution of wage and salary earnings of full-time, year-round workers, aged 20 to 29 years and 30 to 54 years, by employment categories, 1979 and 1989 E m p lo y m e n t c a t e g o r y 1 T o tal ( th o u s a n d s ) T o ta l (p e r c e n t) Men: 1979 ............................. 1989 ............................. Change ........................... 11,249 12,992 1,743 100.0 100.0 Women: 1979 ............................. 1989 ............................. Change ........................... 6,936 9,421 2,485 Men: 1979 ............................. 1989 ............................. Change ........................... Women: 1979 ............................. 1989 ............................. Change ........................... A g e , g e n d e r, a n d y e a r L o w -to m id d le w a g e M id d le w age M id d le -to h ig h w a g e H ig h w age 3.5 7.0 3.5 23.3 31.5 8.2 59.9 49.7 -10.2 8.6 7.6 -1 .0 4.7 4.3 -.4 100.0 100.0 16.2 18.7 2.5 61.2 53.5 -7 .7 21.7 26.1 4.4 .6 1.1 .5 .3 .7 .4 5,666 8,405 2,739 100.0 100.0 1.4 1.4 .0 7.4 9.2 1.8 48.3 41.3 -7 .0 16.4 18.5 2.1 26.5 29.5 3.0 2,068 4,663 2,595 100.0 100.0 3.1 2.9 -.2 30.1 20.4 -9 .7 59.3 61.4 2.1 4.5 9.6 5.1 2.9 5.6 2.7 Low w age A g e 3 0 to 54 y e a rs , h ig h s c h o o l o r le s s A g e 3 0 to 54 y e a rs , c o lle g e o r m o re 1 Categories are defined in terms of 1992 dollars as follows: low wage— annual earnings of less than $12,000; low-tomiddle wage— $12,000 to $23,999; middle wage— $24,000 to $47,999; middle-to-high wage— $48,000 to $59,999; high wage— $60,000 or more. fisheries, mining, and construction. Service-pro ducing industries have been divided into two groups for the purpose of this article: high-pay ing and low-paying service-producing industries. The former comprise transportation, communi cations, and public utilities; wholesale trade; fi nance, insurance, and real estate; professional and related services; and public administration. The latter consist of retail trade, business and repair services, personal services, and entertain ment and recreation services. Obviously, there are many well-paid workers in the low-paying service-producing industries and many low-paid workers in the high-paying service-producing industries, but average pay levels suggest such groupings.25 The table shows that the employment increases for men and women between 1979 and 1989 dif fered considerably by industry. For men, 43 per cent of the 5.9 million employment gain was in the low -paying service-producing industries, while em ploym ent in m anufacturing actually declined. For women, only 29 percent of their 8.2 million increase took place in low-paying service-producing industries, and 61 percent oc curred in high-paying service-producing industries. The impact of these changes on m en’s and w om en’s wage distributions is also shown in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis table 6. Clearly, the story for men across all sec tors was that middle-wage employment eroded significantly between 1979 and 1989. Indeed, in m anufacturing, the proportion of workers in middle-wage employment fell more than 10 per centage points (an absolute decline of 1.4 millon men). Low-wage and low-to-middle-wage em ployment increased (5.9 percentage points), but so did middle-to-high-wage and high-wage em ployment (4.6 percentage points). Developments for men in the high-paying and low-paying service-producing industries were quite different. In both sectors, m iddle-wage employment declined, but in the former, there was a slightly greater increase in employment in the upper part of the distribution than in the bot tom. In the low-paying service-producing indus tries, low-wage employment increased from 9.1 percent to 13.9 percent between 1979 and 1989. For women, the major development across all sectors was the increase in middle-wage employ ment and decline in low-to-middle-wage employ ment. This was particularly noteworthy in the high-paying service-producing industries, where the percentage with employment paying between $24,000 and $48,000 rose from 32.1 percent to 41.5 percent. Approximately 3.2 million of the total net increase in women’s employment— 39 Monthly Labor Review July 1994 11 Distribution o f Wages, by Gender percent— occurred in this single employment category. Even in manufacturing and low-pay ing service-producing industries, middle-wage employment expanded for women. Low-wage employment for women increased somewhat in the low-paying service-producing industries, but the increase in manufacturing was not statisti cally significant. An additional perspective on these relative changes in m en’s and wom en’s wage distribu tions is presented in table 7, which shows the absolute changes in the distributions in terms of three educational categories (a high school edu cation or less, some college, and 4 or more years of college) and three broad wage categories (less Table 6. than $24,000, $24,000 to $48,000, and $48,000 or more). From the table, it is evident that, for men with high school educations or less, middlewage employment— $24,000 to $48,000— was collapsing in the 1980’s. In manufacturing alone, 1.4 million fewer men with high school educa tions or less were working in this wage category in 1989 than in 1979. Related to this develop ment, of course, was the increase in employment across all industrial sectors paying less than $24,000 a year: an additional 2.6 million men with high school educations or less fell into this category. Perhaps even more disturbing was the 1.3 m il lion increase in employment across all sectors paying less than $24,000 a year for men who ei- Distribution of wage and salary earnings of full-time, year-round workers, by industrial sector and employment categories, 1979 and 1989 E m p lo y m e n t c a t e g o r y 1 In d u s tr ia l s e c to r , g e n d e r, a n d y e a r T o ta l (thousands) T o ta l (p e r c e n t) Low w age L o w -to m id d le w age M id d le w age M id d le -to h ig h w a g e H ig h w a g e M en Manufacturing: 1979 ................................. 1989 ................................. Change ............................... 11,873 11,534 -3 3 9 100.0 100.0 3.1 4.7 1.6 20.2 24.5 4.3 58.9 48.3 -1 0 .6 9.6 11.9 2.3 8.3 10.6 2.3 Other goods-producing industries: 1979 ................................. 1989 ................................. Change ............................... 3,924 4,853 929 100.0 100.0 10.3 11.1 .8 27.3 33.0 5.7 46.9 40.3 -6 .6 8.4 7.9 -.5 7.1 7.7 .6 High-paying serviceproducing industries: 1979 ................................. 1989 ................................. Change ............................... 14,194 16,959 2,765 100.0 100.0 3.1 4.4 1.3 21.8 22.5 .7 54.2 48.5 -5 .7 9.7 11.5 1.8 11.2 13.2 2.0 Low-paying serviceproducing industries: 1979 ................................. 1989 ................................. Change ............................... .6,286 8,820 2,534 100.0 100.0 9.1 13.9 4.8 34.2 35.8 1.6 45.6 37.0 -8 .6 4.9 5.9 1.0 6.2 7.4 1.2 Manufacturing: 1979 ................................. 1989 ................................. Change ............................... 4,488 5,022 534 100.0 100.0 13.1 14.7 1.6 61.8 49.5 -1 2 .3 24.2 32.0 7.8 .7 2.4 1.7 .3 1.3 1.0 Other goods-producing industries: 1979 ................................. 1989 ................................. Change ............................... 374 606 232 100.0 100.0 16.2 16.0 -.2 60.9 44.3 -1 5 .6 21.5 35.6 14.1 .3 2.0 1.7 1.1 2.1 1.0 High-paying serviceproducing industries: 1979 ................................. 1989 ................................. Change ............................... 11,986 16,991 5,005 100.0 100.0 10.1 9.4 -.7 55.7 43.9 -1 1.8 32.1 41.5 9.4 1.3 3.2 1.9 .9 2.0 1.1 Low-paying serviceproducing industries: 1979 ................................. 1989 ................................. Change ............................... 4,085 6,472 2,387 100.0 100.0 28.5 31.4 2.9 56.3 45.4 -1 0.9 14.0 19.7 5.7 .5 2.3 1.8 .7 1.3 .6 W om en 1 Categories are defined in terms of 1992 dollars as follows: low wage— annual earnings of less than $12,000; low-tomiddle wage— $12,000 to $23,999; middle wage— $24,000 to $47,999; mlddle-to-high wage— $48,000 to $59,999; high wage— $60,000 or more. Note: 12 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Figures for 1989 exclude persons who were members of the Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post. July 1994 Table 7. Net changes in employment of full-time, year-round workers between 1979 and 1989, by industrial sector, broad wage categories, and education categories [Numbers in thousands] E d u c a tio n c a t e g o r y 1 In d u s tr ia l s e c to r a n d w a g e c a te g o r y M en W om en H ig h s c h o o l o r le s s Som e c o lle g e C o lle g e o r m o re H ig h s c h o o l Manufacturing: Less than $ 2 4 ,0 0 0 ........... $24,000 to $47,999 ......... $48,000 or more ............. 448 -1 ,423 -2 4 64 -3 9 108 95 43 388 -2 4 4 108 22 50 202 27 61 213 96 Other goods-producing industries: Less than $ 2 4 ,0 0 0 ........... $24,000 to $47,999 ......... $48,000 or more ............. 569 21 47 96 60 36 2 35 63 30 44 4 36 45 3 11 46 12 High-paying serviceproducing industries: Less than $ 2 4,00 0........... $24,000 to $47,999 ......... $48,000 or more ............. 587 -3 7 2 -7 2 230 379 196 192 518 1,106 324 629 88 664 959 87 191 1,622 440 Low-paying serviceproducing Industries: Less than $24,000 ........... $24,000 to $47,999 ......... $48,000 or more ............. 1,044 -3 5 1 390 160 108 225 267 371 923 160 16 393 223 49 189 317 117 o r le s s Som e c o lle g e C o lle g e o r m o re 1 Categories are defined as follows: high school or less— persons who have completed 12 or less years of education; some college— persons who have completed 13 to 15 years of education; college or more— persons who have completed 16 or more years of education. Note: Figures for 1989 exclude persons who were members of the Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post. Table 8. Distribution of wage and salary earnings of full-time, year-round workers, by employment categories, 1989 and 1992 T o ta l (th o u s a n d s ) T o ta l (p e r c e n t) Men: 1989 ............................. 1992 ............................. Change ........................... 42,987 42,091 -8 9 6 Women: 1989 ............................. 1992 ............................. Change ........................... 29,133 31,039 1,906 G en d er and year E m p lo y m e n t c a t e g o r y 1 Low w age L o w -to m id d le w a g e M id d le w age M id d le -to h ig h w a g e H ig h w age 100.0 100.0 7.2 7.5 .3 27.4 27.0 -.4 44.9 45.1 .2 9.9 8.8 -1.1 10.5 11.6 1.1 100.0 100.0 15.3 13.8 -1 .5 45.3 42.8 -2 .5 34.9 37.6 2.7 2.8 3.5 .7 1.7 2.3 .6 1 Categories are defined in terms of 1992 dollars as follows: low wage— annual earnings of less than $12,000; low-tomiddle wage— $12,000 to $23,999; middle wage— $24,000 to $47,999; middle-to-high wage— $48,000 to $59,999; high wage— $60,000 or more. ther had some experience in college or were col lege educated. This development suggests that some of these workers may have skill deficien cies that are not captured in, for example, CPS data.26 The news was not all bad for men, however, as we have seen. For example, employment in jobs yielding $48,000 or more a year expanded by 1.1 million for men with college educations or more in the high-paying service-producing industries. Women with high school educations or less fared poorly as well. There was alm ost a 1.0 million increase in their numbers in employment paying less than $24,000 in the low-paying serv ice-producing industries between 1979 and 1989, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis but there was also a 629,000 increase in women with this amount of education in employment paying $24,000 to $48,000 in the high-paying service-producing industries. And, of course, middle-wage employment for women with some college or with 4 or more years of college in the high-paying service-producing industries rose by 2.6 million during the 1980’s. Changes between 1989 and 1992 With the onset of the recession in 1990, the la bor market situation changed. Consequently, comparisons of earnings distributions between 1989 and 1992 must bear these changes in mind. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 13 Distribution o f Wages, by Gender Table 8 shows the basic wage employment categories for men and women full-time, yearround wage and salary workers in 1989 and 1992. The im pact o f the recession was felt m ore strongly by men than by women, with m en’s employment level declining by 900,000, while employment for women increased by 1.9 m il lion over the period. While there was little change in middle-wage em ployment for men, modest changes for women, such as those that took place between 1979 and 1989, were observed. Smaller proportions of women were employed full time, year round in low-wage and low-to-middle-wage employment, while middle-wage employment continued to increase. Conclusions The N ation’s wage distribution grew consider ably more unequal in the 1980’s. The middle of the distribution thinned out, and the bottom be came thicker, as did the top, but to a lesser ex tent. These developments, however, mask the shifts that took place in the wage distributions o f men and women em ployed full time, year round. Distributions for both genders became more unequal during the 1980’s, but in different ways. The m en’s distribution polarized, as the middle hollowed out, and low-wage and highwage employment became more concentrated. On the other hand, the middle of the distribution for women filled in, with only a small increase in the proportion of women with what might be considered low wages. A popular explanation for these shifts focuses on the growing relative demand for skilled ver- sus unskilled workers within industries. Increases in global and domestic competition caused em ployers to become more cost conscious and more concerned with enhancing productivity via new com m unication and production technologies. Such technologies required highly trained and well-educated workers, for whom employers were willing to pay a premium. The data pre sented in this article tend to support this expla nation, even though there were increases in lowwage employment for young men with college educations and increases in middle-wage em ployment for some women with high school edu cations or less. M ore gen erally , the overall sh ift in the women’s distribution toward middle-wage em ployment at the same time that this part of the distribution for men was eroding raises interest ing research questions. Relative shifts in labor demand for more skilled and educated workers within industries are measured by responses to specific survey questions on educational attain ment and occupational attachment, which may not entirely capture the “true” skill and educa tion profiles of workers.27 For example, Alan B. Krueger recently found that workers who use computers on the job earn 10 to 15 percent higher wages than similar workers who do not and that women are more likely to be using them on the job than are men.28 Consequently, subsequent research into understanding the gender-related shifts that took place in the wage distributions of men and women during the 1980’s will some how have to take into account the unobserved skills and abilities that workers possess. Footnotes 1It is not as well known, however, that wage inequality was on the rise (especially among men) before the 1980’s. See, for example, Peter Henle and Paul Ryscavage, “The distribution of earned income among men and women, 1958-77,” Monthly Labor Review, April 1980, pp. 3-10. 2 See Frank Levy and Richard J. Mumane, “U.S. Earnings Levels and Earnings Inequality: A Review of Recent Trends and Proposed Explanations,” Journal of Economic Literature, September 1992, pp. 1333-81. 3 See Lawrence F. Katz and Kevin M. Murphy, “Changes in Relative Wages, 1963-1987: Supply and Demand Factors,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. CVH, No. 1, February 1992, pp. 35—78; and John Bound and George Johnson, “Changes in the Structure of Wages in the 1980’s: An Evalua tion of Alternative Explanations,” American Economic Review, Vol. 82, No. 3, June 1992, pp. 371—92. See also Maury Gittleman, “Earnings in the 1980’s: an occupational perspec tive,” this issue, pp. 16-27. 4A major consequence of these relative wage shifts has been growing inequality in the distribution of incomes among fami lies and households, for whom success or failure in the job market is usually the most important determinant of economic well-being. Another contributing factor to rising income inequality among families and households mentioned in the literature has 14 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 been changes in family composition, especially a shift from married-couple to single-parent families. (See, for example, Lynn Karoly, “The Trend in Inequality among Families, Indi viduals, and Workers in the United States: A Twenty-Five Year Perspective,” in Sheldon Danziger and Peter Gottschalk, eds., Uneven Tides: Rising Inequality in the 1980s (New York, Russell Sage Foundation, 1993); and Paul Ryscavage, Gordon Green, and Edward Welniak, “The Impact of Demographic, Social, and Economic Change on the Distribution of Income,” in Stud ies in the Distribution of Income, Current Population Reports, Consumer Income, P60-183 (Washington, dc , Bureau of the Census, October, 1992).) Lately, interest has focused on a rising correlation between recent gains in women’s earnings and family income, particu larly with regard to women in affluent families. (See Lynn A. Karoly and Gary Burtless, “The Effects of Rising Earnings Inequality on the Distribution of U.S. Income,” unpublished manuscript, December 1993.) 5 See Gary Burtless, “Introduction and Summary,” in Gary Burtless, e d A Future o f Lousy Jobs? The Changing Structure of U.S. Wages (Washington, dc , The Brookings Institution, 1990), p. 30. 6 See McKinley L. Blackburn, David E. Bloom, and Richard B. Freeman, “The Declining Economic Position of Less Skilled American Men,” in Burtless, A Future of Lousy Jobs? pp. 31-76. 7 See John McNeil, Workers with Low Earnings: 1964 to 1990, Current Population Reports, Consumer Income, Series P-60, No. 178 (Washington, dc , Bureau of the Census, March 1992); updated to 1992 in “The Earnings Ladder,” Statistical Brief (Washington, dc , Bureau of the Census, February 1994). 8 In March 1980, the highest amount that could be recorded on the cps questionnaire for income earned on the longest held job (in 1979) was $99,999, and the same amount could be re corded from all other jobs; in March 1990 and March 1993, the highest amount that could be recorded from the longest held job was $299,999, and $99,999 could be recorded from all other jobs (for income earned in 1989 and 1992, respec tively). These maximum amounts in public-use data files are lower than those in internal files maintained by the Census Bureau. 9 Variation in hours is still present to some extent, however, not only because of the open-ended nature of the hours con trol, but also because some workers may actually have worked fewer than 35 hours in some weeks. Another problem with the universe concerns selection bias, because this particular universe is a selected sample of all work ers. Even though the primary years of analysis— 1979 and 1989—reflect similar stages of the business cycle, workers employed full time, year round are not necessarily a random sample of all workers. A last point about this universe is that these persons may have had more than one employer and a period of unemploy ment or an absence from the labor force for 1 or 2 weeks. 10These data were obtained from various editions of Money Income of Households, Families, and Persons in the United States: 1992, Current Population Reports, Consumer Income, Series P-60-184 (Washington, dc , Bureau of the Census, Sep tember 1993). 11 Workers’ nominal wages and salaries were adjusted for price inflation using the experimental Consumer Price Index for all Urban Workers, or cpi- u- x 1, of the Bureau of Labor Sta tistics ( bls). The Gini index is a commonly used measure of inequality. If all wage earners received the same earnings, the Gini index would be equal to 0; if all earnings were received by just one wage earner, the index would be equal to 1. Rising inequality, therefore, is represented by a rising Gini index. 12 Statistical changes in the distributions have been tested for significance at the 10-percent confidence level and can be assumed to be statistically significant unless otherwise stated. 13 Frank Levy and Richard J. Mumane characterize this de velopment as “hollowing out.” See Levy and Mumane, “U.S. Earnings Levels and Earnings Inequality,” p. 1349. 14 Growth rates were also examined along points or seg ments of the distributions. For this analysis, changes in mean earnings of ventiles of the distributions between 1979 and 1989 were studied. It was found that for women, earnings decreases occurred only at the second and third ventiles, and thereafter progressively greater increases occurred. For men, earnings growth began only at the 14th ventile and then became pro gressively greater. 15 The gender pay gap, or, as defined here, the ratio of women’s to men’s median annual earnings for full-time, yearround workers, changed suddenly in the decade of the 1980’s. In 1960 the ratio was .607, in 1970 .594, and in 1980 .602; but by 1989 it jumped to .685 (by 1992 it had reached .706). See Money Income, Table B-10, p. B-37. 16 See Michael W. Horrigan and James P. Markey, “Recent gains in women’s earnings: better pay or longer hours?” Monthly Labor Review, July 1990, pp. 11-17. 17 See Bound and Johnson, “Changes in the Structure of Wages,” p. 386. 18 Gender pay gaps by educational class narrowed accord ingly, as shown in the following tabulation: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Ratio of female to male earnings Years of schooling Less than 9 years................. 9 to 11 years........................ 12 years................................ 13 to 15 years..................... 16 years................................ 17 or more years................. 1979 1989 ...................580 ...................587 ...................587 ...................600 ...................544 ...................572 .662 .652 .647 .667 .630 .612 19 Concern over the proliferation of low-wage jobs has prompted some researchers and Government agencies to char acterize workers with annual earnings below the Federal Government’s poverty threshold for a family of four (regard less of whether the worker maintains a family or a household) as low-wage earners. (See, for example, Gregory Acs and Sheldon Danziger, “Educational Attainment, Industrial Struc ture, and Male Earnings through the 1980s,” Journal of Hu man Resources, Vol. 28, No. 3, Summer 1993, pp. 619-48; and McNeil, Workers with Low Earnings.) The constant-dollar amount of $11,999 used here as a mea sure of low-wage employment was slightly higher than the Federal Government’s poverty line for a three-person family of $11,186 in 1992. Average family size that year was 3.16. 20 There are various ways to show how the distribution of wages by gender has changed. For example, we can calculate the proportion of women in the categories shown in the fol lowing tabulation: Percent T otal........................................................ Low-wage employment.......................... Low-to-middle-wage employment . . . . Middle-wage employment...................... Middle-to-high-wage employment . . . . High-wage employment........................... 1979 1989 36.6 62.8 57.9 22.4 6.3 4.4 40.4 58.9 52.8 34.5 16.2 9.9 Clearly, women continue to make up the majority of those in the lower pay categories, but their greater penetration into the middle of the distribution and higher during the 1980’s is without question. 21 See, for example, Blackburn, Bloom, and Freeman, “Less Skilled American Men,” in Burtless, A Future of Lousy Jobs? 22Levy and Murnane, “Earnings Levels and Earnings In equality.” 23 See, for example, Barry Bluestone and Bennett Harrison, The Great American Job Machine: The Prolifera tion o f Low Wage Employment in the U.S. Economy, Report to the Joint Economic Committee of the U.S. Congress, Washington, dc , December 1986. 24 This fact has been documented by many researchers. For example, see Henle and Ryscavage, “Distribution of earned income”; and Robert Z. Lawrence, “Sectoral Shifts and the Size of the Middle Class,” Brookings Review, Fall 1984, pp. 3-11. 25 Annual earning levels of men working full time, year round in 1987 were used in this classification scheme. 26 See Gary Burtless, “Rising Wage Inequality and the Future of Work in America,” unpublished manuscript, No vember 1993. 27 Levy and Murnane (“Earnings Levels and Earnings In equality,” p. 1372), as well as Burtless (“Rising Wage In equality,” p. 26), have suggested as much. 28 Alan B. Krueger, “How Computers Have Changed the Wage Structure: Evidence from Microdata, 1984-1989,” Quar terly Journal of Economics, February 1993, pp. 33-60. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 15 Earnings in the 1980’s: an occupational perspective The earnings gap between more and less educated workers increased during the 1980’s; changes in occupational demand accounted fo r roughly a third o f the increase Maury Gittleman Maury Gittleman is an economist in the Office of Publications and Special Studies, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 16 he 1980’s w ere a decade of dram atic change for the earnings structure in the United States. Differentials in earnings by education widened considerably, the average pay of older workers increased relative to that of younger workers, and the earnings gap between men and women narrowed markedly. By some measures, these and other changes in the wage structure caused overall levels of earnings in equality to rise to heights not previously seen in the post-World War II period.1 M uch research conducted in an attem pt to document and explain the recent changes had focused almost exclusively on the demographic characteristics of workers.2 A great deal has thus been learned about which groups have made rela tive gains, and which have lost, in the labor mar ket. Unfortunately, much less is known about what kinds of jobs these different workers hold, how their distribution among jobs has changed over time, and what the trends imply about the match between skills being demanded by em ployers and those available in the work force.3 Explanations for the changes in the earnings structure can be classified into three categories: changes in the supply of labor of different types, changes in the demand for this labor, and changes in wage-setting institutions. The analysis set forth in this article fits best under the second category, as it assesses changes in the demand for skills in the workplace. Directly measuring trends in the market for skills is obviously a formidable task. Accord ingly, the analysis takes the approach that sub stantial insights into this issue can be gained by focusing on occupations as indicators of the skills being demanded in the workplace. Given that T Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 each occupation differs in terms of the bundle of skills it requires, focusing on recent develop ments concerning the distribution of employment across occupations and concerning earnings by occupation (which can be thought of as a return to the bundle of skills utilized on the job) will give a better understanding of the changing m ar ket for skills. In part because demographic groups differ in the skills they have acquired, they will differ in how they are distributed across occupa tions and thus in the impact changes in occupa tional demand will have on their earnings.4 The article assesses how much trends in the skills market— looked at through the proxy of occu pations— have influenced the aforementioned earnings trends. Or, put in the form of a ques tion, Were those groups that gained ground in the 1980’s able to do so because the skills they possessed— as evidenced by the occupations they were concentrated in— were in growing demand? Changes in relative earnings The relative earnings trends that are at the focus of the analysis presented in this article are shown in table 1.5 The calculations use the March Cur rent Population Surveys (CPS) for 1974, 1980, and 1990, which contain data on earnings for the preceding year.6 The shifts between 1979 and 1989 are the primary focus, with the data for 1973-79 providing a context for comparing the 1970’s with the 1980’s and with the data for 1973-89 showing how demographic groups fared in the entire period since real wage growth be gan to stagnate in the m id-1970’s. A number of important trends are apparent from the earnings changes shown in the table for full-time, year-round workers. Most striking is the performance of men who did not graduate from high school. In real terms, their earnings declined by nearly 20 percent between 1979 and 1989, and by nearly 25 percent relative to col lege graduates.7 For women, there is a similar widening of the gap between the more and less educated, although in absolute terms, only those who did not graduate from high school suffered a decline in purchasing power. The gains by more educated groups are in sharp contrast to trends in the 1970’s, when, on the whole, these groups lost ground. Also of note is that there has gener ally been an increase in returns to experience8 for men. To give the m ost dramatic example, between 1973 and 1989, earnings of men with 30 or more years of experience rose by 14.5 per cent (0.034 - (-0.111) = 0.145) relative to those with 10-19 years of experience.9 Finally, women have gained substantial ground on men in recent years— 12.3 percent between 1979 and 1989 alone. Explanations of the changes Why did these profound changes in the earnings structure occur in the 1980’s? As noted earlier, alternative hypotheses can be grouped into three categories: changes in the supply of labor of dif ferent types, changes in the demand for this la bor, and changes in institutions that affect the setting of wages. The supply o f workers. Economic theory tells us that an increase in the relative supply of a demographic group tends to depress that group’s earning power. To give a prom inent example, supply-side changes resulting from the entry into the work force of the baby-boomers was an im portant factor in the rise in returns to experience during the 1970’s.10 An examination of supply patterns, however, reveals little support for simple supply-side explanations for the changes in the 1980’s. The calculation of relative supply indexes (a measure of the share of jobs held by specific demographic groups), shown in table 2, demonstrates a striking increase in the average education level of the labor force.11 For both men and women, college graduates were the fastest growing education group in the 1980’s, with those without any college at all showing declines as a share of the labor force. Yet, this is exactly the opposite of what a supply-side explanation would predict. Indeed, the data show that those education groups with the fastest growth in earn ings had the biggest rise in their share of the la bor force. Similarly, women posted gains in their share of the labor force at the same time their earnings were moving closer to m en’s levels. With regard to potential experience, the picture is somewhat less clear. It suffices to say, how- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Table 1. Changes in real earnings of full-time, year-round workers, 1973-89 [Difference in averages of logarithms] D em ographic g roup A ll.................................................................. Men .......................................................... W om en..................................................... Years o f sch o o lin g Men: 0 - 1 1 ..................................................... 1 2 .......................................................... 13-15 ................................................... 16 or m o r e ........................................... Women: 0 - 1 1 ..................................................... 1 2 .......................................................... 13-15 ................................................... 16 or m o r e ........................................... Years o f p o tentia l experience1 Men: 0 - 9 ........................................................ 10-19 ................................................... 2 0 -29 ................................................... 30 or m o r e ........................................... Women: 0 - 9 ........................................................ 10-19 ................................................... 2 0 -29 ................................................... 30 or m o r e ........................................... 1973-89 1973-79 1979-89 -0 .023 -.0 5 0 .137 -0.019 -.0 1 8 .047 -0.004 -.0 32 .091 -.2 47 -.1 5 5 -.071 -.0 24 -.051 -.041 -.0 4 4 -.0 7 3 -.1 9 6 -.1 1 3 -.0 2 8 .049 -.018 .042 .076 .122 .041 .028 .005 -.0 19 -.0 5 9 .015 .071 .141 -.0 82 -.111 -.0 4 9 .034 -.0 0 2 -.0 2 6 -.0 33 .029 -.0 80 -.0 85 -.0 16 .005 .107 .135 .157 .095 .055 .042 .033 .043 .051 .093 .125 .051 1 Potential labor market experience is defined as age, minus number of years of school ing, minus 6 years, to account for the preschool period. It is used because the Current Population Survey does not measure actual labor market experience. Note: Earnings are deflated into 1989 dollars using the gross domestic product defla tor for personal consumption expenditures. ever, that there is no obvious pattern indicating that the groups with the largest increases in earn ings have declined in their relative shares of the labor force. With a simple supply-side explanation ruled out, it is worthwhile to consider more sophisti cated supply-side hypotheses for the rise in re turns to education. Some observers have specu lated that a decline in the quality of high school education, perhaps coinciding with a decline in test scores that occurred during the 1970’s, may have contributed to a widening gap between the productivity and, thus, the earnings of those who have gone on to college and those who have not. This hypothesis is inconsistent, however, with the fact that education-earnings differentials wid ened for cohorts that entered the labor force well before the postulated decline in the quality of high school education. Past research has found some support, however, for the idea that the po sition of the less educated— particularly those without a high school education— has worsened owing to the increase in the relative supply of less skilled labor resulting from a rise in the flow of immigrants into the labor force.12 Monthly Labor Review July 1994 17 Occupational Earnings in the 1980’s June O ’Neill and Solomon Polachek explore a supply-side hypothesis for the gains in earn ings of women relative to m en.13 They find that much of the contraction in the gap can be ex plained by forces relating to actual labor market experience: first, differences in actual labor mar ket experience have narrowed, and second, dif ferences in returns to this experience across the genders have narrowed, which they attribute to higher levels of on-the-job training for women. The demand fo r workers. Perhaps the most prominent hypothesis on the demand side has been that shifts in the industrial composition of employment— particularly as a result of the de cline in the employment share of manufactur ing— have reduced the number of high-paying jobs available to workers with low levels of edu cation. Recent research14 provides some support for this hypothesis in connection with the wid ening o f education-earnings differentials, but overall, most of the increase in returns to educa tion has occurred within industries. Similarly, past research has found that industry effects did not play a large role in the reduction of the earn ings gap between men and women in the 1980’s.15 Given that changes in industry composition do not explain the bulk of the changes in rela tive earnings, it is necessary to examine the rea- Table 2. Relative changes in the supply of all workers, 1973-89 [Change in logarithm of share of employment x 100] D e m o g r a p h ic g r o u p 1 9 7 3 -8 9 M en................................................................ W om en.......................................................... 1 9 7 3 -7 9 1 9 7 9 -8 9 -9 .7 11.7 -6 .2 7.7 -3 .5 4.0 -6 4.8 -6 .5 11.1 26.7 -2 9 .9 -4 .5 8.3 10.0 -3 4.9 -2 .0 2.7 16.7 -5 9 .0 4.3 46.4 64.2 -2 3.2 8.1 25.0 30.3 -3 5.8 -3 .8 21.4 33.9 -2 .0 31.3 -2 .6 -4 7 .0 3.7 7.0 -1 8 .4 -2 3.5 -2 3 .8 24.3 15.8 -2 3 .5 -4 .8 56.4 27.6 -2 3.2 11.2 29.9 1.2 -1 2 .5 -1 6 .0 26.6 26.4 -1 0 .7 Y e a rs o f s c h o o lin g Men: 0 - 1 1 ...................................................... 1 2 .......................................................... 1 3 -1 5 .................................................... 16 or m ore............................................ Women: 0 - 1 1 ...................................................... 1 2 .......................................................... 1 3 -1 5 .................................................... 16 or m o re............................................ Y e a rs o f p o te n tia l e x p e r ie n c e 1 Men: 0 - 9 ........................................................ 1 0 -1 9 .................................................... 2 0 -29 .................................................... 30 or m ore............................................ Women: 0 - 9 ........................................................ 1 0 -1 9 .................................................... 2 0 - 2 9 .................................................... 30 or m ore............................................. 1 Potential labor market experience is defined as age, minus number of years of school ing, minus 6 years, to account for the preschool period. It is used because the Current Population Survey does not measure actual labor market experience. 18 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 sons why changes within industries have oc curred. Candidates for within-industry shifts in demand in favor of more educated workers in clude changes in technology that shift demand toward more skilled workers, “outsourcing” to foreign locations of activities previously per formed by unskilled workers, and changes in m anagement techniques that favor one group over another. O lder workers may experience what is in effect a favorable within-industry de mand shift when seniority provisions protect them from layoffs during the restructuring of an industry. Women, too, can find occupational pat terns changing as discrimination lessens or as changing cultural mores lead to greater similar ity in career pursuits across the genders. O f the forces leading to shifts in demand for labor within industries, the one that has received the most attention is the influence of technical change on the demand for educated workers. A number of related hypotheses involving the con nection between technical change and returns to education have been put forth. One explanation draw s on w ork by R ichard R. N elson and Edmund S. Phelps, who suggest that “the rate of return to education is greater the more techno logically progressive the economy.” 16 This may occur because, in a technologically dynamic en v iro n m e n t, e d u c a te d w o rk ers have b e tte r “allocative ability in the sense of selecting the appropriate input bundles and of efficiently dis tributing inputs between competing uses,” 17 be cause educated workers have a comparative ad vantage in adjusting to and implementing new technology,18 or because the introduction of new technology increases the need for learning by workers, and better educated workers are better learners.19Apart from these studies, the argument that the returns to education are higher in indus tries with rapid technological progress has received empirical support from a number of sources.20 Despite the empirical support for the linkage between technical change and returns to educa tion at a given point in time, the findings about the relationship between technical progress and changes in the return to education over time are mixed. Alan Krueger observes that, because workers who use computers earn more than other workers, and because such workers are likely to be better educated, the expansion of computer use during the 1980’s can account for an impor tant part of the change in returns to education.21 Similarly, Jacob Mincer has found that, over time, expenditures on research and development and on new capital equipment have had a positive impact on the education wage premium.22 On the other hand, McKinley Blackburn, David Bloom, and Richard Freeman could not find evidence of such a relationship.23 Wage-setting institutions. Finally, to shift fo cus to institutional factors that may have affected the wage structure, Blackburn, Bloom, and Free man have found that, because o f the existence of a union premium and the fact that the less edu cated are more likely to be union members, the decline in unionization in the United States has contributed to a widening of education-earnings differentials. Recent research has also determined that the decline in unionization is responsible for about one-seventh of the contraction of the gen der gap. This result may be attributed to the fact that union membership rates have declined more slowly for women than for men, primarily be cause wom en were less concentrated in jobs where unionization was falling.24 On the other hand, Blackburn, Bloom , and Freem an have found that the decline in the real value of the minimum wage has not played an important role in the changes in education-earnings differentials.25 Occupations and the demand for skills To sum up the findings of recent research, the evidence suggests that while supply and institu tional factors may have played some role, de mand clearly has shifted in favor of more edu cated workers. Breaking this down even further, the shifts in demand have occurred primarily within, rather than across, industries. In light of these findings, it is natural to ask whether one can detect, in changes in occupational com posi tion, a shift in demand for skills that would fa vor the demographic groups that performed well in the labor markets of the 1980’s.26 Before do ing so, however, it is instructive to outline the connections among occupations, skills, and rela tive earnings. M uch recent work has speculated that many of the changes in the earnings struc ture— particularly the rise in returns to educa tion— have come about as a result of a rise in the return to skill.21 The definition of skill is usually not made precise, but the term is often spoken of in connection with education, implying that skill is developed in school. In fact, the skills required on the job are multidimensional, and not all of them are the kind of skills developed through formal education. To use one taxonomy, David R. Howell and Edward N. Wolff write of jobs as being “defined by a set of tasks requiring some combination of motor skills (manual dexterity, motor coordination), interpersonal skills, orga nizational and managerial skills (leadership, au tonomy and responsibility), verbal and language skills, diagnostic skills (synthetic reasoning abili ties), and analytical skills (mathematical and logi cal reasoning abilities).”28 Measuring the demand fo r skills. Given the complexity of measuring the sets of skills re https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis quired for just one job, it is apparent that deter mining the skill requirements for the economy as a whole, as well as changes in such require ments, is a difficult task. In light of the dearth of data directly measuring the skill requirements of jobs, an alternative approach is to focus on the occupational composition of the economy, as an occupation— if defined narrowly enough— can serve as a proxy for a set of skills. Using this approach, we can group changes in the skill re quirements of jobs into three categories. First, shifts in the industrial composition of employ ment— resulting from changes in the demand for products and differences in productivity growth across sectors— will lead to changes in occupa tional composition and, thus, skill requirements because the distribution of employment by oc cupations differs across industries. For example, the secular shift of the economy away from manufacturing and toward services has contrib uted to a shift from blue-collar to white-collar work, leading to a decline in demand for the motor skills required in production work and an increase in the cognitive and interpersonal skills needed in clerical and professional positions. Second, staffing patterns can change within industries themselves as a result of “outsourc ing,” changes in management techniques, and other factors. For example, if firms move pro duction activities abroad in order to take advan tage of a less expensive pool of blue-collar la bor, the proportion of white-collar employment at these companies will increase. Finally, the skills required in an occupation itself can change, often owing to the introduc tion of new technology. The spread of word proc essors, to cite one example, has had a marked effect on skills, requiring secretaries to learn how to use personal computers rather than typewrit ers and leading many professionals to do for themselves many of the clerical responsibilities previously performed by their secretaries. Skill requirements and the earnings o f demo graphic groups. How do skill requirements of the economy affect the earnings of particular demographic groups? It is perhaps easiest to ex plain how the demand for different sets of skills will cause earnings to differ across education groups. A number of theories have been put forth to describe the relationships among level of schooling, occupation, and earnings by educa tion group. According to one view prominent among academic economists studying the labor m arket— know n as human capital theory — schooling develops the skills required to perform the tasks in a particular occupation, and the re sulting enhancem ent of productivity leads to higher earnings.29 An alternative to human capi- Monthly Labor Review July 1994 19 Occupational Earnings in the 1980’s tal theory is that a key function of education is “screening,” that is, identifying individuals with preexisting skills and abilities required in par ticular jobs. According to this view, education is used to sort individuals into occupations with different pay, rather than to develop the abilities needed for those occupations.30 A num ber of other views on how education affects earnings through the intermediary of occupations exist as well. W hat is important to keep in mind is that, regardless o f o ne’s views on the connections among education, occupations, and earnings, the differences in earnings among education groups will depend fundamentally on the occupational structure of the economy. That is, the payoff to education will depend on two factors: the effec tiveness of additional years o f schooling in quali fying individuals for higher paying jobs than they would be likely to obtain without the additional schooling; and how wide the gap is between highpaying and low-paying jobs.31 If changes in the skills that are demanded increase the likelihood that college graduates will move into high-pay ing occupations, and if the earnings of these highpaying jobs increase compared with those of other occupations, then the relative earnings of the more educated will increase. The connections among experience, occupa tions, and earnings are similar to those among education, occupations, and earnings in some re spects. Human capital theory asserts, analogously to the case of education, that with additional la bor market experience, individuals will receive more on-the-job training, and the skills devel oped in this process will enable them to climb the occupational ladder and receive higher pay. An alternative view is that the skills of older w orkers may not differ m uch from those of younger workers, but seniority provisions have given the older workers more opportunities to move up in rank. It is more difficult to make a case for why oc cupation distributions, and thus earnings, should differ across the genders because of skill differ ences, as there is no reason to assume that abili ties should differ by gender (although differences in schooling and experience by gender may lead to differences in the development of skills). The human capital view does, however, offer an ex planation based on skills: under the assumption that women will participate less in the labor force over the course of the life cycle (for example, because they may leave the labor force to care for a child), they will tend to invest in skills that do not depreciate as much during their time away from the labor force, and these skills will be suit able for particular occupations. For example, women, according to this view, would be unwill ing to invest in the skills needed for many of the 20 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 professional occupations, because while they were away from the labor force, these skills would tend to atrophy.32 An alternative approach is that the culture of a society itself encourages men and women to follow different career paths, causing women to be “segregated” in occupations that, on the whole, tend to be less well paying thdn those held by men.33 Finally, gender-related differences in occupational distributions may result from dis crimination on the basis of gender. From the preceding discussion, it is clear that there are ample reasons to expect demographic groups to be distributed differently across the economy’s occupations. In some cases, these are the result of skill differences across groups, but in others, they are related to factors such as dis crimination or seniority provisions. Regardless of their underlying cause, these differences in o ccupational structure across dem ographic groups will have an important impact on how the groups fare when the structure shifts: those more heavily concentrated in occupations in which demand is growing faster than average— as evidenced by employment growth or earnings increases or both— will tend to experience rela tive earnings gains. Trends in employment and earnings Employment by occupation. W hat were the important occupational employment shifts of the 1980’s? Table 3 shows trends in occupational employment by the Census Bureau’s major oc cupation groups. Most notable is the employment gain for sales occupations, up 3.2 percentage points in 1979-89. Other important gains were posted by executive, administrative, and mana gerial (up 1.5 points) and professional specialty (up 1.1 points) occupations, jobs where a high proportion of college graduates would be ex pected. On the other side of the ledger, a decline in blue-collar occupations is evident, particularly for machine operators (down 2.2 points) and pre cision production, craft, and repair occupations (down 1.6 points). These are occupations in which those without a college education histori cally have had a possibility of finding high-pay ing jobs. Administrative support occupations also showed a decline (1.1 points) in the period. A clue as to whether the changes in the earn ings structure in the 1980’s were due to trends in occupational composition is provided by the de gree to which the shifts during the 1980’s dif fered from those in the 1970’s. The decline of the blue-collar occupations clearly predated the 1980’s, although it might have accelerated dur ing that period. The growth of managerial and p ro fessio n al occupations also predated the 1980’s. The only occupations in which there were Table 3. Employment shares and earnings of all workers by occupation, selected years, 1973-89 E m p lo y m e n t s h a re s (in p e r c e n t) L o g a rith m o f e a r n in g s 1 O c c u p a tio n Executive, administrative, and managerial Professional spe cia lty............................. Technicians............................................... Sales ........................................................ Administrative s u p p o rt........................... Private h o u s e h o ld ................................... Protective service ................................... Other service ........................................... Farming, forestry, and fis h in g ............... Precision production, craft, and repair . Machine operators................................... Transportation and material-moving e q uipm e nt............................................. Handlers, cleaners, helpers, and la b o re rs ................................................ 1973 1979 1989 1973 1979 1989 9.2 10.8 2.5 8.5 17.5 1.3 1.5 10.6 2.2 13.7 11.2 9.8 11.9 3.0 8.1 18.4 .8 1.5 11.3 1.9 13.0 9.7 11.3 13.0 3.6 11.3 17.3 .7 1.9 11.1 1.9 11.4 7.5 10.24 9.86 9.72 9.12 9.24 7.48 9.78 8.62 8.50 9.92 9.40 10.13 9.79 9.71 9.03 9.25 7.39 9.70 8.59 8.53 9.89 9.46 10.19 9.94 9.85 9.24 9.35 7.58 9.70 8.65 8.60 9.84 9.40 4.9 4.8 4.3 9.79 9.73 9.61 6.2 5.7 4.8 9.09 9.07 8.93 1 Earnings are deflated into 1989 dollars using the gross domestic product deflator for personal consumption expenditures. important turnabouts between the two decades were sales and administrative support. The lack of a sharp contrast between the decades suggests that changes in occupational demand may not provide the complete explanation for the shifts in the earnings structure. The changes in the occupational mix just noted can be attributed either to changes in industrial employment or to changes in occupational staff ing patterns w ithin industries. To determ ine which is the case, the following technique was used: the occupational composition for 1989 was predicted under the assumption that, for each industry, occupational staffing patterns did not change from 1979, so that the only changes in occupational em ploym ent that could have re sulted were from shifts in industrial em ploy ment.34 From these calculations, it is apparent that shifts in industrial em ployment generally have been in a direction consistent with the changing occupation mix. In other words, em ployment tended to shift toward those industries containing a relatively high proportion of the growing occupations and away from those sec tors with a large share of declining occupations. The magnitudes of these shifts, however, are in sufficient to predict the changes in occupational composition, indicating that other forces (such as technical change, “outsourcing,” and changes in management techniques) were leading to shifts in staffing patterns within industries. For ex ample, the method predicted that the share of executives, adminstrators, and managers in total em ploym ent would rise from 9.83 percent to 10.00 percent between 1979 and 1989, but the actual gain was to 11.30 percent. Recent research has found some support for a role for technical change in shifting the compo sition of employment in manufacturing indus https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tries toward occupations requiring higher levels of education. For exam ple, Ernst R. Berndt, Catherine J. Morrison, and Larry S. Rosenblum determined that the growth in white-collar, non production-worker hours is positively related to increases in what they term the “high-tech com position of capital.”35 Similarly, Eli Berman, John Bound, and Zvi Griliches have found a shift away from production workers to be positively related to investments in computers and com puter-related technology, as well as to expendi tures on research and development.36 It is an open question whether these results would hold for nonmanufacturing industries. Earnings by occupation. Table 3 also provides earnings trends by Census Bureau major occu pations. In the 1980’s, those occupations with the fastest real earnings growth were sales (up 21 percent), private household occupations (up 19 percent), professional specialty occupations (up 15 percent), and technicians (up 14 percent). Those with real earnings declines were all bluecollar occupations, with the largest drops posted for handlers, cleaners, helpers, and laborers (down 14 percent) and transportation and mate rial-moving equipment occupations (down 12 percent). In general, these trends suggest, not surprisingly, that occupations with more educated workers tended to experience gains in average earn ings. The implications of the trends for gender and experience differentials are less transparent. In contrast to the case of employment, earn ings trends show a clear shift across decades. Some of the white-collar occupations— for ex ample, executive, administrative, and manage rial occupations, as well as professional specialty occupations— that did reasonably well in the 1980’s had fared poorly in the 1970’s; and blue- Monthly Labor Review July 1994 21 Occupational Earnings in the 1980’s collar machine operators, whose average earn ings declined in the 1980’s, had been among the few gainers in the 1970’s. Changes in the demand for skills W hat have been the implications of the shifts in occupational demand for changes in the demand for skills? As previously described, changes in the demand for skills can come from shifts in industrial composition, changes in occupational patterns within industries, and changes in the skills required by occupations. Impact o f occupational and industrial employ ment shifts. The changes in occupational com position discussed in the previous section, which incorporate the impact of the first two catego ries of change mentioned, indicate that in the 1980’s, demand was growing for the skills re quired in professional and managerial occupa tions. In these occupations, cognitive and inter personal skills tend to be in high demand, but motor skills do not. Again, it is important to keep in mind that, in terms of compositional shifts, the 1980’s may represent an acceleration in the rate at which the demand for cognitive and in terpersonal skills is increasing, but not a major break from previous trends. A study by Kevin M. Murphy and Finis Welch for the period 1940-90 has arrived at a finding consistent with the view that the demand for skills does not show a m ajor break in trend in the 1980’s.37 Using education as the measure of skill,38 they found that over this period employ ment shifted toward occupations with higher lev els of schooling, but that there was no evidence that the demand for education grew particularly rapidly in the 1980’s. In another study assessing the impact of changes in industrial and occupa tional composition on cognitive, interactive, and m otor skill requirem ents, Howell and Wolff39 determ ined that, with the exception of motor skills, changing employment patterns have had the effect o f raising skill requirements. But they also found a sharp deceleration in the rate of growth in these requirements between 1960 and 1985. The changing skill requirements o f jobs. The studies just mentioned provide a perspective on the effects of occupational and industrial employ ment shifts on the skill requirements of jobs. But the lack of good data makes it difficult to assess trends in the third category of shifts affecting changes in the demand for skills: the skill re quirements of jobs. For many years, there has been an ongoing debate in the social sciences about the effects of new technology on the de mand for skills. One view is that technical change tends to increase the demand for cognitive skills 22 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 as the need for physical labor is reduced by au tomation. Another philososophy holds that tech nology is inherently “de-skilling,” as manage m ent tries to reduce the am ount of control workers have over their jobs. Yet a third school of thought argues that it is not possible to deter mine from first principles the effect of new tech nology on the demand for skills.40 In a recent study of manufacturing establishments in the 1980’s, Peter Cappelli has found that there was a significant increase in the level of skills re quired for most production jobs, but that clerical jobs are evenly split between those that have been “u p sk illed ” and those that have been “d e skilled.”41 Except for some cases studies, the lit erature is virtually silent on trends in the skill requirements of other occupations within m anu facturing and of nonmanufacturing as a whole. Quantitative aspects of the changes Demand indexes. As a first pass at assessing whether the changes in occupational demand noted in the previous section play an important role in the changes in relative earnings by de mographic group, an index of demand based on occupations is devised. For a given demographic group i, the shift in demand relative to other groups can be calculated as the weighted per cent change in employment share by occupation; that is, AD y AEMP; (1) D, ~ 2 j a >J EMP ’ where D. is the demand for demographic group i, atj is the proportion of that group employed in the jth occupation in the base year, and EMP^ is the share of employment in the y'th occupation. Table 4 shows this measure for different demo graphic groups; the occupations are the Census Bureau’s detailed occupations listed in the tech nical documentation to the CPS, the sample is all workers, and the measure is computed as an an nual average.42 If workers of a particular group are overrep resented in an occupation, the growth of employ ment in that occupation will tend to increase the demand for that group and thus raise its relative pay. The demand indexes will then be highest for groups that are concentrated in growing oc cupations. Which groups have benefited most from the shifts in occupational demand during the 1980s? Table 4 indicates clearly that occu pational shifts favored the more educated: for both men and women, the changes in the demand index are ordered by education. It is apparent, though, that this trend did not begin in the 1980’s: in 1973-79, the demand for college graduates grew more quickly than for high school gradu- ates and dropouts, for both men and women. The magnitudes of the changes do indicate, however, a modest acceleration in the shift toward the more highly educated in the 1980’s, one that may even be greater than indicated here because demand shifts were highest for those groups with increas ing earnings. Categorical statements about which experience groups were favored by shifts in occupational de mand are much harder to make. For both men and women, the differences in changes in the occupa tional demand index across experience groups were relatively small in the 1980’s. For men, there is no apparent order to the shifts, while for women, the less experienced appear to have benefited more. In light of the strong earnings gains by women relative to men during the 1980’s, it is striking to note that shifts in occupational demand, at least by this measure, did not favor females. Shifts in occupational demand were actually slightly more favorable toward men than women in the 1980’s, the opposite of the situation in the 1970’s. This suggests that we must look outside the realm of changes in occupational demand to determine why wom en’s earnings gained ground on m en’s during the 1980’s. Regression analysis. Although the preceding results are suggestive, it is useful to quantify the impacts of occupational shifts on relative earn ings. To do this, regression-decomposition analy sis is used. This framework is a convenient tool for attributing changes in a given earnings dif ferential (for exam ple, that betw een college graduates and high school graduates, or between those with 20 to 29 years of experience and those with 0 to 9 years of experience, or between men and women) to shifts in the distribution of occu pations. The technique is applied in terms of edu cation-earnings differentials as follows: a regres sion for the base year (year s) is run, regressing (In) earnings on variables representing years of schooling, years of potential labor market expe rience, race, region, whether the individual lived in a m etropolitan area, part-tim e status, and weeks worked. The formula is In Earnings = a0s + a^LTH S + a 2iHS (2) +a3sSOME + a4sX + e, where LTHS is a variable indicating that the in dividual has less than a high school education; HS is a variable indicating that the individual has a high school education; SOME is a variable indicating that the individual has some college; X is a vector representing the other variables mentioned; the ais' s are the corresponding coef ficients for the year s, and e is an error term. The coefficients on the variables representing the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Table 4. Annual average relative changes in demand based on detailed occupations, all workers, 1973-89 1 9 7 3 -8 9 1 9 7 3 -7 9 1 9 7 9 -8 9 -0 .25 -.3 6 -0 .24 .03 -0 .2 3 -.3 8 Men: 0 - 1 1 .......................................................... 1 2 .............................................................. 13-15 ........................................................ 16 or m o re ............................................... -.9 6 -.4 6 .22 1.00 -.8 8 -.4 4 .14 .99 -1 .0 4 -.6 2 .19 1.05 Women: 0 - 1 1 .......................................................... 1 2 .............................................................. 13-15 ........................................................ 16 or m o re ............................................... -1 .0 4 -.3 6 .07 .34 -.9 9 .16 .77 .51 -.9 8 -.5 6 -.0 8 .43 -.2 9 D e m o g r a p h ic g r o u p M e n .............................................................. Women ........................................................ Y e a rs o f s c h o o lin g Y e a rs o f p o te n tia l e x p e r ie n c e 1 Men: 0 - 9 ............................................................ 10-19 ....................................................... 20 -29 ........................................................ 30 or m o re ............................................... -.3 3 -.1 2 -.0 9 -.3 5 -.0 9 -.3 5 -.3 2 -.0 7 -.1 3 -.3 3 Women: 0 - 9 ............................................................ 10-19 ........................................................ 20 -29 ........................................................ 30 or m o re ............................................... -.2 3 -.3 7 -.3 5 -.5 6 .30 .05 .01 -.3 7 -.2 6 -.3 6 -.4 5 -.5 7 -.11 1 Potential labor market experience is defined as age, minus number of years of school ing, minus 6 years, to account for the preschool period. It is used because the Current Population Survey does not measure actual labor market experience. schooling groups can be used to measure the average difference in earnings between one group and another, after controlling for other relevant variables that affect earning power. For example, a2s measures the difference between earnings of high school graduates and college graduates. This same regression is then rerun for the end year, year t, and the change in the coefficients for schooling groups can be used to measure the change in relative earnings by schooling group. (For example, a2s - a2t measures the change in the college graduate-high school graduate dif ferential between year s and year r).43 The same exercise is then repeated for the beginning and ending year of the period, this time including in the regressions variables represent ing the individual’s occupations: ( 3) In Earnings = b0s + Z?lsLTHS + &2iHS + b3sSOME + b4sX + b5sO C C + e. Here, the vector of occupation variables, O CC, controls for the differences across education groups in the distribution of these groups across occupations, as well as for differences in aver age earnings across occupations. Calculating the change in education-earnings differentials across years in this specification gives the change in relative earnings “net” of occupation factors (for example, b2s - b2t). Comparing the change in dif- Monthly Labor Review July 1994 23 Occupational Earnings in the 1980’s ferential “net” of occupation factors with the pre viously calculated change (for exam ple, a2s - a2t) allows a calculation of the share of the edu cation-earnings differential that can be attributed to occupational factors. To summarize, changes in occupational demand will have two effects that lead to changes in relative earnings by demo graphic group. The first effect is to change the distribution of demographic groups across oc cupations, benefiting those groups with relative shifts to higher paying jobs. The second effect is to change the earnings premium associated with particular occupations, which favors those groups disproportionately concentrated in occupations with rising earnings premiums. It is also possible to assess the impact of industry factors in the same way, as will be done momentarily. What would have happened to education-earn ings differentials in the 1980’s in the absence of shifts in occupational demand? Table 5 indicates that these differentials would have widened, but by a substantially smaller amount. For example, the differential between male college graduates and high school graduates increased by 16 per cent, but without the shifts in occupational de mand, this differential would have widened by 10 percent. And controlling for shifts in occupa tional demand reveals that the earnings of male college graduates relative to high school drop outs would have increased by 16 percent instead of 23 percent. The results for education-earnings differentials for females are similar, with occu pational effects accounting for roughly one-third of the widening gap. In other words, as suggested, college graduates have benefited disproportion ately from the changes in occupational demand: relative to those with less education, they were able to shift into better paying jobs (such as those in the professions and management), and the jobs that they tended to hold became higher paying in relative terms as well (as shown in table 3). Table 5. Adding occupation and industry controls to estimates of education-earnings differentials, all workers, 1973-89 P e rio d C h a n g e in d iffe r e n tia l, c o n tr o llin g fo r o c c u p a tio n C h a n g e in d iffe r e n tia l, c o n tr o llin g f o r in d u s tr y Male college graduate— High school graduate........................................... High school graduate........................................... Less than high school graduate ........................ Less than high school graduate ........................ 1973-79 1979-89 1973-79 1979-89 -0 .04 .16 -.0 3 .23 0.01 .10 -.0 3 .14 -0 .02 .11 .01 .16 0.01 .09 -.0 4 .12 Female college graduate— High school graduate........................................... High school graduate........................................... Less than high school g ra d u a te ........................ Less than high school g ra d u a te ........................ 1973-79 1979-89 1973-79 1979-89 -.0 6 .14 -.0 7 .21 -.0 3 .09 .00 .13 -.0 5 .09 -.0 5 .14 -.0 3 .07 .00 .10 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis C h a n g e in d iffe r e n tia l, c o n tr o llin g fo r o c c u p a tio n a n d in d u s tr y C h a n g e in d iffe r e n tia l D e m o g r a p h ic g r o u p 24 Table 5 also shows how important industry factors have been in the widening of educationearnings differentials. In general, shifts in indus try demand have not been quite as significant as changes in occupational structure. Finally, table 5 indicates that industry and occupation factors working together are not that much more potent than the effect of each separately, a reflection of the fact that many occupations are concentrated in a small number of industries. Table 6 shows the result of an exercise con ducted for experience-earnings differentials simi lar to the exercise carried out to generate table 5. As noted earlier, the increase in returns to expe rience during the 1980’s was less dramatic than the rise in returns to education, providing less scope for occupational factors to have played a role. Even so, it is striking to note how little shifts in occupational demand have affected returns to experience: the inclusion of controls for occu pation has virtually no impact on the changes in relative earnings by experience group. The same is true for the effect of industry controls. Occupational factors played a nonnegligible, but still fairly small, role in the earnings gain of women relative to men during the 1980’s, accounting for roughly one-quarter of the gain, as shown in table 6. Given the popular perception that women re cently have made further inroads into the profes sions, it may seem surprising that they have not experienced greater movement into higher paying jobs relative to men. It should be kept in mind, how ever, that the secular increase in the labor force participation of women has meant an increase in the number of women in jobs across the entire earn ings distribution, not just at the top. In addition, while the decline in high-paying blue-collar jobs certainly hurt men more than women, men ben efited more from the rise in pay in the professional occupations, given their greater concentration there. July 1994 Table 6. Adding occupation and industry controls to estimates of experience-earnings and gender-earnings differentials, all workers, 1973-89 D e m o g r a p h ic g ro u p C h a n g e in P e rio d d iffe r e n tia l C h a n g e in d iffe r e n tia l, c o n tr o llin g fo r o c c u p a tio n C h a n g e in d iffe r e n tia l, c o n tr o llin g f o r in d u s tr y C h a n g e in d iffe r e n tia l, c o n tr o llin g fo r o c c u p a tio n a n d in d u s tr y Men: 10-19 years . . 10-19 years . . 20 -29 years . . 20 -29 years . . 30 or more y e a rs ........... 30 or more y e a rs ........... 1973-79 1979-89 1973-79 1979-89 -0 .02 -.01 .01 .03 -0.01 .00 .03 .04 -0 .02 -.01 .01 .02 -0 .02 -.0 0 .02 .03 1973-79 .03 .03 .03 .02 1979-89 .07 .07 .06 .07 1973-79 1979-89 1973-79 1979-89 .01 .07 -.0 2 .11 .01 .06 -.0 3 .09 .01 .06 -.0 2 .09 .01 .06 -.0 3 .08 1973-79 .00 .00 .00 .00 Women: 10-19 years . . 10-19 years .. 20 -29 years . . 20 -29 years . . 30 or more y e a rs ........... 30 or more y e a rs ........... M en-w om en. . . . 1979-89 .04 .04 .03 .03 1973-79 1979-89 -.11 -.11 -.1 2 -.0 8 -.1 2 -.0 9 -.1 3 -.0 7 Note: For experience-earnings differentials, base = 0 - 9 years of potential labor market experience. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Summary and conclusions Several interesting findings have emerged from the analysis presented in this article. During the 1980’s, for education-earnings differentials, shifts in occupational dem and accounted for roughly one-third of the change in the gap. The analysis indicates, however, that the rise in the demand for skills possessed by more educated workers is not a new phenomenon: changes in the occupational mix during the 1980’s marked no abrupt departure from patterns in the 1970’s. In light of this relative stability, why were the changes in the earnings structure so different across the de cades? Partly, this is due to a mismatch between the growth in the demand for more educated work ers and the increase in the supply of such workers: during the 1970’s, the entry into the work force of highly educated baby-boomers helped meet the growing demand for more educated workers, but in the 1980’s, the growth of the proportion of col lege graduates in the work force decelerated as smaller cohorts entered the market.44 W hat other factors explain the change in edu cation-earnings differentials that occupational forces do not? Aside from the factors already mentioned, it seems likely that there was an in crease in the return to the general skills possessed by college graduates (for example, the analyti cal and cognitive skills that are not specific to a particular job), and not just to the more special ized skills demanded in the types of occupations college graduates tend to fill.45 Shifts in occupational and industrial demand turn out to be relatively unimportant in explain ing changes in returns to experience during the 1980’s. Supply-side shifts also do not seem to be part of the story: while the growth in the sup ply of less experienced workers was important in explaining the rise in returns to experience in the 1970’s, the work force actually became more experienced in the 1980’s as the baby-boomers aged. Katz and Murphy speculate that the rise in returns to experience— having been concentrated among the less educated— was actually related to the forces leading to the rise in returns to edu cation.46 Because older workers tend to be insu lated from labor market forces by seniority pro visions, and because they might possess skills specific to a firm, younger, less educated work ers would tend to be hit harder than their older counterparts by the forces tilting demand toward workers with higher levels of schooling. Changes in occupational demand played a nonnegligible, but small, role in narrowing the earnings gap between men and women in the 1980’s. W hat else has been important? As men tioned earlier, the disproportionate effect of the decline in unionization on men is one factor. In addition, a decline in differences across the gen ders in actual labor market experience and in the return to that experience has been found to have been important. Finally, a decline in discrimina tion may have had an impact as well. !i Footnotes 2For a survey of this literature, see Frank Levy and Richard A cknowledgment : The author thanks Michael Horrigan J. Mumane, “U.S. Earnings Levels and Earnings Inequality: A and Mary Joyce of the Bureau of Labor Statistics; Professor Review of Recent Trends and Proposed Explanations,” J o u r David Howell of the New School for Social Research; and n a l o f E c o n o m ic L itera tu re , September 1992, pp. 1333-81. Professor Edward Wolff of New York University for helpful 3 One reason for the lack of focus on actual jobs in the comments and discussions. This article would not have been economy is that changes in the occupational classification possible without the generous assistance of Lynn Weidman scheme by the Census Bureau have made it difficult to com of the Census Bureau, who provided the software necessary pare the occupational structure of the economy before and for recoding occupations. 1 See Claudia Goldin and Robert A. Margo, “The Greatafter 1983. To circumvent this problem, occupation data taken from the cps before 1983 were recoded in post-1983 Compression: The Wage Structure in the United States at terms. (See the appendix at the end of the article.) Mid-Century,” Q u a r te r ly J o u r n a l o f E c o n o m ic s , February 4 It should be stressed at the outset that skills are not the 1992, pp. 1-34, for a long-term view of U.S. earnings in only factor involved in the distribution of demographic equality trends. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 25 Occupational Earnings in the 1980’s groups across jobs. For example, differences between men and women in occupational attachment may be due to dis crimination—both before entry into the labor market and at the workplace— and older workers may be higher up on the job ladder than their younger counterparts due to seniority. 5 In this table, average earnings are calculated only for full-time, year-round workers, in an attempt to control for differences in hours worked across groups. To assess trends in as broad a portion of the labor force as possible, the remaining tables include all workers and use regression techniques where appropriate to control for differences in hours worked. 6 The cps is a monthly survey of approximately 60,000 households conducted by the Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Statistics. For inclusion in the samples used in the analysis presented in this article, the individual (1) had to be between the ages of 18 and 64 years, (2) could not be self-employed, and (3) had to have worked at least 1 week during the year in the civilian economy. Note in table 1 that because the March 1974 cps does not contain a continuous variable for weeks worked and usual hours worked, it is not possible to calculate an hourly wage rate for all 3 survey years combined. 7Throughout this article, changes in the natural logarithm of earnings are used to approximate percent changes in earnings. 8 Because the cps does not measure actual labor market experience, potential labor market experience is used instead. This is defined as age, minus number of years of schooling, minus 6 years, to account for the preschool period. In some cases, the result of the calculation is a negative number, so a zero is substituted. 9 For women, the patterns are less clear and the signifi cance even less so, given that the number of years of poten tial experience may not be a good proxy for actual labor market experience for many women and that the relation ship between these two has changed over time as women’s labor force participation has risen. 10 See, for example, Finis Welch, “Effects of Cohort Size on Earnings: The Baby Boom Babies’ Financial Bust,” J o u r n a l o f P o l itic a l E c o n o m y , Vol. 87, pp. S65-S97. 11 There are a number of alternative methods for calculat ing supply indexes. The indexes shown here measure the logarithm of the change in the share of employment of all workers by demographic group. It would have been prefer able to weight the employment by the number of hours worked during the year, but this was not done because the March 1974 cps does not contain data on usual hours worked per week, and the data for weeks worked during the year are grouped into categories. Another alternative (see Lawrence F. Katz and Kevin M. Murphy, “Changes in Rela tive Wages, 1963-87: Supply and Demand Factors,” Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f E c o n o m ic s , February 1992, pp. 35-78) would be to use an efficiency unit concept, where employ ment is weighted by earnings. The evidence indicates that all of the alternatives provide similar results. 12See George J. Borjas, Richard B. Freeman, and Lawrence F. Katz, “On the Labor Market Effects of Immigration and Trade,” nber Working Paper No. 3761, June 1991. 13 See June O’Neill and Solomon Polachek, “Why the Gender Gap in Wages Narrowed in the 1980’s,” J o u r n a l o f L a b o r E c o n o m ic s , January 1993, pp. 205-28. This is an is sue that cannot be explored using the cps , since, as men tioned earlier, that survey can measure only potential rather than actual labor market experience. 14 See, for example, McKinley L. Blackburn, David E. Bloom, and Richard B. Freeman, “The declining economic position of less-skilled American men,” in Gary Burtless, ed., A F u tu r e o f L o u s y J o b s ? (Washington, d c : The Brookings Institution, 1990). See also Paul Ryscavage, 26 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 “Gender-related shifts in the distribution of wages,” this is sue, pp. 3-15. 15 See Francine D. Blau and Lawrence M. Kahn, “Race and Gender Pay Differentials,” in David Lewin, Olivia S. Mitchell, and Peter D. Sherer, eds., Research Frontiers in Industrial Relations and Human Resources (Madison, wi, Industrial Relations Research Association Series, 1992). 16Richard R. Nelson and Edmund S. Phelps, “Investment in Humans, Technological Diffusion and Economic Growth,” American Economic Review, May 1966, p. 75. 17 See Finis Welch, “Education in Production,” Journal o f Political Economy, January/February 1970, pp. S65-S97. 18See Ann P. Bartel and Frank R. Lichtenberg, “The Com parative Advantage of Educated Workers in Implementing New Technology,” Review o f Economics and Statistics, Feb ruary 1987, pp. 1-11. 19 See Ann P. Bartel and Frank R. Lichtenberg, “Techni cal Change, Learning and Wages,” nber Working Paper No. 2732, October 1988. 20 See Lee A. Lillard and Hong W. Tan, “Private Sector Training: Who Gets It and What Are Its Effects?” Rand Corporation, March 1986; Indermit S. Gill, “Technological Change, Education and Obsolescence of Human Capital: Some Evidence for the U.S.,” unpublished manuscript, No vember 1989; Jacob Mincer and Yoshio Higuchi, “Wage Structures and Labor Turnover in the U.S. and in Japan,” Journal of the Japanese and International Economies, June 1988; and Jacob Mincer, “Human Capital Responses to Tech nological Change in the Labor Market,” nber Working Pa per No. 3207, December 1989. 21 See Alan Krueger, “How Computers Have Changed the Wage Structure: Evidence from Microdata,” Quarterly Jour nal o f Economics, February 1993, pp. 33-60. 22 See Jacob Mincer, “Human Capital, Technology and the Wage Structure: What Do Time Series Show?” unpub lished manuscript, August 1991. 23 Blackburn, Bloom, and Freeman, “Less-skilled Ameri can men.” 24 See William E. Even and David A. Macpherson, “The Decline of Private-Sector Unionism and the Gender Wage Gap,” Journal of Human Resources, Spring 1993, pp. 279-98. 25 Blackburn, Bloom, and Freeman, “Less-Skilled Ameri can Men.” 26Focusing on changes in occupational demand as a meas ure of changes in demand for labor within industries is an approach that is complementary to assessing the impact of technical change and other within-industry forces mentioned earlier. 27 See, for example, Chinhui Juhn, Kevin M. Murphy, and Brooks Pierce, “Wage Inequality and the Rise in Returns to Skill,” Journal of Political Economy, June 1993, pp. 410-42. 28 See David R. Howell and Edward N. Wolff, “Trends in the Growth and Distribution of Skills in the U.S. Workplace, 1960-85,” Industrial and Labor Relations Review, April 1991, p. 487. 29 See Gary S. Becker, Human Capital (New York, Na tional Bureau of Economic Research, 1964), for an early elaboration of this view. 30 See, for example, Paul J. Taubman and Terence J. Wales, “Higher Education, Mental Ability and Screening,” Jour nal of Political Economy, Vol. 81, 1973. 31 For a discussion of the extent to which college gradu ates take jobs that do not require a college degree, see Daniel Hecker, “Reconciling conflicting data on jobs for college graduates,” Monthly Labor Review, July 1992, pp. 3-12. 32For an exposition of this aspect of the human capital theory, see Solomon William Polachek, “Occupational Self Selection: A Human Capital Approach to Sex Differences in Occupational Structure,” Review of Economics and Statistics, February 1981, pp. 60-69. 33 For a recent analysis of segregation by gender and its impact on the earnings gap between men and women, see Judith Fields and Edward N. Wolff, “The Decline of Sex Segregation and the Wage Gap,” Journal of Human Re sources, Fall 1991, pp. 608-22. 34The distribution of employment in the Census Bureau’s 13 major occupations was calculated for each of the Census Bureau’s 44 detailed industries at the beginning of the pe riod. Assuming that the proportion of employment by occu pation stayed constant, the distribution of employment by industry at the end of the period can be used to predict what the occupational composition would have been, given that staffing patterns did not change within industries. 35 See Ernst R. Berndt, Catherine J. Morrison, and Larry S. Rosenblum, “High-Tech Capital Formation and Labor Composition in U.S. Manufacturing Industries: An Explor atory Analysis,” nber Working Paper No. 4010, March 1992. 36 See Eli Berman, John Bound, and Zvi Griliches, .“Changes in the Demand for Skilled Labor within U.S. Manufacturing Industries: Evidence from the Annual Survey of Manufacturing,” unpublished manuscript, August 1992. 37 See Kevin M. Murphy and Finis Welch, “Occupational Change and the Demand for Skill, 1940-90,” American Eco nomic Review, May 1993, pp. 122-26. 38 It should be kept in mind that there is some contro versy over the use of education as a measure of skill. The level of education of those in the work force will be influ enced not only by the demand for skills developed in for mal schooling, but also by the supply of skills, which in turn will be influenced by how well society can afford schooling. In other words, the well-known increase in the average schooling level of the work force is a result not only of rising demand for schooling, but also of society’s in creased ability to afford it. In addition, Howell and Wolff argue that “the usefulness of schooling measures is limited by such well-known problems as variations in the quality of schooling, both over time and among regions, the use of credentials as a screening mechanism, and inflationary trends in credential and certification requirements” (Howell and Wolff, “Growth and Distribution of Skills,” pp. 487-88). They also note that, while educational indices are highly correlated with cognitive and interactive skills, this is not the case for motor skills. 39 Howell and Wolff, “Growth and Distribution of Skills.” 40 For a more detailed discussion of the issue, see Peter Cappelli, “Are Skill Requirements Rising? Evidence from Production and Clerical Jobs,” Industrial and Labor Rela tions Review, April 1993, pp. 515-30. 41 Cappelli, “Are Skill Requirements Rising?” 42 There are many other ways to calculate this measure. Ideally, the measure would control for hours, but because of limitations in the cps noted earlier, that is not possible. An alternative control for hours is to use only full-time, yearround workers, which gives results qualitatively similar to those shown in the table. Katz and Murphy, “Changes and Relative Wages,” argue that wages of workers should be taken into account as well, to measure employment in terms of efficiency units. Again, it is unlikely that such a proce dure will lead to results very different from the ones shown in the table. 43 The changes in relative earnings by demographic group calculated in this way give a picture similar to one that could be calculated from the earnings trends shown in table 1. There are two important differences, however: first, in the current calculations, regression techniques are used to con trol for other factors that may affect earnings; second, the sample here includes all workers, rather than just full-time, year-round workers, with differences in hours worked across individuals controlled for by the inclusion of variables for part-time status and weeks worked. 44 For a further discussion of this issue, see Katz and Murphy, “Changes in Relative Wages.” 45 Some support for this notion is found in Erica Groshen, “Rising Inequality in a Salary Survey: Another Piece of the Puzzle,” Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland Working Pa per No. 9121, December 1991. 46 See Katz and Murphy, “Changes in Relative Wages.” APPENDIX: Data and methods Occupational recoding. The Census Bureau made dramatic changes in the scheme it used to classify occupations between the 1970 and 1980 C ensuses o f P opulation. B ecause the same scheme is used in the Current Population Sur vey, it is now exceedingly difficult to compare the occupation structure before 1983 (when the 1980 occupation system was adopted) with that after 1983. The Census Bureau has, however, developed imputation techniques to assign 1980 occupation codes to individuals, based on their 1970 occupation code and a num ber of demo graphic characteristics. (See Lynn W eidman, Final Report: Industry and Occupation, SRD Re search Report Number Census/SRD/89/03, Aug. 20, 1989.) The Census Bureau generously pro vided the Bureau of Labor Statistics with the software used to recode occupations in the 1970 census, and this software was then adapted for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis use with pre-1983 Current Population Surveys. Because the techniques involved rely on impu tation, rather than on an exact match between 1970 and 1980 occupations, the Census Bureau recommends that they be applied five times and the results of statistical analyses be averaged over these five imputations. This is the approach fol lowed in the body of this article. Top coding. One difficulty in using the Cur rent Population Survey to study relative earnings trends is that the true value of an individual’s earnings is not revealed if the individual earned more than the amount specified in a top code. To circumvent this problem, earnings reported be low the top code were fit to a Pareto distribu tion, and the parameters of the distribution were then used to predict the mean value of earnings for those above the top code. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 27 Women and jobs in recoveries: 1970-93 During business cycles, the distribution o f jobs by sex and industry undergoes large shifts; these changes have a permanent effect on job distribution by sex William Goodman William Goodman is an economist in the Office of Employment and Unemployment Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 28 ecause men accounted for the vast ma roll employment series are used here to analyze jority of jobs that were cut in connection gender shifts associated with recessions and re with the 1990-91 recession, one might coveries. The period from the peak of employ expect that, as em ploym ent returned to the ment preceding a falloff in jobs to the trough of prerecession level, men would regain most of the employment is here termed a decline, and the lost jobs. Instead, women filled the majority of period from the trough of employment to the the jobs added in the latest recovery of employ point at which the number of jobs reaches the ment (February 1992 to April 1993), and men level of the preceding peak is called a recovery. still filled substantially fewer jobs than they had The subsequent period preceding the next decline before the recession began. According to the is defined here as an expansion ; the combined Bureau of Labor Statistics survey of businesses,1 decline, recovery, and expansion is called a cycle this pattern occurred in each of the four most o f employment. The employment recovery pe recent business cycles (from 1975 to 1993). Men riod reveals particularly well the recurring cy lost a net 72 to 100 percent of the jobs cut in the clical contrast of substantial job gains for women last four cyclical declines, and women filled 51 during a long interval of substantially reduced to 59 percent of the jobs added as employment employment of men. returned to prerecession peak levels— although the employment of men did eventually recover and reach new highs as employment of women The latest recovery continued to increase at a faster rate. In the latest decline in total employment, from The lag in the rebound of m en’s employment the prerecession peak of June 1990 to the trough was longer after the most recent recession than in February 1992, men lost 2.0 million jobs as after any o f the three previous downturns. It was women gained 125,000 net jobs. In the subse not until March 1994 that men regained the num quent employment recovery, men gained 940,000 ber of jobs they had held at the prerecession peak jobs and women acquired 1.1 million from the of employment 3-3/4 years earlier. Meanwhile, trough to April 1993, when employment first the number of employed women increased by surpassed its 1990 peak level. The net result: 2.2 million. (See chart 1.) This article explains although the total number of jobs was about the why women gained most of the net new jobs in same in April 1993 as in June 1990, 1.2 million recent business cycles, and emphasizes the lat more women and 1.0 million fewer men had jobs. est period of recovery in employment. Data from an alternate source, the Federal sur W hile employment always falls during reces vey of households,3 confirms that women gained sions, the exact months in which it begins to de net jobs between June 1990 and April 1993 while cline and starts growing again often differ from men lost net jobs. (For purposes of a check on the official peaks and troughs of the business the business survey, the nonagricultural wage and cycle.2 The turning points of the nonfarm pay salary worker estimate was selected from the B Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 many statistical time series of the household sur vey. That particular series closely approximates the coverage of the business survey, which also excludes agriculture and self-employed persons.) According to household data, from June 1990 to February 1992— the period of decline in employ ment— men with nonagricultural jobs decreased by 1.1 million, while women with nonfarm jobs increased by 100,000. From the trough to April 1993, when em ploym ent had fully recovered, household data show that the num ber of em ployed men excluding farmworkers increased by 700,000, and that of their female counterparts grew by 730,000. For the two periods combined, then, employed men lost 430,000 jobs and em ployed women gained 840,000.4 The figures above exclude the self-employed and farm workers. W hen these groups are in cluded, household data show that the trends are little affected except for an increase of 350,000 in self-employed men during the recovery pe riod. If the self-employed and agricultural work ers are included, the number of employed men increased more during the recovery period than did the number of employed women: the gain among men becomes 1.1 million, and that for women becomes 570,000. But the extent of self- employment and the income derived from it, es pecially when a one-person business is just be ing started, may not be substantial. Anecdotal evidence suggests that some men try self-em ployment because they cannot find jobs. During the decline and recovery combined, women still fared vastly better than men in net employment gain or loss, including self-employ ment and agricultural work. Employed and selfemployed men show a decrease of 160,000 during the entire period, versus an increase of 500,000 for women. Trends in unemployment also reflect the re duction in male employment. From the peak to the point of recovery, the number of unemployed men increased by 1.5 million while that of un employed women increased by 1.0 million.5 Job trends in recessions Before discussing the recovery of employment in the 1990’s and its effects on jobs by sex, it will be helpful to review developments during the preceding decline in employment (from June 1990 to February 1992).6 The effects of the lat est recession on male and female employment by industry was fairly representative of the ef fects of the four preceding recessions. Chart 1. Employment of men and women in the latest recession and recovery, 1990-93 Proportion of June 1990 level Proportion of June 1990 level 1.04 1.04 1.02 1.02 1.00 1.00 0.98 0.98 Employment recovers 0.96 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 0.96 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 Monthly Labor Review July 1994 29 Women and Jobs in Recoveries Table 1. Peak-to-trough changes in employment by sex and industry, June 1990-February 1992 [Numbers in thousands, seasonally adjusted] C h a n g e s in e m p lo y m e n t D iv is io n B o th s e x e s W om en M en Total n o n fa rm ................................... -1 ,844 +124 -1,968 Goods-producing s e cto r............................. Mining ...................................................... C onstruction............................................ Manufacturing........................................... -1,784 -6 6 -681 -1,037 -3 7 0 -1 -4 2 -3 2 7 -1,414 -6 5 -6 3 9 -7 1 0 Service-producing s e c to r........................... Transportation, communication, and u tilitie s ........................................... Wholesale tra d e ....................................... Retail tra d e .............................................. Finance, insurance, and real estate . . . S ervices.................................................... G o v e rn m e n t............................................. -6 0 +494 -5 5 4 -8 3 -1 4 8 -3 6 6 -1 3 6 +700 -2 7 -2 9 -4 2 -1 5 8 -5 0 +640 +133 -5 4 -1 0 6 -2 0 8 -8 6 +60 -1 6 0 Table 1 shows changes in nonfarm payroll employment by sex and industry from the peak in employment just before the recession to the trough or low point. As indicated, the goods-producing sector— especially m anufacturing and construction— posted the heaviest losses by far. These losses were suffered primarily by men, because the mining, construction, and manufac turing industries em ploy far more men than women. Construction employment is about 90 percent male, and men hold about 2 out of 3 manufacturing jobs. During the general decline in employment, men accounted for 94 percent of the net jobs lost in the construction industry and 68 percent of the lost manufacturing jobs. Job losses in the much smaller mining industry also were incurred almost exclusively by men. Retail trade posted the third heaviest losses, and many of the jobs terminated had been held by women. In this division, too, the losses were roughly in proportion to the gender composition of employment. About half of retailing employ ees are women. The services division is a subset of the ser vice-producing sector and includes industries such as health care, business services, and social services, among others. Employment in services continued to grow during the recession, with al most all of the increase occurring in the health and social services industries. Demand for such services as medical care and residential care of the elderly, driven in part by the aging of the population, continues to grow during recessions partially because these services are frequently of much higher priority to individuals than are various other purchases. In addition, the vast government funding of health services through medicare and medicaid has the effect of support ing health care jobs during recessions, as does the availability of private health insurance. Fur 30 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 thermore, new treatments continually become available and support additional health care jobs. Women gained the vast majority of the jobs added to services during the decline in total employ ment, mainly because the proportions of women workers utilized in health care and social services are extraordinarily high (at 82 percent and 78 percent). Although overall government employment fell slightly during the general decline in employ ment, women gained net government jobs. This fact is partially explained by the fact that, while employm ent in Federal G overnm ent dropped greatly because of the termination of workers hired to conduct the 1990 Decennial Census, the number of jobs in State and local governments— which employ a higher proportion of women— grew. Growth occurred especially in local pub lic school systems, in which employment is 70 percent female. The household survey shows that declines in employment among men from June 1990 to Feb ruary 1992 were concentrated in the precision production, craft, and repair occupations (down 600,000) and among operators, fabricators, and laborers (down 750,000). These results are not surprising considering the industrial composition of job reductions. The younger age groups among employed men suffered the greatest job losses. The youngest group of employed males, from 16 to 19 years old, shrank by 500,000; those aged 20 to 24 de creased by 400,000; and those aged 25 to 34 de creased by 600,000. The number of employed white men was reduced by 1 million, as employ ment of black men decreased by 200,000. Pro portionately, however, the losses were greater for black men. Except for the decline in employed 16- to 19-year-old males, whose population was reduced, these changes were primarily economic effects rather than results of population shifts. Job growth in recoveries Com prehensive estim ates of the num bers of women and men with nonagricultural jobs have been produced since 1964 from the survey of employers. Since then, five recessions and five recoveries have occurred. Table 2 shows job gain or loss for both sexes during each employment decline and recovery associated with these busi ness cycles. In the earliest recovery shown in the table, from late 1970 to m id-1971, men gained more jobs than women did. In the remaining four recoveries, women gained substantially more jobs than did men. Interestingly, even in the ear liest recovery of 1970 to 1971, men ended with fewer jobs than at the preceding peak of employ ment, and women ended with more jobs. The main explanation for women’s greater job gains in the last four recoveries, like the expla nation for their smaller job losses in recessions, has to do with the widely varying proportions of male or female employees in the various indus tries and the extent of job growth or loss in those industries. The following tabulation shows the number o f jobs lost or gained in the goods-producing and service-producing sectors in the last five recoveries: C h a n g e in e m p lo y m e n t ( in th o u sa n d s )— P e r io d November 1970September 1971 . . . . April 1975February 1976 ........ July 1980January 1981 .......... November 1982— November 1983 . . . . February 1992April 1993 .............. G oodsp ro d u c in g S e rv ic e p ro d u c in g +282 +949 +830 +1,478 +552 +775 +997 +2,081 +11 +2,018 Clearly, the service-producing sector gained far more jobs in each case. It also employs a much greater proportion of women. In January 1994, women held 54 percent of the jobs in serviceproducing industries and 28 percent of the jobs in goods-producing industries. In January 1969, women held 43 percent of service-producing jobs and 24 percent of goods-producing jobs. (See chart 2.) Although the percentages changed con siderably over time, women consistently had (and have) a much larger share of service-producing jo b s than o f goods-producing jo b s. W omen gained more jobs in recoveries primarily because the industries that added the greatest numbers of em ployees use larger percentages of women workers. Health services, social services, and public school systems are some of the most im portant industries which added many jobs in the latest recovery and employ more women than men. In the latest cycle, these industries experienced relatively little or no recessionary decline and then, as other industries recovered, continued to grow at about the same rate or, in the case of health services, at about two-thirds of the previ ous rate. In the last five cycles, employment in the entire service-producing sector declined so little that it reached full recovery within 3 months after the trough of total employment, or even before it. In the last three cycles, the goods-pro ducing sector never again reached the prerecession peak in employment because of the long-term and substantial decline in manufacturing employment. The ratio of women workers to all employees within each m ajor industry division changed https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis during the latest recovery, but only slightly. Changes in the gender distribution of jobs at the total level are mainly attributable to the shifts in the sizes of the various industries. In fact, the net effect of all intradivision changes in the pro portions of women workers is actually in a down ward direction— the effects of interindustry shifts in the numbers of jobs had to overcome internal changes in each division to yield a net upward effect on the proportion of women employees. Changes in employment by sex and industry in the latest employment recovery are shown in table 3. The major developments include some that are characteristic of the last five recoveries and some that are considerably different. The trends characteristic of post-1964 employ ment recoveries are extensive. The retail trade, services, and government divisions added hun dreds of thousands of jobs and hired vast num bers of women in this latest recovery, as in past ones. Services and government hired far more women than men. These two divisions were pri marily responsible for the greater overall gains of women in the recovery. (However, services, government, and retail trade each perform ed Table 2. Job gain or loss by sex in declines and recoveries of employment, 1970-93 [Numbers in thousands, seasonally adjusted] D e s c r ip tio n o f p e r io d P e rio d C h a n g e in n u m b e r s o f— E m p lo y e d m e n E m p lo y e d wom en March 1970-November 1970 .......... November 1970-Septem ber 1971 .. Décliné Recovery -9 6 8 +733 -8 3 +498 October 1974-April 1 9 75 ................. April 1975-February 1 9 7 6 ............... Décliné Recovery -1 ,642 +1,138 -6 2 9 +1,170 March 1980-July 1 9 8 0 ..................... July 1980-January 1981 ................. Décliné Recovery -1,151 +543 -1 6 8 +784 July 1981-November 1982 ............. November 1982-November 1983 .. Décliné Recovery -2,626 +1,476 -1 3 5 +1,602 June 1990-February 1992 ............. February 1992-April 1 9 9 3 ............... Décliné Recovery -1,968 +943 +124 +1,086 Table 3. Changes in employment by sex and industry in the latest recovery of employment, 1992-93 [Numbers in thousands, seasonally adjusted] C h a n g e in e m p lo y m e n t F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 2 - A p r il 1 9 9 3 1 D iv is io n T o ta l W om en M en Total n o n fa rm ........................................................ +2,029 +1,086 +943 Mining ............................................................................... C onstruction..................................................................... Manufacturing.................................................................... -3 5 +110 -6 4 -6 +4 -41 -2 9 +106 -2 3 Transportation, communication, and u tilitie s ............... Wholesale tra d e ................................................................ Retail tra d e ....................................................................... Finance, insurance, and real estate ............................. S ervices............................................................................. G o ve rn m e n t..................................................................... +65 -8 8 +379 +106 +1,316 +240 +22 -3 6 +102 +53 +781 +207 +43 -5 2 +277 +53 +535 +33 Period of recovery in nonfarm payroll employment. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 31 Women and Jobs in Recoveries Chart 2. Gender shifts in employment of industry sectors over 25 years Goods-producing sector Service-producing sector Women (42.7 percent) January 1969 unusually in some way in this latest recovery. The abnormal changes in these divisions and oth ers are described in the next section.) The loss of jobs in mining during the latest recovery was not unique. A large number of min ing jobs also was lost during the preceding re covery. In the two latest recoveries (1982-83 and 1992-93), the job cuts in mining were primarily in oil and gas extraction. Eighty-six percent of mining workers are men, and men accounted for most of the mining jobs that were gone by the ends of the latest two recoveries of nonfarm jobs. The increase in construction from February 1992 to May 1993 was middling compared with other recoveries. As in the past, the new con struction jobs went to men as the number of women in construction was almost unchanged. Unusual developments Several trends in the latest recovery were dra matic departures from preceding business cycles. Possibly the most striking contrast was the loss of 60,000 manufacturing jobs during the recov ery. In previous recoveries, manufacturing gained hundreds of thousands of jobs, although the even larger losses during the declines were not fully regained. The main factors resulting in the re32 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 January 1994 cent failure of manufacturing jobs to show any net gain while the economy expanded include increasing automation, foreign competition, de fense cutbacks, and reduced demand for com mercial, as well as military, aircraft. The losses were concentrated in the durable goods indus tries, especially instrum ents and aircraft and parts; instruments lost 40,000 jobs, and aircraft and parts lost 70,000 jobs. Primary metals and electronic and other electrical equipment each lost about 20,000 jobs. Partly compensating for the losses were gains elsewhere in manufacturing, par ticularly in lumber and wood products and rubber and plastics products. Women as well as men in manufacturing lost jobs this time, but had gained hundreds of thousands of jobs in each of the three preceding recoveries. Services gained 1.3 million jobs in the 199293 recovery, far more than the number added in previous recovery periods. The gains in the lat est recovery were concentrated in health services, business services (especially help supply— the furnishing of mainly temporary workers to cli ent firms), and social services. Each of these in dustries grew at a faster rate than did services as a whole and gained far more jobs in the latest recovery than in the preceding one (1982-83). Their growth over the two latest recoveries in total employment is summarized in the follow ing tabulation: G ro w th in j o b s (in th o u sa n d s) In d u stry N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 2 - F e b ru a ry 1 9 9 2 N ov em ber 1983 A p r il 1 9 9 3 Business services.......... Health services.......... Social services.......... +368 +509 +147 +315 +43 +137 Almost 800,000 of the new services jobs went to wom en. In preceding recoveries, wom en gained at most about 65 percent of that number. Until the latest episode, changes in employ ment in retail trade during recoveries were gen erally in proportion to the gender makeup of the industry. But in the most recent recovery, women got only about a quarter of the jobs added in re tailing, although they held about half of the jobs in the division. (The overall increase in retailing jobs was also relatively weak— about 100,000 jobs short of the average gain in preceding re coveries.) This time, the more specific retailing industries in which women are most concen trated, including general merchandise stores and apparel and accessory stores, had substantially smaller employment increases than in the previ ous recovery. Precarious financial positions and major layoffs have characterized the department store field in the last few years. Competition from discount stores, warehouse clubs, and more spe cialized stores has been a large part of the prob lem.7 In addition, this time women gained only 34 percent of the quarter-million jobs added to the eating and drinking places industry. In the preceding recovery, women got half of the jobs added to that industry. Government em ploym ent rose by alm ost a quarter of a million during the recovery, and this increase was far greater than those of the three previous recoveries, as shown below: C h a n g e (in th o u sa n d s) P e r io d November 1970September 1971 ............ April 1975February 1976 .............. July 1980-January 1981 .. November 1982— November 1983 ............ February 1992— April 1993 .................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A ll e m p lo y e e s W om en +242,000 +95,000 +186,000 -52,000 +2,000 +53,000 +31,000 +131,000 +240,000 +207,000 Although women hold about half of government jobs, most of the new public-sector jobs were filled by women in the latest recovery. A partial explanation for women’s gains has to do with the more specific parts of the government sector that gained or lost employment. While total gov ernment jobs increased greatly, the Postal Ser vice and civilian employment in the Department of Defense were cut, by 20,000 and 50,000 jobs respectively. (Uniformed military personnel are excluded from the survey.) About two-thirds of the civilian jobs in each of these two organiza tions were held by men. The gains in govern ment were at the State and local levels, espe cially in local public school system s, in which women constitute about 70 percent o f em ploy ees. Local public education gained approxi m ately 155,000 jobs, and m ost of them were filled by women. The u nusual changes in em p loym ent of women in manufacturing, retail trade, services, and government are illustrated in chart 3. Com bined, these movements that break with the past resulted in even larger proportions of women getting the net new jobs than in most past recov eries. W hile two of the industries shown hired reduced numbers of women, government and es pecially services hired so many more women than in past recoveries that the overall percentage of jobs filled by women increased from all of the earlier recoveries except that of 1980 to 1981. Women’s demographics, occupations During the most recent recovery, employment gains among women were concentrated among those 35 to 64 years of age, while women aged 25 to 34 showed a decline. The changes were fairly proportionate to shifts in the population of wom en by age, so that the ratio of working women to all women in each age group was fairly stable. The following tabulation shows changes in women’s employment by age: P erce n t C h a n g e in c h a n g e in e m p lo y m e n tJ o b g a in e m p lo y - p o p u la tio n ra tio m en t o r lo ss A g e g ro u p 16-19 ............ 20-24 ............ 25-34 ............ 3 5 ^1 4 ............ 45-54 ............ 55-64 ............ 65 and older .. . . . . . . . -2,000 +32,000 -354,000 +292,000 +634,000 +144,000 -37,000 0 +1 -3 +2 +7 +3 -3 -1 0 0 0 +1 +1 -1 During the recovery, the ratio of employed per sons to population also was fairly stable among white women and black women, indicating that job growth in the two groups was about propor- Monthly Labor Review July 1994 33 Women and Jobs in Recoveries donate to growth in population. This ratio re mained at 54 percent for white women and 50 percent for black women. The increase in em ployed white women was about 300,000, while that for em ployed black w om en was about 100,000. E m ploym ent grow th am ong black women was boosted because the black population is growing much faster than the white population. W omen’s gains were greatest in the executive, administrative, and managerial; professional spe cialty; and service occupations. The gain in the executive, administrative, and managerial group was about 450,000. The professional specialty occupation including the largest num ber of women is “teacher, excluding college and uni versity teacher” ; this category accounted for nearly all of the job growth among women in professional specialties. Periods of expansion During further growth o f employment following re-attainment of the prerecession peak in jobs, women have generally continued to gain more jobs than men have. The same long-term factors that increase women’s proportionate share of jobs during recovery periods are responsible for the 34 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 faster growth of employed women during peri ods of expansion in jobs. The tabulation below compares job growth for men and women dur ing past periods of expansion (based on the sur vey of businesses): C h a n g e in n u m b ers o f— P e r io d E m p lo y e d m en E m p lo y e d w o m en September 1971— October 1974 . . .. . . . +3,169,000 +3,873,000 February 1976March 1980 ........ . . . +5,262,000 +7,127,000 January 1981— July 1981 ............ +78,000 +329,000 November 1983— June 1990 ............ . . . +6,717,000 + 11,467,000 The relatively short 11-month period from April 1993, when employment recovered to the June 1990 peak level, to March 1994 has not fol lowed the pattern shown above. Men gained 1.2 million jobs, and women gained 1.0 million. Dur ing this period, gains among men were concen trated in the services, retail trade, and construc tion industries— and, more specifically, in eat ing and drinking places, auto dealers and service stations, food stores, health services, help sup ply, and social services. Half of m en’s gains were in services, and almost 20 percent were in retail trade. This distribution contrasts greatly with the first 11 m onths of earlier expansions, during which manufacturing was m uch stronger and services was less strong than in the recent period. W hether the greater recent gains of men will persist is unknown. The current period of expan sion in employment, after re-attainment of the prerecession level, is very young compared with past com pleted expansions, which ran for an average of 43 months. In one o f the previous 11month periods at the beginning of an expansion, men gained more jobs than women did (Septem ber 1971 to August 1972, 1.3 million jobs ver sus 1.1 million). By the end of the 1971-74 ex pansion, however, women caught up with and overtook men in job gains. Net effects The combined effects of employment changes in economic declines and subsequent recoveries have included vast shifts in the industry and gen der makeup of U.S. employment. In general, in dustries that declined most have not recovered fully by the time total nonfarm employment has returned to its prerecession level— and one divi sion (services) has grown substantially during both general declines and general recoveries. In the latest recovery, construction regained only 100,000 jobs after losing 700,000 during the gen eral employment decline. Manufacturing lost a million jobs in the general decline and lost more jobs as total em ployment recovered. Services Table 4. gained more than half a million jobs during the decline and an additional 1-1/3 million in the re covery. Government also had a large net gain. The changes in jobs by industry and gender in the recovery were greatly different from simple re turns to prerecession levels. At the point when jobs recovered to the prerecession level, male employ ment was down by a million, and female employ ment was up by a million. Male employment stayed below its level at the prerecession peak for over 31/2 years, through February 1994. Table 4 shows the net effects of these shifts during the latest cycle. The movements are in fluenced by both cyclical and long-term factors. M anufacturing has been in long-term decline since 1979 and has lost a total of 3 million jobs. Services, government, and retail trade have been experiencing long-term growth. Long-term in fluences have substantially contributed to the shift toward service-producing jobs, particularly those that traditionally are held largely by women, and consequently toward more women as em ployees. These influences include greater auto mation, which reduces the need for production workers in goods-producing industry, and greater longevity, which increases the elderly popula tion, substantially boosting demand for medical and social services. Public demand for quality education is another long-term factor. Long-term influences can be stronger than cyclical ones. Services jobs increased during the latest general decline; manufacturing jobs con tinued to decline in the recovery. The transition in the long term from a primarily goods-produc ing economy to a largely service-producing one has resulted in greater demand for occupations Changes in employment by sex and industry in the latest employment decline and recovery, 1990-93 [Numbers in thousands, seasonally adjusted] C h a n g e in e m p lo y m e n t M en W om en D iv is io n June 199 0 F e b ru a ry 19921 F e b ru a ry 1992A p r il 1 9 9 3 2 N et change, June 1 9 9 0 M ay 1993 June 1 9 9 0 F e b ru a ry 19921 F e b ru a ry 1992A p r il 1 9 9 3 2 N et change, June 199 0 M ay 1993 Total n o n fa rm ........... +124 +1,086 +1,210 -1,968 +943 -1,025 Mining .................................. Construction ........................ M a nufa cturing..................... -1 -4 2 -3 2 7 —6 +4 -41 -7 -3 8 -3 6 8 -6 5 -6 3 9 -7 1 0 -2 9 +106 -2 3 -9 4 -5 3 3 -7 3 3 -2 9 -4 2 -1 5 8 +22 -3 6 +102 -7 -7 8 -5 6 -5 4 -1 0 6 -2 0 8 +43 -5 2 +277 -11 -1 5 8 +69 -5 0 +640 +133 +53 +781 +207 +3 +1,421 +340 -8 6 +60 -1 6 0 +53 +535 +33 -3 3 +595 -1 2 7 Transportation, communication, and u tilitie s .............................. Wholesale trade ................. Retail t r a d e .......................... Finance, insurance, and real e s ta te ........................ S ervices................................ G overnm ent.......................... 1 Period of decline in nonfarm payroll employment. 2 Period of recovery in nonfarm payroll employment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 35 Women and Jobs in Recoveries generally held by women and less demand for la bor in industries staffed primarily with men. As a result, women’s employment growth has exceeded men’s, and every cycle since 1974 has included a considerable period of reduced male employment following the recovery of total employment. □ Footnotes 36 1 The Current Employment Statistics ( c e s ) program pro duces estimates of employees on all nonfarm payrolls, based on a monthly survey of about 390,000 workplaces. Data from the program appear in the Bureau’s monthly periodical Employment and Earnings. All c e s data in this article are seasonally adjusted. 2The official starting and ending points of business cycles are determined by the National Bureau of Economic Re search, a private, nonprofit organization which tracks de velopments in a number of economic indicators. 3 The Current Population Survey produces estimates of all civilian employment and unemployment based on a monthly survey of 60,000 households. This sample includes 0.1 percent of persons in the United States. Results of the survey, like estimates from the Current Employment Sur vey, appear in the monthly periodical Employment and Earn ings. Information on survey techniques and the magnitudes of errors for each survey can be found in the explanatory notes of any monthly issue of Employment and Earnings. See, for example, pp. 228-63 of the March 1994 edition. 4 To keep analysis of the two surveys comparable, the timespans used are based on peaks and troughs as indicated by the survey of establishments. 6 For a fuller report on employment by sex in declines, see William Goodman, Stephen Antczak, and Laura Free man, “Women and jobs in recessions: 1969-92,” Monthly Labor Review, July 1993, pp. 26-35. 5 The survey of households was recently found to under estimate the employment of women, and its interviewing 7U.S. Industrial Outlook 1994 (U.S. Department of Com merce, 1994), pp. 39-3,4. Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 techniques were changed (as of January 1994), for that rea son among others. Also, beginning with estimates for Janu ary 1994, new external methods of determining the popula tion figures used to determine numbers of persons by age, race, and sex were introduced. The revision of data for ear lier months was not possible. In January 1994, when the new techniques were introduced, the number of employed women was estimated at a level 1.6 million higher than the December estimate (based on the older techniques), while the January figure for employed men was estimated at a level only 0.4 million higher than the December estimated level. Because of the changes in methodology, comparisons using household data cannot be made over spans starting before January 1994 and ending in or after January 1994. For more information on the changes to the survey of households, see Sharon R. Cohany, Anne E. Polivka, and Jennifer M. Rothgeb, “Revisions in the Current Population Survey Ef fective January 1994,” Employment and Earnings, Febru ary 1994, pp. 13-39. Are women leaving the labor force? Recent interruptions in women’s labor force gains do not appear to signal a reversal in their trend o f increasing participation Howard V. Hayghe Howard V. Hayghe is an economist in the Division of Labor Force Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis or nearly three decades, the participation rates of women— the proportion of their population working or looking for work— rose consistently, regardless of economic con traction (recession) or expansion. However, be tween 1989 and 1991, this trend was interrupted and, while the proportion increased again in 1992, it flattened out in 1993. This sudden interruption generated a great deal of speculation regarding its cause and meaning. Indeed, some observers believed it indicated that women were leaving the labor force to care for their children or to become homemakers. The Bureau of Labor Statistics attributed the 1989— 91 interruption to three factors: the business cycle; a pronounced rise in births; and changes in the generally erratic participation trends of ló to 24-year-old women, particularly teenagers.1 The resumption of labor force growth among women in 1992 temporarily silenced some of the speculation. But when growth again halted in 1993, analysts speculated that a trend reversal had reem erged. These speculations were re flected in such statements as: “In just the past two years, a quiet counterrevolution has be gun . . . . the exodus of women from the labor force. . . . The two-paycheck family is on the de cline; the traditional one-paycheck family is now the fastest growing household unit.”2 Do these statements accurately reflect today’s labor force trends? Are major new shifts occur ring in wom en’s labor force participation and in F family employment patterns? These questions are addressed in this report, which examines data on trends in labor force participation among women (particularly those under age 45) and on trends in employment patterns in two-parent families. The data are from the C u rren t P o p u latio n Survey.3 What the data show Women 16 to 24 years old are at an age when the transition from youth and school to work and adulthood occurs. During this transition the la bor market attachment is often tenuous, espe cially for teenagers. In 1993, the labor force par ticipation rate of teenage girls (aged 16 to 19) was 49.9 percent, 12 percentage points higher than in 1965. However, this growth did not pro ceed as a steady progression. (See table 1.) In stead, the movements in this group’s labor force participation rate appear to parallel the business cycle, growing during periods of economic expan sion and shrinking during periods of contraction. Family formation certainly did not play a m a jor role in the most recent decline in labor force participation among these teenagers, as the pro portions who were married (5 percent) or had children (8 percent) were unchanged over the pe riod. School enrollm ent, however, may have played a role, because students are considerably less likely to participate in the labor force than are nonstudents of the same age. In 1993, 64 Monthly Labor Review July 1994 37 Are Women Leaving the Labor Force percent of the teenage girls were in school, up 4 percentage points from 1989. The trend in the participation rate of women aged 20 to 24 was much smoother, increasing steadily, and peaking at 73 percent in 1987. Sub sequently, it began edging downward, reaching 70 percent in 1991. Again, marital status or moth erhood appears to have had little to do with this decline. The proportion who were married was somewhat lower in 1993 than in 1987 (28 per cent versus 33 percent), reflecting the trend to ward later marriages, while the proportion with ch ildren (30 percent) rem ained unchanged. School enrollment is probably the major factor underlying these wom en’s post-1987 labor force trend: the proportion who were in school in creased from nearly 20 percent in 1987 to 26 percent by 1993. Other age groups. The increase in labor force participation among women aged 25 to 34 and 35 to 44 began slowing in the late 1980’s; since 1990, their participation rates appear to have flat tened. The participation rates of women aged 45 to 54 continued to advance through the early 1990’s, while those for women aged 55 and older remained flat. Table 1. Two-parent families. The participation rates discussed so far do not differentiate between women with family and child-care responsibili ties and those w ithout such responsibilities. Therefore, the data may obscure any indications that married mothers are leaving the work place to return to homemaking roles. Changes in employment patterns of families from 1987 to 1992 show that this is not the case; women are not leaving the work force to return to the lifestyles that prevailed more than 30 years ago. The “traditional” family in which the hus band, but not the wife, is an earner was some what less prevalent in 1992 than in 1987. (See table 2.) Also, the proportion of dual-earner fami lies (two-parent families in which both parents are earners) was about the same in both years. If a reversal of w om en’s long-term labor force trends and a movement toward a more traditional family role for women had been underway dur ing the period, one would expect an increase in the number and proportion of “traditional” fam i lies, accompanied by a decline in dual-earner families. Although the number or proportion of “tradi tional” families did not increase in the 1987-92 period, the numbers and proportions of “tradi- Labor force participation rates of women by age, annual averages, 1965-93 [In percent] T o ta l, 1 6 y e a r s a n d o ld e r 16 to 1 9 y e a r s 2 0 to 2 4 y e a r s 2 5 to 3 4 y e a r s 3 5 to 4 4 y e a r s 4 5 to 5 4 y e a r s 55 y e a rs an d o ld e r 1 9 6 5 ..................... 1 9 6 6 ..................... 1 9 67...................... 1 9 6 8 ..................... 1 9 6 9 ..................... 39.3 40.3 41.1 41.6 42.7 38.0 41.4 41.6 41.9 43.2 49.9 51.5 53.3 54.5 56.7 38.5 39.8 41.9 42.6 43.7 46.1 46.8 48.1 48.9 49.9 50.9 51.7 51.8 52.3 53.8 24.6 24.8 25.0 25.0 25.5 1 9 70...................... 1 9 71...................... 1 9 72...................... 1 9 73...................... 1 9 74 ..................... 43.3 43.4 43.9 44.7 45.7 44.0 43.4 45.8 47.8 49.1 57.7 57.7 59.1 61.1 63.1 45.0 45.6 47.8 50.4 52.6 51.1 51.6 52.0 53.3 54.7 54.4 54.3 53.9 53.7 54.6 25.3 25.1 24.5 23.8 23.0 1 9 75...................... 1 9 76 ..................... 1 9 77..................... 1 9 7 8 ..................... 1 9 7 9 ..................... 46.3 47.3 48.4 50.0 50.9 49.1 49.8 51.2 53.7 54.2 64.1 65.0 66.5 68.3 69.0 54.9 57.3 59.7 62.2 63.9 55.8 57.8 59.6 61.6 63.6 54.6 55.0 55.8 57.1 58.3 23.1 23.0 22.9 23.1 23.2 1 9 80..................... 1 9 8 1 ..................... 1 9 8 2 ..................... 1 9 8 3 ..................... 1 9 8 4 ..................... 51.5 52.1 52.6 52.9 53.6 52.9 51.8 51.4 50.8 51.8 68.9 69.6 69.8 69.9 70.4 65.5 66.7 68.0 69.0 69.8 65.5 66.8 68.0 68.7 70.1 59.9 61.1 61.6 61.9 62.9 22.8 22.7 22.7 22.4 22.2 1 9 85...................... 1 9 86...................... 1 9 8 7 ..................... 1 9 88..................... 1 9 8 9 ..................... 54.5 55.3 56.0 56.6 57.4 52.1 53.0 53.3 53.6 53.9 71.8 72.4 73.0 72.7 72.4 70.9 71.6 72.4 72.7 73.5 71.8 73.1 74.5 75.2 76.0 64.4 65.9 67.1 69.0 70.5 22.0 22.1 22.0 22.3 23.0 1 9 9 0 ..................... 1 9 91..................... 1 9 92..................... 1 9 93..................... 57.5 57.3 57.8 57.9 51.8 50.2 49.2 49.9 71.6 70.4 71.2 71.3 73.6 73.3 74.1 73.6 76.5 76.6 76.8 76.7 71.2 72.0 72.7 73.5 23.0 22.8 23.0 23.0 Year 38 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 Table 2. Two-parent families with children under age 18, by earner status of father and mother, 1987-92 [Numbers in thousands] Year 1 9 8 7 ............. 1 9 88............. 1 9 89............. 1 9 90............. 1 9 9 1 ............. 1 9 92............. T o ta l t w o -p a r e n t fa m ilie s 24,635 24,751 24,552 24,435 24,460 24,746 F a th e r e a r n e r , n o t m o th e r N um ber 6,557 6,474 6,336 6,360 6,020 6,281 P e rc e n t o f to ta l 26.6 26.2 25.8 26.0 24.6 25.4 F a th e r a n d m o th e r e a r n e r s Num ber P e rc e n t o f to ta l 17,120 17,321 17,299 17,200 17,377 17,285 69.5 70.0 70.5 70.4 71.0 69.8 F a th e r n o t e a r n e r 1 Num ber P e rc e n t o f to ta l 3.9 3.9 3.7 3.6 4.3 4.8 958 956 917 875 1,063 1,180 1 1ncludes families in which mother and /or other family members are earners,or in which there are no earners. Note: Data on earner status of individuals during a specific calendar year is collected in March of the following year. tional” and dual-earner families fluctuated no ticeably between 1990 and 1992. These move ments— which have not resolved into any iden tifiable trends— are probably the result of the poor conditions in the labor market that prevailed during the period. Not only did the number and proportion of “traditional” and dual-earner fami lies fluctuate during the period, but a sharp in crease occurred in two-parent families in which the father was not an earner. Such families in clude those in which the mother or other rela tives (excluding the father), or both, were earn ers, and families without earners at all. In fact, two-thirds of the gain in number of these other families was accounted for by families in which only the mother was an earner. What the data mean Individually, large numbers of women enter or leave the labor force in the course of a year. But the suggestion that the balance has tipped in fa vor o f a flow of women out of the labor force is not supported by the data. A closer look at trends in women’s labor force activity does not reveal evidence that women are leaving the labor force in large numbers to be come homemakers. Among the 16- to 19- and 20- to 24-year-old women— whose labor force participation rates have indeed declined in re cent years— the overwhelm ing majority have neither husbands nor children. An increase in school enrollment and the recessionary job mar ket of the early 1990’s are the most likely causes of a decline in their work activity. The labor force participation rates of women aged 25 to 44 have not moved up or down consistently since 1990. Similarly, data on families do not support the notion that women are leaving the labor force. W hile the numbers and proportions of “tradi tional” and dual-earner families changed in the early 1990’s, these fluctuations did not exhibit signs of establishing trends. The movements also appear to reflect the recessionary labor market of the period, which also is the likely reason for the sharp increase in the number and proportion of two-parent families in which the father was not an earner. T he c e ssa tio n in the se c u la r g ro w th in women’s labor force participation, as shown in the 1989-93 data, is meaningful. But it is too early to proclaim that the trend of increasing la bor force participation rates of women has been halted. Footnotes 1 See “Women’s labor force growth appears stalled,” I s Summary 92-2 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 1992). s u e s in L a b o r S ta tis tic s , 2 See Maggie Mahar, “A change of place,” March 21, 1992, pp. 33-38. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis B a r r o n ’s 3 The current Population Survey ( c p s ) is a nationwide sample survey of about 60,000 households conducted each month by the Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The survey obtains information on the labor mar ket activity of persons 16 years and older in the civilian noninstitutional population. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 39 Employment in public schools and the student-to-employee ratio Through the stampede o f the baby-boom generation entering and leaving the school systems and the stormy recessionary periods, employment in local government education surged over the 1964-93 period Teresa L. Morisi mployment in public schools has doubled since 1964. As a result, the student-to-em ployee ratio fell from 13.3 in 1964 to 6.4 in 1990.1 Schools had fared well even in reces sionary periods, when the student-to-employee ratio continued to drop or at least held steady. In the most recent recession, however, the studentto-employee ratio rose for the first time in the history of the data series. By 1993, the studentto-employee ratio returned to the 1990 level. It is unclear whether the ratio will decline further, as tightly constrained Federal, State, and local budgets will be forced to accommodate a rising student population in the coming years. E Enrollment linked to ‘baby-boomers’ Teresa L. Morisi is an economist in the Office of Employment and Unemployment Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 40 Enrollment in public elementary and secondary schools grew steadily from 1964, peaking at 46 m illion in 1971. The rise was caused by the “baby-boom generation” (persons bom during the 1946-62 period) entering the public school system.2 As the members of the baby-boom gen eration graduated or left school, enrollment fell steadily for the next 13 years — a total decline of 7 million students. Enrollment again began to climb in 1984 when the children of those bom during the baby-boom period began attending school. Enrollment has risen by 4 million since 1984, but still remains 3 million below the 1971 peak level. (See chart 1 and table 1.) Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 Trends in total employment The surge in public school employment over the 1964-93 period occurred despite four small an nual declines (1978, and the 1981-83 period), falling enrollment, and the recessions. Employment growth during falling enrollment. Employment in public schools rose in all but 4 years between 1972 and 1984, even though en rollment fell by 7 million during the period. The student-to-employee ratio continued to decline in 1978, despite the fact that public school em ployment fell for the first time since 1964. Em ployment again declined in 1981 and through 1983, but the student-to-employee ratio remained steady. By 1982, the yearly enrollment declines be gan to lessen in magnitude. In 1984, enrollment declined only slightly and employment returned to its growth trend; as a result, the student-toemployee ratio resumed its decline. Employment during recessions. Of the five re cessions that occurred between 1964 and 1993,3 only the last two recessions appeared to have any effect on local government education employment. (See box.) During the 1981-82 recession, employ ment declined both years, with a spillover effect of a small decline in 1983. The student-to-employee ratio remained constant during this recession. However, the 1990-91 recession had a more serious effect on employment in local govern ment education. Between 1989 and 1991, enroll ment surged by 1.5 million; growth of this mag nitude had not occurred since the late 1960’s. Although employment did not decline as it had in the previous recessions, the number of em ployees added in 1991 was the smallest since the decrease in 1983. This growth was not large enough to offset the gain in the number of stu dents; therefore, the student-to-employee ratio in creased for the first time in the history of the series. Despite the fact that the recession had ended over a year earlier, hiring in 1992 was just enough to allow the student-to-employee ratio to remain unchanged. This sluggishness indicates that lo cal governments, like much of the private sec tor, recovered slowly from the latest recession. By 1993, the student-to-employee ratio returned to the 1990 level. (See chart 2.) It is unclear whether the trend of a declining ratio will re sume as government revenues improve. The student-to-employee ratio may be at such a low level that further declines are not possible. Teachers and other staff Data from the National Center for Education Sta tistics show a grow th o f 860,000 fu ll-tim e equivalent teaching positions over the 1964-93 period. The student-to-teacher ratio displayed the same trend as the student-to-employee ratio, al though the rate of decline was less sharp. In the late 1970’s the declines in enrollm ent finally caught up with teachers as their number dropped by 71,000 between 1975 and 1981. Since 1981, teaching staffs have grown by 380,000. Although teachers have continued to consti tute the largest share of education staff, their share of full-time equivalent education positions declined from 60 percent in 1969 to 53 percent in 1990.4 Over this period, the number of teach ing positions grew by 16 percent. This was dwarfed by the 85-percent rise in teacher aide positions, the largest percentage increase among education staff.5 The number of guidance coun selors grew 40 percent between 1969 and 1990, while the number of principals and assistants grew 29 percent. Only librarian positions expe rienced slower growth than teaching positions. (See chart 3.) What caused the employment growth? One of the most important factors affecting em ployment growth in public schools has been the advent of the Federal Government assuming a larger role in education. Beginning in 1965, the Federal Government began spending millions of dollars on education programs for students with https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis special needs in elem entary and secondary schools. Much of the money has gone toward the hiring of specialists and aides to staff these programs. Programs for remedial and bilingual education and for disabled students have con tributed the most to the growth in the number of education employees. Each program has its own staff and curriculum, and many students partici pate in more than one program. Remedial education. The first, and by far the largest, Federal program for elementary and sec ondary schools was Title I/Chapter 1 of the El ementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. Chapter 1 provides remedial services to disad vantaged students; outside the classroom, the students are tutored by instructional staff. More than 90 percent of the N ation’s school districts receive Chapter 1 support. O f the 172,000 posi tions funded by Chapter 1 in the 1991-92 school year, teacher aides accounted for 41 percent of positions, close to the 45-percent share held by teachers.6 Schools have an incentive to hire teacher aides for these positions because their salaries are lower than those for teachers; indeed, a criticism some make of the program is that aides Data sources The student-to-employee ratio is calculated by dividing autumn public elementary and secondary school enrollment by November employment in local government education. Data on fall public school enrollment are ac tual counts published by the National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education. Data on local government educa tion employment is from the Bureau of La bor Statistics Current Employment Statistics program. The November employment data are used, because that is the last month of em ployment buildup related to a new school year. Employment data include both the full-time and part-tim e workers on school payrolls. Thus, clerical, cafeteria, and custodial work ers are included, as well as teachers and ad ministrators. b l s counts the number of em ployees who receive wages during the pay period that includes the 12th of the month. Voluntary workers are not counted. In this analysis, trends of total employment in pub lic schools are augmented with the data on education staff from the National Center for Education Statistics. However, because data from the National Center for Education Sta tistics are adjusted to full-time equivalents, they are not directly comparable to Current Employment Statistics data. Therefore, data from the two sources are analyzed separately. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 41 Employment in Public Schools Chart 1. Index of employment and student enrollment in local government education, 1964-93 1964=100 1964=100 240 220 220 200 200 All employees 160 140 140 120 100 100 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 SOURCE: Enrollment and teacher data are from the National Center for Education Statistics. with little training are being used to instruct the neediest students.7 Some of the studies analyzing the effects of Chapter 1 instruction on achievement have been positive and some have been negative. The gen eral agreement is that although disadvantaged students are helped by this program, more could be done. In 1992, a study by the Commission on Chapter 1 concluded that the practice of pulling students out o f class for special instruction was no longer adequate; that the regular curriculum needed to be upgraded in order for special needs students to acquire more advanced skills than the basic skills they were currently receiving.8 The commission recommended that schools in poorer districts receive more Chapter 1 funding, and that incentives be created to ensure that schools im prove the academic performance of needy students.9 Bilingual instruction. The Federal Government first provided funds for bilingual education in 1968 with Title VII of the Elementary and Secon dary Education Act of 1965; by 1974, Congress specified that the money be spent on native lan guage instruction.10 Consequently, schools had to hire certified bilingual teachers because En glish could no longer be the primary language of instruction. As immigration has increased, so has the demand for bilingual instruction. Stud ies on the effects of native language instruction 42 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 have been contradictory; advocates against such instruction argue that students who mainly re ceive instruction in their native languages do not learn enough English to later succeed as adults.11 Education o f disabled children. Funding for educating disabled children was first provided in 1966; legislation and court decisions culm i nated in the Education for All Handicapped Act of 1975, later renamed the Individuals with D is abilities Education Act. It requires that school districts provide a free, appropriate public edu cation for handicapped and learning disabled stu dents. The schools must hire not only special education teachers and aides, but also pay for “related services,” w hich includes specially trained personnel.12 In 1977, children who did not have a physical handicap but had a specific learning disability were declared eligible for these services under the Individuals with Dis abilities Education Act; as a result, the share of children with learning disabilities rose from 22 percent of participants in this program during the 1976-77 school year to 44 percent in 1989-90.13 In recent years, the trend has been to place severely disabled children into regular class rooms. This usually requires the presence of a special education teacher or aide in the classroom along with the regular teacher. The increased practice of putting disabled children into regular Table 1. Student enrollment, all employees and teachers In local government education, and student-to-employee and student-to-teacher ratios, 1964-93 [Numbers in thousands] Year S tu d e n t e n r o llm e n t in p u b lic s c h o o ls g r a d e s K -1 2 , f a ll1 Level C hange E m p lo y m e n t o f a ll w o rk e r s in lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t e d u c a tio n , Novem ber Level C hange E m p lo y m e n t o f f u ll-tim e e q u iv a le n t te a c h e r s 1 Num ber S t u d e n t-to e m p lo y e e ra tio S t u d e n t-to te a c h e r ra tio C hange 1 9 6 4 ................. 1 9 6 5 ................. 1 9 66................. 1 9 6 7 ................. 1 9 6 8 ................. 1 9 6 9 ................. 41,416 42,173 43,039 43,891 44,944 45,550 757 866 852 1,053 606 3,122 3,334 3,626 3,776 3,913 4,085 212 292 150 137 172 1,648 1,710 1,789 1,855 1,936 2,016 62 79 66 81 80 13.3 12.6 11.9 11.6 11.5 11.2 25.1 24.7 24.1 23.7 23.2 22.6 1 9 7 0 ................. 1 9 71................. 1 9 72................. 1 9 73................. 1 9 74................. 1 9 7 5 ................. 1 9 7 6 ................. 1 9 7 7 ................. 1 9 7 8 ................. 1 9 7 9 ................. 45,894 46,071 45,726 45,444 45,073 44,819 44,311 43,577 42,551 41,651 344 177 -3 4 5 -2 8 2 -371 -2 5 4 -5 0 8 -7 3 4 -1 ,026 -9 0 0 4,257 4,404 4,641 4,825 5,008 5,071 5,120 5,269 5,259 5,389 172 147 237 184 183 63 49 149 -1 0 130 2,059 2,063 2,106 2,136 2,165 2,198 2,189 2,209 2,207 2,185 43 4 43 30 29 33 -9 20 -2 -2 2 10.8 10.5 9.9 9.4 9.0 8.8 8.7 8.3 8.1 7.7 22.3 22.3 21.7 21.3 20.8 20.4 20.2 19.7 19.3 19.1 1 9 8 0 ................. 1 9 8 1 ................. 1 9 8 2 ................. 1 9 8 3 ................. 1 9 8 4 ................. 1 9 8 5 ................. 1 9 8 6 ................. 1 9 87................. 1 9 88................. 1 9 89................. 40,877 40,044 39,566 39,252 39,208 39,422 39,753 40,008 40,189 40,526 -7 7 4 -8 3 3 -4 7 8 -3 1 4 -4 4 214 331 255 181 337 5,473 5,452 5,392 5,388 5,536 5,689 5,870 5,960 6,092 6,263 84 -21 -6 0 -4 148 153 181 90 132 171 2,185 2,127 2,133 2,139 2,168 2,206 2,244 2,279 2,323 2,357 0 -5 8 6 6 29 38 38 35 44 34 7.5 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.1 6.9 6.8 6.7 6.6 6.5 18.7 18.8 18.5 18.4 18.1 17.9 17.7 17.6 17.3 17.2 1 9 9 0 ................. 1 9 9 1 ................. 1 9 92................. 1 9 9 3 ................. 41,217 242,000 242,731 343,353 691 783 731 622 6,430 6,484 6,612 6,728 167 54 128 116 2,398 22,432 22,454 32,507 41 34 22 53 6.4 26.5 26.5 36.4 17.2 217.3 217.4 317.3 — 1 Based on data from the National Center for Education Statistics. ___ 2 Preliminary. ___ 3 Estimated. Chart 2. Student-to-employee ratio in local government education, 1964-93 Students per employee Students per employee NOTE: Ratio is calculated by dividing fall public school enrollment by November employment in local government education. Shaded areas denote recessions as identified by the National Bureau of Economic Research. SOURCE: Enrollment data are published by the National Center for Education Statistics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 43 Employment in Public School Chart 3. Growth of full-time equivalent education staff in public schools, 1969-90 Percent Percent • Shifts toward smaller classes, which are be lieved to be beneficial for learning. Many States have passed laws mandating smaller class sizes. • Establishment of vocational training centers for high school students and “magnet” schools that offer specialized instruction. • Increases in the amount of money spent per pupil. The current expenditure per student rose from $2,162 in the 1965-66 school year to $5,054 (estimated) in 1992-93 (1991-92 dollars).14 Dis posable income has risen; at the same time there has been a decrease in the ratio of the number of students to the population as a w hole.15 This al lows more money to be spread among fewer pupils. Will the surge continue? Principals and assistants Teachers Teacher aides Guidance counselors Librarians SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics. classrooms has therefore contributed to the de mand for special education staff. Other trends. Em ploym ent growth in public schools is also positively influenced by: Public school enrollment is projected to grow throughout the 1990’s; by 1998, enrollment is projected to surpass the 1971 peak.16 This surge in enrollment will require State and local gov ernments to hire more teachers and other staff just to maintain the current student-to-employee ratio. Even if there are more Federal funds for re medial, bilingual, and special education pro grams, State and local budgets will likely be strained by the increase in school-age children. As a result, there may not be enough money avail able to allow the student-to-employee ratio to decline further. Thus, the recent pattern of a stable, or even increasing student-to-employee ratio in public education, established since 1990, may remain for some time. □ Footnotes 1 Data from 1964 forward are used because enrollment data prior to 1964 encompassed the entire school year. For 1964 and later years, enrollment figures are for fall only and thus can be compared with fall employment data. 2National Center for Education Statistics, D i g e s t o f E d u n c e s 92-097 (Washington, d c , Na tional Center for Education Statistics, October 1992), p.l. c a tio n S ta t is tic s 1 9 9 2 , 3These recessionary periods, as identified by the National Bureau of Economic Research, are: December 1969-November 1970; November 1973-March 1975; January 1980-July 1980; July 1981-November 1982; and July 1990-March 1991. 4D ig e s t o f E d u c a tio n S ta t is tic s 1 9 9 2 , table 78. 5 Data on support staff and school administrative staff are not comparable prior to 1984. Therefore, they are not used in this comparison. 6 Chapter 1 office, U.S. Department of Education, Wash ington, DC. 7 W h o is T e a c h in g O u r C h ild r e n : A L o o k a t th e U se o f A id e s in C h a p te r 1, Issue Paper (International Reading As sociation, January 1994). 44 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 8 Rochelle Stanfield, “A Blistering Report Card,” Wash ington Update: Policy and Politics in Brief (Washington, d c , The National Journal, 1992), p. 2899. 9 Mary Jordan, “Panel Says Poor Children Disserved by School Aid,” The Washington Post, Dec. 11, 1992, p. A 10. 10 Edward B. Fiske, “The Controversy Over Bilingual Education in America’s Schools; One Language or Two?” The New York Times, Nov. 10, 1985, p. 1. 11 Marilyn Elias, “Kids’ Best Interests the Crux of Bilin gual Education Debate,” usa Today, July 21, 1993, p. 7D. 12Eileen M. Gardner, “The Growth of the Federal Role in Education,” Critical Issues: A New Agenda fo r Education (W ashington, d c , The Heritage Foundation, 1985), p. 27. 13 Digest o f Education Statistics 1992, table 50. 14 Digest o f Education Statistics 1992, table 156. 15 National Center for Education Statistics, Projections of Education Statistics to 2002, n c e s 91—490 (Washington, d c , National Center for Education Statistics, December 1991), p. 77. 16Projections of Education Statistics to 2002, table 1. Portability of pension benefits among jobs A worker's ability to maintain and transfer accumulated pension benefits when changing jobs is not widespread among defined benefit pension plans, although portability provisions vary a great deal Ann C. Foster Ann C. Foster is an economist in the Division of Occupational Pay and Employee Benefit Levels, Bureau of Labor Statistics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis m erican workers hold numerous jobs over their working lives.1 These work ers often receive lower retirement ben efits from employer-sponsored retirement plans than do workers who remain with one employer because of the way such plans determine ben efits.2 A “portable” pension, which ties a pen sion to a worker instead of a job, may provide an alternative solution to this pattern. A worker’s ability to maintain and transfer ac cumulated pension benefits when changing jobs is generally less of a problem in defined contri bution plans than in defined benefit plans. An account is established in defined contribution plans for each participating employee. The em ployer and, in some cases, the employee, make fixed (or defined) contributions to the account. Benefits are not predetermined, but depend on contributed amounts and investment earnings. With comparable contributions and rates of re turn, a worker who switches jobs (and leaves his or her funds in the plan of each organization) could have the same benefit amount upon retire ment as a worker with an identical salary history who worked for only one employer.3 In contrast, defined benefit plans use prede termined formulas to calculate retirement ben efits. Benefits generally are based on salary and years of service with the employer sponsoring the plan. If a “vested”4 employee leaves a job before retirement, the final salary at the time of leaving is used to determine retirement benefits. For the employee who stays at the same job un til retirement, benefit calculations are based on A preretirement salary levels, most often the high est salary. In addition, these high earnings are multiplied over more years of employment. The following illustrates the financial conse quences of changing employers when covered by defined benefit plans that are not portable. Individual A and Individual B work for 30 years and have the same salary pattern. Their pension benefits are calculated using the formula; annual benefit = 1 percent x final average salary x years of service. The only difference is in their em ployment histories: B changed employers after 15 years, while A remained with the same company for 30 years. Starting salary ............ Salary after 15 years .. In d iv id u a l A In d iv id u a l B $10,000 20,000 $10,000 20,000 (C han ged jo b s ) Salary after 30 years . . Annual pension benefit: First em ployer........ 40,000 40,000 12,000 (30 percent of $40,000) 3,000 (15 percent of $20,000) Second employer . . . T otal.................... 6,000 (15 percent of $40,000) $12,000 $ 9,000 As shown, changing jobs yields only 75 percent of the retirement income for B as A received, Monthly Labor Review July 1994 45 Pension Portability although both had the same earnings throughout their work lives. Individual B ’s retirement in come is lower because much of the pension is based on the $20,000 final salary with the first employer. Portability provisions Portability provisions in defined benefit plans generally cover assets, credited service, or both. Portability of assets allows workers to withdraw accumulated pension benefits or transfer them to another retirement arrangement,5 or both. Because few defined benefit plans are avail able with portability or reciprocity agreements, most lump-sum withdrawals are transferred di rectly to the worker. According to one study, if lump-sum withdrawals were put into an indi vidual retirement account, a worker could have a retirement amount larger than what would have been available from the defined benefit plan.6 However, research indicates that most workers spend their preretirement distributions.7 Portability of credited service allows years of service with a previous employer to be included when determining pension benefits from a sub sequent em ployer. For exam ple, it allows a worker to keep years of service credited to one plan when changing jobs, even if he or she has not met the vesting requirements of that plan. Service credit portability is often found in multi employer plans. A multiemployer pension plan is a trust fund established in collective bargain ing between one or more labor unions and em ployers of covered union members. These plans allow workers who leave one participating em ployer to continue their credited service if they work for another participating employer. In 1990, 4.95 million active participants were covered by multiemployer defined benefit pension plans.8 A multiemployer pension plan can be a de fined benefit or a defined contribution plan. It provides benefits to workers in unionized indus tries, such as transportation and trucking, where workers tend to be highly mobile and work for several employers a year. M ultiemployer plans are arranged by industry on a local, regional, or national level; w ithout these plans, workers would be required to switch pension plans as often as they switch employers, resulting in re duced or incomplete pension coverage.9 A lthough w orkers covered under a m ulti employer plan continue to earn benefits if they switch to another participating employer, they could lose benefits or not gain additional ben efits if they subsequently work for an employer participating in another fund. Loss of pension benefits can be reduced or prevented if a worker participates in a plan with a reciprocity agree 46 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 ment with other multiemployer plans. A reciproc ity agreement is a mutual exchange of privileges or rights designed to prevent the loss of pension credits for participants who switch employers. In 1987, nearly half of all multiemployer funds included reciprocity agreements.10 Reciprocity agreements The two reciprocity systems most widely used in multiemployer defined benefit pension plans are pro rata reciprocity and “money follows the man.” In a pro rata arrangement, money is not transferred between funds; instead, pension cred its are maintained by each fund. Upon retirement, a partial, or pro rata, benefit is paid by each fund in which the worker participated, based on the pension credits earned in that fund. Vested sta tus or pension eligibility, or both, are based on the credits earned in all funds. An example of such an arrangement is among ‘the provisions of a multiemployer pension plan covering members of an International Brother hood of Teamsters local in the New York City area.11 The plan ’s partial reciprocal pension arrangement is for participants whose years of service are divided between the local plan and related plans, and who also are ineligible for a regu lar pension from any of the plans.12 For these parti cipants, credited service under the local plan and related plans are counted for eligibility purposes.13 The partial reciprocal pension amount is de termined by the following formula: Monthly pro rata pension = total pension amount x A/A + B where: A = the number of years of local pen sion credit; and B = the num ber of years o f pension credit earned under related funds. As an example, local and related pension plan credits entitle the w orker to a total pension amount of $1,200. The employee has 8 years of service under the local plan, plus 7 years of ser vice with local Y, and 9 years with local Z. The monthly pro rata pension from the local plan would be $1,200 x 8/24 = $400. The employee also will receive a pro rata pension from the lo cal Y and local Z plans. Another example is a construction trades pen sion fund. In this plan, a reciprocal pension is available to participants who would be ineligible for a pension or whose pensions would be less than the full amount because their working years were divided between employment in the plan and employment in related pension plans. The related plans include signatories to a national pro rata pension agreement or an international re- ciprocal agreement, or any other pension plan au thorized by the board of trustees as a related plan. As in the previous example, a participant is eligible for a pro rata pension if all pension cred its earned in related funds and the local plan were enough to allow the participant to be eligible for a full pension in the local plan. The participant must have at least 1 year of pension credit in the plan and 1 year of pension credit in each related plan to qualify for a reciprocal pension. Although pension credits of a related plan are required for eligibility, they are not used when determining the monthly pro rata pension. For example, a par ticipant retires at age 65 with 9 years of pension credit in the plan and 6 years of credit in a re lated plan. The monthly amount of a regular pen sion is $30 multiplied by years of pension credit. The participant’s reciprocal pension would be $270 ($30 x 9). The related plan would deter mine and pay any benefits for the 6 years o f re lated pension credit. The “money follows the man” arrangement assigns each w orker to a “hom e” fund. If a worker is employed outside the home fund’s ju risdiction, monetary contributions to the local area fund are transferred to the home fund. When the worker retires, the home fund pays the entire pension, according to the fund’s benefit formula. If participating funds have different contribution levels, the home fund may have gains or losses, depending on its contribution rate relative to the other funds. The worker’s benefit remains at the level it would have been had all his employment been within the home fund’s jurisdiction. An example of a “money follows the m an” arrangem ent is a construction trades pension fund. If a participant works for an employer cov ered by the union’s collective bargaining agree ment, the em ployer is required to contribute monthly to the plan. These contributions equal the number of hours the participant worked mul tiplied by the rate per hour specified in the agree ment. The plan has reciprocity agreements that allow participants to increase retirement benefits while working in certain other jurisdictions. U nlike the previous exam ples, contributions made on the participant’s behalf may be trans ferred to the fund. The participant, however, must request transfers of contributions. If hours and con tributions are transferred, they are treated as if they had resulted from work in the fund’s jurisdiction. Multiple employer trusts also can provide porta b ility . T h e se tru s ts are n o t the sam e as m ultiem ployer plans established in collective bargaining agreements. W hile more than one employer contributes to a multiple employer trust, a collective bargaining agreement is not involved. An example of a multiple employer trust in volves a group of financial institutions, such as https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis savings and loan associations and Federal home loan banks. The participating employers provide a defined benefit pension plan for employees. A participant who leaves employment before be coming vested in 5 years, but is reemployed by the same institution or another participating in stitution, is immediately reenrolled in the plan. If the employee’s break in service was 60 months or fewer, the vesting service is reinstated; if the break is 12 months or fewer, vesting service credit for the break period also will be reinstated. A single-employer portability plan Portability provisions are not commonly found in single employer defined benefit pension plans. One exception is the mandatory portability ar rangement for employees of the former Bell Sys tem, a telecommunications firm. Before the AT&T divestiture in January 1984, employees who transferred from one Bell Sys tem company to another carried with them their credited service and any accrued benefits. Many of the companies had previously participated in the Bell System pension plans, one for manage ment employees, and another for nonmanage ment employees. The plans provided automatic portability when changing employment in the Bell System. But after divestiture, these compa nies were no longer affiliated. The Divestiture Interchange Agreement, which was approved as part of the court approved dives titure, continued the predivestiture practice of ser vice credit recognition for employees who moved from one former Bell System company to another in 1984. In addition, Section 559 of the Deficit Reduction Act of 1984, known as the Pension Portability Act, requires that the service credit of covered em ployees who m ove from one former Bell System company to another on or after January 1, 1985, be recognized by the hir ing company under the same terms as the Dives titure Interchange Agreement. Those covered are primarily nonmanagement employees who were on the Bell System payroll on December 31, 1983, and management employees who earned less than $50,000 a year and were on the Bell System payroll on December 31, 1983. Unless covered by one of these agreements, employees who leave one former Bell System company and are later hired by another former Bell System company, are considered new employees for ben efits related purposes.14 The Bell System companies affected by the Portability Act have signed a Mandatory Port ability Agreement that spells out their obliga tions. At the time of divestiture, each affected company sponsored defined benefit plans with identical provisions, including benefit computa- Monthly Labor Review July 1994 47 Pension Portability tion and rules for crediting service. Former Bell System companies also had common pension administration and actuarial methods. Nonman agement employees were represented primarily by two unions and, until divestiture, pension negotiations were conducted nationally. Despite these common features, it took nearly 1 year for the 11 companies that are part of the Mandatory Portability Agreement to resolve most of the is sues regarding crediting of service, asset trans fer, and eligibility for other benefits.15 The Mandatory Portability Agreement outlines the actuarial determination of the amount of pen sion fund assets to be transferred when a cov ered employee changes to another former Bell System company and sets forth other relevant terms and conditions for administering portabil ity.16 The agreement also protects the employee’s accrued pension benefit given that it cannot be reduced if the worker changes to a company with lower pension benefit levels. The transfer of fund assets is not automatic. A covered em ployee w ho changes to another former Bell System company must notify the new company’s employment office before the trans fer can occur. Once notified, the new companies and those they succeeded verify portability eligi bility and provide for the appropriate fund transfer. Public employee plans Defined benefit plans remain the dominant re tirem ent plan for State and local government employees. In 1992, 87 percent of full-time State and local government employees participated in defined benefit plans, compared with 9 percent in defined contribution plans.17 Som etim es plan inform ation booklets will state that membership is “portable” among em ployers. This is not entirely accurate; benefits usually remain intact only if the participant’s job change is to another branch or agency of the same government employer that also participates in the same pension plan. The participant is not work ing for a different employer as in the case of a multiemployer plan. M any State and local governments maintain separate funds for teachers, firefighters, police officers, and general employees. State and local governments often have reciprocity where, for example, a participant in a teachers retirement fund who later works in a position covered by the general employees fund may have contribu tions or credited service, or both, taken into ac count in the new job. How this is taken into account varies among government jurisdictions. In one State system, the State’s teachers retirement system maintains reciprocity with the State’s general employees 48 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 retirement system. A participant in one system who later works in a position covered by the other system can request “multiple service,” which allows the employee’s previous credited service and contributions to be taken into account at re tirement. The system from which the person re tires will calculate the retirement benefit based on the average of the highest 3 years of salary in either system and the combined contributions, interest, and years of credited service. Another example is a county system that main tains reciprocity with the State employees retire ment system and several other county systems. This reciprocity, however, involves a direct trans fer of credited service to the other systems. One State system provides reciprocity among the teachers, general employees, and the police and firefighters retirement systems. Each requires an employee contribution based on age at the time of system enrollment, with younger entrants making smaller contributions. At any given age, however, the employee contribution varies with each system. A participant in one system who later takes a position covered by another system may request a transfer of previous credits to the new system. This transfer involves credited service and the reserves the participant has accumulated. If the reserves are not enough to cover the benefits pro vided by the new system, “public employers” make up the difference. A participant entering a new system will make the same contribution he or she made in the previous system, not one based on age at enrollment in the new system. W hile not considered a portability provision, many public employee plans allow participants who have worked for public employers in other States to purchase service credit based on these previous jobs. These provisions allow partici pants with previous job changes to increase their pension benefits. Participants are often limited to the purchase of 1 year of credit for previous employment per 12-month period in the current job. A limit is often placed on the total amount of credit (for example, up to 10 years of compa rable service) that can be purchased. In addition, a stipulation is usually included that the partici pant not be eligible for, or currently receiving, pension benefits based on this service. Some plans also allow participants to purchase credit for military service if they are not eligible for retirement benefits based on this service.18 Improving portability data The issue of pension portability is often confus ing, partially due to the varying definitions of portability. Even if a definition has been agreed upon, illustrations may not conform to the given definition. The Bureau of Labor Statistics Employee Ben efits Survey first requested information on port ability in 1991.19 The 1991 survey defined port ability as the ability to transfer years of credited service or accumulated benefits from one em ployer to another. In 1991-92, about 13 percent of full-time workers participating in defined ben efit pension plans were covered by portability provisions. The incidence of portability varied by industrial sector and occupation, as shown in the following tabulation: T o tal.................. Private secto r........ Medium and large firms.......... Small firm s............ State and local government........ A ll W h ite c o lla r B lu e c o lla r ... 13 12 11 9 16 15 ... ... 9 19 9 9 9 31 ... 16 16 18 ... The Employee Benefits Survey also categorized portability provisions by type of provision: • transfer years of service credits in limited groups of employers (multiemployer plans); • transfer years of service credits to another em ployer’s plan (single-em ployer plans with portability or reciprocity agreements); • transfer pension benefits or assets to another em ployer’s plan; and • option to cash out vested benefits with a cur rent value greater than $3,500 (portability of assets). A study of these data indicated that these cat egories were incomplete and, in some instances, not mutually exclusive. For this reason, b l s has not published data by type of portability provi sion. For example, the 1991 and 1992 surveys showed that while m ultiem ployer plans allow participants to work for several employers and continue to accrue benefits, em ployers make contributions to the plan on the participant’s be half. No transfer is ever made between employ ers and no transfer is made if a subsequent em ployer contributes to the same plan. Even with a reciprocity agreement, there may be no transfer if there is a pro rata pension involved. Thus, while multiemployer plans usually were included in “transfer years of service credits within limited groups of employers,” such plans used a variety of portability and reciprocity arrangements. Another problem was that the categories were set up for transfers to be reported as only assets or only service credits. As earlier noted, many plans with portability provisions provide for the transfer of both. State government plans were particularly dif ficult to categorize. W hile plan information may have used the term portable, the intent is only to allow participants to retain benefits if they change to jobs covered by the same plan or to switch between related plans. One example is a partici pant in a State teachers retirement fund who later works for another school district that also par ticipates in the plan; another example would be a teacher being able to transfer to the State gen eral employees fund if he or she later takes a job with a State agency. Portability is not provided for participants who work for a private employer or for a government agency in another State. For the 1994 E m ployee B enefits Survey, changes have been made to improve the useful ness of pension portability data. The categories used to measure portability are: • • • • transfer of service credits; transfer of assets; transfer of service credits and assets; lump sum of more than $3,500 paid to separated employee; and • multiemployer plan. For multiemployer plans, the Employee Ben efits Survey also indicates whether reciprocity agreements have been made with other plans or jurisdictions and, if so, whether contributions are sent to a home fund; or a pro rata pension is paid by several funds. An additional question asks if State government plans allow employees to purchase credit for pre vious government service in another State. □ Footnotes A cknowledgments : The author wishes to thank Cynthia J. Drinkwater, director of research, International Founda tion of Employee Benefit Plans; Scott J. Macey, executive vice president and general counsel, at&t Actuarial Sciences Asso ciates, Inc. ; and Paul J. Yakoboski, research associate, Employee Benefit Research Institute, for their helpful comments. 1Workers typically hold 10 or 11 jobs during their work ing lives. See Robert E. Hall, “The importance of lifetime jobs in the U.S. economy,” A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , Sep tember 1982,pp. 716-24. and Emily S. Andrews, “Pension Portability and What It Can Do for Retirement Income: A Simulation Approach,” ebri I s s u e Brie/No. 65, April 1987. 3 If funds from former employers’ plans were rolled over into an Individual Retirement Account, the job switcher would have a larger retirement benefit if the rate of return on ira funds was greater than that of the employers’ plans. Simi larly, if the rate of return on ira funds was lower, the job switcher would have a smaller retirement benefit than the worker with one employer. See Andrews, “Pension Portability.” 2 See William J. Wiatrowski, “Factors affecting retirement income,” M o n th ly L a b o r R e v ie w , March 1993, pp. 25-35; 4 Pension plan participants usually gain nonforfeitable and nonrevocable (vested) rights to benefits after meeting spe- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 49 Pension Portability cific service or age and service requirements. The Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 requires private single employer plans to provide full vesting (100 percent) after 5 years of plan participation (with no partial vesting before that time) or graded (gradual) vesting of 20 percent after 3 years of service and 20 percent for each subsequent year of service with full vesting reached after 7 years of service. Multiemployer plans also may use a 10-year cliff vesting schedule in which participants have no vested rights to employer contributions until they have completed 10 years of service at which time they become 100 percent vested. See F u n d a m e n ta ls o f E m p lo y e e B e n e f it P r o g r a m s , 4 th E d i tio n (Washington, d c , Employee Benefit Research Institute, 1990), pp. 30-31. 5 The Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 permits sponsors of defined benefit plans to cash out sepa rated participants with accrued benefits of $3,500 or less. In these cases, workers receive a lump sum whether or not they want it. Lump-sum withdrawals of more than $3,500 require approval of the plan and the participant. 6 As in the case of a defined contribution rollover, a job switcher who rolls over funds from a defined benefit plan into an Individual Retirement Account earning a rate of re turn greater than that guaranteed by the plan’s benefits for mula will have a benefit amount greater than what would have been received had the funds remained in the plan. Simi larly, the benefit amount would be reduced if ira funds earn less than what would have been received had the funds re mained in the pension plan. Unlike the defined contribution plan, the job switcher who leaves funds in a former employer’s defined benefit plan usually receives a benefit amount substantially lower than a worker with an identical salary history who remains with that employer throughout his working life. See Andrews, “Pension Portability.” 7 See Paul Yakoboski, “Retirement Program Lump-Sum Distributions: Hundreds of Billions in Hidden Pension In come,” e b r i I s s u e B r i e f N o . 1 4 6 (Washington, d c , Employee Benefit Research Institute, February 1994); Phyllis A. Fernandez, “Preretirement Lump-Sum Distributions,” in John A. Turner and Daniel J. Beller, eds., T re n d s in P e n s io n s , 1 9 9 2 (U.S. Department of Labor, 1992) pp. 285-317; and Joseph S. Piacentini, “Preservation of Pension Benefits.” e b r i I s s u e B r i e f N o . 9 8 . Washington, d c : Employee Benefit Research Institute, June 1990. 8 See U.S. Department of Labor, “Abstract of 1990 Form 5500 Annual Reports.” P r iv a te P e n s io n P la n B u lle tin , No. 2, 1993, p. 24. Also included are participants in multipleemployer collective bargaining plans that chose not to be treated as multiemployer plans in the Multiemployer Pen sion Plan Amendments Act of 1980. 9 See Cynthia J. Drinkwater, “Multiemployer Plans,” in Jerry S. Rosenbloom, ed., T h e H a n d b o o k o f E m p lo y e e B e n 50 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 e fits —D e s ig n , F u n d in g a n d A d m in is tr a tio n ( 3 r d E d itio n ) , Vol. II (Brookfield wi, International Foundation of Employee Benefit Plans, 1992), pp. 507-21. 10 See “Reciprocity and Multiemployer Funds: A Model of Portability,” E m p lo y e e B e n e f it N o te s , Vol. 8, No. 2, Feb ruary 1987, pp. 5-7. 11 The public may obtain information on this and other pension plans from the U.S. Department of Labor, Pension and Welfare Benefits Administration, Office for Public Dis closure, Washington, d c . 12 Plan provisions define a related plan as the pension plan of any other Teamster local union that has entered into a reciprocal agreement with the local plan. 13 To be eligible for a partial reciprocal pension, a partici pant must meet all of the following requirements: be eli gible for a regular pension from the local plan had all pen sion credit earned in related plans been earned in the local plan; have at least 2 years of pension credit for which con tributions were made to the local plan; be entitled to a par tial reciprocal pension from the plan in which the employee was covered before retirement; and be ineligible for a regu lar pension from a related plan. 14 In certain circumstances the predivestiture vesting ser vice of an employee not covered by one of the agreements may be recognized by the hiring Bell System company. April 7, 1994, telephone interview with Scott J. Macey, executive vice president and general counsel, a t & t Actuarial Sciences Associates, Inc. 15 A more detailed discussion can be found in Ronald D. Hovis, “Portability: A Case Study of the Bell System Model,” E m p lo y e e B e n e fits N o te s , Vol. 7, No. 3, March 1986, pp. 4-7. 16 Since divestiture occurred, changes have been made in the pension plans of all former Bell System companies. These changes have increased the difficulty of administer ing the m p a . April 7, 1994, telephone interview with Scott J. Macey, executive vice president and general counsel, a t & t Actuarial Sciences Associates, Inc. 17 Included are 3 percent of State and local government employees participating in defined benefit and defined contribution plans. See E m p lo y e e B en efits in S ta te a n d L o c a l G o v ern m e n ts, 1 9 9 2 , Bulletin 2444. (Bureau of Labor Statis tics, 1994). 18 See Dan M. McGill, “Public Employee Pension Plans,” in Jerry S. Rosenbloom, ed., T h e H a n d b o o k o f E m p lo y e e B e n e f its — D e s ig n , F u n d in g a n d A d m in is tr a tio n ( 3 r d E d i tio n ) Vol. II, (Brookfield, wi, International Foundation of Employee Benefit Plans, 1992), pp. 522-36. 19 See E m p lo y e e B e n e f its in M e d iu m a n d L a r g e P r iv a te E s ta b lis h m e n ts , 1 9 9 1 , Bulletin 2422 (Bureau of Labor Sta tistics, 1993). Major agreements expiring next month This list of collective bargaining agree ments that expire in August is based on information collected by the Bureau’s Office of Compensation and Working Conditions. It includes agreements cov ering 1,000 workers or more. Private in dustry is arranged in order of Standard Industrial Classification. Labor organiza tions listed are affiliated with the a f l - c io , except where noted as independent (Ind.). Westinghouse Electric Corp. (hourly employees), interstate; various unions, 10,200 workers Westinghouse Electric Corp. (salaried employees), interstate; Federation of Westinghouse Independent Salaried Unions (Ind.), 4,300 workers Transportation equipment Private sector Bath Iron Works Corp., Bath, m e ; Machinists, 6,500 workers Hughes Missile Systems Co., Pomona, CA; Machinists, 1,536 workers Construction Communications Associated Underground Contractors, Inc., Michigan; Laborers, 2,500 workers Associated Underground Contractors, Inc., Michigan; Operating Engineers, 1,250 workers National Electrical Contractors Association, American Line Builders Chapter (utility projects), District of Columbia, Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Virginia, and West Virginia; Electrical Workers (IBEW), 2,500 workers National Electrical Contractors Association, Atlanta, GA; Electrical Workers ( ib e w ), 2,400 workers National Electrical Contractors Association, Kansas City, MO; Electrical Workers ( ib e w ), 1,200 workers Painting and Decorating Contractors Association, St. Louis, MO; Painters, 2.000 workers General Telephone Co. of Michigan, Muskegon, Ml; Electrical Workers ( ib e w ), 1,950 workers Western Union Telegraph Co., interstate; Telegraph Workers (CWA), 1,800 workers Apparel and other textile products Cotton Garment Negotiating Group, interstate; Clothing and Textile Workers, 38.000 workers Lumber and wood products Champion International Corp., Idaho, Montana, and Oregon; Western Council of Industrial Workers and Woodworkers, 2,400 workers Chemicals and allied products Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Co., St. Paul, MN; Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers, 1,230 workers Electrical and electronic equipment Eagle Electric Manufacturing Co., Long Island City, NY; Automobile Workers, 1,300 workers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Services Hotel Employers Association of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees, 4,000 workers Stanford University Medical Center (technical, service, and maintenance employees), Palo Alto, CA; Service Employees, 1,250 workers Public sector Education Boise public schools (teachers), Boise, Education (NEA—Ind.), 1,600 workers Boston public schools (teachers and related professionals), Boston, m a ; Teachers ( a f t ), 6,932 workers Christina public schools (teachers), Christina, d e ; Education (NEA—Ind.), 1,300 workers Denver public schools (teachers), Denver, CO; Education (NEA—Ind.), 4,000 workers Elgin public schools (teachers), Elgin, il ; Elgin Teachers Association (NEA— Ind.), 1,700 workers Grand Rapids Board of Education (teachers and related professionals), Grand Rapids, m i ; Education (NEA—Ind.), 1,735 workers id ; Indianapolis public schools (teachers), Indianapolis, IN; Education (NEA—Ind.), 3,100 workers Lee County public schools (teachers), Lee County, f l ; Education (NEA—Ind.), 2,600 workers Little Rock public schools (teachers), Little Rock, a k ; Education (NEA—Ind.), 2.000 workers Livonia public schools (teachers), Livonia, Ml; Education (NEA—Ind.), 1,028 workers Northshore School District (teachers), Bothell, w a ; Education ( n e a —Ind.), 1,070 workers Okaloosa County public schools (teachers), Okaloosa County, FL; Educa tion (NEA—Ind.), 1,700 workers Omaha Board of Education (teachers), Omaha, n e ; Education ( n e a —Ind.), 2,900 workers Philadelphia Board of Education (paraprofessionals), Philadelphia, p a ; Philadelphia Federation of Teachers ( a f t ), 1,633 workers Philadelphia Board of Education (per diem employees), Philadelphia, p a ; Philadelphia Federation of Teachers ( a f t ), 2,000 workers Philadelphia Board of Education (reading assistants), Philadelphia, PA; Philadelphia Federation of Teachers ( a f t ), 1,062 workers Philadelphia Board of Education (secretaries), Philadelphia, p a ; Philadel phia Federation of Teachers ( a f t ), 1,332 workers Philadelphia Board of Education (teachers), Philadelphia, p a ; Philadelphia Federation of Teachers ( a f t ), 13,062 workers Trenton Board of Education (teachers and related professionals), Trenton, n j ; Education ( n e a —Ind.), 1,200 workers Tulsa public schools (teachers), Tulsa, OK; Tulsa Classroom Teachers Associa tion (Ind.), 2,700 workers Public administration Alameda County (general unit), Alameda County, CA; Service Employees, 6.000 workers □ Monthly Labor Review July 1994 51 Developments in industrial relations Early settlement at n y n e x More than 16 months before their labor contract was to expire, n y n e x , the parent company of the New York and New En gland Telephone companies, and its ma jor union, the Communications Workers of America, extended their collective bar gaining agreement for 3 years. The pact, which covers 35,000 workers, provides nearly full protection against layoffs, downgrades, and involuntary transfers for union members while the company cuts its work force by 16,800 over the next 3 years. NYNEX is downsizing to meet the competitive challenges of being a player in a multimedia industry. T he a g re e m e n t p ro v id e s b re a k throughs in education assistance, allow ing employees to upgrade their skills and further their formal education and allowing the company to tackle im bal ances in the work force. A 2-year asso ciate degree program in telecommuni cations technology is instituted for all craftworkers. If accepted in the pro gram, participants work 4 days a week and attend school on company time on the fifth day. In addition, full-time em ployees with at least 5 years of service are eligible for up to 2 years of educa tional leave without pay, but with full benefits and seniority and up to $10,000 of tuition assistance each year. Under terms of the job protection program, which the union claims “sets new employment security standards for the industry,” adversely affected em ployees have a number of options avail able to them. They can, in order, volun tarily transfer to vacancies in their oc cupatio n s, accept early retirem en t, voluntarily separate from the company with a severance package, or transfer “Developments in Industrial Relations” is pre pared by Michael H. Cimini and Susan L. Behrmann of the Division of Developments in Labor-Management Relations, Bureau of Labor Statistics, and is based largely on information from secondary sources. 52 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 to jobs within their geographic area. The company also agreed to return to the bargaining unit work that previously had been subcontracted, to refrain from using temporary workers, and to offer adversely affected employees job shar ing if they still face layoffs. The agreem ent provides wage in creases of 4 percent in August 1994 and 1995 and 3.5 percent in August 1996; bonuses of $500 in March 1996, $600 in March 1997, and $700 in March 1998 if NYNEX meets service standards estab lished by State regulations; and a cost-ofliving adjustment in May 1997 equal to 0.75 percent of pay for each percentage point rise in the Consumer Price Index for Wage Earners and Clerical Workers above 8 percent in the previous 2 years. In the pension area, the contract pro vides incentives to encourage early re tirement by crediting employees with 6 years of service and 6 years of age to qualify for normal retirement (employ ees qualify for normal retirement after they work 30 years or their age and number of years of service equal or ex ceed 75), provides a monthly supple ment of $500 or 30 percent of pay until age 62, and increases the m inim um monthly pension to $400 after 15 years of service. It also boosts the pension benefits by at least 5 percent in 1998. The agreement calls for the company to continue to pay for the full cost of health insurance. It also maintains the current indemnity plan and provides mon etary incentives for employees to partici pate in an optional managed care program, a $300 lump-sum payment per employee if at least 40 percent join the new plan and $400 if at least 70 percent join. The contract increases the company’s flexibility in making work assignments; enhances job security by reducing the number of work classifications for tech nicians and clerical workers; extends employer neutrality towards the union and recognition through a card check to new lines of business established or acquired by NYNEX; boosts dependent care funding by $1.5 million each year, providing $7 million over the term of the agreement; makes employees eli gible for direct subsidies for dependent care; and allows workers returning from maternity leave to work part time for up to 12 months. Settlement at Anheuser-Busch Anheuser-Busch, Inc. and the Brewery and Soft Drink Workers Conference of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters signed a 4-year master contract for 9,000 production and maintenance workers at 13 breweries across the country. An heuser-Busch, the world’s largest brewer, produces 14 brands of beer, including Budweiser, O’Doul’s, and Ice Draft. The accord provides wage increases of 40 cents an hour in the second and third years and 45 cents an hour in the last year, plus lump-sum payments of $1,250 in the first year and $1,000 in each of the last 3 years. Two new contract provisions address issues of job security and pension en hancem ents. One provision calls for nationwide transfer opportunities for perm anently displaced em ployees to relocate to breweries with job openings, with moving expenses equal to $3 per mile. The second offers special early retirement benefits to employees, age 55 or older with at least 10 years of ser vice, when the number of workers to be laid off exceeds the number who ac cept transfers. Retirees will receive $500 a m onth or th eir a n ticip ated monthly Social Security benefit (which ever is less) at age 62 in the form of a monthly payment until age 65. Payment will be made as a direct one-time lump sum payment, or as a one-time payment to their ir a account. The settlement gives employees the option to either stay in the current in- demnity health care plan or participate in a new managed care health program. Employees choosing to remain under the indemnity plan are required to pay that portion of premiums that is in ex cess of premium costs for the managed care plan. The managed care plan re quires no employee copayments for innetwork hospital stays, and 20 percent copaym ents for out-of-netw ork ser vices, w ith m axim um out-of-pocket expenses o f $2,000 per person and $5,000 per family. The plan penalizes working spouses when their incom e equals or exceeds $ 16,000 a year. Other contract features allow participants to nom inate their current physicians as primary care physicians to the network, provide a $25 a year deductible for den tal coverage, and extend spousal and de pendent medical coverage for 2 years af ter a participating member’s death. Several other benefit provisions were modified: the company’s matching con tribution to an employee’s investment in the 401(k) savings plan increases from 48 percent to 100 percent and the com pany’s contributions to the pension trust fund over the term of the agree ment increases by 30 cents an hour per employee. Other major economic terms include a $55 increase over the term in weekly supplem entary workers com pensation benefits, up to $1 million in company contributions to the supple mentary unem ploym ent benefit fund, and up to $10 million in company pay ments for the job security package. Changes in contract language that affect work rules and working condi tions include permitting seasonal em ployment of up to 20 persons between May 1 and September 30 to help meet peak production dem ands, with sea sonal workers receiving $12 an hour plus pension and health and welfare benefits; giving the union the right to refer individuals for employment before vacancies are filled; and revising the language dealing with the apprentice ship program, weekend relief, employee training, and supervisory training. Pact at Morrell plant Negotiators for John Morrell & Co. and Local 304A of the U nited Food and Com m ercial W orkers reached agree ment on a 5-year contract extension, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis covering some 2,800 meatpacking and processing workers in the com pany’s Sioux City, SD, plant, that may help to keep the facility open. M orrell’s parent com pany, C hiquita B rands In tern a tional, previously had announced plans to divest itself of its meatpacking and processing operations. The contract provides wage increases of 20 cents an hour in the first and sec ond years, 15 cents an hour in the third and fourth years, and 30 cents an hour in the final year, and suspends the costof-living adjustment provision during the term of the agreement. At the time of the extension, plant production work ers earned $9 an hour. In the health care area, terms call for annual deductibles ranging from $300 to $1,000 and annual maximum out-ofpocket expenses ranging from $1,000 to $3,000, with the amount of employee payments depending on the employee’s contribution level. The contract main tains employee contributions until Janu ary 1995, when employees must make new annual coverage and contribution schedule options. The contribution schedule w ill range from $8.22 to $29.91 a month for single coverage and from $18.23 to $61.88 a month for fam ily coverage. Under terms of the settle ment, the company will pay for health insurance premium increases of up to 5 percent each year, and employees will pay for increases in excess of 5 percent. In addition, the pact establishes a joint committee for cost containment that is charged with developing changes in plan coverage and cost containment strategies. Other changes in benefits deal with pension and welfare benefits. To pay for health insurance costs, employees retir ing under “30-and-out” provisions will receive a $100 a month pension supple ment until they reach age 62 and an addi tional $ 100 a month supplement until age 65. The $5,000 cap on outside earnings is dropped, but retirees’ contractual pension benefits will be offset by their outside earnings. The maximum employee invest ment in the retirement savings plan in creases to 15 percent of qualified earn ings each year, and additional alternate investment options may be adopted if the options do not increase the company’s administration costs for the plan. Changes in w ork rules include a switch from divisions to departments for seniority purposes, a guarantee of 36 hours of work for all regular full time hourly paid employees unless the employee is laid off no later than the last scheduled work day of the preced ing week, and time and one-half plus 8 hours pay for working on a holiday. As part of the new seniority arrangements, new rules are imposed for areas such as job bidding, transfers, layoffs, and tem porary work or temporary shutdowns. The early negotiations for the con tract extension were agreed to as part of a strategy to keep the plant operat ing. The State of South Dakota has pre sented Morrell with a $10 million eco nom ic developm ent package in ex change for the com pany’s pledge to maintain the plant’s operations, and the governments of the city of Sioux Falls and M innehaha County are expected to contribute to the development package. Second emergency board report The second presidential em ergency board created within a 4-month period to hear the dispute between the Long Island Rail Road and the United Trans portation Union chose the carrier’s fi nal offer to resolve the 2-1/2 year stale mate. The board was established last February under the emergency dispute procedures of the Railway Labor Act— the Federal law that regulates collective bargaining in the railroad industry— to make nonbinding recommendations to resolve an impasse involving the New York City area commuter rail carrier and about 2,300 train, track, and car workers; maintenance-of-way supervisors; and special service attendants represented by the United Transportation Union. The dis pute as presented to the original emer gency board involved more than 100 work rules and a number of wage, pension, and health and welfare proposals. The current board was appointed af ter the first emergency board, estab lished in October 1993, was unable to bring the parties to settlement. Under the section of the Railway Labor Act which deals with commuter rail carri ers, a second board can be established at the request of either party or the gov ernor of the State in which the rail car rier is located. In this case, the Long Island Rail Road requested the appoint ment of the board. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 53 D e v e l o p m e n t s in I n d u s t r i a l R e l a t i o n s After examining the parties’ final of fers, the board chose the proposal made by the Long Island Rail Road. In the re port, board members explained that thenstatutory charge was to select “the most reasonable offer,” and they, as would other board members in their position, selected “the least unreasonable offer.” Among the board’s recom m endations was a 52month agreement that called for an im mediate lump-sum payment equal to 3 percent of an employee’s qualified earn ings, three wage increases of 3 percent each, and health care coverage under the New York State Empire Plan. New York City building service The Realty Advisory Board on Labor Relations and Local 32B -32J o f the Service Employees International Union reached agreement on a 3-year contract covering 30,000 porters, door atten dants, repair personnel, elevator opera tors, and other building service work ers in New York City. The Advisory Board negotiated for owners o f about 2,500 rental, cooperative, and condo minium residential buildings. The agreement boosts wages by 1.9 percent in the first and second years and 2.2 percent in the third year. It provides increases over the term of the contract in building owners’ contributions to the union’s benefit fund, to $31 a week per employee. In addition, new hires now have a 60-day probationary period (for merly, 30 days) and now must wait 3 months (formerly, 1 month) before eli gibility for health care coverage. Buyouts at Eagle Food Center Buyouts for senior workers were an inte gral part of the settlement between Eagle Food Center stores and Locals 1540 and 881 of the United Food and Commercial Workers. The 3-year contract extensions, which cover about 2,000 grocery work ers in the Chicago, il , area, also featured general wage increases and lump-sum payments. Local 881 bargained for 300 grocery clerks in the immediate Chicago area and Local 1540 represented about 1,700 clerks in Chicago’s western suburbs and in northwestern Illinois. Under the buyout program, all bar gaining unit employees earning more than $8.60 an hour will be eligible for a buyout payment equal to 26 weeks of 54 M o n th l y L a b o r R e v i e w https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis J u ly 1 9 9 4 pay based on an em ployee’s average weekly hours worked in 1993. Workers who accept the buyouts also will retain health care coverage for 26 weeks. The agreem ents provide wage in creases of 50 cents an hour for top-rated em ployees on N ovem ber 19, 1995. They call for lump-sum payments in March 1995 equal to 3 percent of an employee’s earnings during the preced ing calendar year, and a similar payment in March 1996. The lump-sum payments are limited to top-rated full-time and parttime clerks earning more than $8.00 an hour. (Top-rated workers currently are paid between $8.50 and $10.85 an hour.) S ettlem en t term s also increase the company’s contributions to the health care fund over the term of the agreement, from $1.43 an hour per employee to $2.10. Settlement at Cincinnati Gas M embers of Local 1347 of the Interna tional Brotherhood of Electrical Work ers ratified a 3-year contract with the Cincinnati Gas & Electric Co. for 1,600 utility workers, including lineworkers and generating station personnel, in the company’s electric production, systems operations, electric distribution engi neering, construction, and transporta tion departments. The agreem ent provides wage in creases o f 3.5 percent retroactive to April 1,1994, and 3.25 percent on April 1 of 1995 and 1996, and quarterly costof-living adjustments equal to 1 cent an hour for each 0.2-point change in the Consumer Price Index for Wage Earn ers and Clerical Workers. It also in creases shift differentials by 5 cents, to 90 cents an hour for the second shift and 95 cents an hour for the third shift. At the expiration of the prior contract, the average hourly rate was $17.10. The contract improves the formula for calculating pension benefits by cred iting em ployees with their highest 4 years o f earnings during the last 10 years, instead of the highest 5 years; and boosts supplemental pension benefits from $100 to $125 per month for em ployees retiring at age 60 or older and from $ 120 to $ 150 a month for employ ees retiring at age 62 or older. Settlem ent terms introduce an op tional flexible benefits plan that pro vides flexible spending accounts for medical and dental benefits, dependent care, and life insurance coverage; guar antee that no layoffs will occur during the duration of the contract; and intro duce a 10-hour, 4-day workweek for some employees. Other terms increase the company’s matching contribution to the 401(k) savings plan from 50 percent to 55 percent of an employee’s invest m ent (the investm ent is lim ited to 5 percent of the employee’s straight time earnings), and liberalize vacation eligi bility requirements to allow 3 weeks of paid leave after 7 years of service (for merly, 8 years) and 5 weeks after 22 years (formerly, 23 years). Newspaper Guild-T im e s T h e N e w Y o rk T im e s and the Newspa per Guild signed a 7-year contract cov ering 1,600 editorial and commercial employees. The settlement, which was the last in a series of negotiations be tw een the new spaper and its m ajor unions during the past 2 years, was reached after the parties came to terms regarding layoff protection provisions. The agreem ent provides wage in creases of 3.5 percent retroactive to March 31,1993,3.2 percent on March 31,1994, and 3.1 percent on March 31,1995. It also calls for a wage reopener in 1996, with binding arbitration if the parties cannot resolve their differences in negotiation. Settlement terms increase the years of service (from 10 years to 16) that an em ployee needs to be protected against lay offs, extend benefit coverage to domestic partners, and provide an additional one time $ 170,000 contribution to the parties’ jointly administered benefit fund. It also includes a buyout program that is similar to that for management. A flexible work schedule program is established for em ployees who have child care or family ill ness problems, and employees may ac cumulate up to 4 weeks of compensatory time each year and can cash out banked hours not used during the preceding 2 years. Terms also call for a guaranteed com pany m atch of 25 percent of an employee’s investment in the 401(k) sav ings plan, which is limited to 6 percent of the employee’s earnings, and an additional match of 25 percent if the newspaper earns a profit; and establish two additional floating holidays, Presidents’ Day and Martin Luther King, Jr.’s birthday. □ Book reviews Retirement benefits in the 1990’s P e n s i o n s in a C h a n g i n g E c o n o m y . Richard V. Burkhauser and Dallas L. Salisbury, eds. Washington, DC, Em ployee Benefits Research Institute, 1993, 120 pp., $15.00. P e n s io n s a n d C o r p o r a te R e s tr u c tu r in g in A m e r i c a n I n d u s t r y : A C r i s i s o f By Gordon L. Clark. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Bal timore, m d , 1993, 259 pp., $39.95. R e g u l a ti o n . Retirement income has become an in creasingly important issue as the aver age age of workers in the United States has risen, and as many workers rely on employer-provided pension benefits as a primary source of retirement income. In the past two decades, legislation and changing demographics have been sig nificant forces driving em ployer-pro vided pension benefits. Passage of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA) in 1974 substantially increased the protection of pension rights of U.S. workers. W hile ERISA did not explicitly guarantee pen sion coverage or impose standard ben efit levels, it ensured protection of bind ing promises of coverage. Since ERISA’s passage, several trends have emerged in pension coverage: the number of pri vate pension plans more than doubled from 1975 to 1989, while plan partici pation increased by nearly 50 percent. Much of this growth can be attributed to coverage under defined contribution plans that specify only the level of the em ployer’s annual contribution to the plan, shifting much of the risk to the employee. Coverage under defined ben efit plans, which include specific for mulas to determine an em ployee’s ben efit upon retirement, also increased but at a much lower rate than that under defined contribution plans. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis P e n s i o n s in a C h a n g i n g E c o n o m y , a compilation of papers published by the Employee Benefits Research Institute, addresses the current state of the em ployer pension system. The chapters confront a variety of issues, including the economic well-being of today’s re tirees, pension coverage for women and minorities, trends in current plan pro visions, and tax and regulatory policies aim ed at im proving the current em ployer pension system. The essays pro vide a framework from which policy makers can draw significantly as they attempt to resolve the issues raised. Although e r i s a did not require em ployer-provided pension coverage, an objective of the bill was to broaden the scope of coverage. In her essay, “The Role of Pensions in R etirem ent In come,” Virginia P. Reno, director of the Disability Income Project at the N a tional Academy of Social Insurance, draws from a variety of sources to indi cate that this has not necessarily been the case. Reno begins with a discussion o f current private pension recipients, showing that the percentage of the eld erly who received private pensions grew steadily from 1976 to 1990. However, the proportion of income derived from these em ployer pensions rem ained largely unchanged. In terms of private pension coverage for current employees, Reno presents v a lu a b le fin d in g s. F irst, alth o u g h women became more likely to be cov ered by an employer-provided pension, men became less likely to have such coverage. Second, employees with no education above the high school level saw a marked decline in coverage dur ing this time period. Finally, Reno ar gues that nearly all the growth in pri vate pension coverage can be traced to increases in participation in defined contribution plans. She attributes this phenomenon to two factors: shifts in e m p l o y m e n t f r o m t h e m a n u f a c t u r in g se c to r , w h ic h t r a d itio n a lly p r o v id e d d e f i n e d b e n e f it p e n s i o n p la n s , a n d t h e i n c r e a s e d a d m in is tr a tiv e r e q u ir e m e n ts im p o sed b y e r is a o n d e f in e d b e n e f it p la n s . Thomas H. Paine, a consultant to or ganizations on benefit and compensa tion strategy and a former researcher at the Bureau of Labor Statistics, contin ues the discussion Reno began as he explores the reasons behind the shift toward defined contribution pension plans. In “The Changing Character of P e n sio n s: W h ere E m p lo y e rs are Headed,” Paine argues that this trend will continue unless policymakers en courage fundam ental changes in the em ployer-provided pension system . Paine suggests that regulations pertain ing to private pension plans be simpli fied; vested pension amounts be rolled over into another retirem ent savings plan; vested benefits be portable to al low service credits earned with one employer to be transferred to another; and benefits be paid as an annuity rather than as a lump sum to prevent retirees from cashing out and spending their re tire m e n t ben efits. W ithout these changes, Paine believes that private em ployers’ incentives to create and maintain pension plans will diminish. Other essays should be mentioned briefly. Gordon P. Goodfellow, an as sociate of the W yatt Com pany’s Re search and Inform ation Center, and Sylvester J. Schieber, a vice-president of the W yatt Co. and director of the firm ’s Research and Information Cen ter, assess the role of Federal tax law on the private pension system. Federal tax law provides incentives that encour age employers to provide pension plans for their employees. In “The Role of Tax Expenditures in the Provision of Retire m ent Incom e Security,” Goodfellow and Schieber present a model that sug gests that these pension-related tax benM o n th ly L a b o r R e v ie w J u ly 1 9 9 4 55 Book Reviews efits favor middle-class workers. They argue that a solution to this would be government policy aimed at increasing the Social Security benefits provided to low-wage workers rather than increas ing private pension plan coverage. Fi nally, several brief essays present cor porate, consumer advocate, and regu latory responses to proposed pension reform. A companion to the Employee Ben efits Research Institute collection in the discussion o f retirem ent income ben efits, Pensions and Corporate Restruc turing in American Industry: A Crisis o f Regulation, by G ordon L. Clark, takes a critical look at ERISA and its af termath. Clark, director of the Institute of Ethics and Public Policy at M onash University in Melbourne, Australia, dis cusses ERISA, and draws his conclu sions, largely in three case studies of U.S. industry in the 1970’s and 1980’s. His subjects are the LTV Corp., Interna tional Harvester Corp., and Continen tal Can Corp. In effect, Clark uses e r i s a and its impact on the private pension system as a springboard to his larger assault on the overall state o f the regulatory pro cess in the United States. In that sense, the book is less an assessment of the private pension system than it is an overview of the general regulatory en vironment in which corporations must operate and compete. Yet Clark offers some insightful ob servations about ERISA and the private pension system. For instance, he argues that e r is a cannot provide complete pro tection against the forces of economic imperatives because it does not operate within a general regulatory framework through which competing claims can be resolved. To dem onstrate this, Clark shows how the legislation was form u lated and adopted with little regard to the issue of who would be responsible for the entire private pension system. Additionally, the legislation virtually ignored the authority o f e r is a with re spect to the competing interests o f la bor law and bankruptcy laws. Clark develops a convincing theory about the fundam entals of corporate restructuring. Through this, he dem on strates the difficulties that confront cor porate strategy-makers and the prob lems that pension plan obligations can 56 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 present in this process. As U.S. indus tries continue to face greater worldwide competition, restructuring efforts will undoubtedly continue. The lessons pro vided in C lark’s book should prove quite helpful. — Michael Bucci Division of Occupational Pay and Employee Benefit Levels Bureau of Labor Statistics (Working Paper 4707.) $5 per copy, plus $10 for postage and handling outside the United States. Missale, Alessandro and Olivier Jean Blanchard, “The Debt Burden and Debt Maturity,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 309-19. Watson, Mark W., “Business-Cycle Durations and Postwar Stabilization of the U.S. Economy,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 24-46. Education Publications received Economic and social statistics Bach, Christopher L., “U.S. International Transactions, Fourth Quarter and Year 1993, ” S u rv ey o f C u rre n t B u sin e ss, March 1994, pp. 44-66. Clarida, Richard H., “Cointegration, Aggregate Consumption, and the Demand for Imports: A Structural Econometric Investigation,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 298-308. Fahim-Nader, Mahnaz, “Capital Expendi tures by Majority-Owned Foreign Affiliates of U.S. Companies, Plans for 1994,” S u rv e y o f C u rre n t B u sin ess, March 1994, pp. 36-41. Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, M o n th ly B u lletin o f S ta tis tic s, F e b ru a r y 1994', and S u p p lem en t. Jerusalem, Central Bureau of Statistics, 130 and 88 pp., respectively. Moran, Larry R., Daniel Larkins, and Michael W. Webb, “The Business Situation,” S u rv ey o f C u rre n t B u sin ess, March 1994, pp. 1-4. Shogren, Jason F. and others, “Resolving Differences in Willingness To Pay and Willingness To Accept,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 255-70. Williamson, Steve and Randall Wright, “Barter and Monetary Exchange Under Private Information,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 104-23. Economic growth and development Blakely, Edward J., P la n n in g L o c a l E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p m e n t: T h e o ry a n d P r a c tic e . 2d ed., Thousands Oaks, CA, Sage Publications, 1994, 343 pp. $22.95, paper. Goldin, Claudia, The U -S h a p e d F e m a le L a b o r F orce F u n ctio n in E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p m e n t a n d E c o n o m ic H is to r y . Cambridge, m a , National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc., 1994, 41 pp. Astuto, Terry A. and others, R o o ts of R efo rm : C h a llen g in g th e A ss u m p tio n s T h at C o n tro l C h a n g e in E d u c a tio n . Bloomington, i n , Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1994, 103 pp. $9, paper. Ehrenberg, Ronald G., Daniel D. Goldhaber, Dominic J. Brewer, D o T e a c h e rs’ R a ce, G en der, a n d E th n ic ity M a tte r ? E v id e n c e F rom NELS88. Cambridge, MA, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc., 1994, 28 pp. (Working Paper 4669.) $5 per copy, plus $10 for postage and handling outside the United States. Lang, Kevin, “Does the Human-Capital/ Educational-Sorting Debate Matter for Development Policy?” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 353-58. Industrial relations Allen, Steven G., D e v e lo p m e n ts in C o lle c tiv e B a rg a in in g in C o n stru c tio n in th e 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s. Cambridge, m a , National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc., 1994, 40 pp. (Working Paper 4674.) $5 per copy, plus $10 for postage and handling outside the United States. Addison, John T. and Joachim Wagner, “UK Unionism and Innovative Activity: Some Cautionary Remarks on the Basis of a Simple Cross-country Test,” B ritish J o u r n a l o f In d u s tr ia l R e la tio n s, March 1994, pp. 85-98. Auerbach, James A. and Jerome T. Barrett, eds., The F u tu re o f L a b o rM a n a g e m e n t In n o v a tio n in th e U n ite d S ta tes. Washington, National Planning Association, 1993, 97 pp. $10, paper. Bailey, Rachel, “Annual Review Article 1993: British Public Sector Industrial Relations,” B ritish J o u r n a l o f In d u s tr ia l R e la tio n s, March 1994, pp. 113-36. Benson, John, “The Economic Effects of Unionism on Japanese Manufacturing Enterprises,” B ritish J o u r n a l o f March 1994, pp. 1-21. Black, Boyd, “Labour Market Incentive Structures and Employee Perfor mance,” B ritis h J o u r n a l o f I n d u s tr ia l R e la tio n s, March 1994, pp. 99-111. Budd, John W., “The Effect of Multina tional Institutions on Strike Activity in Canada,” I n d u s tr ia l a n d L a b o r R e la tio n s R e v ie w , April 1994, pp. 401-16. Bureau of National Affairs, S ta te L a b o r I n d u s tr ia l R e la tio n s, a n d E m p lo y m e n t L a w s E n a c te d in 1 9 9 3 : S p e c ia l R e p o rt, D a ily L a b o r R e p o rt. Washington, Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1994, 27 pp. $25, paper. Available from b n a Plus, Washington. Davis, Michael C., BNA’s 1 9 9 4 S o u rce B o o k on C o lle c tiv e B a rg a in in g a n d E m p lo y e e R e la tio n s. Washington, Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1994, 303 pp. $49. Available from b n a Books, Rockville, MD. Dubofsky, Melvyn, The S ta te a n d L a b o r in M o d e m A m e r ic a . Chapel Hill, The University of North Carolina Press, 1994, 321 pp., bibliography. $34.95, cloth; $14.95, paper. Dunn, Stephen and Martyn Wright, “Maintaining the ‘Status Quo?’ An Analysis of the Contents of British Collective Agreements, 1979-1990,” B ritish J o u r n a l o f I n d u s tr ia l R e la tio n s, March 1994, pp. 23^16. Eaton, Adrienne E., “The Survival of Employee Participation Programs in Unionized Settings,” I n d u s tr ia l a n d L a b o r R e la tio n s R e v ie w , April 1994, pp. 371-89. Elgar, Jane and Bob Simpson, “A Final Appraisal of ‘Bridlington?’ An Evaluation of TUC Disputes Committee Decisions 1974-1991,” B ritish J o u rn a l o f I n d u s tr ia l R e la tio n s, March 1994, pp. 47-66. Jacobs, David C., C o lle c tiv e B a rg a in in g A s A n In stru m e n t o f S o c ia l C h a n g e. Westport, CT, Quorum Books, 1994, 165 pp. $47.95. Northrup, Herbert R., U n ion C o r p o r a te C a m p a ig n s a n d In sid e G a m e s a s a S trik e F o rm . Reprinted from E m p lo y e e R e la tio n s L a w J o u rn a l, Spring 1994, pp. 507-49. Available from the author, 205 Avon Road, Haverford, PA 19041-1612. Ogden, Stuart, “The Reconstruction of Industrial Relations in the Privatized Water Industry,” B ritis h J o u rn a l o f I n d u s tr ia l R e la tio n s, March 1994, pp. 67-84. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Roberts, Harold S. R o b e r t s ’ D ic tio n a r y o f I n d u s tr ia l R e la tio n s. 4th ed. Washing ton, Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1994, 894 pp. $85, plus shipping and handling. Available from b n a Books, Rockville, m d . Robinson, David A., “Discovery of the Plaintiff’s Mental Health History In An Employment Discrimination Case,” W estern N e w E n g la n d L a w R e view , Vol. 16, Issue 1, 1994, pp. 55-77. Schleuning, Neala J., W om en, C o m m u n ity a n d th e H o rm e l S trik e o f 1 9 8 5 - 8 6 . Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1994, 233 pp., bibliography. 233 pp. $55. International economics Backus, David K., Patrick J. Kehoe, and Finn E. Kydland, “Dynamics of the Trade Balance and the Terms of Trade: The J-Curve?” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e view , March 1994, pp. 84-103. Eichengreen, Barry and Douglas A. Irwin, T rade B lo cs, C u rre n c y B lo c s a n d the D isin te g ra tio n o f W orld T rade in th e 1 9 3 0 s. Cambridge, MA, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc., 1994, 30 pp. (Working Paper 4445.) $5 per copy, plus $10 for postage and handling outside the United States. Fischer, Stanley and others, eds., S ecu rin g P ea c e in th e M id d le E a st: P r o je c t on E c o n o m ic T ran sition . Cambridge, MA, The MIT Press, 1994, 166 pp. $20. Wood, Adrian, N o rth -S o u th T rade E m p lo y m e n t a n d In e q u a lity : C h a n g in g F ortu n es in a S k ill-D riv e n W orld. New York, Oxford University Press, 1994, 505 pp. $49.95. Labor and economic history Burgenmeier, B., “The Misperception of Walras,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 342-52. Rappoport, Peter and Eugene N. White, “Was the Crash of 1929 Expected?” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 271-81. Royce, Edward, The O r ig in s o f S ou th ern S h a re cro p p in g . Philadelphia, PA, Temple University Press, 1993, 279 pp. $34.95. Stabile, Donald R., A c tiv is t U n ion ism : The In stitu tio n a l E c o n o m ic s o f S o lo m o n B a rk in . Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 1993, 286 pp. bibliogra phy. $55, cloth; $22.50, paper. Labor force Bloom, David E., Gilles Grenier, Morley Gunderson, The C h a n g in g L a b o r M a r k e t P o s itio n o f C a n a d ia n Im m i- g ra n ts. Cambridge, MA, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc., 1994, 34 pp. (Working Paper 4672.) $5 per copy, plus $10 for postage and handling outside the United States. Boris, Eileen, H o m e to w o rk : M o th e r h o o d a n d th e p o litic s o f in d u stria l h o m e w o rk in th e U n ite d S ta tes. New York, Cambridge University Press, 1994, 383 pp. $59.95, cloth; $17.95, paper. Bosch, Gerhard, Peter Dawkins, and Francois Michon, eds., T im es A re C h a n g in g : W orking T im e in 14 In d u s tr ia lis e d C o u n tries. Geneva, International Institute for Labour Studies, 1994, 323 pp. Available from ILO Publications Center, Washington. Frey, William H., “The New White Flight,” A m e r ic a n D e m o g r a p h ic s , April 1994, pp. 40^18. Hosios, Arthur J., “Unemployment and Vacancies with Sectorial Shifts,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 124—44. Kranich, Laurence, “Equal Division, Efficiency, and the Sovereign Supply of Labor,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 178-89. Lemieux, Thomas, Bernard Fortin, and Pierre Frechette, “The Effect of Taxes on Labor Supply in the Underground Economy,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 231-54. Monk, Abraham, ed., The C o lu m b ia R e tire m e n t H a n d b o o k . New York, Columbia University Press, 1994, 605 pp. $60. Normand, Jacques, Richard O. Lempert, and Charles P. O’Brien, eds., U n d e r th e In flu en ce? D r u g s a n d th e A m e r ic a n W ork F orce. Washington, National Academy Press, 1994, 321 pp. $39.95. Republic of China, M o n th ly B u lletin o f M a n p o w e r S ta tis tic s, T aiw an A rea , J a n u a ry 1 9 9 4 . Taiwan, Republic of China, Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics. 106 pp. Rubin, Rose M. and Bobye J. Riney, W orkin g W ives a n d D u a l-E a r n e r F a m ilies. Westport, CT, Praeger Publishers, 1994, 156 pp., bibliogra phy. $49.95. Schwartz, Rosalind M. and Daniel J.B. Mitchell, C a lifo r n ia H u m a n R e so u r c e s F o re c a st 1 9 9 4 . Los Angeles, Univer sity of California, Institute of Industrial Relations, 1994, 23 pp. $15, paper. Williams, Marcia P. and Sue A. Cubbage, The 1 9 9 5 N a tio n a l J o b H o tlin e D ir e c to r y . New York, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994, 306 pp. $12.95, paper. M o n th l y L a b o r R e v i e w J u ly 1 9 9 4 57 Book Reviews Management and organization theory Larkin, TJ and Sandar Larkin, C o m m u n i c a tin g C h a n g e: W inn ing E m p lo y e e S u p p o rt f o r N e w B u s in e ss G o a ls. New York, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994, 252 pp. $22.95. Loh, Eng Seng, “Employment Probation as a Sorting Mechanism,” I n d u s tr ia l a n d L a b o r R e la tio n s R e v ie w , April 1994, pp. 471-86. McAfee, R. Preston and Marius Schwartz, “Opportunism in Multilateral Vertical Contracting: Nondiscrimination, Exclusivity, and Uniformity,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 210-30. Mitchell, Daniel J. B. and David Lewin, eds., In te rn a tio n a l P e r s p e c tiv e s a n d C h a lle n g e s in H u m a n R e so u rce M a n a g em e n t. Los Angeles, University of California, Institute of Industrial Relations, 1994, 294 pp. $17, cloth. Peters, Tom, T he Tom P e te r s S em in a r: C ra z y T im es C a ll f o r C r a z y O r g a n iz a tio n s. New York, Vintage Books, 1994, 288 pp. $14, paper. Schusser, Walter H., “Creating Entrepre neurial Spirit Within the Corporation,” S ie m e n s R e v ie w , January-February 1994, pp. 22-24. Waldrop, Judith, “How to Succeed Despite Slow Growth,” A m e r ic a n D e m o g r a p h ic s , April 1994, pp. 52-56. Monetary and fiscal policy Flannery, Mark J., “Debt Maturity and the Deadweight Cost of Leverage: Optimally Financing Banking Firms,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 320-31. Ireland, Peter N., “Money and Growth: An Alternative Approach,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 47-65. Sullivan, David F., “State and Local Government Fiscal Position in 1993,” S u rv ey o f C u rre n t B u sin e ss, March 1994, pp. 30-34. Prices and living conditions Benabou, Roland and Jerzy D. Konieczny, “On Inflation and Output with Costly Price Changes: A Simple Unifying Result,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 290-97. Dowrick, Steve and John Quiggin, “International Comparisons of Living Standards and Tastes: A RevealedPreference Analysis,” The A m e r ic a n 58 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 March 1994, pp. 332^11. Feenstra, Robert C., “New Product Varieties and the Measurement of International Prices,” T he A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 157-77. Qian, Yingyi, “A Theory of Shortage in Socialist Economies Based on the ‘Soft Budget Constraint,’” T he A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 145-56. Shapiro, Matthew D. and Joel Slemrod, E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , C o n su m e r R e sp o n s e to th e T im ing o f In co m e: E v id e n c e fr o m a C h a n g e in Tax W ith h oldin g. Cambridge, MA, National Bureau of Economic Re search, Inc., 1994, 19 pp. (Working Paper 4344.) $5 per copy, plus $10 for postage and handling outside the United States. Productivity, technological change Anton, James J. and Dennis A. Yao, “Expropriation and Inventions: Appropriable Rents in the Absence of Property Rights,” The A m e ric a n E c o n o m ic R eview , March 1994, pp. 190-209. Bernstein, Jeffrey I. and Pierre Mohnen, In te rn a tio n a l R & D S p illo v e r s B e tw e e n U.S. a n d J a p a n e se R & D In te n sive S e c to r s. Cambridge, MA, National Bureau of Economic Research Inc., 1994, 35 pp. (Working Paper 4682.) $5 per copy, plus $10 for postage and handling outside the United States. “Close Encounters of the Multimedia Kind,” S ie m e n s R e v ie w , JanuaryFebruary 1994, pp. 28-29. Fare, Rolf, Shawna Grosskopf and others, “Productivity Growth, Technical Progress, and Efficiency Change in Industrialized Countries,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 66-83. Griliches, Zvi, “Productivity, R&D, and the Data Constraint,” The A m e r ic a n E c o n o m ic R e v ie w , March 1994, pp. 1-23. Kirchgeorg, Markus, “Electron Beam Tomography: Ultrafast Answers to Diagnostic Questions,” S ie m e n s R eview , January-February 1994, pp. 25-27. Morgall, Janine Marie, T ech n o lo g y A ss e s sm e n t: A F e m in ist P e r sp e c tiv e . Philadelphia, p a , Temple University Press, 1993, 250 pp. $39.95, cloth; $18.95, paper. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, P ro d u c tiv ity M e a su re s f o r S e le c te d In d u s tr ie s a n d G o v e r n m e n t S e rv ic e s. Washington, 1994, 139 pp. Stock No. 029-00103185-8, $9.50. Available from the Superintendent of Documents, SSOP, Washington 20402-9328. Zucker, Lynne G., Michael R. Darby, Marilynn B. Brewer, I n te lle c tu a l C a p ita l a n d th e B irth o f U.S. B io te c h n o lo g y E n te rp ris e s. Cambridge, MA, National Bureau of Economic Re search, Inc., 1994, 66 pp. (Working Paper 4653.) $5 per copy, plus $10 for postage and handling outside the United States. Wages and compensation Allen, Steven G., U p d a te d N o te s on th e In te rin d u stry W age S tru ctu re. Cam bridge, MA, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc., 1994, 37 pp. (Working Paper 4664.) $5 per copy, plus $10 for postage and handling outside the United States. Bird, Edward J., Johannes Schwarze, and Gert G. Wagner, “Wage Effects of the Move Toward Free Markets in East Germany,” I n d u s tr ia l a n d L a b o r R e la tio n s R e v ie w , April 1994, pp. 390-400. Blau, Francine D. and Lawrence M. Kahn, In te rn a tio n a l D iffe re n c e s in M a le W age In e q u a lity : In stitu tio n s V ersus M a r k e t F orces. Cambridge, MA, National Bureau of Economic Re search, Inc., 1994, 62 pp. (Working Paper 4678.) $5 per copy, plus $10 for postage and handling outside the United States. Juhn, Chinhui, W age I n e q u a lity a n d I n d u s tr ia l C h a n g e: E v id e n c e fr o m F ive D e c a d e s . Cambridge, MA, National Bureau of Economic Research Inc., 1994, 39 pp. (Working Paper 4684.) $5 per copy, plus $10 for postage and handling outside the United States. Kaestner, Robert, “New Estimates of the Effect of Marijuana and Cocaine Use on Wages,” I n d u s tr ia l a n d L a b o r R e la tio n s Review, April 1994, pp. 454-70. Neumark, David and William Wascher, M in im u m W age E ffects on E m p lo y m e n t a n d S c h o o l E n ro llm en t. Cambridge, MA, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc., 1994, 23 pp. (Working Paper 4679.) $5 per copy, plus $10 for postage and handling outside the United States. □ Current labor statistics B B S| WHttHHHHHHHtHI Notes on Current Labor Statistics.................. 60 Labor compensation and collective bargaining data— Continued Comparative indicators 1. Labor market indicators .................................................... 70 2. Annual and quarterly percent changes in compensation, prices, and productivity.................................................. 71 3. Alternative measures of wages and compensation changes............................................ 71 28. Specified changes in cost of compensation in private industry settlements covering 5,000 workers or more .. 92 29. Specified compensation and wage adjustments, State and local government bargaining situations covering 1,000 workers or m ore.................................... 93 30. Work stoppages involving 1,000 workers or more............ 93 Household and establishment survey data 4. Employment status of the population, data seasonally adjusted................................................ 5. Selected employment indicators, data seasonally adjusted................................................ 6 . Selected unemployment indicators, data seasonally adjusted................ ; ............................. 7. Unemployment rates by sex and age, data seasonally adjusted................................................ 8 . Unemployed persons by reason for unemployment, data seasonally adjusted................................................ 9. Duration of unemployment, data seasonally adjusted___ 10 . Unemployment rates by State, seasonally adjusted.......... 11. Employment of workers by State, seasonally adjusted . . . 12 . Employment of workers by industry, data seasonally adjusted................................................ 13. Average weekly hours by industry, data seasonally adjusted................................................ 14. Average hourly earnings by industry, data seasonally adjusted................................................ 15. Average hourly earnings by industry................................ 16. Average weekly earnings by industry................................ 17. Diffusion indexes of employment change, data seasonally adjusted................................................ 18. Annual data: Employment status of thepopulation.......... 19. Annual data: Employment levels by industry................... 20. Annual data: Average hours and earnings levels by industry...................................................................... Price data 72 73 74 75 75 75 76 76 77 79 79 80 81 82 82 83 83 Labor compensation and collective bargaining data 21. Employment Cost Index, compensation, by occupation and industry group.................................. 22. Employment Cost Index, wages and salaries, by occupation and industry group.................................. 23. Employment Cost Index, benefits, private industry workers, by occupation and industry group.................. 24. Employment Cost Index, private nonfarm workers, by bargaining status, region, and area size.................... 25. Participants in employer-provided benefit p la n s .............. 26. Specified compensation and wage rate changes from contract settlements, and effective wage rate changes, agreements covering 1,000 workers or m o re................ 27. Average specified compensation and wage rate changes, bargaining agreements covering 1,000 workers or more https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 31. Consumer Price Index: U.S. city average, by expenditure category and commodity and service groups................ 32. Consumer Price Index: U.S. city average and local data, all items.................................................. 33. Annual data: Consumer Price Index, all items and major groups............................................................ 34. Producer Price Indexes by stage of processing ................ 35. Producer Price Indexes for the net output of major industry groups............................................................ 36. Annual data: Producer Price Indexes by stage of processing.................................................................... 37. U.S. export price indexes by Standard International Trade Classification...................................................... 38. U.S. import price indexes by Standard International Trade Classification...................................................... 39. U.S. export price indexes by end-usecategory ............... 40. U.S. import price indexes by end-usecategory............... 41. U.S. International price indexes for selected categories of services.................................................. 94 97 98 99 100 10O 101 102 103 103 104 Productivity data 42. Indexes of productivity, hourly compensation, and unit costs, data seasonally adjusted ............................ 43. Annual indexes of multifactor productivity.................... 44. Annual indexes of productivity, hourly compensation, unit costs, and prices............................ 45. Annual indexes of output per hour for selected industries...................................................................... 104 105 105 106 84 International comparisons data 86 89 46. Unemployment rates in nine countries, data seasonally adjusted.............................................. 108 47. Annual data: Employment status of the civilian working-age population, 10 countries........................ 109 48. Annual indexes of productivity and related measures, 12 countries................................................ n o 90 Injury and illness data 91 49. Annual data: Occupational injury and illness incidence rates.............................................................. j j 1 87 88 Monthly Labor Review July 1994 59 Notes on Current Labor Statistics This section of the R e v ie w presents the prin cipal statistical series collected and calcu lated by the Bureau of Labor Statistics: se ries on labor force; employment; unemploy ment; labor compensation; collective bargaining settlements; consumer, producer, and international prices; productivity; inter national comparisons; and injury and illness statistics. In the notes that follow, the data in each group of tables are briefly described; key definitions are given; notes on the data are set forth; and sources of additional in formation are cited. table 14—are adjusted to eliminate the ef fect of changes in price. These adjustments are made by dividing current-dollar values by the Consumer Price Index or the appro priate component of the index, then multi plying by 100. For example, given a cur rent hourly wage rate of $3 and a current price index number of 150, where 1982 = 100 , the hourly rate expressed in 1982 dol lars is $2 ($3/150 x 100 = $2). The $2 (or any other resulting values) are described as “real,” “constant,” or “1982” dollars. Sources of information General notes The following notes apply to several tables in this section: Seasonal adjustment.Certain monthly and quarterly data are adjusted to eliminate the effect on the data of such factors as cli matic conditions, industry production schedules, opening and closing of schools, holiday buying periods, and vacation prac tices, which might prevent short-term evalu ation of the statistical series. Tables contain ing data that have been adjusted are identi fied as “seasonally adjusted.” (All other data are not seasonally adjusted.) Seasonal ef fects are estimated on the basis of past ex perience. When new seasonal factors are computed each year, revisions may affect seasonally adjusted data for several preced ing years. Seasonally adjusted data appear in tables 1-14, 16-17, 42, and 46. Seasonally ad justed labor force data in tables 1 and 4-9 were revised in the February 1994 issue of the R e v i e w and reflect the experience through 1993. Seasonally adjusted estab lishment survey data shown in tables 1214 and 16-17 were revised in the July 1994 R e v ie w and reflect the experience through March 1994. A brief explanation of the sea sonal adjustment methodology appears in “Notes on the data.” Revisions in the productivity data in table 42 are usually introduced in the September issue. Seasonally adjusted indexes and per cent changes from month-to-month and quarter-to-quarter are published for numer ous Consumer and Producer Price Index series. However, seasonally adjusted in dexes are not published for the U.S. aver age All-Items CPI. Only seasonally adjusted percent changes are available for this series. Adjustments for price changes. Some data—such as the “real” earnings shown in 60 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 Data that supplement the tables in this sec tion are published by the Bureau in a vari ety of sources. Definitions of each series and notes on the data are contained in later sec tions of these notes describing each set of data. For detailed descriptions of each data series, see b l s H a n d b o o k o f M e th o d s, b l s Bulletin 2414. Users also may wish to con sult M a jo r P rogram s o f the B ureau o f L a b o r Statistics, BLS Report 793. News releases pro vide the latest statistical information published by the Bureau; the major recurring releases are published according to the schedule ap pearing on cover 4 of this issue. More information about labor force, employment, and unemployment data and the household and establishment surveys underlying the data are available in the Bureau’s monthly publication, E m p lo y m en t a n d E a rn in g s. Historical unadjusted data from the household survey are published in L a b o r F orce S ta tis tic s D e r iv e d F rom th e C u r re n t P o p u la tio n S u rv ey , BLS Bulletin 2307. Historical seasonally adjusted data are available from the Bureau upon request. Historically comparable unadjusted and sea sonally adjusted data from the establishment survey are published in E m ploym en t, H ours, a n d E a rn in g s, U n ite d S ta tes, a BLS annual bulletin. Additional information on labor force data for sub-States are provided in the BLS annual report, G e o g r a p h ic P ro file o f L a rg e F irm s; E m p lo y e e B en efits in S m a ll P riv a te E sta b lish m en ts; and E m p lo y e e B en e fits in S ta te a n d L o c a l G o v ern m e n ts. His torical data on the collective bargaining settlements series appear in the April issue of C o m p e n sa tio n a n d W orking C o n d itio n s. More detailed data on consumer and pro ducer prices are published in the monthly periodicals, The C P I D e ta ile d R e p o r t and P r o d u c e r P r ic e In d ex es. For an overview of the CPI reflecting 1982-84 expenditure patterns, see T he C o n s u m e r P r ic e In d ex : 1 9 8 7 R e visio n , BLS Report 736. Additional data on international prices appear in monthly news releases. For a listing of available industry pro ductivity indexes and their components, see P r o d u c tiv ity M e a su re s f o r S e le c te d In d u s tr ie s a n d G o v e r n m e n t S e rv ice s, BLS Bulle tin 2421. For additional information on interna tional comparisons data, see In te rn a tio n a l C o m p a riso n s o f U n em p lo ym en t, BLS Bul letin 1979. Detailed data on the occupational injury and illness series are published in O c c u p a tio n a l In ju rie s a n d I lln e sse s in th e U n ite d S ta tes, b y In du stry, a BLS annual bulletin. Finally, the M o n th ly L a b o r R e v ie w car ries analytical articles on annual and longer term developments in labor force, employ ment, and unemployment; employee com pensation and collective bargaining; prices; productivity; international comparisons; and injury and illness data. Symbols n.e.c. = not elsewhere classified, n.e.s. = not elsewhere specified. p = preliminary. To increase the time liness of some series, preliminary figures are issued based on repre sentative but incomplete returns, r = revised. Generally, this revision re flects the availability of later data, but may also reflect other adjust ments. E m p lo y m e n t a n d U n em p lo ym en t. More detailed information on employee compensation and collective bargaining settlements is published in the monthly pe riodical, C o m p e n sa tio n a n d W orking C o n d itio n s . For a comprehensive discussion of the Employment Cost Index, see E m p lo y m en t C o st In dexes a n d L evels, 1 9 7 5 -9 3 , BLS Bulletin 2434. The most recent data from the Employee Benefits Survey appear in the following Bureau of Labor Statistics bulle tins: E m p lo y e e B e n e fits in M e d iu m a n d Comparative Indicators (Tables 1-3) Comparative indicators tables provide an overview and comparison of major b l s sta tistical series. Consequently, although many of the included series are available monthly, all measures in these comparative tables are presented quarterly and annually. Labor m arket indicators include em ployment measures from two major surveys and information on rates of change in com pensation provided by the Employment Cost Index (ECl) program. The labor force participation rate, the employment-to-population ratio, and unemployment rates for major demographic groups based on the Current Population (“household”) Survey are presented, while measures of employ ment and average weekly hours by major industry sector are given using nonfarm payroll data. The Employment Cost Index (compensation), by major sector and by bargaining status, is chosen from a variety of b l s compensation and wage measures because it provides a comprehensive mea sure of employer costs for hiring labor, not just outlays for wages, and it is not affected by employment shifts among occupations and industries. Data on changes in com pensation, prices, and productivity are presented in table 2. Measures of rates of change of com pensation and wages from the Employment Cost Index program are provided for all ci vilian nonfarm workers (excluding Federal and household workers) and for all private nonfarm workers. Measures of changes in consumer prices for all urban consumers; producer prices by stage of processing; overall prices by stage of processing; and overall export and import price indexes are given. Measures of productivity (output per hour of all persons) are provided for major sectors. A lternative m easures of wage and compensation rates of change, which re flect the overall trend in labor costs, are summarized in table 3. Differences in con cepts and scope, related to the specific pur poses of the series, contribute to the varia tion in changes among the individual mea sures. Notes on the data Definitions of each series and notes on the data are contained in later sections of these notes describing each set of data. Employment and Unemployment Data (Tables 1; 4-20) Household survey data Description of the series d a ta in this section are ob tained from the Current Population Survey, a program of personal interviews conducted EMPLOYMENT https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis monthly by the Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The sample consists of about 60,000 households se lected to represent the U.S. population 16 years of age and older. Households are in terviewed on a rotating basis, so that threefourths of the sample is the same for any 2 consecutive months. Definitions Employed persons include (1) all those who worked for pay any time during the week which includes the 12th day of the month or who worked unpaid for 15 hours or more in a family-operated enterprise and (2 ) those who were temporarily absent from their regular jobs because of illness, vaca tion, industrial dispute, or similar reasons. A person working at more than one job is counted only in the job at which he or she worked the greatest number of hours. Unemployed persons are those who did not work during the survey week, but were available for work except for temporary ill ness and had looked for jobs within the pre ceding 4 weeks. Persons who did not look for work because they were on layoff are also counted among the unemployed. The unemployment rate represents the number unemployed as a percent of the civilian la bor force. The civilian labor force consists of all employed or unemployed persons in the ci vilian noninstitutional population. Persons not in the labor force are those not classi fied as employed or unemployed; this group includes persons who are retired, those en gaged in their own housework, those not working while attending school, those un able to work because of long-term illness, those discouraged from seeking work be cause of personal or job-market factors, and Revisions to household survey data Beginning with data for January 1994, a number of changes have been intro duced into the Current Population (household) Survey that affect all data comparisons. These changes include (1) the results of a major redesign of the survey questionnaire and collection methodology, and (2 ) the introduction of population controls based on the 1990 census, adjusted for the estimated popu lation undercount. Thus, data for 1994 are not directly comparable with those for 1993 and prior years. An explana tion of the changes and their effect on labor force data appears in the February 1994 issue of E m p lo y m e n t a n d E a r n ings, a monthly publication of the Bu reau of Labor Statistics. those who are voluntarily idle. The civilian noninstitutional population comprises all persons 16 years of age and older who are not inmates of penal or mental institutions, sanitariums, or homes for the aged, infirm, or needy. The civilian labor force partici pation rate is the proportion of the civilian noninstitutional population that is in the la bor force. The employment-population ratio is employment as a percent of the ci vilian noninstitutional population. Notes on the data From time to time, and especially after a de cennial census, adjustments are made in the Current Population Survey figures to cor rect for estim ating errors during the intercensal years. These adjustments affect the comparability of historical data. A de scription of these adjustments and their ef fect on the various data series appears in the Explanatory Notes of E m p lo y m e n t a n d E a rn in g s. Labor force data in tables 1 and 4-9 are seasonally adjusted based on the experience through December 1993. Since January 1980, national labor force data have been seasonally adjusted with a procedure called X—11 a r im a which was developed at Sta tistics Canada as an extension of the stan dard X—11 method previously used by BLS. A detailed description of the procedure ap pears in the X - l l ARIMA S e a so n a l A d ju s t m en t M e th o d , by Estela Bee Dagum (Sta tistics Canada, Catalogue No. 12-564E, January 1983). At the end of each calendar year, season ally adjusted data for the previous 5 years are revised, and projected seasonal adjust ment factors are calculated for use during the January-June period. In July, new sea sonal adjustment factors, which incorporate the experience through June, are produced for the July-December period, but no revi sions are made in the historical data. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION on na tional household survey data, contact the Division of Labor Force Statistics: (202) 606-6378. Establishment survey data Description of the series EMPLOYMENT, HOURS, AND EARNINGS DATA in this section are compiled from payroll records reported monthly on a voluntary oasis to the Bureau of Labor Statistics and its cooperating State agencies by more than 390,000 establishments representing all in dustries except agriculture. Industries are classified in accordance with the 1 9 8 7 S ta n d a r d In d u stria l C la ssifica tio n (SIC) M an u al. In most industries, the sampling probabili- Monthly Labor Review July 1994 61 Current Labor Statistics ties are based on the size of the establish ment; most large establishments are there fore in the sample. (An establishment is not necessarily a firm; it may be a branch plant, for example, or warehouse.) Self-employed persons and others not on a regular civilian payroll are outside the scope of the survey because they are excluded from establish ment records. This largely accounts for the difference in employment figures between the household and establishment surveys. month spans are seasonally adjusted, while those for the 12 -month span are unadjusted. Data are centered within the span. Table 17 provides an index on private nonfarm em ployment based on 356 industries, and a manufacturing index based on 139 indus tries. These indexes are useful for measur ing the dispersion of economic gains or losses and are also economic indicators. Definitions Establishment survey data are annually ad justed to comprehensive counts of employ ment (called “benchmarks”)- The latest ad justment, which incorporated March 1993 benchmarks, was made with the release of May 1994 data, published in the July 1994 issue of the R e v ie w . Coincident with the benchmark adjustments, seasonally adjusted data were revised to reflect the experience through March 1994. Comparable revisions in State data (table 11) occurred with the publicationof January 1994 data. Unad justed data from April 1993 forward and seasonally adjusted data from January 1990 forward are subject to revision in future benchmarks. The b l s also uses the x -1 1 a r im a meth odology to seasonally adjust establishment survey data. Beginning in June 1989, pro jected seasonal adjustment factors are cal culated and published twice a year. The change makes the procedure used for the establishment survey data more parallel to that used in adjusting the household survey data. Revisions of data, usually for the most recent 5-year period, are made once a year coincident with the benchmark revisions. In the establishment survey, estimates for the most recent 2 months are based on in complete returns and are published as pre liminary in the tables (12-17 in the R e view ). When all returns have been received, the estimates are revised and published as “fi nal” (prior to any benchmark revisions) in the third month of their appearance. Thus, December data are published as preliminary in January and February and as final in March. For the same reasons, quarterly es tablishment data (table 1) are preliminary for the first 2 months of publication and fi nal in the third month. Thus, fourth-quarter data are published as preliminary in Janu ary and February and as final in March. A comprehensive discussion of the dif ferences between household and establish ment data on employment appears in Gloria R Green, “Comparing employment estimates from household and payroll surveys,” M onthly L a b o r R eview , December 1969, pp. 9-20. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION on estab lishment survey data, contact the Division of Monthly Industry Employment Statistics: (202)606-6555. An establishm ent is an economic unit which produces goods or services (such as a factory or store) at a single location and is engaged in one type of economic activity. Employed persons are all persons who received pay (including holiday and sick pay) for any part of the payroll period in cluding the 12th day of the month. Persons holding more than one job (about 5 percent of all persons in the labor force) are counted in each establishment which reports them. Production workers in manufacturing include working supervisors and nonsupervisory workers closely associated with production operations. Those workers men tioned in tables 11-16 include production workers in manufacturing and mining; con struction workers in construction; and nonsupervisory workers in the following industries: transportation and public utili ties; wholesale and retail trade; finance, in surance, and real estate; and services. These groups account for about four-fifths of the total employment on private nonagricultural payrolls. Earnings are the payments production or nonsupervisory workers receive during the survey period, including premium pay for overtime or late-shift work but exclud ing irregular bonuses and other special pay ments. Real earnings are earnings adjusted to reflect the effects of changes in consumer prices. The deflator for this series is derived from the Consumer Price Index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers (CPi-w). Hours represent the average weekly hours of production or nonsupervisory workers for which pay was received, and are different from standard or scheduled hours. Overtime hours represent the por tion of average weekly hours which was in excess of regular hours and for which over time premiums were paid. The Diffusion Index represents the per cent of industries in which employment was rising over the indicated period, plus onehalf of the industries with unchanged em ployment; 50 percent indicates an equal balance between industries with increasing and decreasing employment. In line with Bureau practice, data for the 1-, 3-, and 6 62 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 Notes on the data Unemployment data by State Description of the series Data presented in this section are obtained from two major sources—the Current Popu lation Survey (CPS) and the Local Area Un employment Statistics ( l a u s ) program, which is conducted in cooperation with State employment security agencies. Monthly estimates of the labor force, employment, and unemployment for States and sub-State areas are a key indicator of local economic conditions, and form the basis for determining the eligibility of an area for benefits under Federal economic assistance programs such as the Job Train ing Partnership Act and the Public Works and Economic Development Act. Season ally adjusted unemployment rates are pre sented in table 11. Insofar as possible, the concepts and definitions underlying these data are those used in the national estimates obtained from the c p s . Notes on the data Data refer to State of residence. Monthly data for 11 States—California, Florida, Il linois, Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Penn sylvania, and Texas—are obtained directly from the CPS because the size of the sample is large enough to meet b l s standards of re liability. Data for the remaining 39 States and the District of Columbia are derived using standardized procedures established by b l s . Once a year, estimates for the 11 States are revised to new population con trols, usually with publication of January estimates. For the remaining States and the District of Columbia, data are benchmarked to annual average CPS levels. Data for 1994 are not directly comparable with those for 1993 as a result of the redesign of the c p s and other methodological changes. See “Re visions in State and Area Estimates Effec tive January 1994,” E m p lo y m e n t a n d E a r n ings, March 1994. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION on data in this series, ca ll (202) 606-6392 (tab le 10) or (202) 606-6589 (tab le 11). Compensation and Wage Data (Tables 1-3; 21-30) COMPENSATION a n d WAGE DATA are gath ered by the Bureau from business establish ments, State and local governments, labor unions, collective bargaining agreements on file with the Bureau, and secondary sources. Employment Cost Index Description of the series The Employment Cost Index ( e c i ) is a quarterly measure of the rate of change in compensation per hour worked and includes wages, salaries, and employer costs of em ployee benefits. It uses a fixed market bas ket of labor—similar in concept to the Con sumer Price Index’s fixed market basket of goods and services—to measure change over time in employer costs of employing labor. Statistical series on total compensation costs, on wages and salaries, and on benefit costs are available for private nonfarm workers excluding proprietors, the self-em ployed, and household workers. The total compensation costs and wages and salaries series are also available for State and local government workers and for the civilian non farm economy, which consists of private in dustry and State and local government work ers combined. Federal workers are excluded. The Employment Cost Index probabil ity sample consists of about 4,400 private nonfarm establishments providing about 23,000 occupational observations and 1,000 State and local government establishments providing 6 ,000 occupational observations selected to represent total employment in each sector. On average, each reporting unit provides wage and compensation informa tion on five well-specified occupations. Data are collected each quarter for the pay period including the 12th day of March, June, September, and December. Beginning with June 1986 data, fixed employment weights from the 1980 Cen sus of Population are used each quarter to calculate the civilian and private indexes and the index for State and local govern ments. (Prior to June 1986, the employment weights are from the 1970 Census of Popu lation.) These fixed weights, also used to derive all of the industry and occupation series indexes, ensure that changes in these indexes reflect only changes in compensa tion, not employment shifts among indus tries or occupations with different levels of wages and compensation. For the bargain ing status, region, and metropolitan/nonmetropolitan area series, however, employ ment data by industry and occupation are not available from the census. Instead, the 1980 employment weights are reallocated within these series each quarter based on the current sample. Therefore, these indexes are not strictly comparable to those for the aggregate, industry, and occupation series. Definitions Total compensation costs include wages, salaries, and the employer’s costs for em ployee benefits. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Wages and salaries consist of earnings before payroll deductions, including pro duction bonuses, incentive earnings, com missions, and cost-of-living adjustments. Benefits include the cost to employers for paid leave, supplemental pay (includ ing nonproduction bonuses), insurance, re tirement and savings plans, and legally re quired benefits (such as Social Security, workers’ compensation, and unemployment insurance). Excluded from wages and salaries and employee benefits are such items as payment-in-kind, free room and board, and tips. Notes on the data The Employment Cost Index for changes in wages and salaries in the private nonfarm economy was published beginning in 1975. Changes in total compensation cost—wages and salaries and benefits combined—were published beginning in 1980. The series of changes in wages and salaries and for total compensation in the State and local gov ernment sector and in the civilian nonfarm economy (excluding Federal employees) were published beginning in 1981. Histori cal indexes (June 1981=100) of the quar terly rates of change are presented in the March issue of the BLS periodical, C o m p en sa tio n a n d W orkin g C o n d itio n s. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION on the Employment Cost Index, contact the Divi sion of Employment Cost Trends: (202) 606-6199. Employee Benefits Survey Description of the series Employee benefits data are obtained from the Employee Benefits Survey, an annual survey of the incidence and provisions of selected benefits provided by employers. The survey collects data from a sample of approximately 6 ,0 0 0 private sector and State and local government establishments. The data are presented as a percentage of employees who participate in a certain ben efit, or as an average benefit provision (for example, the average number of paid holi days provided to employees per year). Se lected data from the survey are presented in table 25. The survey covers paid leave benefits such as lunch and rest periods, holidays and vacations, and personal, funeral, jury duty, military, parental, and sick leave; sickness and accident, long-term disability, and life insurance; medical, dental, and vision care plans; defined benefit and defined contri bution plans; flexible benefits plans; reim bursement accounts; and unpaid parental leave. Also, data are tabulated on the incidence of several other benefits, such as severance pay, child-care assistance, wellness pro grams, and employee assistance programs. Definitions Employer-provided benefits are benefits that are financed either wholly or partly by the employer. They may be sponsored by a union or other third party, as long as there is some employer financing. However, some benefits that are fully paid for by the em ployee also are included. For example, long term care insurance and postretirement life insurance paid entirely by the employee are included because the guarantee of insurabil ity and availability at group premium rates are considered a benefit. Participants are workers who are cov ered by a benefit, whether or not they use that benefit. If the benefit plan is financed wholly by employers and requires employees to com plete a minimum length of service for eligi bility, the workers are considered participants whether or not they have met the requirement. If workers are required to contribute towards the cost of a plan, they are considered partici pants only if they elect the plan and agree to make the required contributions. Defined benefit pension plans use pre determined formulas to calculate a retire ment benefit, and obligate the employer to provide those benefits. Benefits are gener ally based on salary or years of service, or both. Defined contribution plans generally specify the level of employer and employee contributions to a plan, but not the formula for determining eventual benefits. Instead, individual accounts are set up for partici pants, and benefits are based on amounts credited to these accounts. Tax-deferred savings plans are a type of defined contribution plan that allow par ticipants to contribute a portion of their sal ary to an employer-sponsored plan and de fer income taxes until withdrawal. Flexible benefit plans allow employees to choose among several benefits, such as life insurance, medical care, and vacation days, and among several levels of care within a given benefit. Notes on the data Surveys of employees in medium and large establishments conducted over the 1979-86 period included establishments that em ployed at least 50, 100, or 250 workers, de pending on the industry (most service indus tries were excluded). The survey conducted in 1987 covered only State and local govern ments with 50 or more employees. The sur veys conducted in 1988 and 1989 included medium and large establishments with 100 Monthly Labor Review July 1994 63 C u rre n t L a b o r S ta tis tic s workers or more in private industries. All sur veys conducted over the 1979-89 period ex cluded establishments in Alaska and Hawaii, as well as part-time employees. Beginning in 1990, surveys of State and local governments and small establishments are conducted in even-numbered years and surveys of medium and large establishments are conducted in odd-numbered years. The small establishment survey includes all pri vate nonfarm establishments with fewer than 100 workers, while the State and local government survey includes all govern ments, regardless of the number of work ers. All three surveys include full- and parttime workers, and workers in all 50 States and the District of Columbia. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION On the Employee Benefits Survey, contact the Di vision of Occupational Pay and Employee Benefit Levels: (202) 606-6222. Collective bargaining settlements Description of the series Collective bargaining settlements data provide statistical measures of negotiated changes (increases, decreases, and zero change) in wage rates alone and in compen sation (wages and benefits), quarterly for private nonagricultural industries and semi annually for State and local governments. Wage rate changes cover collective bargain ing settlements negotiated in the reference period involving 1,000 or more workers and compensation changes cover settlements reached in the reference period involving 5,000 or more workers. These data are not seasonally adjusted and are calculated us ing information obtained from bargaining agreements on file with the Bureau, parties to the agreements, and secondary sources, such as newspaper accounts. The wage and compensation rate changes are the percent difference between the av erage rate per work hour just prior to the start of a new agreement and the average rate per work hour that would exist at the end of the first 365 days of the new agree ment (first-year measure) or at its expira tion date (over-the-life measure). These data exclude lump-sum payments. The compensation cost change is the per cent difference between the average cost of compensation per work hour, including the hourly cost of lump-sum payments made during the term of the expiring agreement, just prior to the start of a new agreement and the average cost of compensation per work hour under the settlement. The tim ing of the changes in compensation rates is reflected in the compensation cost series, but not in compensation rate series. Data on changes in settlements exclude potential changes under cost-of-living ad 64 M o n th l y L a b o r R e v i e w https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis J u ly 1 9 9 4 justm ent clauses. Averages reflect the change under each settlement weighted by the number of workers covered. Estimates of changes are based on the assumption that con ditions existing at the time of the settlement (for example, composition of the labor force or methods of funding pensions) will remain constant over the term of the agreement. Wage rate changes under all major agreements (those covering 1,000 or more workers) measure all wage increases, de creases, and zero changes occurring in the reference period, regardless of the settle ment date. Included are changes from settle ments reached in the calendar year, changes deferred from settlements negotiated in ear lier years, and changes under cost-of-living adjustment (COLA) clauses. The change in the wage rate for each agreement is the percent difference between the average wage rate just prior to the start of the refer ence period and the average wage rate at the end of the reference period. The change for each agreement is weighted by the num ber of workers covered to determine the average change under all agreements. Definitions Wage rate is the average straight-time hourly wage rate plus shift premiums. Compensation rates include the wage rate, premium pay (for example, for over time and holidays); paid leave; life, health, and sickness and accident insurance; pen sion and other retirement plans; severance pay; and legally required benefits. Compensation costs include the items covered by compensation rates plus speci fied lump-sum payments, the cost of con tractually required training programs that are not a cost of doing business, and the additional costs of changes in legally re quired insurance known at the time of settle ment to be mandated during the contract term. Cash paym ents include wages and lump-sum payments. Contingent pay provisions are cla u se s w h ich co u ld p rovid e co m p en sa tio n ch an ges b ey o n d th o se sp e c ifie d in the settlem en t. COLA cla u se s and lu m p -su m p ro v isio n s that ca ll for a p aym en t o n ly i f a c o m p a n y ’s p rof its e x c e e d a s p e c ific am oun t are ex a m p les. Notes on the data Comparisons of major collective bargain ing settlements for State and local govern ment with those for private industry should note differences in occupational mix, bar gaining practices, and settlement character istics. Professional and white-collar em ployees, for example, make up a much larger proportion of the workers covered by government than by private industry settle- ments. Lump-sum payments and COLA clauses, on the other hand, are rare in gov ernment but common in private industry settlements. Also, State and local govern ment bargaining frequently excludes items such as pension benefits and holidays, that are prescribed by law, while these items are typical bargaining issues in private industry. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION on col lective bargaining settlements, contact the Division of Developments in Labor-Man agement Relations: (202) 606-6276 (private industry data) or (202) 606-6280 (State and local government data). Work stoppages Description of the series Data on work stoppages measure the num ber and duration of major strikes or lock outs (involving 1,000 workers or more) oc curring during the month (or year), the num ber of workers involved, and the amount of time lost because of stoppage. Data are largely from newspaper ac counts and cover only establishments di rectly involved in a stoppage. They do not measure the indirect or secondary effect of stoppages on other establishments whose employees are idle owing to material short ages or lack of service. Definitions Number of stoppages: The number of strikes and lockouts involving 1,000 work ers or more and lasting a full shift or longer. Workers involved: The number of work ers directly involved in the stoppage. Number of days idle: The aggregate number of workdays lost by workers in volved in the stoppages. Days of idleness as a percent of esti mated working time: Aggregate workdays lost as a percent of the aggregate number of standard workdays in the period multiplied by total employment in the period. Notes on the data This series is not comparable with the one terminated in 1981 that covered strikes in volving six workers or more. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION on work stoppages data, contact the Division of De velopments in Labor-Management Rela tions: (202)606-6288. Price Data (Tables 2; 31-41) p r ic e da ta are gathered by the Bureau of Labor Statistics from retail and primary markets in the United States. Price indexes are given in relation to a base period— 1982=100 for many Producer Price Indexes, 1982-84=100 for many Consumer Price Indexes (unless otherwise noted), and 1990=100 for International Price Indexes. Consumer Price Indexes Description of the series The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a mea sure of the average change in the prices paid by urban consumers for a fixed market bas ket of goods and services. The CPI is calcu lated monthly for two population groups, one consisting only of urban households whose primary source of income is derived from the employment of wage earners and clerical workers, and the other consisting of all urban households. The wage earner index (C Pi-w ) is a continuation of the his toric index that was introduced well over a half-century ago for use in wage negotia tions. As new uses were developed for the CPI in recent years, the need for a broader and more representative index became ap parent. The all-urban consumer index ( c p i U), introduced in 1978, is representative of the 1982-84 buying habits of about 80 per cent of the noninstitutional population of the United States at that time, compared with 32 percent represented in the CPi-w. In ad dition to wage earners and clerical work ers, the CPI-U covers professional, manage rial, and technical workers, the self-em ployed, short-term workers, the unemployed, retirees, and others not in the labor force. The CPI is based on prices of food, cloth ing, shelter, fuel, drugs, transportation fares, doctors’ and dentists’ fees, and other goods and services that people buy for day-to-day living. The quantity and quality of these items are kept essentially unchanged be tween major revisions so that only price changes will be measured. All taxes directly associated with the purchase and use of items are included in the index. Data collected from more than 19,000 retail establishments and 57,000 housing units in 85 urban areas across the country are used to develop the “U.S. city average.” Separate estimates for 15 major urban cen ters are presented in table 32. The areas listed are as indicated in footnote 1 to the table. The area indexes measure only the average change in prices for each area since the base period, and do not indicate differ ences in the level of prices among cities. Notes on the data In January 1983, the Bureau changed the way in which homeownership costs are measured for the c p i - u . A rental equivalence https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis method replaced the asset-price approach to homeownership costs for that series. In January 1985, the same change was made in the CPi-w. The central purpose of the change was to separate shelter costs from the investment component of homeown ership so that the index would reflect only the cost of shelter services provided by owner-occupied homes. An updated c p i - u and CPi-w were introduced with release of the January 1987 data. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION on con sumer prices, contact the Division of Consumer Prices and Price Indexes: (202) 606-7000. Producer Price Indexes Description of the series Producer Price Indexes ( pp i ) measure av erage changes in prices received by domes tic producers of commodities in all stages of processing. The sample used for calcu lating these indexes currently contains about 3,200 commodities and about 80,000 quo tations per month, selected to represent the movement of prices of all commodities pro duced in the manufacturing; agriculture, forestry, and fishing; mining; and gas and electricity and public utilities sectors. The stage-of-processing structure of Producer Price Indexes organizes products by class of buyer and degree of fabrication (that is, finished goods, intermediate goods, and crude materials). The traditional commod ity structure of ppi organizes products by similarity of end use or material composi tion. The industry and product structure of ppi organizes data in accordance with the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) and the product code extension of the sic de veloped by the U.S. Bureau of the Census. To the extent possible, prices used in cal culating Producer Price Indexes apply to the first significant commercial transaction in the United States from the production or central marketing point. Price data are gen erally collected monthly, primarily by mail questionnaire. Most prices are obtained di rectly from producing companies on a vol untary and confidential basis. Prices gener ally are reported for the Tuesday of the week containing the 13th day of the month. Since January 1992, price changes for the various commodities have been averaged together with implicit quantity weights rep resenting their importance in the total net selling value of all commodities as of 1987. The detailed data are aggregated to obtain indexes for stage-of-processing groupings, commodity groupings, durability-of-product groupings, and a number of special com posite groups. All Producer Price Index data are subject to revision 4 months after origi nal publication. Notes on the data Beginning with the January 1986 issue, the is no longer presenting tables of Producer Price Indexes for commodity groupings or special composite groups. However, these data will continue to be pre sented in the Bureau’s monthly publication, R e v ie w P r o d u c e r P r ic e In dexes. The Bureau has completed the first ma jor stage of its comprehensive overhaul of the theory, methods, and procedures used to construct the Producer Price Indexes. Changes include the replacement of judg ment sampling with probability sampling techniques; expansion to systematic cover age of the net output of virtually all indus tries in the mining and manufacturing sec tors; a shift from a commodity to an indus try orientation; the exclusion of imports from, and the inclusion of exports in, the survey universe; and the respecification of commodities priced to conform to Bureau of the Census definitions. These and other changes have been phased in gradually since 1978. The result is a system of indexes that is easier to use in conjunction with data on wages, productivity, and employment and other series that are organized in terms of the Standard Industrial Classification and the census product class designations. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION on pro ducer prices, contact the Division of Indus trial Prices and Price Indexes: (202) 606-7705. International Price Indexes Description of the series The International Price Program pro duces quarterly export and import price in dexes for nonmilitary goods traded between the United States and the rest of the world. The export price index provides a measure of price change for all products sold by U.S. residents to foreign buyers. (“Residents” is defined as in the national income accounts; it includes corporations, businesses, and individuals, but does not require the orga nizations to be U.S. owned nor the individu als to have U.S. citizenship.) The import price index provides a measure of price change for goods purchased from other countries by U.S. residents. The product universe for both the import and export indexes includes raw materials, agricultural products, semifinished manu factures, and finished manufactures, includ ing both capital and consumer goods. Price data for these items are collected primarily by mail questionnaire. In nearly all cases, the data are collected directly from the ex porter or importer, although in a few cases, prices are obtained from other sources. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 65 Current Labor Statistics To the extent possible, the data gathered refer to prices at the U.S. border for exports and at either the foreign border or the U.S. border for imports. For nearly all products, the prices refer to transactions completed during the first week of the month. Survey respondents are asked to indicate all dis counts, allowances, and rebates applicable to the reported prices, so that the price used in the calculation of the indexes is the ac tual price for which the product was bought or sold. In addition to general indexes of prices for U.S. exports and imports, indexes are also published for detailed product catego ries of exports and imports. These catego ries are defined according to the five-digit level of detail for the Bureau of Economic Analysis End-use Classification (SITC), and the four-digit level of detail for the Harmo nized System. Aggregate import indexes by country or region of origin are also available. attempt is made to collect two prices for imports. The first is the import price f.o.b. at the foreign port of exportation, which is consistent with the basis for valuation of imports in the national accounts. The sec ond is the import price c.i.f.(costs, insur ance, and freight) at the U.S. port of impor tation, which also includes the other costs associated with bringing the product to the U.S. border. It does not, however, include duty charges. For a given product, only one price basis series is used in the construc tion of an index. FOR ADDITIONAL in f o r m a t io n on inter national prices, contact the Division of In ternational Prices: (202) 606-7155. BLS p u b lish es in d e x e s for se lecte d cat eg o ries o f in tern a tio n a lly traded se rv ices, ca lcu la ted o n an in tern ation al b asis and on a b a la n ce-o f-p a y m en ts b asis. Business sector and major sectors Notes on the data The export and import price indexes are weighted indexes of the Laspeyres type. Price relatives are assigned equal impor tance within each harmonized group and are then aggregated to the higher level. The values assigned to each weight category are based on trade value figures compiled by the Bureau of the Census. The trade weights currently used to compute both indexes re late to 1990. Because a price index depends on the same items being priced from period to pe riod, it is necessary to recognize when a product’s specifications or terms of trans action have been modified. For this reason, the Bureau’s questionnaire requests detailed descriptions of the physical and functional characteristics of the products being priced, as well as information on the number of units bought or sold, discounts, credit terms, packaging, class of buyer or seller, and so forth. When there are changes in either the specifications or terms of transaction of a product, the dollar value of each change is deleted from the total price change to ob tain the “pure” change. Once this value is determined, a linking procedure is em ployed which allows for the continued re pricing of the item. For the export price indexes, the pre ferred pricing basis is f.a.s. (free alongside ship) U.S. port of exportation. When firms report export prices f.o.b. (free on board), production point information is collected which enables the Bureau to calculate a shipment cost to the port of exportation. An 66 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 Productivity Data (Tables 2: 42^15) D e sc r ip tio n o f th e se r ie s The productivity measures relate real physi cal output to real input. As such, they en compass a family of measures which in clude single-factor input measures, such as output per unit of labor input (output per hour) or output per unit of capital input, as well as measures of multifactor productiv ity (output per unit of combined labor and capital inputs). The Bureau indexes show the change in output relative to changes in the various inputs. The measures cover the business, nonfarm business, manufacturing, and nonfinancial corporate sectors. Corresponding indexes of hourly com pensation, unit labor costs, unit nonlabor payments, and prices are also provided. Definitions Output per hour of all persons (labor pro ductivity) is the value of goods and services in constant prices produced per hour of la bor input. Output per unit of capital ser vices (capital productivity) is the value of goods and services in constant dollars pro duced per unit of capital services input. Multifactor productivity is the value of goods and services in constant prices pro duced per combined unit of labor and capi tal inputs. Changes in this measure reflect changes in a number of factors which af fect the production process, such as changes in technology, shifts in the composition of the labor force, changes in capacity utiliza tion, research and development, skill and effort of the work force, management, and so forth. Changes in the output per hour measures reflect the impact of these factors as well as the substitution of capital for labor. Compensation per hour is the wages and salaries of employees plus employers’ contributions for social insurance and pri vate benefit plans, and the wages, salaries, and supplementary payments for the selfemployed (except for nonfinancial corpo rations in which there are no self-em ployed)—the sum divided by hours at work. Real compensation per hour is compen sation per hour deflated by the change in Consumer Price Index for All Urban Con sumers. Unit labor costs are the labor compen sation costs expended in the production of a unit of output and are derived by dividing compensation by output. Unit nonlabor payments include profits, depreciation, in terest, and indirect taxes per unit of output. They are computed by subtracting compen sation of all persons from current-dollar value of output and dividing by output. Unit nonlabor costs contain all the components of unit nonlabor payments except unit profits. Unit profits include corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital con sumption adjustments per unit of output. Hours of all persons are the total hours at work of payroll workers, self-employed persons, and unpaid family workers. Capital services are the flow of services from the capital stock used in production. It is developed from measures of the net stock of physical assets—equipment, struc tures, land, and inventories—weighted by rental prices for each type of asset. Combined units of labor and capital in puts are derived by combining changes in la bor and capital input with weights which rep resent each component’s share of total out put. The indexes for capital services and combined units of labor and capital are based on changing weights which are averages of the shares in the current and preceding year (the Tomquist index-number formula). Notes on the data The output measure for the business sector is equal to constant-dollar gross national product, but excludes the rental value of owner-occupied dwellings, the rest-ofworld sector, the output of nonprofit insti tutions, the output of paid employees of pri vate households, general government, and the statistical discrepancy. Output of the nonfarm business sector is equal to busi ness sector output less farming. The mea sures are derived from data supplied by the U.S. Department of Commerce’s Bureau of Economic Analysis and the Federal Reserve Board. Quarterly manufacturing output in dexes are adjusted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics to annual estimates of manufac turing output (gross product originating) from the Bureau of Economic Analysis. Compensation and hours data are developed from data of the Bureau of Labor Statistics and the Bureau of Economic Analysis. The productivity and associated cost measures in tables 42^4-5 describe the rela tionship between output in real terms and the labor time and capital services involved in its production. They show the changes from period to period in the amount of goods and services produced per unit of input. Although these measures relate output to hours and capital services, they do not mea sure the contributions of labor, capital, or any other specific factor of production. Rather, they reflect the joint effect of many influences, including changes in technol ogy; capital investment; level of output; utilization of capacity, energy, and materi als; the organization of production; mana gerial skill; and the characteristics and ef forts of the work force. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION On this productivity series, contact the Division of Productivity Research: (202) 606-5606. Industry productivity measures Description of the series The BLS industry productivity data supple ment the measures for the business economy and major sectors with annual measures of labor productivity for selected industries at the three- and four-digit levels of the Stan dard Industrial Classification system. The industry measures differ in methodology and data sources from the productivity mea sures for the major sectors because the in dustry measures are developed indepen dently of the National Income and Product Accounts framework used for the major sector measures. Definitions Output per employee hour is derived by di viding an index of industry output by an index of aggregate hours of all employees. Output indexes are based on quantifiable units of products or services, or both, combined with fixed-period weights. Whenever possible, physical quantities are used as the unit of measurement for output. If quantity data are not available for a given industry, data on the constant-dollar value of production are used. The labor input series consist of the hours of all employees (production and non production workers), the hours of all per sons (paid employees, partners, proprietors, and unpaid family workers), or the number of employees, depending upon the industry. Notes on the data The industry measures are compiled from data produced by the Bureau of Labor Sta- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tistics, the Departments of Commerce, In terior, and Agriculture, the Federal Reserve Board, regulatory agencies, trade associa tions, and other sources. For most industries, the productivity in dexes refer to the output per hour of all employees. For some transportation indus tries, only indexes of output per employee are prepared. For some trade and service industries, indexes of output per hour of all persons (including self-employed) are con structed. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION on this series, contact the Division of Industry Pro ductivity Studies: (202) 606-5618. International Comparisons (Tables 46-48) Labor force and unemployment Description of the series Tables 46 and 47 present comparative mea sures of the labor force, employment, and unemployment—approximating U.S. con cepts—for the United States, Canada, Aus tralia, Japan, and several European coun tries. The unemployment statistics (and, to a lesser extent, employment statistics) pub lished by other industrial countries are not, in most cases, comparable to U.S. unem ployment statistics. Therefore, the Bureau adjusts the figures for selected countries, where necessary, for all known major defi nitional differences. Although precise com parability may not be achieved, these ad justed figures provide a better basis for in ternational comparisons than the figures regularly published by each country. Definitions For the principal U.S. definitions of the la bor force, employment, and unemploy ment, see the Notes section on Employ ment and Unemployment Data: House hold Survey Data. Notes on the data The adjusted statistics have been adapted to the age at which compulsory schooling ends in each country, rather than to the U.S. standard of 16 years of age and older. There fore, the adjusted statistics relate to the population age 16 and older in France, Swe den, and from 1973 onward, the United Kingdom; 15 and older in Canada, Austra lia, Japan, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and prior to 1973, the United Kingdom; and 14 and older in Italy prior to 1993. The in stitutional population is included in the de nominator of the labor force participation rates and employment-population ratios for Japan and Germany; it is excluded for the United States and the other countries. In the U.S. labor force survey, persons on layoff who are awaiting recall to their jobs are classified as unemployed. European and Japanese layoff practices are quite dif ferent in nature from those in the United States; therefore, strict application of the U.S. definition has not been made on this point. For further information, see M o n th ly L a b o r R e v ie w , December 1981, pp. 8-11. The figures for one or more recent years for France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom are calculated us ing adjustment factors based on labor force surveys for earlier years and are considered preliminary. The recent-year measures for these countries are, therefore, subject to re vision whenever data from more current labor force surveys become available. There are breaks in the data series for the United States (1994), Italy (1986, 1991, 1993), and Sweden (1987, 1993). For the United States, the break in series reflects a number of changes in the labor force sur vey beginning with data for January 1994. Data for 1994 are not directly comparable with those for earlier years. See the Notes section on Employment and Unemployment Data of the R e v ie w for further information about the U.S. revisions. For Italy, the 1986 break in series reflects more accurate enumeration of the number of people reported as seeking work in the last 30 days. The impact was to increase the Italian unemployment rates approximating U.S. concepts by about 1 percentage point. In 1991, the survey sample was modified to obtain more reliable estimates by sex and age. The impact was to raise the adjusted Italian unemployment rate by approxi mately 0.3 percentage point. In 1993, the survey methodology was revised and the definition of unemployment was changed to include only those who were actively looking for a job within the 30 days pre ceding the survey and who were available for work. In addition, the lower age limit for the labor force was raised from 14 to 15 years. (Prior to these changes, BLS adjusted Italy’s published unemployment rate down ward by excluding from the unemployed per sons who had not actively sought work in the past 30 days.) The break in series also reflects the incorporation of the 1991 population cen sus results. The impact of these changes was to raise Italy’s adjusted unemployment rate by approximately 1.1 percentage points. These changes did not affect employment signifi cantly, except 1993. Estimates by the Italian Statistical Office indicate that employment declined by about 3 percent in 1993, rather than the 4.5 percent indicated by the data Monthly Labor Review July 1994 67 Current Labor Statistics shown in table 47. This difference is attrib utable mainly to the incorporation of the 1991 population census benchmarks in the 1993 data. Data for earlier years have not yet been adjusted to incorporate the 1991 census results. Sweden introduced a new questionnaire in 1987. Questions regarding current avail ability were added and the period of active workseeking was reduced from 60 days to 4 weeks. These changes result in lowering Sweden’s unemployment rate by 0.5 per centage point. In 1993, the measurement period for the labor force survey was changed to represent all 52 weeks of the year rather than one week each month, and a new adjustment for population totals was intro duced. The impact was to raise the unem ployment rate by approximately 0.5 percent age points. The data for 1993 onward are not seasonally adjusted because the previ ous seasonal adjustment pattern is not ap plicable following the 1993 break in series. Preliminary estimates by the Swedish Statistics Bureau indicate that employment linked for the 1993 break in series declined by about 5-1/2 percent in 1993 rather than the nearly 7 percent indicated by the data shown in table 47. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION on this series, contact the Division of Foreign La bor Statistics: (202) 606-5654. Manufacturing productivity and labor costs Description of the series Table 48 presents comparative measures of manufacturing labor productivity, hourly compensation costs, and unit labor costs for the United States, Canada, and nine Euro pean countries. These measures are limited to trend comparisons — that is, intercountry series of changes over time — rather than level comparisons because reliable interna tional comparisons of the levels of manu facturing output are unavailable. The hours and compensation measures refer to all employed persons, including self-employed persons and unpaid family workers, in the United States and Canada and to all employ ees (wage and salary earners) in the other countries. Definitions Output, in general, refers to value added in manufacturing (gross product originat ing) in constant prices from the national accounts of each country. However, output for Japan prior to 1970 and the Netherlands from 1969 to 1977 are indexes of industrial production. The national accounts measures 68 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 for the United Kingdom are essentially iden tical to its indexes of industrial production. While methods of deriving national ac counts measures differ substantially from country to country, the use of different pro cedures does not, in itself, connote lack of comparability — rather, it reflects differ ences among countries in the availability and reliability of underlying data series. Hours refer to hours worked in all coun tries. The measures are developed from sta tistics of manufacturing employment and average hours. The series used for France (from 1970 forward), Norway, and Sweden are official series published with the na tional accounts. Where official total hours series are not available, the measures are developed by the Bureau using employment figures published with the national ac counts, or other comprehensive employment series, and estimates of annual hours worked. Compensation (labor cost) includes all payments in cash or kind made directly to employees plus employer expenditures for legally required insurance programs and contractual and private benefit plans. In addition, for some countries, compensation is increased to account for other significant taxes on payrolls or employment (or re duced to reflect subsidies), even if they are not for the direct benefit of workers, because such taxes are regarded as labor costs. How ever, compensation does not include all items of labor cost. The costs of recruitment, employee training, and plant facilities and services — such as cafeterias and medical clinics — are not covered because data are not available for most countries. The com pensation measures are from the national accounts, except those for Belgium, which are developed by the Bureau using statis tics on employment, average hours, and hourly compensation. Self-employed work ers are included in the U.S. and Canadian figures by assuming that their hourly com pensation is equal to the average for wage and salary employees. Notes on the data In general, the measures relate to total manufacturing as defined by the Interna tional Standard Industrial Classification. However, the measures for France, Italy (beginning 1970), and the United Kingdom (beginning 1971) refer to mining and manu facturing less energy-related products; the measures for Denmark include mining and exclude manufacturing handicrafts from 1960 to 1966; and the measures for the Netherlands exclude petroleum refining and include coal mining from 1969 to 1976. The figures for one or more recent years are generally based on current indicators of manufacturing output (such as industrial production indexes), employment, average hours, and hourly compensation and are considered preliminary until the national accounts and other statistics used for the long-term measures become available. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION On this Se ries, contact the Division of Foreign Labor Statistics: (202) 606-5654 Occupational Injury and Illness Data (Table 49) Description of the series The Annual Survey of Occupational Inju ries and Illnesses is designed to collect data on injuries and illnesses based on records which employers in the following industries maintain under the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970: agriculture, forestry, and fishing; oil and gas extraction; construc tion; manufacturing; transportation and pub lic utilities; wholesale and retail trade; fi nance, insurance, and real estate; and ser vices. Excluded from the survey are self-employed individuals, farmers with fewer than 11 employees, employers regu lated by other Federal safety and health laws, and Federal, State, and local govern ment agencies. Because the survey is a Federal-State cooperative program and the data must meet the needs of participating State agencies, an independent sample is selected for each State. The sample is selected to represent all private industries in the States and terri tories. The sample size for the survey is dependent upon ( 1) the characteristics for which estimates are needed; (2 ) the indus tries for which estimates are desired; (3) the characteristics of the population being sampled; (4) the target reliability of the esti mates; and (5) the survey design employed. While there are many characteristics upon which the sample design could be based, the total recorded case incidence rate is used because it is one of the most impor tant characteristics and the least variable; therefore, it requires the smallest sample size. The survey is based on stratified random sampling with a Neyman allocation and a ratio estimator. The characteristics used to stratify the establishments are the Standard Industrial Classification (sic) code and size of employment. Definitions Recordable occupational injuries and ill nesses are: (1) occupational deaths, regard less of the time between injury and death, or the length of the illness; or (2 ) nonfatal occupational illnesses; or (3) nonfatal oc cupational injuries which involve one or more of the following: loss of conscious ness, restriction of work or motion, trans fer to another job, or medical treatment (other than first aid). Occupational injury is any injury, such as a cut, fracture, sprain, amputation, and so forth, which results from a work acci dent or from exposure involving a single incident in the work environment. Occupational illness is an abnormal condition or disorder, other than one result ing from an occupational injury, caused by exposure to environmental factors associ ated with employment. It includes acute and chronic illnesses or disease which may be caused by inhalation, absorption, ingestion, or direct contact. Lost workday cases are cases which in volve days away from work, or days of re stricted work activity, or both. Lost w orkday cases involving re stricted work activity are those cases which result in restricted work activity only. Lost workdays away from work are the number of workdays (consecutive or not) on which the employee would have worked but could not because of occupational in jury or illness. Lost workdays—restricted work activ ity are the number of workdays (consecu tive or not) on which, because of injury or illness: ( 1) the employee was assigned to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis another job on a temporary basis; (2 ) the employee worked at a permanent job less than full time; or (3) the employee worked at a permanently assigned job but could not per form all duties normally connected with it. The number of days away from work or days of restricted work activity does not include the day of injury or onset of illness or any days on which the employee would not have worked even though able to work. Incidence rates represent the number of injuries and/or illnes, e<=or lost workdays per 100 full-time workers. Notes on the data Estimates are made for industries and em ployment-size classes and for severity clas sification: fatalities, lost workday cases, and nonfatal cases without lost workdays. Lost workday cases are separated into those in which the employee would have worked but could not and those in which work activity was restricted. Estimates of the number of cases and the number of days lost are made for both categories. Most of the estimates are in the form of incidence rates, defined as the number of in juries and illnesses or lost workdays per 100 full-time employees. For this purpose, 200,000 employee hours represent 100 employee years (2,000 hours per employee). Full detail of the available measures is presented in the annual bulletin, Occupational Injuries and Illnesses in the United States, by Industry. Comparable data for individual States are available from the BLS Office of Safety, Health, and Working Conditions. Mining and railroad data are furnished to BLS by the Mine Safety and Health Ad ministration and the Federal Railroad Ad ministration, respectively. Data from these organizations are included in BLS and State publications. Federal employees experience is compiled and published by the Occupa tional Safety and Health Administration. Data on State and local government employ ees are collected by about half of the States and territories; these data are not compiled nationally. The Supplementary Data System pro vides detailed information describing vari ous factors associated with work-related injuries and illnesses. These data are ob tained from information reported by employ ers to State workers’ compensation agencies. The Work Injury Report program examines selected types of accidents through an em ployee survey which focuses on the circum stances surrounding the injury. These data are available from the b l s Office of Safety, Health, and Working Conditions. The definitions of occupational injuries and illnesses and lost workdays are from Recordkeeping Requirements under the Occupational Safety and Health Act o f1970. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION on occu pational injuries and illnesses, contact the Division of Safety and Health Statistics: (202)606-6166. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 69 Current Labor Statistics: Comparative Indicators 1. Labor market indicators 1992 Selected indicators 1992 1994 1993 1993 II III IV I III II I IV E m p lo y m e n t d a t a 1 Employment status of the civilian noninstitutionalized population (household survey):2 Labor force participation r a te .............................. Employment-population ratio........................... Unemployment rate .............................................................................. Men ............................. 16 to 24 years ................................................................................. 25 years and o v e r................................................ Women ................................. 16 to 24 years ................................................................................. 25 years and o v e r................................. 66.3 61.4 7.4 7.8 15.3 6.4 6.9 13.0 5.7 66.2 61.6 6.8 7.1 14.3 5.8 6.5 12.2 5.4 66.4 61.5 7.5 7.9 15.4 6.5 7.0 13.0 5.7 66.4 61.4 7.5 7.9 15.3 6.5 7.1 13.6 5.8 66.2 61.3 7.3 7.6 14.8 6.3 6.9 12.8 5.7 66.1 61.4 7.0 7.3 14.6 6.0 6.7 13.0 5.5 66.2 61.6 7.0 7.3 14.9 5.8 6.6 12.6 5.4 66.1 61.7 6.7 7.1 14.2 5.8 6.4 11.7 5.3 66.2 61.9 6.5 6.7 13.5 5.5 6.3 11.6 5.3 66.6 62.3 6.6 6.6 13.9 5.3 6.5 12.3 5.3 108,604 89,959 23,231 18,104 85,373 110,525 91,708 23,256 18,003 87,269 108,446 89,829 23,264 18,134 85,182 108,720 90,028 23,209 18,103 85,512 109,128 90,416 23,189 18,061 85,938 109,717 90,969 23,274 18,103 86,443 110,251 91,461 23,256 18,025 86,995 110,755 91,910 23,215 17,951 87,540 111,363 92,470 23,275 17,942 88,088 111,976 93,057 23,350 17,973 88,626 34.4 41.0 3.8 34.5 41.4 4.1 34.4 41.1 3.8 34.4 41.1 3.8 34.4 41.2 3.9 34.3 41.3 4.1 34.5 41.4 4.1 34.5 41.5 4.1 34.5 41.7 4.4 34.6 41.7 4.6 Percent change in the ECI, compensation: All workers (excluding farm, household, and Federal workers) ...... Private industry workers ......................................... Goods-producing3 ............................................................. Service-producing3 .................................................................... State and local government workers.............................................. 3.5 3.5 3.8 3.2 3.7 3.5 3.6 3.9 3.6 2.8 .6 .7 .7 .7 .4 1.1 .8 .9 .7 1.9 .6 .7 .7 .7 .6 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.0 .6 .7 .8 .9 .8 .3 1.0 .9 .7 1.0 1.5 .6 .6 .6 .7 .4 .9 1.0 1.0 .9 .6 Workers by bargaining status (private industry): Union.......................................................................... Nonunion .................................................................................. 4.3 3.2 4.3 3.5 .8 .6 1.1 .8 .6 .7 1.6 1.1 1.1 .8 .8 .9 .8 .6 .8 1.0 Employment, nonfarm (payroll data), in thousands:2 Total .............................................. Private sector ............................. Goods-producing............................................ Manufacturing ................................................... Service-producing .................................. Average hours: Private sector ................................. Manufacturing ................................................................. Overtim e............................................. E m p lo y m e n t C o s t In d e x 1 Data for 1994 are not directly comparable with data for 1993 and prior years. For additional information, see the box note under “Employment and Unemployment Data” in the notes to this section. 2 Quarterly data seasonally adjusted. 3 Goods-producing industries include mining, construction, and manufacturing. Service-producing industries include all other private sector industries. 70 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 2. Annual and quarterly percent changes In compensation, prices, and productivity C o m p e n s a t io n d a ta : 1992 1994 1993 1992 Selected measures 1993 II III IV I II III IV I 2 Employment Cost Index-compensation (wages, salaries, benefits): Civilian nonfarm .......................................................................... Private nonfarm ......................................................................... Employment Cost Index-wages and salaries Civilian nonfarm .......................................................................... Private nonfarm ......................................................................... 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.6 0.6 .7 1.1 .8 0.6 .7 1.2 1.3 0.7 .8 1.0 .9 0.6 .6 0.9 1.0 2.7 2.6 3.1 3.1 .5 .6 .8 .5 .5 .6 .8 .9 .6 .6 1.0 1.0 .6 .6 .6 .7 Consumer Price Index (All urban consumers): All item s...... 2.9 2.7 .6 .8 .4 1.2 .6 .5 .5 1.0 Producer Price Index: Finished goods............................................................................ Finished consumer goods........................................................ Capital equipment ..................................................................... Intermediate materials, supplies, components ...................... Crude materials........................................................................... 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.0 3.3 .2 -.2 1.8 1.0 .1 1.4 1.8 .0 1.6 4.3 -.5 -.3 -.6 .3 .3 .4 .0 1.6 -.9 -1.5 .7 .7 .8 1.0 1.7 .6 .8 -.2 .6 1.6 -1.4 -1.5 -.5 .1 -3.1 .2 -.2 1.7 -.7 .0 .7 .7 .9 .7 3.8 3.3 3.1 4.1 1.8 1.7 2.4 2.5 2.8 4.8 4.2 3.6 5.8 3.8 4.2 4.5 -1.6 -1.8 -4.0 .0 -.4 3.9 3.3 4.0 3.7 7.1 6.4 6.1 .5 .5 P r ic e d a t a : 1 P r o d u c t iv it y d a t a :3 Output per hour of all persons: Business sector......................................................................... Nonfarm business sector......................................................... Nonfinancial corporations 4 ...................................................... Quarterly percent changes reflect annual rates of change in quarterly in dexes. The data are seasonally adjusted. 4 Output per hour of all employees. - Data not available. 1 Annual changes are December-to-December change. Quarterly changes are calculated using the last month of each quarter. Compensation and price data are not seasonally adjusted and the price data are not compounded. 2 Excludes Federal and private household workers. 3 Annual rates of change are computed by comparing annual averages. 3. Alternative measures of wage and compensation changes Four quarters ended- Quarterly average Components 1993 1992 I IV III II IV 1994 1992 I IV 1994 1993 II I III IV I Average hourly compensation:1 All persons, business sector........................................................................ All persons, nonfarm business sector........................................................ 4.6 4.6 3.3 2.9 2.5 1.9 3.9 3.7 2.8 2.8 5.5 5.6 5.1 5.2 4.5 4.5 4.1 3.8 3.6 3.3 3.1 2.8 3.7 3.5 Employment Cost Index-compensation: Civilian nonfarm 2 ........................................................................................... Private nonfarm ........................................................................................... Union .......................................................................................................... Nonunion.................................................................................................... State and local governments.................................................................... .6 .7 .6 .7 .6 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.1 .6 .7 .8 1.1 .8 .3 1.0 .9 .8 .9 1.5 .6 .6 .8 .6 .4 .9 1.0 .8 1.0 .6 3.5 3.5 4.3 3.2 3.7 3.5 3.5 4.2 3.3 3.6 3.6 3.6 4.5 3.4 3.4 3.6 3.7 4.2 3.6 3.0 3.5 3.6 4.3 3.5 2.8 3.2 3.3 3.5 3.3 2.8 Employment Cost Index-wages and salaries: Civilian nonfarm2 ............................................................................................ Private nonfarm ........................................................................................... Union .......................................................................................................... Nonunion.................................................................................................... State and local governments..................................................................... .5 .6 .5 .6 .6 .8 .9 .7 .9 .5 .6 .6 .7 .6 .2 1.0 1.0 .8 1.0 1.6 .6 .6 .8 .6 .3 .6 .7 .7 .7 .6 2.7 2.6 3.1 2.5 3.0 2.7 2.7 3.0 2.6 3.0 2.8 2.7 2.8 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.1 2.8 3.1 2.9 3.1 3.1 3.0 3.1 2.7 2.9 2.9 3.0 2.9 2.7 Total effective wage adjustments3 ..................................................................... From current settlements............................................................................. From prior settlements ................................................................................. From cost-of-living provision........................................................................ .4 .2 .2 .1 .5 .1 .3 .1 .9 .2 .7 .1 .8 .1 .6 .7 .5 .2 .4 .1 .3 3.1 .8 1.9 .4 3.0 .8 1.8 .4 2.9 .7 1.8 .4 2.6 .6 1.8 .3 3.0 .9 1.9 .2 2.9 .8 1.8 .2 Negotiated wage adjustments from settlements:3 First-year adjustments .................................................................................. Annual rate over life of contract................................................................. 1.8 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.5 2.5 1.1 1.7 2.8 2.0 3.2 2.5 2.7 3.0 2.6 2.9 2.5 2.7 2.0 2.3 2.3 2.1 2.4 2.1 Negotiated wage and benefit adjustments from settlements:5 First-year adjustment .................................................................................... Annual rate over life of contract................................................................. 1.4 2.7 3.1 3.2 3.2 2.6 1.0 1.4 3.8 2.5 3.0 2.6 3.0 3.1 3.0 3.1 2.9 2.9 2.1 2.4 3.0 2.4 3.0 2.3 1 Seasonally adjusted. 2 Excludes Federal and household workers. 3 Limited to major collective bargaining units of 1,000 workers or more. The most recent data are preliminary. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (4) O (4) 4 Data round to zero. 5 Limited to major collective bargaining units of 5,000 workers or more. The most recent data are preliminary. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 71 Current Labor Statistics: Employment Data 4. Employment status of the population, by sex, age, race and Hispanic origin, monthly data seasonally adjusted (Numbers in thousands) Annual average 1993 Employment status 1994 1992 1993 May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. 191,576 126,982 66.3 117,598 193,550 128,040 66.2 119,306 193,283 128,075 66.3 119,180 193,456 128,056 66.2 119,187 193,633 128,102 66.2 119,370 193,793 128,334 66.2 119,692 193,971 128,108 66.0 119,568 194,151 128,580 66.2 119,941 194,321 128,662 66.2 120,332 194,472 128,898 66.3 120,661 195,953 130,667 66.7 121,971 196,090 130,776 66.7 122,258 196,213 130,580 66.6 122,037 196,363 130,747 66.6 122,338 196,510 130,774 66.5 122,872 61.4 9,384 7.4 64,593 61.6 8,734 6.8 65,509 61.7 8,895 6.9 65,208 61.6 8,869 6.9 65,400 61.6 8,732 6.8 65,531 61.8 8,642 6.7 65,459 61.6 8,540 6.7 65,863 61.8 8,639 6.7 65,571 61.9 8,330 6.5 65,659 62.0 8,237 6.4 65,574 62.2 8,696 6.7 65,286 62.3 8,518 6.5 65,314 62.2 8,543 6.5 65,633 62.3 8,408 6.4 65,616 62.5 7,902 6.0 65,736 84,891 65,638 77.3 61,019 85,907 66,069 76.9 61,865 85,816 66,134 77.1 61,849 85,872 66,087 77.0 61,805 85,950 66,140 77.0 61,869 86,002 66,221 77.0 62,006 86,075 66,038 76.7 61,901 86,156 66,306 77.0 62,172 86,245 66,198 76.8 62,315 86,373 66,321 76.8 62,444 86,778 66,806 77.0 62,842 86,820 66,764 76.9 62,778 86,901 66,723 76.8 62,857 86,946 66,701 76.7 62,958 87,000 66,692 76.7 63,192 71.9 2,355 58,664 4,619 7.0 72.0 2,263 59,602 4,204 6.4 72.1 2,246 59,603 4,285 6.5 72.0 2,220 59,585 4,282 6.5 72.0 2,235 59,634 4,271 6.5 72.1 2,193 59,813 4,215 6.4 71.9 2,264 59,637 4,137 6.3 72.2 2,223 59,949 4,134 6.2 72.3 2,334 59,981 3,883 5.9 72.3 2,300 60,144 3,877 5.8 72.4 2,352 60,490 3,964 5.9 72.3 2,339 60,439 3,986 6.0 72.3 2,358 60,499 3,866 5.8 72.4 2,376 60,582 3,743 5.6 72.6 2,412 60,780 3,500 5.2 93,524 54,594 58.4 51,181 94,388 55,146 58.4 51,912 94,264 55,016 58.4 51,777 94,315 55,132 58.5 51,875 94,425 55,100 58.4 51,901 94,490 55,249 58.5 52,084 94,575 55,251 58.4 52,072 94,656 55,462 58.6 52,243 94,709 55,621 58.7 52,423 94,764 55,783 58.9 52,631 95,109 56,368 59.3 53,014 95,159 56,611 59.5 53,403 95,225 56,487 59.3 53,121 95,282 56,410 59.2 53,265 95,329 56,548 59.3 53,521 54.7 627 50,553 3,413 6.3 55.0 599 51,313 3,234 5.9 54.9 597 51,180 3,239 5.9 55.0 596 51,279 3,257 5.9 55.0 616 51,285 3,199 5.8 55.1 614 51,470 3,165 5.7 55.1 596 51,476 3,179 5.8 55.2 601 51,642 3,219 5.8 55.4 597 51,826 3,198 5.7 55.5 599 52,032 3,152 5.7 55.7 744 52,270 3,354 6.0 56.1 766 52,638 3,208 5.7 55.8 773 52,348 3,366 6.0 55.9 837 52,428 3,145 5.6 56.1 787 52,734 3,027 5.4 13,161 6,751 51.3 5,398 13,255 6,826 51.5 5,530 13,203 6,925 52.5 5,554 13,270 6,837 51.5 5,507 13,258 6,862 51.8 5,600 13,301 6,864 51.6 5,602 13,321 6,819 51.2 5,595 13,339 6,812 51.1 5,526 13,367 6,843 51.2 5,594 13,335 6,794 50.9 5,586 14,066 7,493 53.3 6,115 14,111 7,401 52.4 6,076 14,087 7,370 52.3 6,059 14,135 7,636 54.0 6,116 14,181 7,534 53.1 6,159 41.0 225 5,174 1,352 20.0 41.7 212 5,317 1,296 19.0 42.1 231 5,323 1,371 19.8 41.5 215 5,292 1,330 19.5 42.2 192 5,408 1,262 18.4 42.1 198 5,404 1,262 18.4 42.0 233 5,362 1,224 17.9 41.4 197 5,329 1,286 18.9 41.8 183 5,411 1,249 18.3 41.9 197 5,389 1,208 17.8 43.5 236 5,879 1,378 18.4 43.1 287 5,790 1,325 17.9 43.0 295 5,764 1,311 17.8 43.3 245 5,870 1,520 19.9 43.4 236 5,923 1,375 18.3 162,658 108,526 66.7 101,479 163,921 109,359 66.7 102,812 163,748 109,234 66.7 102,612 163,857 109,373 66.7 102,721 163,971 109,393 66.7 102,835 164,074 109,646 66.8 103,179 164,190 109,492 66.7 103,094 164,309 110,009 67.0 103,273 164,421 109,804 66.8 103,662 164,516 110,016 66.9 103,807 165,014 110,802 67.1 104,355 165,096 110,934 67.2 104,669 165,168 110,633 67.0 104,314 165,259 110,673 67.0 104,450 165,351 110,797 67.0 105,038 62.4 7,047 6.5 62.7 6,547 6.0 62.7 6,622 6.1 62.7 6,652 6.1 62.7 6,558 6.0 62.9 6,467 5.9 62.8 6,398 5.8 62.9 6,736 6.1 63.0 6,142 5.6 63.1 6,209 5.6 63.2 6,447 5.8 63.4 6,264 5.6 63.2 6,319 5.7 63.2 6,222 5.6 63.5 5,760 5.2 21,958 13,891 63.3 11,933 22,329 13,943 62.4 12,146 22,280 13,944 62.6 12,140 22,313 13,922 62.4 12,076 22,346 13,920 62.3 12,134 22,375 13,969 62.4 12,225 22,408 13,952 62.3 12,202 22,442 13,945 62.1 12,292 22,475 14,057 62.5 12,297 22,504 14,011 62.3 12,397 22,723 14,368 63.2 12,482 22,751 14,487 63.7 12,624 22,774 14,573 64.0 12,749 22,799 14,523 63.7 12,813 22,824 14,497 63.5 12,825 54.3 1,958 14.1 54.4 1,796 12.9 54.5 1,804 12.9 54.1 1,846 13.3 54.3 1,786 12.8 54.6 1,744 12.5 54.5 1,750 12.5 54.8 1,653 11.9 54.7 1,760 12.5 55.1 1,614 11.5 54.9 1,887 13.1 55.5 1,863 12.9 56.0 1,824 12.5 56.2 1,710 11.8 56.2 1,672 11.5 Apr. May TO TAL Civilian noninstitutional population1 ....................... Civilian labor force....... Participation rate .................. Employment-population ratio2 ......................... Unemployed............ Unemployment ra te .......... Not in labor force .......... M en, 20 y e a rs an d o v e r Civilian noninstitutional population1 ............................... Civilian labor force....................... Participation rate ................. Employed ................ Employment-population ratio2 ..................................... Agriculture ................................ Nonagricultural industries........ Unemployed...................... Unemployment ra te .............. W o m e n , 20 y e a rs o n d o v e r Civilian noninstitutional population1 .................................. Civilian labor force..................... Participation rate ................... Employed ............................ Employment-population ratio2 ................................. Agriculture .................................. Nonagricultural industries........ Unemployed................................ Unemployment ra te ............... B o t h s e x e s , 16 t o 1 9 y e a r s Civilian noninstitutional population1....................................... Civilian labor force.......................... Participation rate .................... Employed ................................... Employment-population ratio2 ................................ Agriculture .................................. Nonagricultural industries........ Unemployed................................. Unemployment ra te ............... W h it e Civilian noninstitutional population1 .................................... Civilian labor force.......................... Participation rate ................... Employed ..................................... Employment-population ratio2 ....................................... Unemployed.................................. Unemployment ra te ............... B la c k Civilian noninstitutional population1 ....................................... Civilian labor force.......................... Participation rate .................... Employed ...................................... Employment-population ratio2 ....................................... Unemployed.................................. Unemployment ra te ............... See footnotes at end of table. 72 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 4. Continued— Employment status of the population, by sex, age, race and Hispanic origin, monthly data seasonally adjusted (Numbers in thousands) Annual average 1994 1993 Employment status 1992 1993 May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May 15,244 10,131 66.5 8,971 15,753 10,377 65.9 9,272 15,681 10,247 65.3 9,226 15,729 10,285 65.4 9,221 15,777 10,375 65.8 9,250 15,824 10,331 65.3 9,311 15,871 10,433 65.7 9,394 15,917 10,586 66.5 9,384 15,967 10,575 66.2 9,476 16,014 10,625 66.3 9,513 17,849 11,746 65.8 10,495 17,896 11,835 66.1 10,650 17,942 11,871 66.2 10,680 17,993 11,880 66.0 10,595 18,041 11,929 66.1 10,801 58.9 1,160 11.4 58.9 1,104 10.6 58.8 1,021 10.0 58.6 1,064 10.3 58.6 1,125 10.8 58.8 1,020 9.9 59.2 1,039 10.0 59.0 1,202 11.4 59.3 1,099 10.4 59.4 1,112 10.5 58.8 1,251 10.6 59.5 1,185 10.0 59.5 1,190 10.0 58.9 1,285 10.8 59.9 1,127 9.5 H is p a n ic o r ig in Civilian noninstitutional population1....................................... Civilian labor force.......................... Participation rate .................... Employed ...................................... Employment-population ratio2 ....................................... Unemployed.................................. Unemployment ra te ............... 1 The population figures are not seasonally adjusted. 2 Civilian employment as a percent of the civilian noninstitutional population. NOTE: Data for 1994 are not directly comparable with data for 1993 and earlier years. For additional information, see the box note under “Employment and Unemployment 5. Data" in the notes to this section. Detail for the above race and Hispanic-origin groups will not sum to totals because data for the “other races” groups are not presented and Hispanics are included in both the white and black population groups. Selected employment indicators, monthly data seasonally adjusted (In thousands) Annual average 1994 1993 Selected categories Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May 119,941 64,971 54,970 40,816 120,332 65,144 55,188 40,842 120,661 65,259 55,402 40,951 121,971 65,963 56,007 41,483 122,258 65,921 56,336 41,328 122,037 65,940 56,097 41,331 122,338 66,036 56,302 41,380 122,872 66,301 56,571 41,367 30,509 6,833 30,641 6,784 30,872 6,704 31,051 6,693 31,579 6,796 31,709 7,133 31,310 7,369 31,345 7,191 31,324 7,094 1,566 1,312 110 1,667 1,319 90 1,657 1,274 97 1,719 1,311 89 1,724 1,269 92 1,641 1,590 78 1,677 1,633 55 1,719 1,661 41 1,693 1,710 43 1,757 1,654 40 107,057 18,435 88,622 1,081 87,541 9,093 203 107,370 18,527 88,843 1,128 87,715 9,026 245 107,331 18,507 88,824 1,123 87,701 8,949 250 107,727 18,476 89,251 1,179 88,072 8,961 229 107,975 18,493 89,482 1,103 88,379 9,011 223 108,247 18,503 89,744 1,104 88,640 9,053 217 109,526 18,163 91,364 928 90,436 8,990 142 109,547 18,152 91,395 1,074 90,321 9,312 143 109,365 18,481 90,883 1,035 89,849 9,146 117 109,749 18,393 91,356 1,043 90,313 8,982 131 110,243 18,473 91,770 997 90,773 9,138 121 6,435 6,451 6,469 6,394 6,202 6,126 6,217 5,167 4,643 4,992 4,757 4,878 3,185 2,986 3,378 2,842 3,099 2,986 3,202 2,935 3,167 2,937 3,072 2,872 3,037 2,810 3,099 2,828 2,561 2,171 2,301 2,028 2,538 2,138 2,363 2,101 2,571 2,026 15,083 15,272 15,121 15,216 15,182 15,201 15,290 15,373 17,744 17,674 17,519 17,072 17,346 4,762 4,613 4,688 1992 1993 May June July Aug. Sept. 117,598 63,805 53,793 40,303 119,306 64,700 54,606 40,869 119,180 64,687 54,493 41,057 119,187 64,642 54,545 40,958 119,370 64,728 54,642 40,877 119,692 64,904 54,788 40,792 119,568 64,756 54,812 40,826 30,136 6,582 30,512 6,764 30,393 6,804 30,340 6,772 30,322 6,806 30,536 6,840 1,696 1,398 113 1,637 1,332 105 1,604 1,365 111 1,602 1,336 103 1,626 1,323 93 105,540 18,086 87,454 1,116 86,338 8,619 232 107,011 18,504 88,507 1,105 87,402 9,003 218 106,751 18,577 88,174 1,095 87,079 9,180 197 106,887 18,553 88,334 1,059 87,275 9,102 150 6,385 6,348 6,490 3,220 2,867 3,140 2,908 14,759 15,062 Oct. C H A R A C T E R IS T IC Employed, 16 years and ove r....... M e n ............................................. Women ........................................ Married men, spouse present .. Married women, spouse present....................................... Women who maintain families . CLASS OF W O RKER Agriculture: Wage and salary workers ........ Self-employed workers............. Unpaid family w orkers.............. Nonagricultural industries: Wage and salary workers ........ Government ............................. Private industries..................... Private households.............. O th e r...................................... Self-employed workers............. Unpaid family w orkers.............. PERSONS A T W ORK P A R T T IM E 1 All industries: Part time for economic reasons . Slack work or business conditions................................... Could only find part-time work Part time for noneconomic reasons ........................................ Nonagricultural industries: Part time for economic reasons . Slack work or business conditions................................... Could only find part-time work Part time for noneconomic reasons ........................................ 6,116 6,106 6,219 6,192 6,213 6,216 6,173 5,957 5,904 5,934 4,842 4,384 3,037 2,792 2,977 2,832 3,012 2,888 3,220 2,770 2,920 2,931 3,049 2,856 3,006 2,879 2,927 2,773 2,905 2,719 2,922 2,739 2,439 2,075 2,169 1,944 2,411 2,089 2,241 2,078 2,449 1,993 14,329 14,637 14,657 14,847 14,707 14,814 14,757 14,788 14,858 14,909 17,056 17,081 16,893 16,463 16,721 ' Excludes persons “with a job but not at work” during the survey period for such reasons as vacation, illness, or Industrial disputes. NOTE: Data for 1994 are not directly comparable with data for 1993 and earlier years. For additional information, see the box note under “Employment and Unemployment Data” in the notes to this section. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 73 Current Labor Statistics: Employment Data 6. Selected unemployment indicators, monthly data seasonally adjusted (Unemployment rates) Annual average 1993 1994 Selected categories 1992 1993 May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May 7.4 20.0 7.0 6.3 6.8 19.0 6.4 5.9 6.9 19.8 6.5 5.9 6.9 19.5 6.5 5.9 6.8 18.4 6.5 5.8 6.7 18.4 6.4 5.7 6.7 17.9 6.3 5.8 6.7 18.9 6.2 5.8 6.5 18.3 5.9 5.7 6.4 17.8 5.8 5.7 6.7 18.4 5.9 6.0 6.5 17.9 6.0 5.7 6.5 17.8 5.8 6.0 6.4 19.9 5.6 5.6 6.0 18.3 5.2 5.4 White, total ................................... Both sexes, 16 to 19 years........... Men, 16 to 19 years ................ Women, 16 to 19 years.... Men, 20 years and over ..................... Women, 20 years and o ve r............. 6.5 17.1 18.4 15.7 6.3 5.4 6.0 16.2 17.6 14.6 5.6 5.1 6.1 16.8 17.2 16.3 5.7 5.1 6.1 16.3 18.4 14.0 5.7 5.3 6.0 15.6 17.7 13.4 5.8 5.1 5.9 15.9 17.7 14.0 5.6 5.0 5.8 15.6 16.8 14.3 5.5 5.0 6.1 17.0 17.9 16.0 5.7 5.3 5.6 15.6 17.7 13.3 5.0 5.1 5.6 15.2 16.9 13.4 5.2 4.9 5.8 16.4 18.5 14.0 5.3 5.1 5.6 15.8 16.7 14.7 5.2 4.8 5.7 15.6 16.7 14.6 5.2 5.0 5.6 17.5 19.0 16.0 5.0 4.7 5.2 15.5 17.3 13.5 4.6 4.5 Black, total .................................. Both sexes, 16 to 19 years...... Men, 16 to 19 years ...................................... Women, 16 to 19 years................................. Men, 20 years and over ..................................... Women, 20 years and o v e r................................ 14.1 39.8 42.0 37.2 13.4 11.7 12.9 38.9 40.1 37.5 12.1 10.6 12.9 39.5 40.2 38.7 12.2 10.4 13.3 41.6 38.8 44.8 12.6 10.7 12.8 36.4 37.9 34.7 11.8 11.0 12.5 33.5 34.9 32.0 12.0 10.5 12.5 36.2 39.7 32.3 12.1 10.2 11.9 36.7 40.6 32.8 11.0 10.0 12.5 39.5 39.2 39.7 12.3 9.7 11.5 37.0 38.8 35.2 10.5 9.7 13.1 31.7 38.1 25.5 12.3 11.5 12.9 35.3 40.1 30.5 12.1 11.0 12.5 34.0 37.5 30.2 10.2 12.1 11.8 36.2 40.8 31.3 10.0 10.6 11.5 39.9 42.8 36.5 9.9 9.9 Hispanic origin, total.......................... 11.4 10.6 10.0 10.3 10.8 9.9 10.0 11.4 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.0 10.0 10.8 9.5 5.0 5.0 9.9 7.4 7.4 4.4 4.6 9.5 6.8 7.1 4.5 4.5 9.8 6.9 6.9 4.4 4.7 9.7 6.9 7.1 4.5 4.7 9.6 6.8 6.7 4.4 4.5 9.0 6.7 6.8 4.2 4.6 9.0 6.6 6.9 4.4 4.8 9.3 6.6 7.2 4.0 4.4 9.0 6.3 6.9 3.9 4.3 10.2 6.4 6.6 4.1 4.4 9.4 6.8 6.2 4.3 4.3 9.7 6.6 5.9 4.1 4.4 9.6 6.6 6.3 3.9 4.1 9.1 6.4 6.5 3.7 4.0 8.9 6.0 6.2 7.7 7.9 16.7 7.8 8.0 7.5 5.5 8.4 7.0 7.3 14.3 7.2 7.1 7.3 5.1 7.8 7.2 10.7 15.2 7.2 7.1 7.3 5.4 8.1 7.1 6.8 15.1 7.3 7.4 7.1 4.5 7.9 7.0 5.9 15.7 7.3 7.0 7.8 4.9 7.5 7.0 7.2 14.7 7.3 7.2 7.4 5.4 7.6 6.9 7.5 14.1 7.2 7.3 7.2 5.3 7.5 6.9 6.5 13.7 6.9 6.9 6.9 5.5 7.9 6.7 7.2 12.2 6.7 6.5 7.0 5.2 7.7 6.6 6.9 12.7 6.5 6.3 6.8 5.1 7.4 7.0 5.1 13.9 6.1 5.3 7.3 5.5 8.1 6.8 4.0 13.3 6.1 5.5 7.1 5.2 8.0 6.8 5.5 13.5 6.1 5.7 6.8 4.7 7.9 6.6 6.8 12.6 5.8 5.5 6.3 5.6 7.7 6.2 7.6 11.6 5.5 5.2 5.8 4.6 7.3 4.5 6.5 3.5 12.3 4.1 6.1 3.3 11.6 4.0 5.9 3.1 10.8 4.5 6.1 3.4 11.8 3.9 6.0 3.4 11.5 4.2 5.7 3.3 12.1 4.0 5.9 2.8 10.4 3.7 5.9 3.1 11.8 3.7 5.9 3.0 10.3 3.7 5.9 3.1 11.3 3.7 6.6 3.8 13.6 3.6 6.3 3.2 14.3 2.9 6.5 3.9 13.8 3.4 6.1 3.5 10.7 3.5 5.8 3.3 8.3 C H A R A C T E R IS T IC Total, all workers................ Both sexes, 16 to 19 years................ Men, 20 years and o v e r ..................... Women, 20 years and over........... Married men, spouse present........................... Married women, spouse present.......................... Women who maintain families.............................. Full-time workers ........................ Part-time workers ........................... IN D U S T R Y Nonagricultural private wage and salary workers .... Mining......................................... Construction ....................................... Manufacturing .............................................. Durable goods................................................ Nondurable goods ............................................... Transportation and public utilities ........................ Wholesale and retail tra d e .................................... Finance,insurance, and real e s ta te ............................................................... Services......................................... Government workers ..................................... Agricultural wage and salary workers ....................... NOTE: Data for 1994 are not directly comparable with data for 1993 and earlier years. For additional information, see the box note under “Employment and Unemployment Data” in the notes to this section. 74 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 7. Unemployment rates by sex and age, monthly data seasonally adjusted (Civilian workers) Annual average Sex and age 1992 1994 1993 1993 June May July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Jan. Dec. Apr. Mar. Feb. May Total, 16 years and over ................................................................... 16 to 24 years........................................................................................ 16 to 19 years ..................................................................................... 16 to 17 years ................................................................................. 18 to 19 years ................................................................................. 20 to 24 years .................................................................................... 25 years and ove r................................................................................. 25 to 54 years ................................................................................. 55 years and o v e r.................................................................. 7.4 14.2 20.0 23.0 18.1 11.3 6.1 6.3 4.8 6.8 13.3 19.0 21.3 17.5 10.5 5.6 5.8 4.3 6.9 14.0 19.8 21.2 19.0 11.1 5.6 5.8 4.2 6.9 13.4 19.5 23.2 17.4 10.4 5.7 5.9 4.2 6.8 13.1 18.4 20.4 17.1 10.5 5.6 5.8 4.3 6.7 13.2 18.4 20.0 17.2 10.6 5.5 5.7 4.3 6.7 12.7 17.9 19.1 16.9 10.0 5.5 5.7 4.7 6.7 12.9 18.9 20.7 17.7 9.9 5.6 5.8 4.5 6.5 12.7 18.3 20.5 16.8 9.9 5.3 5.5 4.2 6.4 12.3 17.8 19.0 17.1 9.5 5.3 5.5 4.2 6.7 13.6 18.4 21.2 16.1 11.0 5.4 5.5 4.6 6.5 12.7 17.9 21.8 15.3 10.0 5.3 5.4 4.3 6.5 13.2 17.8 19.9 16.5 10.9 5.2 5.3 4.6 6.4 13.4 19.9 24.1 17.1 9.9 5.0 5.1 4.2 6.0 12.5 18.3 20.5 16.8 9.4 4.7 4.8 4.1 Men, 16 years and o v e r................................................ 16 to 24 years ..................................................... 16 to 19 years............................................................ 16 to 17 years............................................................................ 18 to 19 years............................................................................ 20 to 24 years............................................................................... 25 years and o v e r........................................................................... 25 to 54 yea rs............................................................................ 55 years and over........................................................... 7.8 15.3 21.5 24.4 19.5 12.2 6.4 6.6 5.2 7.1 14.3 20.4 22.8 18.8 11.3 5.8 5.9 4.7 7.2 14.9 20.5 22.9 19.3 12.1 5.8 5.9 4.7 7.2 14.6 21.1 26.2 18.4 11.4 5.9 6.1 4.4 7.2 14.3 20.4 22.4 19.1 11.3 5.9 6.0 4.8 7.1 14.5 20.1 21.7 19.0 11.7 5.7 5.9 4.9 6.9 13.7 19.4 20.3 18.2 10.9 5.7 5.8 5.3 6.9 13.8 20.3 22.0 19.2 10.6 5.7 5.9 4.8 6.6 13.6 19.9 21.7 18.5 10.4 5.3 5.5 4.5 6.5 13.2 19.4 19.9 18.9 10.1 5.4 5.5 4.7 6.8 14.7 20.7 23.9 18.1 11.5 5.4 5.5 4.7 6.7 13.3 19.0 21.9 17.1 10.5 5.4 5.5 4.7 6.5 13.8 19.0 22.2 17.1 11.1 5.1 5.2 4.6 6.5 14.2 21.5 25.3 18.8 10.4 5.0 5.0 4.4 6.1 13.4 20.1 23.0 18.5 9.9 4.6 4.7 4.3 Women, 16 years and o v e r........................................................... 16 to 24 yea rs................................................................................ 16 to 19 years ......................................................................... 16 to 17 years .......................................................................... 18 to 19 years .......................................................................... 20 to 24 years ............................................................................. 25 years and o v e r.......................................................................... 25 to 54 years .......................................................................... 55 years and o v e r.................................................................... 6.9 13.0 18.5 21.4 16.5 10.2 5.7 6.0 4.2 6.5 12.2 17.4 19.6 16.0 9.6 5.4 5.6 3.8 6.6 13.1 19.1 19.4 18.7 10.0 5.3 5.6 3.6 6.6 12.1 17.6 19.6 16.4 9.3 5.5 5.7 4.0 6.4 11.8 16.2 18.1 14.9 9.6 5.3 5.6 3.6 6.3 11.8 16.5 18.1 15.1 9.4 5.3 5.5 3.5 6.3 11.6 16.4 17.8 15.5 9.1 5.3 5.6 3.9 6.4 11.9 17.3 19.4 16.0 9.0 5.4 5.7 4.2 6.4 11.7 16.5 19.2 14.9 9.3 5.3 5.6 3.8 6.2 11.3 16.1 18.1 15.1 8.8 5.2 5.5 3.6 6.5 12.3 15.8 18.2 13.8 10.4 5.4 5.4 4.5 6.3 12.0 16.7 21.7 13.2 9.5 5.1 5.3 3.8 6.6 12.6 16.5 17.4 15.8 10.6 5.4 5.5 4.6 6.4 12.6 18.2 22.8 15.3 9.4 5.1 5.2 3.9 6.0 11.4 16.3 17.8 15.0 8.8 4.9 5.1 3.9 8. Unemployed persons by reason for unemployment, monthly data seasonally adjusted (Numbers in thousands) Annual average 1994 1993 Reason for unemployment 1992 Job losers' ........................................ On temporary layoff.......................................... Not on temporary layoff ......................................... Job leavers .................................... Reentrants .................................... New entrants .............................. 1993 May June July Sept. Aug. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May 5,291 1,246 4,045 975 2,228 890 4,769 1,104 3,664 946 2,145 874 4,752 1,144 3,608 960 2,237 890 4,845 1,131 3,714 940 2,201 894 4,872 1,183 3,689 915 2,117 870 4,864 1,190 3,674 882 2,081 834 4,699 1,112 3,587 926 2,075 843 4,779 1,216 3,563 957 2,084 839 4,444 963 3,481 960 2,084 833 4,442 1,060 3,382 932 2,018 797 4,442 1,196 3,246 762 2,831 651 4,185 1,109 3,075 888 2,898 641 4,037 983 3,054 873 3,054 643 3,790 947 2,843 825 3,235 689 3,531 785 2,746 796 2,838 609 56.4 13.3 43.1 10.4 23.7 9.5 54.6 12.6 42.0 10.8 24.6 10.0 53.8 12.9 40.8 10.9 25.3 10.1 54.6 12.7 41.8 10.6 24.8 10.1 55.5 13.5 42.0 10.4 24.1 9.9 56.2 13.7 42.4 10.2 24.0 9.6 55.0 13.0 42.0 10.8 24.3 9.9 55.2 14.0 41.1 11.1 24.1 9.7 53.4 11.6 41.8 11.5 25.0 10.0 54.2 12.9 41.3 11.4 24.6 9.7 51.1 13.8 37.4 8.8 32.6 7.5 48.6 12.9 35.7 10.3 33.7 7.4 46.9 11.4 35.5 10.1 35.5 7.5 44.4 11.1 33.3 9.7 37.9 8.1 45.4 10.1 35.3 10.2 36.5 7.8 4.2 .8 1.8 .7 3.7 .7 1.7 .7 3.7 .7 1.7 .7 3.8 .7 1.7 .7 3.8 .7 1.7 .7 3.8 .7 1.6 .6 3.7 .7 1.6 .7 3.7 .7 1.6 .7 3.5 .7 1.6 .6 3.4 .7 1.6 .6 3.4 .6 2.2 .5 3.2 .7 2.2 .5 3.1 .7 2.3 .5 2.9 .6 2.5 .5 2.7 .6 2.2 .5 PERCENT O F UNEM PLOYED Job losers' .............................................. On temporary layoff ............................................... Not on temporary layoff...................................... Job leavers....................................................... Reentrants............................................................. New entrants .............................................................. PERCENT OF C I V IL IA N L A B O R F O R C E Job losers' ..................................................................... Job leavers ................................................................. Reentrants ......................................................... New entrants ................................................................. 1 Includes persons who completed temporary jobs. 9. Duration of unemployment, monthly data seasonally adjusted (Numbers in thousands) 1994 1993 Annual average Weeks of unemployment Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May 1992 1993 May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Less than 5 weeks ............................................... 3,270 5 to 14 weeks ........................................................ 2,760 15 weeks and over ............................................... 3,354 15 to 26 weeks .................................................. 1,424 27 weeks and over ............................................ 1,930 3,160 2,522 3,052 1,274 1,778 3,242 2,526 3,046 1,270 1,776 3,232 2,758 3,025 1,257 1,768 3,223 2,543 3,007 1,258 1,749 3,046 2,608 3,000 1,259 1,741 3,052 2,457 3,047 1,297 1,750 3,156 2,491 3,030 1,284 1,746 2,946 2,401 2,971 1,216 1,755 3,063 2,247 2,864 1,150 1,714 3,349 2,336 3,027 1,314 1,713 2,574 2,727 3,103 1,359 1,744 2,758 2,549 3,110 1,264 1,847 2,863 2,434 2,951 1,168 1,782 2,631 2,437 2,801 1,093 1,708 18.1 8.4 17.8 8.3 17.8 8.3 17.9 8.3 18.3 8.4 18.4 8.9 18.4 8.3 18.9 8.5 18.2 8.2 18.3 8.5 18.7 9.0 19.2 9.1 19.1 9.2 19.6 9.2 Mean duration, in w eeks...................................... Median duration, in w eeks................................... 17.9 8.8 NOTE: In the three tables above, data for 1994 are not directly comparable with data for 1993 and earlier years. For additional information, see the box note under https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis “Employment and Unemployment Data” in the notes to this section, Monthly Labor Review July 1994 75 Current Labor Statistics: Employment Data 10. Unemployment rates by State, seasonally adjusted State Apr. 1993 Mar. 1994 Apr. 1994p 7.4 7.8 6.5 6.3 8.9 6.5 8.3 5.5 50 8.6 58 8.3 56 Alabama .................. Alaska........................ Arizona ..................... Arkansas .................. California ................... State Nebraska................................................. 5.3 6.4 5.0 8.5 6.8 5.2 5.2 5.2 9.8 7.3 5.4 4.9 5.5 7.3 7.4 Georgia......................... H aw aii........................... Indiana........................ 5.7 4.4 6.5 8.0 5.6 6.1 5.3 5.2 60 5.1 5.6 5.6 4.7 55 4.9 Iowa ........................ Kansas.................. ?............ Kentucky........................ Louisiana............................ M ain e......................... 4.1 50 6.3 7.5 7.7 36 2.8 3.2 Apr. 1994p 5.2 3.1 5.2 4.6 6.6 4.6 New Jersey.............................. 8.9 7.9 North Carolina............................................. North D akota.............................................. 5.3 4.4 4.4 4.8 7.2 5.1 8.2 3.9 3.8 O h io ............................................................... Oklahoma ..................................................... Oregon ...................................................... Pennsylvania ....................................... 6.6 6.1 7.4 6.9 7.9 5.9 6.7 6.3 6.8 7.6 6.3 6.5 5.9 6.6 6.2 7.5 6.7 3.0 7.0 2.8 4.7 6.3 3.5 South Carolina ............................................ 6.2 6.8 6.8 5.2 6.8 6.3 Mar. 1994 9.6 Colorado.................... Connecticut........................ Delaware ..................................................... District of Columbia ..................................... Florida................... Maryland.......................... Massachusetts............................ Michigan.................................. Minnesota........................... Mississippi.................................. Missouri ............................ Apr. 1993 O A 5.8 4.8 8.1 6.9 5.7 5.9 6.5 4.3 6.9 5.9 4.9 8.4 6.4 5.4 6.1 57 4.2 7.2 5.0 Utah ... 4.0 3.4 Vermont ....................................... Virginia ......................................... Washington.................. 5.4 5.2 7.6 4.8 4.9 6.5 4.9 4.8 4.0 5.1 5.9 8.9 4.7 5.4 6.5 6.7 p = preliminary 11. Employment of workers on nonfarm payrolls by State, seasonally adjusted (In thousands) State Apr. 1993 Mar. 1994 Apr. 1994p 1,713.0 250.5 1,565.3 986.3 12,029.2 1,730 2 258.3 1,615 6 l'005.8 11,955.2 1 736 7 256 9 1 62? 0 1,006.7 11,963.6 Colorado ................. Connecticut ................ Delaw are.................... District of Columbia............. Florida ............................. 1,658.8 1,528.8 346.8 673.7 5,542.5 1,701.6 1,525.8 350.6 664.2 5,701.5 1,701.8 1,529 2 354.0 663.6 5,737.6 Georgia ............................ Hawaii........................ Illinois ................. Indiana .......................... 3,083.0 541.6 431.1 5,299.8 2,577.2 3,214.0 533.0 456.6 5,375.2 2,634.2 3 224 5 533.3 458.0 5,374.7 2,635.9 Io w a ......................... Kansas ............................................................... Kentucky............................................................ Louisiana............................................................ M aine.................................................................. 1,270.7 1,128.3 1,533.1 1,641.6 517.9 1,297.7 1,153.1 1,547.2 1,663.5 520.8 1,301.6 1,147.1 1,549.5 1,673.5 524.8 Maryland ............................... Massachusetts ........................... Michigan............................. M innesota................. Mississippi..................................... Missouri...................................... M ontana..................... 2,096.8 2,828.7 3,977.2 2,233.7 991.4 2,386.7 324.5 2,106.3 2,897.7 4,067.2 2,293.0 1,023.0 2,436.8 332.3 2,115.7 2,916.9 4,074.3 2,297.4 1,024.8 2,454.7 331 8 Alabam a................... Alaska ....................... Arizona....................... Arkansas.............. California................ State Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 Mar. 1994 Apr. 1994p 499.8 514.3 514.1 New Jersey ...................................................... New Mexico .................................................... New Y o rk............................................. 3,484.4 622.1 7,733.7 3,519.0 641.8 7,793.5 3,540.6 648.1 7,796.9 283.7 291.1 291.0 Ohio .................................................................. O klahom a......................................................... 4,902.6 1,238.9 4,942.1 1,247.9 4,935.5 1,249.8 Pennsylvania................................................... Rhode Island.................................................... 5,111.3 426.9 5,134.5 430.5 5,147.4 432.3 South Carolina................................................ South D akota................................................... Tennessee ....................................................... Texas ................................................................ Utah .................................................................. 1,567.7 312.0 2,314.6 7,432.7 795.4 1,591.7 325.5 2,372.1 7,622.9 847.1 1,591.5 325.9 2,373.0 7,662.6 848.9 Verm ont............................................................ Virginia.............................................................. Washington ...................................................... West Virginia.................................................... Wisconsin......................................................... 256.3 2,902.2 2,246.9 649.9 2,395.1 258.9 2,988.2 2,277.7 665.6 2,441.8 260.0 2,998.9 2,279.2 666.0 2,444.3 Wyoming........................................................... Puerto R ic o ...................................................... 208.5 212.0 212.0 p = preliminary NOTE: Some data in this table may differ from data published elsewhere because of the continual updating of the database. 76 Apr. 1993 12. Employment of workers on nonfarm payrolls by industry, monthly data seasonally adjusted (In thousands) Annual average 1994 1993 Industry 1992 1993 May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.» Mayp 108,604 89,959 110,525 91,708 110,285 91,497 110,372 91,568 110,628 91,802 110,714 91,892 110,923 92,036 111,112 92,239 111,366 92,479 111,610 92,692 111,711 92,810 111,919 93,003 112,298 93,357 112,656 93,684 112,847 93,878 G O O D S - P R O D U C IN G .......................... M in in g ................................................... 23,231 635 23,256 611 23,281 616 23,225 608 23,232 606 23,207 602 23,206 605 23,245 605 23,281 604 23,298 618 23,328 616 23,327 612 23,499 604 Metal m in in g ........................................ Oil and gas extraction ................. Nonmetallic minerals, except fu e ls ............................................... 53 50 51 50 50 47 50 50 50 51 50 353 351 347 349 353 357 357 356 355 351 349 T O T A L ................................................... P R IV A T E S E C T O R C o n s t r u c t io n .......................................... General building contractors....... Heavy construction, except building.......................................... Special trades contractors.......... M a n u f a c t u r i n g ....................................... Production workers ................... D u r a b le g o o d s ................................... Production workers ................... Lumber and wood products........ Furniture and fixtures.................... Stone, clay, and glass products .. Primary metal Industries.............. Blast furnaces and basic steel products....................................... Fabricated metal products .......... Industrial machinery and equipment ..................................... Electronic and other electrical equipment .................... Transportation equipment........... Motor vehicles and equipment... Aircraft and parts......................... Instruments and related products Miscellaneous manufacturing Industries....................................... . 23,395 609 23,491 606 50 50 50 50 346 344 341 339 102 101 101 100 100 100 100 101 101 101 102 101 100 100 101 4,492 1,077 4,642 1,111 4,636 1,112 4,632 1,110 4,653 1,110 4,659 1,106 4,667 1,107 4,700 1,120 4,733 1,133 4,738 1,138 4,744 1,139 4,745 1,134 4,806 1,152 4,893 1,165 4,905 1,158 711 2,704 708 2,823 705 2,819 711 2,811 713 2,830 711 2,842 711 2,849 709 2,871 712 2,888 710 2,890 713 2,892 709 2,902 710 2,944 725 3,003 726 3,021 18,104 12,287 18,003 12,290 18,029 12,300 17,985 12,270 17,973 12,261 17,946 12,247 17,934 12,255 17,940 12,261 17,944 12,285 17,942 12,292 17,968 12,320 17,970 12,341 17,980 12,358 17,992 12,381 17,990 12,379 10,277 6,822 10,172 6,815 10,176 6,808 10,145 6,793 10,135 6,784 10,121 6,776 10,123 6,792 10,135 6,806 10,142 6,822 10,153 6,843 10,182 6,869 10,182 6,881 10,190 6,892 10,206 6,916 10,207 6,920 680 478 513 695 703 485 516 679 697 486 516 681 697 485 515 677 699 486 515 676 701 484 515 675 705 484 516 675 709 485 517 675 712 487 517 678 716 489 518 678 723 492 521 679 723 492 521 680 723 493 523 680 725 493 527 678 725 495 527 678 250 1,329 239 1,333 240 1,332 238 1,329 237 1,328 236 1,327 237 1,328 237 1,332 238 1,335 237 1,338 238 1,345 236 1,345 235 1,348 231 1,352 230 1,355 1,929 1,918 1,920 1,918 1,916 1,912 1,913 1,914 1,916 1,918 1,922 1,925 1,927 1,937 1,939 1,528 1,830 813 612 929 1,520 1,750 833 542 893 1,520 1,750 820 551 898 1,515 1,741 821 544 892 1,516 1,734 824 537 889 1,515 1,732 829 530 886 1,516 1,730 832 528 882 1,518 1,731 840 522 880 1,521 1,725 843 515 877 1,524 1,724 853 507 873 1,524 1,730 874 502 871 1,528 1,726 868 496 868 1,535 1,723 867 491 864 1,539 1,719 869 486 860 1,540 1,717 866 485 856 368 375 376 376 376 374 374 374 374 375 375 374 374 376 375 7,827 5,466 7,831 5,475 7,853 5,492 7,840 5,477 7,838 5,477 7,825 5,471 7,811 5,463 7,805 5,455 7,802 5,463 7,789 5,449 7,786 5,451 7,788 5,460 7,790 5,466 7,786 5,465 7,783 5,459 Food and kindred products......... Tobacco products ......................... Textile mill products...................... Apparel and other textile products ........................................ Paper and allied products........... 1,663 48 674 1,676 43 675 1,676 43 678 1,673 43 676 1,674 43 675 1,678 42 672 1,671 42 672 1,678 42 672 1,675 42 671 1,671 42 671 1,667 41 672 1,672 40 673 1,670 41 674 1,667 41 673 1,664 40 670 1,007 690 985 689 994 692 990 691 985 690 980 688 977 687 970 686 966 685 959 685 956 686 954 685 956 684 955 683 953 682 Printing and publishing ................ Chemicals and allied products .... Petroleum and coal products ..... Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products.......................... Leather and leather products..... 1,507 1,084 158 1,513 1,078 151 1,514 1,082 152 1,513 1,080 151 1,514 1,081 151 1,516 1,077 150 1,515 1,076 150 1,514 1,073 150 1,515 1,071 151 1,514 1,070 149 1,517 1,065 148 1,518 1,062 148 1,521 1,059 147 1,521 1,057 148 1,524 1,057 149 878 120 904 118 904 118 905 118 907 118 905 117 905 116 903 117 909 117 911 117 917 117 920 116 922 116 926 115 930 114 85,373 87,269 87,004 87,147 87,396 87,507 87,717 87,867 88,085 88,312 88,383 88,592 88,903 89,165 89,348 5,721 3,498 254 5,787 3,587 250 5,788 3,581 250 5,789 3,585 250 5,800 3,600 252 5,786 3,589 246 5,783 3,590 249 5,798 3,606 246 5,800 3,613 247 5,792 3,611 248 5,793 3,611 247 5,803 3,622 248 5,816 3,638 248 5,758 3,580 246 5,842 3,664 245 361 1,611 173 730 19 348 374 1,685 167 737 18 356 373 1,678 167 738 19 356 377 1,680 167 737 18 356 382 1,690 167 735 18 356 379 1,693 164 733 18 356 371 1,695 165 736 18 356 373 1,712 166 734 18 357 374 1,715 166 735 18 358 376 1,704 165 741 18 359 377 1,705 165 739 18 360 380 1,711 166 739 18 360 382 1,721 168 739 18 362 386 1,663 165 738 18 364 383 1,752 167 734 18 365 2,223 1,269 2,201 1,257 2,207 1,261 2,204 1,259 2,200 1,256 2,197 1,255 2,193 1,252 2,192 1,252 2,187 1,250 2,181 1,246 2,182 1,249 2,181 1,249 2,178 1,248 2,178 1,251 2,178 1,255 954 943 946 945 944 942 941 940 937 935 933 932 930 927 923 N o n d u r a b le g o o d s .............................. Production workers..................... S E R V IC E - P R O D U C IN G ...................... T r a n s p o r t a t io n a n d p u b lic u t i l i t i e s ...................................................... Transportation................................. Railroad transportation ................ Local and interurban passenger transit............................................. Trucking and warehousing.......... Water transportation ..................... Transportation by a ir ..................... Pipelines, except natural g a s ...... Transportation services............... Communications and public utilities............................................. Communications............................ Electric, gas, and sanitary services......................................... W h o le s a le t r a d e ................................... 5,997 5,958 5,959 5,949 5,962 5,954 5,962 5,965 5,971 5,976 5,990 6,003 6,013 6,032 6,038 R e ta il t r a d e .............................................. 19,356 19,717 19,672 19,695 19,735 19,770 19,805 19,822 19,848 19,931 19,924 19,965 20,026 20,128 20,159 758 2,451 3,180 781 2,461 3,208 774 2,461 3,205 778 2,451 3,213 782 2,457 3,213 786 2,452 3,218 790 2,455 3,216 794 2,454 3,220 798 2,451 3,210 803 2,446 3,214 808 2,421 3,215 812 2,433 3,223 818 2,432 3,232 829 2,444 3,228 834 2,445 3,237 1,966 2,021 2,006 2,012 2,020 2,029 2,039 2,048 2,060 2,074 2,084 2,101 2,117 2,132 2,137 Building materials and garden supplies......................................... General merchandise stores........ Food stores..................................... Automotive dealers and service stations ........................................... See footnotes at end of table. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 77 Current Labor Statistics: Employment Data 12. Continued—Employment of workers on nonfarm payrolls by industry, monthly data seasonally adjusted (In thousands) Annual average 1994 1993 Industry 1992 1993 May July Aug. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. 1,131 1,147 1,146 1,149 1,149 1,152 1,153 1,148 1,144 1,154 1,146 1,148 1,154 1,147 1,143 800 6,609 828 6,811 820 6,801 823 6,811 829 6,825 832 6,843 839 6,854 844 6,850 849 6,869 852 6,917 855 6,928 862 6,915 866 6,928 876 6,983 883 6,993 2,461 2,460 2,459 2,458 2,460 2,458 2,459 2,464 2,467 2,471 2,467 2,471 2,479 2,489 2,487 6,602 3,160 2,096 406 6,712 3,217 2,079 448 6,694 3,205 2,083 440 6,704 3,212 2,080 445 6,718 3,222 2,082 449 6,724 3,225 2,076 452 6,735 3,230 2,072 457 6,748 3,240 2,072 463 6,763 3,245 2,068 467 6,769 3,250 2,064 472 6,771 3,252 2,057 477 6,776 3,254 2,050 483 6,781 3,256 2,044 486 6,790 3,257 2,040 48 7 6,775 3,251 2,036 485 440 468 461 465 468 472 475 479 483 486 489 492 496 499 500 219 2,152 1,496 223 2,181 1,518 221 2,178 1,515 222 2,181 1,518 223 2,183 1,521 225 2,185 1,521 226 2,187 1,524 226 2,187 1,525 227 2,192 1,530 228 2,190 1,527 229 2,187 1,525 229 2,186 1,525 230 2,185 1,524 231 2,190 1,528 230 2,185 1,523 657 1,290 662 1,314 663 1,311 663 1,311 662 1,313 664 1,314 663 1,318 662 1,321 662 1,326 663 1,329 662 1,332 661 1,336 661 1,340 662 1,343 662 1,339 29,052 490 30,278 515 30,103 509 30,206 510 30,355 512 30,451 516 30,545 522 30,661 526 30,816 533 30,926 538 31,004 539 31,129 530 31,326 528 31,485 535 31,565 547 1,576 1,116 5,315 1,629 1,591 1,136 5,785 1,924 1,588 1,133 5,706 1,873 1,593 1,135 5,743 1,895 1,594 1,138 5,799 1,937 1,590 1,136 5,838 1,961 1,596 1,131 5,877 1,984 1,602 •1,134 5,950 2,033 1,599 1,137 6,016 2,066 1,599 1,140 6,062 2,103 1,602 1,149 6,092 2,130 1,599 1,143 6,161 2,173 1,608 1,138 6,244 2,230 1,606 1,138 6,318 2,281 1,595 1,133 6,324 2,277 881 347 401 944 362 415 934 361 409 941 362 411 947 362 413 955 363 416 962 364 421 965 366 423 975 368 425 986 370 432 992 373 435 1,002 375 443 1,017 375 450 1,027 376 462 1,029 379 472 Apparel and accessory stores..... Furniture and home furnishings stores.............................................. Eating and drinking places........... Miscellaneous retail establishments............................... F in a n c e , in s u r a n c e , a n d r e a l e s t a t e .............................................. Finance ............................................ Depository institutions .................. Nondepository institutions........... Security and commodity brokers .......................................... Holding and other investment offices........................ Insurance......................................... Insurance carriers.......................... Insurance agents, brokers and service ................................... Real e s ta te ...................................... S e r v i c e s ' ................................................... Agricultural services ....................... Hotels and other lodging places................................ Personal services ........................... Business services........................... Personnel supply services .......... Auto repair services, and parking .................................... Miscellaneous repair services...... Motion pictures ............................... Amusement and recreation services .......................................... June Apr.P Mayp 1,188 1,246 1,249 1,247 1,254 1,258 1,255 1,249 1,250 1,254 1,251 1,252 1,271 1,272 1,279 Health services ............................... Hospitals......................................... Legal services................................. Educational services ..................... Social services................................ Museums and botanical and zoological gardens........................ Membership organizations............ Engineering and management services......................................... 8,490 3,750 914 1,678 1,959 8,767 3,787 928 1,686 2,086 8,736 3,791 927 1,680 2,062 8,756 3,789 928 1,680 2,078 8,782 3,790 929 1,690 2,109 8,802 3,790 930 1,693 2,124 8,830 3,791 934 1,697 2,117 8,852 3,790 934 1,696 2,121 8,873 3,789 935 1,707 2,139 8,890 3,787 934 1,708 2,154 8,909 3,788 937 1,710 2,162 8,922 3,787 939 1,720 2,175 8,959 3,791 940 1,730 2,190 8,985 3,793 941 1,731 2,205 9,001 3,796 940 1,756 2,216 73 1,973 76 2,032 75 2,030 76 2,036 76 2,035 76 2,036 77 2,035 77 2,036 77 2,040 77 2,040 77 2,042 78 2,041 78 2,044 79 2,047 79 2,050 2,471 2,536 2,529 2,535 2,540 2,543 2,553 2,556 2,567 2,567 2,560 2,575 2,580 2,589 2,591 G o v e r n m e n t ........................................... 18,645 2,969 4,408 1,799 18,817 2,915 4,484 1,829 18,788 2,914 4,477 1,825 18,804 2,908 4,476 1,822 18,826 2,903 4,488 1,831 18,822 2,906 4,487 1,831 18,887 2,902 4,518 1,856 18,873 2,901 4,504 1,840 18,887 2,900 4,505 1,841 18,918 2,915 4,511 1,841 18,901 2,893 4,492 1,824 18,916 2,892 4,511 1,838 18,941 2,884 4,520 1,846 18,972 2,883 4,528 1,846 18,969 2,873 4,526 1,843 2,610 11,267 6,220 2,655 11,417 6,348 2,652 11,397 6,331 2,654 11,420 6,357 2,657 11,435 6,367 2,656 11,429 6,374 2,662 11,467 6,383 2,664 11,468 6,378 2,664 11,482 6,382 2,670 11,492 6,390 2,668 11,516 6,404 2,673 11,513 6,392 2,674 11,537 6,410 2,682 11,561 6,434 2,683 11,570 6,436 5,048 5,070 5,066 5,063 5,068 5,055 5,084 5,090 5,100 5,102 5,112 5,121 5,127 5,127 5,134 Federal............................................. S ta te ................................................. Education ....................................... Other State government................................... Local................................................. Education ....................................... Other local government................................... 1 Includes other industries, not shown separately, p = preliminary NOTE: See notes on the data for a description of the most recent benchmark revision. 78 Sept. Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 13. Average weekly hours of production or nonsupervisory workers on private nonfarm payrolls by industry, monthly data seasonally adjusted Industry Annual average 1992 34.4 34.5 May 34.7 June 34.4 July Aug. 34.5 Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Apr.p Mayp 34.6 34.7 34.9 44.2 44. 1 44.4 45.0 45.1 41.7 4.5 41. 3 4. 5 42.1 4.7 42.2 4.8 42.1 4.7 42.7 4.8 41.7 40.2 43.3 44.2 43.9 42.6 42. 2 4. 9 40. 6 39. 0 42. 3 44. 2 44. 3 42.3 43.0 5.0 41.3 40.6 43.6 44.6 44.7 42.8 43.1 5.2 41.4 40.2 43.5 45.1 45.3 43.0 42.9 4.9 41.3 40.2 43.9 45.0 45.4 42.7 43.3 41.9 44.1 46.1 41.2 39.9 43.4 42.1 44.0 46.2 41.4 40.1 43.1 41.7 44.0 46.3 41.0 38.9 43.9 42.4 44.5 46.5 41.7 40.1 43.9 42.6 44.7 46.3 41.6 40.4 43.8 42.3 44.3 46.0 41.8 40.1 40.6 4.0 40.7 41.8 37.1 43.7 40.6 4.0 40.7 41.8 37.1 43.7 40.6 4.1 40.7 41.5 36.9 43.7 40.1 4.1 40.8 40.4 35.8 43.2 41.0 4.3 41.2 42.2 37.6 44.1 41.1 4.3 41.2 42.0 38.0 44.0 41.0 4.3 41.1 41.7 37.9 43.9 38.4 43.2 41.8 38.7 38.4 43.0 42.0 38.5 38.3 43.1 42.0 38.5 38.3 43.2 41.9 38.6 38.0 42.8 41.6 37.7 38.4 43.3 42.6 38.6 38.8 43.3 42.4 39.1 38.7 43.3 42.2 38.8 39.7 39.8 39.7 39.7 40.1 39.7 39.8 40.2 40.2 38.3 37.9 38.2 38.2 38.1 38.5 38.1 38.3 38.4 38.5 28.9 28.6 28.9 28.8 28.8 29.0 28.6 28.9 29.0 29.0 32.6 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.4 32.8 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.9 34.5 34.6 34.5 43.9 44.3 44.5 44.2 44.6 44.5 44.2 45.1 44.3 44.1 M A N U F A C T U R I N G ................................................... 41.0 3.8 41.4 4.1 41.4 4.1 41.3 4.1 41.4 4.1 41.5 4.1 41.5 4.2 41.6 4.3 41.7 4.4 41.7 4.4 Overtime hours.................................................... Lumber and wood products................................... Furniture and fixtures.............................................. Stone, clay, and glass products............................ Primary metal industries ........................................ Blast furnaces and basic steel products.......... Fabricated metal products ..................................... 41.5 3.7 40.6 39.7 42.2 43.0 43.5 41.6 42.1 4.3 40.8 40.1 42.7 43.7 44.1 42.1 42.0 4.2 40.6 39.8 42.7 43.6 44.2 41.9 41.9 4.2 40.5 39.8 42.6 43.5 44.1 42.0 42.0 4.2 40.7 40.0 42.6 43.5 44.2 42.0 42.2 4.3 40.8 40.4 42.8 43.6 43.9 42.1 42.3 4.3 41.0 40.0 42.7 43.6 44.1 42.2 42.4 4.5 41.2 40.4 42.8 43.8 43.8 42.3 42.5 4.7 41.4 40.7 43.3 44.1 44.0 42.5 42.5 4.7 41.2 40.2 43.1 44.2 44.2 42.5 Industrial machinery and equipment..................... Electronic and other electrical equipment .......... Transportation equipment....................................... Motor vehicles and equipment............................ Instruments and related products ......................... Miscellaneous manufacturing................................. 42.2 41.2 41.8 42.4 41.1 39.9 43.0 41.8 43.0 44.3 41.1 39.8 42.9 41.8 42.7 44.0 41.3 39.8 42.9 41.4 42.6 43.7 41.2 39.6 43.1 41.8 42.6 43.4 41.3 39.7 43.0 42.0 43.2 44.4 41.0 39.8 43.0 42.0 43.6 45.1 41.1 39.8 43.2 42.1 43.5 45.1 41.1 39.7 43.2 42.0 43.8 45.9 41.0 39.8 N o n d u r a b le g o o d s ............................................................. Overtime hours.................................................... Food and kindred products.................................... Textile mill products................................................ Apparel and other textile products........................ Paper and allied products ...................................... 40.4 3.8 40.6 41.1 37.2 43.6 40.6 4.0 40.7 41.4 37.2 43.6 40.5 3.9 40.5 41.6 37.3 43.7 40.5 3.9 40.6 41.3 37.2 43.6 40.6 3.9 40.7 41.3 37.2 43.5 40.5 3.9 40.7 41.4 37.2 43.6 40.5 4.0 40.6 41.5 37.0 43.8 40.6 4.0 40.9 41.5 36.9 43.8 Printing and publishing............................................ Chemicals and allied products............................... Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products..... Leather and leather products ................................ 38.1 43.1 41.7 38.0 38.3 43.1 41.8 38.6 38.2 43.3 41.7 38.6 38.4 43.0 41.7 37.9 38.4 43.4 41.7 38.2 38.2 43.2 41.8 38.4 38.3 42.9 41.7 38.7 T R A N S P O R T A T IO N A N D P U B L IC U T I L I T I E S ..... 38.9 39.6 39.7 39.5 39.6 39.8 W H O L E S A L E T R A D E ......................................................... 38.2 38.2 38.3 38.2 38.2 R E T A IL T R A D E ..................................................................... 28.8 28.8 29.0 28.7 28.9 S E R V IC E S ................................................................................ 32.5 32.5 32.9 32.5 32.5 D u r a b le g o o d s ...................................... Mar. Feb. 3 34.4 34.6 M I N I N G ........................................................... Overtime hours................................................... Jan. CO P R IV A T E S E C T O R ........................................................ 1993 1994 1993 34.8 p = preliminary NOTE: See "Notes on the data” for a description of the most recent benchmark adjustment. w? 14. Average hourly earnings of production or nonsupervisory workers on private nonfarm payrolls by industry, seasonally adjusted Industry Annual average 1992 P R IV A T E S E C T O R (in c u r r e n t d o l l a r s ) ................... 1993 1994 1993 May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.P Mayp $10.57 $10.83 $10.81 $10.81 $10.82 $10.86 $10.88 $10.92 $10.94 $10.96 $11.02 $11.03 $11.02 $11.05 $11.11 Mining.......................................................................... Construction ............................................................... Manufacturing ............................................................ Excluding overtime ................................................ Transportation and public utilities .......................... 14.54 14.15 11.46 10.95 13.45 14.60 14.37 11.74 11.18 13.63 14.73 14.35 11.69 11.15 13.61 14.59 14.35 11.71 11.17 13.63 14.56 14.40 11.73 11.18 13.63 14.57 14.41 11.77 11.21 13.63 14.55 14.41 11.82 11.25 13.63 14.62 14.43 11.84 11.25 13.66 14.51 14.46 11.87 11.28 13.70 14.68 14.41 11.93 11.32 13.73 14.88 14.43 11.95 11.34 13.80 14.81 14.54 12.01 11.40 13.82 14.77 14.47 12.00 11.37 13.79 14.86 14.52 12.00 11.33 13.78 15.01 14.59 12.01 11.38 13.84 Wholesale trade......................................................... Retail tra d e ................................................................. Finance, insurance, and real estate ...................... Services................................................................... 11.39 7.12 10.82 10.54 11.73 7.29 11.35 10.79 11.75 7.27 11.35 10.77 11.71 7.28 11.30 10.77 11.75 7.28 11.35 10.76 11.80 7.31 11.46 10.81 11.79 7.30 11.44 10.82 11.84 7.35 11.56 10.87 11.80 7.35 11.58 10.88 11.82 7.37 11.61 10.89 11.92 7.41 11.73 10.97 11.88 7.42 11.67 10.96 11.88 7.43 11.69 10.95 11.95 7.45 11.77 10.99 12.01 7.47 11.89 11.06 7.41 7.39 7.38 7.38 7.38 7.39 7.40 7.39 7.39 7.40 7.43 7.42 7.39 7.40 P R IV A T E S E C T O R (in c o n s t a n t ( 1 9 8 2 ) d o lla r s ) - Data not available. p = preliminary https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis - NOTE: See “Notes on the data” for a description of the most recent benchmark revision. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 79 Current Labor Statistics: Employment Data 15. Average hourly earnings of production or nonsupervisory workers on private nonfarm payrolls by industry Annual average Industry 1992 1993 1993 May June July Aug. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.p Mayp P R IV A T E S E C T O R ........................... $10.57 $10.83 $10.82 $10.76 $10.75 $10.78 $10.91 $10.94 $10.96 $10.97 $11.06 $11.06 $11.04 $11.07 $11.11 M I N I N G .......................... 14.54 C O N S T R U C T I O N .......................... 14.15 M A N U F A C T U R I N G .......................... 11.46 D u r a b le g o o d s .......... Lumber and wood products................................... Furniture and fixtures............ Stone, clay, and glass products............................ Primary metal industries ......................................... Blast furnaces and basic steel products.......... Fabricated metal products ..................................... 12.02 9.44 9.01 11.60 13.66 15.87 11.42 Industrial machinery and equipment............. Electronic and other electrical equipment Transportation equipment...................... Motor vehicles and equipment.............. Instruments and related products ........... Miscellaneous manufacturing............... 14.60 14.73 14.59 14.49 14.37 14.33 14.24 14.37 14.45 14.52 14.55 14.47 14.46 14.41 14.45 14.44 14.49 14.58 11.74 11.71 11.71 11.72 11.70 11.85 11.80 11.87 12.00 11.96 12.00 11.99 12.01 12.02 12.33 9.61 9.27 11.85 13.99 16.36 11.69 12.30 9.56 9.17 11.81 13.93 16.25 11.69 12.31 9.56 9.23 11.83 14.01 16.50 11.69 12.28 9.65 9.29 11.90 14.06 16.49 11.65 12.29 9.67 9.33 11.89 14.00 16.40 11.67 12.44 9.73 9.40 12.03 14.20 16.57 11.81 12.40 9.71 9.40 11.92 14.00 16.42 11.74 12.49 9.67 9.44 11.99 14.09 16.51 11.82 12.62 9.72 9.44 11.95 14.26 16.56 11.91 12.56 9.74 9.42 11.96 14.16 16.56 11.87 12.61 9.70 9.41 11.96 14.24 16.57 11.89 12.59 9.69 9.39 11.93 14.20 16.63 11.89 12.61 9.74 9.46 12.01 14.17 16.57 11.90 12.62 9.79 9.47 12.11 14.22 16.67 11.87 12.41 11.00 15.20 15.45 11.89 9.15 12.73 11.25 15.80 16.09 12.23 9.38 12.65 11.18 15.79 16.11 12.20 9.33 12.67 11.25 15.77 16.10 12.18 9.36 12.76 11.26 15.53 15.66 12.24 9.39 12.74 11.26 15.67 15.89 12.24 9.32 12.83 11.32 15.98 16.34 12.33 9.42 12.82 11.29 15.99 16.33 12.32 9.41 12.87 11.37 16.19 16.56 12.36 9.47 12.99 11.52 16.42 16.88 12.46 9.58 12.92 11.41 16.26 16.69 12.41 9.57 12.95 11.45 16.35 16.78 12.43 9.56 12.94 11.46 16.36 16.80 12.41 9.55 12.94 11.46 16.41 16.91 12.42 9.60 12.94 11.51 16.40 16.86 12.39 9.62 Food and kindred products....................... Tobacco products....................................... Textile mill products..................................... Apparel and other textile products....................... Paper and allied products ................................... 10.73 10.20 16.92 8.60 6.95 13.07 10.98 10.45 16.79 8.89 7.09 13.42 10.94 10.48 17.86 8.86 7.05 13.36 10.95 10.47 18.00 8.86 7.07 13.38 11.01 10.49 18.39 8.87 7.01 13.49 10.96 10.43 17.22 8.91 7.07 13.40 11.09 10.51 16.13 8.96 7.15 13.67 11.02 10.38 15.84 8.95 7.14 13.55 11.07 10.55 16.20 8.98 7.18 13.54 11.16 10.63 16.55 9.01 7.24 13.61 11.16 10.59 16.69 9.03 7.22 13.56 11.18 10.57 17.94 9.04 7.22 13.60 11.18 10.62 18.40 9.03 7.25 13.61 11.20 10.64 19.19 9.09 7.27 13.66 11.22 10.65 19.86 9.07 7.27 13.74 Printing and publishing............................................ Chemicals and allied products.............................. Petroleum and coal products................................. Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products..... Leather and leather products .............................. 11.74 14.51 17.90 10.36 7.42 11.93 14.84 18.54 10.57 7.62 11.82 14.77 18.56 10.55 7.59 11.83 14.75 18.47 10.54 7.57 11.91 14.82 18.43 10.58 7.56 11.96 14.76 18.36 10.53 7.63 12.09 14.97 18.70 10.66 7.69 12.04 14.89 18.57 10.60 7.67 12.01 14.95 18.67 10.61 7.80 12.11 15.06 18.71 10.67 7.86 12.06 15.00 18.84 10.70 7.88 12.04 15.04 19.26 10.71 7.92 12.10 15.03 19.36 10.68 7.97 12.06 15.10 18.98 10.70 7.96 12.04 15.14 18.98 10.72 7.98 T R A N S P O R T A T IO N A N D P U B L IC U T I L I T I E S ..... 13.45 13.63 13.57 13.57 13.63 13.62 13.67 13.66 13.69 13.74 13.83 13.85 13.80 13.79 13.80 W H O L E S A L E T R A D E ......................................................... 11.39 11.73 11.75 11.66 11.73 11.75 11.80 11.81 11.80 11.85 11.95 11.93 11.87 11.99 12.01 7.12 7.29 7.27 7.26 7.24 7.24 7.32 7.36 7.36 7.36 7.45 7.45 7.45 7.47 7.47 F IN A N C E , IN S U R A N C E , A N D R E A L E S T A T E ..... 10.82 11.35 11.36 11.23 11.27 11.39 11.41 11.52 11.57 11.65 11.79 11.77 11.75 11.81 11.90 S E R V IC E S ................................................ 10.54 10.79 10.76 10.66 10.62 10.66 10.83 10.87 10.93 10.98 11.06 11.05 11.02 11.01 11.05 N o n d u r a b le g o o d s ....................................... R E T A IL T R A D E ................................................................... 14.44 p = preliminary NOTE: See “Notes on the data” for a description of the most recent benchmark revision. 80 Sept. 1994 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 14.54 14.47 14.43 14.67 15.06 14.92 14.84 14.95 15.01 16. Average weekly earnings of production or nonsupervisory workers on private nonfarm payrolls by industry Annual average Industry 1992 PRIVATE SECTOR Current dollars........................................... Seasonally adjusted............................... Constant (1982) dollars ........................... 1993 May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.p Mayp $363.61 $373.64 $375.45 $372.30 $374.10 $378.38 $376.40 $378.52 $378.12 $380.66 $379.36 $376.04 $379.78 $381.92 $387.74 375.11 371.86 373.29 375.76 374.27 376.74 378.52 378.12" 383.50 378.33 381.29 383.44 387.74 254.99 254.87 256.45 254.13 255.18 257.40 255.71 255.93 255.49 257.38 255.98 253.06 254.89 255.81 - M IN IN G ............................................................. 638.31 646.78 652.54 644.88 639.01 648.36 647.03 658.39 645.02 654.28 664.15 652.00 652.96 665.28 675.45 CO NSTRUCTIO N........................................... 537.70 551.81 561.74 559.63 567.62 572.22 556.12 571.82 558.54 553.82 533.17 521.65 550.16 554.97 580.28 MANUFACTURING Current dollars............................................ Constant (1982) dollars............................. 469.86 329.50 486.04 331.54 483.62 330.34 484.79 330.91 480.52 327.78 485.55 330.31 491.78 334.09 493.24 333.50 498.54 336.85 508.80 344.02 496.34 334.91 490.80 330.28 502.38 337.17 504.42 337.86 504.84 Durable goods .............................................. Lumber and wood products ....................... Furniture and fixtures.................................. Stone, clay, and glass products............... Primary metal industries ............................. Blast furnaces and basic steel products Fabricated metal products ......................... 498.83 383.26 357.70 489.52 587.38 690.35 475.07 519.09 392.09 371.73 506.00 611.36 721.48 492.15 516.60 391.00 361.30 509.01 607.35 715.00 489.81 518.25 390.05 366.43 511.06 613.64 734.25 493.32 510.85 391.79 368.81 510.51 611.61 737.10 482.31 517.41 398.40 379.73 516.03 607.60 721.60 491.31 523.72 401.85 377.88 520.90 620.54 734.05 492.48 527.00 401.99 382.58 518.52 611.80 715.91 500.12 534.57 400.34 386.10 522.76 622.78 726.44 507.08 547.71 404.35 390.82 512.66 637.42 738.58 518.09 532.54 398.37 375.86 502.32 625.87 723.67 503.29 527.10 386.06 358.52 491.56 625.14 725.77 498.19 538.85 397.29 378.42 510.60 631.90 736.71 505.33 540.97 402.26 378.40 522.44 634.82 743.99 508.13 541.40 407.26 376.91 536.47 639.90 753.48 506.85 Industrial machinery and equipment........ Electronic and other electrical equipment Transportation equipment........................... Motor vehicles and equipment............... Instruments and related products ............ Miscellaneous manufacturing..................... 523.70 453.20 635.36 655.08 488.68 365.09 547.39 470.25 679.40 712.79 502.65 373.32 541.42 465.09 678.97 720.12 500.20 369.47 543.54 466.88 678.11 719.67 503.03 369.72 543.58 462.79 649.15 665.55 496.94 365.27 542.72 469.54 670.68 700.75 498.17 370.94 546.56 472.04 688.74 728.76 504.30 375.86 553.82 475.31 700.36 741.38 505.12 378.28 558.56 483.23 712.36 758.45 511.70 384.48 576.76 495.36 737.26 786.61 524.57 388.95 562.02 480.36 710.56 757.73 515.02 379.93 556.85 475.18 712.86 766.85 509.63 368.06 568.07 484.76 728.02 779.52 517.50 382.96 565.48 484.76 731.89 788.01 515.43 385.92 565.48 484.57 731.44 787.36 514.19 383.84 Nondurable goods ........................................ Food and kindred products........................ Tobacco products......................................... Textile mill products..................................... Apparel and other textile products............ Paper and allied products .......................... 433.49 414.12 653.11 353.46 258.54 569.85 445.79 425.32 627.95 368.05 263.75 585.11 441.98 421.30 655.46 368.58 262.26 581.16 444.57 424.04 694.80 370.35 264.42 583.37 443.70 425.89 662.04 362.78 259.37 582.77 446.07 429.72 644.03 372.44 264.42 581.56 453.58 435.11 614.55 375.42 263.84 602.85 450.72 429.73 613.01 373.22 265.61 596.20 454.98 436.77 610.74 378.96 269.97 597.11 459.79 439.02 618.97 380.22 272.22 605.65 450.86 426.78 625.88 372.04 265.70 592.57 443.85 423.86 635.08 357.98 255.59 580.72 455.03 431.17 695.52 376.55 271.15 593.40 456.96 430.92 756.09 380.87 272.63 598.31 457.78 434.52 778.51 378.22 274.81 600.44 Printing and publishing................................. Chemicals and allied products................... Petroleum and coal products..................... Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products........................................ Leather and leather products .................... 447.29 625.38 784.02 456.92 639.60 819.47 446.80 636.59 829.63 449.54 635.73 814.53 453.77 637.26 810.92 459.26 633.20 809.68 467.88 649.70 824.67 464.74 641.76 850.51 465.99 648.83 819.61 471.08 662.64 812.01 458.28 648.00 830.84 453.91 640.70 841.66 465.85 650.80 863.46 465.52 652.32 852.20 461.13 652.53 848.41 432.01 281.96 441.83 294.13 440.99 292.97 442.68 291.45 434.84 288.79 439.10 292.99 443.46 295.30 444.14 296.83 448.80 302.64 454.54 306.54 448.33 303.38 442.32 294.62 452.83 304.45 453.68 308.05 453.46 309.62 TRANSPORTATION AND PUBLIC U T IL IT IE S ....................................................... 523.21 539.75 538.73 538.73 545.20 548.89 544.07 545.03 543.49 546.85 547.67 545.69 545.10 550.22 554.76 WHOLESALE T R A D E .................................... 435.10 448.09 451.20 446.58 449.26 451.20 449.58 452.32 450.76 453.86 456.49 452.15 452.25 459.22 463.59 RETAIL TRADE .............................................. 205.06 209.95 210.10 210.54 214.30 215.03 210.82 211.97 210.50 215.65 210.09 209.35 212.33 214.39 215.88 FINANCE, INSURANCE, AND REAL ESTATE ........................................................... 387.36 406.33 411.23 399.79 401.21 414.60 406.20 411.26 413.05 415.91 429.16 421.37 418.30 422.80 431.97 SERVICES ....................................................... 342.55 350.68 351.85 347.52 348.34 352.85 349.81 352.19 354.13 355.75 359.45 355.81 355.95 356.72 362.44 - - Data not available. p = preliminary NOTE: See “Notes on the data” for a description of the most recent benchmark revision. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 81 Current Labor Statistics: Employment Data 17. Diffusion indexes of employment change, seasonally adjusted (In percent) Jan. Time span and year Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Private nonfarm payrolls, 356 industries Over 1-month span: 1992 .................................. 1993 ................................. 1994 ............................. 42.1 57.9 56.6 46.1 61.7 58.3 48.3 49.0 62.9 57.7 56.0 61.2 53.1 57.0 50.6 50.4 51.1 52.8 58.8 46.5 50.0 53.4 56.7 56.9 57.4 52.5 61.0 57.3 57.4 - - - - - - - Over 3-month span: 1992 ............................................................................ 1993 ............................................................................ 1994 ............................................................................ 39.7 64.0 62.1 42.3 61.4 64.5 51.0 59.7 64.6 56.2 55.8 62.1 57.6 54.9 - 54.1 57.7 50.4 54.6 49.9 55.9 51.7 55.8 56.2 62.4 59.8 60.8 - - - - - 58.6 61.5 - Over 6-month span: 1992 ...................................... 1993 ..................................... 1994 ................................... 43.5 61.4 66.4 46.3 60.8 64.5 47.2 59.0 52.0 59.8 - 54.2 54.4 56.6 54.5 - 52.8 57.9 53.1 58.8 55.8 59.7 56.3 60.8 64.2 62.8 62.2 63.6 - - - - Over 12-month span: 1992 ............................................................................ 1993 ....................................................................... 1994 ............................................................................ 47.2 60.0 " 42.3 61.1 42.7 60.7 48.0 63.2 55.8 62.4 60.7 60.8 59.7 63.5 60.4 61.8 - - 44.1 62.2 - - - - 52.5 62.1 - 60.1 62.9 - 60.7 - Manufacturing payrolls, 139 industries Over 1-month span: 1992 ................................................ 1993 ........................................ 1994 ...................................... 38.1 52.5 54.3 40.6 57.6 53.6 45.0 47.8 51.1 57.9 41.7 54.0 47.8 46.0 48.9 50.0 40.3 - 53.2 49.3 - 41.7 42.8 - 49.3 46.8 47.8 50.0 52.5 55.4 - - - 51.8 51.1 - Over 3-month span: 1992 ............................................. 1993 .................................................. 1994 ........................................ 30.9 60.1 56.1 36.3 58.3 57.6 45.3 51.4 54.0 50.7 40.6 51.4 55.4 37.1 47.1 40.3 - 47.1 41.0 42.4 43.2 - 50.0 52.9 - 53.6 43.5 - - 51.1 54.7 - 55.0 56.1 - Over 6-month span: 1992 ............................................................ 1993 ............................................................... 1994 ................................................. 34.2 54.0 57.2 37.1 51.8 55.8 41.0 48.6 48.6 47.1 52.2 37.1 54.7 34.2 49.3 45.7 57.9 54.3 56.8 55.8 - - - 50.4 47.8 - 48.9 50.4 - 46.4 39.6 - Over 12-month span: 1992 ........................................................... 1993 ...................................................... 1994 ......................................................... 42.4 50.0 ” 36.7 52.5 36.3 48.6 36.0 49.3 - 39.6 50.7 45.7 48.9 - 50.0 50.0 - 55.8 48.9 57.9 50.0 - 55.4 49.3 - 52.9 51.1 _52.9 * - Data not available. NOTE: Figures are the percent of industries with employment increasing plus one-half of the industries with unchanged employment, where 50 percent indicates an equal balance between industries with increasing and decreasing 18. - " - - - - employment. Data for the 2 most recent months shown in each span are preliminary. See the “Definitions” in this section. See “Notes on the data” for a description of the most recent benchmark revision, Annual data: Employment status of the population (Numbers in thousands) Employment status 82 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 186,393 123,869 188,049 124,787 189,765 125,303 191,576 126,982 193,550 128,040 Civilian noninstitutional population........................... Civilian labor force.................................................... Labor force participation r a te ......................................................................... 178,206 115,461 64.8 65.3 65.6 65.9 66.5 66.4 66.0 66.3 66.2 Employed ............................................................. Employment-population ra tio ......................... Agriculture .................................................... Nonagricultural industries........................... 107,150 60.1 3,179 103,971 109,597 60.7 3,163 106,434 112,440 61.5 3,208 109,232 114,968 62.3 3,169 111,800 117,342 63.0 3,199 114,142 117,914 62.7 3,186 114,728 116,877 61.6 3,233 113,644 117,598 61.4 3,207 114,391 119,306 61.6 3,074 116,232 Unemployed ...................................................... Unemployment r a te ....................................... Not in labor force ..................................................... 8,312 7.2 62,744 8,237 7.0 62,752 7,425 6.2 62,888 6,701 5.5 62,944 6,528 5.3 62,523 6,874 5.5 63,262 8,426 6.7 64,462 9,384 7.4 64,593 8,734 6.8 65,509 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 180,587 117,834 182,753 119,865 184,613 121,669 19. Annual data: Employment levels by industry (In thousands) Industry 1985 1986 1988 1987 1989 1990 1991 1993 1992 108 89 23 604 959 231 635 492 104 110,525 91,708 23,256 611 4,642 18,003 97,387 80,992 24,842 927 4,668 19,248 99,344 82,651 24,533 777 4,810 18,947 101,958 84,948 24,674 717 4,958 18,999 105,210 87,824 25,125 713 5,098 19,314 107,895 90,117 25,254 692 5,171 19,391 109,419 91,115 24,905 709 5,120 19,076 108,256 89,854 23,745 689 4,650 18,406 74,811 5,247 5,761 17,880 6,273 22,957 77,284 5,362 5,848 18,422 6,533 24,110 80,086 5,514 6,030 19,023 6,630 25,504 82,642 5,625 6,187 19,475 6,668 26,907 84,514 5,793 6,173 19,601 6,709 27,934 84,511 5,762 6,081 19,284 6,646 28,336 85 373 5 721 5 997 19 356 6 602 29 052 87,269 5,787 Finance, insurance, and real e s ta te .................................. Services.................................................................................. 72,544 5,233 5,727 17,315 5,948 21,927 Local ................................................................................ 16,394 2,875 3,832 9,687 16,693 2,899 3,893 9,901 17,010 2,943 3,967 10,100 17,386 2,971 4,076 10,339 17,779 2,988 4,182 10,609 18,304 3,085 4,305 10,914 18,402 2,966 4,355 11,081 18 2 4 11 645 969 408 267 18,817 2,915 4,484 11,417 Goods-producing ....................................................................... M ining.................................................................................... Manufacturing....................................................................... Service-producing...................................................................... Transportation and public utilities...................................... NOTE: 4 18 19,717 6,712 30,278 See “Notes on the data” for a description of the most recent benchmark revision. 20. Annual data: Average hours and earnings of production or nonsupervisory workers on nonfarm payrolls, by industry Industry 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 34.9 8.57 299.09 34.8 8.76 304.85 34.8 8.98 312.50 34.7 9.28 322.02 34.6 9.66 334.24 34.5 10.01 345.35 34.3 10.32 353.98 34.4 10.57 363.61 34.5 10.83 373.64 43.4 11.98 519.93 42.2 12.46 525.81 42.4 12.54 531.70 42.3 12.80 541.44 43.0 13.26 570.18 44.1 13.68 603.29 44.4 14.19 630.04 43.9 14.54 638.31 44.3 14.60 646.78 37.7 12.32 464.46 37.4 12.48 466.75 37.8 12.71 480.44 37.9 13.08 495.73 37.9 13.54 513.17 38.2 13.77 526.01 38.1 14.00 533.40 38.0 14.15 537.70 38.4 14.37 551.81 40.5 9.54 386.37 40.7 9.73 396.01 41.0 9.91 406.31 41.1 10.19 418.81 41.0 10.48 429.68 40.8 10.83 441.86 40.7 11.18 455.03 41.0 11.46 469.86 41.4 11.74 486.04 39.5 11.40 450.30 39.2 11.70 458.64 39.2 12.03 471.58 38.8 12.26 475.69 38.9 12.60 490.14 38.9 12.97 504.53 38.7 13.22 511.61 38.9 13.45 523.21 39.6 13.63 539.75 38.4 9.15 351.36 38.3 9.34 357.72 38.1 9.59 365.38 38.1 9.98 380.24 38.0 10.39 394.82 38.1 10.79 411.10 38.1 11.15 424.82 38.2 11.39 435.10 38.2 11.73 448.09 29.4 5.94 174.64 29.2 6.03 176.08 29.2 6.12 178.70 29.1 6.31 183.62 28.9 6.53 188.72 28.8 6.75 194.40 28.6 6.94 198.48 28.8 7.12 205.06 28.8 7.29 209.95 36.4 7.94 289.02 36.4 8.36 304.30 36.3 8.73 316.90 35.9 9.06 325.25 35.8 9.53 341.17 35.8 9.97 356.93 35.7 10.39 370.92 35.8 10.82 387.36 35.8 11.35 406.33 32.5 7.90 256.75 32.5 8.18 265.85 32.5 8.49 275.93 32.6 8.88 289.49 32.6 9.38 305.79 32.5 9.83 319.48 32.4 10.23 331.45 32.5 10.54 342.55 32.5 10.79 350.68 P r iv a t e s e c to r : Average weekly hours.................................. Average hourly earnings (in dollars)......................................... Average weekly earnings (in dollars) .................................. M in in g : Average weekly hours ...................................................... Average hourly earnings (in dollars) ................................... Average weekly earnings (in dollars).................................. C o n s tr u c tio n : Average weekly hours ......................................... Average hourly earnings (in dollars) ................................... Average weekly earnings (in dollars).................................. M a n u fa c tu r in g : Average weekly hours ......................................................... Average hourly earnings (in dollars) ................................... Average weekly earnings (in dollars).................................. T r a n s p o r t a t io n a n d p u b lic u tilitie s : Average weekly hours ........................................ Average hourly earnings (in dollars) ................................... Average weekly earnings (in dollars).................................. W h o le s a le tr a d e : Average weekly hours ........................................................... Average hourly earnings (in dollars) ................................... Average weekly earnings (in dollars).................................. R e ta il t r a d e : Average weekly hours ........................................................... Average hourly earnings (in dollars) ................................... Average weekly earnings (in dollars).................................. F in a n c e , in s u ra n c e , a n d re a l e s t a te : Average weekly hours ........................................................... Average hourly earnings (in dollars) ................................... Average weekly earnings (in dollars).................................. S e r v ic e s : Average weekly hours .......................................................... Average hourly earnings (in dollars) ................................... Average weekly earnings (in dollars).................................. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 83 Current Labor Statistics: Compensation & Industrial Relations 21. Employment Cost Index, compensation,1 by occupation and industry group (June 1989 = 100) 1992 1993 1994 Series Mar. June 113.5 114.2 Workers, by occupational group: White-collar workers ....................... Professional specialty and technical.......................... Executive, administrative, and managerial .. Administrative support, including clerical ......... Blue-collar workers..................... Service occupations........................ 113.9 115.4 113.0 113.9 112.6 114.1 Workers, by industry division: Goods-producing................................................................... Manufacturing ................................... Service-producing ....................................................................... Services....................... Health services................................ Hospitals................................ Educational services......................... Public administration 3 ..................................... Nonmanufacturing.................................. Sept. Dec. Mar. June 115.4 116.1 117.5 118.3 114.6 116.2 113.4 114.6 113.5 114.7 115.8 118.2 114.3 115.9 114.4 116.2 116.6 119.1 115.0 116.8 115.2 116.7 117.9 120.1 116.9 118.3 116.7 117.9 113.5 114.0 113.5 115.5 117.5 117.3 115.7 114.0 113.3 114.3 114.7 114.2 116.3 118.4 118.1 116.1 114.6 114.1 115.3 115.7 115.4 118.2 120.2 119.8 118.9 115.8 115.3 116.2 116.5 116.2 119.2 121.3 121.0 119.7 116.3 116.0 113.1 113.3 113.9 114.1 114.8 115.1 113.4 113.8 115.3 112.7 111.6 114.2 114.6 116.4 113.1 112.2 115.1 115.8 118.0 113.9 111.8 Sept. Percent change 3 months ended 12 months ended Dec. Mar. 119.5 120.2 121.3 0.9 3.2 118.6 120.6 117.5 119.3 117.8 118.7 119.9 122.0 118.6 120.4 118.8 119.9 120.6 122.5 119.4 121.3 119.4 120.5 121.8 123.7 120.6 122.6 120.4 121.6 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 .8 .9 3.3 3.0 3.2 3.6 3.2 3.1 118.0 118.6 117.2 120.1 122.3 122.0 120.1 117.6 117.1 119.1 119.7 118.0 120.6 123.2 122.6 120.2 118.0 117.9 120.0 120.6 119.3 122.2 124.4 123.9 122.6 119.3 119.2 120.6 121.3 120.0 122.9 125.4 125.0 122.9 120.0 119.8 121.9 122.5 121.0 123.8 126.1 125.9 123.2 121.5 120.9 1.1 1.0 .8 .7 .6 .7 .2 1.3 .9 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.2 2.6 3.3 3.2 115.6 115.9 117.1 117.5 118.0 118.5 119.1 119.5 119.8 120.2 121.0 121.4 1.0 1.0 3.3 3.3 115.9 116.6 119.0 114.5 112.6 117.4 118.3 120.4 116.5 112.9 118.3 119.2 121.3 117.2 113.8 119.4 120.2 122.2 118.1 115.6 120.2 121.0 122.9 118.9 116.5 121.5 122.4 124.6 120.3 117.2 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.2 .6 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.3 3.8 Mar. 1994 C iv ilia n w o r k e r s 2 ................... P r iv a te in d u s t r y w o r k e r s ................................. Excluding sales occupations.... Workers, by occupational group: White-collar workers............................ Excluding sales occupations............................................ Professional specialty and technical occupations .......... Executive, administrative, and managerial occupations Sales occupations.......................................... Administrative support occupations, including clerical........................................................................ 113.6 114.4 115.5 116.4 118.1 119.2 120.3 121.2 122.5 1.1 3.7 Blue-collar workers................................................................ Precision production, craft, and repair occupations....... Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors............ Transportation and material moving occupations........... Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers .... 112.5 112.2 113.9 110.4 112.6 113.4 113.1 114.6 111.4 113.4 114.3 114.3 115.0 112.5 114.6 115.0 115.0 115.8 113.0 115.3 116.6 116.6 117.8 113.9 116.8 117.7 117.6 119.0 115.2 117.6 118.7 118.7 120.0 115.9 118.4 119.3 118.9 120.8 117.0 119.1 120.3 120.2 121.3 118.5 120.2 .8 1.1 .4 1.3 .9 3.2 3.1 3.0 4.0 2.9 Service occupations.......... ....................................... 113.5 114.2 115.4 115.9 117.2 118.0 118.9 119.5 120.6 .9 2.9 Production and nonsupervisory occupations4 ................... 113.0 113.8 114.8 115.5 116.9 117.9 119.0 119.7 120.7 .8 3.3 Workers, by industry division: Goods-producing.......................................................... Excluding sales occupations......................................... White-collar occupations .................................................. Excluding sales occupations......................................... Blue-collar occupations ..................................................... Service occupations........................................................... Construction ..................................................... Manufacturing............................................................ White-collar occupations................................................. Excluding sales occupations........................................ Blue-collar occupations................................................... Service occupations ......................................................... Durables .............................................................................. Nondurables...................................................................... 113.5 113.4 113.6 113.2 113.4 113.8 110.6 114.0 113.6 113.0 114.2 113.9 114.1 113.8 114.3 114.1 114.5 113.9 114.1 115.5 111.7 114.7 114.6 113.8 114.8 115.4 114.8 114.7 115.3 115.2 115.5 115.1 115.1 116.9 113.1 115.7 115.5 115.0 115.7 117.0 115.8 115.4 116.1 115.9 116.7 116.2 115.8 117.5 113.8 116.5 116.6 115.9 116.4 117.6 116.7 116.3 118.0 117.8 118.6 118.1 117.6 120.0 114.9 118.6 118.7 118.0 118.5 120.3 119.0 117.9 119.1 118.8 119.6 119.0 118.7 120.6 116.0 119.7 119.7 118.8 119.6 120.7 120.0 119.0 119.9 119.6 120.5 119.7 119.6 121.5 116.8 120.6 120.5 119.5 120.5 121.7 121.0 119.7 120.6 120.1 121.1 119.9 120.2 122.4 116.5 121.3 121.3 119.9 121.3 122.7 121.9 120.3 121.8 121.4 123.0 121.9 121.1 123.5 118.6 122.5 122.7 121.3 122.3 123.8 122.9 121.7 1.0 1.1 1.6 1.7 .7 .9 1.8 1.0 1.2 1.2 .8 .9 .8 1.2 3.2 3.1 3.7 3.2 3.0 2.9 3.2 3.3 3.4 2.8 3.2 2.9 3.3 3.2 Service-producing .................................................................... Excluding sales occupations........................................ White-collar occupations.................................................... Excluding sales occupations .......................................... Blue-collar occupations...................................................... Service occupations ............................................................ Transportation and public utilities........................................ Transportation........................................................................ Public utilities............................................... Communications................................................................. Electric, gas, and sanitary services ................................ Wholesale and retail trade .................................................. Excluding sales occupations .......................................... Wholesale tra d e .......................................................... Excluding sales occupations........................................ Retail tra d e ........................................................................... Food stores ...................................................................... General merchandise stores......................................... 112.8 113.2 113.4 114.1 110.4 113.4 111.1 109.9 112.6 111.8 113.7 111.4 111.5 112.5 112.5 110.8 112.6 111.7 113.6 114.0 114.1 114.9 111.6 114.1 111.9 110.5 113.7 112.7 115.0 112.5 112.7 113.5 113.5 112.1 113.6 112.9 114.4 115.1 114.9 116.1 112.4 115.2 112.9 111.7 114.4 113.4 115.9 113.0 113.5 113.2 114.1 112.9 114.2 113.3 115.2 115.9 115.7 116.8 113.2 115.7 113.5 111.8 115.6 114.7 116.7 113.7 114.1 114.4 114.9 113.4 115.1 113.3 116.4 117.3 116.9 118.4 114.3 116.8 114.8 112.8 117.4 116.5 118.6 114.7 115.4 115.3 116.0 114.5 115.9 114.1 117.3 118.3 117.8 119.3 115.5 117.7 116.0 114.1 118.3 117.5 119.4 115.9 116.2 116.4 116.8 115.6 117.2 114.7 118.5 119.3 119.0 120.4 116.6 118.6 116.8 114.8 119.2 118.5 120.2 116.4 117.0 116.6 117.6 116.2 117.1 115.5 119.3 120.2 119.8 121.4 117.2 119.1 117.5 115.7 119.9 119.2 120.8 117.1 118.0 117.8 118.7 116.8 118.3 116.3 120.4 121.4 121.0 122.7 118.4 120.2 119.2 117.1 121.7 121.0 122.7 117.6 118.6 117.9 119.3 117.5 119.6 115.3 .9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 .9 1.4 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.6 .4 .5 .1 .5 .6 1.1 -.9 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.6 2.9 3.8 3.8 3.7 3.9 3.5 2.5 2.8 2.3 2.8 2.6 3.2 1.1 See footnotes at end of table. 84 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 21. Continued—Employment Cost Index, compensation,* by occupation and industry group (June 1989=100) 1994 1993 1992 Series Mar. June Sept. Dec. Mar. June Sept. Percent change 3 months ended 12 months ended Dec. Mar. 1.1 1.3 4.5 4.2 Mar. 1994 Finance, insurance, and real estate.................................... Excluding sales occupations .......................................... Banking, savings and loan, and other credit agencies.................................................................. Insurance .............................................................................. Services ................................................................................... Business services ................................................................ Health services .................................................................... Hospitals ............................................................................ Educational services .......................................................... Colleges and universities................................................ 111.7 112.5 110.8 112.2 111.1 112.5 111.3 113.0 112.6 114.9 113.1 116.4 115.7 117.5 116.4 118.2 117.7 119.7 110.2 113.2 115.3 112.5 117.9 117.7 115.8 116.8 110.0 114.7 116.4 113.6 118.9 118.5 116.3 117.4 111.0 114.9 117.8 115.2 120.6 120.2 119.3 120.3 111.4 115.2 118.9 115.9 121.8 121.6 120.0 120.8 114.6 114.3 120.1 116.5 123.0 122.7 120.5 121.5 116.0 116.1 120.9 117.4 124.0 123.4 120.6 121.5 116.9 117.4 122.3 118.1 125.0 124.5 123.8 125.0 117.8 119.7 123.1 118.6 126.0 125.6 124.1 125.3 118.7 119.9 124.4 121.3 126.7 126.7 124.5 125.7 .8 .2 1.1 2.3 .6 .9 .3 .3 3.6 4.9 3.6 4.1 3.0 3.3 3.3 3.5 Nonmanufacturing .................................................................. White-collar occupations................................................. Excluding sales occupations........................................ Blue-collar occupations................................................... Service occupations ......................................................... 112.7 113.4 114.1 110.7 113.4 113.5 114.1 114.9 111.8 114.1 114.4 114.9 116.0 112.8 115.2 115.1 115.7 116.9 113.4 115.7 116.3 117.0 118.5 114.6 116.8 117.2 117.9 119.4 115.6 117.7 118.4 119.0 120.4 116.6 118.6 119.0 119.9 121.4 117.1 119.1 120.3 121.1 122.8 118.2 120.2 1.1 1.0 1.2 3.4 3.5 3.6 S t a t e a n d lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t w o r k e r s ......................................... 115.2 115.7 117.9 118.6 119.3 119.6 121.4 121.9 122.6 .6 2.8 Workers, by occupational group: White-collar workers............................................................... Professional specialty and technical................................ Executive, administrative, and managerial ..................... Administrative support, including clerical......................... Blue-collar workers................................................................. 115.4 115.5 115.0 115.4 114.2 115.8 116.0 115.2 115.7 115.3 118.1 118.5 116.8 117.5 116.9 118.9 119.2 117.8 118.5 117.8 119.5 119.6 119.0 119.2 118.3 119.6 119.7 119.2 119.6 118.7 121.5 121.7 121.0 121.0 120.5 121.9 122.0 121.6 121.6 121.4 122.6 122.5 122.8 122.7 122.3 .6 .4 1.0 .9 .7 2.4 3.2 2.9 115.8 115.1 115.9 115.9 115.7 116.0 116.6 114.0 114.0 116.2 115.6 116.8 116.7 116.1 116.4 117.1 114.1 114.6 118.8 117.5 118.6 118.6 118.9 119.2 119.9 116.9 115.8 119.6 118.6 119.4 119.4 119.7 119.9 120.7 117.2 116.3 120.0 119.6 120.2 120.0 120.0 120.2 120.7 118.4 117.6 120.2 120.0 120.7 120.4 120.1 120.3 120.8 118.5 118.0 122.2 121.4 122.2 122.0 122.3 122.5 123.0 120.8 119.3 122.6 121.9 123.1 123.3 122.7 122.9 123.6 120.7 120.0 123.1 122.8 124.2 123.7 122.9 123.2 123.7 121.5 121.5 .4 .7 .9 .3 .2 .2 .1 .7 1.3 Workers, by industry division: Services excluding schools5 .............................................. Health services.................................................................. Educational services........................................................ Elementary and secondary ....................................... Colleges and universities........................................... Public administration3 ............................................................. 1 Cost (cents per hour worked) measured in the Employment Cost Index consists of wages, salaries, and employer cost of employee benefits. 2 Consist of private industry workers (excluding farm and household workers) and State and local government (excluding Federal Government) workers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis .9 2.7 3.3 3.1 2.4 2.5 2.5 3.3 3 Consist of legislative, judicial, administrative, and regulatory activities. 4 This series has the same industry and occupational coverage as the Hourly Earnings Index, which was discontinued in January 1989. 5 Includes, for example, library, social, and health services. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 85 Current Labor Statistics: Compensation & Industrial Relations 22. Employment Cost Index, wages and salaries, by occupation and industry group (June 1989=100) 1994 1993 1992 Series Mar. June Sept. Dec. Mar. June Sept. Dec. Mar. Percent change 3 months ended 12 months ended Mar. 1994 C iv ilia n w o r k e r s 1 ......................................................................................... 111.5 112.1 113.0 113.6 114.5 115.2 116.4 117.1 117.8 0.6 2.9 Workers, by occupational group: White-collar workers ................................................................. Professional specialty and technical................................... Executive, administrative, and managerial......................... Administrative support, including clerical ........................... Blue-collar workers.................................................................... Service occupations.................................................................. 112.2 113.6 111.9 111.8 109.8 111.9 112.8 114.4 112.2 112.5 110.6 112.4 113.7 116.0 112.8 113.4 111.3 113.4 114.5 116.7 113.5 114.2 111.9 113.8 115.4 117.5 115.0 115.3 112.7 114.5 116.0 118.0 115.5 116.1 113.4 115.2 117.4 119.5 116.5 117.1 114.4 116.1 118.1 120.0 117.3 118.0 115.0 116.6 118.8 120.7 118.1 118.9 115.8 117.5 .6 .6 .7 .8 .7 .8 2.9 2.7 2.7 3.1 2.8 2.6 Workers, by industry division: Goods-producing......................................................................... Manufacturing ............................................................................ Service-producing ....................................................................... Services ................................................................................... Health services .................................................................... Hospitals ............................................................................ Educational services ........................................................... Public administration 2 ........................................................... Nonmanufacturing ..................................................................... 110.7 111.5 111.8 113.7 115.4 115.2 114.1 111.9 111.5 111.4 112.2 112.4 114.3 116.2 115.7 114.4 112.4 112.0 112.2 112.9 113.3 115.9 117.7 117.1 116.9 113.1 113.0 112.9 113.7 114.0 116.7 118.6 118.0 117.5 113.6 113.6 113.8 114.7 114.8 117.4 119.5 118.9 117.9 114.4 114.4 114.6 115.5 115.5 117.8 120.3 119.5 118.0 114.9 115.1 115.4 116.3 116.8 119.5 121.4 120.7 120.4 115.9 116.4 116.2 117.3 117.5 120.0 122.2 121.7 120.7 116.6 117.0 117.0 118.0 118.2 120.9 122.8 122.4 121.0 117.9 117.7 .7 .6 .6 .8 .5 .6 .2 1.1 .6 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.0 2.8 2.9 2.6 3.1 2.9 110.9 111.1 111.6 111.8 112.2 112.5 112.9 113.2 113.9 114.2 114.6 115.0 115.7 115.9 116.4 116.6 117.2 117.5 .7 .8 2.9 2.9 111.7 112.1 113.0 112.3 112.8 114.0 112.9 113.7 115.3 113.7 114.4 116.0 114.7 115.7 117.1 115.5 116.4 117.9 116.7 117.4 118.9 117.5 118.2 119.5 118.3 119.0 120.4 .7 .7 .8 3.1 2.9 2.8 111.6 109.7 112.0 110.1 112.5 109.7 113.2 110.7 114.7 110.5 115.3 111.6 116.2 113.8 117.0 114.7 117.8 114.8 .7 .1 2.7 3.9 111.6 112.4 113.2 114.0 115.2 116.1 117.1 118.0 119.0 .8 3.3 Blue-collar w orkers.............................................................. Precision production, craft, and repair occupations..................................................................... Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors........ Transportation and material moving occupations....... Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers............................................................................. 109.7 110.4 111.1 111.6 112.5 113.2 114.1 114.8 115.6 .7 2.8 114.7 115.6 112.6 115.5 116.2 113.5 .7 .5 .8 2.8 2.7 3.2 .8 2.6 Service occupations ............................................................ P r iv a t e in d u s t r y w o r k e r s ................................................................. Excluding sales occupations............................................. Workers, by occupational group: White-collar workers............................................................ Excluding sales occupations....................................... Professional specialty and technical occupations...... Executive, administrative, and managerial occupations ...................................................................... Sales occupations............................................................. Administrative support occupations, including clerical............................................................................... 110.1 111.6 108.3 111.0 111.7 109.3 111.5 112.4 109.7 112.4 113.2 110.0 113.2 113.8 111.2 110.6 111.3 112.1 112.6 113.6 114.3 114.9 115.7 116.6 111.2 111.6 112.5 112.9 113.5 114.1 114.9 115.3 116.3 .9 2.5 .6 2.8 Production and nonsupervisory occupations3 ................. 110.6 111.3 112.0 112.6 113.4 114.2 115.3 115.9 116.6 Workers, by industry division: Goods-producing................................................................... Excluding sales occupations......................................... White-collar occupations ................................................... Excluding sales occupations......................................... Blue-collar occupations ..................................................... Service occupations........................................................... 110.7 110.5 111.7 111.3 110.1 110.1 111.4 111.2 112.5 112.0 110.7 111.0 112.1 112.0 113.2 112.9 111.4 112.2 112.8 112.6 114.2 113.7 111.9 113.1 113.8 113.5 115.4 114.9 112.8 113.9 114.5 114.2 116.4 115.6 113.4 114.4 115.3 114.9 117.3 116.4 114.1 115.7 116.1 115.6 118.2 116.8 114.9 116.9 116.9 116.4 119.1 117.7 115.6 116.4 .7 .7 .8 .8 .6 -.4 2.7 2.6 3.2 2.4 2.5 2.2 Construction ......................................................................... 107.2 107.9 108.7 108.9 109.5 110.4 111.3 111.1 112.2 1.0 2.5 Manufacturing....................................................................... White-collar occupations.............................................. Excluding sales occupations..................................... Blue-collar occupations ................................................ Service occupations....................................................... Durables............................................................................. Nondurables....................................................................... 111.5 111.9 111.4 111.1 110.1 111.2 111.8 112.2 112.9 112.2 111.7 111.0 111.8 112.8 112.9 113.6 113.0 112.4 112.3 112.7 113.2 113.7 114.6 114.0 113.1 113.4 113.4 114.3 114.7 116.0 115.3 113.9 114.3 114.4 115.5 115.5 116.9 115.9 114.5 114.5 115.1 116.3 116.3 117.7 116.7 115.2 116.0 115.9 116.9 117.3 118.8 117.2 116.2 117.3 117.2 117.5 118.0 119.5 118.0 116.9 116.8 117.8 118.3 .6 .6 .7 .6 -.4 .5 .7 2.9 3.0 2.3 2.6 2.2 3.0 2.4 Service-producing.................................................................. Excluding sales occupations......................................... White-collar occupations ................................................... Excluding sales occupations...................................... Blue-collar occupations ..................................................... Service occupations........................................................... 111.1 111.5 111.7 112.4 108.7 111.3 111.7 112.2 112.2 113.1 109.7 111.7 112.3 113.0 112.8 114.0 110.3 112.6 113.0 113.7 113.6 114.7 111.0 112.9 113.9 114.8 114.5 116.0 111.9 113.5 114.7 115.6 115.2 116.8 112.9 114.1 115.9 116.6 116.5 117.8 114.1 114.9 116.6 117.4 117.3 118.7 114.6 115.2 117.3 118.3 118.0 119.6 115.5 116.3 .6 .8 .6 .8 .8 1.0 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.2 2.5 Transportation and public utilities................................. Transportation .................................................................. Public utilities................................................................... Communications........................................................... Electric, gas, and sanitary services.......................... 109.7 108.3 111.4 110.8 112.2 110.6 109.2 112.4 111.7 113.3 111.2 109.8 113.0 112.2 114.2 111.8 109.9 114.1 113.5 114.8 112.9 110.8 115.4 114.7 116.3 114.0 112.0 116.4 115.6 117.4 114.7 112.6 117.2 116.5 118.2 115.4 113.4 117.9 117.1 118.8 116.4 114.2 119.1 118.4 119.9 .9 .7 1.0 1.1 .9 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2 See footnotes at end of table. 86 109.3 110.9 107.4 114.2 114.7 111.7 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 3'1 22.Continued— Employment Cost Index, wages and salaries, by occupation and industry group (June 1989 = 100) 1994 1993 1992 Series Mar. June Sept. Dec. Mar. Sept. June Dec. Mar. Percent change 3 months ended 12 months ended Mar. 1994 Wholesale and retail trade.............................................. Excluding sales occupations..................................... Wholesale trade ............................................................. Excluding sales occupations ................................... Retail trade...................................................................... Food stores.................................................................. General merchandise stores..................................... 109.9 110.1 111.4 111.5 109.3 110.9 111.1 111.2 111.4 112.5 112.7 110.6 112.3 111.7 111.5 112.1 111.9 113.3 111.3 112.9 111.7 112.3 112.6 113.5 114.1 111.8 113.7 111.8 113.0 113.6 113.9 114.7 112.6 114.6 112.4 114.2 114.4 115.1 115.5 113.8 115.4 113.4 114.7 115.2 115.1 116.3 114.5 114.9 114.5 115.4 116.1 116.4 117.5 115.0 115.9 115.0 115.5 116.5 116.2 117.8 115.2 117.0 114.0 0.1 .3 -.2 .3 .2 .9 -.9 2.2 2.6 2.0 2.7 2.3 2.1 1.4 Finance, insurance, and real e s ta te .............................. Excluding sales occupations ................................... Banking, savings and loan, and other credit agencies............................................................. Insurance......................................................................... 109.5 110.6 108.2 109.9 108.2 109.9 108.3 110.2 109.3 112.0 109.3 113.1 112.3 114.0 112.9 114.6 113.7 115.5 .7 .8 4.0 3.1 108.2 111.2 107.7 112.7 108.6 112.7 109.0 112.7 112.1 111.2 112.9 112.9 113.7 113.9 114.5 116.6 114.7 116.0 .2 -.5 2.3 4.3 Services.............................................................................. Business services............................................................ Health services ................................................................ Hospitals ........................................................................ Educational services ....................................................... Colleges and universities............................................ 113.2 111.0 115.6 115.4 113.4 114.2 114.0 111.7 116.3 115.9 113.6 114.5 115.2 113.3 117.9 117.3 116.5 117.3 116.1 113.9 118.9 118.3 117.1 117.6 117.0 114.2 119.8 119.3 117.5 118.0 117.6 114.6 120.7 119.9 117.4 117.7 118.9 115.3 121.7 121.0 120.7 121.3 119.6 115.7 122.6 122.0 120.9 121.6 120.8 118.8 123.1 122.8 121.2 122.0 1.0 2.7 .4 .7 .2 .3 3.2 4.0 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.4 Nonmanufacturing................................................................ White-collar occupations................................................. Excluding sales occupations........................................ Blue-collar occupations................................................... Service occupations ......................................................... 110.7 111.6 112.3 108.2 111.3 111.3 112.1 113.0 109.1 111.7 111.9 112.8 113.9 109.7 112.6 112.6 113.5 114.6 110.2 112.9 113.4 114.4 115.8 111.1 113.4 114.2 115.2 116.6 111.9 114.1 115.4 116.4 117.6 113.0 114.8 116.0 117.2 118.5 113.4 115.1 116.8 117.9 119.4 114.2 116.3 .7 .6 .8 .7 1.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 2.8 2.6 S t a t e a n d lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t w o r k e r s ...................................... 113.8 114.2 115.9 116.6 117.2 117.4 119.3 119.7 120.4 .6 2.7 Workers, by occupational group: White-collar workers............................................................ Professional specialty and technical ............................. Executive, administrative, and managerial................... Administrative support, including clerical...................... Blue-collar workers.............................................................. 114.0 114.5 113.3 112.7 112.5 114.3 114.8 113.5 112.9 113.7 116.2 117.0 114.7 114.1 115.0 116.9 117.6 115.5 114.9 115.6 117.5 118.1 116.5 115.4 116.2 117.6 118.2 116.6 115.9 116.5 119.6 120.4 118.2 117.2 118.4 119.9 120.7 118.8 117.8 119.0 120.6 121.1 119.8 118.9 119.7 .6 .3 .8 .9 .6 2.6 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.0 Workers, by industry division: Services ................................................................................ Services excluding schools4 ........................................... Health services............................................................... Hospitals....................................................................... Educational services......................................................... Schools............................................................................ Elementary and secondary ....................................... Colleges and universities........................................... Public administration 2 ......................................................... 114.4 114.8 114.9 114.5 114.3 114.3 114.9 112.3 111.9 114.7 115.2 115.7 115.2 114.6 114.6 115.3 112.3 112.4 116.9 116.4 116.7 116.5 116.9 117.0 117.9 114.1 113.1 117.5 117.4 117.4 117.1 117.6 117.5 118.5 114.3 113.6 118.1 118.4 118.1 117.6 118.0 117.9 118.7 115.5 114.4 118.2 118.7 118.8 118.2 118.1 118.0 118.8 115.6 114.9 120.3 120.1 120.4 119.9 120.3 120.3 121.1 117.8 115.9 120.6 120.4 121.0 120.7 120.6 120.7 121.6 117.7 116.6 121.1 121.3 121.9 121.2 120.9 121.0 121.7 118.6 117.9 .4 .7 .7 .4 .2 .2 .1 .8 1.1 2.5 2.4 3.2 3.1 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.7 3.1 1 Consists of private industry workers (excluding farm and household workers) and State and local government (excluding Federal Government) workers. 2 Consists of legislative, judicial, administrative, and regulatory activities. 23. 3 This series has the same industry and occupational coverage as the Hourly Earnings Index, which was discontinued in January 1989. 4 Includes, for example, library, social and health services. Employment Cost Index, benefits, private industry workers by occupation and industry group (June 1989 = 100) 1994 1993 1992 Series Mar. June Sept. Dec. Mar. June Sept. Dec. Mar. Percent change 3 months ended 12 months ended Mar. 1994 118.6 119.7 121.2 122.2 125.2 126.7 127.7 128.3 130.7 1.9 4.4 118.4 118.7 119.4 119.7 121.0 121.2 122.0 122.2 124.7 125.5 125.9 127.3 126.8 128.4 127.6 128.9 130.5 130.5 2.3 1.2 4.7 4.0 119.7 117.7 119.3 118.2 120.6 118.8 120.1 119.4 122.3 120.4 121.5 121.0 123.4 121.2 122.6 122.0 127.3 123.4 126.8 124.2 129.0 124.6 128.6 125.5 130.0 125.7 129.7 126.5 130.3 126.7 130.0 127.4 132.7 128.9 132.0 129.9 1.8 1.7 1.5 2.0 4.2 4.5 4.1 4.6 Workers, by occupational group: Workers, by industry group: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 87 Current Labor Statistics: Compensation & Industrial Relations 24. Employment Cost Index, private nonfarm workers, by bargaining status, region, and area size (June 1989 = 100) Percent change 1994 1993 1992 3 months ended Series Mar. June Sept. Dec. Mar. June Sept. Dec. Mar. 12 months ended Mar. 1994 C O M P E N S A T IO N W o r k e r s , b y b a r g a in in g s t a t u s 1 Union ............................................................. Goods-producing ....................................................................... Service-producing...................................................................... Manufacturing ............................................................................ Nonmanufacturing ..................................................................... 113.1 114.0 111.9 114.8 111.8 114.0 114.6 113.2 115.2 113.1 115.2 115.7 114.6 116.1 114.5 115.9 116.4 115.2 116.9 115.1 117.8 118.7 116.7 119.8 116.3 119.1 120.0 117.7 121.1 117.4 120.0 121.0 118.6 121.9 118.5 120.9 121.9 119.6 123.0 119.3 121.9 122.5 121.0 123.6 120.5 0.8 .5 1.2 .5 1.0 3.5 3.2 3.7 3.2 3.6 Nonunion.............................................................................. Goods-producing ....................................................................... Service-producing...................................................................... Manufacturing ............................................................................ Nonmanufacturing ..................................................................... 113.1 113.3 113.0 113.6 112.9 113.8 114.1 113.7 114.5 113.5 114.7 115.1 114.4 115.5 114.3 115.5 116.0 115.2 116.4 115.1 116.8 117.7 116.3 118.1 116.3 117.7 118.6 117.2 119.0 117.2 118.8 119.4 118.4 120.0 118.3 119.5 119.9 119.2 120.6 119.0 120.7 121.5 120.3 122.0 120.2 1.0 1.3 .9 1.2 1.0 3.3 3.2 3.4 3.3 3.4 113.9 112.5 113.8 111.9 114.5 113.3 114.6 112.9 115.5 114.1 115.3 114.1 116.4 114.8 116.1 114.9 117.8 116.2 117.9 116.2 119.1 117.0 119.3 116.4 120.2 118.1 120.1 117.8 120.7 118.8 121.2 118.1 121.6 120.0 122.8 119.4 .7 1.0 1.3 1.1 3.2 3.3 4.2 2.8 113.1 113.1 113.9 113.7 114.8 114.8 115.6 115.6 • 117.1 117.0 118.1 117.8 119.1 118.7 119.8 119.7 120.9 121.3 .9 1.3 3.2 3.7 Union .............................................................................................. Goods-producing ....................................................................... Service-producing...................................................................... Manufacturing ............................................................................ Nonmanufacturing ..................................................................... 109.8 109.6 110.1 110.4 109.4 110.8 110.2 111.5 110.9 110.7 111.7 111.1 112.5 111.7 111.7 112.3 111.7 113.1 112.5 112.2 113.1 112.2 114.2 113.2 113.0 113.9 113.0 115.1 113.9 113.9 114.8 113.8 116.0 114.6 114.9 115.7 114.8 116.8 115.9 115.5 116.5 115.4 118.0 116.6 116.4 .7 .5 1.0 .6 .8 3.0 2.9 3.3 3.0 3.0 Nonunion........................................................................................ Goods-producing ....................................................................... Service-producing...................................................................... Manufacturing ............................................................................ Nonmanufacturing ..................................................................... 111.2 111.2 111.2 111.9 110.9 111.8 111.9 111.7 112.7 111.4 112.4 112.6 112.3 113.4 112.0 113.1 113.3 113.0 114.2 112.7 114.1 114.4 113.8 115.4 113.5 114.8 115.2 114.6 116.1 114.3 115.9 116.0 115.9 117.0 115.5 116.6 116.7 116.6 117.9 116.1 117.4 117.6 117.2 118.6 116.9 .7 .8 .5 .6 .7 2.9 2.8 3.0 2.8 3.0 111.7 110.8 110.7 110.2 112.2 111.5 111.3 111.1 113.0 112.0 111.8 112.2 113.7 112.7 112.5 112.8 114.6 113.6 113.5 113.6 115.7 114.3 114.6 113.7 116.8 115.3 115.2 115.3 117.3 116.0 116.5 115.7 117.8 116.6 117.5 116.6 .4 .5 .9 .8 2.8 2.6 3.5 2.6 110.9 110.7 111.6 111.2 112.3 112.0 112.9 112.8 113.9 113.5 114.7 114.4 115.8 115.0 116.5 115.8 117.2 117.0 .6 1.0 2.9 3.1 W o r k e r s , b y r e g io n 1 Northeast........................................................................................ South .............................................................................................. Midwest (formerly North Central).............................................. W e s t................................................................................................ W o r k e r s , b y a r e a s iz e 1 Metropolitan a re a s ....................................................................... Other are a s .................................................................................... W A G E S A N D S A L A R IE S W o r k e r s , b y b a r g a in in g s ta tu s 1 W o r k e r s , b y r e g io n 1 Northeast........................................................................................ South .............................................................................................. Midwest (formerly North Central).............................................. W e s t................................................................................................ W o r k e r s , b y a r e a s iz e 1 Metropolitan a re a s ....................................................................... Other are a s .................................................................................... 1 The indexes are calculated differently from those for the occupation and industry groups. For a detailed description of the index calculation, see the 88 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 L a b o r R e v ie w Technical Employment Cost Index,” May 1982. M o n th ly Note, “Estimation procedures for the 25. Percent of full-time employees participating in employer-provided benefit plans, 1980-91 S m a ll M e d iu m a n d la r g e p r iv a te e s ta b lis h m e n ts ' Ite m T im «-o ff plans Participants with: Paid lunch time ........................................................ Average minutes per d a y ................................... Paid rest t im e ........................................................... Average minutes per d a y ................................... Paid funeral le a v e ................................................... Average days per occurrence.......................... Paid holidays ............................................................ Average days per y e a r ....................................... Paid personal le a v e ................................................ Average days per y e a r ....................................... Paid vac atio n s.......................................................... Paid sick le a v e ......................................................... Unpaid maternity leave .......................................... Unpaid paternity leave ........................................... p riv a te S ta te a n d lo c a l e s ta b lis h - g o v e r n m e n ts 3 m e n ts 2 1980 1981 1982 1983 10 10 75 99 10.2 23 99 65 9 25 76 25 99 10.0 24 3.8 99 67 11 25 74 25 99 9.8 25 3.7 100 67 75 99 10.1 20 100 62 1984 9 26 73 26 99 9.8 23 3.6 99 67 1985 1986 1988 1989 1991 1990 1987 1990 10 27 72 26 88 3.2 98 10.1 26 3.7 99 67 10 27 72 26 88 3.2 99 10.0 25 3.7 100 70 11 29 72 26 85 3.2 96 9.4 24 3.3 98 69 10 26 71 26 84 3.3 97 9.2 22 3.1 97 68 8 30 67 26 80 3.3 92 10.2 21 3.3 96 67 8 37 48 27 47 2.9 84 9.5 11 2.8 88 47 4 17 34 4 58 29 56 3.7 81 10.9 38 2.7 72 97 11 36 56 29 63 3.7 74 13.6 39 2.9 67 95 37 18 37 26 17 8 57 30 51 33 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - 33 16 97 97 97 96 97 96 95 90 92 83 69 93 93 58 98 60 99 - 62 99 50 37 37 58 99 53 43 46 62 99 61 52 56 67 99 68 61 66 70 99 70 66 76 79 98 80 74 75 80 97 97 96 81 80 98 97 96 79 83 98 97 94 76 78 98 87 86 82 79 99 99 98 27 49 - 27 51 - 33 $10.13 54 $32.51 36 $11.93 58 $35.93 36 $12.05 56 $38.33 43 $12.80 63 $41.40 44 $19.29 64 $60.07 47 $25.31 66 $72.10 51 $26.60 69 $96.97 42 $25.13 67 $109.34 35 $15.74 71 $71.89 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 92 94 94 64 85 88 69 72 64 72 64 72 66 74 64 73 13 62 72 10 59 76 8 49 71 7 42 71 6 44 78 1 19 67 1 55 67 1 45 40 41 43 45 47 48 48 42 45 40 19 31 27 54 50 51 49 51 52 49 46 43 45 26 14 21 84 84 84 82 82 80 76 63 63 59 20 93 90 55 98 - 56 98 50 43 - 58 97 52 45 - 64 97 51 54 55 - 63 97 47 54 56 - 67 97 41 57 61 7 53 64 98 35 57 62 7 60 59 98 26 55 62 45 62 97 22 64 63 48 55 98 7 56 54 48 54 95 7 58 49 31 92 90 33 100 18 9 89 88 16 100 8 9 - - - - - 26 33 36 41 44 17 28 45 - - - - - - 2 5 5 12 9 23 10 36 1 8 5 5 5 31 I n s u r a n c e p la n s Participants in medical care p la n s ......................... Participants with coverage for: Home health c a r e ................................................ Extended care facilities...................................... Mental health c a r e ............................................... Alcohol abuse treatm en t.................................... Drug abuse treatment ........................................ Participants with employee contribution required for: Self coverage ........................................................ Average monthly contribution ....................... Family co v erag e ................................................... Average monthly contribution5 ...................... Participants in life insurance p la n s ........................ Participants with: Accidental death and dismemberment insurance.......................................................... Survivor income benefits ................................... Retiree protection available............................... - - 26 46 - - Participants in long-term disability insurance p la n s ........................................................................ Participants in sickness and accident insurance p la n s ........................................................................ 38 $25.53 65 $117.59 R e t i r e m e n t p la n s Participants in defined benefit pension plans6 .... Participants with: Normal retirement prior to age 6 5 ................... Early retirement available .................................. Ad hoc pension increase in last 5 y e a rs ....... Terminal earnings fo rm u la ................................. Benefit coordinated with Social Security...... Participants in defined contribution p la n s ............ Participants in plans with tax-deferred savings arrangements ........................................................ 53 45 O t h e r b e n e f it s Employees eligible for: Flexible benefits plans ........................................... Reimbursement accounts ..................................... “ _____ ' From 1979 to 1986, data were collected in private sector establishments with a minimum employment varying from 50 to 250 employees, depending upon industry. In addition, coverage in service Industries was limited. Begin ning In 1988, data were collected in all private sector establishments employing 100 workers or more in all industries. 2 Includes private sector establishments with fewer than 100 workers. 3 In 1987, coverage excluded local governments employing fewer than 50 workers. In 1990, coverage Included all State and local governments. 4 Data exclude college teachers. 5 Data for 1983 refer to the average monthly employee contribution for dependent coverage, excluding the employee. Beginning In 1984, data refer https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to the average monthly employee contribution for family coverage, which includes the employee. 6 Prior to 1985, data on participation in defined benefit pension plans included a small percentage of workers participating in money purchase pension plans. Beginning in 1985, these workers were classified as participating in defined contribution plans. 7 Includes employees who participated in Payroll-based Employee Stock Ownership Plans. Beginning in 1987, these plans were no longer available. NOTE: Dash Indicates data were not collected in this year. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 89 Current Labor Statistics: Compensation & Industrial Relations 26. Specified compensation and wage rate changes from contract settlements, and wage rate changes under all agreements, private industry collective bargaining agreements covering 1,000 workers or more (in percent) Annual average Quarterly average Measure 1992 1991 1993 1994 1992 II III IV I II III IV F R a t e c h a n g e s u n d e r s e ttle m e n ts : Specified total compensation changes, settlements covering 5,000 workers or more: First year of contract ................ Annual average over life of contract........ 4.1 3.4 3.0 3.1 3.6 3.6 3.3 3.0 1.4 2.7 3.1 3.2 3.2 2.6 1.0 1.4 3.8 2.5 3.0 2.6 Specified wage changes, settlements covering 1,000 workers or more: First year of contract .................... Annual average over life of contract . 3.6 3.2 2.7 3.0 2.8 3.0 2.9 3.1 1.8 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.5 2.5 1.1 1.7 2.8 2.0 3.2 2.5 3.6 3.1 1.0 1.0 .4 .5 .9 .8 7 .4 1.1 1.9 .5 .8 1.9 .4 .2 .7 .1 .3 .6 .1 .2 .2 .1 .1 .3 .1 2 .7 .1 1 .6 (2) 5 .2 (2) 1 .3 (2) W a g e r a t e c h a n g e s u n d e r a ll a g r e e m e n t s : Average wage change 1 ............... Source: Current settlements........................ Prior settlements.......................... COLA provisions.......................... 1 Because of rounding, total may not equal sum of parts. 2 Between -0.05 and 0.05 percent. 90 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 p = preliminary. 27. Specified compensation and wage rate changes from contract settlements, and wage rate changes under all agreements, private industry collective bargaining agreements covering 1,000 workers or more during 4-quarter periods (in percent) Average for four quarters endingMeasure 1992 II 1994 1993 III IV I II III IV lp R a t e c h a n g e s u n d e r s e ttle m e n ts : Specified total compensation changes, settlements covering 5,000 workers or more, all industries: First year of contract........................... Annual average over life of contract ........................ 3.6 3.2 3.5 3.2 3.0 3.1 3.0 3.1 2.9 2.9 2.1 2.4 3.0 2.4 3.0 2.3 Specified wage changes, settlements covering 1,000 workers or more: All industries: First year of contract.................................. Contracts with COLA clauses ..................... Contracts without COLA clauses.................. Contracts with either lump sums, COLA, or b oth....... Contracts with neither lump sums nor CO LA............................ Annual average over life of contract................... Contracts with COLA clauses ............ Contracts without COLA clauses............................... Contracts with either lump sums, COLA, or both........................ Contracts with neither lump sums nor CO LA......... 3.2 3.0 3.2 3.1 3.2 3.1 2.6 3.2 2.8 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 2.6 3.2 3.0 3.1 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.6 3.0 2.5 3.1 2.9 3.0 2.6 2.8 2.6 2.7 2.6 2.9 2.6 3.0 2.8 3.0 2.5 2.7 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.5 2.8 2.7 2.8 2.0 2.5 1.8 2.3 1.7 2.3 2.1 2.4 2.1 2.5 2.3 2.8 2.1 2.6 2.0 2.1 1.4 2.5 1.9 2.5 2.4 2.7 2.3 2.6 2.1 2.1 1.0 2.5 1.8 2.5 Manufacturing: First year of contract................................... Contracts with COLA clauses ......... Contracts without COLA clauses.......................... Contracts with either lump sums, COLA, or both............................ Contracts with neither lump sums nor CO LA................................... Annual average over life of contract........................................ Contracts with COLA clauses ................... Contracts without COLA clauses..................... Contracts with either lump sums, COLA, or both.............. Contracts with neither lump sums nor CO LA.............................. 3.1 2.7 3.7 3.0 3.4 2.7 2.1 3.3 2.4 3.1 3.0 2.2 3.6 2.7 3.4 2.7 1.8 3.3 2.3 3.1 2.6 1.6 3.4 1.9 3.4 2.6 1.9 3.2 2.0 3.2 2.9 2.4 3.3 2.4 3.4 2.8 2.5 3.0 2.4 3.2 2.8 2.4 3.0 2.3 3.3 2.6 2.3 2.8 2.2 3.0 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.3 3.1 2.1 1.9 2.5 1.8 2.9 2.7 2.9 2.3 2.7 2.9 1.5 1.3 2.1 1.3 2.5 2.5 2.7 1.9 2.4 2.7 1.2 1.0 1.9 1.0 2.3 Nonmanufacturing: First year of contract................................................. Contracts with COLA clauses ............................... Contracts without COLA clauses........................................... Contracts with either lump sums, COLA, or both............................ Contracts with neither lump sums nor CO LA ................................... Annual average over life of contract................................... Contracts with COLA clauses ................................................ Contracts without COLA clauses....................................................... Contracts with either lump sums, COLA, or both............................ Contracts with neither lump sums nor C O LA................................... 3.2 3.8 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.7 3.2 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.8 3.0 3.2 3.0 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.1 2.7 3.6 2.6 3.2 2.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.2 3.0 2.6 3.1 2.4 2.8 2.4 2.9 2.8 3.0 3.0 2.9 2.5 3.0 2.4 2.7 2.4 2.8 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.7 1.7 2.5 1.6 2.3 1.5 2.4 2.7 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.1 1.8 2.1 2.4 1.8 2.5 2.3 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.3 1.9 2.3 2.8 2.0 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.5 Construction: First year of contract............................................................................. Annual average over life of contract................................................... 2.3 2.7 2.0 2.5 2.0 2.4 1.9 2.5 1.8 2.4 2.0 2.4 2.1 2.6 2.4 2.7 3.4 3.2 3.1 3.0 2.9 2.6 3.0 2.9 .9 2.0 .4 .9 1.9 .4 .8 1.9 .4 .8 1.8 .4 .7 1.8 .4 .6 1.8 .3 .9 1.9 .2 .8 1.8 .2 W a g e r a t e c h a n g e s u n d e r a ll a g r e e m e n t s : Average wage change1 ............................................................. Source: Current settlements............................................................... Prior settlements.............................................................. COLA provisions........................................................................ ' Because of rounding, total may not equal sum of parts. p = preliminary. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 91 Current Labor Statistics: Compensation & Industrial Relations 28. Specified changes in the cost of compensation and components annualized over the life of the contract in private industry collective bargaining settlements covering 5,000 workers or more, by quarter, and during 4-quarter periods (in percent) 3 M 1992 Measure II III 1993 IV I II 1994 III IV 0.9 1.8 1.4 1.4 2.4 2.0 1.9 1.7 2.2 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.3 1.3 2.1 1.6 1.3 1.3 2.0 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.8 1.5 1.2 1.4 2.0 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.8 1.7 1.4 1.3 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.4 2.2 1.2 .8 1.1 1.6 1.1 .7 .9 1.5 1.9 1.6 1.5 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.6 2.4 1.4 1.1 1.2 1.9 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.5 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.5 2.3 lp Quarterly average All industries: Compensation.............. Cash payments.......... W ag e s ................ Benefits............ .7 1.1 Average for four quarters All industries: Compensation....................... Cash payments.................. W ag es.................... Benefits..................... With contingent pay provisions: Compensation.............. Cash payments........... W ag es........................ Benefits.............. Without contingent pay provisions: Compensation...................... Cash payments............... W ag es...................... Benefits....................... Manufacturing: Compensation...................... Cash payments................ W ag es........................... Benefits..................... Nonmanufacturing: Compensation................. Cash payments.................. W ag es......................... Benefits......................... 1.8 2.4 2.3 2.1 2.3 Goods-producing: Compensation................... Cash payments....................... W ag es........................... Benefits...................... 1.9 Service-producing: Compensation............................. Cash payments..................... W ag es.................................. Benefits........................... 2.3 2.3 p = preliminary. 92 1.2 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.6 2.1 2.0 1.9 2.5 2.0 1.8 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.8 2.2 1.3 1.3 1.8 •¡e! 1.4 ¿.u 2.1 9? 20 1.2 1.0 1.3 29. Specified compensation and wage rate changes from contract settlements, and wage rate changes under all agreements, State and local government collective bargaining agreements covering 1,000 workers or more (in percent) Annual average Measure 1991 1992 1993 1.7 2.7 0.6 1.9 0.9 1.9 2.2 2.7 1.1 2.1 1.1 2.1 2.6 1.9 2.7 .6 1.8 .1 .8 1.1 1.5 1.1 (4) Changes under settlements: Total compensation 1 changes, 2 settlements covering 5,000 workers or more: Wage changes, settlements covering 1,000 workers or more: Wage changes under all agreements: Source: 1 Compensation includes wages, salaries, and employers’ cost of employee benefits when contract is negotiated. 2 Changes are the net result of increases, decreases, and zero change in C) compensation or wages. 3 Because of rounding, total may not equal sum of parts. 4 Less than 0.05 percent. 30. Work stoppages involving 1,000 workers or more Annual totals 1992 Number of stoppages: Beginning in period....................... In effect during period.................. Workers involved: Beginning in period (in thousands).................................... In effect during period (in thousands).................................... Days idle: Number (in thousands)................. Percent of estimated working time' .............................................. 1993 May June July Sept. Aug. Oct. Jan.p Dec. Nov. Apr.P Mar.P F 3b.p 35 41 35 36 5 7 2 7 4 8 4 7 3 7 3 8 3 7 0 3 1 1 2 2 3 3 5 5 36.4 18.2 35.2 3.7 7.0 6.7 13.4 12.7 34.6 .0 2.5 41.1 16.8 102.5 388.0 18.4 37.8 22.3 28.6 26.7 35.8 37.3 58.4 18.4 2.5 41.1 16.8 102.5 398.9 398.1 393.2 408.6 464.6 530.3 505.8 510.5 505.6 240.0 12.5 46.6 34.6 1,532.8 .02 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 1 Agricultural and government employees are included in the total employed and total working time: private household, forestry, and fishery employees are excluded. An explanation of the measurement of idleness as a percentage of the total time worked is found in “‘Total economy’ measure of strike idleness,” M o n th ly L a b o r R e - https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1994 1993 .02 (2) (2) (2) .02 October 1968, pp. 54-56. 2 Less than 0.005 percent. p = preliminary. view, Monthly Labor Review July 1994 93 Current Labor Statistics: Price Data 31. Consumer Price Indexes for All Urban Consumers and for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers: U.S. city average, by expenditure category and commodity or service group (1982-84 = 100, unless otherwise indicated) Annual average Series 1993 1994 May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May 144.5 432.7 144.2 432.C 144.4 432.4 144.4 432.É 144.6 433.6 145.1 434.7 145.7 436.4 145.6 436.6 145.8 436.8 146.2 437.8 146.7 439.3 147.2 441.1 147.4 441.4 147.5 441.9 138 7 137.9 136.8 151.5 130.9 128.5 155.4 128.8 133.1 129 8 114.3 140.1 140.7 147.3 140.9 140.1 156.6 135.5 129.4 159.0 130.5 133.4 130.0 114.6 143.7 143.2 149.6 141.1 140.7 156.3 135.1 128.0 164.5 130.5 133.4 129.4 115.0 143.7 142.9 149.5 140.4 139.3 156.7 135.3 129.8 154.2 130.3 133.1 130.1 114.6 143.3 143.2 149.6 141.1 140.3 139.1 157.2 135.4 130.2 152.0 130.6 133.2 130.4 114.4 144.1 143.4 149.6 140.8 139.7 157.5 136.0 130.5 154.2 130.6 133.7 130.1 114.1 144.3 143.6 149.7 141.1 140.0 157.7 135.8 129.6 157.1 130.4 133.3 130.0 113.8 144.2 143.8 149.9 141.6 140.8 158.1 136.6 129.5 158.7 131.4 134.1 130.0 115.4 145.1 144.0 150.1 141.£ 141.2 157.9 137.3 129.5 160.4 131.0 133.7 129.2 115.4 144.4 144.2 150.0 143.6 142.7 142.3 158.9 137.1 130.2 166.5 130.9 133.3 129.4 114.8 144.9 144.3 150.3 144.: 143.7 143.8 160.3 137.8 131.6 169.8 132.2 134.9 131.3 116.1 145.8 144.5 151.0 143.£ 142.9 142.6 161.3 137.4 131.8 161.7 132.5 135.6 131.5 116.0 146.5 144.6 151.1 143.£ 143.2 142.8 160.4 137.9 131.8 162.7 132.6 135.3 132.6 116.0 146.4 144.8 151.4 144.C 143.4 143.0 162.5 137.6 131.8 161.8 133.0 135.9 133.2 115.5 147.5 145.1 151.6 144.1 143.5 143.0 162.3 137.1 132.0 163.2 132.8 135.5 133.4 115.6 147.0 145.3 151.5 137.5 151.2 160.9 146.9 184.8 155.3 155.5 142.2 128.6 133.1 122.4 117.8 108.1 90.7 114.8 142.5 118.0 109.0 129.6 132.1 141.2 155.7 165.0 150.3 190.3 160.2 160.5 146.9 130.6 135.0 124.6 121.3 111.2 90.3 118.5 147.0 119.3 109.5 130.7 135.8 140.5 154.9 164.2 149.9 188.4 159.4 159.7 145.5 131.6 135.4 126.6 120.5 110.3 91.3 117.3 146.3 119.1 109.3 131.3 135.1 141.5 155.7 165.2 150.3 191.1 160.1 160.4 146.6 131.2 136.0 124.8 122.9 114.1 90.4 122.0 146.5 119.1 109.1 131.3 135.6 141.9 156.3 166.8 150.4 197.3 160.3 160.6 147.4 131.3 136.2 124.7 123.2 114.2 89.1 122.2 147.1 118.8 109.0 129.7 135.8 142.3 156.8 167.3 150.8 198.0 160.8 161.1 148.0 131.6 136.5 124.9 123.3 114.1 87.8 122.2 147.8 119.2 109.5 129.2 136.5 142.3 156.6 165.3 151.0 189.1 161.4 161.6 148.7 131.3 137.4 122.8 123.9 114.8 87.9 123.1 148.1 119.6 109.7 130.7 136.9 142.2 156.8 165.4 151.4 188.7 161.6 161.9 148.9 130.8 136.4 123.1 122.4 112.1 89.1 119.7 148.4 120.0 110.0 131.8 137.0 142.0 156.7 164.4 151.6 183.8 162.0 162.3 149.2 127.9 130.2 124.9 121.2 110.1 89.4 117.3 148.6 120.3 110.4 131.9 137.1 142.3 157.1 164.4 151.9 183.3 162.5 162.8 149.0 127.6 130.8 123.5 121.7 110.7 88.3 118.1 148.8 120.3 110.3 131.9 137.2 142.9 158.1 166.8 152.2 191.6 162.9 163.2 149.2 128.9 131.3 125.9 121.6 110.6 88.9 118.0 148.9 120.5 110.7 131.5 137.4 143.7 159.1 168.9 152.8 198.4 163.7 164.0 149.4 129.4 131.2 127.1 122.4 111.1 93.6 117.9 150.0 120.4 110.5 131.7 137.6 144.1 159.8 170.1 153.2 201.9 164.1 164.4 150.0 129.3 131.8 126.1 122.4 111.1 92.5 118.1 150.1 120.6 110.5 132.3 137.8 143.9 159.6 169.1 153.3 197.3 164.2 164.6 150.1 130.2 133.3 126.3 121.6 109.8 90.2 116.9 150.0 120.6 110.7 131.5 137.9 144.1 159.6 168.5 153.3 194.9 164 5 164.8 150.8 131.0 135 0 125.7 122.2 110.6 88.7 118 0 150 4 121.1 111.4 131.9 138.1 Apparel and upkeep ............. Apparel commodities.................. Men s and boys’ apparel..... Women s and girls’ apparel ........ Infants and toddlers’ apparel .. . Footwear............................... Other apparel commodities........... Apparel services..................... 131.9 129.4 126.5 130.4 129.3 125.0 142.6 147.9 133.7 131.0 127.5 132.6 127.1 125.9 145.6 151.7 135.0 132.5 128.5 134.5 127.7 127.8 146.3 150.9 131.9 129.1 126.5 129.1 128.1 125.6 145.2 151.3 129.4 126.4 124.9 125.0 126.7 123.9 143.8 151.7 131.9 129.0 126.0 130.0 128.4 123.5 144.4 152.0 134.6 132.0 127.8 134.2 126.5 126.2 147.3 152.4 136.1 133.5 129.4 136.0 126.3 127.3 149.0 152.9 136.2 133.5 130.8 135.5 127.5 127.4 146.6 153.6 132.6 129.7 127.5 130.6 127.1 125.8 140.5 153.8 130.4 127.3 124.2 127.0 125.6 125.9 142.5 153.8 132.4 129.5 124.1 131.1 125.5 125.9 146.4 154.0 136.1 133.4 125.6 137.2 125.8 127.0 152.9 154.2 136.4 133.7 126.9 137 4 128.0 128.0 149.0 154.8 135 6 132.8 127.4 135 1 125.2 128.5 149.9 155.0 Transportation ................................... Private transportation............................. New vehicles............................ New cars.............................................................................. Used cars ......................................................................................... Motor fuel ......................................................................................... Gasoline......................................................................................... Maintenance and repair.................................................................. Other private transportation .............. Other private transportation commodities.............. Other private transportation services....... Public transportation............... 126.5 124.6 129.2 128.4 123.2 99.0 99.0 141.3 153.2 104.8 164.2 151.4 130.4 127.5 132.7 131.5 133.9 98.0 97.7 145.9 156.8 103.4 169.1 167.0 130.2 127.5 132.4 131.3 131.5 99.7 99.6 145.4 156.1 103.5 168.2 165.5 130.3 127.6 132.2 131.0 134.3 99.8 99.6 145.8 155.8 102.9 167.9 164.5 130.3 127.4 132.2 130.9 136.1 98.1 98.0 146.2 156.0 102.9 168.2 167.7 130.2 127.3 132.2 130.8 137.5 97.0 96.9 146.2 156.4 102.7 168.7 168.1 130.1 127.1 132.1 130.6 138.7 96.1 95.9 146.8 156.1 103.0 168.3 168.4 131.8 129.0 133.4 131.9 139.8 99.7 99.2 147.1 157.8 102.8 170.5 168.2 132.6 129.5 134.8 133.4 140.7 98.4 97.8 147.4 159.1 102.7 172.1 173.0 132.1 128.6 135.6 134.2 139.3 94.8 94.2 147.7 159.0 103.3 171.8 176.5 131.6 128.2 136.1 134.7 136.8 92.6 92.1 148.1 159.5 103.5 172.4 175.3 131.9 128.5 136.5 135.0 134.1 93.6 93.0 148.6 159.7 103.4 172.8 175.9 132.2 128.6 136.8 135.3 133.6 93.3 92.7 149.0 160 2 103.5 173.3 178.5 132.6 129.2 136.9 135.4 135.3 94.8 94.3 149.4 160 4 103.4 173.6 176.5 132.8 130.0 137.2 135.7 137.9 96.0 95.6 149 7 160 8 103 4 174 0 169.9 Medical c a r e ............ Medical care commodities .................. 190.1 188.1 190.5 175.8 214.0 201.4 195.0 202.9 184.7 231.9 200.5 194.2 202.0 184.4 230.0 201.1 194.7 202.6 184.8 230.9 202.2 195.7 203.8 185.4 232.8 202.9 196.1 204.5 185.9 234.0 203.3 196.2 205.0 186.3 234.6 204.4 196.6 206.2 186.8 236.8 204.9 196.6 206.8 187.1 238.1 205.2 197.0 207.1 187.4 238.2 206.4 197.8 208.4 188.3 240.1 207.7 198.7 209.8 189.4 241.8 208.3 199.1 210.4 190.3 242.0 209.2 199.7 211.4 191.4 242.6 209.7 200.1 212 0 191 7 243.5 Entertainment .................... Entertainment commodities ............ 142.3 131.3 155.9 145.8 133.4 160.8 145.0 133.0 159.6 145.5 133.2 160.4 145.3 133.1 160.2 145.8 133.3 160.9 146.6 133.6 162.1 147.3 134.3 162.9 147.7 134.3 163.7 147.8 134.4 163.9 148.5 134.7 165.0 149.1 134.5 166.4 149.6 135.2 166.6 149.7 135.7 166.5 149.9 136 2 166.2 Other goods and services ........... Tobacco products .................................... Personal c a re ......................... Toilet goods and personal care appliances...... Personal care services ............. Personal and educational expenses............................................... School books and supplies.............. Personal and educational services .............................................. 183.3 219.8 138.3 136.5 140.0 197.4 190.3 198.1 192.9 228.4 141.5 139.0 144.0 210.7 197.6 211.9 193.2 237.9 141.0 138.7 143.4 207.7 196.1 208.8 193.1 236.2 141.1 139.0 143.3 208.3 196.4 209.4 193.7 235.8 142.0 140.0 144.0 209.1 196.4 210.2 193.4 227.9 142.0 139.8 144.3 211.6 199.9 212.7 193.1 215.1 142.4 139.7 145.3 215.8 199.2 217.3 193.4 214.0 142.4 139.7 145.3 216.9 199.9 218.4 193.8 214.5 142.9 140.2 145.7 217.2 200.0 218.7 194.2 215.5 143.1 140.1 146.1 217.5 200.4 219.0 195.1 217.6 143.3 140.5 146.3 218.3 203.4 219.7 195.2 217.4 143.0 140.0 146.2 218.8 204.0 220.1 195.5 217.7 143.0 139.7 146.6 219.1 204.0 220.4 196.4 218.0 144 2 141.4 147.1 220 1 204.0 221.6 197 1 220.6 144 4 141.7 147 2 220 4 204 1 221.9 1992 1993 140.3 420.3 Food and beverages Foo d....................... Food at home ................................................................ Cereals and bakery products................................................... Meats, poultry, fish, and eggs................................................... Dairy products................... Fruits and vegetables................................................... Other foods at hom e................................................................... Sugar and sw eets..................................................................... Fats and o ils..................... Nonalcoholic beverages......... Other prepared foods............... Food away from home ......... Alcoholic beverages........... Housing .............. Shelter ...................... Renters’ costs (12/82 = 1 0 0 )....................................................... Rent, residential.............. Other renters’ costs ...... Homeowners’ costs (1 2 /8 2 = 1 0 0 )............................................... Owners’ equivalent rent (12/82 = 1 0 0 )..................................... Household insurance (1 2 /8 2 = 1 0 0 ).......................................... Maintenance and repairs .... Maintenance and repair services ............................................ Maintenance and repair commodities....................................... Fuel and other utilities............... Fuels ................................. Fuel oil, coal, and bottled g a s ......... Gas (piped) and electricity ...................... Other utilities and public services ...... Household furnishings and operations C O N S U M E R P R IC E IN D E X F O R A L L U R B A N C O N S U M E R S : All items ........... All items (1967=100) Housekeeping supplies..... Housekeeping services......... Hospital and related services ..................... See footnotes at end of table. 94 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 31. Continued— Consumer Price Indexes for All Urban Consumers and for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers: U.S. city average, by expenditure category and commodity or service group (1982-84 = 100, unless otherwise indicated) Series Annual average 1993 1994 May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May 144.5 131.5 141.6 125.3 128.1 131.0 129.6 121.3 144.2 132.0 141.8 126.0 129.6 132.5 131.1 120.8 144.4 131.4 141.1 125.3 128.4 129.1 131.0 121.0 144.4 130.9 141.1 124.5 127.0 126.4 130.2 121.1 144.8 131.1 141.5 124.7 127.1 129.0 129.1 121.3 145.1 131.3 141.8 124.9 127.3 132.0 127.8 121.5 145.7 132.3 142.3 126.1 128.8 133.5 129.3 122.3 145.8 132.5 142.6 126.3 128.6 133.5 129.0 123.1 145.8 132.0 143.3 125.1 126.5 129.7 127.7 123.3 146.2 132.0 144.3 124.5 125.4 127.3 127.3 123.4 146.7 132.2 143.6 125.1 126.5 129.5 127.8 123.3 147.2 132.8 143.9 126.0 127.8 133.4 127.9 123.4 147.4 133.1 144.0 126.4 128.3 133.7 128.5 123.7 147.5 133.4 144.1 126.8 128.5 132.8 129.3 124.4 152.0 157.3 130.2 155.7 190.5 168.5 157.9 162.0 134.2 162.9 202.9 177.0 156.9 161.2 133.3 161.9 202.0 175.1 157.8 162.0 135.7 161.7 202.6 175.6 158.4 162.6 136.0 162.7 203.8 176.0 159.0 163.1 136.4 163.0 204.5 177.4 159.3 162.9 137.0 163.0 205.0 180.0 159.5 163.1 135.6 164.2 206.2 180.8 159.6 163.1 134.5 166.2 206.8 181.3 160.0 163.5 134.9 166.9 207.1 181.6 160.7 164.5 134.9 167.1 208.4 182.3 161.5 165.6 135.3 167.5 209.8 182.9 162.1 166.3 135.5 168.5 210.4 183.2 162.0 166.1 135.0 168.2 211.4 183.8 162.0 166.0 135.7 167.1 212.0 183.9 140.8 137.3 141.9 137.5 124.2 127.6 128.9 132.8 157.6 148.4 103.0 145.4 147.3 132.5 98.3 155.9 145.1 141.4 146.0 141.2 126.3 129.3 130.7 135.1 164.8 153.6 104.2 150.0 152.2 135.2 97.3 161.9 144.8 141.3 145.8 141.0 126.9 130.6 132.0 135.9 163.6 152.6 104.4 149.6 151.7 135.7 98.9 161.0 145.1 141.2 145.9 141.1 126.3 129.5 131.9 135.0 164.7 153.6 106.5 149.6 151.8 134.9 98.9 161.5 145.2 141.1 145.9 141.1 125.5 128.2 131.2 134.2 165.4 154.1 105.8 149.7 152.0 134.4 97.3 162.2 145.6 141.5 146.3 141.6 125.7 128.4 130.3 134.5 166.0 154.7 105.2 150.3 152.6 134.8 96.2 162.8 145.9 142.0 146.5 141.8 125.9 128.6 129.2 134.7 167.0 155.0 105.2 150.6 152.9 135.1 95.4 163.1 146.4 142.6 147.2 142.3 127.1 129.9 130.5 135.8 167.1 155.1 105.4 151.2 153.5 136.0 98.7 163.6 146.6 142.9 147.3 142.5 127.3 129.8 130.2 135.8 167.4 155.2 103.7 151.5 153.9 136.4 97.6 163.9 146.4 142.7 147.2 142.5 126.1 127.8 129.1 135.1 167.8 155.6 102.4 151.7 153.9 135.7 94.3 164.3 146.6 142.9 147.5 142.8 125.6 126.9 128.8 135.0 168.2 156.2 101.3 152.2 154.3 135.4 92.4 165.1 147.3 143.2 148.0 143.2 126.2 127.9 129.3 135.2 168.9 157.0 102.0 152.6 155.0 135.8 93.8 166.0 148.0 143.7 148.6 143.8 127.0 129.1 129.4 136.0 169.3 157.5 101.9 153.3 155.8 136.9 93.4 166.6 148.1 144.0 148.7 143.9 127.4 129.6 130.0 136.4 169.4 157.4 102.0 153.4 155.9 137.2 94.5 166.6 148.3 144.2 148.9 144.0 127.8 129.8 130.6 136.5 169.5 157.4 102.9 153.5 156.0 137.5 95.4 166.6 71.3 23.8 69.2 23.1 69.3 23.2 69.3 23.1 69.2 23.1 69.0 23.0 68.9 23.0 68.6 22.9 68.6 22.9 68.6 22.9 68.4 22.8 68.2 22.8 67.9 22.7 67.9 22.7 67.8 22.6 138.2 411.5 142.1 423.1 141.9 422.6 142.0 423.1 142.1 423.2 142.4 424.2 142.6 424.9 143.3 426.7 143.4 427.1 143.3 426.8 143.6 427.7 144.0 428.8 144.4 430.2 144.7 430.9 144.9 431.7 Food and beverages ............................................................................ Food........................................ Food at home ...................... Cereals and bakery products..................................................... Meats, poultry, fish, and eggs.................................................... Dairy products............................................................................... Fruits and vegetables................................................................... Other foods at hom e.................................................................... Sugar and sw eets...................................................................... Fats and o ils .................................. Nonalcoholic beverages............................................................ Other prepared foods................................................................ Food away from home ................................................................... Alcoholic beverages........................................ 138.3 137.5 136.4 151.3 130.8 128.2 154.8 128.8 132.8 129.7 114.6 140.0 140.6 147.0 141.2 140.5 139.6 156.3 135.4 129.1 158.2 130.4 133.1 129.9 115.1 143.5 143.1 149.3 141.4 140.7 140.1 156.1 135.0 127.7 163.7 130.5 133.1 129.3 115.5 143.5 142.8 149.2 140.8 140.1 138.9 156.4 135.3 129.5 153.8 130.2 132.9 130.0 115.0 143.2 143.1 149.4 140.8 140.1 138.8 156.9 135.5 130.0 151.4 130.5 133.0 130.4 114.8 143.9 143.3 149.3 141.2 140.5 139.4 157.2 135.9 130.3 153.7 130.6 133.5 130.1 114.6 144.1 143.4 149.4 141.5 140.8 139.7 157.4 135.8 129.4 156.9 130.3 133.1 130.0 114.2 144.0 143.6 149.6 142.0 141.3 140.4 157.7 136.5 129.2 158.5 131.3 133.8 129.9 115.9 144.8 143.8 149.8 142.2 141.6 140.7 157.7 137.2 129.3 159.6 131.0 133.5 129.2 116.0 144.2 144.0 149.7 142.9 142.2 141.7 158.6 136.9 130.0 165.4 130.8 133.1 129.3 115.1 144.7 144.1 150.0 143.8 143.3 143.2 159.9 137.7 131.4 168.8 132.2 134.9 131.3 116.6 145.6 144.3 150.5 143.2 142.5 142.0 160.9 137.2 131.6 161.0 132.4 135.6 131.5 116.3 146.1 144.4 150.6 143.4 142.8 142.3 160.2 137.8 131.6 161.7 132.5 135.2 132.5 116.4 146.1 144.6 150.9 143.6 143.0 142.4 162.2 137.4 131.6 160.9 132.9 135.8 133.2 115.9 147.3 144.9 151.0 143.7 143.1 142.4 162.0 137.0 131.7 162.3 132.7 135.4 133.4 116.1 146.7 145.2 150.9 Housing ............................................. Shelter ................................................... Renters’ costs ( 1 2 /8 4 = 1 0 0 )........................... Rent, residential.................................................. Other renters’ costs ................................................. Homeowners’ costs (12/84 = 1 0 0 )........................... Owners’ equivalent rent (12/84 = 100) ...................... Household insurance (12/84 = 1 0 0 )........................... Maintenance and repairs.......................................................... Maintenance and repair services ........................................ Maintenance and repair commodities................................ Fuel and other utilities................................................ Fuels ................................................................................ Fuel oil, coal, and bottled g a s ................................................... Gas (piped) and electricity ......................................................... Other utilities and public services ................................................ Household furnishings and operations........................................... Housefurnishings ............................................................ Housekeeping supplies................................................................... Housekeeping services............................................................ 135.0 147.2 141.3 146.5 185.3 141.5 141.8 130.2 129.9 136.8 120.4 117.5 107.5 90.6 114.3 143.1 116.9 107.8 130.2 133.7 138.5 151.6 144.7 150.0 190.2 146.1 146.3 134.4 130.9 138.6 120.7 121.1 110.7 90.2 118.0 147.7 118.0 108.3 131.1 137.4 137.9 150.8 144.0 149.5 188.3 145.3 145.5 133.2 131.6 138.4 122.3 120.3 109.8 91.2 116.8 146.9 117.9 108.1 131.8 136.5 138.8 151.5 144.7 150.0 190.7 145.9 146.2 134.3 131.2 139.5 120.3 122.8 113.8 90.3 121.6 147.2 117.9 108.0 131.7 137.0 139.1 152.0 145.8 150.1 197.6 146.1 146.3 134.9 131.7 139.7 121.2 123.0 113.8 89.1 121.8 147.8 117.5 107.8 130.3 137.2 139.5 152.4 146.2 150.4 198.2 146.6 146.8 135.5 132.1 140.1 121.6 123.2 113.7 87.8 121.8 148.5 117.7 108.0 129.7 138.0 139.7 152.4 145.1 150.7 189.1 147.1 147.3 136.1 131.3 141.4 118.4 123.8 114.5 87.8 122.7 148.8 118.2 108.3 130.8 138.6 139.6 152.7 145.3 151.1 188.8 147.4 147.6 136.3 131.1 140.4 119.1 122.2 111.6 89.1 119.2 149.1 118.7 108.8 131.7 138.7 139.4 152.7 144.8 151.3 183.7 147.7 147.9 136.5 128.6 133.5 121.4 121.0 109.5 89.3 116.7 149.3 119.0 109.1 131.9 138.9 139.7 153.1 144.9 151.6 183.3 148.2 148.4 136.4 127.7 134.0 119.0 121.5 110.2 88.2 117.7 149.6 119.0 109.1 131.9 139.1 140.2 153.9 146.4 151.9 192.0 148.6 148.8 136.5 129.6 134.9 121.8 121.5 110.1 88.9 117.5 149.6 119.2 109.4 131.7 139.4 140.9 154.8 147.8 152.5 198.4 149.2 149.5 136.7 129.4 134.8 121.7 122.1 110.5 93.6 117.4 150.7 119.0 109.1 131.7 139.7 141.3 155.3 148.5 152.8 201.4 149.6 149.9 137.3 129.4 135.3 121.0 122.1 110.5 92.3 117.5 150.7 119.2 109.2 132.4 139.8 141.1 155.3 148.0 153.0 197.3 149.8 150.0 137.3 130.0 136.6 120.9 121.4 109.3 90.1 116.4 150.7 119.2 109.3 131.7 139.9 141.3 155.3 147.7 153.0 194.9 150.0 150.2 138.1 130.9 138.8 120.6 121.9 110.0 88.6 117.4 151.0 119.7 109.9 132.2 140.2 1992 1993 140.3 129.1 138.7 123.2 126.5 129.4 127.9 118.6 Services..................... Rent of shelter (12/82 = 1 0 0 )......... Household services less rent o f shelter (12/82 = 100) Transportation services............ Medical care services............... Other services ...................... Special indexes: All items less food ....... All items less shelter..................... All items less homeowners’ costs (12/82= 100 ) All items less medical c a re ........... Commodities less fo o d .............. Nondurables less food .............. Nondurables less food and apparel . Nondurables.............................. Services less rent o f shelter (12/82 = 100) Services less medical c a re ............... Energy............................... All items less energy .................... All items less food and energy ................................................... Commodities less food and energy................................................ Energy commodities ......................... Services less energy.............. All item s........................... Commodities...................... Food and beverages ....... Commodities less food and beverages.................................... Nondurables less food and beverages ....................................... Apparel commodities.......... Nondurables less food, beverages, and apparel .. Durables................................. Purchasing power of the consumer dollar: 1982-84 = $1.00 .............. 1967 = $ 1 .0 0 ................................ C O N S U M E R P R IC E IN D E X F O R U R B A N W A G E E A R N E R S A N D C L E R IC A L W O R K E R S : All items ...................................... All items (1967=100) ....... See footnotes at end of table. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 95 Current Labor Statistics: Price Data 31. Continued— Consumer Price Indexes for All Urban Consumers and for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers: U.S. city average, by expenditure category and commodity or service group (1982-84 = 100, unless otherwise indicated) Annual average Series Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May 133.3 130.7 127.2 131.3 127.8 127.1 149.8 151.9 135.1 132.6 128.7 134.4 127.6 128.2 149.7 152.4 135.0 132.5 130.1 133.9 128.6 128.3 145.4 153.2 131.3 128.5 127.0 128.4 128.1 126.6 140.1 153.4 129.4 126.5 124.1 125.1 126.1 126.9 142.9 153.4 131.4 128.6 124.0 129.5 126.6 127.0 145.0 153.5 134.7 132.1 124.9 135.2 126.7 128.1 152.2 153.7 135.0 132.4 126.0 135.0 128.5 129.0 150.1 154.2 134.3 131.6 126.5 132.7 126.2 129.5 151.3 154.5 129.4 127.4 132.8 130.6 138.3 96.9 96.8 146.9 152.3 102.2 164.6 163.9 129.2 127.3 132.9 130.5 139.5 96.0 95.8 147.4 152.1 102.5 164.2 163.9 131.0 129.1 134.1 131.8 140.7 99.6 99.1 147.8 153.7 102.3 166.2 164.1 131.6 129.5 135.4 133.2 141.6 98.2 97.7 148.0 154.9 102.2 167.8 167.8 130.8 128.5 136.2 133.9 140.2 94.6 94.0 148.3 154.9 102.6 167.6 171.1 130.2 127.9 136.6 134.4 137.6 92.5 92.0 148.8 155.3 102.9 168.2 170.3 130.4 128.1 137.1 134.7 134.8 93.5 93.0 149.3 155.5 102.8 168.4 170.9 130.5 128.1 137.4 135.0 134.3 93.1 92.6 149.7 155.7 102.9 168.7 173.2 131.2 128.9 137.6 135.1 136.0 94.7 94.3 150.1 156.0 102.8 169.0 171.5 131.8 129.8 138.0 135.4 138.6 96.0 95.6 150.5 156.6 102.8 169.8 166.4 201.7 193.8 203.5 186.0 230.2 202.4 194.3 204.2 186.4 231.2 202.8 194.4 204.7 186.9 231.8 203.8 194.8 205.8 187.4 233.9 204.2 194.7 206.3 187.6 235.0 204.5 195.1 206.6 188.0 235.1 205.8 195.9 208.0 189.0 237.2 207.0 196.8 209.3 190.1 238.9 207.7 197.2 210.0 191.0 239.1 208.6 197.8 211.0 192.2 239.7 209.1 198.2 211.5 192.5 240.5 143.8 132.7 160.0 143.7 132.6 159.9 144.1 132.9 160.7 144.8 133.1 161.9 145.5 133.7 162.7 145.8 133.7 163.5 146.1 133.9 163.8 146.7 134.2 164.8 147.1 134.0 166.0 147.7 134.8 166.3 147.8 135.2 166.2 148.1 135.7 166.1 193.6 237.8 141.2 139.4 143.2 204.3 197.5 205.1 193.3 235.9 141.3 139.6 143.2 204.9 198.0 205.7 193.8 235.5 142.2 140.6 143.9 205.6 198.2 206.5 192.7 227.7 142.2 140.3 144.3 208.0 201.3 208.9 190.9 214.8 142.5 140.2 145.2 211.5 201.1 212.6 191.1 214.1 142.6 140.3 145.2 212.5 201.8 213.7 191.6 214.5 143.0 140.7 145.6 213.0 201.9 214.2 192.0 215.4 143.2 140.7 146.2 213.3 202.3 214.5 193.1 217.5 143.5 141.0 146.4 214.1 205.1 215.2 193.2 217.2 143.1 140.5 146.3 214.7 205.8 215.7 193.4 217.5 143.2 140.3 146.7 215.0 205.8 216.0 194.4 217.8 144.5 142.2 147.2 216.3 205.8 217.4 195.3 220.6 144.7 142.4 147.3 216.6 205.9 217.7 142.1 131.2 141.2 125.0 127.7 129.8 129.7 120.1 141.9 131.7 141.4 125.7 129.4 131.1 131.5 119.5 142.0 131.2 140.8 125.2 128.3 128.1 131.3 119.9 142.1 130.7 140.8 124.5 126.9 125.6 130.4 120.1 142.4 130.9 141.2 124.5 126.7 127.8 129.1 120.4 142.6 131.0 141.5 124.5 126.5 130.7 127.4 120.7 143.3 132.0 142.0 125.9 128.3 132.6 129.1 121.6 143.4 132.2 142.2 126.0 127.9 132.5 128.7 122.3 143.3 131.6 142.9 124.7 125.7 128.5 127.2 122.3 143.6 131.6 143.8 124.1 124.7 126.5 126.7 122.2 144.0 131.7 143.2 124.6 125.7 128.6 127.2 121.9 144.4 132.2 143.4 125.3 126.9 132.1 127.3 121.9 144.7 132.6 143.6 125.8 127.5 132.4 128.0 122.4 144.9 132.9 143.7 126.3 127.9 131.6 129.0 123.1 150.0 141.6 119.7 154.3 190.3 166.1 155.5 145.8 123.5 160.0 202.7 174.1 154.5 145.0 122.6 159.1 201.8 172.3 155.5 145.7 124.9 159.0 202.4 172.9 156.0 146.2 125.3 159.6 203.5 173.3 156.5 146.6 125.6 160.0 204.2 174.7 156.9 146.6 126.3 159.9 204.7 176.8 157.1 146.9 124.8 161.2 205.8 177.6 157.2 146.9 123.7 162.8 206.3 178.2 157.6 147.3 124.2 163.3 206.6 178.5 158.2 148.1 124.2 163.6 208.0 179.2 159.0 148.9 124.5 164.0 209.3 179.9 159.4 149.5 124.6 164.6 210.0 180.2 159.4 149.4 124.1 164.6 211.0 180.8 159.6 149.4 124.8 164.3 211.5 181.0 All items less homeowners’ costs ( 1 2 /8 4 - 1 0 0 ) .......................... All items less medical c a re ............................................................... Commodities less fo o d ...................................................................... Nondurables less food ...................................................................... Nondurables less food and apparel ............................................... Nondurables........................................................................................ Services less rent of shelter (12/84 = 1 0 0 )................................... Services less medical c a re ............................................................... Fnergy................................................................................................... All items less energy ......................................................................... All items less food and energy ....................................................... Commodities less food and energy................................................ Energy commodities .......................................................................... Services less energy.......................................................................... 138.2 135.9 130.3 135.7 123.7 127.4 129.0 132.5 141.0 146.5 102.6 143.2 144.7 131.2 98.5 154.0 142.3 139 7 133.9 139.2 125.9 128.9 130.7 134.7 147.0 151.4 103.6 147.5 149.3 134.3 97.5 159.7 142.0 139 7 133.8 139.1 126.6 130.4 132.3 135.7 146.0 150.5 104.1 147.2 148.9 134.7 99.2 158.8 142.4 139 7 133.9 139.2 126.1 129.4 132.1 134.8 147.1 151.4 106.0 147.2 149.0 134.2 99.2 159.3 142.4 139.6 133.9 139.2 125.5 128.1 131.3 134.1 147.6 151.9 105.2 147.3 149.2 133.7 97.5 159.8 142.7 139.9 134.2 139.5 125.5 128.0 130.2 134.2 148.1 152.4 104.6 147.8 149.7 134.0 96.4 160.4 142.9 140.2 134.3 139.8 125.5 127.8 128.7 134.3 148.9 152.8 104.5 148.0 149.9 134.2 95.5 160.7 143.6 140.9 135.0 140.4 126.8 129.4 130.2 135.4 148.9 152.9 104.9 148.7 150.6 135.1 98.9 161.3 143.7 141.1 135.1 140.5 126.9 129.1 129.9 135.3 149.0 152.9 103.2 149.1 151.0 135.5 97.7 161.7 143.4 140.8 134.9 140.4 125.7 127.1 128.6 134.5 149.5 153.4 101.7 149.1 150.9 134.7 94.3 162.1 143.5 141 0 135.1 140.6 125.1 126.2 128.2 134.6 149.8 153.9 100.5 149.6 151.2 134.4 92.4 162.7 144.1 141 2 135.4 140.9 125.6 127.2 128.7 134.7 150.4 154.6 101.2 149.9 151.8 134.7 93.8 163.6 144.7 141.7 135.9 141.4 126.3 128.3 128.8 135.4 150.7 155.0 101.1 150.5 152.5 135.6 93.3 164.1 144.9 141.9 136.1 141.6 126.8 128.8 129.5 135.8 150.8 155.0 101.3 150.7 152.7 135.9 94.6 164.2 145.2 142.3 136.4 141.9 127.3 129.2 130.3 136.1 151.0 155.1 102.3 150.9 152.9 136.4 95.6 164.3 Purchasing power of the consumer dollar: 1 9 8 2 -8 4 -$ 1 .0 0 .................................................................................. 1967 —$ 1 .0 0 ......................................................................................... 72.4 24.3 70.4 23.6 70.5 23.7 70.4 23.6 70.4 23.6 70.2 23.6 70.1 23.5 69.8 23.4 69.7 23.4 69.8 23.4 69.7 23.4 69.5 23.3 69.2 23.2 69.1 23.2 69.0 23.2 May June July Aug. 132.4 129.8 126.8 130.4 128.9 126.5 145.4 151.2 133.6 131.1 127.6 132.3 129.4 128.3 145.4 150.5 130.7 128.1 125.8 127.0 129.6 126.2 145.6 150.8 128.4 125.6 124.0 123.2 128.5 124.6 145.2 151.2 130.5 127.8 125.2 127.5 129.8 124.3 145.4 151.4 125.8 124.4 129.6 128.1 123.6 99.0 99.0 141.8 149.9 104.2 160.9 150.0 129.4 127.4 133.3 131.2 134.6 97.9 97.6 146.5 152.9 102.8 165.0 163.0 129.2 127.4 132.8 131.0 132.2 99.7 99.7 146.1 152.2 102.8 164.2 161.5 129.5 127.6 132.8 130.8 135.0 99.7 99.7 146.5 151.9 102.3 164.0 160.9 129.4 127.4 132.7 130.7 136.9 98.1 97.9 146.9 152.1 102.4 164.2 163.3 Medical c a r e .......................................................................................... Medical care commodities................................................................ Medical care services........................................................................ Professional services...................................................................... Hospital and related services ....................................................... 189.6 186.5 190.3 176.3 211.5 200.9 193.2 202.7 185.2 229.2 200.1 192.5 201.8 185.0 227.3 200.7 193.0 202.4 185.4 228.2 Entertainment ........................................................................................ Entertainment commodities .............................................................. Entertainment services...................................................................... 140.8 130.7 155.7 144.1 132.9 160.5 143.3 132.4 159.3 Other goods and services ................................................................... Tobacco products .............................................................................. Personal c a re ...................................................................................... Toilet goods and personal care appliances................................ Personal care services ................................................................... Personal and educational expenses............................................... School books and supplies............................................................ Personal and educational services .............................................. 183.3 219.7 138.6 137.2 140.0 194.3 190.6 194.9 192.2 228.3 141.6 139.6 143.9 206.9 199.2 207.8 All items ..................................................................................................... Commodities.......................................................................................... Food and beverages .......................................................................... Commodities less food and beverages.......................................... Nondurables less food and beverages ....................................... Apparel commodities.................................................................... Nondurables less food, beverages, and apparel .................... Durables............................................................................................. 138.2 128.7 138.3 122.7 126.2 128.3 128.1 116.8 Services................................................................................................... Rent of shelter ( 1 2 / 8 4 - 1 0 0 ) ........................................................... Household services less rent of shelter (12/84 = 1 0 0 )............... Transportation services..................................................................... Medical care services........................................................................ Other services .................................................................................... 1992 1993 Apparel and upkeep ................................................ Apparel commodities.................................................... Men's and boys’ apparel............................................... Women's and girls’ apparel ........................................................... Infants’ and toddlers' apparel........................................................ Footwear................................................................... Other apparel commodities............................................................ Apparel services................................................................... 130.7 128.3 125.6 128.9 131.6 125.4 140.4 147.6 Transportation ................................................................................... Private transportation........................................................................ New vehicles.................................................................................... New cars........................................................................................ Used cars ............................................................................ Motor fuel ............................................................................ Gasoline......................................................................... Maintenance and repair.................................................................. Other private transportation.......................................................... Other private transportation commodities................................ Other private transportation services........................................ Public transportation .......................................................................... Special indexes: All items less food ............................................................................. 96 1994 1993 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 Sept. 32. Consumer Price Index: U.S. city average and available local area data: all items (1982-84=100, unless otherwise indicated) Urban Wage Earners All Urban Consumers Area1 Pricing schedule2 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Apr. May Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May 144.2 146.2 146.7 147.2 147.4 147.5 141.6 141.9 143.6 144.0 144.4 144.7 144.9 151.1 150.8 153.2 154.0 154.3 154.4 154.2 148.9 148.7 150.8 151.4 151.7 151.8 151.7 M 151.7 151.2 153.7 154.6 155.1 155.0 154.7 148.5 148.0 150.2 150.9 151.4 151.4 151.1 M 150.1 150.3 152.5 153.0 152.7 153.3 152.8 148.0 148.3 150.3 150.7 150.6 151.1 150.8 151.0 137.2 152.7 138.5 153.2 139.0 153.4 139.4 153.9 139.8 154.2 140.2 Apr. U.S. city average..................... 1994 1993 1994 1993 M 144.0 M May R e g io n a n d a r e a s iz e 3 Northeast urban........................ Size A - More than 1,200,000 ................................ Size B - 500,000 to 1,200,000 ................................ Size C - 50,000 to 500,000 ................................... North Central urban ................ Size A - More than 1,200,000 ................................ Size B - 360,000 to 1,200,000 ................................ Size C - 50,000 to 360,000 ................................... Size D - Nonmetro politan (less than 50,0000 .......................... South urban............................... Size A - More than 1,200,000 ................................ Size B - 450,000 to 1,200,000 ................................ Size C - 50,000 to 450,000 ................................... Size D - Nonmetro politan (less than 50,000) ........................... West urban................................ Size A - More than 1,250,000 ................................ Size C - 50,000 to 330,000 ................................... Size classes: A ( 1 2 / 8 6 - 1 0 0 ) ..................... B ............................................... C .............................................. D .............................................. M M 149.2 139.4 149.2 139.8 151.3 141.5 151.9 142.1 152.2 142.6 152.6 142.9 152.7 143.3 150.9 136.6 M 140.5 141.0 142.5 143.2 143.9 144.1 144.5 136.9 137.5 138.8 139.4 140.0 140.3 140.7 137.4 137.6 137.9 138.5 138.4 M 137.7 137.8 141.1 141.3 141.8 142.2 142.0 134.6 134.7 M 140.7 141.9 142.4 143.0 143.1 143.7 144.4 138.6 139.9 140.0 140.6 140.6 141.2 141.9 M M 134.8 140.2 134.4 140.7 136.7 142.5 137.2 142.9 137.8 143.6 137.9 143.8 138.8 144.3 133.9 138.8 133.5 139.3 135.3 141.0 135.8 141.2 136.3 141.9 136.4 142.2 137.3 142.8 M 140.8 141.1 142.9 143.4 144.4 144.4 144.7 138.8 139.4 141.0 141.3 142.3 142.4 142.8 M 141.9 142.1 144.4 144.6 145.4 145.5 146.3 138.6 138.9 141.1 141.2 141.8 141.8 142.8 142.8 M 139.3 140.0 141.0 141.6 142.0 142.9 143.1 139.3 140.1 140.8 141.3 141.6 142.6 M M 137.7 145.7 138.7 146.0 140.8 148.1 140.7 148.3 141.3 149.0 141.3 148.9 142.3 148.8 137.8 143.2 138.8 143.5 141.1 145.3 141.0 145.4 141.4 145.9 141.4 145.9 142.5 146.0 M 147.7 148.1 149.7 149.9 150.5 150.4 150.4 143.5 143.9 145.3 145.4 145.9 145.8 146.0 M 144.2 143.6 147.8 148.3 148.7 148.6 147.8 142.4 141.8 145.4 146.0 146.3 146.3 145.7 M M M M 130.9 143.0 142.3 138.7 131.0 143.2 142.8 139.1 132.7 145.8 144.3 141.2 133.3 146.1 144.9 141.5 133.9 146.5 145.2 142.0 133.9 146.8 145.8 142.1 133.9 147.0 146.0 143.0 130.0 140.6 141.8 138.3 130.2 140.9 142.4 138.6 131.7 143.2 143.6 140.6 132.1 143.4 144.1 140.8 132.7 143.8 144.3 141.2 132.7 144.1 144.9 141.4 132.9 144.4 145.2 142.3 M 144.7 145.7 146.5 146.8 147.6 147.9 147.6 140.3 141.4 142.0 142.3 143.0 143.3 143.1 M 149.9 150.1 152.2 152.2 152.5 152.0 151.4 144.9 145.1 146.8 146.9 147.0 146.6 146.2 152.4 152.1 153.5 152.2 154.0 152.8 153.9 152.6 153.6 152.7 S e le c t e d lo c a l a r e a s Chicago, IL-Northwestern IN ... Los Angeles-Long Beach, Anaheim, C A ............ New York, NYNortheastern N J ...................... Philadelphia, PA -N J.................. San FranciscoOakland, C A ............................. Baltimore, MD ........................... Boston, MA ............................... Cleveland, O H ........................... Miami, F L ................................... St. Louis, M O -IL........................ Washington, DC-MD-VA ......... Dallas-Ft. Worth, T X ................ Detroit, Ml .................................. Houston, TX .............................. Pittsburgh, PA ........................... M M 154.0 149.6 153.8 149.4 156.0 152.5 157.4 152.9 157.9 153.5 157.7 153.1 M 146.8 146.9 147.5 147.4 148.2 148.0 142.8 151.9 139.6 139.0 136.8 149.2 143.8 153.6 142.4 141.0 138.6 150.9 _ _ - - " ” 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 _ _ 137.0 138.7 131.8 139.6 _ 139.2 141.7 137.0 142.6 145.0 155.0 143.3 143.5 139.7 151.5 _ - _ 140.3 142.6 136.8 143.9 157.3 153.2 150.7 149.4 148.3 144.8 145.8 153.6 143.7 143.3 140.0 151.4 _ “ _ 136.3 134.6 131.3 133.6 150.4 149.3 144.8 145.3 145.0 145.6 145.6 146.1 142.1 151.4 132.7 137.2 136.4 147.0 142.7 152.5 135.1 138.7 137.7 148.3 - 144.2 153.5 135.7 141.1 138.7 148.9 - 144.9 152.2 136.1 141.2 139.2 149.2 - - 138.1 137.0 136.3 136.3 - 139.3 137.9 136.2 137.4 - - - - ' 1 Area definitions are those established by the Office of Manage ment and Budget in 1983, except for Boston-Lawrence-Salem, MA-NH, Area (excludes Monroe County); and Milwaukee, Wl, Area (includes only the Milwaukee MSA). Definitions do not include revisions made since 1983. Excludes farms and the military. 2 Foods, fuels, and several other items priced every month in all areas; most other goods and services priced as indicated:. M - Every month. 1 - January, March, May, July, September, and November. 2 - February, April, June, August, October, and December. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 3 Regions are defined as the four Census regions. - Data not available. NOTE: Local area CPI indexes are byproducts of the national CPI program. Because each local index is a small subset of the national in dex, it has a smaller sample size and is, therefore, subject to substan tially more sampling and other measurement error than the national in dex. As a result, local area indexes show greater volatility than the na tional index, although their long-term trends are quite similar. Therefore, the Bureau of Labor Statistics strongly urges users to consider adopting the national average CPI for use in escalator clauses. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 97 Current Labor Statistics: Price Data 33. Annual data: Consumer Price Index, U.S. city average, all items and major groups (1982-84 = 100) Series 98 Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers: All items: Index....................... Percent change............ Food and beverages: Index........................... Percent change................ Housing: Index......................... Percent change.............. Apparel and upkeep: Index........................ Percent change............. Transportation: Index....................... Percent change....................... Medical care: Index........................... Percent change....................... Entertainment: Index......................... Percent change............................ Other goods and services: Index............................... Percent change.................. Consumer Price Index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers: All items: Index................................... Percent change....................... Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 107.6 3.6 109.6 1.9 113.6 3.6 118.3 4.1 124.0 4.8 130.7 5.4 136.2 4.2 140.3 3.0 144.5 3.0 105.6 2.3 109.1 3.3 113.5 4.0 118.2 4.1 124.9 5.7 132.1 5.8 136.8 3.6 138.7 1.4 141.6 2.1 107.7 4.0 110.9 3.0 114.2 3.0 118.5 3.8 123.0 3.8 128.5 4.5 133.6 4.0 137.5 2.9 141.2 2.7 105.0 2.8 105.9 .9 110.6 4.4 115.4 4.3 118.6 2.8 124.1 4.6 128.7 3.7 131.9 2.5 133.7 1.4 106.4 2.6 102.3 -3.9 105.4 3.0 108.7 3.1 114.1 5.0 120.5 5.6 123.8 2.7 126.5 2.2 130.4 3.1 113.5 6.3 122.0 7.5 130.1 6.6 138.6 6.5 149.3 7.7 162.8 9.0 177.0 8.7 190.1 7.4 201.4 5.9 107.9 3.9 111.6 3.4 115.3 3.3 120.3 4.3 126.5 5.2 132.4 4.7 138.4 4.5 142.3 2.8 145.8 2.5 114.5 6.1 121.4 6.0 128.5 5.8 137.0 6.6 147.7 7.8 159.0 7.7 171.6 7.9 183.3 6.8 192.9 5.2 106.9 3.5 108.6 1.6 112.5 3.6 117.0 4.0 122.6 4.8 129.0 5.2 134.3 4.1 138.2 2.9 142.1 2.8 34. Producer Price Indexes, by stage of processing (1982=100) Annual average 1994 1993 Grouping 1992 1993 June July Aug. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May 123.2 123.3 123.3 124.7 125.7 125.7 125.5 125.4 125.4 125.3 125.0 125.0 124.2 125.4 125.4 123.8 125.7 125.7 124.6 125.4 125.4 124.5 126.6 126.6 124.1 127.2 127.2 124.5 127.0 127.0 124.8 126.7 126.7 125.0 127.5 127.5 125.0 127.0 127.0 125.3 126.5 126.5 120.8 117.3 125.7 77.8 121.7 117.6 128.0 78.0 123.4 120.1 127.7 80.5 123.0 119.5 127.9 79.6 120.9 116.6 127.9 79.1 120.5 116.8 126.0 79.5 121.2 116.5 129.1 78.8 120.3 115.0 129.7 76.2 119.4 113.7 129.7 73.3 119.9 114.0 130.5 73.6 120.5 114.9 130.4 74.9 120.5 114.8 130.6 74.8 120.7 115.1 130.4 75.4 121.3 115.7 130.9 76.2 116.2 116.7 116.6 116.6 116.8 116.5 116.4 116.0 116.2 116.6 116.8 116.8 117.3 112.7 115.6 115.5 119.1 123.0 111.1 115.0 115.7 118.6 123.0 114.0 116.5 115.6 118.8 123.0 114.3 116.1 115.4 119.3 123.1 113.7 116.3 115.2 119.4 123.1 113.6 116.7 115.2 119.1 123.2 114.7 117.3 115.4 119.3 123.3 116.8 118.8 114.8 120.0 123.3 116.8 118.9 114.9 120.6 123.6 117.3 119.2 114.5 121.4 123.6 117.5 119.9 114.7 122.2 123.7 117.4 120.9 115.7 122.0 124.0 116.7 120.3 116.3 122.7 124.0 84.6 123.8 135.8 125.0 87.9 123.7 136.3 124.7 87.0 123.6 136.4 125.2 86.1 123.8 134.6 125.5 86.9 123.9 133.7 125.4 85.3 124.0 135.4 125.5 83.3 124.2 135.6 125.7 79.9 124.4 135.9 126.1 79.5 124.8 136.6 126.4 81.2 124.8 136.7 126.5 81.0 125.1 136.8 126.5 80.5 125.3 136.8 126.5 81.5 125.7 137.2 126.6 100.4 105.1 78.8 102.4 108.4 76.7 104.2 107.2 80.9 101.5 107.5 75.0 100.6 108.0 73.6 101.0 107.7 74.5 102.8 105.7 79.4 102.2 110.2 74.4 101.0 112.1 70.0 103.2 112.2 72.9 100.9 112.8 66.9 104.8 114.0 73.1 104.4 113.1 73.0 103.3 110.0 73.7 123.1 77.8 131.1 131.8 134.2 124.4 78.0 132.9 133.5 135.8 125.5 80.5 133.2 134.0 136.3 125.3 79.6 133.2 133.9 136.4 123.8 79.1 132.0 132.2 134.6 123.2 79.5 131.4 131.8 133.7 124.3 78.8 132.6 132.7 135.4 123.7 76.2 133.1 133.3 135.6 123.1 73.3 133.4 133.8 135.9 123.7 73.6 133.9 134.1 136.6 124.1 74.9 133.9 134.0 136.7 124.2 74.8 134.2 134.3 136.8 124.4 75.4 134.0 134.1 136.8 124.9 76.2 134.2 134.1 137.2 137.3 138.5 139.5 139.5 136.7 135.7 137.3 137.6 138.0 138.6 138.7 138.7 138.6 139.0 145.8 146.1 148.3 148.1 142.8 142.7 142.9 142.9 143.7 144.1 144.4 144.2 144.2 144.4 Finished goods ......................... Finished consumer goods ................... Finished consumer foods.................... Finished consumer goods excluding foods ........................................... Nondurable goods less food ........... Durable goods ....................... Capital equipment......................................... Intermediate materials, supplies, and com ponents................................ Materials and components for manufacturing ............................ Materials for food manufacturing............ Materials for nondurable manufacturing . Materials for durable manufacturing....... Components for manufacturing............... 114.7 110.7 113.9 115.4 117.2 122.0 Materials and components for construction...................................... Processed fuels and lubricants.................. Containers.................................................... Supplies............................................ 84.3 122.0 134.2 122.7 Crude materials for further processing ... Foodstuffs and feedstuffs .......................... Crude nonfood materials........................ Special groupings: Finished goods, excluding fo o d s ............... Finished energy goods........................... Finished goods less energy ........................ Finished consumer goods less energy..... Finished goods less food and energy....... Finished consumer goods less food and energy ............................................... Consumer nondurable goods less food and energy ................................................... Sept. Intermediate materials less foods and feeds ...................................................... Intermediate foods and fe e d s ..................... Intermediate energy goods.......................... Intermediate goods less energy ................ Intermediate materials less foods and energy ............................................................ 114.9 110.7 84.3 121.3 116.4 112.7 84.6 123.2 117.0 111.1 87.9 122.9 116.7 114.0 87.0 123.1 116.7 114.3 86.1 123.2 117.0 113.7 86.9 123.3 116.7 113.6 85.3 123.4 116.5 114.7 83.3 123.6 116.0 116.8 79.9 123.9 116.2 116.8 79.5 124.3 116.6 117.3 81.2 124.4 116.8 117.5 81.0 124.7 116.8 117.4 80.5 124.8 117.3 116.7 81.5 125.1 122.0 123.8 123.7 123.6 123.8 123.9 124.0 124.2 124.4 124.8 124.8 125.1 125.3 125.7 Crude energy materials................................ Crude materials less energy........................ Crude nonfood materials less energy....... 78.8 110.7 128.4 76.7 116.3 140.2 80.9 115.8 141.7 75.0 116.3 142.6 73.6 115.9 139.8 74.5 115.7 139.8 79.4 114.5 140.8 74.4 118.0 141.8 70.0 119.9 143.6 72.9 121.2 147.9 66.9 122.5 151.4 73.1 123.9 153.3 73.0 123.3 153.5 73.7 120.6 151.6 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 99 Current Labor Statistics: Price Data 35. Producer price indexes for the net output of major industry groups (December 1984 = 100, unless otherwise indicated) 1994 1993 Annual SIC In d u s tr y 1992 Printing, publishing, and allied industries........................................................ Chemicals and allied products..................... Petroleum refining and related products.... Rubber and miscellaneous plastic products Leather and leather products ....................... Stone, clay, glass, and concrete products .. Primary metal industries ................................ Fabricated metal products, except machinery and transportation equipment ..................................................... Machinery, except electrical.......................... Electrical and electronic machinery, equipment, and supplies............................. Transportation equipment.............................. Measuring and controlling instruments; photographic, medical, optical goods; watches, clocks............................................ Miscellaneous manufacturing industries ( 1 2 /8 5 = 1 0 0 )................................................ July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May 74.0 74.6 93.0 72.5 76.9 76.6 94.0 76.5 76.4 69.7 93.3 76.2 80.5 68.7 93.1 82.0 75.2 69.8 92.9 74.6 74.2 71.4 93.1 73.0 75.2 70.5 93.2 74.5 78.3 66.9 94.4 78.8 74.8 66.5 94.1 74.0 72.7 69.5 94.0 70.9 75.8 70.5 93.8 75.1 70.1 72.5 94.2 67.0 76.0 73.7 93.2 75.4 75.1 73.6 92.3 74.2 14 117.5 118.8 118.6 118.7 118.7 118.9 119.6 119.1 119.2 119.8 120.2 120.2 120.9 120.6 119.3 120.0 187.6 113.5 119.8 120.6 187.8 113.0 119.9 120.9 187.7 113.0 120.1 121.0 187.7 113.1 120.4 120.6 187.7 113.2 20 21 22 117.4 116.9 230.2 113.6 119.1 118.7 218.0 113.6 119.5 118.9 242.4 113.4 119.3 119.1 240.8 113.6 118.6 119.1 178.5 113.7 118.4 119.0 178.5 113.8 119.4 119.0 178.7 113.7 119.3 119.4 178.7 113.7 118.8 119.8 187.4 113.5 23 118.0 119.2 119.1 119.4 119.4 119.3 119.3 119.4 119.3 119.5 119.7 119.8 119.5 119.7 155.3 128.2 120.1 155.8 128.4 120.2 153.6 128.3 120.2 152.6 129.7 120.9 148.7 127.4 72.0 115.8 129.9 118.4 114.2 148.9 127.7 73.7 116.1 129.9 119.0 115.1 T o t a l m a n u f a c t u r in g i n d u s t r i e s ....................... Food and kindred products........................... Tobacco manufactures.................................. Textile mill products....................................... Apparel and other finished products made from fabrics and similar materials......................................................... Lumber and wood products, except furniture.......................................................... Furniture and fixtures..................................... Paper and allied products ............................. June 10 12 13 T o t a l m in in g i n d u s t r i e s ......................................... Metal mining.................................................... Coal mining (12/85 = 1 0 0 )............................. Oil and gas extraction (12/85 = 100) .......... Mining and quarrying of nonmetallic minerals, except fu e ls ................................. 1993 24 25 26 129.7 122.9 121.2 148.3 125.4 120.2 147.1 125.4 120.5 145.7 125.5 120.0 146.3 125.7 119.9 148.2 125.8 119.7 149.0 126.6 120.1 151.3 126.7 119.9 153.5 127.2 120.0 156.6 127.6 119.9 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 140.8 125.8 80.3 114.2 127.0 112.8 111.7 145.6 127.2 77.6 115.4 129.0 115.4 111.4 145.0 127.2 80.3 115.4 129.3 115.3 111.2 145.3 127.2 77.7 115.4 128.9 115.5 111.7 145.7 126.9 75.8 115.4 129.8 115.9 112.0 145.9 127.1 76.7 115.7 129.0 116.1 111.9 146.5 127.1 78.7 115.8 129.0 116.1 111.8 146.5 127.3 75.9 115.7 129.1 116.5 111.8 146.8 126.7 67.5 115.9 129.3 116.6 112.4 148.4 126.9 67.5 115.7 130.1 116.9 112.7 148.5 126.8 71.2 115.8 129.3 117.2 113.6 148.5 126.8 71.0 115.7 129.6 118.0 114.2 34 117.2 118.2 118.1 118.3 118.4 118.6 118.6 118.9 118.9 119.1 119.3 119.5 119.6 119.8 35 116.7 116.8 116.7 116.6 116.6 116.8 116.7 116.7 116.8 117.1 117.1 117.3 117.5 117.5 36 37 110.8 123.0 112.0 126.3 111.9 126.1 111.9 126.3 112.0 126.2 112.1 124.1 112.2 128.1 112.3 128.3 112.4 128.5 112.5 129.4 112.9 129.3 112.8 129.3 113.0 129.3 112.9 130.1 38 118.7 120.8 120.7 121.0 121.2 121.2 120.9 121.1 121.1 121.8 121.5 121.7 122.1 122.2 39 119.6 121.5 121.5 121.8 122.0 121.9 122.0 122.1 122.1 122.6 122.7 122.9 123.3 123.3 119.8 119.8 99.7 105.6 96.6 100.0 119.8 99.7 104.5 96.5 99.5 119.8 100.2 105.2 96.5 99.9 119.8 99.0 106.0 96.5 99.9 119.8 99.0 106.3 96.5 100.0 119.8 99.9 108.0 96.7 100.1 119.8 99.6 108.6 96.7 100.2 119.8 99.1 108.2 97.1 100.6 119.8 98.4 109.2 100.8 100.8 119.8 98.7 107.9 99.7 101.3 119.8 99.1 108.5 100.6 101.4 119.8 99.2 108.1 101.0 101.7 119.8 99.4 108.3 100.9 S e r v ic e in d u s tr ie s : Motor freight transportation and warehousing (0 6 /9 3 -1 0 0 ) ............. U.S. Postal Service (0 6 /8 9 = 1 0 0 )............... Water transportation (1 2 /9 2 —1 0 0 )............. Transportation by air (1 2 /9 2 -1 0 0 ) ............ Pipelines, except natural gas (12/86 = 100) - 42 43 44 45 46 - 96.4 Data not available. 36. Annual data: Producer Price indexes, by stage of processing (1982 = 100) In d e x 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 104.7 104.6 87.6 108.1 103.2 107.3 63.0 110.6 105.4 109.5 61.8 113.3 108.0 112.6 59.8 117.0 113.6 118.7 65.7 122.1 119.2 124.4 75.0 126.6 121.7 124.1 78.1 131.1 123.2 123.3 77.8 134.2 124.7 125.7 78.0 135.8 102.7 97.3 92.6 105.2 99.1 96.2 72.6 104.9 101.5 99.2 73.0 107.8 107.1 109.5 70.9 115.2 112.0 113.8 76.1 120.2 114.5 113.3 85.5 120.9 114.4 111.1 85.1 121.4 114.7 110.7 84.3 122.0 116.2 112.7 84.6 123.8 95.8 94.8 93.3 104.9 87.7 93.2 71.8 103.1 93.7 96.2 75.0 115.7 96.0 106.1 67.7 133.0 103.1 111.2 75.9 137.9 108.9 113.1 85.9 136.3 101.2 105.5 80.4 128.2 100.4 105.1 78.8 128.4 102.4 108.4 76.7 140.2 F in is h e d g o o d s : Total ............................................................... Foods ..................................................................... Energy.................................................................... O th e r...................................................................... In t e r m e d i a t e m a te r ia ls , s u p p lie s , a n d c o m p o n e n ts : Total ........................................................................... Foods ..................................................................... Energy.................................................................... O th e r...................................................................... C r u d e m a t e r ia ls f o r f u r t h e r p r o c e s s in g : Total ........................................................................... Foods ..................................................................... Energy.................................................................... O th e r...................................................................... 100 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 37. U.S. export price indexes by Standard International Trade Classification (1990 = 100, unless otherwise indicated) C a te g o r y SITC Rev. 3 1994 1993 June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. 0 01 04 05 97.8 111.6 90.9 103.0 101.9 110.6 99.5 109.9 102.1 110.4 99.5 108.2 102.2 106.9 96.0 118.0 102.9 105.0 99.4 119.9 105.5 107.3 106.3 116.0 107.8 107.1 111.2 114.3 110.7 106.7 117.7 113.8 107.4 106.3 112.3 111.2 108.5 110.1 112.0 112.2 106.5 111.2 105.9 110.0 2 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 99.6 79.2 97.9 99.2 161.4 70.2 83.5 95.0 83.9 100.6 78.1 112.0 97.3 157.5 69.3 82.1 94.9 85.1 99.5 80.2 114.1 97.3 151.6 65.2 81.2 93.7 86.6 98.0 82.9 108.8 97.6 148.7 66.7 81.1 97.2 83.9 95.9 83.5 101.3 96.6 146.8 65.1 81.2 96.2 83.3 96.1 84.8 104.1 94.9 144.9 65.0 80.8 96.0 84.3 98.7 86.0 112.0 93.6 146.8 67.3 83.0 97.3 85.2 101.1 85.2 115.4 92.4 151.3 68.3 87.0 97.0 88.3 103.4 86.7 112.3 92.8 153.2 71.5 97.2 95.8 89.7 104.8 91.3 112.4 92.9 153.0 76.2 98.3 97.4 90.6 105.7 93.8 109.9 93.4 153.7 80.6 100.0 99.0 90.9 3 32 88.0 93.9 86.5 93.9 86.3 94.0 85.6 93.9 86.3 94.1 84.6 93.9 81.8 94.0 82.0 94.0 85.5 94.2 83.8 95.2 84.2 94.2 33 80.7 78.6 78.3 76.8 77.9 75.3 70.4 71.1 76.6 73.1 74.8 A n im a l a n d v e g e t a b l e o ils , fa ts , a n d w a x e s ......................................................... 4 98.4 100.0 103.4 100.9 98.7 100.3 105.6 110.0 109.3 110.0 109.3 C h e m ic a ls a n d r e la t e d p r o d u c ts , n .e .s ...................................................................... 5 54 55 57 58 59 96.1 107.0 103.6 102.2 96.8 105.7 95.5 95.3 107.4 104.3 101.4 97.6 105.8 95.2 104.7 100.6 97.2 105.4 95.1 103.5 102.0 96.6 105.8 95.4 108.2 103.8 101.6 96.7 105.8 104.8 99.8 97.7 105.5 95.4 108.2 104.9 100.5 97.5 105.7 95.8 108.7 105.0 100.9 97.5 107.4 96.0 108.9 105.3 101.2 98.0 107.4 96.4 108.8 106.5 101.7 98.3 108.1 97.0 107.9 107.0 103.4 99.3 108.3 6 62 100.7 108.5 100.8 108.8 101.3 108.8 101.3 108.9 101.0 109.1 100.9 109.1 100.8 108.7 101.7 109.9 102.8 109.4 103.0 109.2 103.6 109.3 64 66 68 93.9 105.4 81.3 93.3 105.4 82.5 92.1 107.3 85.1 92.9 106.7 83.2 93.3 106.9 80.1 93.4 107.0 78.5 93.1 105.8 79.0 93.0 106.3 81.7 93.5 107.0 86.5 93.7 106.9 87.8 94.2 106.8 89.6 7 71 72 104.5 110.7 108.0 104.3 111.0 108.1 104.2 111.1 108.2 104.2 111.1 108.6 104.5 111.2 108.8 104.5 112.1 109.1 104.4 111.8 109.2 104.4 112.2 109.2 104.2 112.6 108.9 104.4 112.6 109.2 104.2 112.4 109.7 74 75 108.3 87.7 108.5 86.9 108.6 86.6 109.0 85.9 109.3 85.5 109.6 84.9 109.5 84.6 109.8 83.5 110.0 82.9 109.9 82.6 110.1 82.3 76 77 78 109.4 103.5 105.2 109.0 103.3 105.1 108.1 103.3 105.0 108.7 102.8 105.2 108.8 103.7 105.6 108.5 103.7 105.4 108.6 103.5 105.5 108.4 103.5 105.8 107.5 103.6 105.6 107.4 103.6 106.2 107.2 103.1 106.0 87 110.1 109.9 109.8 110.9 110.6 111.0 110.8 111.8 112.0 111.4- 111.5 F o o d a n d liv e a n i m a l s ......................................................................................................... Meat and meat preparations............................................................................ Cereals and cereal preparations..................................................................... Vegetables, fruit, and nuts, prepared fresh or d ry ....................................... C r u d e m a te r ia ls , in e d ib le , e x c e p t f u e l s .................................................................. Hides, skins, and furskins, r a w ........................................................................ Oilseeds and oleaginous fruits ........................................................................ Crude rubber (including synthetic and reclaimed) ....................................... Cork and wood ................................................................................................... Pulp and waste paper....................................................................................... Textile fibers and their waste .......................................................................... Crude fertilizers and crude minerals............................................................... Metalliferous ores and metal scrap ................................................................ M in e r a l fu e ls , lu b r ic a n ts , a n d r e la te d p r o d u c t s ................................................. Coal, coke, and briquettes............................................................................... Petroleum, petroleum products, and related materials.......................................................................................................... Medicinal and pharmaceutical products........................................................ Essential oils; polishing and cleaning preparations..................................... Plastics in primary forms (1 2 /9 2 -1 0 0 ) ........................................................ Plastics in nonprimary forms (12/92 = 1 0 0 ).................................................. Chemical materials and products, n.e.s.......................................................... - M a n u f a c t u r e d g o o d s c la s s ifie d c h ie fly b y m a t e r i a l s ................................................................................................................................... Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.............................................................................. Paper, paperboard, and articles of paper, pulp, and paperboard................................................................................................ Nonmetallic mineral manufactures, n.e.s........................................................ Nonferrous m etals............................................................................................. M a c h in e r y a n d t r a n s p o r t e q u i p m e n t ......................................................................... Power generating machinery and equipment............................................... Machinery specialized for particular industries............................................. General Industrial machines and parts, n.e.s., and machine parts.......................................................................................... Computer equipment and office machines................................................... Telecommunications and sound recording and reproducing apparatus and equipment........................................................ Electrical machinery and equipment............................................................... Road vehicles ..................................................................................................... P r o f e s s io n a l, s c ie n t if ic , a n d c o n tr o llin g i n s t r u m e n t s a n d a p p a r a t u s ...................................................................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 101 Current Labor Statistics: Price Data 38. U.S. import price indexes by Standard International Trade Classification (1990 = 100, unless otherwise indicated) C a te g o r y F o o d a n d liv e a n i m a l s .................... Meat and meat preparations.... Fish and crustaceans, mollusks, and other aquatic invertebrates....... Cereals and cereal preparations .......... Vegetables and fruit, prepared fresh or dried ....... Sugars, sugar preparations, and honey............. Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof ........................... B e v e r a g e s a n d to b a c c o ....................... Beverages........................ C r u d e m a te r ia ls , in e d ib le , e x c e p t fu e ls Crude rubber (including synthetic and reclaimed) Cork and wood ......................... Pulp and waste pap er.................... Crude fertilizers......................... Metalliferous ores and metal scrap........... Crude animal and vegetable materials, n.e.s.............................................. M in e r a l fu e ls , lu b r ic a n ts , a n d r e la te d p r o d u c ts Petroleum, petroleum products, and related materials................................... Gas, natural and manufactured ............. Electrical energy ................................ A n im a l a n d v e g e t a b le o ils , fa ts , a n d w a x e s ........... C h e m ic a ls a n d r e la t e d p r o d u c ts , n .e .s ....................................... Inorganic chemicals.......................... Dyeing, tanning, and coloring materials ................................. Medicinal and pharmaceutical products......................... Essential oils; polishing and cleaning preparations ............................ Fertilizers ..................... Plastics in primary forms (1 2 /9 2 = 10 0 )..................................... Plastics in nonprimary forms (12/92= 100 ) .................... Chemical materials and products, n.e.s....................................................... M a n u f a c t u r e d g o o d s c la s s ifie d c h ie fly b y m a te r ia l ................. Rubber manufactures, n.e.s............................... Paper, paperboard, and articles of paper pulp, paper, or paperboard .............................................. Nonmetallic mineral manufactures, n.e.s............ Nonferrous m etals............................. Manufactures of metals, n.e.s.................. M a c h in e r y a n d t r a n s p o r t e q u ip m e n t ................... Machinery specialized for particular industries............ General industrial machinery and equipment, n.e.s., and machine parts............................. Computer equipment and office machines ......................... Telecommunications and sound recording and reproducing apparatus and equipment ............. Electrical machinery and equipment................ Road vehicles ..................................................... Footwear................................................. Photographic apparatus, equipment, and supplies, and optical goods, n.e.s................................... 102 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 SITC Rev.3 1993 1994 July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. 0 01 100.0 100.3 101.3 102.3 102.3 97.9 103.7 97.9 102.1 96.0 102.1 94.0 102.5 92.9 101.7 93.8 103.1 96.5 104.0 97.4 03 04 05 06 106.9 101.8 103.9 96.8 107.8 100.7 104.9 96.5 109.1 98.5 106.5 96.5 113.2 98.3 105.9 96.5 114.0 97.8 103.7 97.5 114.1 99.8 101.7 96.4 114.7 100.0 104.2 96.7 115.8 99.5 98.6 96.8 116.6 99.5 100.2 96.9 118.5 100.4 98.5 97.2 07 84.7 92.1 98.2 102.4 97.3 101.6 100.0 101.2 103.1 108.1 1 11 111.7 112.5 111.5 112.1 111.8 112.0 112.8 112.5 112.7 112.4 112.7 112.4 111.8 112.4 111.6 111.6 112.2 112.1 113.1 112.3 2 23 24 25 27 28 29 95.5 101.3 130.6 63.7 .0 87.9 108.0 95.9 98.8 134.8 61.8 84.0 87.8 109.5 96.9 99.1 141.9 60.4 83.0 87.1 109.2 96.9 96.6 148.0 59.3 .0 84.3 107.0 98.7 97.2 156.1 58.8 .0 83.7 110.2 102.3 98.0 170.2 58.4 84.0 83.2 115.4 103.6 99.1 175.1 59.7 82.9 83.0 114.8 104.9 100.8 161.2 60.3 82.3 87.8 144.4 105.3 103.4 166.9 61.6 81.2 90.2 120.7 104.0 108.7 156.6 63.8 82.5 90.8 118.5 3 75.2 74.0 73.5 74.4 70.7 63.8 62.5 65.6 64.4 67.0 33 34 35 74.3 90.4 82.3 73.1 8 6 .4 ’ 83.1 72.3 91.7 87.5 73.4 89.5 86.4 69.7 85.2 84.1 61.8 94.1 85.8 60.6 92.2 86.2 63.9 91.6 88.2 62.7 90.7 89.3 65.6 87.3 86.4 4 116.5 118.4 117.3 116.4 115.1 120.0 127.8 124.4 123.3 125.5 5 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 102.5 100.3 100.3 116.6 109.2 102.2 99.9 98.7 106.2 101.9 99.5 99.6 115.3 108.7 103.0 100.0 98.5 105.1 102.1 100.5 100.0 115.7 108.7 102.4 99.7 98.7 103.4 102.5 101.4 101.4 117.6 110.0 102.5 99.9 99.6 102.3 102.1 100.8 101.1 117.4 110.1 101.9 99.8 98.7 102.1 101.3 100.2 99.9 116.6 109.9 100.5 99.7 97.5 101.7 101.0 100.0 100.6 116.7 108.6 101.0 101.3 96.4 101.3 101.1 99.3 103.4 117.7 108.2 100.7 100.8 95.8 101.3 101.4 99.6 101.0 117.4 107.9 102.9 100.9 95.3 102.7 102.3 99.3 100.9 118.3 107.7 102.1 100.9 99.2 102.2 6 62 99.3 103.9 99.3 103.1 98.7 103.1 98.2 103.4 97.8 103.4 97.8 103.2 98.2 103.0 98.7 102.2 99.3 101.6 100.2 102.6 64 66 68 69 95.8 107.7 77.0 104.8 94.6 107.9 77.8 104.4 95.4 107.8 75.9 104.3 94.8 108.6 73.4 103.6 94.0 108.5 71.8 103.3 94.2 107.9 72.3 103.9 93.5 107.4 76.5 103.9 92.9 107.8 78.8 104.0 94.0 107.8 80.3 103.8 93.5 108.3 84.2 104.5 7 72 105.3 107.1 105.4 106.7 105.5 107.1 106.3 108.2 106.3 108.4 106.2 107.3 106.4 107.6 106.2 107.7 106.4 108.3 106.9 108.8 74 75 107.1 90.7 106.1 90.5 107.0 90.6 108.0 90.1 108.3 89.2 107.8 89.5 108.2 89.1 107.8 88.7 108.4 88.2 108.7 87.8 76 77 78 98.8 105.2 108.8 98.7 106.4 108.7 99.0 105.9 109.0 98.6 106.3 110.5 98.2 105.7 111.3 98.2 105.4 111.4 97.9 105.1 111.8 97.6 104.7 111.7 97.4 105.5 111.9 97.4 105.8 113.1 85 101.0 100.3 100.4 100.8 100.4 100.1 99.9 99.7 99.6 100.0 88 107.1 107.2 107.9 109.1 109.2 108.7 108.6 108.3 108.5 109.2 39. U.S. export price indexes by end-use category (1990 = 100 unless otherwise indicated) 1994 1993 C a te g o ry July Aug. Oct. Sept. Nov. Dec. Jan. Mar. Feb. Apr. A L L C O M M O D I T I E S ............................................................................................... 101.6 101.6 101.5 101.4 101.6 101.9 102.6 102.6 102.8 102.9 Foods, feeds, and beverages ............................................................. Agricultural foods, feeds, and beverages ...................................... Nonagricultural (fish, beverages) food products............................................................................................. 102.2 103.5 102.6 103.6 102.1 102.9 101.8 102.9 104.4 105.8 107.5 109.1 110.5 112.2 107.4 108.9 108.4 109.5 106.4 106.7 88.0 91.4 93.4 90.1 90.1 91.0 92.6 90.9 96.1 102.2 Industrial supplies and materials......................................................... 96.0 96.0 95.6 95.0 94.9 95.1 96.1 97.5 97.8 98.7 Agricultural industrial supplies and materials ................................................................................... 92.5 93.4 93.3 92.2 92.8 94.4 95.8 101.0 102.3 102.7 88.9 89.0 88.5 88.9 87.8 85.8 85.9 88.7 87.0 87.4 93.9 149.0 94.5 148.5 95.5 149.8 Fuels and lubricants .......................................................................... Nonagricultural supplies and materials, excluding fuel and building materials........................................... Selected building materials............................................................... 92.8 148.8 92.8 146.2 92.5 144.9 91.9 143.9 91.9 142.9 92.3 143.7 93.1 147.7 Capital goods......................................................................................... Electric and electrical generating equipment......................................................................................... Nonelectrical machinery.................................................................... 104.6 104.5 104.5 104.7 104.8 104.7 104.6 104.5 104.4 104.3 104.3 102.9 104.5 102.7 104.7 102.6 104.9 102.8 105.2 102.8 105.4 102.6 105.5 102.4 104.8 102.3 104.9 102.1 105.2 102.0 Automotive vehicles, parts, and engines.......................................... 105.3 105.2 105.5 105.8 105.6 105.7 106.1 105.9 106.4 106.3 Consumer goods, excluding automotive........................................... Nondurables, manufactured.............................................................. Durables, manufactured .................................................................... Nonmanufactured consumer goods................................................ 107.6 109.6 105.3 101.1 107.6 109.6 105.4 101.3 107.6 110.0 105.1 100.5 107.8 110.3 105.2 100.5 107.8 110.2 105.3 100.8 107.6 109.5 105.6 100.7 108.0 110.0 105.9 100.8 108.1 110.2 105.8 100.8 107.8 110.0 105.4 100.2 108.0 109.9 106.0 100.2 Agricultural commodities...................................................................... Nonagricultural commodities ............................................................... 101.0 101.8 101.3 101.8 100.7 101.7 100.5 101.7 102.9 101.6 105.9 101.6 108.6 102.0 107.1 102.2 107.8 102.3 105.7 102.6 40. U.S. import price indexes by end-use category (1990 = 100) 1994 1993 C a te g o r y July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. 99.4 100.2 A L L C O M M O D I T I E S ............................................................................................... 99.9 99.9 99.9 100.4 99.9 98.9 99.0 99.3 Foods, feeds, and beverages ............................................................. Agricultural foods, feeds, and beverages ...................................... Nonagricultural (fish, beverages) food products............................................................................................. 102.2 99.1 103.8 101.1 104.6 101.8 105.8 102.1 104.6 100.3 104.8 100.5 105.3 101.1 104.7 99.9 105.7 101.0 106.8 102.0 109.9 110.4 111.5 114.9 115.5 115.6 115.9 116.6 117.3 118.9 Industrial supplies and materials......................................................... 88.3 87.7 87.4 87.6 85.9 83.0 82.8 84.2 84.2 85.7 Fuels and lubricants ............................................................................. Petroleum and petroleum products ................................................ 76.2 74.0 75.0 72.8 74.6 72.0 75.5 73.0 71.8 69.3 65.1 61.7 63.8 60.4 66.8 63.7 65.7 62.5 68.1 65.3 Paper and paper base stocks............................................................. Materials assiciated with nondurable supplies and materials ................................................................................... Selected building materials.................................................................. Unfinished metals associated with durable goods.......................... Nonmetals associated with durable goods ...................................... 85.7 84.6 84.7 84.0 83.2 83.3 83.4 83.0 84.1 84.5 101.8 119.6 86.8 99.1 101.6 121.1 87.4 98.3 101.4 122.6 86.1 98.3 101.2 125.8 84.6 98.6 100.9 127.9 84.0 98.0 100.2 134.6 84.2 97.5 100.1 135.2 86.7 97.2 100.7 129.2 88.3 97.1 101.4 133.0 89.4 96.7 102.7 129.8 91.0 96.7 Capital goods.......................................................................................... Electric and electrical generating equipment ................................ Nonelectrical machinery.................................................................... Transportation equipment, excluding motor vehicles and spacecraft (12/92 — 100) ..................................... Automotive vehicles, parts and engines........................................... 103.8 104.8 103.1 103.9 104.5 103.4 104.0 104.9 103.4 104.4 105.5 103.8 104.1 105.1 103.4 103.8 104.9 103.1 103.9 104.7 103.0 103.7 104.4 102.8 103.9 105.1 102.9 104.1 105.4 103.1 102.5 107.5 102.4 107.5 101.7 107.8 102.6 109.0 102.7 109.7 102.2 109.7 104.1 110.1 104.2 110.0 104.6 110.1 104.3 111.1 Consumer goods, excluding automotives......................................... Nondurables, manufactured.............................................................. Durables, manufactured .................................................................... Nonmanufactured consumer goods................................................ 105.2 105.1 105.0 106.8 105.0 104.7 105.1 107.5 105.3 105.1 105.1 107.6 105.5 105.4 105.4 107.3 105.4 105.1 105.3 108.4 105.3 104.8 105.2 109.6 105.2 104.8 105.2 109.4 105.4 104.7 105.1 114.9 105.4 104.8 105.4 110.7 105.6 105.1 105.5 110.2 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 103 Current Labor Statistics: Price and Productivity Data 41. U.S. international price indexes for selected categories of services (1990 = 100 unless otherwise indicated)) 1992 1994 1993 C a te g o r y Mar. June Sept. Mar. Dec. Sept. June Mar. Dec. Air freight (inbound) ................................................... Air freight (outbound)...................................... 108.0 104.7 - - 107.3 100.0 102.1 98.9 100.1 97.3 106.4 96.6 106.6 95.6 106.1 96.4 105.9 96.5 Air passenger fares (U.S. carriers) .......................................... Air passenger fares (foreign carriers)...................................... Ocean liner freight (inbound)....................... 109.0 107.9 99.8 115.0 114.5 104.1 118.3 120.5 104.7 108.1 106.3 105.3 109.8 108.0 104.0 117.2 115.7 103.5 119.0 117.0 103.3 111.4 107.2 102.1 113.1 108.1 103.4 - Data not available. 42. Indexes of productivity, hourly compensation, and unit costs, quarterly data seasonally adjusted (1982 = 100) Quarterly Indexes Item IV 116.2 159.4 106.7 137.2 153.2 142.5 117.0 160.7 107.0 137.4 154.1 142.8 119.0 161.7 106.9 135.9 158.2 143.2 119.3 163.8 107.7 137.3 157.0 143.8 114.3 157.0 105.8 137.3 153.9 142.7 114.2 157.7 105.5 138.1 155.0 143.5 115.2 158.9 105.8 137.9 156.5 143.9 116.9 159.9 105.7 136.8 159.6 144.1 117.3 162.0 106.5 138.1 158.2 144.6 121.3 152.6 103.6 123.7 125.8 118.3 195.3 132.8 128.1 119.9 153.2 103.3 125.4 127.8 119.6 182.8 131.5 129.0 121.2 154.2 103.2 125.0 127.3 119.2 193.9 133.2 129.3 122.1 155.2 103.4 125.0 127.2 119.4 193.7 133.4 129.2 123.8 156.0 103.2 123.9 126.1 118.3 212.6 136.0 129.3 123.8 157.5 103.6 125.3 127.2 120.3 202.6 135.8 130.1 130.9 149.2 101.3 114.0 132.2 148.1 99.9 112.1 133.8 149.6 100.1 111.8 134.6 150.5 100.2 111.8 137.2 151.9 100.4 110.7 139.5 153.8 101.1 110.2 IV 114.8 153.6 106.0 133.9 149.9 139.1 115.8 155.7 106.6 134.5 147.4 138.7 116.8 157.3 106.8 134.7 152.7 140.6 116.2 158.4 106.8 136.3 152.2 141.6 112.3 150.9 104.9 134.3 149.8 139.3 113.1 152.5 105.2 134.9 151.5 140.2 113.9 154.5 105.8 135.6 148.8 139.8 115.0 156.0 106.0 135.7 154.5 141.8 116.5 146.4 102.5 124.5 125.7 121.8 157.2 128.4 126.6 117.3 147.9 102.8 124.7 126.1 121.1 164.1 129.2 127.1 118.6 149.4 103.1 124.3 126.0 120.0 175.5 130.4 127.5 120.1 151.3 103.6 124.7 126.0 121.3 172.4 130.9 127.6 126.2 144.9 101.4 114.8 127.2 145.5 101.2 114.4 128.6 146.7 101.2 114.1 129.1 147.6 101.0 114.3 IV I 111.8 148.2 104.6 132.6 144.9 136.6 112.8 150.1 105.1 133.1 145.7 137.2 114.1 152.2 105.9 133.4 148.5 138.3 110.4 147.1 103.8 133.2 146.3 137.5 111.3 148.8 104.2 133.7 147.7 138.2 114.8 144.6 102.0 124.9 125.9 122.5 150.4 127.8 126.5 125.4 142.5 100.6 113.6 II I III III III 1994 1993 1992 1991 I II B u s in e s s : Output per hour of all persons................................ Compensation per hour............................................ Real compensation per h o u r................................... Unit labor costs .......................................................... Unit nonlabor payments ........................................... Implicit price deflator ................................................ N o n f a r m b u s in e s s : Output per hour of all persons................................ Compensation per hour............................................ Real compensation per ho u r................................... Unit labor costs .......................................................... Unit nonlabor payments ........................................... Implicit price deflator ................................................ N o n f in a n c ia l c o r p o r a t io n s : Output per hour of all em ployees........................... Compensation per hour............................................ Real compensation per ho u r................................... Total unit costs........................................................... Unit labor costs ....................................................... Unit nonlabor costs................................................ Unit profits................................................................... Unit nonlabor payments ........................................... Implicit price deflator ................................................. M a n u fa c tu r in g : Output per hour of all persons................................ Compensation per hour............................................ Real compensation per h o u r................................... Unit labor costs .......................................................... 104 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 43. Annual indexes of multifactor productivity and related measures, selected years (1982 = 100) Item 1960 1970 1973 1985 1980 1987 1986 1990 1989 1988 P r iv a te b u s in e s s : Productivity: Output per hour of all persons............................. Output per unit of capital services....................... Multifactor productivity........................................... O utput.......................................................................... Inputs: Hours of all persons............................................... Capital services ....................................................... Combined units of labor and capital input......... Capital per hour of all persons................................ 65.1 128.5 80.2 52.1 87.0 122.2 96.2 75.8 94.8 125.1 103.0 88.0 99.2 109.3 102.1 101.0 107.3 107.2 107.3 118.0 109.8 106.5 108.8 121.6 111.1 108.0 110.1 126.7 113.6 110.9 112.8 133.5 113.2 110.5 112.4 136.3 112.8 108.4 111.4 136.6 80.0 40.5 65.0 50.6 87.2 62.1 78.8 71.2 92.8 70.4 85.5 75.8 101.9 92.5 99.0 90.7 109.9 110.1 110.0 100.1 110.7 114.2 111.8 103.1 114.1 117.4 115.1 102.9 117.5 120.4 118.4 102.4 120.4 123.3 121.3 102.5 121.0 126.0 122.6 104.1 69.8 135.1 84.8 51.9 89.1 126.6 98.5 76.2 96.6 128.9 104.9 88.6 99.9 110.5 102.8 101.7 106.7 106.5 106.6 118.3 108.9 105.7 107.9 121.8 110.0 107.0 109.1 127.0 112.7 110.0 111.9 134.3 112.1 109.3 111.3 137.0 111.5 107.0 110.1 137.2 74.4 38.4 61.2 51.6 85.5 60.2 77.4 70.4 91.7 68.7 84.5 75.0 101.8 92.0 98.9 90.4 110.9 111.0 110.9 100.1 111.8 115.2 112.8 103.0 115.5 118.7 116.4 102.7 119.1 122.0 120.0 102.4 122.2 125.4 123.1 102.6 123.1 128.3 124.6 104.2 58.4 136.6 72.6 55.0 77.2 128.0 87.5 82.3 89.4 143.4 100.5 100.9 96.6 113.4 100.5 106.2 114.8 117.2 115.4 122.8 120.0 118.9 119.7 126.6 126.4 124.9 126.0 134.3 132.1 132.9 132.4 144.6 133.3 132.8 133.2 146.4 136.6 131.3 135.1 147.0 94.2 40.3 75.8 42.8 106.5 64.3 94.1 60.3 112.9 70.4 100.5 62.3 109.9 93.6 105.7 85.2 107.0 104.8 106.4 98.0 105.4 106.5 105.7 101.0 106.2 107.5 106.6 101.2 109.4 108.8 109.2 99.4 109.8 110.3 109.9 100.4 107.6 112.0 108.8 104.1 P r iv a te n o n f a r m b u s in e s s : Productivity: Output per hour of all persons ............................. Output per unit of capital services....................... Multifactor productivity........................................... O utput.......................................................................... Inputs: Hours of all persons............................................... Capital services ...................................................... Combined units of labor and capital input......... Capital per hour of all persons................................ M a n u fa c tu r in g : Productivity: Output per hour of all persons............................. Output per unit of capital services....................... Multifactor productivity........................................... O utput.......................................................................... Inputs: Hours of all persons............................................... Capital services ...................................................... Combined units of labor and capital inputs....... Capital per hour of all persons................................ NOTE: Productivity and output in this table have not been revised for consistency with the December 1991 comprehensive 44. revisions to the National Income and Product Accounts, Annual indexes of productivity, hourly compensation, unit costs, and prices, selected years (1982 = 100) ' Item 1982 1984 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 95.1 45.1 98.1 47.5 52.1 49.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 104.8 108.3 100.6 103.4 116.5 107.7 108.5 118.9 104.7 109.5 122.0 113.6 109.6 123.1 104.6 112.3 125.5 116.6 110.7 128.5 104.8 116.0 130.6 120.8 109.9 133.0 103.5 121.0 136.6 126.1 110.7 140.6 103.8 127.1 139.8 131.2 111.8 147.4 104.5 131.9 144.7 136.1 115.3 154.7 106.4 134.1 149.6 139.2 117.1 160.0 106.9 136.7 154.5 142.5 88.5 37.0 92.0 41.8 43.0 42.2 96.4 45.4 98.7 47.1 49.6 47.9 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 104.7 108.3 100.6 103.4 116.5 107.6 107.7 118.4 104.3 110.0 123.2 114.2 108.6 122.5 104.1 112.8 126.6 117.2 109.6 127.7 104.2 116.5 131.8 121.4 108.6 132.0 102.7 121.5 137.1 126.5 109.1 139.2 102.8 127.6 140.6 131.8 110.3 146.2 103.6 132.6 146.2 137.0 113.6 153.5 105.6 135.1 151.2 140.3 115.2 158.4 105.8 137.5 156.3 143.6 75.3 23.6 77.0 29.5 31.4 24.8 75.1 34.2 32.3 90.3 38.4 95.4 40.5 42.5 35.5 69.5 41.9 42.3 95.0 46.6 101.2 46.5 49.0 40.2 87.9 49.2 49.1 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 105.4 107.6 99.9 101.1 102.0 98.8 168.4 111.9 105.3 109.3 117.2 103.2 105.9 107.2 102.4 150.0 111.4 108.6 111.2 120.9 102.7 107.0 108.8 102.5 172.1 115.6 111.0 113.3 125.9 102.7 109.8 111.1 106.4 183.5 120.9 114.3 111.5 130.2 101.3 115.7 116.8 112.9 168.5 123.3 119.0 112.7 137.1 101.2 120.1 121.7 116.3 167.5 125.9 123.1 114.7 143.8 101.9 124.4 125.4 121.9 154.9 128.1 126.3 119.3 150.3 103.3 124.3 126.0 120.2 177.0 130.8 127.6 121.7 154.6 103.3 124.8 127.1 119.1 195.9 133.6 129.2 - - - 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 103.5 106.0 98.4 102.4 122.3 107.4 109.5 115.8 102.0 105.8 127.4 111.2 116.6 118.4 100.6 101.6 134.5 109.8 119.2 123.1 100.4 103.2 147.4 114.3 119.9 127.9 99.5 106.7 153.3 118.4 122.1 134.7 99.5 110.4 153.7 121.2 124.5 141.9 100.6 114.0 154.4 124.1 129.1 147.4 101.4 114.2 134.5 150.1 100.2 111.6 - 1970 1973 65.6 21.1 68.8 32.2 33.6 32.6 87.0 36.7 91.3 42.2 42.7 42.4 69.9 22.2 72.4 31.8 33.3 32.3 1960 B u s in e s s : Output per hour of all persons................................ Compensation per hour............................................ Real compensation per ho u r................................... Unit labor costs .......................................................... Unit nonlabor payments ........................................... Implicit price deflator ................................................ N o n f a r m b u s in e s s : Output per hour of all persons................................ Compensation per hour............................................ Real compensation per ho u r................................... Unit labor costs .......................................................... Unit nonlabor payments ........................................... Implicit price deflator ................................................ N o n f in a n c ia l c o r p o r a t io n s : Output per hour of all employees........................... Compensation per hour............................................ Real compensation per ho u r................................... Total unit costs........................................................... Unit labor costs ...................................................... Unit nonlabor costs................................................ Unit profits................................................................... Unit nonlabor payments ........................................... Implicit price deflator ................................................ M a n u fa c tu r in g : Output per hour of all persons................................ Compensation per hour............................................ Real compensation per ho u r................................... Unit labor costs .......................................................... Unit nonlabor payments ........................................... Implicit price deflator ................................................ - Data not available. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 105 Current Labor Statistics: Productivity Data 45. Annual indexes of output per hour for selected industries (1987 = 100) Industry SIC 1973 1979 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Iron mining, usable ore ..... Copper mining, recoverable m etal...................... Coal mining.............................. Crude petroleum and natural g a s ............... Nonmetallic minerals, except fuels...... 1011 1021 12 1311 14 50.9 42.4 69.2 174.1 85.3 51.0 48.5 54.6 110.6 90.1 70.2 76.1 83.5 82.0 92.2 76.2 93.6 85.2 83.4 93.9 79.4 110.0 92.5 90.9 94.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 103.6 109.7 110.7 100.8 102.2 99.5 107.8 116.6 97.7 102.0 90.1 104.5 118.6 96.9 108.3 86.9 103.0 122.2 98.0 103.4 85.8 119.4 134.1 102.5 110.9 Meatpacking plants.................. Sausages and other prepared m eats........ Poultry dressing and processing......................... Cheese, natural and processed............. Fluid m ilk.......................... Canned fruits and vegetables ........... Frozen fruits and vegetables.............. Flour and other grain mill products............ Cereal breakfast foods.......................... Rice milling ............................. Wet corn milling .............................. 2011 2013 2015 2022 2026 2033 2037 2041 2043 2044 2046 66.9 67.9 56.9 56.6 53.4 69.2 80.5 63.2 68.7 62.0 24.1 79.0 93.1 78.1 79.8 69.7 74.9 86.8 76.3 76.2 73.4 44.7 96.7 97.3 96.1 98.9 89.4 85.7 100.1 88.4 93.7 70.2 81.2 101.1 96.3 98.2 94.7 92.2 91.0 96.2 93.6 97.6 77.1 84.5 99.2 96.2 93.9 101.1 96.4 98.3 101.9 95.4 98.9 83.8. 92.8 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.6 105.7 95.3 106.4 104.0 98.3 97.9 103.2 98.6 83.8 95.4 91.5 99.2 100.1 104.3 106.8 91.9 98.2 102.8 96.0 98.7 98.7 91.1 93.2 106.1 101.1 108.0 94.3 94.7 108.5 102.0 106.9 100.1 94.6 91.0 112.5 98.9 110.8 98.2 98.1 107.3 105.3 101.1 96.8 97.3 _ _ Prepared feeds for animals and fow ls.............. Bakery products................................ Raw and refined cane sugar............................... Beet sugar ........................................................... Malt beverages........................................ Bottled and canned soft drinks........................... Fresh or frozen fish and seafood................. Cigarettes, chewing and smoking tobacco....... Cigars ........................................................... 2047,48 2051,52 2061,62 2063 2082 2086 2092 2111,31 2121 54.7 81.4 86.7 74.3 41.8 49.2 95.0 76.8 61.6 67.5 82.8 94.4 77.8 62.3 64.4 97.8 88.6 69.7 88.2 93.9 85.1 79.9 80.2 81.6 91.2 90.3 98.9 95.6 95.5 96.0 73.4 76.8 85.1 89.5 92.9 91.4 93.3 101.1 95.2 80.9 90.9 91.3 92.9 95.2 94.9 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 101.6 92.7 98.7 95.3 99.5 109.7 100.2 106.8 106.2 100.4 92.4 95.9 87.9 99.4 119.4 91.3 107.3 108.5 103.6 93.8 95.9 91.0 106.0 126.6 87.6 112.7 106.1 103.2 90.5 102.7 93.3 103.8 135.1 84.8 119.2 121.8 Cotton and synthetic broadwoven fabrics........ Hosiery ......................................................... Yarn spinning mills.............................................. Men’s and boys’ suits and coats........................ 2211,21 2251,52 2281 2311 57.6 64.5 54.8 78.6 75.8 93.3 66.9 90.4 90.7 102.8 84.0 91.6 94.1 101.3 87.5 100.5 101.2 102.8 91.9 101.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 98.2 107.4 98.5 103.6 101.9 108.2 103.5 105.0 106.1 105.7 107.1 105.2 114.0 111.4 106.9 95.2 120.8 117.6 114.8 107.3 Sawmills and planing mills, general .................. Millwork ........................................... Wood kitchen cabinets......................................... Hardwood veneer and plywood .......................... Softwood veneer and plywood ........................... Wood containers................................................. Wood household furniture ................................... Upholstered household furniture......................... Metal household furniture.................................... Mattresses and bedsprings ................................. Wood office furniture............................................ Office furniture, except w o o d .............................. Pulp, paper, and paperboard mills...................... Corrugated and solid fiber boxes ....................... Folding paperboard boxes................................... Paper and plastic bags ........................................ 2421 2431 2434 2435 2436 244 2511,17 2512 2514 2515 2521 2522 2611,21,31 2653 2657 2673,74 68.3 106.0 80.7 60.7 62.6 88.6 98.8 90.2 78.4 87.9 104.5 93.9 90.6 97.3 88.4 98.8 99.8 87.6 96.5 95.5 94.1 92.3 95.5 85.2 81.7 87.3 101.0 93.1 98.7 99.4 85.3 99.1 98.1 89.1 99.3 93.5 95.9 102.1 100.5 83.0 81.7 89.5 99.9 99.9 100.6 102.9 89.7 96.0 101.5 96.9 102.6 96.3 101.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 102.3 98.7 98.3 101.7 100.1 103.6 101.1 99.8 100.6 104.5 94.7 95.7 101.8 99.6 100.1 97.7 100.1 97.8 91.4 101.9 102.7 109.6 99.5 101.0 99.8 112.0 94.2 99.0 102.5 97.7 101.7 94.1 100.3 98.3 94.3 95.7 108.4 113.2 98.3 98.5 103.7 114.7 95.8 95.5 103.2 100.3 105.2 92.4 102.9 96.2 92.5 98.4 114.6 115.0 99.8 103.4 107.4 122.1 99.0 92.7 105.2 100.0 104.4 89.6 110.5 96.2 - 92.3 72.2 75.9 75.3 80.3 74.5 66.3 69.9 84.6 82.7 72.4 95.5 89.2 73.8 63.2 75.6 90.2 83.1 72.6 87.5 113.9 79.5 76.3 86.6 95.1 86.0 Alkalies and chlorine ............................................ Inorganic pigments ............................................... Industrial inorganic chemicals, not elsewhere classified............................................ Synthetic fibers...................................................... Soaps and detergents.......................................... Cosmetics and other toiletries ............................ Paints and allied products ................................... Industrial organic chemicals, not elsewhere classified............................................ Nitrogenous fertilizers........................................... Phosphatic fertilizers ............................................ Fertilizers, mixing o n ly.......................................... Agricultural chemicals, not elsewhere classified........................................... 2812 2816 49.4 76.3 52.2 69.9 73.0 84.4 75.1 87.0 101.6 90.7 100.0 100.0 101.6 101.7 93.4 106.2 90.7 101.1 82.6 95.3 2819 pt. 2823,24 2841 2844 2851 87.3 50.5 87.2 87.9 64.6 101.5 72.9 90.5 94.7 82.4 88.6 79.7 89.1 86.5 95.1 87.4 86.2 91.0 88.9 98.2 .88.9 92.7 92.6 96.4 99.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 92.7 104.6 102.7 104.3 103.2 85.9 102.3 109.9 101.4 106.6 86.5 99.1 129.7 100.3 111.1 81.3 101.9 129.8 102.5 110.8 113.8 2869 2873 2874 2875 68.8 58.5 69.7 82.6 86.4 70.0 74.1 105.0 86.7 96.7 94.4 97.2 85.7 95.2 87.7 100.6 90.7 85.0 80.3 93.8 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 107.8 101.6 92.2 102.6 105.5 102.1 85.3 110.8 98.0 107.7 105.4 108.7 91.8 107.4 113.1 109.3 90.4 _ _ 2879 72.8 87.4 96.9 91.2 91.7 100.0 108.7 107.8 105.0 113.5 - - _ 89.9 101.9 102.2 105.1 143.5 123.9 - - 117.5 _ 99.2 108.2 116.0 126.6 - 112.9 101.1 104.6 - _ _ 108.3 _ - Petroleum refining................................................. Tires and inner tubes ........................................... Rubber and plastics hose and belting .............. Miscellaneous plastic products, not elsewhere classified........................................... Footw ear................................................................. Glass containers ................................................... Cement, hydraulic ................................................. Clay construction products.................................. Clay refractories..................................................... Concrete products ................................................ Ready-mixed concrete ......................................... 2911 3011 3052 81.2 55.0 83.1 82.3 62.0 85.0 78.4 87.1 105.3 84.3 88.1 101.4 94.6 92.2 102.9 100.0 100.0 100.0 105.9 104.3 107.1 110.2 106.4 96.5 109.9 108.3 101.4 107.4 109.8 93.1 111.6 116.7 308 314 3221 3241 3251,53,59 3255 3271,72 3273 72.6 91.9 75.3 71.6 75.5 75.4 89.2 99.0 73.4 93.6 83.4 68.8 76.3 88.8 89.3 95.6 86.1 98.7 97.3 89.9 92.2 92.9 96.0 92.0 88.0 100.3 93.3 92.1 94.1 91.9 97.3 93.2 89.0 102.2 98.4 97.2 95.5 99.3 102.5 95.9 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 98.3 102.3 101.1 103.2 104.1 101.3 103.0 100.3 97.2 101.1 104.8 110.0 96.6 97.3 106.7 101.0 100.1 92.6 112.6 112.3 100.5 102.1 105.8 99.7 100.8 92.8 114.9 106.4 94.9 96.2 107.5 96.1 100.5 93.6 120.7 118.2 101.2 92.6 109.9 97.9 Steel ........................................................................ Gray and ductile iron foundries........................... Steel foundries ....................................................... Primary copper....................................................... Primary aluminum................................................... Copper rolling and drawing ................................. Aluminum rolling and drawing ............................. 331 3321 3324,25 3331 3334 3351 3353,54,55 70.1 87.9 106.1 32.8 74.5 68.7 75.3 70.2 90.1 104.7 41.1 74.7 72.3 80.4 86.1 98.6 102.8 57.6 100.8 83.9 92.7 91.4 96.1 99.5 73.8 97.8 85.5 92.6 93.3 98.7 104.3 88.7 102.5 92.4 99.4 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 110.3 107.6 95.9 103.7 102.3 100.5 99.1 107.2 103.5 96.4 96.8 104.8 94.7 96.8 110.4 103.7 95.8 86.3 106.5 94.3 94.4 .106.3 99.0 93.3 84.7 110.6 96.7 92.6 116.2 104.5 100.3 84.7 107.7 103.4 See footnotes at end of table. 106 - - 112.5 _ - Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 _ - 45. Continued—Annual indexes of output per hour for selected industries (1987 = 100) Industry SIC 1973 1979 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 124.3 135.8 3411 63.9 81.2 105.9 102.4 97.4 100.0 107.0 108.5 118.3 3423 3433 3441 3442 3452 3465 105.5 78.0 95.5 88.8 72.5 74.5 107.9 87.9 86.3 89.5 77.3 80.9 94.0 93.5 91.1 99.1 84.3 100.5 95.3 92.9 99.6 102.5 88.2 94.5 95.0 95.9 99.5 100.3 91.4 95.7 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 101.5 112.5 98.8 102.3 96.6 104.5 102.0 103.0 94.5 102.2 93.1 104.7 96.4 110.7 97.2 98.3 93.2 100.8 95.1 115.3 99.5 96.0 95.2 104.2 - 3469 95.3 97.1 90.7 85.5 90.7 100.0 99.9 97.8 95.2 96.5 " Valves and pipe fittings........................................ Fabricated pipe and fittings................................. Internal combustion engines, not elsewhere classified........................................... Farm machinery and equipment......................... Lawn and garden equipment............................... Construction machinery........................................ Mining machinery.................................................. Oil and gas field machinery................................. 3491,92,94 3498 92.9 147.8 94.8 121.0 94.7 131.4 94.4 121.0 94.0 121.9 100.0 100.0 101.9 99.3 101.3 101.7 102.1 106.5 102.1 113.3 - 3519 3523 3524 3531 3532 3533 82.5 95.6 66.2 85.8 99.2 104.9 89.0 98.2 83.5 91.6 87.2 100.1 90.6 104.6 80.0 95.0 90.3 94.4 93.4 98.6 82.1 96.7 93.0 91.8 98.9 95.7 92.7 102.7 95.6 94.7 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 105.1 110.4 97.5 107.5 102.0 99.5 111.1 120.7 94.7 111.1 108.8 104.7 106.4 126.6 96.0 114.5 100.6 107.6 99.1 119.4 96.1 99.8 92.5 109.2 106.2 127.1 101.1 Metal-cutting machine tools ................................ Metal-forming machine to o ls............................... Machine tool accessories.................................... Pumps and pumping equipment ......................... Ball and roller bearings........................................ Air and gas compressors..................................... Refrigeration and heating equipment................ Carburetors, pistons, rings, and valves............. 3541 3542 3545 3561,94 3562 3563 3585 3592 93.4 108.1 104.9 78.0 101.2 86.9 97.2 101.3 91.2 94.1 100.1 83.9 104.0 86.3 95.7 79.6 83.8 89.4 94.4 88.0 92.6 89.6 100.0 92.8 87.2 92.3 91.8 88.4 90.2 91.7 98.2 95.9 89.0 92.8 94.7 90.7 93.6 94.8 96.3 93.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 94.1 116.0 99.5 106.0 101.7 104.4 103.4 109.9 100.5 112.4 104.7 102.4 96.7 106.2 106.1 119.7 102.0 102.6 107.6 104.4 90.7 109.0 106.0 113.5 99.0 95.0 109.2 103.1 88.0 111.7 103.1 114.9 94.8 107.7 - Transformers, except electronic ......................... Switchgear and switchboard apparatus............ Motors and generators......................................... Household cooking equipment............................ Household refrigerators and freezers ............... Household laundry equipment............................. Household appliances, not elsewhere classified............................................................... Electric lam ps......................................................... Lighting fixtures and equipment.......................... Household audio and video equipment ............ Motor vehicles and equipment............................ Aircraft..................................................................... Instruments to measure electricity..................... Photographic equipment and supplies.............. 3612 3613 3621 3631 3632 3633 93.6 89.1 89.3 60.0 73.2 68.8 104.8 90.2 88.1 77.0 86.0 84.2 94.6 93.8 94.4 87.6 97.2 92.2 95.8 96.5 95.9 87.2 104.0 92.9 97.6 96.3 96.9 98.4 101.2 97.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 102.8 110.0 103.9 102.2 102.7 106.6 104.8 110.1 103.4 108.0 107.1 100.8 112.2 111.9 102.6 103.9 107.6 103.8 116.4 109.0 105.3 107.1 112.5 111.4 125.1 104.6 121.7 117.5 132.3 64.8 63.5 83.9 31.0 67.9 82.2 68.4 68.8 78.1 74.1 84.6 41.8 77.5 103.0 75.5 91.9 85.5 91.9 91.8 85.9 90.9 83.5 100.6 93.0 86.8 88.7 96.4 91.8 95.0 92.4 98.3 90.3 90.2 91.0 102.7 103.9 94.7 92.4 92.0 97.1 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.7 105.6 98.1 110.9 102.9 103.0 106.5 106.3 98.5 113.7 95.9 123.2 102.6 106.7 109.3 113.7 91.2 119.1 94.4 134.4 102.0 106.2 108.0 109.5 81.6 128.7 92.4 141.8 96.3 124.5 111.6 110.6 78.7 145.9 93.0 162.6 104.1 125.2 - 46.7 116.8 69.5 58.6 92.5 43.3 88.0 145.1 - 50.7 108.3 83.9 77.6 96.1 64.5 95.0 143.6 80.7 73.9 100.1 97.3 90.4 99.4 86.0 94.0 116.1 89.1 78.4 96.1 93.8 93.6 99.9 90.4 93.0 114.1 93.4 86.1 95.6 96.8 94.5 102.0 97.2 95.3 102.9 97.7 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 109.7 107.9 105.2 96.5 104.8 105.3 104.9 105.4 98.2 116.5 104.6 109.4 93.1 103.2 110.5 107.7 103.4 90.7 122.4 140.2 89.6 102.6 110.7 110.1 94.7 106.4 132.7 90.9 99.1 116.2 113.4 93.8 115.5 Metal cans .............................................................. Hand and edge tools, not elsewhere classified............................................................... Heating equipment, except electric................... Fabricated structural m etal.................................. Metal doors, sash, and trim ................................. Bolts, nuts, rivets, and washers.......................... Automotive stampings.......................................... Metal stampings, not elsewhere classified............................................................... Railroad transportation, revenue traffic............. Bus carriers, class 1 ............................................. Trucking, except local .......................................... Air transportation .................................................. Petroleum pipelines .............................................. Telephone communications................................. Electric utilities ...................................................... Gas utilities............................................................. Scrap and waste m aterials.................................. 3639 3641 3645,46,47,48 3651 371 3721 3825 3861 4011 4111,13,14 pts. 4213 4512,13,22 pts. 4612,13 481 491,493 pt. 492,493 pt. 5093 - - - 98.1 - - 94.1 98.3 122.0 114.3 94.8 - Hardware stores.................................................... Department stores................................................ Variety stores ......................................................... Grocery stores....................................................... Retail bakeries....................................................... New and used car dealers .................................. Auto and home supply stores............................. Gasoline service stations..................................... Men’s and boys’ clothing stores......................... Women’s clothing stores ..................................... Family clothing stores .......................................... Shoe stores ............................................................ Furniture and homefurnishings stores............... Household appliance stores................................ Radio, television, and computer stores.................................................................... 5251 5311 5331 5411 546 5511 5531 5541 5611 5621 5651 5661 571 5722 84.7 62.2 141.1 108.4 125.0 85.1 71.0 59.4 77.5 59.5 76.3 81.1 81.6 59.1 98.6 74.8 119.8 106.3 111.7 86.3 81.2 74.0 81.3 73.3 75.7 91.1 89.0 72.2 97.0 91.1 141.7 107.4 94.9 99.5 91.2 87.1 93.7 98.1 106.4 90.8 97.3 86.9 96.0 93.1 129.1 105.3 86.9 99.8 95.0 93.8 98.2 99.9 103.2 97.8 94.3 94.6 101.7 97.7 106.6 103.6 93.2 101.6 94.6 102.0 100.6 107.3 103.4 105.6 101.1 106.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 108.8 99.5 97.2 98.6 94.2 102.6 106.5 102.4 102.4 99.4 101.1 102.6 99.5 102.0 115.4 97.3 113.4 95.9 87.3 103.8 108.9 104.0 102.3 102.9 103.1 107.3 101.7 108.2 110.5 95.0 131.8 94.6 84.9 107.1 114.2 101.1 101.5 106.5 101.4 106.3 103.9 111.2 102.4 98.9 130.0 93.9 90.0 105.5 114.6 102.1 102.0 110.3 102.3 105.5 103.6 118.0 109.9 103.2 117.8 94.1 82.5 106.2 114.0 106.6 104.0 119.9 112.5 109.2 112.3 139.9 573 48.6 56.0 79.7 89.1 93.9 100.0 120.9 123.1 131.4 144.0 153.2 Eating and drinking places .................................. Drug and proprietary stores................................. Liquor stores........................................................... Commercial banks ................................................ Hotels and motels................................................. Laundry, cleaning, and garment services......... Beauty shops.......................................................... Automotive repair shops...................................... 581 5912 5921 602 7011 721 7231 753 110.4 92.2 94.1 81.2 102.9 114.9 88.1 109.7 106.3 98.6 90.0 84.1 109.8 113.8 89.4 105.3 98.9 104.8 93.2 89.6 101.6 107.4 98.4 91.8 96.2 101.4 101.6 94.3 101.1 103.2 96.1 99.4 99.2 101.0 93.7 96.1 98.9 100.7 96.9 96.2 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 103.0 102.8 100.1 103.5 95.8 97.1 93.4 105.6 102.9 104.2 104.7 102.1 91.4 98.6 96.0 107.8 104.6 106.6 110.6 108.5 90.6 99.0 91.4 106.4 106.1 109.6 112.3 112.3 91.3 96.6 87.6 99.9 104.6 108.0 126.6 117.3 97.8 97.1 90.5 103.2 - Data not available. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 107 Current Labor Statistics: International Comparisons Data 46. Unemployment rates, approximating U.S. concepts, in nine countries, quarterly data seasonally adjusted Annual average 1992 1993 1994 Country 1992 1993 I II III IV I 6.8 11.2 10.9 2.5 7.5 11.5 10.9 2.2 7.3 11.5 11.2 2.3 7.0 11.0 11.0 2.3 7.0 11.4 10.9 2.4 6.7 11.4 10.9 2.6 6.5 11.1 10.9 2.8 6.6 11.0 10.4 2.8 F rance...................................................... Germany .................................................. Ita ly '................................................... Sweden3 ................................................... United Kingdom ...................................... 10.4 4.6 7.3 4.7 10.0 11.8 5.7 10.1 8.1 10.4 10.4 4.6 7.0 5.0 10.2 10.6 4.9 8.4 5.2 10.5 11.3 5.3 9.3 7.2 10.6 11.7 5.6 10.8 8.0 10.4 12.1 5.9 10.6 9.1 10.5 _ 12.3 6.2 _ _ Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis IV 7.4 11.3 10.8 2.2 1 Data for 1994 are not directly comparable with data for 1993 and earlier years. For additional information, see the box note under “Employment and Unemployment Data” in the notes to this section. 2 Quarterly rates are for the first month of the quarter. Break in series beginning in 1993. 3 Break in series beginning in 1993. Data for 1993 on ward are not seasonally adjusted. 108 III United States' ......................................... Canada ...................................................... Australia ................................................... Japan ......................................................... July 1994 8.2 10.1 12.3 8.2 9.9 - Data not available. NOTE: Quarterly figures for France, Germany, and the United Kingdom are calculated by applying annual adjust ment factors to current published data and therefore should be viewed as less precise Indicators of unemployment under U.S. concepts than the annual figures. See “Notes on the data” for information on breaks in series. 47. Annual data: Employment status of the working-age population, approximating U.S. concepts, 10 countries (Numbers in thousands) Employment status and country 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 113,544 12,316 7,135 58,480 23,560 27,800 21,670 6,200 4,385 27,010 115,461 12,532 7,300 58,820 23,620 28,020 21,800 6,250 4,418 27,210 117,834 12,746 7,588 59,410 23,760 28,240 22,290 6,380 4,443 27,380 119,865 13,011 7,758 60,050 23,890 28,390 22,350 6,500 4,480 27,720 121,669 13,275 7,974 60,860 23,980 28,610 22,660 6,530 4,540 28,150 123,869 13,503 8,237 61,920 24,170 28,840 22,530 6,640 4,599 28,420 124,787 13,681 8,459 63,050 24,300 29,410 22,670 6,770 4,642 28,540 64.4 64.8 61.5 62.7 57.2 54.4 47.3 55.7 66.6 62.1 64.8 65.3 61.6 62.3 56.9 54.7 47.2 55.5 66.9 62.2 65.3 65.7 62.8 62.1 56.9 54.9 47.8 56.0 67.0 62.2 65.6 66.2 63.0 61.9 56.7 55.0 47.6 56.3 67.1 62.6 65.9 66.7 63.3 61.9 56.4 55.1 47.4 56.1 67.6 63.4 66.5 67.0 64.2 62.2 56.1 55.2 47.3 56.5 68.0 63.8 105,005 10,932 6,494 56,870 21,200 25,830 20,390 5,490 4,249 23,830 107,150 11,221 6,697 57,260 21,150 26,010 20,490 5,650 4,293 24,150 109,597 11,531 6,974 57,740 21,240 26,380 20,610 5,740 4,326 24,300 112,440 11,861 7,129 58,320 21,320 26,590 20,590 5,850 4,396 24,860 114,968 12,245 7,398 59,310 21,520 26,800 20,870 5,920 4,467 25,730 59.5 57.5 56.0 61.0 51.5 50.5 44.5 49.3 64.5 54.8 60.1 58.5 56.5 60.6 51.0 50.7 44.4 50.1 65.0 55.2 60.7 59.4 57.7 60.4 50.8 51.3 44.2 50.3 65.2 55.2 61.5 60.4 57.9 60.1 50.6 51.5 43.8 50.7 65.8 56.2 8,539 1,384 641 1,610 2,360 1,970 1,280 710 136 3,180 8,312 1,311 603 1,560 2,470 2,010 1,310 600 125 3,060 8,237 1,215 613 1,670 2,520 1,860 1,680 640 117 3,080 7.5 11.2 9.0 2.8 10.0 7.1 5.9 11.5 3.1 11.8 7.2 10.5 8.3 2.6 10.5 7.2 6.0 9.6 2.8 11.2 7.0 9.5 8.1 2.8 10.6 6.6 7.5 10.0 2.6 11.2 1991 1992 1993 125,303 13,757 8,534 64,280 24,480 29,780 22,940 6,870 4,626 28,400 126,982 13,797 8,627 65,040 24,540 30,050 22,910 6,970 4,534 28,230 128,040 13,946 8,692 65,470 24,620 29,940 22,570 7,070 4,385 28,150 66.4 67.0 64.7 62.6 55.6 55.0 47.2 56.8 68.1 63.9 66.0 66.3 64.3 63.2 55.6 55.7 48.6 57.5 67.5 63.4 66.3 65.5 64.0 63.4 55.7 55.4 48.5 57.9 66.0 62.8 66.2 65.2 63.6 63.3 55.5 54.7 48.8 58.6 63.8 62.6 117,342 12,486 7,728 60,500 21,850 27,200 20,770 6,070 4,538 26,350 117,914 12,572 7,872 61,710 22,100 27,950 21,080 6,260 4,572 26,580 116,877 12,340 7,713 62,920 22,130 28,500 21,360 6,380 4,504 25,910 117,598 12,240 7,694 63,620 21,990 28,670 21,230 6,470 4,320 25,410 119,306 12,383 7,744 63,810 21,710 28,220 20,280 6,450 4,028 25,220 62.3 61.6 58.7 60.4 50.6 51.6 43.7 50.8 66.5 57.9 63.0 62.0 60.2 60.8 50.7 52.0 43.6 51.7 67.1 59.1 62.7 61.5 60.2 61.3 50.5 52.2 43.9 52.5 67.0 59.5 61.6 59.5 58.1 61.8 50.2 53.3 45.3 53.4 65.7 57.8 61.4 58.1 57.1 62.0 49.9 52.9 44.9 53.8 62.9 56.5 61.6 57.9 57.7 61.7 49.0 51.5 43.9 53.4 58.6 56.1 7,425 1,150 629 1,730 2,570 1,800 1,760 650 84 2,860 6,701 1,031 576 1,550 2,460 1,810 1,790 610 73 2,420 6,528 1,018 509 1,420 2,320 1,640 1,760 570 61 2,070 6,874 1,109 587 1,340 2,200 1,460 1,590 510 70 1,960 8,426 1,417 821 1,360 2,350 1,280 1,580 490 122 2,490 9,384 1,556 933 1,420 2,550 1,380 1,680 500 214 2,820 8,734 1,562 948 1,660 2,910 1,720 2,290 620 357 2,930 6.2 8.8 8.1 2.9 10.8 6.3 7.9 10.0 1.9 10.3 5.5 7.8 7.2 2.5 10.3 6.3 7.9 9.3 1.6 8.6 5.3 7.5 6.2 2.3 9.6 5.7 7.8 8.6 1.3 7.3 5.5 8.1 6.9 2.1 9.1 5.0 7.0 7.5 1.5 6.9 6.7 10.3 9.6 2.1 9.6 4.3 6.9 7.1 2.6 8.8 7.4 11.3 10.8 2.2 10.4 4.6 7.3 7.2 4.7 10.0 6.8 11.2 10.9 2.5 11.8 5.7 10.1 8.8 8.1 10.4 C iv ilia n la b o r fo r c é United S tates................................................................. Canada ................................................ Australia............................................... Japan ........................................ France ........................................ Germany.................................... Italy ............................................................... Netherlands.................................................................... Sweden.......................................... United Kingdom............................................................. P a r t ic ip a t io n r a t e ' United S tates................................................................. Canada ....................................... Australia....................................... Japan .............................................................................. France ............................................................................ Germany......................................................................... Italy ................................................................................. Netherlands.................................................................... Sweden..................................................................... United Kingdom..................................... E m p lo y e d United S tates............................................. Canada ......................................................... Australia.......................................................................... Japan .............................................................................. France ............................................................................ Germany......................................................................... Italy ...................................................................... Netherlands............................................................... Sweden.................................................................... United Kingdom............................................................ E m p lo y m e n t-p o p u la tio n r a t io 2 United S tates................................................................. Canada ........................................................................... Australia.......................................................................... Japan .............................................................................. France ............................................................................ Germany......................................................................... Italy ................................................................................. Netherlands.................................................................... Sweden........................................................................... United Kingdom............................................................ U n e m p lo y e d United S tates................................................................. Canada ........................................................................... Australia.......................................................................... Japan .............................................................................. France ............................................................................ Germany......................................................................... Italy ................................................................................. Netherlands.................................................................... Sw eden........................................................................... United Kingdom............................................................. U n e m p lo y m e n t ra te United S tates................................................................. Canada ........................................................................... Australia.......................................................................... Japan .............................................................................. France ............................................................................ Germany......................................................................... Italy ................................................................................. Netherlands.................................................................... Sweden........................................................................... United Kingdom............................................................ 1 Labor force as a percent of the working-age population. 2 Employment as a percent of the working-age population. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis NOTE: See “Notes on the data” for information on breaks in series for Italy and Sweden. Monthly Labor Review July 1994 109 Current Labor Statistics: 48. International Comparisons Data Annual indexes of manufacturing productivity and related measures, 12 countries (1982 = 100) Item and country 1960 1970 1973 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 51.6 18.6 24.2 32.4 31.2 38.6 29.1 26.5 47.8 36.2 49.7 76.9 52.0 44.3 57.2 59.6 67.1 54.6 52.9 74.5 69.0 71.3 91.9 66.1 57.8 72.7 69.9 78.4 65.2 67.3 86.4 81.1 84.6 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 102.2 107.3 101.9 110.9 104.9 102.5 105.5 105.2 106.6 105.2 106.9 107.7 103.5 116.3 106.1 115.8 104.3 104.2 109.2 115.7 115.0 112.6 112.0 113.2 106.8 119.8 112.0 117.2 105.0 108.2 113.4 122.3 118.7 116.0 113.2 117.4 109.6 117.9 110.3 118.2 98.9 110.0 114.1 123.7 120.1 114.6 115.2 122.1 116.7 119.0 119.5 120.1 98.4 112.1 112.3 127.2 120.7 120.4 117.6 128.8 119.3 119.5 126.5 125.2 102.1 119.7 116.4 130.5 124.4 119.7 119.0 135.7 120.0 119.0 135.2 131.2 105.6 125.6 120.2 135.1 128.5 125.9 122.8 142.2 122.2 120.6 144.5 133.9 107.5 127.2 125.5 141.1 130.1 129.1 124.9 146.3 124.5 121.4 150.7 136.9 108.9 127.0 129.2 145.8 131.3 130.1 126.5 151.9 129.9 126.4 143.2 142.7 110.4 130.7 129.8 151.2 132.3 132.4 135.5 159.4 44.1 15.1 37.8 45.4 35.1 51.0 28.0 42.7 56.0 51.8 82.9 78.5 55.1 70.9 75.7 72.7 87.0 58.4 80.3 88.4 91.1 110.5 100.0 71.8 86.9 88.5 87.0 96.4 70.7 91.2 101.3 98.7 121.9 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 103.2 106.5 104.3 105.6 106.7 99.9 101.5 100.8 101.9 99.3 105.8 102.1 111.3 120.2 113.2 108.4 111.7 98.7 104.6 105.4 107.9 105.0 113.6 105.9 114.0 127.0 121.2 109.6 115.3 99.1 108.4 108.9 111.1 108.8 115.7 108.9 115.2 127.9 117.9 108.9 115.3 99.1 110.1 111.5 113.8 108.8 117.1 110.3 123.5 134.1 126.5 109.0 110.6 98.9 108.1 116.3 115.4 110.8 120.0 115.5 130.0 140.9 138.2 114.6 112.3 104.6 111.5 125.0 119.7 105.5 123.7 123.6 131.2 141.2 149.3 121.9 113.6 110.3 115.4 129.7 125.2 103.8 125.1 129.1 130.6 134.0 160.6 126.4 115.0 112.4 121.7 132.3 129.3 104.5 124.3 128.9 127.8 125.1 170.0 125.9 114.0 110.2 126.0 131.5 129.4 102.3 117.4 122.0 131.8 125.7 159.6 126.3 114.6 110.8 124.1 130.9 128.8 104.2 116.5 121.0 94.0 85.5 81.2 156.2 140.0 112.6 131.9 96.2 160.9 117.3 143.3 166.6 106.5 102.1 105.9 159.9 132.3 122.0 129.7 107.0 152.0 118.6 131.9 154.9 112.6 108.8 108.6 150.3 121.8 124.5 122.9 108.3 135.6 117.3 121.8 144.1 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 101.0 99.2 102.4 95.2 101.7 97.4 96.2 95.8 95.6 94.3 99.0 94.8 107.5 103.3 106.6 93.6 107.1 94.7 95.8 91.1 93.8 93.2 101.4 93.6 106.7 106.0 108.2 93.5 109.8 91.6 95.6 89.0 93.6 93.8 102.2 92.7 105.1 108.5 106.9 92.2 116.6 90.0 96.5 90.1 94.8 94.9 101.7 90.3 105.9 112.7 105.8 90.7 112.4 88.3 96.2 91.4 95.6 92.1 102.1 89.7 109.0 117.9 109.3 91.5 110.0 87.4 95.8 95.8 96.2 88.1 103.9 91.0 109.3 118.6 110.4 93.0 107.6 87.8 95.9 96.0 97.4 82.5 101.8 90.8 106.9 111.1 111.2 94.4 106.9 88.4 97.0 93.7 99.4 80.9 99.5 88.1 102.6 103.1 112.8 92.0 104.7 86.8 97.5 90.2 98.5 78.6 92.8 80.3 101.5 99.4 111.5 88.5 103.8 84.7 95.6 86.6 97.4 78.7 85.9 75.9 United S tates................................................................................. Canada ........................................................................................... Japan .............................................................................................. Belgium............................................................................................ Denm ark......................................................................................... France ............................................................................................ Germany......................................................................................... Italy .................................................................................................. Netherlands.................................................................................... Norway ........................................................................................... Sweden........................................................................................... United Kingdom............................................................................. 16.4 6.6 9.1 7.7 7.5 13.5 3.9 8.9 9.9 9.3 7.0 28.7 25.0 23.2 22.3 18.1 34.5 11.6 27.8 24.6 24.4 14.5 35.9 40.7 35.5 34.5 25.9 48.2 17.7 43.4 35.3 34.3 22.1 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 102.7 106.1 102.7 106.0 106.9 110.3 105.0 117.0 104.5 110.3 110.2 107.5 105.9 111.1 105.8 114.8 113.0 119.7 110.0 134.3 106.6 120.9 119.6 116.2 111.2 116.8 110.1 122.0 120.6 129.7 116.3 150.9 111.5 132.2 131.8 127.5 115.8 121.3 115.8 127.0 123.1 135.1 121.2 157.1 115.4 145.0 142.4 135.5 118.4 125.0 118.6 130.0 134.6 140.2 126.9 166.0 118.8 165.6 151.9 148.1 123.0 130.5 120.6 132.7 139.4 145.5 131.8 173.1 119.5 175.7 161.8 155.6 127.9 137.4 128.2 139.6 147.3 153.3 138.2 191.1 120.1 183.4 179.0 178.5 134.7 146.9 138.3 147.8 155.1 159.3 148.0 213.3 123.3 193.7 197.5 187.5 141.9 155.8 146.3 157.2 161.9 166.1 157.8 236.1 129.7 202.8 215.1 208.5 148.2 162.2 153.0 164.6 166.3 171.7 167.3 252.2 136.7 208.4 222.3 226.0 U n it la b o r c o s t s : National currency basis United S tates................................................................................. Canada ........................................................................................... Japan .............................................................................................. Belgium........................................................................................... Denm ark......................................................................................... France ............................................................................................. Germany......................................................................................... Italy .................................................................................................. Netherlands.................................................................................... Norway ........................................................................................... Sweden........................................................................................... United Kingdom............................................................................. 31.9 35.3 37.7 23.8 24.0 34.9 13.5 33.4 20.6 25.7 14.1 37.3 48.0 52.2 39.0 30.4 51.4 21.3 52.7 33.0 35.3 20.3 39.1 61.6 61.3 47.4 37.1 61.6 27.1 64.5 40.9 42.3 26.1 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.4 98.9 100.8 95.6 101.9 107.6 99.5 111.2 98.1 104.8 103.1 99.9 102.4 95.5 99.7 99.1 108.3 114.9 100.8 116.1 92.7 107.4 106.8 102.6 104.2 97.6 98.4 104.1 114.9 119.9 102.6 123.4 93.9 114.0 116.4 108.6 105.7 102.9 104.9 107.5 124.5 122.8 106.3 127.1 96.1 126.5 123.7 110.9 101.5 105.0 99.2 108.2 136.8 125.1 113.0 130.5 98.4 137.6 129.2 115.0 103.2 109.2 95.4 106.0 136.5 121.6 113.3 132.6 96.0 146.7 136.0 114.7 106.6 115.4 94.8 106.5 139.5 122.0 114.9 141.4 93.5 145.6 145.7 125.5 110.3 121.8 95.7 110.4 144.2 125.3 117.9 151.2 94.7 150.0 158.1 128.2 114.0 128.4 97.1 114.9 148.7 130.7 122.1 161.9 98.8 155.8 170.1 137.2 114.0 128.3 106.9 115.3 150.6 131.4 128.8 166.8 103.3 157.4 164.1 141.8 U n it la b o r c o s t s : U.S. dollar basis United S tates................................................................................. Canada ........................................................................................... Japan .............................................................................................. Belgium........................................................................................... Denm ark......................................................................................... France ............................................................................................. Germany......................................................................................... Italy .................................................................................................. Netherlands.................................................................................... Norway ........................................................................................... Sweden............................................................................................ United Kingdom............................................................................. 40.6 24.4 34.6 28.8 32.2 20.3 29.5 23.7 18.7 31.3 22.7 44.1 33.4 48.2 43.4 36.2 34.2 46.0 38.9 29.8 42.8 27.9 48.2 56.6 72.3 65.7 55.0 56.4 63.1 62.0 46.0 61.0 36.6 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.4 99.0 105.7 85.6 92.9 92.9 94.6 99.1 91.8 92.7 84.4 86.6 102.4 91.0 104.6 78.6 87.3 86.5 86.0 89.5 77.2 85.0 81.1 78.5 104.2 88.2 102.7 80.3 90.4 87.8 84.6 87.5 75.6 85.7 85.0 80.6 105.7 91.4 155.2 110.2 128.3 116.7 118.9 115.4 104.8 110.4 109.0 93.1 101.5 97.8 170.8 132.6 166.7 136.9 152.6 136.3 129.8 131.8 127.9 107.9 103.2 109.5 185.3 131.9 169.0 134.2 156.5 137.9 129.8 145.2 139.2 116.8 106.6 120.3 171.1 123.7 159.0 125.8 148.3 139.5 117.7 136.0 141.9 117.6 110.3 128.9 164.4 151.2 194.4 151.3 177.1 170.8 138.9 154.9 167.7 130.8 114.0 138.3 179.7 153.8 193.8 152.3 178.5 176.6 141.0 155.0 176.6 138.7 114.0 131.1 210.0 164.2 208.2 163.3 200.3 183.3 157.0 163.5 176.9 143.3 O u tp u t p e r h o u r United S tates................................................................................. Canada ........................................................................................... Japan ............................................................................................... Belgium........................................................................................... Denm ark.......................................................................................... France .......................................... Germany......................................................................................... Italy ............................................... Netherlands.................................................................................... Norway .......................... Sweden........................................... United Kingdom........................... O u tp u t United S tates.................................. Canada ........................................................................................... Japan .............................................................................................. Belgium........................................................................................... Denm ark......................................................................................... France ............................................................................................ Germany......................................................................................... Italy ................................................................. Netherlands.................................................................................... Norway ........................................ Sw eden......................................................................... United Kingdom............................................................................. T o t a l h o u rs United S tates................................................................................. Canada ........................................................................................... Japan ............................................................................................... Belgium........................................................................................... Denm ark......................................................................................... France ............................................................................................ Germany......................................................................................... Italy .................................................................................................. Netherlands.................................................................................. Norway ....................................................................................... Sw eden.............................................................................. United Kingdom............................................................................. C o m p e n s a t io n p e r h o u r - 110 Data not available. Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 49. Occupational injury and illness incidence rates by industry,' United States Incidence rates per 100 full-time workers3 Industry and type of case2 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989' 1990 1991 P R IV A T E S E C T O R '1 CO CO Total cases.......................................................................................................... Lost workday cases .......................................................................................... Lost workdays..................................................................................................... 8.0 3.7 63.4 7.9 3.6 64.9 7.9 3.6 65.8 8.3 3.8 69.9 8.6 4.0 76.1 8.6 4.0 78.7 4.1 84.0 8.4 3.9 86.5 12.0 6.1 90.7 11.4 5.7 91.3 11.2 5.6 93.6 11.2 5.7 94.1 10.9 5.6 101.8 10.9 5.7 100.9 11.6 5.9 112.2 10.8 5.4 108.3 9.7 5.3 160.2 8.4 4.8 145.3 7.4 4.1 125.9 8.5 4.9 144.0 8.8 5.1 152.1 8.5 4.8 137.2 8.3 5.0 119.5 7.4 4.5 129.6 15.5 6.9 128.1 15.2 6.8 128.9 15.2 6.9 134.5 14.7 6.8 135.8 14.6 6.8 142.2 14.3 6.8 143.3 14.2 6.7 147.9 13.0 6.1 148.1 15.4 6.9 121.3 15.2 6.8 120.4 14.9 6.6 122.7 14.2 6.5 134.0 14.0 6.4 132.2 13.9 6.5 137.3 13.4 6.4 137.6 12.0 5.5 132.0 14.9 6.4 131.7 14.5 6.3 127.3 14.7 6.3 132.9 14.5 6.4 139.1 15.1 7.0 162.3 13.8 6.5 147.1 13.8 6.3 144.6 12.8 6.0 160.1 15.8 7.1 130.1 15.4 7.0 133.3 . 15.6 7.2 140.4 15.0 7.1 135.7 14.7 7.0 141.1 14.6 6.9 144.9 14.7 6.9 153.1 13.5 6.3 151.3 Total cases.......................................................................................................... Lost workday cases .......................................................................................... Lost workdays..................................................................................................... 10.6 4.7 77.9 10.4 4.6 80.2 10.6 4.7 85.2 11.9 5.3 95.5 13.1 5.7 107.4 13.1 5.8 113.0 13.2 5.8 120.7 12.7 5.6 121.5 Durable goods: Total cas es....................................................................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................................................................... Lost workdays................................................................................................. 11.1 4.8 79.9 10.9 4.7 82.0 11.0 4.8 87.1 12.5 5.4 96.8 14.2 5.9 111.1 14.1 6.0 116.5 14.2 6.0 123.3 13.6 5.7 122.9 19.6 9.9 172.0 18.5 9.3 171.4 18.9 9.7 177.2 18.9 9.6 176.5 19.5 10.0 189.1 18.4 9.4 177.5 18.1 8.8 172.5 16.8 8.3 172.0 15.3 6.4 101.5 15.0 6.3 100.4 15.2 6.3 103.0 15.4 6.7 103.6 16.6 7.3 115.7 16.1 7.2 124.9 16.9 7.8 139.2 15.9 7.2 131.2 13.6 6.6 120.8 13.9 6.7 127.8 13.6 6.5 126.0 14.9 7.1 135.8 16.0 7.5 141.0 15.5 7.4 149.8 15.4 7.3 160.5 14.8 6.8 156.0 13.3 6.1 115.3 12.6 5.7 113.8 13.6 6.1 125.5 17.0 7.4 145.8 19.4 8.2 161.3 18.7 8.1 168.3 19.0 8.1 180.2 17.7 7.4 169.1 16.1 6.7 104.9 16.3 6.9 110.1 16.0 6.8 115.5 17.0 7.2 121.9 18.8 8.0 138.8 18.5 7.9 147.6 18.7 7.9 155.7 17.4 7.1 146.6 10.7 4.1 65.8 10.8 4.2 69.3 10.7 4.2 72.0 11.3 4.4 72.7 12.1 4.7 82.8 12.1 4.8 86.8 12.0 4.7 88.9 11.2 4.4 86.6 6.8 2.8 45.0 6.4 2.7 45.7 6.4 2.7 49.8 7.2 3.1 55.9 8.0 3.3 64.6 9.1 3.9 77.5 9.1 3.8 79.4 8.6 3.7 83.0 9.3 4.2 68.8 9.0 3.9 71.6 9.6 4.1 79.1 13.5 5.7 105.7 17.7 6.6 134.2 17.7 6.8 138.6 17.8 6.9 153.7 18.3 7.0 166.1 5.4 2.2 37.5 5.2 2.2 37.9 5.3 2.3 42.2 5.8 2.4 43.9 6.1 2.6 51.5 5.6 2.5 55.4 5.9 2.7 57.8 6.0 2.7 64.4 10.5 4.3 70.2 9.7 4.2 73.2 10.2 4.3 70.9 10.7 4.6 81.5 11.3 5.1 91.0 11.1 5.1 97.6 11.3 5.1 113.1 11.3 5.1 104.0 9.8 9.6 10.0 11.1 11.4 11.6 11.7 11.5 A g r ic u lt u r e , f o r e s t r y , a n d fis h in g 1 Total cases...................................................................................... Lost workday cases .......................................................................................... Lost workdays..................................................................................................... M in in g Total cases......................................................................................................... Lost workday c a s e s .......................................................................................... Lost workdays.................................................................................... C o n s tr u c tio n Total cases.......................................................................................................... Lost workday cases .......................................................................................... Lost workdays................................................................................................... General building contractors: Total cases.......................................................................................................... Lost workday c a s e s .......................................................................................... Lost workdays..................................................................................................... Heavy construction, except building: Total cases.......................................................................................................... Lost workday c a s e s .......................................................................................... Lost workdays..................................................................................................... Special trade contractors: Total cases.......................................................................................................... Lost workday c a s e s .......................................................................................... Lost workdays..................................................................................................... M a n u fa c tu r in g Lumber and wood products: Total cas es....................................................................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................................................................... Lost workdays.................................................................................................. Furniture and fixtures: Total cas es....................................................................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................................................................... Lost workdays.................................................................................................. Stone, clay, and glass products: Total cas es....................................................................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................................................................... Lost workdays.................................................................................................. Primary metal industries: Total cas es....................................................................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................................................................... Lost workdays.................................................................................................. Fabricated metal products: Total cas es....................................................................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................................................................... Lost workdays.................................................................................................. Industrial machinery and equipment: Total cases....................................................................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................................................................... Lost workdays.................................................................................................. Electronic and other electrical equipment: Total cases....................................................................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................................................................... Lost workdays.................................................................................................. Transportation equipment: Total cas es....................................................................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................................................................... Lost workdays .................................................................................................. Instruments and related products: Total cas es....................................................................................................... Lost workday cases ........................................................................................ Lost workdays.................................................................................................. Miscellaneous manufacturing industries: Total cas es....................................................................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................................................................... Lost workdays.................................................................................................. Nondurable goods: Total cas es....................................................................................................... See footnotes at end of table. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Monthly Labor Review July 1994 111 Current Labor Statistics: Injury and Illness Data 49. Continued— Occupational injury and illness incidence rates by industry,1 United States Incidence rates per 100 full-time workers3 Industry and type of case2 1984 Lost workday cases Lost workdays........ Food and kindred products: Total cas es.................................... Lost workday cases ..................... Lost workdays............................... Tobacco products: Total cases.................................... Lost workday cases ..................... Lost workdays............................... Textile mill products: Total cas es.................................... Lost workday cases ..................... Lost workdays............................... Apparel and other textile products: Total cases.................................... Lost workday cases ..................... Lost workdays............................... Paper and allied products: Total cases.................................... Lost workday cases ..................... Lost workdays............................... Printing and publishing: Total cas es...................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................... Lost workdays................................................. Chemicals and allied products: Total cas es...................................................... Lost workday cases ............... ....................... Lost workdays................................................. Petroleum and coal products: Total cases...................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................... Lost workdays................................................. Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products: Total cases...................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................... Lost workdays................................................. Leather and leather products: Total cas es...................................................... Lost workday cases ....................................... Lost workdays................................................. 1985 1986 1987 1988 19891 1990 1991 4.4 74.9 4.4 77.6 4.6 82.3 5.1 93.5 5.4 101.7 5.5 107.8 5.6 116.9 5.5 119.7 16.7 16.5 8.0 137.8 17.7 8.6 153.7 18.5 9.2 169.7 18.5 9.3 174.7 20.0 131.6 16.7 8.1 138.0 202.6 19.5 9.9 207.2 7.7 3.2 51.7 7.3 3.0 51.7 6.7 2.5 45.6 8.6 2.5 46.4 9.3 2.9 53.0 8.7 3.4 64.2 7.7 3.2 62.3 6.4 2.8 52.0 8.0 3.0 54.0 7.5 3.0 57.4 7.8 3.1 59.3 9.0 3.6 65.9 9.6 4.0 78.8 10.3 4.2 81.4 9.6 4.0 85.1 10.0 4.4 88.3 6.7 2.5 40.9 6.7 2.6 44.1 6.7 2.7 49.4 7.4 3.1 59.5 8.1 3.5 68.2 8.6 3.8 80.5 8.8 3.9 92.1 9.2 4.2 99.9 10.4 4.7 93.8 10.2 10.5 4.7 99.5 12.8 12.7 5.8 132.9 11.2 5.8 122.3 13.1 5.9 124.3 12.1 4.7 94.6 5.5 124.8 5.0 122.7 6.5 2.9 46.0 6.3 2.9 49.2 6.5 2.9 50.8 6.7 3.1 55.1 6.6 3.2 59.8 6.9 3.3 63.8 6.9 3.3 69.8 6.7 3.2 74.5 5.3 2.4 40.8 5.1 2.3 38.8 6.3 2.7 49.4 7.0 3.1 58.8 7.0 3.3 59.0 7.0 3.2 63.4 6.5 3.1 61.6 6.4 3.1 62.4 5.1 2.4 53.5 5.1 2.4 49.9 7.1 3.2 67.5 7.3 3.1 65.9 7.0 3.2 68.4 6.6 3.3 68.1 6.6 3.1 77.3 6.2 2.9 68.2 13.6 6.4 104.3 13.4 6.3 107.4 14.0 6.6 118.2 15.9 7.6 130.8 16.3 8.1 142.9 16.2 8.0 147.2 16.2 7.8 151.3 15.1 7.2 150.9 10.5 4.7 94.4 10.3 4.6 88.3 10.5 4.8 83.4 12.4 5.8 114.5 11.4 5.6 128.2 13.6 6.5 130.4 12.1 5.9 152.3 12.5 5.9 140.8 8.8 5.2 105.1 8.6 5.0 107.1 8.2 4.8 102.1 8.4 4.9 108.1 8.9 5.1 118.6 9.2 5.3 121.5 9.6 5.5 134.1 9.3 5.4 140.0 7.4 3.3 50.5 7.4 3.2 50.7 7.7 3.3 54.0 7.7 3.4 56.1 7.8 3.5 60.9 8.0 3.6 63.5 7.9 3.5 65.6 7.6 3.4 72.0 7.2 3.5 55.5 7.2 3.5 59.8 7.2 3.6 62.5 7.4 3.7 64.0 7.6 3.8 69.2 7.7 4.0 71.9 7.4 3.7 71.5 7.2 3.7 79.2 7.5 3.2 48.4 7.5 3.1 47.0 7.8 3.2 50.5 7.8 3.3 52.9 7.9 3.4 57.6 8.1 3.4 60.0 8.1 3.4 63.2 7.7 3.3 69.1 1.9 .9 13.6 2.0 .9 15.4 2.0 .9 17.1 2.0 .9 14.3 2.0 .9 17.2 2.0 .9 17.6 2.4 2.4 5.2 2.5 41.1 5.4 5.3 2.5 43.0 5.5 2.7 45.8 5.4 2.6 5.5 2.7 51.2 8.1 9.9 T r a n s p o r t a t io n a n d p u b lic u tilitie s Total cases......................................................................... Lost workday cases .......................................................... Lost workdays .................................................................. W h o le s a le a n d r e ta il tr a d e Total cases................................................................. Lost workday cases .................................................. Lost workdays............................................................. Wholesale trade: Total cases.................................................................. Lost workday cases .................................................. Lost workdays............................................................. Retail trade: Total cases.................................................................. Lost workday cases .................................................. Lost workdays............................................................. F in a n c e , in s u ra n c e , a n d r e a l e s t a te Total cases........................................................................... Lost workday c a s e s ........................................................... Lost workdays..................................................................... 1.1 1.1 27.3 24.1 6.0 6.2 2.8 56.4 2.8 60.0 S e r v ic e s Total cases............. Lost workday cases Lost workdays........ 1 Data for 1989 and subsequent years are based on the S ta n d a rd 1987 Edition. For this reason, they are not strictly comparable with data for the years 1982-88, which were based on the S ta n d a rd In d u s tria l C la ss ifica tio n M a n u a l, 1972 Edition, 1977 Supplement. 2 Total cases include fatalities. 3 The incidence rates represent the number of injuries and illnesses In d u s tria l C la ss ifica tio n M a n u a l, 112 Monthly Labor Review https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis July 1994 45.4 2.6 47.7 or lost workdays per 100 full-time workers and were calculated as: (N/EH) X 200,000, where: N = number of injuries and illnesses or lost workdays. EH = total hours worked by all employees during calendar year. 200,000 — base for 100 full-time equivalent workers (working 40 hours per week, 50 weeks per year.) 4 Excludes farms with fewer than 11 employees since 1976. *. % T :% \ * -jCj t ;i mÊÈ Sound Economics Twelve issues of the Monthly Labor Review for only $25 Analytical articles. Developments in Industrial Relations. 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