View original document

The full text on this page is automatically extracted from the file linked above and may contain errors and inconsistencies.

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
W. B. WILSON, Secretary

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
ETHELBERT STEWART, Commissioner

MONTHLY

REVIEW
NUMBER 2

Au g u s t , 1920

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

ANNOUNCEMENT.
This issue of the Monthly Labor Review is the last to be put out under the general
supervision of Dr. Royal Meeker, who was appointed Commissioner of Labor Sta­
tistics by President Wilson in August, 1913. After nearly seven years as .Com­
missioner of Labor Statistics and a little over five years since establishing the
Review, Dr. Meeker has resigned, effective July 31, 1920, to enter upon a larger
work as chief of the scientific division of the International Labor Office under the
League of Nations. Under his direction the monthly bulletin and all other publica­
tions of the office will be prepared and issued. The headquarters of the office are
in Geneva, Switzerland. Commenting on Dr. Meeker’s resignation, Secretary
Wilson, of the Department of Labor, says:
Dr. Meeker has been an exceptionally efficient administrator of the Bureau
of Labor Statistics. In addition to the ordinary fact-gathering duties of the
bureau, which he has handled with a sound judgment and a quiet determina­
tion to follow the facts wherever they led, hp has done a splendid work in
inaugurating and carrying to partial completion a movement for the coordina­
tion of the work of the statistical bureaus of the respective States with that
of the Federal Government, and a standardization of industrial terminology
and statistical methods that would make the facts gathered by the States and
the different countries of the world comparable with the facts gathered by the
Federal Government. He has reorganized the cost-of-living studies on a basis
of the family budget or market basket, so that they are now a close approxi­
mation of actual costs, and his war-time studies of wages and living costs were
accepted by all the wage boards as a basis upon which their decisions were
made. While his sympathies were always with the workers, he never allowed
those sympathies to distort the facts.
I look upon his resignation as being an immediate loss to the Government
and the people of the United States, but he has accepted the position of editor
of the International Labor Bulletin of the International Labor Office of the
League of Nations, and in that position he will be able to go on with the inter­
national portion of the work he has so well begun in the Bureau of Labor Sta­
tistics and ultimately bring greater benefits to the people of the United States.
n


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Contents,
Special articles:
Page.
A plan for cooperation between farmer and consumer, by Benton Maclvaye. 1-21
Two years of industrial legislation in a large clothing factory, by O. F.
Carpenter, University of Wisconsin............................................................. 22-33
Industrial relations:
Labor principles of the National Association of Manufacturers.................... 34-36
Plan for settlement of jurisdictional claims in the building industry......... 34-38
Industrial conditions in Japan........................................................................ 38-43
Labor conditions on Czechoslovakia railroads . . .......................................... 43,44
German agricultural council’s program............... ................................... . 45, 46
Prices and cost of living:
Retail prices of food in the United States...................................................... 47-55
Retail prices of coal in the United S tates..................................................... 56-58
Index numbers of wholesale prices in the United States.............................. 58-60
Changes in wholesale prices in the United States......... ............................... 61-65
Cost of living in Massachusetts....................................................................... 66-69
Retail price changes in Great Britain............................................................ 69, 70
Retail prices of coal in United Kingdom.......................................................
70
Cost of living in Uruguay in 1919 compared with 1913........................ ........71, 72
The food situation in Austria and Hungary................................................... 72, 73
Wages and hours of labor:
Hours and earnings in the boot and shoe industry....................................... 74-81
New wage scale of the Alaskan Engineering Commission .................. . 82, 83
New fair wage schedule on public works in Manitoba..................................
83
New rates of pay and requirements of the British consular service.............
84
Minimum rates of wages of agricultural laborers in England and Wales___84, 85
New scale of wages in the British pottery industry...................................... 86-88
Wages in Japan in 1918 and 1919.................................................................... 88-90
Vocational education:
Educational and vocational courses for enlisted men..................................... 91, 92
Proposed training of management men.......................................................... 92, 93
Employment and unemployment:
Employment in selected industries in June, 1920......................................... 94-96
Extent of employment of women and minors in Montevideo, Uruguay__
97
Opportunities for employment of women in Australia.................................. 97, 98
Women in industry:
Hours and conditions of work for women in industry in Virginia.............. 99,100
First report of the Indiana Department of Women and Children............. 100-102
Employment of women in France before and after the war...................... 102-106
Industrial hazards:
Health hazards in the millinery industry in New York City.................. 107-109
Poisons in the tar products industry........................................................... 109-112
Industrial poisoning in German war industries.......................................... 112-120
Workmen’s compensation:
“ Loss of use ” or the impairment of function, by Martin C. Frincke, j r . . 121-130
Recent reports on operation of workmen’s compensation laws—
Indiana......................................................................................................
131
British Columbia................................................................................... 131-133
Ontario................................................................................................... 133-134


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

h i

IV

CONTENTS.

Social insurance:
Page.
Pensions for public service employees in Uruguay.................................... 135-137
Unemployment insurance in Austria............. ........................................... 137,138
Labor laws and decisions:
139
Rehabilitation law of New York....................................................................
Occupational diseases under the Massachusetts compensation law......... 140,141
Injunction in strike for closed shop upheld by Wisconsin court..................
141
Decision of Kansas Court of Industrial Relations as to certain employees of
railroads..................................................................................................... 142,1'43
Housing:
Housing in Great Britain.............................................................................. 144-157
Housing shortage:and housing measures in European countries. Compiled
by Alfred Maylander........ ....................................................................... 158-167
Labor organizations:
Fortieth convention of the American Federation of Labor....................... 168-171
Labor organization in Canada in 1919........................................................ 171-173
First meeting of executive committee of International Federation of
Trade-Unions..................................... ; ................................................... . 173,174
A new labor movement in India................................................................. 175,176
Strikes and lockouts:
Strikes and lockouts in the United States, January to March, 1920......... 177-180
Current notes of interest to labor:
Waste of woman power on the farms..............................................................
181
Report of the Department of Labor of New Jersey, 1918-19..................... 181,182
Plan for a group industrial surgical hospital.............................................. 182,183
Formation in Belgium of a corps of strike breakers.....................................
183
Status of Spanish workmen in France........................................................ 183,184
Publications relating to labor:
Official—United States................................................................................. 185,186
Official—foreign countries............................................................................ 186-188
Unofficial....................................................................................................... 188-192


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW
vol . x i—no . 2

WASHINGTON

au gu st , 1920

A Plan for Cooperation Between Farm er and
Consumer.1
B y B enton Ma c K a y e .

HAT are the possibilities of reducing living costs by coopera­
tion between farmer and consumer? This is a question
both of cooperation and of land utilization. I t involves
productive as well as distributive processes. Its answer should be
dependent on some specific underlying policy for converting natural
resources into human requirements. Such a policy will not be con­
sidered here beyond the statement of an obvious principle, that the
necessities of life should be supplied to the consumer at the lowest
possible cost and on the basis of the service rendered. The par­
ticular point at hand is one of distribution rather than production,
and relates to food products only. The postal motor transport
service has already initiated, on a limited scale, a line of cooperation
between farm producer and city consumer. To show in part the
enlarged possibilities of this system is the purpose of this article.
To avoid misunderstanding, one thing should be emphasized at
the start. It is by no means expected that the exact specifications
for the system outlined would be carried out, in any actual case,
precisely as set forth. The system is described in exact terms for
the purpose of minimizing vagueness and of presenting a definite
goal toward which to work.
While the specifications of the proposed system are applied to the
metropolitan center of Washington, D. C., a general estimate of the
possible savings which may be realized by applying this system of
distribution to the country as a whole may not be out of place.
But since the official statistics upon which the estimates are based are
at best somewhat fragmentary, the estimates themselves must be
considered as tentative only.2

W

1 This is a sum m ary of a report su b m itted to th e F o u rth A ssistant P ostm aster G eneral. T he p la n herein
outlined is a developm ent of a p a rt of th e lan d u tilizatio n program w orked out b y th e au th o r for th e D epart­
m e n t of L abor an d w hich received th e indorsem ent of th e Secretary of Labor. This p lan is described in
p a rt in articles in th e M o n t h l y L a b o r R e v e i w for Jan u ary , 1918 (pp. 48-56), an d A pril, 1919 (pp. 121-139)
an d in fu ll in th e a u th o r’s rep o rt on E m p lo y m en t a n d n a tu ra l resources (Office of th e Secretary, 1919)’
2 T he sources of th e d a ta used in th is article com prise th e cost of living a nd price reports of the U nited
States B ureau of L abor Statistics, b u t m ore p articu larly th e q u a n tity budget issued in Jan u ary , 1919th e c o st of p roduction studies of th e U n ited States D ep artm en t of A griculture, Office of F arm M anagement;
the crop reports an d estim ates of th e sam e d ep artm en t. The production data, to ta l for th e country, and
per capita, is reported an n u ally in th e S tatistical A bstract of th e U nited S tates; farm acreage and production,
etc., are tak en from th e U nited States B ureau of th e Census; a n d additional d ata along the sam e line were
secured from reports of th e U n ited States Food A dm inistration.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[213]

1

2

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

Two Systems of Distribution.
A COMPARISON of the essential factors in the present system of
food distribution with those of the proposed postal system may
be made by reducing each to a stereotyped pattern form based on
assumptions typical of the actual conditions under which distribution
takes place.
The scheme of distribution under the present system has been
reduced to graphic form in Figure 1. This traces the movement of
the farmer’s produce from the farm to the local railway station,
thence to the city terminal, from the terminal to the retail store,
and the final circuit from the store to the individual families.
F ig . 1,

SCHEME OF DISTRIBUTION
UNDER TH E PRESENT S Y S TE M

£

II

e

"

©

"

O

“

,1

I,

3/^

*

Vs

"

"

'A

"

empty

W

O

I V U U K I A I UI

"

"

empty

Figure 2 shows graphically three alternative methods of operating
the proposed postal system of distribution. Under alternative A
the farmer brings his produce to his local postal station, where it is
transferred to the postal motor truck, thence carried to the city
postal station, and there transferred via the final delivery route to
the individual families. Under alternative B the produce is col­
lected at the farm by the rural postal carrier and taken directly to
the city postal station. Under alternative C the produce is carried
by postal motor truck the entire distance without transfer, from the
individual farm to the individual city family.
The costs of distribution under each system have been estimated
for three staples—potatoes, eggs, and butter. By substituting


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[214]

COOPERATION BETWEEN FARMER AND CONSUMER.

3

alternative C of the postal scheme for the present scheme of distri­
bution about $1,000,000 on each staple named could presumably be
saved in the annual food bill now paid by the population of Wash­
ington, D. C. The distribution cost could be reduced from 64 to 92
F ig . 2.

SCHEMES OF DISTRIBUTION

UNDER ALTERNATIVES TO THE PRESENT SYSTEM

A LT E R N A T IV E

A

Farmer’s 2to'n truck

a

R u ral pósta! station

Citypostal station

A L T E R N A T IV E

B

50 miles
R u ra l postal station

Citypostal station

A LT E R N A T IV E

C

R u ralpòsta! station

|y y |

Citypostal station

P o s ta l station w here pro d u ce .is rehandled.
"

”

is not

”

Postal route, (M o to r tra n sp o rt}

per cent, and the total cost (retail price) by an average of 26 per cent.
But this estimated saving of 26 per cent is based on the assumption
that purchases can be made in fairly large quantities—potatoes by
the bushel, eggs by the crate (30 dozen), and butter in 50-pound lots.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[215]

4

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,

Where, however, these products have to be shipped in smaller lots,
the aggregate saving would be less.
Analysis of costs under the two systems for potatoes, eggs, and
butter are given in Tables 1, 2, and 3. The method of arriving at
the results shown in these tables will be given in detail only in the
case of potatoes.
T a b l e 1 . — P R O D U C T IO N AND D IS T R IB U T IO N COST O F P O T A T O E S P E R

U nder
present
system .

Ite m .

BU SH EL.

U nder altern ativ es to present
system .
C.

B.

A.

P roductio n cost (price a t farm )............................................................
D istrib u tio n cost.......................................................................................

Cents.
126.9
97.1

Cents.
126.9
72.8

Cents.
126.9
64.7

T ran sp o rta tio n from farm to city d istrib u to r...........................

33.1

43.1

35.0

M ain h au l—shipping p o in t to city d is trib u to r..................

12.5
20.6

8.1
35.0

DehveryA-city d istrib u to r to consum er......................................

53.3
10.7

19.0
10.7

19.0
10.7

224.0

199.7

191.6

T otal cost (retail p rice)............................................................................

"

'

T a b l e 2 .—P R O D U C T IO N A N D

1
D IS T R IB U T IO N COST O F EG G S P E R D O Z E N .

U nder
present
system .

Ite m .

U nder altern ativ es to present
system .
C.

B.

A.

P rodu ctio n cost (price a t farm )............................................................
D istrib u tio n c o st......................................................................................

Cents.
43.4
19.2

Cents.
43.4
7.7

Cents.
43.4
7.5

T ran sp o rtatio n from farm to city d is trib u to r...........................

1.3

2.1

1.9

Collection—farm to local shipping p o in t.............................
M ain h a u l—shipping p o in t to city d is trib u to r..................

.4
.9

.2
1.9

D elivery—city d istrib u to r to consum er......................................

17.6
.3

5.3
.3

5.3
.3

62.6

51.1

50.9

T o tal cost (retail price)...........................................................................

Cents.
43.4
1.9

45.3

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
90.1
61.0
60.0
27.5
18.6
18.4

Percentage saved over p resen t system :


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

161.9

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
64.0
33.3
25.0
27.7
14.5
10.8

Percentage saved over p resen t system :
-------- -- ------------

Cents.
126.9
35.0

[ 216]

COOPERATION BETWEEN FARMER AND CONSUMER.
T a b l e 3 —P R O D U C T IO N AND D IS T R IB U T IO N COST O F B U T T E R

U nder
present
system .

Ite m .

P E R POUND.

U nder alternatives to present
system .
A.

B.

P ro d u ctio n cost (price a t farm )............................................................
D istrib u tio n cost.............................................

Cents.
50.4
17.6

Cents.
50.4
7.7

Cents.
50.4
7.5

T ran sp o rtatio n from farm to city d is trib u to r...........................

1.0

1.6

1.4

Collection—farm to local shinping p o in t............................
Main haul—shipping p o in t to city d is trib u to r.................

.3
.7

.2
1.4

M arketing.................................................................
D elivery—city d istrib u to r to consum er.....................................

16.3
.3

T otal cost (retail p ric e ).........................................................................

68.0

5

5.8.
.3
58.1

C.
Cents.
50.4
1.4

5.8
.3
57.9

51.8

Percentage saved over p resent system :
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
On d istrib u tio n cost.........................................................................
56.2
57.4
92.0
On to ta l cost (retail price)..............................................................1..................
14.5
14.7
23.7
|

Analysis of Elements Entering Into Marketing Cost.
The retail price of potatoes, averaged for the whole United States, for the 12 months
of 1919 was 224 cents, according to figures of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The corre­
sponding farmers’ price paid at the shipping point was, on the basis of the figures of
the Bureau of Crop Estimates, United States Department of Agriculture, 139.4 cents.
The farm price would represent the cost of production under the present system.
This farm price can be approximated by reducing the shipping point price (139.4
cents) by the estimated average cost of transportation from farm to shipping point
(i. e., the cost of collection).
The collection cost is estimated by assuming the product at the farm to be carried in
a 2-ton truck, loaded to 75 per cent capacity, a distance of 6 miles and loaded upon
the cars. The process excludes loading at the farm, but includes loading on the cars.
Handling in all cases is assumed to cost $1 per ton. It is assumed that the truck
returns empty to the farms. Based on these assumptions, and upon fixed charges
and mileage costs for modern motor trucks, on average roads, the collection cost of
potatoes amounts to 12.5 cents per bushel.
Subtracting the collection cost per bushel of potatoes (12.5 cents) from the shipping
point price (139.4 cents) gives the estimated cost of production, or 126.9 cents. Sub­
tracting the latter from the retail price (224 cents) gives the estimated cost of distri­
bution, or 97.1 cents.
„
This distribution cost consists of the following items: (1) The collection cost;
(2) the main haul; (3) the retailing cost; (4) the delivering cost.
The method of arriving at the collection cost (12.5 cents) has already been indicated.
The main haul consists of movement from the shipping point to final distributing
point (city retail store or its equivalent). Potatoes are hauled by rail an average
distance of 50 miles, which represents about the average haul of products grown on
land within a radius of 75 miles. According to freight rates furnished by the
Interstate Commerce Commission in December, 1919, the average charge for carry­
ing potatoes into Washington, D. C., from points 50 miles distant was 17.8 cents
per 100 pounds, or an equivalent of 11.9 cents per bushel.
The product may be transferred from the car at the city terminal directly to the
retail store or it may be carried indirectly through the wholesaler. The product is
taken from the car, it is assumed, to a 5-ton truck, loaded to full capacity and carried
an average distance of 4 miles to the retail store and there unloaded. The truck
returns empty to the city terminal. The estimated cost of the haul here assumed
and the two handlings is 8.7 cents. Adding the retail charge (11.9 cents) to the cost
of transfer (8.7 cents) makes 20.6 cents per bushel as the cost of the main haul.
The retail cost is estimated on the basis of studies made by the Harvard School of
Business Administration to amount on the average to 15 per cent of the retail price,
i. e., 40.3 cents per bushel for potatoes in 1919.
The delivering cost from retailer to consumer is based on the following assumptions:
A 2-ton truck loaded to capacity is assumed to make a round trip of 4 miles in the


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[217]

6

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

process of distributing the products to the consumers en route. This is equivalent
to carrying a full load for 2 miles and returning empty. The process includes loading
and unloading. The cost of only one handling is included, but the cost of hauling
is doubled in order to allow for stopping, unloading, and starting^at each point of the
delivery. The cost of one handling plus the double cost for hauling makes 10.7 cents
as the total cost per bushel for delivering potatoes.
Addihg the above items—collection 12.5 cents, main haul 20.6 cents, retailing 40.3
cents, delivering 10.7 cents—makes a total of 84.1 cents as the distribution cost.
Thus estimated, the distribution cost is 13 cents less than the difference between the
retail price and production cost (97.1_ cents) already arrived at. Part of this dis­
crepancy includes the cost of wholesaling, not accounted for, and part includes vari­
ances to be expected in the other items. The extra cost of 13 cents has therefore
been charged to wholesaling and other marketing costs. Hence, the total marketing
cost would be 13 cents plus the cost of retailing (40.3 cents), or 53.3 cents.
Very much the same process has been gone through in arriving at the various ele­
ments of the retail price under the present system of production in the case of eggs and
butter.
The method of arriving at the cost of production and retailing under the three alter­
native methods (designated A, B, and C, respectively) involving the use of the parcelpost service described in this article has been as follows:
A. Utilization of the rural postal station as a point for the collection and slap­
ping of local produce and of the city postal station as a point for the distribution
and retailing of such produce, the produce being transported from one station to
the other through the postal motor service.
B. Utilization of the postal motor service for collecting produce frorn the farm
and transporting it directly to the city postal s tation as the retailing point.
C. Utilization of the postal motor service for collecting produce from the farm
and transporting it directly to the city consumer.
The costs involved in utilizing each one of these alternatives may be analyzed,
taking the potato crop as an illustration.
Alternative A .—Collection from farm to rural postal station is assumed to be carried
on by each farmer individually. This is done by means of the 2-ton truck loaded to
75 per cent capacity and returning to the farm empty. Average distance from farm
to postal station is 2 miles. Potatoes are shipped in sacks, in units of 1 bushel (60
pounds). Total cost, hauling and one handling, 8.1 cents per bushel.
The main haul, between niral and city postal stations, is made by postal motor
truck. The estimated actual cost thereof, using 5-ton truck, is 16.4 cents per bushel.
The postal rate (outside of the temporary war tax) is 35 cents.
The only cost of marketing is that of distribution at the city postal station. The
use of the postal facilities for this purpose would resiilt in the elimination, in whole
or in part, of certain unnecessary items—profits, buying costs, sales force, overhead,
etc. It is estimated that the utilizing of these facilities in lieu of the present unwieldy
marketing system would reduce the marketing cost from 53.3 cents per bushel for
potatoes (as above estimated) to 19 cents.
Delivery from city postal station to consumer is assumed to be canned on as above
described for delivery under the present system. The cost, as there estimated, is
10.7 cents per bushel.
The total distribution cost under alternative A (collection, main haul, marketing,
and delivery) is 72.8 cents per bushel. This added to the production cost (126.9 cents)
would make the aggregate cost (the retail price) 199.7 cents, as against 224 under the
present system.
Alternative B .—Collection and main haul are here accomplished as one step at 35
cents per bushel by the Postal Service. Actual estimated cost is 30 cents.
Costs of marketing and of delivery are, as in alternative A, 19 and 10.7 cents,
respectively.
The total distribution cost is 64.7 cents. This added to the production cost (126.9
cents) would make a retail price of 191.6 cents. _
Alternative C.—Not only collection and the main haul but the marketing and deliv­
ery processes are here accomplished through the Postal Service for the 35 cents charge
per bushel. The actual estimated cost is 34.5 cents.
The total distribution cost is therefore only 35 cents. This added to the 126.9 cents
for production would make a retail price of 161.9 cents—a saving of 27.7 per cent over
the present (1919) price of 224 cents per bushel.

The cost of production and marketing as given in Tables 1, 2, and
3 takes into consideration only the direct and immediate results which


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[218]

7

COOPERATION BETWEEN FARMER AND CONSUMER.

may be expected to follow from an application of the postal system
of distribution. Costs of production on the farm could also be sub­
stantially reduced through the effect, indirectly, of installing a com­
prehensive postal system of distribution. This would require reduc­
ing the cost of utilizing land, and this in turn requires a policy of
basing land tenure solely upon use. Such a policy is working well
on lands in foreign countries and is now being advocated for lands
in this country by the Secretary of Labor. The effect would be to
divert the “ rental” cost, now paid for the unproductive function of
mere ownership, into channels affording productive results, to wit:
Increased compensation for the individual farmer, decreased prices
for the individual consumer, and increased sources for meeting taxes
paid by the general public.
But the savings made possible by an improved system of land
utilization, or of food distribution, are likely to be lost unless each
system is made to supplement the other. The advantages of a sound
land policy will fail to reach the consumer unless there is direct
cooperation between him and the producing farmer. On the other
hand, the savings in food costs due to a sound distributing system
are likely to be absorbed in higher rentals unless there is an effective
public control of land tenure. The installing of a comprehensive
postal system of distribution would thus create the opportunity for
developing a policy of land utilization that would truly reduce the
costs of food production.
Application of Postal System to the City of Washington.
rpH E city of Washington has been taken to illustrate a possible
-*■ application, in a representative metropolitan center, of the pro­
posed postal system of distribution. Such an application calls, on
the one hand, for the food requirements of the city population, and,
on the other hand, for the food productivity of available land in
adjacent territory.
A food budget for the average family of five in the District of
Columbia has recently been worked out by the United States Bureau
of Labor Statistics.1 This budget, reclassified in certain ways, is
given in Table 4:
T a b l e 4 .—FO O D B U D G E T F O R A V E R A G E F A M IL Y O F F IV E .

W eekly q u a n tity .

W eekly cost.

Item .
Pounds. P er cent. A m ount. P er cent.
Local staples, or products m ade therefrom :
Vegetables—
Potatoes, w h ite...........................................................................
O ther vegetables, fresh a n d d rie d .........................................
O ther vegetables^ c an n e d ........................................................

14.25
10. 89
.84

14.6
11.1
.9

SO. 71
.88
.24

4.9
6.0
1.6

.........................................................................

25.98

26.6

1.83

12.5

F ru its—
A pples...........................................................................................
O th er fruits, fresh......................................................................
O th er fruits, dried and c an n e d ..............................................

3.92
3. 79
.70

4.0
3.9
.7

.24
.46
.18

1.6
3.2
1.2

8.41

8.6

.88

6.0

Total

T otal

.................................................................................

1 T en tativ e q u a n tity a n d cost b udget necessary to m a in ta in a fam ily of five in W ashington, D . C., a t a
level of h ealth an d decency (prices secured in A ugust, 1919). W ashington, 1919, 75 pp.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[219]

8

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,
T a b l e 4 —FO O D B U D G E T F O R A V E R A G E F A M IL Y OF F I V E —C ontinued.

W eekly q u a n tity .

W eekly cost.

Item .
Pounds.

Per cent. A m ount. P er cent.

Local staples, or p roducts m ade therefrom —Concluded.
Cereals—
Flour, ry e and g ra h a m ............................................................
Flour, w h e at...............................................................................
B read, w h e a t.......................................................................... ...
B read, ry e an d g ra h a m ............................................................
R olls, crackers, cake, a n d p a s tr y .........................................
Corn m e a l....................................................................................
R olled o a ts ..................................................................................
O th er cereals...............................................................................

1.11
6.38
8. 76
.46
1.14
1.23
1.11
.45

1.1
6. 5
8.9
.5
1.2
1.2
1.1
.5

$0.09
. 51
.88
.05
.28
.07
.11
.07

0.6
3.5
6.0
.3
1.9
.5
.7
.5

T o tal..........................................................................................

20. 64

21.0

2.06

14.0

Milk a n d m ilk products—
Milk, w hole.................................................................................
Milk, condensed a n d e v a p o ra te d ...........................................
B u tterm ilk , cream , an d ice c ream .......................................
B u tte r...........................................................................................
Cheese .........................................................................................

17.90
1.25
1.66
1.54
.38

18. 2
1.3
1. 7
1.6
.4

1.25
.25
.18
1.05
.19

8.5
1.7
1.2
7.2
1.3

...............................................................................

22. 73

23.2

2. 92

19.9

E££S (1.3 d oz.)...................................................................................
Meat an d m eat p roducts—
Beef, fresh ....................................................................................
Beef, salt
.......................................................................
V eal' fresh .......................................... '.......................................
P ork, fresh.
................................................................
Pork, salt (including sm oked ham a n d b aco n )................
M u tto n ............................................. .........................................
P o u ltry .........................................................................................
L a rd ..............................................................................................
O ther m eat products (sausages, dried m e a t).....................

1.96

2.0

.79

5.4

3.92
.38
.42
.74
1.03
.60
.52
.71
.66

4.0
.4
.4
.8
1.1
.6
.5
.7
.7

1.44
.14
.17
.38
.53
.22
.24
.30
.25

9.8
1.0
1.2
2.6
3.6
1.5
1.6
2.0
1.7

T o tal.

T o tal..........................................................................................

8.98

9.2

3.67

25.0

T o tal local staples, or products m ade th erefro m ................ .

88. 70

90.6

12.15

82.8

Southern, w estern, an d foreign products:
F ru its—
Oranges an d lem o n s.................................................................
B an an as.......................................................................................

.71
.70

.7
.7

.10
.10

.7
.7

T o ta l.........................................................................................

1.41

1.4

.20

1.4

Cereals—
Rice
...............................................................................
Macaroni, spaghetti, and noodles..........................................

.85
.63

.9
.6

. 14
.14

.9
1.0

T o ta l.........................................................................................

1.48

1.5

.28

1.9

S u g ar....................... ....... .....................................................................
T e a ........................................................................................................
Coffee....................................................................................................

3.13
. 19
.76

3.2
.2
.8

.34
.15
.40

2.3
1.0
2.7

T otal southern, western, an d foreign p ro d u cts.....................

6.97

7.1

1.37

9.3

F ish an d other sea food
............................................................
O ther food (including jelly, oil, chocolates, cocoa, n uts, gelatin,
canned soup, e tc .)...............................................................................

1.31

1.3

.39

2. 7

.97

1.0

.76

5.2

G rand to ta l.....................................................................................

97. 95

100.0

14.67

100.0

On the basis of this budget 500 families (2,500 population) would
consume each week 48,975 pounds of foodstuffs, and their patronage
would constitute a weekly retail business of $7,335. It is estimated
that this would approach closely the amount of business (neither
too great nor too small) that could be handled most efficiently by a
modernly equipped retail store. The community unit of city con­
sumers, therefore, is assumed herein to consist of 2,500 persons.
A food budget for a community of this size, in terms of agricul­
tural crops, is presented in Table 5.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[220]

9

COOPERATION BETWEEN FARMER AND CONSUMER.
T able

5 .—A N N U A L

BUDGET

OF

RAW STA PLES
P O P U L A T IO N .

FO R

COM M U N ITY

OF

2 500

--------- , ---------------------A n n u al
consum p­
tio n *per
capita in
th e U nited
States.

A n n u al o u tp u t needed N um ber of
stock
to supply a commu­ live
needed
n ity of 2,500 popula­ for
com­
tion.
m unity.

Staple (or live stock).

U nit.

P o tato es...................................................................
A p p les......................................................................
W h e a t.......................................................................
R ye, barley, a n d b u c k w h ea t..............................
M ilk...........................................................................
As whole m ilk .................................................
F o r b u tte r........................................................
F o r cheese an d other uses............................
Milk cow s................................................................
E g g s..........................................................................
C attle (a llk in d s):
N u m b e r............................................................
F o r slau g h ter...................................................
Beef (to ta l edible p ro d u c t)..........................
V eal (to ta l edible p ro d u c t)..........................
Hogs:
N u m b e r............................................................
For slau g h ter...................................................
T o tal edible p ro d u c t......................................
Sheep:
N u m b e r............................................................
For slau g h ter...................................................
T o tal edible p ro d u c t......................................
P o u ltry : N um ber raised per a n n u m ...............
Feed crops:
C orn............................................................
O ats....................................................................
H a v ....................................................................

B u sh el..
. . . d o . __
__d o ___
.. .d o ___
G a llo n ..
. . . d o ___
. . . d o ___
.. .d o ___
H ead __
D o zen ...

3.8
1.6
5.1
2.4
91.6
42.5
38.3
10.8
.22
18.1

H e ad __
. . . d o ____
P o u n d ..
. . . d o ___

.64
.15
78.8
11.3

375

H e ad —
. . . d o ___
P o u n d ..

.64
.49
86.3

1,225

H e ad __
... do. . . .
P o u n d ..
Plead__

.47
.15
5.4
5.6

375

B u sh e l..
. . .d o .. . .
T o n ........

9,500
4,000
12,750
5,980
229,050
106,250
95,800
27,000

Pounds.
570.000
200.000
715.000
296.000
1,972,000
915.000
825.000
232.000

45,030

57,000

550
1,600

197,000
27,200
1,600
216,000
1,175
13,400
14,000

28.7
14.1
.8

71,900
35,400
1,990

The bulk, though of course not all, of the food staples needed by
the Washington population could be raised in adjacent territory. On
the basis of local yields per acre the area of cultivated land required
to supply a community of 2,500 persons is estimated at 11,560 acres.
This is derived as shown in Table 6. To this total there should be
added 15 per cent (2,040 acres) for permanent woodland, making 13,600
acres in all.
T a b l e 6 . — A R E A N E E D E D F O R COM M U N ITY FO O D B U D G E T , D IS T R IC T O F COLUM BIA

AND A D JO IN IN G ST A TES.
Needed an- Average yield
per acre,
Needed area
n u a l supply
M aryland
per 2,500
per 2,500
and
Virginia,
population.
p opulatio n !
1909-1918.

Item .

T o tal a re a ................................................................................................
Specified food-producing crops..........................................................
P o tato es..........................................................
A p p les...............................................................................................
W 'heat...............................................................................................
R ye, barley, an d b u c k w h ea t......................................................
In feed cro p s.... ............................................................
C orn................................................................. .. . .
Oats'..........................................................................................
H a y ....................................................................................................
Pasturage (im p ro v ed )..........................................................................
O ther im proved la n d ............................................................................
i F ro m Table 5.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Bushels.

Bushels.

9,500
4,000
12, 750
5,980

90.0

71,900
35,400
Tons.
1,990

30.5
25.5
Tons.
1.2

14.4
15.7

Acres.
11,560
1,370
105
(2)

2 O rchard lan d included in " o th e r im proved land.”

[221]

885
380
5,410
2,360
1,390
1,660
2,220
2,560

10

MONTHLY LABOE EE VIEW.

I t is estimated that the working population of one agricultural
community of 2,500 persons could work sufficient land of the kind
described to support a total population of 7,500 (three communities
of 2,500 each). This would require 13,600 acres multiplied by three,
or a total of 40,800 acres. This area would support a group of foodproducing factories of sufficient size for the requirements, including
one creamery, one flouring and grist mill, and one abattoir. An agri­
cultural community of 2,500 persons working this area could support
itself (as to the main staples) plus two other equal-sized communities
in the city. Such an area may he called a 11rural supply unit.” The
scheme of distribution between the supply unit and the two city com­
munities is shown graphically in Figure 3.
F ig . 3.

RURAL

S C H E M E O F D IS T R IB U T IO N
S U P P LY U N IT TO C ITY C O M M U N IT IE S

LEGEND
O — .Community center
• ^.....Farrrr house
==-■■■ ... Motor road
...... Connecting road between
farm house and motor road

O

.Central market and
clearing house

On the basis of the above estimates a certain territory has been
delimited as that which is economically tributary to the City of
Washington. The boundaries of this territory are shown on Map 1.
Within these boundaries there are 4,900,000 acres of farm land) of
which over 85 per cent (4,170,000 acres) can eventually be cultivated,
leaving the other 15 per cent in the form of woodlots to be perma­
nently managed as forest land. Of the total farm area (4,900,000
acres), there would be needed 2,420,000 acres to support the popula­
tion (rural and urban) of 407,000 which is included within the
“ tributary territory” itself; the remaining 2,480,000 acres would then


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[222 ]

COOPERATION BETWEEN FARMER AND CONSUMER.

11

be available to support the Washington population of 455,000. But
these populations could not be wholly supported from this land until
the arable portion (4,170,000 acres) is fully cultivated; at present
only about 70 per cent of this portion is cultivated, leaving nearly
30 per cent (1,220,000 acres) yet to be improved. The main routes
leading out of Washington (used or usable for the postal motor
transport service) are shown on Map 1.
M A P 1.—B O U N D A R Y O F F O O D -P R O D U C IN G T E R R IT O R Y EC O N O M IC A L L Y T R IB U ­
T A R Y TO T H E D IS T R IC T O F C O LU M B IA , A N D M AIN R O U T E S IN T O T H E C IT Y .

The population of the District of Columbia (455,000) would make
182 communities of 2,500 persons each. This population is distrib­
uted as shown on Map 2. The thickly settled portions are divided
into 18 “ market districts,” each being designated by letter. There
would be in each market district an average of about 10 of the “ com­
munity units” of 2,500 persons. These city communities once
organized, a close cooperation and exchange between them and the
rural supply units could be maintained through the postal motor
transport service.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[223]

12

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,

Methods of Organization.
TT is not expected that the District of Columbia, or the territory
tributary thereto, would ever be laid out precisely as described
above. Food supplies are now being brought into Washington (by
M AP 2.—D IS T R IC T O F CO LU M B IA D IV ID E D IN T O 18 “ M A R K E T D IS T R IC T S ” (L E T ­
T E R E D F R O M A TO R ).

postal truck and otherwise) from points far outside of the “ tributary
territory.” On the other hand, a great deal of produce raised in
such territory is shipped at present to Baltimore and cities north.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[224]

COOPERATION BETWEEN FARMER AND CONSUMER.

13

No final or fixed bounds to the food-producing area available for
Washington is actually contemplated, but as before suggested, a
“ pattern” is necessary in order to make clear a definite goal toward
which to work.
The organization of city (and rural) communities for marketing
and other purposes is now going on in various parts of the country
under what is called the “ community center” plan. The method is
for the people of a given locality to select a “ community secretary,”
on salary, to take charge of certain community activities. One of
these is education. The public-school facilities are placed under
the “ secretary’s ” charge and the school building is used as the official
meeting place or “ center.” For the purpose of community market­
ing the local United States postal station is also made part of the
center and the secretary is appointed as postmaster. He then acts
as the purchasing agent (or the selling agent) of the people forming
the community, receiving (or shipping) the produce by parcel post.
The Park View center in Washington illustrates this method as ap­
plied to a typical city community; and the Mount Joy (or Two Taverns)
center, near Gettysburg, Pa., illustrates the method as applied to a
typical rural community. Produce is collected by the “ secretary”
at Two Taverns and thence shipped over the postal motor route to
the “ secretary” at Park View, where it is distributed to the local
citizens. Substantial savings have been made in this experiment,
but the amount of business thus far done has been meager.
Community center organization might be stimulated by enlisting
th e interest of those who are affiliated not merely by geographic
location but by occupation as well. There are in the District of
Columbia some 91,000 heads of families, all of whom may be assumed
to be engaged in some gainful occupation. Of these it is estimated
that about one-third are organized on the basis of their occupations.
This means that about 60 out of the 182 community units could be
formed out of the families of organized workers; that is, two or three
units in each “ market district” shown on Map 2.
In view of this situation the affiliated workers in each market
district (or in certain districts) might take the initiative in organ­
izing at least one community center. Since these workers are al­
ready associated for their economic betterment this would be a
natural step for them to take. Membership in the center would be
open to citizens generally, and so the use of the schooling and postal
facilities, as above described, would be available.
The rural as well as the city community may be organized on the
“ center” plan—as at Two Taverns, Pa. Another way would be
to establish a “ farm colony,” as they do in Australia. Under this
method the State acquires a tract of land and opens it to individual
settlement on the basis of actual use. This is the plan being ad­
vocated by the Secretary of Labor. It applies especially to sparsely
populated areas, as in swamp lands and cut-over timber sections.
A number of “ rural supply units” in territory adjacent to Wash­
ington could probably be organized around farm colonies. A tract
of a thousand acres purchased by the State or a private association,
and established as a colony, could form the nucleus for organizing,
2386°—20------ 2


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[225]

14

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

on the community center plan, several more thousand acres in the
immediate vicinity.
A further step in the farm-colony idea is that embodied in the
“ garden city.” This is, in effect, an enlarged farm colony; it is a
farming community to which there is added industrial factories and
the population to run them. Agriculture is combined with manu­
facturing. This method of development is probably best illustrated
in the little city of Letchworth, in England, 33 miles out of London.
This city was planned and built as an integral unit. Several such
towns have recently been laid out in Canada, as the one at Lake
Te mlshaming, the future seat of a pulp-mill operation in one of the
forested sections of the Province of Quebec.
The establishment of towns of this kind—planned deliberately to
maintain a proper balance between the industrial and the agricul­
tural population—is perhaps the most potent means for withdraw­
ing the surplus populations from our congested metropolitan dis­
tricts. This method might well be applied in the case of the city of
Washington before the congestion reaches the overwhelming stage
of the cities of the north and east. Opportunities for doing this
exist in the “ tributary territory,” and their development would be
fundamental in working out a comprehensive system of distribution
through the postal motor service.
If “ community units” were once organized in the city and “ sup­
ply units ” in the rural sections, it would be a comparatively simple
matter to obtain close cooperation between them through the postal
system. But organization and cooperation must go hand in hand.
Judging from experience in England, and from the small beginnings
made in this country, the initiative in this kind of cooperation is
more likely to come from the city than from the rural community.
The city needs help from the country more than the country needs
help from the city. The tendency seems to be for cooperative effort
to extend from the city store backward—first into marketing con­
nections with the farming areas, and finally into the actual agricul­
tural enterprise itself.
Extension of System Throughout the Country.
TTIE extension throughout the United States of the proposed
-®- postal system of distribution would be largely a matter of re­
peating in other centers the methods already described in the case
of the city of Washington. But a new factor would be introduced,
namely, the exchange of produce between the various centers. In
no one region can there be grown all of the food products deemed
necessary for modern civilization. In practically every locality
there would be a deficiency of one or more of the main staples of life.
On the other hand, a large proportion of localities—especially those
in the prairie States—have a surplus of one or more of these staples.
The first process of exchange, under a truly orderly system of dis­
tribution, would be, as far as possible, to supply the deficiencies of
each community in a given city and its “ tributary territory” out of
surplus products grown in the other communities within the same
territory. The scheme for doing this is shown in Figure 4.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[ 226 ]

Fro. 4.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

COOPERATION BETWEEN FARMER AND CONSUMER.

SURPLUS AND DEFICIENCY
OF GIVEN PRODUCTS WITHIN REGION
LEFT AFTER DISTRIBUTION

DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTS WITHIN A REGION

b.

E.

W

Eggs
Wheat (flour)

f—
*

16

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

The two communities marked “ E ” within the city boundary are
assumed to be without an egg supply from the country community
(“ rural supply u n it”) which furnishes them with all other needed
produce. On the other hand, two neighboring supply units (one on
the northeast and the other on the southeast) each have a surplus
of eggs over and above the amount required to feed themselves and
the city units which they normally supply. Each surplus is as­
sumed to be just enough to provide for one community unit (2,500
population). The deficiencies in the egg budget obtaining in these
two city communities are filled, therefore, by the surplus egg crops
from the two rural communities.
Similar exchanges with other staples—wheat and beef—are also
made. These exchanges are negotiated through a central market
and clearing house for the city and tributary region. After all
possible exchanges of this kind have been made within the region
F ig . 5.

there still remain two communities (one urban and one rural) with­
out a beef supply; also in one rural supply unit (on the east) there
remains a surplus of wheat sufficient for two communities. (See
Fig. 4.)
The beef deficiency in this one region would then be filled by a
surplus of beef in another region; and the surplus of wheat would be
sent to a region where a deficiency thereof existed. Interregional
exchanges of this kind would be carried out as indicated in Figure 5,
being negotiated through the several regional clearing houses (or
possibly through some one central office).
How these methods could be applied in actual geographic regions
may now be described. The distribution of possible “ rural supply
units” in the tributary region around Washington is shown on Map 3.
This territory is here divided first into radiating sectors, each of which
includes the land tributary to a main route. Besides these “ route


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[228]

COOPERATION BETWEEN FARMER AND CONSUMER.

17

sectors” there are several roughly circular “ distance belts/’ each
approximately 25 miles wide, crossing the radiating sectors at right
angles.
Since there are in the District of Columbia 182 community units
(of 2,500 persons each) there would be needed 91 rural supply units
(182u2) to provide for them. These 91 units, if actually organized,
would be distributed among the “ route sectors” described and within
M a p 3.—T R IB U T A R Y

T A N C E B E L T S .”
U N IT S .)

T E R R IT O R Y D IV ID E D IN T O “ R O U T E S E C T O R S ” A N D “ D IS ­
(N U M E R A L S IN D IC A T E P O S S IB L E LO C A TIO N O F R U R A L S U P P L Y

he “ distance belts,” in accordance with the distribution of farm land
area available for the city of Washington. (See Map 3.) The method
whereby the 91 supply units in the country would tie up with the 182
city units has been indicated in Figure 3; the method whereby surplus
stocks can be exchanged between the various communities has been
described in connection with Figure 4.
Interregional distribution, as exemplified in Figure 5, may be
illustrated in a possible interregional marketing project presented in
Map 4. This project includes typical centers throughout the United


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[229]

18

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,

Map

States. The tributary territory (or region) around each center is that
within an economic haul by motor truck. A maximum limit of 150
miles (road distance) is assumed, but the radius is usually rendered

much shorter than this by reason of topographic features or in order
to eliminate territory economically tributary to neighboring centers
of equal importance.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[230]

COOPERATION BETWEEN FARMER AND CONSUMER.

19

Transfers of main staples from one region to another might be made
as indicated on the map. These transfers being for long distances
would usually be made by rail, and would be negotiated through the
clearing houses. The region tributary to Washington, though having
sufficient potential arable land to support its population, does not
raise a complete quota of all food staples. No survey has been made
(either for the Washington region or for any of the others indicated)
of actual production and requirements. Such surveys would form
part of the project. Pending these surveys certain transfers are
assumed.
It is assumed that deficiencies of beef in Washington and its
tributary region would be supplied from possible surplus stocks raised
in Kentucky, within the region around Cincinnati. Deficiencies in
pork might be supplied from the northern portion of the same region—
in Ohio. Boston, with its environs, might get its pork supply from
this same locality, but could obtain its beef from Iowa, its wheat from
Minnesota, and its potatoes from northern Maine. These and other
possible transfers indicated on Map 4 are shown merely for purposes
of illustration and not as indicating actual exchanges nor even those
dictated by a strict economy.
Next Steps Suggested.
CYXE line of action which might be suggested as a next step in pro^
moting the policy herein outlined would be to carry on further
education of public opinion as to the possibilities of cooperative dis­
tribution of food supplies in the various regions of the country. This
should be done throughout the nation as a whole. Another line of
action would be to get work started within one or more centers for
achieving concrete results in cooperative organization.
In carrying on activities in any one region—as that around the
city of Washington—the good work already started by the Post
Office Department and other agencies, could be followed up in spe­
cific ways. Perhaps the most effective action would be the develop­
ment of a series of clean-cut working plans for the organization of
“ rural supply units.” One or several definite projects of this kind
would seem to be the most practicable basis for enlisting the interest
of the groups of people who are in a position to take the initiative in
the actual work of the organization needed. These groups, in part at
least, are to be found in the membership of the Federal Employees’
unions and of other labor bodies; they are to be found also among
a large number of professional men and women who are contemplating
some form of organization looking toward the economic betterment of
themselves and the general community in which they live.
Thus “ postal marketing projects” might well be worked out
(around Washington) in one or more of a number of localities—in
Montgomery County, Md.; in Virginia southeast of Fredericksburg; in
the valley of the Shenandoah; in Fairfax County, and elsewhere.
The locality perhaps most immediately promising is in Fairfax
County, Va., north of the Leesburg Pike near Great Falls, where plans
are already under consideration for the development of a farm colony.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[231]

20

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

To illustrate what is meant by a “ postal marketing project,” the
Fairfax locality, just mentioned, might be taken. This project is
shown on Map 5. A proposed “ rural supply u n it” covering about
37,000 acres is shown bordering the Potomac between the Alexandria


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[232]

COOPERATION BETWEEN FARMER AND CONSUMER.

21

From this center two proposed motor-truck routes would start.
These are shown on the map. Route No. 1 would traverse the north
side of the unit and lead into the market district in the northwest
section of the city of Washington. Route No. 2 would traverse the
south side of the unit and lead into the market district in the south­
east section of the city. Each route would supply a “ community
u n it” of 500 families located within the respective market district.
The length of each route is about 42 miles.
The development of such a project would require at the outset a
considerable amount of road improvement. It would require also
much land improvement. If the locality described is typical of
Fairfax County as a whole, only about half of the acreage consists at
present of cultivated farm land, and the possibilities of increasing this
acreage could only be disclosed through a detailed survey and working
plan.
Concrete engineering proposals for the cooperative development of
a few localities in and around a metropolitan center (like Washing­
ton) , similar development for two or three other centers, and arrange­
ments made for exchanges between them—such a policy, persistently
and systematically carried on, could be made gradually to initiate a
new departure in a situation growing steadily more serious. It
would constitute at least one constructive approach toward realizing
a true solution.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[233]

22

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

Two Years of Industrial Legislation in a Large
Clothing Factory
B y O. F . C a r p e n t e r , U n iv e r s it y of W isco n sin .

N 1914 John Leitch “ sold” the idea of “ industrial democracy” to
the management and employees of a large clothing factory in
the Middle West. The shop organization has had all the features
of the Leitch system: A senate, a house of representatives, a cabinet,
and a collective economy dividend.
In his book 1 Leitch assumed “ as settled without argument that
American principles of democracy are right,” and made “ application
of these principles to the government of a factory.” He defined in­
dustrial democracy as “ the organization of any factory or other busi­
ness institution into a little democratic state, with a representative
government which shall have both its legislative and executive
phases.” An examination of the Leitch plan, however, reveals con­
siderable differences between it and the United States Government.
The latter is made up of representatives from one body—the citizens
of the Republic. Representatives, Senators, President, all come from
and represent the same great constituency, while in industry there
are capital and labor to be represented. Leitch met this dualism by
giving the employees a house of representatives and by giving the
management a Senate and cabinet.
The Government of the United States was designed to promote
deliberation and to prevent quick action. Each house of legislation
acts as a check upon the other; each department of Government acts
as a check upon another department; so that our Government has
been characterized as a system of checks and balances. Industry,
on the other hand, must have action—prompt action—and output.
The question arises: Can a form of government that “ balances”
authority and promotes deliberation rather tlihn action be appropri­
ated for industry with its need of prompt settlement of disputed
questions ?
Leitch simply added a “ legislative” to the already existing “ ex­
ecutive” phase of shop government. As regards the popular branch
of the organization, legislation becomes the major problem, the work­
ing out of which involves two things: (a) Evolving a method of legis­
lation, and (6) creating a form of government suited to that method.
The tense labor situation that began with the spring of 1918 and
held throughout 1919 brought to this shop its critical period and
forced a solution of these problems. There arose in acute form the
questions of wages and hours, of the form of government, of methods
of adjusting grievances, besides a multitude of grievances covering
every imaginable phase of the bonus question. The machinery for
adjusting grievances was clumsy and at this time clogged up; for up
to this time grievances had to be acted upon by the house, passed on
to the senate, and then on to the cabinet before a settlement could
be effected. If the senate refused to concur, there followed a delay
while the differences between the two houses were being ironed out.

I

1 L eitch , John.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

M an to Man.

T he sto ry of in d u stria l dem ocracy.

[234]

New Y ork, 1919, 249 pp.

INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION IN A CLOTHING FACTORY.

If

23

It was a slow process at best, and this was a time that brooked no
delays. Both sides recognized that the “ industrial democracy” had
to be speeded up. When, therefore, a suggestion was made to the
house, April 16, 1918, that a wage rate committee be selected and
given full power to take up with the management directly complaints
about wage and bonus payments and settle them, it found a ready
response, and at a special meeting the next day the house agreed to
create such a committee. A wage-rate committee, consisting of one
member from each department, was then made one of the permanent
committees of the house.
All the accumulated complaints were turned over to the new com­
mittee. For one whole year the committee busied itself investigat­
ing individual cases. The company was anxious to adjust these com­
plaints satisfactorily to the employees and willingly cooperated to
that end. But it proved a never-ending job, for while the committee
was investigating and settling one case there was another case—
sometimes two or three cases—added to the waiting list. The year’s
experience taught the committee that the way to handle a multitude
of individual cases is to classify them and then make regulations for
each class.
High-Cost-of-Living Bonus Converted into Wage Increase.
TN January, 1918, the management introduced a high-cost-of-living
-1 bonus, which was intended to be the means of keeping wages in
step with the cost of living. The amount of this bonus, which was to
be varied from month to month on the basis of Bradstreet’s index
number, was put into a separate envelope so that employees would
not confuse it with their regular wages. This seems to have com­
plicated the bonus system. The production bonus was the successor
of the old collective economy dividend, which was a group incentive
plan. At this time there were four classes of production bonuses,
based upon the per cent of the “ standard tim e” used in completing
the task. Thus, for example, employees who performed a given task
in from 130 to 115 per cent of the standard time were put in class 1;
from 115 to 100 per cent of standard tune, in class 2; from 100 to 85
per cent, in class 3; 85 per cent and lower, in class 4. The house
had voted its approval of the high-cost-of-living bonus, but it made
the bonus system top heavy. The dissatisfaction which developed
soon crystallized into a demand for converting the bonus into a
wage increase.
On July 30, 1918, the wage-rate committee proposed to the man­
agement that a, 12 per cent increase in wages be substituted for the
high-cost-of-living bonus. At the following meeting of the house a
representative of the company appeared to explain why this addi­
tional bonus had been granted instead of an increase in wages. The
house took no action at this meeting, as it is the policy of each side
to try first to come to an understanding with the other side before
taking action, but at the next meeting a bill was passed providing
for the wage increase. The house accompanied this bill with a state­
ment of its intention to ask for wage increases from time to time to
correspond to the rising cost of living. The senate and cabinet con­
curred in the action of the house.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[235]

\

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

24

Result of One Test of Industrial Democracy.
TYURING the summer of 1918 the International Ladies Garment
U
Workers established their union in many factories of the city.
The union organizers look with no more favor upon Leitch’s “ in­
dustrial democracy” than upon the “ Rockefeller plan.” They tried
to organize this factory along with the others. They engaged the
employees in conversation and asked them all kinds of questions
about their “ industrial democracy,” their bonuses, and their wages.
When an employee ^mentioned his wage rates, the organizer would
tell him about the rates in New York and would compare in dollars
and cents the value to the worker of “ industrial democracy” and
the union. If an employee got tangled up in trying to explain his
bonus system, the organizer “ kidded” him about it, and wondered
if he wouldn’t like to have a system he could understand. The
union won but very few sympathizers, but among these was a mem­
ber of the house. There were a number of questions pending be­
tween the employees and the firm, and the union activity helped
bring them to a focus. There had to be action, and a joint discussion
of the situation took place before the house.
The spokesman for the employees reminded the management of
the constantly rising cost of living and the hardships it was imposing
upon the workers. The workers, he continued, not only had to
support themselves and families but were also being constantly
solicited for subscriptions to Liberty bond issues and the many other
voluntary war activities. Then, too, there was the higher wages
in New York. Were they not worthy of as good wages as the gar­
ment workers in New York?
To this the spokesman for the management replied in substance:
You should take the seasonal character of the industry in New
York into consideration when comparing the wages paid in the two
cities. This company by careful planning and with your coopera­
tion has circumvented this seasonal character of our industry and
can provide steady employment the year round. The New York
firms, not having made these arrangements, are obliged to take
orders when they come and shut down when the season ends. This
means periods of unemployment for the workers there. If you com­
pare your annual wages with the annual wages of the New York
clothing workers, you will find that your wages average more than
theirs. No doubt the employees in New York have increased their
hourly and daily rates by resorting to strikes. But these very
strikes bring chaos into the industry there, manufacturers are
unable to avoid seasonal shut-downs, and what the employees gain
by the strike they lose again during the long periods of unemploy­
ment. The situation in New York can be duplicated here if the
employees will it, by substituting the method of the strike for the
method of cooperation. The greater the stability of the firm the
more prosperous it is and the better able to pay wages to its em­
ployees. When the clothing workers strike in New York, the firms
there are at a disadvantage with the firms, not tied up, elsewhere.
This firm has had the advantage over their New York competitors,
has not had to shut down, and has been paying the greatest annual


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[236]

INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION IN A CLOTHING FACTORY.

25

wage. If a strike comes, the situation will be reversed. The com­
pany will be at a disadvantage with competitors, will lose trade,
will have all plans for stabilizing the industry upset, and will probably
have to bow to the seasonal fluctuations. You are partners in the
good or bad fortunes of the industry. You have your choice of
alternatives.
After the close of the discussion the house refused any sanction to
strike, and condemned the union for “ threatening to call a strike
without our approval.” The wage rate committee was instructed
to hasten the two proposals which it was handling, namely, a revision
of the rate schedules, and the transfer, which has already been de­
scribed, of the high-cost-of-living bonus to the regular pay envelope.
The union called a strike. A few of the employees joined the
strike in spite of the action of the house, but, so far as this firm was
concerned, the strike was inconsequential. However, when the
house found out that one of its members sympathized with the
union it promptly expelled him. Later the company discharged
this ex-member of the house and another employee. When the
union leaders heard about these dismissals they had the company
haled before the War Labor Board on charges of discrimination
against trade-unionists. If the union had succeeded in establishing
a case against the firm, it would have been ground for bringing the
company under the award of the War Labor Board. This would
have meant, practically, the adjournment of the “ industrial de­
mocracy.”
Neither the management nor the house desired to see this happen.
The case was long drawn out and stubbornly fought, though the
company did not make out a very strong case for itself. It had
dismissed these employees for making trouble, but the union and
dismissed employees replied that it was merely another case of malice
toward trade-unionists. The company might have lost the case if
a delegation from the house had not defended these dismissals
before the War Labor Board upon the ground of disloyalty to the
existing organization in the shop. They told the board that the
employees had the kind of organization that the great majority of
them wanted, and that they had the same right to expect loyalty
to their organization that the union had to exact it from union
members. They told the board, further, that they wished to con­
tinue to settle their affairs directly with the company, and protested
vigorously against being brought under the award.
The company was not brought .under the award, but there was a
general feeling that it had had a narrow escape. The house dis­
cussed the matter and concluded that, since such controversies
involve the house as well as the firm, the company should not take
future actions of this kind without first getting the approval of the
house. The house concluded, also, that the handling of grievances
should be speeded up, so it submitted two proposals to the senate
and the cabinet, one providing for joint action in discharging
employees, and the other providing that all grievances respecting
wages, hours, and bonuses be handled by the wage rate committee
without previous reference to the employment department. Both
proposals were concurred in by the senate and the cabinet.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[237]

26

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

Tlie union, had charged that the house was dominated by the com­
pany. The company executives had frequently participated in dis­
cussions before the house, as they are doing in other Leitch
organizations, i t is not affirmed that this accusation of the union
had any influence on the subsequent action of the house, but, at any
rate, a resolution was adopted soon afterwards that company repre­
sentatives be permitted to be present only upon the invitation of the
chairman of the house, and that they be required to retire imme­
diately after their remarks. The aggressive temper of the house was
shown again a little later by its dismissal of the betterment com­
mittee and the appointment of a new one because it was convinced
that the old committee was not doing its duty.
Revision of the Constitution.
rriHE annual elections took place about October 1, 1918. Sentiment
-L was strong for a revision of the constitution and a simplification
of the government. When the house reorganized on October 8 the
president advocated larger powers for the house and its further
separation from the management. He urged the house to have its
own secretary and treasurer and pay them out of its own funds. _ Two
weeks later a committee was appointed to revise the constitution.
The revised constitution was submitted to the house on November
26, 1918. I t provided a house of representatives to deal directly
with the management and abolished the senate. The factory or­
ganization had begun with one house—the senate. Six months
later the house of representatives and the cabinet were added. But
the senate had proved a failure as a legislative body, although it had
served its purpose as a training school. Now the organization was
again to be a one-house affair, but the employees’ house. The new
constitution was adopted by the house and approved by the senate
and cabinet. The old system had not provided the expected direct
contact of the management with the employees. The senate was
always a buffer. The management now has a planning board of six
members through which it deals with the house. This board meets
twice a week and keeps in close touch with the house committees.
By such consultation and cooperation it is possible for the house to
know the management’s position on proposals that are submitted to
it by the committees.
Revision of Wage Rates—Physical Examination of Workers.
T irH IL E the house was busy with the revision of the constitution,
*^ the wage rate committee was preparing a revision of the rates.
The work of the committee had been hampered both by the previous
method of revising rates, which was not abandoned until August,
1918, and by the uncertainty of the outcome of the controversy
with the War Labor Board. If the company had been brought
under the award, the employees would have been bound by the
rates specified in the award, and the wage rate committee would
have been powerless until its expiration. As soon as assurances
came that their desire to remain independent would be respected, the
committee began preparing the new. schedules.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[238]

INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION IN A CLOTHING FACTORY.

27

For the purpose of this revision employees were classified according
to the degree of difficulty of the operations they performed, e. g.,
(1) most difficult, (2) difficult, (3) medium, and (4) simple. After
applying the classification in a few of the departments, the com­
mittee decided to have the foremen and superintendents do the rest
of the classifying of employees, but reserved to itself the right to
review individual classifications upon complaints by the operators.
The committee and planning board reached an agreement also that
any person who is changed to a different operation shall receive his
old rates for three days after the change.
The wage rate committee submitted the new rate schedules and
agreements to the house, where they were adopted. The senate gave
its last approval to a wage bill, and the rates and agreements then
became effective.
The question of physical examinations for new employees came
before the house and was approved in January, 1919. The fear that
such examinations will become an economic hindrance to those
found defective seems to pass away as employees feel themselves
strong enough to prevent abuses. Nothing else of importance seems
to have been done by the house during the winter.
The 44-hour Week.
T H E spring of 1919 opened with the 44-hour week as the major
issue. The Amalgamated Garment Workers of Chicago and the
International Ladies Garment Workers of New York had won easy
victories, and the drive for the shorter week was on everywhere.
On April 8, 1919, the chairman of the house appointed a special
committee to investigate the problems incident to introducing the
shorter week in the shop. The committee was ready with its report
the following week.
The report emphasized at the outset that reduction in hours
should not be permitted to result in reduced production. Such a
reduction, if it should occur through the whole range of industry,
the committee argued, would inevitably be a factor in the further
advancement of prices, the final outcome of which would mean a
virtual reduction of income to the workers as the result of the
shorter hours and curtailed production. Since the workers’ aspira­
tions for higher standards of living are connected with efficient
production, and also with the prosperity of the industry, the report
emphasized the mutual responsibility of management and employees
for the improvement of processes and the reduction of costs. The
most important of the recommendations of the committee may be
summed up as follows:
(a) That hours be reduced from 48 to 44 without diminution in
pay.
(b) That a 44-hour committee he appointed by the house to see
that the rules governing the introduction of the 44-hour week be
carried out and that employees cooperate in maintaining the pre­
vious standard of production.
(c) That there be no work on Saturdays; however, operators who
fall below the permanent standards of production may be required
to work on Saturdays at the regular rates.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[239]

28

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,

id) Regular overtime to all those who work on Saturdays, ex­
cept those mentioned in (c).
The recommendations were adopted by the house and approved
by the planning board.
The good results of the cooperation of . the management and
44-hour committee in the introduction of the shorter week suggested
the idea of having a subcommittee of the wage rate committee meet
with the heads of the standards department and note the methods
of taking time studies and arriving at final standards, on which the
bonus system is based. With this intimate contact the house is
able to take more effective action on bonus questions that arise,
while the management, as a result of this consultation and co­
operation, is enabled to introduce its standards with more assurance
of success.
Revision of the Bonus Rates,

the meantime the union renewed its attack on the company and
IN the
“ industrial democracy.” The bonus system was denounced
as a device on the part of the capitalist owners to speed up the
employees for the sake of profits, and the employees were warned
that such speeding up meant premature old age and shortened lives
for them. The accusation of the union came in for considerable
discussion at the next meeting and both the house and the com­
pany agreed that there should be an investigation to settle this
controversy one way or the other. A physiologist from Johns Hop­
kins was engaged to come and make the investigation. Consid­
erable interest was manifested in the shop over this investigation
and the subsequent report. Certain measures, like extension of the
medical and dental service and improved equipments, were recom­
mended in the report, but the charge that the bonus system was
working injury to health and shortening the lives of employees was
not sustained.
The controversy helped to bring the bonus question again to the
forefront. The union had struck at the psychological hour when
the company was revising the wage and bonus rates to conform to
the 44-hour agreement. In the hurried recalculations of all these
rates it was inevitable that errors would be made. Complaints
about the bonuses were numerous and of every description, but
this time instead of taking up individual cases, the wage rate com­
mittee went to the source of the trouble and collaborated with the
planning board in devising a schedule that would be more satisfa< J .
3r the agreement there was to be no reduction of any kind in
weekly rates in the transition to the 44-hour week. None of the
employees were willing to take a penny less. This temper the plan­
ning board did not seem to appreciate as keenly as it might at first,
and so when it submitted the new bonus schedule providing in­
creases for the first three classes1 but a reduction of 4 cents a week
on the fourth-class bonus, the committee promptly returned the
schedule with its disapproval. The planning board sent back word


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1F o r ex p lan atio n of classes, see page —.

[240]

INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION IN A CLOTHING FACTORY.

29

that the bonus rates would be “ gone over again.” Four proposals
were submitted to the committee at its next meeting. In all four
proposals the second and third class bonuses were the same
amount. The alternatives lay with the first and fourth class
bonuses. The first two proposals offered less than the existing
weekly rate for the fourth-class bonus; the fourth proposal offered
less for the first-class bonus. The committee chose the third pro­
posal, which provided increases for the first, second, and third class
bonuses, and the existing rate for the fourth class. Obviously, the
committee acted upon the principle of the greatest good to the
greatest number.
The old and new bonus rates stood as follows: Old bonus, 48-hour
week: First class, $1.92; second class, $2.88; third class, $4.32;
fourth class, $5.76; new bonus, 44-hour week: First class, $2.20second class, $3.08; third class, $4.40; fourth class, $5.76.
This settled the production bonuses. But on the heels of this
settlement the management came forward with another bonus
proposal—a service bonus. I t was to be based on the length of
continuous service with the company. The wage rate committee
was asked t.o prepare the new schedule of rates. After two weeks’
consideration the committee submitted the following schedule,
which was approved by the management:
W eekly
bonus.

3 to 5 years of continuous service.....................................................$0. 50
5 to 10 years of continuous service................................................... "l. 00
10 to 15 years of continuous service................................................. 2. 00
15 years and up of continuous service.............................................. 3. 00

When these new schedules had been approved by the house they
were posted in the shop, as is the_custom. The employees were then
able to figure out to what their service and production bonuses
would amount. Some of the workers who were certain that they
were going to get service bonuses were disappointed and complained
to the committee. The committee began an investigation and found
out that the difficulty had its source in the strikes of 1911 and 1918.
The company took the position that those who struck had terminated
their service records at that point and that when they came back
their period of service began anew.
The committee was made the arbiter of the case. The question
was, Did these strikes interrupt the continuous-service records of the
strikers ? Each side presented its contentions. The committee’s
decision sustained the company. The committee then requested
that the service records of all employees be put at its disposal for
investigating further grievances that might arise under this bonus.
Adjustment of Miscellaneous Complaints.

’TOATH the bonus question practically settled for the time, the
Y’ committee turned to the numerous complaints that had accu­
mulated respecting wage rates and time studies. Profiting by its
experience, the committee decided to waive individual cases and
have each department prepare a list of all its grievances. The oppor­
tunity seems to have appealed to several of the departments, as they
submitted long bills of particulars. Some of the lists contained from
2386°—20----3

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[241]

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

30

35 to 40 grievances.
are noted:

What appear to be the 10 leading grievances

1. Wages too low.
2. Standards too high; too few workers measure up to them, and consequently
bonuses are difficult to earn.
3. Lack of uniformity in wages.
4. Bonuses are lost whenever new operations come in with changing styles.
5. Work not ready when workers call for it.
6. No time allowance for heavier garments.
7. Too long delays in attending to complaints.
8. Long delays at route boards.
9. Time allowances insufficient.
10. Losses in both wages and bonuses from transfers from one operation to another.

The committee then hit upon the idea of sending these bills of
complaints to the management. This served to give the committee
both sides of the controversy and, at the same time, to introduce the
management to conditions and opinions in the departments. The
management promptly replied with great detail. Many of the com­
plaints were frankly acknowledged as valid and remediable, and
promises were given that the causes for same would be removed and
the existing grievances adjusted. Detailed explanation of the
policies of the company smoothed out other grievances and showed
that still others were unavoidable under the conditions and limita­
tions of the industry. In the case of the long bill of grievances, the
committee accepted in toto the management’s response.
Further Revision of Wage Rates.
WWITH the situation thus clarified and simplified the committee
VY began the task of revising the rates. The workers were classi­
fied on the basis of “ operations in the departments.” Four classes
were formed, named in a descending scale of difficulty, A, B, C, and D.
On July 15, 1919, the revised schedule of rates for women and girls
was submitted to the house and made known among the employees
affected. Dissatisfaction developed and the committee reconsidered
its action. The second schedule showed many revisions in favor of
employees, ranging from a few cents to $1.50 per week. A comparison
of this with the preceding October’s schedule shows increases ranging
from $3 to $4 per week.
At the conclusion of its session on July 15, 1919, the committee
notified the finishers, cutters, estimators, and sample tailors to have
their representatives on hand the next day to present their cases.
July 16 was a lively day. It was men’s day. Representatives from
all the departments invited were before the committee with their
“ kicks,” with their “ facts and figures,” with “ proofs” and “ argu­
ments” on their need of higher wages. There was competition
among the departments for the higher rating and higher rates, and
some evidences of jealousy. The cutters led off with the statement
that they were getting the worst of it all round. One of their repre­
sentatives said: “ We have everything to lose and nothing to gain.”
The cutters were the most skilled and valuable workers in the shop,
he said, but there was no recognition of it in the pay envelope. The
representative of the estimators entirely disagreed with. that. _He
wanted to know, if cutting was such a highly technical and skilled
operation, why the cutters were always so anxious to get back to


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[242]

INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION IN A CLOTHING FACTORY.

31

cutting again when they were transferred to the estimators’ depart­
ment ? The estimators were the real people of the shop and deserved
the higher rating, he concluded. Then came the representative of
ho affirmed that his department contained the
The fact that the sample tailors had to make
the whole garment and make it right proved that their work was the
most exacting and the most valuable. See what losses the company
would suffer if it were not for the great skill of the sample tailors.
This was too much for the estimators whose representative inter­
rupted to point out what great losses the firm would suffer if they
should make miscalculations. And so it went back and forth that
day, a striking picture of group struggle within the ranks of the
proletariat itself.
After these representatives had presented the respective cases
(and judgments), the committee excused them and called in repre­
sentatives of the company to get the management’s rating of these
departments as to skill. The committee was in doubt about the
comparative skill of cutters and estimators, and questioned very
closely the company officials on this point. The conclusion reached
by the committee was that cutters and estimators were equally
skilled and rated them so. The committee was inclined to rate the
pressers slightly lower than the cutters, but as the company had been
paying the same rates for both, that rating was not disturbed.
The wage schedules and recommendations of the wage rate com­
mittee were submitted to the house of representatives, which ap­
proved them. The management then gave its approval, and the
new wage rates went into effect on July 23, 1919.
Allowances for Learning Time,
remained the question of “ allowances for learning time.”
»men new operations are introduced, the question arises as to
who shall pay for the time necessary to learn the new operation and
as to how much time shall be allowed. There was some dissatisfac­
tion with the existing time allowances, so the wage rate committee
set out to prepare a definite schedule of “learning time” for the various
kinds of operations.
The committee developed a schedule through actual tests in one
department, and then tried its schedule in the other d e p a r t m e n ts .
When the schedule had been proved by tests, the committee and
management embodied it in the following agreement:
1. Three times standard operation for the first day, two times the second day, and
one and one-half the third day, when an employee is given a new operation.
2. Twice the standard time is allowed when, after 10 days or more, an operator is
transferred back to former operation.
3. Operators transferred to lower grade of work are to be given one day to come up
to normal. Twice the standard time is allowed for this day.
4. No learning time is to be allowed when the new operation requires less work or
is easier than the operation it displaces, nor when new styles require same operation as
in vogue.
5. Operators able to perform, in standard time, those new operations for which
learning time is allowed are to receive 5 cents an hour in lieu of learning time allowance.

This agreement was sanctioned by the house and by the planning
board.
The records of the house show a great falling off in the number of
complaints after these several schedules went into effect. The wage

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[243]

32

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

rate committee had met the problems and, on the whole, satisfactorily
disposed of them.
Employees Desire a “ H and” as Well as a “ Voice” in Manage­
ment.
shop organization was constructed upon the theory that what
THISemployees
desire is a “voice” in their own affairs, a chance to

“talk” and “ air” their grievances. The house of representatives
was designed particularly to serve this purpose. But a study of the
records of these two years shows clearly that this group of employees
desire a “hand” in their own affairs as well as a “ voice.”
Throughout the whole process of changes that have been passed
in review there has been a progressively increasing participation by
the employees in the making of policies and decisions that vitally
concern them. The establishment of a wage rate committee marked
the triumph of collective bargaining over the earlier policy of a
collective economy dividend. With the passing of the senate, the
house of representatives completed its evolution from a house of
suggestion to a house of legislation. To-day the president of the
house is a member of the planning board. In noting this gradual
increase in the power and responsibilities of the employees, it should
be remarked that the management has welcomed and encouraged
this development.
The growing power of the employees is revealed again in the matter
of discharges. When the case before the War Labor Board was
pending the company agreed with the house not to discharge employees
thereafter without first consulting the latter. Since the then manage­
ment and house have adopted a set of rules prescribing the offenses
that justify discharges. Now when the company wishes to discharge
an employee it must go before the betterment committee (a standing
committee of the house) and prove that the employee is guilty of one
of these offenses. This committee is the jury in the case and decides
the facts. The company must drop the action for discharge if the
committee decides that the case has not been proved. But if the
company wins, the employee may appeal to the board of review, upon
which the house and management have equal voting power.
The necessities for prompt action in this clothing shop soon demon­
strated the cumbersomeness of the machinery and methods borrowed
from our Federal Government. Yet it should be recalled that the
Leitch plan, while having the form of the United States Government,
does not embody all its principles of representation. The changes
that have augmented the power of the employees have been, at the
same time, in the direction of direct and continuous contact of manage­
ment and people. The legislative policy is still adhered to, but joint
conferences precede legislative action. Legislative action becomes
more a matter of ratification under this arrangement, although the
house has the right to proceed independently.
This method of shop direction is proving a great school of experience
for the employees, and for the management also. There is no
denying the fact that this organization has to its credit a record of
substantial achievement and that it is entitled to distinction among
those who are introducing popular government in industry.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[244]

33

INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION IN A CLOTHING FACTORY,
A p p e n d ix .

The following table gives the rates for male and female workers,
effective July 23, 1919, the old rates, and the rates paid for similar
work in the same city:
OLD AN D N E W W A G E R A T E S P A ID B Y A L A R G E C L O T H IN G F A C T O R Y IN T H E M ID D L E
W E S T C O M PA R ED W IT H R A T E S P A ID F O R SIM IL A R W O R K IN SAM E C IT Y U N D E R
W AR LABOR BOARD AW ARD.

Males.
Old rate.

New rate.

Grade.

O peration.

A
B

Pressing a n d finishing....................................................

c

Fore a n d m ach in e............................................................

A
B
C

O perating:
F u ll sk illed .................................................................
Sem iskilled................................................................
C u ttin g ................... ...........................................................

A
B
A
B
A
B

H our.

W eek.

H our.

$0.73
.71
. 654
.654
.60
. 54J-

$32.12
31.24
28. 82
28.82
26.40
23.98

$0.85
.794
.73
.73

.654

28.82

.73

32.12

W eekly
rates under
W ar Labor
Board
Week.
aw ard.
$35.00
34.00
31.00
30.00
28.00

.63

$37.40
34.98
32.12
32.12
29.92
27.72

.82
.774
.69"
. 6I 4
.85*

36.08
34.10
30.36
27.06
37.40

36.00
34.00
30.00
27.00
37.00
35.00
33.00
29.00
25.00
23.00
38.00
38.00
34.00
25.00

.68

f

E stim a tin g .........................................................................
P a tte rn grading......................................... .....................
Sam ple tailo rin g ...............................................................
Minor operations..............................................................

A
A
A

.79
.79
. 654

34.76
34.76
28.82

$0.48
.424
.384
.35
.46
.434
. 404
.37
.35
.31
. 35
.31
.35
.31
.274
.294
.274
.294
.2 7 |
.344
.414
.49
.414

$21. 12
18. 70
16.94
15.40
20. 24
19.14
17. 82
16. 28
15.40
13. 64
15.40
13. 64
15. 40
13. 64

1 .91
1 .91

1 40.04
1 40.04

.82
.57

36.08
25.08

Females.
M achine o p e ra tin g .......................................................................
D o..................................................................................
D o..................................................................................
D o .............................. ...................................................
H a n d w o rk .........................................................................
B a stin g lin in g ....................................................................
d o t ..........r ..................................................................................
Do ................................................................................
F elling lin in g ..................................................................................
D o .................................................................................................

A
B
C
D
A
A
B
C
A
B
A
B
A

D o ! ...............................................................................................
B u tto n sewing (m a c h in e ) .......................................................
B u tto n sew in g (h a n d ).. .........................................................
Cleaning .............................................................................................
A
B ench w ork (p in ) ........................................................................
Do
......................................................................................
B
M arking .............................................................................................
A
B
D o “. . .
....................................................................
C utting, assem blers’................................................................... \ ............
P in-tick etersfitters’....................................................................
A
Pressing—p a rts ..............................................................................
B
Do .................................................................................................
C
D o .................................................................................................

$0. 57
• 514
• 374
.42
.55
. 53
. 474
. 44
.42
. 384
. 42
.384
.42
. 384
12.10
.3 2 '
12. 98
.35
12.10
.32
12. 98
.35
12.10
.32
15.18
.42
18. 26
.57
21.56
.53
.474
18. 26

$25. 08
22 . 66
20. 90
IS. 48
24. 20
23. 32
20. 90
19.36
18. 48
16.94
18.48
16.94
18.48
16. 94
14.08
15.40
14. 08
15. 40
14. 08
18.48
25.08
23.32
20.90

$25.00
24. 00

$14.08
15.40
16. 94
18.48

$12.00
14.00
15. 50
17.00

20.00

18.00
23.00
20.00

18.50
17.00
18. 50
17.00
18.50
17. 00

23.00
20.00

Minima on all operations.
F irst th ree m onths .........................................................
Second th ree m o n th s.......................................................
T hird th re e m o n th s.........................................................
F o u rth th re e m o n th s............... .......................................


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

$0. 274
.31

$12.10
13. 64

.35

15. 40

i Includes 6 cents bonus,

[245]

$0.32
.35
.384
.42

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS.
Labor Principles, of the National Association of
M anufacturers.1
HE twenty-fifth annual convention of the National Association of
Manufacturers was held in New York City in May, 1920. At
this convention the association took definite action on two fun­
damental problems confronting the people: (1) Adopting a platform for
American industry to be submitted to both the Republican and Demo­
cratic national conventions, and (2) declaring th at “ we are in hearty
accord with all sensible efforts to reduce prices of commodities, and,
to that end, we urge our members to cooperate in all reasonable efforts
to bring about that result.” This action, it is stated, places behind
the movement to reduce the cost of essentials of living an organiza­
tion with a membership of 5,700 of the leading manufacturers of the
country, employing more than 6,000,000 workers and producing
between 75 and 80 per cent of the total output of the manufactured
products in this country.
The platform adopted by the convention is subdivided under the
heads, Government and industry, Regulation of combinations,
Private employment relations, Taxation and finance, Transporta­
tion, Immigration, Merchant marine, Foreign trade, and War bonus.
There are a number of references to relations between employers
and employees and these are quoted in full as follows:

T

Regulation of combinations.—The right to organize and act in combination, whether
by employer or employee, corporation or union, is relative and not absolute. It ends
where injury to the public interest begins. This principle has been widely applied
to the business combinations during a quarter century of regulation. The public
interest now demands that it be equally applied, fairly but firmly, to all combinations.
The right to strike or lockout, which is merely an exercise of the right to act in
combination, must be defined and limited wherever it conflicts with the community’s
paramount right of self-preservation. * * *
The public interest requires that the possession and exercise of power through com­
bination shall be accompanied by corresponding responsibility. Every association,
whether of employers or employees, must be equally subject to public authority and
legally answerable for its own conduct and that of its agents.
The life of government is its power to function. The right of Government employees
to adequate hearing and just and generous treatment must be amply protected, but
the right of such employees to combine or stop or obstruct the operation of Government
does not exist.
The paramount common interest in continuous public utility service empowers and
obligates the Government to control all combination to paralyze or obstruct it and re­
quires the ultimate submission of disputes threatening the interruption, of such service
to impartial adjudication without depriving the community of it.
To preserve equality before the law, the same principles of conduct must apply to
all classes of citizens under like circumstances. To make or propose to make it right
and lawful for one class of citizens to do that which is unlawful or criminal when done
i D ata ta k e n from A m erican In d u stries for Ju n e, 1920, N ew Y ork C ity, p p . 7-12.

34


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[246]

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS.

35

by another class, or to prohibit or pretend to prohibit the use of public funds to en­
force any law against an excepted group of possible offenders, is vicious. It should be
condemned in principle and offending enactments repealed.
Private employment relations.- Quickened industrial production is essential to
national prosperity. To obtain it requires the successful cooperation of management
and men through right employment relations. Such relations are not made by legis­
lation. They are a human growth and not a manufacture.
The parties must be free to make and maintain their own relationship, individually
or collectively, m such form as is mutually satisfactory and in accordance with the
size, nature, and varying circumstance of each particular establishment.
It is the primary duty of government to protect each person in his liberty to select
and pursue any lawful business or occupation without molestation, to freely further
Ins interest by legitimate agreements to be secure in the reward of his effort. The right
to seek and establish employment relations with each other without respect to the
membership or nonmembership of either in any organization is an essential part of
the personal freedom of employer and employee.
The necessary regulation of employment relations in public service, an undeniable
held of governmental authority, may profitably indicate through the experience thus
deni ed the manner and extent through which further public approach may be made
with practical success in the region of private employment disputes, seriously affect­
ing the operation of industries upon which the life of'the community depends. Fail­
ure to perform the plain duty to enforce public order has often permitted slight dis­
turbances from these causes to assume serious proportions. A great step forward will
be the general realization and acceptance by employer and employee of the social
responsibility of their business or job.
Immigration. We believe it is in the interest of the nation to replace our present
unsystematic control of the alien with a constructive policy of selective immigration.
The general prohibition of immigration is the counsel of bigotry or selfishness.
Ourselves a nation of immigrants and descendants of immigrants, we ought, in the
woids of Madison, to welcome every “ person of good fame that really meant to incorpoiate himself into our society,” but repel all who will not be “ a real addition to the
v ealth or strength of the United States.” To this end, we should effectively exclude
the diseased, the criminal, the defective, those likely to become a charge on the
public, any who oppose all forms of government or who would overthrow this Republic
or eftect political change by force.
Our policy should distinguish the requirements for admission from those for natu­
ralization, demanding a working knowledge of English and a practical understanding
of our form of government, as a prerequisite to citizenship, and surrounding the bestowal
of that high privelege with appropriate ceremonial.
. Through official foreign agencies of our own we should systematically secure accurate
information of the character and qualification of alien applicants for admission and to
the fullest extent practicable approve or reject them before embarkation. We should
supervise the distribution of the immigrant through systematized, official and private
cooperation and accurately acquaint them with employment opportunities that both
the agricultural and industrial needs of the nation may be met. Through the same
agencies the processes of assimilation may be greatly aided. When the desire and
qualification of the alien for citizenship is fully established, naturalization should be
facilitated through uniform Federal legislation.
War bonus.—The simplest considerations of justice and gratitude require generous
provision for the dependents of those who died for their country. Speedy and ade­
quate relief in terms ox their immediate need should be provided for those in whole
or part physically incapacitated for military service and for their dependents.
We favor reasonable governmental assistance to those serving in the Army or Navy
during the Great War, who may make application for and prove their need of such
assistance, because of direct loss arising from their military service.
Our permanent public policy toward the soldiers and sailors of the Great War should
be one of aid extended in such manner as to make those who require or seek it selfsustaining. Educational opportunities, whether technical or general, and the chance
to build and acquire homes on Government land should be open to them on the most
favorable terms. The general and indiscriminate distribution of a cash bonus is not
justifiable. It would tend to lessen the inspiration and debase the motive of national
service. It would be a positive harm to many individuals, and at this critical time
would dangerously overstrain our heavily burdened economic structures.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[247]

36

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

Declaration of Labor Principles.
TN THIS connection it is pertinent to include the declaration of labor
principles adopted by the National Association of Manufacturers
in 1919 and published in succeeding issues of American Industries:
1. Fair dealing is the fundamental and basic principle on which relations between
employers and employees should rest.
2. The National Association of Manufacturers is not opposed to organizations of
labor as such, but it is unalterably opposed to boycotts, blacklists, and other illegal
acts of interference with the personal liberty of employer or employee.
3. No person should be refused employment or in any way discriminated against
on account of membership or nonmembership in any labor organization, and there
should be no discriminating against or interference with any employee who is not a
member of a labor organization by members of such organizations.
4. With due regard to contracts, it is the right of the employee to leave his employ­
ment whenever he sees fit, and it is the right of the employer to discharge any em­
ployee when he sees fit.
5. Employers must be free to employ their work people at wages mutually satis­
factory, without interference or dictation on the part of individuals or organizations
not directly parties to such contracts.
6. Employers must be unmolested and unhampered in the management of their
business, in determining the amount and quality of their product, and in the use of
any methods or systems of pay which are just and equitable.
' 7. In the interest of employees and employers of the country, no limitation should
be placed upon the opportunities of any person to learn any trade to which he or she
may be adapted.
8. The National Association of Manufacturers disapproves absolutely of strikes and
lockouts, and favors an equitable adjustment of all differences between employers
and employees, by any amicable method that will preserve the rights of both parties.
9. Employees have the right to contract for their services in a collective capacity,
but any contract that contains a stipulation that employment should be denied to
men not parties to the contract is an invasion of the constitutional rights of the Ameri­
can workman, is against public policy, and is in violation of the conspiracy laws. This
association declares its unalterable antagonism to the closed shop, and insists that the
doors of no industry be closed against American workmen because of their member­
ship or nonmembership in any labor organization.
10. The National Association of Manufacturers pledges itself to oppose any and all
legislation not in accord with the foregoing declaration.

Plan for Settlement of Jurisdictional Claims in
the Building Industry.
T ITS annual convention in 1919 the Building Trades Depart­
ment of the American Federation of Labor adopted a plan to
settle disputes over work that is claimed by more than one
building trade. This is effected through a board known as the
National Board for Jurisdictional Awards in the Building Industry
“ to hear claims for jurisdiction over work performed by building
trades, and to determine by which trade the work in contention
shall be performed and to make an award in conformity with the
facts submitted by the contendents.” No sympathetic strike
because of a jurisdictional claim is permitted. The board has been
functioning for some months and has rendered a number of decisions.
I t consists of eight members, three selected by the Building Trades
Department of the American Federation of Labor and one each by
the American Institute of Architects, the Engineering Council, the

A


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[248]

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS.

37

Associated General Contractors of America, the National Association
of Builders’ Exchanges, and the National Building Trades Employers’
Association. The headquarters of the board are in Washington,
D. C. The following excerpt from a pamphlet giving recent decisions
of the board, illustrates the nature of the claims passed upon:
Erection of scaffolds as applied to building construction.
[Subject of dispute betw een th e In tern atio n al H od Carriers, B uilding and Common Laborers’ Union,
U nited Brotherhood of C arpenters and Joiners, O perative Plasterers and Cem ent F inishers’ International
Association, a n d Bricklayers, Masons, and Plasterers’ In tern atio n al Union.]

Decision. In the matter of the dispute between the laborers, bricklayers, plasterers,
and carpenters over the erection of scaffolds as applied to building construction, it
is agreed that the erection and removal of all scaffolds,including trestles and horses
used primarily by lathers, plasterers, bricklayers, and masons, shall be done by the
mechanics and laborers in these trades, as directed by the employer.
Self-supporting scaffolds over 14 feet in height or any special designed scaffold or
those built for special purposes shall be built by the carpenters.
The making of horses and trestles other than temporary is the work of the carpenter.

The full text of the plan as adopted by the Building Trades
Department is as follows:
A r T i c l e 1. There is hereby created for this purpose a board which shall be known
as the National Board for Jurisdictional Awards in the Building Industry.
A rt. 2. I he duties of the board shall be to hear claims for jurisdiction over work
performed by building trades, and to determine by which trade the work in conten­
tion shall be performed, and to make an award in conformity with the facts submitted
by the contendents. At least a two-thirds majority of the voting members of the full
board shall be required to render an award in all cases.
A rt;. 3. The board shall have the power to investigate all disputes and to make
awards m accordance with its findings, as hereafter provided.
A rt. 4. The board may appoint committees composed of its members to investigate
any case brought to its attention. The report of such a committee shall be made to
the board within thirty days from date of appointment.

A rt. 5. All complaints must be submitted to the board in writing by the party or
parties m interest, through the officials of an organization which is a party to this
agreement^ stating clearly the exact nature of the work in contention and th ey shall
have the right to submit, through such persons as they may select, all evidence or
arguments they may consider pertinent, in which case a hearing shall be given at
the next meeting, and an award shall be made after the hearing of the evidence.
A r t . 6. Should the board fail to make an award an umpire may be agreed upon,
whose findings shall be final. Should the board, by a two-thirds majority, be unable
to agree upon an umpire, the Secretary of the United States Department of Labor
shall be called upon to name the umpire.
A rt. 7. Awards by the board may be reopened and reheard upon the submission
of new evidence at the request of any of the parties in interest, provided that at least
six members of the board vote favorably on allowing a rehearing. Pending a rehearing
the award made shall remain in force and effect.
A rt. 8. When a dispute arises the employer to whom the work has been given shall
proceed with such workmen as in his judgment he may see fit to employ pending a
decision by the board; but the right of any contestant to the dispute shall not be
prejudiced in its claim for a final award.
A rt. 9. Each signatory to this agreement hereby agrees that the membership of
that organization shall not take part in sympathetic strikes in any case of jurisdic­
tional dispute.
Labor organizations signatory to this agreement shall secure the enforcement and
compliance of their organizations with the provisions of this agreement and the
awards of the board.
Local organizations refusing compliance with the provisions of this agreement and
the awards of this board shall bo suspended from their international organization,
and the international organization shall proceed at once to man the job and the em­
ployer shall cooperate with the international organization in so doing.'


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[249]

38

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

Any architect, engineer, or employer represented on this board through an organiza­
tion signatory to this agreement shall be suspended from his organization or organiza­
tions upon failure to comply with the provisions of this agreement and the awards of
this board.
A rt. 10. The decision shall govern the architects and engineers in writing specifica­
tions and the contractors in awarding contracts.
A rt. 11. The board shall certify its awards to the officials of each of the organiza­
tions, parties hereto.
A rt. 12. It shall be the duty of the officials of affiliated bodies, upon receiving such
information, to instruct its members to carry out the decisions of the board and to
use them as a guide in the conduct of their work.
A rt. 13. In order to avert jurisdictional strife it is the recommendation of the
board that new materials, specialties, and methods of application shall be passed upon
by the board before being specified or used, provided that six members of the board
shall have agreed that the subject has not been previously covered.
A r t . 14. The board shall consist of eight members, three to be selected by the
Building Trades Department of the American Federation of Labor, they to be inter­
national officials, and one each by the American Institute of Architects, the Engi­
neering Council, the Associated General Contractors of America, the National Asso­
ciation of Builders’ Exchanges, and the National Building Trades Employers’
Association.
A rt. 15. The term of office of members of the board shall be two years. Serving
members shall be eligible for reelection.
A rt. 16. Resignations and vacancies on the board shall be filled by the organizations
from which the member or members were elected.
A rt. 17. Compensation and expenses of members shall be determined by the
organizations they represent. All routine expenses of the board shall be divided
pro rata between the organizations selecting members of the board.
A rt. 18. Each member if unable to serve shall select a substitute in his stead.
A rt. 19. Not more than one member shall be elected by the Building Trades De­
partment of the A. F. of L. from the same trade.
A rt. 20. No member representing the Building Trades Department shall vote on
an award in a dispute in which his own craft is involved nor shall any member em­
ploying one trade exclusively vote on any award in which that trade is a party at
interest.
A rt. 21. The officers of the board shall consist of a chairman, vice chairman and
secretary-treasurer.
A rt. 22. The chairman and vice chairman shall be chosen from the duly accredited
representatives and shall be elected by a majority vote of the board. The secretarytreasurer phall be appointed by the board and shall serve with voice, but no vote.
The officers shall be elected at the first regular meeting in August and shall serve
for a period of one year or until their successors have been duly qualified.
A rt. 23. The headquarters of the board shall be in Washington, D. 0. Meetings

may be held elsewhere at the option of the board.
A rt. 24. The board shall meet on the first Mondays in August, November, February
and May, or upon the call of the chair.

A rt. 25. Rules and regulations to cover necessary parliamentary procedure may be
adopted at any regular session of the board, by a majority vote.
A rt. 26. Amendments or additions to this plan may be submitted at any tim e to
the organizations parties to the plan, for adoption, a majority to decide the questions
submitted.
A rt. 27. The parties hereto bind themselves individually and severally to abide

by the decisions of the board as herein created.

Industrial Conditions in Japan.
N A^report upon “ Japanese labor” 1 published this year by the
British Foreign Office, Mr. Oswald White, British vice consul at
Osaka, discusses in some detail the important aspects of the
present status of industrial workers in Japan. The memorandum

I

1 G reat B rita in . Foreign Office.
42 pp. [Cmd. 511.]


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

R ep o rt on Japanese labor, b y Mr. Osw ald W hite.

[250]

London, 1923.

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS.

39

deals with both factory and domestic labor and examines as far as
possible the effect of existing conditions upon the labor problem.
The factory system in Japan is of comparatively recent origin.
Forty years ago everything was made under the domestic system.
During this period factories have sprung up, especial progress having
been made since the Russo-Japanese WAr and particularly during
and since the World War. As a result of this rather recent and rapid
development of Japanese industry skilled labor has been scarceunskilled labor has been plentiful, and, therefore, cheap. The fac­
tories are obliged to start with absolutely unskilled labor and train it.
This oversupply of unskilled labor together with other industrial and
social conditions has increased the manufacture of cheap goods and
led to the payment of low wages.
Hours.
TN THE factories the hours are long. Overtime is universal and
and extensive. During the war even the large normal amount
of overtime was increased.
In 1916 an attempt was made to protect the rights of the workers
through the passage of a factory law. By this law normal working
hours are fixed at 12 per day, but this limitation need not be observed
m factories employing only male operators over 15 years of ao-e.
Furthermore, it does not apply in factories employing fewer than 15
persons unless the work is dangerous or unhealthy. Nor does it
apply to works not employing motive power or those in which the
processes are of a simple nature. In the silk factories a 14-hour day
is provided until 1931. No minor under 15 and no female may be
employed between 10 p. m. and 4 a. m., but this restriction does not
become effective until 1933 in factories where the night work is divided
into two shifts, and cotton spinning mills are exempted until 1931.
There is no provision for a weekly holiday but the law provides that
during the period for which the exemptions just mentioned are in
force workers must be granted from two to four holidays a month.
The modification of the eight-hour convention adopted by the
International Labor Conference for Japan will, when ratified by the
Japanese Government, constitute a great improvement in respect to
the hours of labor.2
r
The most obvious results of the Japanese system of long hours are
frequent absences on the part of workers and a tendency to idle a
good deal of working time away. These are due in some cases to
illness or fatigue, in others to the fear that production above a certain
amount will cause the employers to lower the daily wages.
Wages and Cost of Living.
IM AGES are low and many causes conspire to keep them so. As
indicated at the beginning of this article, labor is plentiful'
largely unskilled, and inefficient. The influence of the wretchedly
low wages paid the women and children in the cottage industries,
which are described later, is also felt. The competition existing


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

s M o n t h l y L atsoe R e t t e d , Jan u a ry , 1920, p. 11 .

[251]

40

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

between the domestic system and the factory system of manufacture,
the almost total lack of labor-saving machinery, and the over-rapid
expansion of industry, keep prices down and tend to lower wages
paid by the factories.
During the war increased production created such a demand for
labor that the supply was wholly inadequate to meet it. Conse­
quently wages naturally rose until they were in some cases nearly
double those paid in the prewar period. This is evident from the
changes in average wages of cotton spinning operatives since 1914,
published in May, 1919, by the Japanese Spinners’ Association.
A more detailed account of wage changes in Japanese industries is
shown on pages 88 to 90 of this issue of the R e v ie w .
C H A N G ES IN A V E R A G E D A IL Y W A G ES O F C O T T O N -S PIN N IN G O P E R A T IV E S , 1914 TO 1919.
[1 sen a t p ar= 0 .5 cent.]

Average daily wages.
Year.

1914; F irst h alf..........................................
Second h alf......................................
1915; F irst h alf.........................................
Second h a lf......................................
1916; F irst h alf..........................................
Second h alf......................................
1917; F irst h a lf..........................................
Second h alf......................................
1918; F irst h a lf..........................................
Second h alf......................................
1919; J an u a ry -A p ril................................

Males.

Females.

Sen.

Sen.

48
48
39
48
49
50
51
57
62
79
•80

31
32
32
31
33
33
35
39
43
51
57

Increased wages, however, did not represent an increased buying
capacity because the rise in cost of living in Japan more than offset
any advantage derived from the wage increases. Rice, for instance,
which constitutes the principal food of the lower class Japanese and
of which the average workman consumes about Ag- sho_(l sho = ^ peck)
a day, rose in price from 18 sen (9 cents, par) per sho in 1916 to 45 sen
(22.5 cents, par) in March, 1919. The effect of such an increase in
a staple food may be ¡inferred. Similar advances in the matter
of rent, clothing, and sundries are also noted, especially in the in­
dustrial centers. The rent of a two-room house in 1914 was from
3 to 4 yen ($1.50 to $1.99, par) per month; in 1919 such a house
rented for 6 to 10 yen ($2.99 to $4.99, par) per month.
An actual family budget submitted below is given as a typical
example. This is the case of a man 48 years old, formerly a ship
carpenter but now employed by a Government office in an outdoor
capacity. His family consists of himself, his wife, and five children,
four boys, aged 21, 19, 11, and 9 years, respectively, and one daughter
aged 22 years.
Family income (monthly).

F ath er....................................................................................................
Eldest son...............................................................................................
Second son.......................................................................
Daughter...................................


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

17
30
15
20
82

[2521

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS.

41

Monthly expenditure (averagedfor 12 months)
Yen.

Eice....................................................................................
Salt and soy................................................
Other food................................................................
Sake and tobacco......................................
Fuel......................................................................... .........
School fees...............................................................
Clothes...................................................
Kent.........................................

40
3
9
7
4
3
5
5

Balance for sundries..............................................................

@
82

In commenting upon this budget the author states that the ex­
penditure for sake and tobacco are relatively high, while rent is low
Another element entering into a consideration of the Japanese
wage situation is the system of what is known as “ bad taxes.”
These are taxes levied upon sake, soy, textile consumption suo-’ar
consumption, drugs, transit, petroleum, the salt monopoly, and the
import duty on rice, which bear heavily upon the working classes
and constitute an important item in raising the cost of living.
Under the factory law of 1916 workers injured through no fault of
their own are entitled to relief in the form of half wages for three
months and one-third after that period. In addition^ a disabled
workman is entitled on recovery to compensation varying from 30
to 170 days’ wages, and in case of death 170 days’ wages, or at least
10 yen ($4.99, par) must be paid his family forlfuneral expenses.
The following table compiled from statistics submitted in the
report shows the number of operatives in Japanese factories by
industry, sex, and age group for the year 1916. The author states
that because of the difficulty in securing reliable figures for Japanese
m(histry too much weight should not be attached to these statistics.
They are nevertheless indicative of industrial conditions, showing
the extent to which children under 15 are employed as operatives
in factories and the extent to which females are employed.
N U M B E R O F O P E R A T IV E S '» ! F A C T O R IE S IN JA P A N IN S E L E C T E D IN D U S T R IE S R Y
A G E AND B Y S E X , IN 1916.
’
Over 15 years of age.

U nder 15 years of age.

Total.

In d u stry .
Males.
Textile...........................
Machine and tool...........
Chemical.....................
F ood and d rin k ..............
M iscellaneous....................
E lectrical................
G as.......................
M etal refineries.................
T o ta l...........................


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Females.

Males.

92,386
135,049
80,177
45,107
64,024
3, 111
1,559
16,552

460,735
9,340
33,513
8,371
29,448
9
61
1,912

4,734
4,238
6,370
762
4,575
5
83

437,965

543,389

20, 767

[253]

Females.
81,683
850
5,220
549
4,452

Males.

Females.

36

97,120
139, 287
86,547
45,869
68, 599
3,111
1,564
16,635

542,418
10,190
38,733
8,920
33,900
9
61
1,948

92, 790

458, 732

636,179

42

MONTHLY LABOE REVIEW.

The Domestic System.
rp iIE domestic and the factory systems of manufacture exist side
by side. Until recently most of the manufactured goods were
made "under the domestic system. At present the factories manu­
facture most of the goods designed for export, while manufacture of
goods for home consumption constitutes what is known as the “ cot­
tage industries.” Some of the goods designed for the foreign markets
are still manufactured under the domestic system and only this
class of goods is dealt with in the report. _
The cottage industries are subsidiary industries for farmers and
their families and for the poorer classes in small towns. While no
statistics regarding these industries are available it is known that in
practically all parts of Japan they occupy the spare time of women
and girls whose household duties do not admit of their going out to
work. The most important of these industries are silk reeling,'
cotton weaving, hosiery, match boxes, buttons, brushes, drawn
work, lace making, plaiting of hemp and straw braids, beads, imita­
tion pearls, and shell-button making. A few of the establishments
employ as many as 30 workmen but most of them are small, consisting
of only three or four persons.
The work is usually distributed through middlemen who are not
under contract with the importers to produce the finished product.
The articles thus manufactured are poor in quality, the prices are
small, and wages paid are consequently low and constitute a serious
drag upon factory wages.
Female and Child Labor.
Japanese industry is the predominance of women
A FEATURE-of
and girls. An examination of the table shows that in textiles
there are over five times as many women as men operatives and that
of the total number of operatives women and girls represent more
than 58 per cent. This percentage would doubtless be greatly in­
creased if the number of women and girls employed in the cottage
industries could be ascertained.
There is little competition between male and female labor. In
factories the hard manual labor is usually done by men. In the coal
mines in Kyushu, where female labor constitutes 40 per cent of the
working force, women perform the same work as men. In farming
districts they work side by side with them in the fields. The women
in the cotton mills are young, their ages ranging from 16 to 22 years.
They work in two shifts of 10 to 12 hours each. Their wages range
from 25 sen (12.5 cents, par) in the case of beginners to 80 sen (40 cents,
par) per day. Meals and dormitories are provided by the companies.
Recently the more progressive operators have introduced welfare
features" in the way of hospitals, playgrounds, recreation halls, etc.,
for their workers. Under the factory law, as far as it goes, the advan­
tages seem to be largely with the women. But it does not apply to
industries employing fewer than 15 persons and the vast number of
home workers are of course also excluded. Though night work for
women and girls is proscribed by the law, spinning mills were exempted
until 1931.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[254]

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS.

43

Labor Unions.
f ABOR unions, the report states, do not at present exist. They
are not illegal, but it appears evident that their formation is
obstructed by the authorities. There is, however, an organization
known as the Yuaikai (Friendly Society), originally organized as
a buffer between capital and labor, which has recently come out
definitely on the side of labor. Its objects are “ to organize labor,
and to obtain an amelioration of its working conditions by the
education and assistance, monetary and otherwise, of the work­
men, and to mediate in labor disputes.” Another organization
known as the Rodo Kyokai (Labor Association) aims to serve as
a mediator between capital and labor. During the early months
of 1919 there was a great awakening of public interest in the
subject of labor, as a result of which a small group of politicians
have approached the Government as to its attitude toward tradeunions. They plan after obtaining Government sanction (1) “ to
make a small beginning by the formation of trade-unions within the
larger factories as an object lesson to the workmen and the man­
agement of smaller factories; (2) to form a labor society to study the
experience of other countries, translate literature, and investigate
actual conditions; (3) to assist the mobility of labor by the formation
of labor exchanges in important centers.”
, Though there are no labor unions in our sense of the term, primi­
tive guilds exist under the leadership of “ bosses” who frequently
act as foremen and also serve in the capacity of private labor ex­
changes. This control of employment gives the “ bosses” consid­
erable influence among the workmen, who are obliged to take up
any quarrel for them at call. On the other hand they are bound to
protect, to feed, or to find employment for the workmen in their
guilds.
General Characteristics.
HTAKEN by and large the author finds the Japanese workman pos­
sessed of great endurance, to be docile, cheerful, and willing.
Lie is imitative, learns quickly, and on detailed or routine work is as
good and efficient as most workmen. Initiative and constructive
ability are, however, almost entirely lacking among his character­
istics, and for this reason he requires constant supervision. Manual
dexterity is common though often accompanied by inaccuracy.
There is a tendency to ignore essentials and to waste time. Whether
his faults are inherent or the result of a system of low wages and of
fatigue due to long hours is hard to say. The fact remains that the
Japanese in business for himself is a marvel of industry.

Labor Conditions on Czecho-Slovakia Railroads.
Y ACCOLNT of the efforts of the Czecho-Slovakia National
Assembly to rehabilitate the railroads of the Republic by
the appropriation of 6,481,050,000 crowns ($1,313,060,730,
par) and a statement showing railway operation costs and the budget

A


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[255]

44

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

for 1920, together with other information of interest in this connec­
tion, is contained in Commerce Reports (Washington) for July 1,
1920, the article bearing date of April 30. An interesting portion
of this account is a statement on labor conditions made by the
Ministry of Railways which refers to the increased efficiency of em­
ployees, the small number of strikes occurring, and the increases in
wages and salaries which have been granted since 1913. The min­
istry’s statement is as follows:
During the war and also alter the revolution the efficiency of the employees
decreased considerably. The reasons therefor were chiefly undernourishment, trou­
bles in securing food, and political events, as well as general disinclination of the
returned soldier to work. When the principal demand of the workmen, the eighthour working day, was granted an immediate improvement was noticed.
An additional improvement in the efficiency of the workmen was attained by a new
adjustment of wages in accordance with the law of October 7, 1919, as well as by the
granting of various extra payments and allowances to the employees engaged in
especially arduous, dangerous, and responsible work.
The cooperation of the organizations of the railway men in the solution of the
principal questions relating to railway men has had an especially favorable influence
on the efficiency of the workmen.
As proof of the steady improvement of labor conditions it is proper to mention the
fact that there have been no strikes to seriously threaten railway traffic, with the
exception of a short cessation of work, which was, however, only of a local character.
In Slovakia only one serious strike took place, and that was brought on during the
Hungarian invasion, through the agitation of the Magyars.
The retention of the piecework system has contributed to the continued improve­
ment in the employees’ efficiency. At the present time there are about 54,830 perma­
nent employees and about 95,670 temporary employees, or a total of about 150,000.
In 1913 there were about 50,000 permanent employees and about 85,000 temporary
employees, or a total of about 135,000 employees. This increase of 10 per cent in the
number of employees is due to the establishment of new central offices, the creation
of a reserve and trained personnel for Slovakia, and to the eight-hour law.
Increases in wages and salaries.
In 1913 the wages and salaries were 900 to 12,000 crowns [$182.34 to $2,431.20, par],
according to preparatory education, employment, and years of service, with increases
of 200 to 2,000 crowns [$40.52 to $405.20, par]—in the lower positions after two to
three years, and in the higher positions after three to five years. Rent allowances of
360 to 1,760 crowns [$72.94 to $356.58, par], according to grade of employment and
local living conditions, were also made.
i
In 1920 the wages and salaries range from 2,100 to 14,208 crowns [$425.26 to $2,878.54,
par], with allowances for rent of 1,050 to 4,000 crowns [$425.46 to $810.40, par], accord­
ing to preparatory education, character of employment, and number of years in serv­
ice. Increases are made after two years in the lower grades and after three years in
the higher. Permanent contributions for increased cost of living of 900 to 6,348 crowns
[$182.34 to $1,286.10, par], according to the amount of wages and the number of
children, are also made.
Special contributions for increased cost of living are 720 crowns [$145.87, par] for
Greater Prague and 540 crowns [$109.40, par] for other places, per person, without
distinction. Quarterly contributions for increased cost of living are from 180 to 990
crowns [$36.47 to $200.57, par], according to the amount of wages and number of
children. From April 1 to August 31, 1920, this extra allowance will be paid monthly
in conformity with the law.
The remuneration consists, therefore, of a basic sum with several supplementary
amounts which have been granted from time to time.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[256]

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS.

45

German Agricultural Council’s Program.
HE German Agricultural Council has adopted the following
guiding principles for an economic program for 1920-21 ac­
cording to a report in Die Konjunktur (Berlin) for April 29,
1920 ;

T

The German Agricultural Council expects from the new Central Ministry of'Food
and Agriculture that the promotion of agricultural production will at last be recogmzed by the German Government and the governments of the Federal States as°a
most important task in the rehabilitation of Germany’s economic life. Steps should
be taken immediately for the execution of a bold agricultural program.
Without prejudice to the systematic application of the German settlement act of
August 11, 1919, attention must again be called to the fact that the compulsory par­
tition of the large estates would have a disastrous effect on the food supply, for even
the surrender of land to existing small agricultural establishments has already resulted
m frequent stoppages in production.
The German Agricultural Council, in concert with all concerned in agriculture
continues to hold the view that state control_should be abolished as soon as possible!
It expects that at least a start will be made in this direction in the agricultural year
. Tke production of artificial fertilizers and the importation of phosphates must .be
increased by every possible means. The fertilizers must be placed at the disposal
ol farmers at reasonable prices, if necessary with the aid of State funds. The present
prices of fertilizers are unreasonable; they are out of all proportion to the prices of
agricultural produce; the present level of fertilizer prices directly handicaps pro­
duction.
1 r
Fodder stuffs are to be imported on as large a scale as possible. Those produced
at home (bran, dried residues of sugar beet, etc.) are to be placed at the service of the
farmers at adequate prices.
For the care of the root crops and especially of the sugar-beet cultivation the help
of skilled foreign itinerant workers will still be urgently needed for a measurable
time to come.
The maintenance and augmentation of food production are jeopardized by the cur­
tailment of working hours.
The German Agricultural Council demands in detail:
Gram.—The public administration of bread grain should be maintained until better
home crops and better facilities for imports from abroad permit of the accumulation
of stocks within the country, so as to avert any sudden shortage or excessive fluctu­
ation in prices. Agriculture, however, will be able to express its approval of the State
control of bread grain of the 1920 crop in the interests of the community only when
prices are so adjusted that the cultivation of grain will once more be remunerative
and not, as at piesent, the most ungrateful task in the economic field. Fodder grain,
barley, and oats are to be commandeered only to the extent of actual requirementsafter surrender of the quota, the remainder is to be released for feeding the producers’
own cattle. Bread grain and quantities of barley and oats not subject to surrender
should be exchangeable for fertilizers and fodder stuffs so as to avoid as far as possible
the importation of the expensive foreign wheat. Seed grain should be released from
control. The standard price for grain should be computed on the basis of the prices
of agricultural working mediums (coal, iron, fertilizers, fodder, etc.). The farmers
must be guaranteed a voice in the fixing of prices. Adequate minimum prices should
be guaranteed in due time, so that the farmers may be able to prepare their working
program at the proper time.
Legumes.—Legumes should be commandeered on the smallest possible scale at
pnces which must bear the proper ratio to the uncertainty of the yield; the rest must
be left at the free disposal of the producer.
Potatoes.—The State control of potatoes has proved a failure. Acreage and yield
per hectare have declined to an alarming extent. It is of the first importance that
production of potatoes should be increased, this being the simplest way to improve
and secure the sunply of food for the population and of fodder for the cattle. Potatoes,
must, therefore, be removed from control ; the conclusion of delivery contracts between
the organizations of producers and consumers is to be encouraged as a transitional
measure. _The cultivation and supply of good seed potatoes must be promoted by
every available means; the irksome regulations in the seed trade must be abolished,
2386°—20-


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

4

[257]

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

46

since they hamper the extension of potato growing, especially in small agrieultrual
undertakings.
.
„
,
„ .
Sugar beet.—The cultivation and distribution of sugar beet are m all circumstances
to be released from control.
Milk and dairy 'products— The production of milk has further declined, owing partly
to the increased slaughtering of cows and partly to the extraordinary shortage of
fodder. The prices of milk and dairy products are, in spite of the last considerable
advance, still materially below the cost of production and must, like the grain prices,
be adjusted to the prices of the working mediums from time to time. Control of milk
and dairy products should be maintained for the time being in the interests of infants,
prospective mothers, and invalids. As a stimulus to increased milk production,
albuminous fodder stuffs should be placed at the disposal of the farmers on a much
larger scale than hitherto, as premiums for good milk deliveries, or perhaps in exchange
for grain.
.
1
,
Live stock.—The State control of live stock has in many instances broken down, b or
a long time back no hogs have been delivered to the authorities. For its meat supply
the population has to rely almost exclusively upon illicit methods. Hog stocks
should be released.
Contracts for fattening and delivery contracts should be
encouraged.
, ,
,
,
,
Oil-bearing and fibrous plants— The retention of control for these products can be
agreed to for the present, provided that the prices of the raw product are adjusted
to tUose of the manufactured articles.
In drawing up the economic program the cooperation of agricultural experts from
the circles of small and average holdings shall be duly and extensively enlisted.
The German Agricultural Council recognizes plainly that the uninterrupted upward
movement of all prices must, in the long run, lead to the economic ruin of large masses
of the people. I t must, however, protest against the view that only the prices of
agricultural products are to be controlled and kept down because they are foodstuffs,
while the prices of all articles of common use are permitted to soar without any restric­
tion. I t demands that, in the national and social interests of the people a limit should
be set to the unheard-of profiteering in all quarters, an end made of the inflated paper
finance, and international agreements concluded so as to improve the German
exchange.

German Government’s Measures.

German Minister for Food and Agriculture, Dr. Hermes,
nas issued an appeal1 to the farmers to speed up their deliv­
eries of grain and potatoes. He promises to take measures for
the importation of raw phosphates and fodder stuffs. The im­
portation of 1,000,000 tons of maize for hog fattening is assured.
Larger imports of oil cake and other feeding stuffs are expected in
the immediate future. The production of nitrates is to be brought
up to the highest possible level. Minimum prices have been fixed
for grain, potatoes, and oil seeds based on the cost of production in
January, 1920. An index commission representing farmers and con­
sumers is to be formed within the Ministry for Food and Agriculture,
which will ascertain the increase in the cost of production since Jan­
uary and fix the additions to be made to the published minimum
prices.
1 F ran k fu rte r Zeitung.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Fran k fo rt-o n -th e-H ain , A pr. 29, 1920.

[258]

Second edition.

\

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING.
Retail Prices of Food in the United States.
HE following tables are based on figures which have been
received by the Bureau of Labor Statistics from retail dealers
through monthly reports of actual selling prices.1
Table 1 shows for the United States retail prices of food on May 15
and June 15, 1920, and on June 15, 1919, as well as the percentage
changes in the month and in the year. For example, the price of
potatoes in June, 1919, was 3.8 cents; in May, 1920, 9.6 cents; and
in June, 1920, 10.3 cents. The figures show an increase of 171 per
cent in the year and an increase of 7 per cent in the month. The
cost of 22 articles combined 2 increased 19 per cent in the year and
2 per cent in the month.

T

T a b l e 1 . — A V E R A G E R E T A IL P R IC E S OE S P E C IF IE D FO O D A R T IC L E S A N D P E R C E N T

° i m C R E A S B OR D E C R E A SE JU N E 15, 1920, C O M PA R ED W IT H JU N E 15, 1919, A N D MAY
[Percentage changes of five-tenths of 1 p er cen t an d over are given in whole num bers.]

Average re ta il price on—
Article.

U nit.
June 15,
1919,

Sirloin ste a k .
R oun d stea k .
R ib ro a s t___
Chuck ro a s t..
P late beef___

P o u n d ............
........d o .............
........d o .............
........d o .............
........d o .............

Cents.
43.1
40.4
33.8
28.1

May 15,. June 15,
1920.
1920.

21.0

Cents.
43.4
39.9
33.4
26.5
18.8

Cents.
40.1
42.6
34.8
27.8
19.0

Pork ch o p s.
B aco n ..........
H a m ............
L a m b ..........
H e n s ............

___d o .............
___d o .............
___d o .............
___d o .............
___d o .............

42.4
57.2
55.2
38.4
42.6

42.5
52.6
55.5
42.1
47.1

40.8
53.9
58.6
41.5
46.0

Salmon (c a n n ed )............................
Milk, fresh ........................................
Milk, evaporated (unsw eetened).
B u tte r...............................................
O leom argarine................................ .

___d o .............
Q u a rt.............
15-16 oz. c an ..
P o u n d ............
___d o .............

32.0
14.9
15.4
63.3
41.4

37.1
16.2
14.7
71.6
43.3

38.1
16.2
15.0
67.2
42.8

N u t m a rg a rin e ........... ..............
Cheese.........................................
L a rd .............................................
Crisco...........................................
Eggs, strictly fresh ...........................|

___d o .............
___d o .............
___d o .............
___d o .............
D
Dozen.
ozen............

35.4
42.4
40.2
35.3
53.5

Per cent of increase ( + )
or decrease ( —) Juno
15, 1920, com pared
w ith—
June 15,
1919.

+

7
5
3

-

1
10

_

4

—
+
+
+

6
6
8
8

+

19
9
3

+
+

May 15,
1920.

+
+
+
+
+

6

7
4
5
1

-- 4
+ 2
- 1
- 2
+ 3
0

+ 2
—6
- 1

6

3

36.5
36.0
+ 2
- 1
42.9
41.8
—3
_ 271
29.8
29.3
- 2
37.2
36.6
+ 4
- 2
52.9
53.6
+ 0 .2
+ 1
1 In addition to re ta il prices of food, th e B u reau secures prices of coal, gas, a nd d ry goods from each of 51
cities, a n d publishes these prices as follows: Coal, in th e M arch an d Septem ber issues of th e M o n t h l y
L a b o r R e v i e w ; gas, in th e Ju n eissu e; d ry goods, in th e A pril, Ju ly , O ctober, a n d D ecem ber issues.
2 T he following are th e 22 articles, w eighted according to th e consum ption of th e average fa m ily : Sirloin
steak, ro u n d steak , rib roast, chuck roast, p late beef, pork chops, bacon, ham s, lard , hens, flour, corn m eal
eggs, b u tte r, m ilk, bread, potatoes, sugar, cheese, rice, coffee, te a . These include all articles for which
prices have been secured each m o n th since 1913 w ith th e exception of lam b, for w hich th e bureau has no
consum ption figures.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[259]

47

48.

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

T a b l e 1 . — A V E R A G E R E T A IL P R IC E S O F 'S P E C IF IE D FO O D A R T IC L E S A N D P E R C E N T

OF IN C R E A S E OR D E C R E A S E J U N E 15, 1920, C O M PA R E D W IT H J U N E 15, 1919, A N D MAY
15, 1920—Concluded.

A verage re ta il price on—
•

A rticle.

U n it.
Ju n e 15,
1919.

M ay 15,
1920.

Cents.
9.9
7.5
6.3
8.5
14.0

Cents.
11.5
8.7
6.7
10.5
14.1

Ju n e 15,
1920.

Ju n e 15,
1919.

M ay 15,
1920.

Cents.

B re a d ...................................................
F lo u r...................................................
Corn m e a l.........................................
■Rolled, o a ts .........................................
Corn flakes.........................................

P o u n d ............
........d o .............
........d o .............
. . . d o ............
8-oz. package.

Cream of W h e a t...............................
M acaroni............................................
R ic e .....................................................
B eans, n a v y ......................................
P o ta to e s..............................................

28-oz. package
P o u n d ............
........d o .............
___d o .............
........d o .............

25.1
19.3
13.8

30.1
20.7
18.7

30.2
20.9
18.7

12.1

11.8

11.8

3.8

9.6

10.3

Onions ...............................................
C abbage..............................................
B ean s^ b ak ed .....................................
Corn, c a n n e d .....................................
Peas, c a n n e d .....................................

.. .d o ............
........d o .............
No. 2 c a n ___
........d o .............
___d o .............

11.2
6.8

Tom atoes, c a n n e d ............................ ........d o .............
Sugar, g ra n u la te d ............................ P o u n d ............
T e a ....................................................... ___d o .............
Coffee................................................... ........d o .............

15.9

P ru n e s ................................................. ........d o .............
. . .d o ............
R aisin s................................................
B a n a n a s............................................. D ozen............
........d
o .............
O ranges...............................................
22 w eighted articles 1.......................

P er cent of increase ( + )
or decrease ( —) June
15, 1920, com pared
w ith —

11.8
8 .8

6.9
10.5
14.3

+
+
+
■+
+

19
17
10

+ 3
+ 1
+ 3

2

+ 1

24

+ 20
+ 8
+ 36
- 2
+171

0

+ 0.3
+ 1
0
0

+ 7

8.0

8.1

8.4
16.8
18.6
19.1

7.4
16.7
18.6
19.2

- 28
+ 9
- 3
- 3
+ 1

70.1
42.6

15.1
25.4
74.0
49.2

15.2
26.7
73.8
49.2

- 4
+152
+ 5
+ 15

+ 1
+ 5
- 0.3

25.4
16.8
38.2
54.4

28.3
27.4
43.2
71.8

28.2
27.6
46.3
63.9

+
+
+
+

- 0.4
+ 1
+ 7

17.3
19. 1
19.0
10.6

!

1

11

64
21

-1 2
- 1
0
+ 1

0

17

-1 1

+ 19

+ 2

1 See n ote 2, p 47.

Table 2 shows for the United States average retail prices of specified
food articles on June 15 of each year, 1913 to 1920, together with the
percentage change in June of each year compared with June, 1913.
For example, the price of flour in June, 1914, was the same as in
June, 1913. As compared with the price in June, 1913, the price in
June, 1915, showed an increase of 30 per cent; in June, 1916, an
increase of 18 per cent; in June, 1917, an increase of 145 per cent; in
June, 1918, an increase of 103 per cent; in June, 1919, an increase of
127 per cent; and in June, 1920, an increase of 167 per cent.
The cost of 22 articles combined increased 124 per cent during the
seven-year period.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[260]

49

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING.

T a b l e 2 . — A V E R A G E R E T A IL P R IC E S OF S P E C IF IE D FO O D A R T IC L E S AN D P E R C E N T

OF IN C R E A SE OR D E C R E A SE JU N E 15 OF EA C H Y E A R , 1914 TO 1920, C O M PA R ED W IT H
JU N E 15, 1913.
[Percentage changes of five-tenths of 1 per cent and over are given in whole numbers.]
P er cent of increase ( + ) or decrease
( —) Ju n e 15 of each specified year
com pared w ith Ju n e 15, 1913.

A verage retail price, Ju n e 15—
Article.

U nit.

1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920
Cts.
Sirloin s te a k ___ L b ..
R ound s te a k ___ L b ..
R ib r o a s t............ L b ..
Chuck ro a s t........ L b ..
P la te b eef........... L b ..
P ork chops......... L b ..
B acon................... L b ..
H a m ..................... L b ..
L a m b ................... L b ..
H e n s..................... L b ..
Salmon (canned) L b ..
Milk, fresh.......... Q t . .
M ilk,evaporated 15-16
(unsw eetened). oz.car.
B u tte r................. L b ..
O leom argarine. . L b . .
N u t m arg arin e.. L b ..
Cheese.................. L b ..
L a rd ..................... L b ..
Crisco................... L b ..
Eggs,
strictly Doz.
fresh.
B read ................... L b ..
F lo u r................... L b ..
Com m eal............ L b ..
Rolled oats......... L b ..
Corn flakes.........
pkg.
Cream of W h e a t.
Pkg.
M acaroni............. L b ..
R ic e ..................... L b ..
Beans, n a v y ___ L b ..
P o ta to e s.............. L b ..
O nions................. L b ..
C abbage.............. L b ..
Beans, b a k e d . . .
Corn, e a rn e d __
Peas, can n ed ___
T o m a t o e s , #2 can
canned.
Sugar,
granu- L b ..
lated.
T e a ....................... L b ..
Coffee................... L b ..
P ru n es................. L b ..
R aisin s................ L b ..
B anan as..............
O ranges...............

Cis.

Cts.

Cts.

Cts.

Cts.

Cis.

Cts.

25.9 26.3 26.1 28.8 32.8 42.6 43.1 46.1 + 2
22.6 23.7 23.4 26.0 30.2 40.6 40.4 42.6 + 5
20 . 1 20.5 20.3 22.4 26.1 33.5 33.8 34.8 + 2
16.3 16.7 16.4 18.1 21.9 29.5 28.1 27.8 + 2
12.2 12.5 12.2 13.4 16.6 22.7 21.0 19.0 + 2
20.8 21.6 20.6 23.1 31.0 37.2 42.4 40.8 +4
27.3 27.0 26.8 28.8 42.6 51.5 57.2 53.9 - 1
27.3 27.0 26.1 29.6 39.1 46.5 55.2 58.6 - 1
19.4 20.0 21.8 23.9 30.4 37.4 38.4 41.5 + 3
21.9 22.0 20.9 24.2 28.9 37.6 42.6 46.0 +0.4
20.0 20.2 26.3 29.6 32.0 38.1
8.8 8.9 8.8 8.8 10.6 13.0 14.9 16.2 + 1

+ 27
+34
+30
+ 34
0
+36
-1
+49
-2
+56
-4
+8
+ 43
+ 12 + 23 + 57
-5
+ 11 + 32

35.2 33.5 34.6 36.4 47.1 51.1 63.3
41.4
35.4
21.8 22.7 23.4 24.5 33.8 33.2 42.4
15.8 15.4 15.1 17.1 28.0 32.6 40.2
35.3
27.9 28.2 26.8 30.0 41.1 42.5 53.5

-5

5.6
3.3
2.9

6.2

3.3
3.1

7.2
4.3
3.3

7.0
3.9
3.2

9.6 10.0
8.1 6.7
5.5 6.7

+ 11
+ 15
+ 11
+ 11
+ 10
+ 11
+5

+ 64
+80
+ 67
+81
+86

+ 79
+89
+ 70
+ 93
+72

+ 66
+ 79
+ 68
+ 72
+ 72
+ 104
+ 110
+ 102
+98
+95

+78
+ 88

+73
+71
+56
+96
+97
+ 115
+ 114
+ 110

0

+ 20 +48 + 69 +84

-2

+3

+34 +45 +80 +91

+4
-3

+7
-4

+ 12 + 55 + 52 + 94 +92
+8
+ 77 + 106 + 154 +85

+1

-4

+8

15.4 15.0

67.2
42.8
36.0
41.8
29.3
36.6
53.6

+1
+4
+1
+1

0

+ 47 + 52 +92 +92

9.9 11.8 + 11 + 29 + 25 +71 + 79 +77 + 111
7.5 8.8 0 +30 + 18 + 145 + 103 + 127 + 167
6.3 6.9 + 7 + 14 + 10 +90 + 131 + 117 +138
8.5 10.5
14.0 14.3
25. 1 30.2

8.6

8.7

1.8

2.2

5.3

5.1

9.1
7.6
1.7
4.0

6.9

19.3 20.9
9.1 10.9 12.5 13.8 18.7 + 1 + 6
9.6 19.5 17.5 12.1 11.8
2.8 6.2 2.9 3.8 10.3 + 2 2 —6
5.4 7.0 4.8 11.2 8.1
6.8 7.4
17.3 16.7
19.1 18.6
19.0 19.2
15.9 15.2
8.7

9.4

9.1 10.6 26.7 - 4

54.4 54.7 54.4 54.6 56.7 64.8
29.8 29.7 30.0 29.9 30.1 30.2
13.3 13.0 15.7 16.6
12.6 12.7 14.6 15.1

70.1
42.6
25.4
16.8
38.2
54.4

22 w eighted articles . 1

+6

+ 27 + 45 + 60 + 117

+ 56 +244 + 61 + 111 +472

+30 +64 + 77 + 72 + 100 + 404
«
+0.4 + 4 + 19 -P 29 +36
+0.3 + 1 + 1 + 43 + 65

73.8 + 1
0
49.2 - 0 .3 + 1
28.2
!
27.6
46.3
!
63.9
+2

+4

+ 13

+ 66 + 88 + 124

1 See note 2 , p. 47.

Relative Retail Prices of 22 Articles of Food.
TN TABLE 3 the average monthly and yearly prices of 22 food
-*■ articles3 are shown as relative prices or percentages of the
average prices for the year 1913. These relatives are computed by
dividing the average price of each commodity for each month and
each year by the average price of that commodity for 1913. Relative


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

3 For list of articles, see note 2, p. 47.

[ 261 ]

50

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

prices must be used with caution. For example, the relative price of
pork chops in November, 1919, was 200, which means that the money
price was 200 per cent of the money price in 1913, or, m other words,
the price doubled. The relative price of pork chops in December
was 181, showing a drop of 19 points from 200, which is a decrease of
only 9.5 per cent.
In the last column of this table are given index numbers 4showing
the changes by months and years in the retail cost of the 22 food
articles weighted according to the importance, of each article in the
consumption of the average family. Prices are obtained each month
for 43 food articles, but only 22 of these are included in the retail
food price index, because the amounts consumed by the average
family have been obtained as yet for only these 22 food articles.
These articles comprise about two-thirds of the entire food budget
of the average family and reflect with great accuracy changes in the
cost of the food budget. The figure representing the cost of these
22 food articles was 215 in May and 219 in June. This shows that,
as compared with 1913, the cost of these food articles was in May,
1920, more than double what it was in 1913, and that during the
month from May to June there was an increase of 2 per cent in the
cost of these articles.
The curve shown in the chart on page 54 pictures more readily to
the eye the changes in the cost of the family market basket and the
trend in the cost of the food budget than do the index numbers given
in the table. The chart has been drawn on the logarithmic scale,5
because the percentages of increase or decrease are more accurately
shown than on the arithmetic scale.
4 F o r a discussion of th e m eth o d used in th e com putation of these in d ex figures, see Monthly L abor
.
5 F o r a discussion of th e logarithm ic chart, see article on “ Comparison of arith m etic and ratio charts
by Lucian W . Chaney, Monthly L abor R eview for March, 1919, pp. 20-34. Also, “ T he ‘ra tio ’ c h art,”
b y Prof. Irving Fisher, rep rin ted from Q uarterly Publications of th e A m erican S tatistical Association,
June, 1917, 24 pp.

R e v i e w for March, 1920, p. 34.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[ 262 ]

T able 3 . - R E L A T I V E R E T A IL P R IC E S OF T H E P R IN C IP A L A R T IC L E S O F FO O D IN T H E U N IT E D ST A TES, 1907 TO JU N E , 1920.

Y ear and m onth.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Chuck Plate Pork B a r
Cof­
Pota­
Com
B ut­
roast. beef. chops. con. Ham. Lard. Hens. Eggs. ter. Cheese. Milk. Bread. Flour. meal. Rice. toes. Sugar. fee.

71
73
77
80
81
91

71
74
78
79
89

78
81
85
85
94

100

100

100

100

94
94
97

92
93
96
99

95
95
98
101
101
102
102
102
101
101
100
100

101
101
102

104
104
103
101
100

74
76
83
92
85
91

74
77
83
95
91
91

76
78
82
91
89
91

100

100

100

100

93
93
98

92
93
98

101
101
102

101
101
101
101
101
102
102
102
102

89
90
97
103

94
95
97
99

100

100
101

93
94
97
99
99

68

100
101

104
104
104
104

103
103
103
103

99

102
101

102

106

103

104

104

102
102

100
101
101
102
102

102

102
102
102 '
102

99
99
100
100
102

103
106
110

107
103
100
101
101
100

98
97
99
101

103
105
104
104

103
103
105
106
109
113
110

107
105
103
103

103
105
108
105
104
103

102
100

101
101
101
100

99

99

100

100
101

103
105
107
107
10G

103
104
104
103

102
101

103
102

103
103
104
106
109
108
106
104
103
101
101

99
98
99
101

103
103
103
102

103
103
104
107
107
106
105
103
100
102
101
100
100
101
101
101
101
101

81
80
90 .
104

86

86

93
98
93
99

90
94

94

81
83
89
94
91
93

98

100

100

100

100

97
98
99

95
97

108
91
77
73
76
81
87
96
109

107
108
108
106
94
92
91
92
98

88

100
100
100
101
102
102
101
101
100

99
103
104
108
107

104
105
104
103

102

101

102
100

97
105
99

99

99

102

102

99

98
98
99
99
99

98
99
99
99
99

100

100
101

100

100
100

103
106
103
106
119
113
110

104
93
96

107
108
106
104
103

88

100
101

85
85
94
99
98

99
98
98
98
98

100

100
100
100

103
107

102

104
106
104

103
108
108
105
102
100

97
98
96
95
94
95
97
98
98
97

99
99
99
98
97
97
99
99
98
99
97
93
97
97
90
96
96
95
93
89
8S

100

104
104
103
102
101
101
100

97
98
102
100

104
105
108
106
103
103
104
103
100

97
94
97
95
97
99
100
101

98
97
97
97

84

120

144
138
102

126
106
90
74
77
S2
87
96
107
113
131
139
93
129
98
74
<0
76
78
81
88
101

85

87
90
91
95
96
97

88

100
101

104
94
104
93
92
86

85
88

89
94
98
98
103
103
93
101

98
94
94
91
90
90
88
88

100
100
100
100
100

100
100
100
100
100

99
99
99

99
99
99
99

100
100
101
102
102

104
104
104
105
104
103
103
103
103
104
104
104
104
105
105
106
106
105
106
106
105
103
103

100
101
102
102
100
102
102
101
100
100
100
100
100
100
101
101
101

99
101
100

99
99
98
98
98
99
99

95

88

105

102

92
94
95
94

111
112
101

105
108
107
109

130
132

115

109
108
102

115
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
112

no
no
no
no
no
no
no
112

114
114
114
116
124
120

126
126
126
128
128
126
126
124

100
100
100
100
100
101
101
101
100
100

99
99
99
104
98
99
99
99
99
99
98
106
113
111
112

113
126
124
138
136
137
139
130
125
124
117

102
100

99
98
98
98
98
98
98
100
102

103
104
104
105
104
103
103
103
103
103
103
105
109
109
109
107
108
109
no
no
109
109
109
108
108
108

100

100

99
99
99
99
99
99

91
90

100

100
100
100
100
100
100
101
100
100
100
100
100
100
101
101
101
101
101
101

104
104
104
104
104
104
104
104
104
104

87
91
104
no
109
no
106
107
106
108
108
108
107
105
112

132
155
111

105
89
83
84
89
85
84
82

106
99
98
97
97
100
102

104
101

99
98
108
95
94
93
91
91
93
95
143
145
132
113
no
120

no
118

86

120
122

89
99
85
82
79

124
126
127
123
118

w eight­
ed a rti­
cles.
82
84
89
93
92
98

111

100

88

22

Tea.

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

99
99
100
100
100
100

99
100
100

99
99
99
101
101
101
101
101
101
101
101
101
100

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
101
101
101
101
101
101
101
101
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

100

98
97
97
98
97
98
100
101
102

104
105
104
102

104
101

99
97
98
99
102

107
107
105
105
105
101

103
101

98
99
100
100
100
100
100

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING.

1907............................
1908............................
1909............................
1910............................
1911............................
1912............................
1913: Av. f o r y e a r ..
Jan u a ry .............
F e b ru a ry ..........
M arch................
A pril..................
M ay....................
J u n e ...................
J u ly ....................
A ugust...............
Septem ber........
O ctober.............
N ovem ber___
D ecem ber.........
1914: Av. fo r y e a r ..
Jan u a ry .............
F e b ru a ry ..........
M arch................
A p ril..................
M ay ....................
J u n e ...................
J u ly ....................
A ugust..............
Septem ber........
O ctober.............
N ovem ber........
D ecem ber.........
1915: Av. f o r y e a r . .
Ja n u a ry .............
F e b ru a ry ..........
M arch................
A pril..................
M ay....................
J u n e ...................
J u ly ...................
A ugust..............
Septem ber........

Sirloin Round R ib
steak. steak. roast.

T able 3 .—R E L A T IV E R E T A IL P R IC E S OF T H E P R IN C IP A L A R T IC L E S OF FO O D IN T H E U N IT E D STA TES, 1907 TO JU N E , 1920—Continued.

Crr
22

Year and m onth.

1915—Concluded.
O ctober.............
N ovem ber........
D ecember........
1916: Av. fo r year.
Jan u a ry ...........
Feb ru ary ...........
M arch...
A pril...........
M ay....................
J u ñ e .................
J u ly ....................
A ugust..............
S eptem ber........
O ctober...........
i—i
N ovem ber........
December.........
1917: Av. fo r year.
—1
Jan u a ry __
F eb ru ary .........
M arch.......
A pril...............
M ay...........
Ju ñ e.................
J u ly ....................
A ugust...............
Septem ber___
O ctober............
N ovem ber........
D ecember........
1918: Av. for year.
January.
F eb ru ary ...........
M arch...
A pril...............
M ay............
Ju ñ e .........
Ju ly ....................
A ugust...............
Septem ber___
October.............
N ovem ber.......
December.........

¡S^
'


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Sirloin R ound R ib
steak. steak. roast.

103

104

101

102
101

102
101
100

99
108

110

107

101
101

102
102

101
102

104
106
109
113
113

104
108

104
106

112

110

117
116
115
115

112
111
110

112
111

108
106
106
124
109
113
116
125
127
129
129
130
131
130
124
126
153
129
131
133
144
157
168
166
163
164
161
159
159

111

108
107
130
111

117
119
130
133
135
137
138
133
138
133
134
165
137
141
143
155
170
182
181
178
178
175
173
171

113

108
106
106
126
109
114
118
127
130
132
130
129
131
130
127
128
155
130
133
135
148
161
169
168
165
165
163
162
161

Chuck Plate P o rk Ba­ Ham.
Lard. Hens. Eggs. B ut­ Cheese. Milk. Bread. Flour. Corn Rice. Pota­ Sugar. Cof­
roast. beef. chops. con.
ter.
meal.
toes.
fee.

99
98
99
99
98
106
107
99
99
100
99
102
103
106 • 105
109
107
113
111
112
109
110
107
110
107
108
106
107
106
106
106
131
130
109
108
116
116
128
121
131
132
134
135
137
137
137
136
134
136
137
135
136
136
132
134
134
134
166
170
138
142
142
146
145
150
159
164
174
181
184
188
182
185
179
177
181
178
178
174
172
175
174
171
101

110

99
87
108
89
92
104
107
109
110
111

116
125
118
111

106
152
113
125
133
146
146
148
151
164
185
185
165
161
186
163
160
161
170
175
177
180
201
220

216
206
197

101
101
101

106
101
101

103
104
105
107
107
108
110
110
111
no

152
no

114
123
141
155
158
159
160
164
178
179
181
196
180
179
181
183
187
191
194
200

208
214
216
217

99
100

109
101
102

91
92
92

97
95
95
in

93
94
96

101

in

104
107

104
107
109

100

111

110
111
111

106
108
no
111

113
114
113

114
114
114
114
142
114
118
125
136
144
145
147
147
152
159
159
161
178
162
163
164
166
170
173
181
180
193
193
195
198

118
123
135
137
175
136
138
151
167
176
177
174
176
188
198
207
211

211
208
209
210

209
208
206
206
209
213
216
216
216

112

113
114
112
112

134
119
126
129
136
138
136
131
131
142
146
138
143
177
154
170
(')
0)

178
177
178
181
185
183
185
180

117
133
135
109
123
101

82
79
82
87
93
105
120

132
149
154
139
158
147
101
112

116
119
122

134
152
160
168
184
165
195
182
128
123
123
123
142
155
170
186
215
235

92
95
101

103
100

99
105
108
97
95
93
95
102

109
114
118
127
118
122
121

133
122

123
120

124
129
133
138
142
151
148
151
144
132
133
133
137
141
155
170
174
190

104
105
107
117

100
100
100

122
122

102

•130

no
112

100
100
100

122

113
113
112
111
no
in

116
122

132
140
150
141
142
146
150
153
153
149
148
152
158
156
156
162
156
158
159
154
151
150
152
157
163
174
184
193

99
99
99
100
101
102

105
109
112

125
112
112
112

114
117
119
125
128
132
143
144
147
156
151
151
151
148
148
146
148
153
161
166
173
176

124

124
124
124
124
124
124
126
136
144
150
138
164

140
142
144
150
168
170
176
182
176
176
176
166
175
168
170
171
175
177
179
179
177
177
175
175
175

113
113
114
135
120

125
120

119
119
117
116
134
148
155
174
167
211
171
171
174
206
266
246
220

229
223
214
208
205
203
200
200
200
200
200

203
203
206
206
203
203
203

108
107
107
113
107
108
107
108
108
108
108
no

113
117
126
131
192
132
136
137
154
178
182
195
219
272
232
235
235
227
233
233
240
237
233
223
223
227
230
227
217
213

104
104
104
105
105
104
104
104
104
105
105
105
105
105
105
105
119

105
104
104
108
121

125
123
122

124
128
131
133
148
134
136
138
139
141
144
148
154
157
161
161
160

94
97
106
159
136
141
140
138
140
167
134
141
161
165
198
198
253
225
290
297
339
352
366
246
206
172
178
183
178
188
188
188
147
129
129
171
229
229
229
206
194
188

I ll

119
124

100
100
100

Tea.

100
100
100

146

100

100

123
125
137
145
156
158
160
155
141
149
157
151
169
146
148
160
175
183
170
166
181
179
177
174
172
176
173
193
167
165
165
165
167
169
175
193
196
196

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

101

107

100
100
101
101
101
101

100
100
101
101

103

no
111
112

102
102
102
102
102

102
102
102
102
101
101
101
101
101
102
102

103
109

103
104

113
114
114
119
115
112

113
117
117
119
120
121

122
124
125
124

w eight­
ed a rti­
cles.

103
104
105
114
107
106
107
109
109
112
111
ii3
1121
18

126
126
146
128
133
133
145

151
152
146
149
153
157
155
157
168
160
161
154
154
158
162
167
171
178
181
183
187

g
o
¡zj
^

aa
5^
m
>

W
O
W
M
M

5
S
B
^
•

I
1919: Av. fo r year J
J a n u a ry ...........
F e b ru a ry .........
M arch...............
A pril.................
M ay....................
Ju n e ..................
J u ly ....................
A u g u st..............
S ep tem b er........
O ctober.............

164
162
162
165
172
175
170
1/1

166
161
157
155
154
159
160
161
170
1/1

182

174
175
174
177
182
187
181
183
177
170
165
162
161

164
165
165
169
175
178
171
169
164
158
155
153
153

169
175
174
178
184
186
176
173
166
158
153
151
152

167
181
181
183
187
186
174
168
160
150
145
143
143

166
167
168
179
179
191

159
159
161
169
169
176

158
157
157
166
166
174

152
152
150
157
155
157

201

193
180
184
197
205
202
220

223
219
211
200

181
178
180
186
206
202

194

205
217
205
203
212
210
212

215
214
206
196
189
186
186
186
186
191
195
200

199
199
193
191
197
203
205
211
212

234
211

203
211

223
246
254
266
266
242
228
231

205
195
188
186

221

187
188
190
199
206
218

215
204
192
191
189
185

193
188
186
193
202

204
200

197
196
194
189
184
184
197
210

215
224
221

216

182
218
147
140
143
154
155
164
174
183
209
235
261

177
184
149
174
186
177
165
164
167
172
186
197
204

185
183
190
191
192
195
197
195
192
195
196

174
175
174
172
169
167
167
169
174
176
180
184
188

179
175
175
175
175
175
177
179
180
180
180
182
182

240
199
161
153
153
155

194
190
196
199
187
175

196
196
194
194
194
189

187
188
187
183
182
182

200
200

193
201

1 N o hens sold in th is m onth by order of Food A dm inistration.

[265]

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

195
198
205
211

218
200

203
206
218
227
227
227
224
221
221

213
207
200

197
200

207
210

217
220

223

174
159
164
154
154
154
159
168
178
190
199

224
233

220
220
220

245
245
242
245
264
267

220

208

217
217
217
223
230

210
211

202
202

214
215
215

224
188
182
171
182
194
224
282
294
253
224
229
253
318
353
400
535
565
606

205
196
195
193
193
193
193
198
207
227
264

145
117
123
126
129
136
143
155
160
164
163
164
164

129
127
126
129
128
128 i
129
130
130
130
131
131
127

186
1S5
172
175
182
185
181
193
192
188
189
192
197

324
342
340
367
462
485

165
165
165
165
165
165

132
131
135
135
136
136

201
200
200
211

202
200

215
219

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING,

Decem ber.
1920:
J a n u a ry ...
F eb ru ary ..
M arch.......
A p ril.........
M ay...........
J u n e .......... ,

I

CJl

CO

Or

Trend in retail cost of 22 food articles, com bined, for th e U nited States, by m onths, Jan u ary , 1913, to June, 1920.
[Average cost for 1913=100.]
400
375
350
325
300
275
250
225

[266]
1913


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1915

1916

1919

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,

200

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING.

55

Comparison of Retail Food Costs in 51 Cities.
H^ABLE 4 shows for 39 cities the percentage of increase or decrease
in the retail cost of 22 food articles1 in June, 1920, compared
with the average cost in the year 1913, in June, 1919, and in May,
1920. For 11 other cities comparisons are given for the one-year arid
one-month periods. These cities have been scheduled by the Bureau
at different dates since 1913. For Savannah, Ga., the comparison
is given only for the month, as this city was first scheduled by the
Bureau in 1920. These percentage changes are based on actual retail
prices secured each month from retail dealers and on the average
f amily consumption of these articles in each city.3
Effort has_ been made by the Bureau each month to have perfect
reporting cities; that is, to_ have every report sent in by the mer­
chants in time to be used in the computation of the city averages.
For the month of June every merchant cooperating with the Bureau
in the following cities, sent in his report: Baltimore, Boston, Bridge­
port, Buffalo, Butte, Chicago, Fall River, Louisville, Manchester,
Milwaukee, New Tork, Portland, Me., Providence, Rochester, Salt
Lake City, Scranton, St. Louis, and Washington.
T able 4 .—P E R C E N T A G E C H A N G E S IN T H E R E T A IL COST O F 22 FO O D A R T IC L E S IN
JU N E 1920, C O M PA R ED W IT H T H E CO ST IN MAY, 1920, JU N E , 1919, AN D W IT H T H E
A V E R A G E COST IN T H E Y E A R 1913, B Y C IT IE S
[Percentage changes of five-tenths of 1 p er cent an d over are given in whole num bers.]
Percentage increase Ju n e, 1920,
com pared w ith —

Percentage increase June, 1920,
com pared w ith—

City.

City.
1913

A tla n ta .......................
B altim ore...................
B irm in g h am .............
B o sto n .......................
B rid g ep o rt.................
B uffalo.......................
B u tte ..........................
C harleston.................
Chicago.......................
C in cin n ati..................
C leveland...................
Colum bus...................
D allas..........................
D en v er............ ..........
D e tr o it......................
F a ll R iv e r..................
H o u sto n .....................
In d ian ap o lis..............
Jacksonville...............
Kansas C ity, Mo.......
L ittle R o ck ...............
Los Angeles...............
Louisville...................
M anchester................
M em p h is...................

112

118
125
114
123

June,
1919.

M ay, 1920.
14
10

15
22
20

18
23

113
126
119

26
18

124

22

8

a2
0.4
1

4
3
3
1

a1
3
a1
2
2

18
14
17
24

a0 1
3

115

20
12

2

128
98
131

28
9
26

107
95
ns

14
19
14
23
13

110

115
139

122
121

a5
4
a3
4
a1
i
1

4
1

1913
1*70
130

Milwanlrpp
M inneapolis...............
M obile..
___
N ewarlr
N pw TTavpn

June,
1919.
23
23
14
16

18

N pw Orlpans
N p.w "V”nrlr
N orfolk__
Oin ah a,
P eo ria.

114
138

Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
P o rtland. Mp
Portland OrppProvidfi.nfip

17
9
97
26

111

115

1/
19

128

1lo8
18

iy

P i ohmond
Rochester
St. Louis..
St. P a u l...
S alt Lake C ity ..........

137

San Franoisen
S av an n ah...................
Scran ton
Seattle
Springfield, 111
W ashington, D . C ...

104

24
19

102

20

121
110

..........A'
tiyfi

116
!

29

ii

May, 1920.

3

2

U- £
2
1

a1
2

5
Q
o
° 0. 2
3
oQ
5
2
1
1l

*9>
l
1

a0 3
4A
4

A
0.3

„
a Decrease.
1 For list of articles see n ote 2 , p. 47 .
2 The consum ption figure used for each article in each city is given in th e Monthly L aboe R eview of
N ovem ber, 1918, pp. 94 an d 95.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[267]

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,

56

Retail Prices of Coal in the United S tates/
HE following table shows the average retail prices of coal on July
15, 1919, and on January 15, and June 15, 1920, for the United
States and for each of the cities included in the total for the
United States. Prices for coal are secured from the cities from which
monthly retail prices of food are received.
In addition to the prices for Pennsylvania anthracite, prices are
shown for Colorado, Arkansas, and New Mexico anthracite in those
cities where these coals form any considerable portion of the sales
for household use.
The prices shown for bituminous coal are averages made on the
several kinds. The coal dealers in each city are asked to quote
prices on the kinds of bituminous coal usually sold for household
use.
The prices quoted are for coal delivered to consumers but do not
include charges for storing the coal in cellar or coal bin where an
extra handling is necessary.

T

R E T A IL P R IC E S P E R TO N O F 2,000 P O U N D S O F CO AL, F O R H O U S E H O L D U S E , ON JU L Y
15, 1919, AN D ON JA N U A R Y 15 A N D JU N E 15, 1920, B Y C IT IE S AN D F O R T H E U N IT E D
ST A TES.
1919

1920

July 15. Jan. 15. June 15.

Ju ly 15. Jan . 15. June 15
U nited States:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e.............................
C hestn u t.......................
B itu m in o u s.....................
A tla n ta , Ga:
B itu m in o u s.....................
B altim ore, Md.:
P ennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e.............................
C h e stn u t......................
B itu m in o u s.....................
B irm ingham , A la.:
B itu m in o u s.....................
Boston, M ass.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e .............................
C hestn u t.......................
B itu m in o u s.....................
B ridgeport, Conn.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e ........................... .
C hestn u t.....................
B itu m in o u s...................
Buffalo, N . Y .:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e ...........................
C h estn u t.....................
B itu m in o u s...................
B u tte, M ont.:
B itu m in o u s...................
C harleston, S. C.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e ...........................
C hestn u t.....................
B itu m in o u s...................

1920

C ity, a n d kind of coal.

C ity, en d l<ind of coal.

$12.143 $12. 588
12.174 12.768
8.808
8.101
8.250

$14,064
14.134
10.188

9.050

i 11.750 1 12.500 i 13.500
i 11.850 i 12.600 i 13.600
i 6.893
7.500 i 8.786
7.286

7.496

8.791

12.750
12.750
9.500

14.500
14.500
13.500

15.000
15. 000

8 .0 0 0

12.500
12.500
8.500

10.700
10.800

10.890
10.990

12.000
12.000
11.000

12.000
12.000

9.000

11.750
11.750

8.000

9.836

10.381

12.000

10.444

Chicago, 111.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e.............................
C hestnut.......................
B itu m in o us.....................
C incinnati, Ohio:
P ennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e .............................
C h estn ut.......................
B itu m in o us.....................
C leveland, Ohio:
Pen n sy lv ania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e.............................
C h estn u t.......................
B itu m in o us.....................
Colum bus, Ohio:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
1
C h estn u t.......................
B itu m in o us.....................
D allas, Tex.:
A rkansas a n th ra c ite —
E gg................................
B itu m in o us.....................
D enver, Colo.:
Colorado a n th ra c ite —
Stove, 3 an d 5 m ixed.
Furnace, 1 an d 2
m ix ed ........................
B itu m in o us.....................
D etroit, M ich.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
Sto v e.............................
C h estn ut.......................
B itu m in ous.....................

i 13.400 i 13.400 i 16.200
i 13.500 i 13.500 i 16.300
12.000
8.500
8.500
1 Per to n of 2,240 pounds.

$12. 200 $12.590
12.300 12.690
7.017
8.020

$14.150
14. 288
8. 414

12.500
12.667
6.739

14. 000

6.139

11.538
11.650
7.710

12.300
12. 233
7.911

13.525
13.500
9.200

12.000

6.056

•12.000
6.513

14.650
9.982

14.500
11.083

18.500
14.583

17.000
14.000

13.150

14.000

14. GOO

12.650
8.348

13.500
8.908

14.530
9.371

11.890
11.980
7.988

12.650
12.750
8.781

14.250
14.200
10.933

12.000
12. 000

8.000

“ Prices of coal have formerly been secured sem iannually a n d published in the M arch and September
issues of th e M o n t h l y L a b o r R e v i e w . The B ureau now hopes to be able to secure these prices m onthly.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[ 268 ]

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING,

57

R E T A IL P R IC E S P E R TO N O F 2,000 PO U N D S O F COAL, F O R H O U S E H O L D U SE , ON JU L Y
15, 1919, A N D ON JA N U A R Y 15 AND JU N E 15, 1920, B Y C IT IE S A N D F O R T H E U N IT E D

STATES—Continued.

1919

1920

1919

C ity, a n d k in d of coal.
July 15 Jan. 15. June 15.
F a ll R iver, Mass.:
Pennsylvania an th racite—
Stove.............................
C h estn u t.......................
B itu m in o u s.....................
H ouston, T ex.:
B itum inous.....................
Indianapolis, In d .:
Pennsylvania a n th ra cite—
Stove.............................
C hestn u t.......................
B itum inous.....................
Jacksonville, F la.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra cite—
Stove.............................
C hestnut......................
B itum inous.....................
K ansas City, M o.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra cite—
Stove.............................
C hestn u t.......................
A rkansas a n th racite—
Furnace........................
Stove or No. 4.............
B itum inous.....................
L ittle Rock, A rk .:
A rkansas a n th ra c ite —
E gg................................
Stove.............................
B itum inous.....................
Los Angeles, Calif.:
B itu m in o u s....................
Louisville, K y.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra cite—
Stove.............................
C hestn u t.......................
B itum inous.....................
M anchester, N . H .:
Pennsylvania a n th ra cite—
Stove.............................
C hestn u t.......................
B itu m in o u s.....................
M emphis, T enn.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra cite—
Stove.............................
C hestnut.......................
B itu m in o u s.....................
M ilwaukee, W is.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra cite—
Stove.............................
C hestn u t.......................
B itum inous.....................
M inneapolis, M inn.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra cite—
Stove.............................
C hestn u t.......................
B itum inous.....................
Mobile, A la.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra cite—
Stove.............................
C hestn u t.......................
B itu m in o u s.....................

$12. 500 $13,000
12.250 12.750
9.500 10.000
10.000

12.250
12.250
7.375

12.000

13.000
13.167
8.188

15.000
15.000

17.000
17.000

10.000

11.000

16.210
16.470

17.400
17.625

13.593
14.450
7.469

15.950
16.583
8.625

$14.500
14. 250
12.250
11.500

13.750
14. 250
9.313

14.000

15.150
15.750
9.118

12. 500
13.250
9.250

10. 375

11.950

14. 583

16.000

17.000

12.750
12.750
6.816

13.750
13.750
6.836

15.000
9.813

12.750
12.750

13.417
13.417

15.000
15.000

10.000

10.000

12.000

16.000
16.000
7.528

16.000
16.000

17.000
17.000
8.850

8.000

12.400
12. 500
8.144

12.600
12.700
8.960

14.688
14.788
11.469

13.800
13.900
9.189

14.000
14.100
10.425

16.440
16.480
11.918

17.000
17.000
9.722

17.000
17.000
10.333

11.400

Ju ly 15. Jan. 15.! June 15.
N ew ark, N . J.:
P ennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
Stove............................. $10,050
C hestnut....................... 10.050
New H aven, Conn.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
Sto v e............................. 11.333
C hestnut....................... 11.333
N ew Orleans, L a.:
P ennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
Sto v e............................. 16.000
C hestn u t....................... 16.000
B itu m in o u s..................... 8.292
New Y ork, N . Y .:
P en n sy lv an ia a n th r a ­
cite—
S tove............................. 10.800
C hestnut....................... 10.857
Norfolk, V a.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S tove............................. 12.500
C hestn u t....................... 12.500
B itum inous..................... 9.375
O m aha, N ebr.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
Sto v e............................. 16.450
C hestnut....................... 16.550
B itu m in o u s..................... 8.930
Peoria, 111.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
Sto v e............................. 11.667
C hestnut....................... 11.750
B itu m in o u s..................... 5.550
Philadelphia, Pa.:
Pen n sy lv an ia a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e............................. HO. 850
C hestn u t....................... HO. 950
P ittsb u rg h , P a.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e............................. U 2.750
C hestn u t....................... 112.663
B itu m in o u s..................... 5.833
P o rtlan d , Me.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e............................. 12.200
C hestn u t....................... 12. 200
B itu m in o u s..................... 8.573
P o rtlan d , Oreg.:
B itu m in o u s..................... 11.493
Providence, R . I.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
Sto v e............................. 212.000
C h estn u t....................... 212.000
B itu m in o u s..................... 29.000
R ichm ond, Va.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e............................. 12.000
C hestn u t....................... 12.000
B itu m in o u s..................... 8.464

1 Per to n of 2,240 pounds.
2 F ifty cents per to n ad d itio n a l is charged for “ b in n in g .”
ing th e coal in to th e cellar.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1920

City, and k ind of coal.

[269]

$10.483
10.483

$11,750
11.750

12.250
12.250

14.250
14.250

17.500
17.500
9.269

18.500
10.333

11.536
11.600

12.800
12.814

13.000
13.000
9.750

14.500
14.500
11.727

17. 275
17.450
10.108

20. 080

19.940
11.168

13.000
13.000
6.000

6.375

HI. 881 1 13.286
HI. 906 113.250

U3. 750 i 15.250
U4.000 i 15.125
6.179
7.333

13.440
13.440
9.370

15.360
15.360
12.650

11.618

11.800

212.950
213.000
210.000

14.500
14.500
13.167

12.125
12.125
8.931

13.500
13.500
10.286

Most custom ers require binning or basket­

58

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

R E T A IL P R IC E S P E R T O N O F 2,000 PO U N D S O F COAL, F O R H O U S E H O L D U S E , ON JU L Y
15, 1919, A N D ON J A N U A R Y 15 A N D J U N E 15, 1920, B Y C IT IE S A N D F O R T H E U N IT E D
ST A T E S —Concluded.
1919

1919

1920

Ju ly 15. Jan. 15. June 15.
Rochester, N . Y .:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e.............................
C hestn u t.......................
St. Louis, Mo.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
Sto v e.............................
C hestn u t.......................
B itu m in o u s..............
St. P au l, M inn.:
Pennsylvania a n th ra ­
cite—
S to v e.............................
C h estn u t.......................
B itu m in o u s.....................
Salt Lake City, U tah :
Colorado an th racite:
F u rn ace, 1 a n d 2
m ix e d ....................
Stove, 3 a n d 5 m ix e d ..
B itu m in o u s.....................
San Francisco, Calif.:
N ew Mexieo a n th ra ­
cite—
Cerillos egg...................

1920

City, an d k in d of coal.

City,.and k in d of coal.

$10.600
10.700

12.900
12.900
5.425

13.800
13.900
9.875

16.000
16.000
7.250

20.500

San Francisco, Calif.—
Concluded.
Colorado a n th ra c ite —
E g g ................................
$ 10. SOO $12.100
B itum inous
12.200
10.900
Sav an n ah , G a.:
Pennsylvania an th racite—
Sto v e.............................
14.433
13.100
C
hestn
ut.......................
13.225
14.433
B itu m in o us.....................
5.970
Scranton, P a.:
i P ennsylvania a n th ra cite—
S to v e.............................
14.000
16.380
C hestn ut.......................
14.100
16.420
13.277 Seattle, W ash.:
11.531
B itu m in o us.....................
Springfield, 111.:
B itu m in o us.....................
16.313
17.833
16.583
18.167 W ashington. D. C.:
Pen n sy lv ania a n th ra 9.256
8.236
cite—
S to v e........................... .
C h estn ut.......................
B itu m in o us.....................
23.000
23.000

Ju ly 15. Jan. 15. Ju n elS .

$19.400 $21,750
13.591 15.100

$21.750

15.100
15.100
11.100

16.067
16.067
13.233

7.683
7.783

8.233
8.300

9.100
9.100

s 9.103

3 9.588

9.463

3.976

3.950

4.420

H1.911 112.447 1 13.650
U 2 .011 112.538 i 13.729
i 8 . 050 i 8.267 i 9.840

1 P e r to n of 2,240 pounds.
2 Prices in Zone A . T h e cartage charge in Zone A is $1.85, w hich has been included in th e aver­
age. T he cartage charges in Seattle range from $1.85, to $2.90, according to distance

Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices in the
United States.
SLIGHT decline in the general level of wholesale prices in
June is shown by information collected in representative
markets by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Measured b}T
changes in the Bureau’s weighted index number, in which each com­
modity has an influence commensurate with its importance in the
country’s markets, the decrease was a little over 1 per cent.
Food and clothing furnished the most notable examples of price
decline. In the food group the decrease was 2f per cent, while the
group of cloths and clothing showed nearly 3 | per cent decrease.
Smaller decreases were recorded for farm products, metals, and lumber
and building- materials.
Fuel and lighting materials continued steeply upward, with an aver­
age increase of 4.68 per cent. The group of house-furnishing goods
showed the largest increase of all, with an advance of 6f per cent over
the May price level. Chemicals and drugs also increased appreciably
in price, as did the group of miscellaneous commodities including
such important articles as cottonseed meal, lubricating oil, phosphate
rock, and wood pulp.
Some of the more important price changes from May to June, as
measured by average prices in each month, are shown in the state­
ment which follows:

A


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[270]

59

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING.

IM P O R T A N T A R T IC L E S IN C R E A S IN G OR D E C R E A S IN G IN A V E R A G E P R IC E IN J U N E ,
AS C O M PA R E D W IT H MAY, 1920, B Y G R O U P S O P C O M M O D ITIES.

Increases.
Commodity.

Per
cent.

Farm products.
O ats, Chicago.....................
R ye, Chicago..................
C attle, Chicago...................
H ogs, Chicago....................

1.7
1.6
20.1

4.7

Food, etc.
B eans, New Y o rk ..
Cheese, San F ran cisco ___
B ananas, N ew Y o r k .. .
L em ons, Chicago...............
P ru n es, New Y o rk ...........
R aisin s,N e w Y o rk ...........
Corn m eal:
T erre H a u te ....................
P h ilad e lp h ia ...................
Beef, fresh :
Good n a tiv e steers,
C hicago.........................
N a tiv e sid e s, New Y ork
Milk, New Y o rk ................

5.2
14.6
24.8
21.2

12.4
12.2

3.7
6.3
14.1
14.6
9.8

Cloths and clothing.
Silk, New Y o rk .................
F lannel, woolen, B o sto n .

C om m odity.

Per
cent.

C om m odity.

Per
cent.

Fuel and lighting.

Chemicals and drugs.

Coal, b itu m in o u s:
Chicago..
C in cin n ati.........
P ittsb u rg h ........
St. L ouis..........................
Coke, P itts b u rg h ...............
G asoline.......... ..................

A lcohol, wood, New Y ork
A lum , lum p N mv Y ork

17.0
•9.7

New Y ork
Soda, carbonate of (sal
soda) New Y o r k ...

8.1

11.7
8.2

3.3
10.2

19.2

House-furnishing goods.

Metals and metal products.
P ig iron:
Basic, valley
Bessemer, P ittsb u rg h .
F o u n d ry No. 2 , no rth ern, P itts b u rg h ..........

1.7

Bedroom sets, Chicago. . .
Bedroom chairs, Chicago.
K itchen tables, C hicago..

10.2

11.5
2.9

1.8

Miscellaneous.
1.6

Lum ber and building
materials.
B rick, C in cin n ati..............
Cem ent, N ew Y o rk ..........
Lim e, New Y o rk ...............
P o p lar, New Y o r k . .. ___

7.8

2.0

12.5
5.8
3.1
3.0

C ottonseed m eal, New
Y o rk ..................................
L u b ricating oil, New
Y ork.
P h osphate rock, T am pa,
F la . . .
W ood p u lp , New Y o rk ...

1.4
8.7
23.0
13.1

2.6

7.4

Decreases.
Farm products.
C otton, N ew Y o rk ............
Flaxseed, M in n eap o lis...
B arley, Chicago.................
Corn, Chicago.....................
W h e a t:
Chicago.....................
K ansas C ity .............
M inneapolis.....................
H ay :
Alfalfa, K ansas C ity __
T im o th y , Chicago.........
C alfskins, Chicago.........
G oatskins, N ew Y o rk ___
P ackers’ hides, C h icag o ..
Sheep, C hicago...................
P eanu ts, N orfolk...............
Tobacco’ L o u isv ille..........

B u tte r:
B o s to n ................
Chicago.........................
C in cin n ati....................
New O rleans...................
New Y o rk ....................
P h ilad e lp h ia ...............
St. L ouis....................
Cheese:
Chicago.............................
N ew Y o rk ..............

4.9
14.7
12.9
7.2
4.9
4.2
5.7
9.9
8.8

32.2
28.2
3.6
32.2
7.6
3.0

6.7
4.9
6.4
6.8

7.4
8.9
6.5
9.8
6.4

Food, etc.—Con.
Eggs:
B o sto n ...
Chicago.............................
New Orleans.
New Y o rk __ _
San Francisco...........
F lour, w h eat:
P a te n t, K ansas C i t y . . .
S tan d ard p a te n t, Minneapolis........................
B ak ers’p a te n t, Minnea p o lis ..
Oranges, Chicago.........
L am b , Chicago”. .......
M utton, N ew Y o rk ..........
P o u ltry :
New Y o rk ........
C hicago.............................
Veal, New Y o rk ............
O leooil, Chicago...............
Sugar, 96° centrifugal.
N ew Y o rk ............
O nions, Chicago.................
Potatoes, Chicago.
Cloths and clothing.
Shoes, fa c to ry ..
P rin t cloths, Poston
Sheeting, b ro w n , Boston
C otton yarn s, B o sto n ___
W ool, B o sto n .....................
W oolen y arn s, P hiladelp h ia ....................

Metals and metal products.
4.8
3 3
2.5
2.9
4.4
5.8
5 0
11.9
4.6
11.8

3 2

Silver har fine Npw Nork
T in , pig, N ew Y ork
New Y ork

1L9
2 .0

Lum ber and building
materials.
L a th , N ew Y ork.
Douglas-fir:
No 1 m ills W ashington State
No. 2, m ills, W ashingto n S ta te ...
T u rp en tin e , N ew Y o rk ...
Shingles, red c edar, m ills .

5.9
21.3
22.7
24.5
16.0

8.1

6.7
6.5

Chemicals and drugs.

6.1

C austic soda, N ew Y o rk ..
Soda ash, light, New
Y o rk __

60.6
10.2

5 3
2 fi
fi 2

6.3
17.2
4.9

New Y ork

3.5
6.3
7 1

Miscellaneous.
Cottonseed oil, New Y ork
M anila hem p , N ew Y ork.
Mill-feed m iddlings, Minnenpolis

3 1
13.2
9.4
2 8

As shown by changes in the index numbers for the 12 months
from June, 1919, to June, 1920, farm products increased 5.2 per cent,
food 36.8 per cent, and cloths and clothing 29.8 per cent. During
the same time fuel and lighting increased 44.7 per cent, metals and
metal products 23.4 per cent, and lumber and building materials


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[271]

60

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,

92.6 per cent. Chemicals and drugs increased 25.3 per cent, house­
furnishing goods 55.4 per cent, and miscellaneous, commodities 16.5
per cent in average price. All commodities, considered in the aggre­
gate, increased nearly 30 per cent in price.
IN D E X N U M B E R S O F W H O L E S A L E P R IC E S IN S P E C IF IE D Y E A R S A N D M O N T H S, 1913
TO JU N E , 1920, B Y G R O U P S O F CO M M O D ITIES.
[1913=100.]

Farm
prod­
ucts.

Food,
etc.

1913................................

100

J a n u a ry ...................
A pril........................
J u ly ..........................
O ctober...................

100

97
97

99
96

101

102
102

Y ear an d m o n th .

103

Metals
and
m etal
Prod­
ucts.

100
100
100
100
100

100

100

100

98
99

98
98
99
99
97

96
99
98
95
93

100

93
93
89
90
96

102
100

119
105
108
108
133

148
126
147
145
151

101

103
98
99

1914..............................
Ja n u a ry ...................
A pril........................
Ju ly ..........................
O ctober...................

103

103

101

102

103
104
103

95
104
107

1915..............................
Ja n u a ry ...................
A pril........................
J u ly ..........................
O ctober...................

105

104
106
105
104
103

96
99
99
103

1916..............................
J a n u a ry ...................
A pril........................
J u ly ......... : ..............
O ctober...................

. 122
108
114
118
136

126
113
117

110

140

119
126
138

1917..............................
J a n u a ry ...................
A pril........................
J u ly ..........................
O ctober...................

189
148
181
199
208

176
150
1S2
181
183

181
161
169
187
193

175
176
184
192
146

1918..............................
Ja n u a ry ...................
F e b ru a ry ................
M arch.......................
A pril........................
M ay..........................
J u n e .........................
J u ly ..........................
A u g u st.....................
S ep tem b er..............
O ctober...................
N ovem ber..............
D ecem ber...............

220

189
187
186
177
178
177
179
184
191
199

239
216
223
232
237
245
.249
252
255
257
256
250

102

107
108
105

207
208
•212

217
214
217
224
230
237
224


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

100

87
92
91
85
83

97
98
99
97
96

101
100
100

97
83
91

94
94
94
93
93

114
103

99

99
105

102

108
124

99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99

100
100

100
100

98

98

101
100

100
101

99
99

100
100

98

101

97
96

100

99

99

101

100

99

99
98
99

100
101
101

208
183
208
257
182

124
106
114
132
134

198
159
170
198
252

144
132
139
152
152

163
157
157
158
157
160
159
166
166
167
167
171
171

181
174
176
176
177
178
17S
184
185
184
187
188
184

151
136
138
144
146
148
150
154
157
159
158
164
164

221

232
232
232
229
223
219
216

196
161
161
165
172
173
198
199

196
185
186
187
190
190
193
198

222
220

221

193
178
181
184
191
194
196
190
191
194
196
203
204

219
234

261
234
223
216
217
228
258
282
304
306
313
325
335

173
170
169
168
167
167
170
171
175
181
181
179
181

161
172
168
162
152
152
154
158
165
160
161
164
169

253
244
246
270
287
279

350
356
356
353
347
335

184
187
192
213
235
246

177
189
192
195
193
190

201
210

222

207
196
203

246
237
239
246
244
243

98

100
100
100
100
100

124

210

1920:
J a n u a ry ...................
F e b ru a ry ................
M arch......................
A pril........................
M av..........................
Ju n e
...............

100
101
101

102

101

121

234
218
228
235
240
231
246
243
226
230
240
244

128

100
100
101
101

107

All
com­
m od­
ities.

159
150
172
156
150

221
222

1919..............................
J a n u a ry ...................
F e b ru a ry ................
M arch.......................
A pril........................
M av..........................
J u n e .........................
J u ly ..........................
A ugust.....................
S ep tem b er..............
O ctober...................
N o v em b er..............
D ecem ber...............

L um ­
ber
Chemi­ H ouse Miscel­
and
fur­
cals
build­
nishing lane­
a nd
ing
ous.
goods.
drugs.
m ate­
rials.

Fuel
and
lig h t­
ing.

Clothsand
cloth­
ing.

206

211

214
204
216
227
211
211

211

1 Prelim inary.

[272]

101

99
99

115
105
108
121

no

110
120

132

117
119
134

155
138
149
153
163

176
151
172
186
181

218
215
195

226
226
226
227

192
161
163
165
162
164
175
186
208
227
231
236
253

179
191
185
183
178
179
174
171
172
173
174
176
179

236
218
218
218
217
217
233
245
259
262
264
299
303

212
221

268
300
324
341
341
337

189
197
205

324
329
329
331
339
362

227
227
230
238
246
247

212

215
218

124

120

107

202

207
204
206
206

217

212

203
197

212

208
217
216
213
225
217
220
220
220

201

i
,

203
207
207
218
226
220

223
, 230
238

A:

248
249
253
265
272
269

PRICES ASTD COST OF LIVIRTG.

61

Changes in Wholesale Prices in the United States.
REVIEW of wholesale price movements in representative mar­
kets of the United States during the second quarter of 1920
shows that a number of important commodities averaged
lower than in the first quarter. Among the articles showing a de­
crease were cattle, fresh beef, hogs, lard, salt pork, sheep, butter,
eggs, milk, rice, wool, worsted yarn, hides, leather, pig tin, pig lead,
and spelter.
On the other hand, many articles, as hams, mutton, wheat and
wheat flour, corn and corn meal, oats, rye and rye flour, barley,
potatoes, sugar, cotton and cotton yarn, anthracite and bituminous
coal, coke, pig iron, steel billets, crude and refined petroleum and
gasoline, increased in price during the quarter. Mess beef, bacon,
cotton and woolen goods, shoes, electrolytic copper, copper wire, and
tin plate showed practically no change in price.
Comparing prices in June with those of a year ago, the Bureau’s
records show that milk, cattle, hams, eggs, and sheep each decreased
about 10 per cent, wool 15 per cent, hides 16 per cent, and mess pork
28 per cent. A decrease of 29 per cent is shown for hogs, 36 per cent
for bacon, 40 per cent for lard, 43 per cent for pig tin, and 52 per cent
for mess beef, respectively.
In the same period, mutton, corn, butter, electrolytic copper, fresh
beef, corn meal, and copper wire showed increases ranging from 4 to
17 per cent. Wheat and wheat flour and spelter each increased 18
per cent, cotton 20 per cent, gasoline 22 per cent, worsted yarns and
storm serge 25 per cent, and shoes and barley about 28 per cent.
Pig iron and crude petroleum increased 53 per cent, steel billets 56
per cent, pig lead 60 per cent, oats 61 per cent, rice 73 per cent, and
sugar, coke, and potatoes 141 per cent, 258 per cent, and 329 per
cent, respectively, from June, 1919, to June, 1920.

A

23S6°— 20-______ r

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[273]

W H O L E S A L E P R IC E S IN C E R T A IN M ON TH S, 1914 TO 1920, AS C O M PA R E D W IT H A V ER A G E P R IC E S IN 1913.1

Average money prices.

Article.

U nit.

1920

1919

July1913
1917

1915

1918

Jan.

Apr,

July.

Oct.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

June.

FOODSTUFFS.

(а) A nim al.

[274]

100 lb s.

L b ........

Bbl_

100 lb s.

L b ........
L b ........
L b ........
B b l .. ..
100 lb s.
L b ........
L b ........
D oz___
Q t........

89.213
.132
17. 500
7. 281

22.471
4. 687
. 103
.310
.226
.035

89. 219
. 135
17.250
8.769
.141
.177
.102
23.625
4.538
.095
.270
.187
.030

.874
4.584
.625
1.599
.376
.630
3.468
.625
.051
.614
.043

.897
4.594
.710
1.780
.369
.618
3.075
.533
.054
1.206
.042

1.390
7.031
.783
1.750
.529
1.036
5.533
.743
.049
.444
.058

.128

.131
.215
.070
. 0S5
.444

.092
.160
.060
.075
.55.7

$8.507
.130
18.923
8.365
. 127
.166
.110

.111

.161
.081
18.500
5. 469
.109
.261
.169
.030

§9.985 $12.560 $17.625 $18-413 $18.325 $16.869 $17.594 $15,938
.232
.229
.208
.245
.245
.240
.104
.141
18. 250 30. 500 34.875 35.500 35. 500 34.300 23.250 18.625
9.825 15.460 17. 720 17.538 20.500 22.225 14. 656 15. 094
.221
.227
.337
.289
.326
.276
.248
.157
.294
.290
.384
.349
.360
.303 i
.240
. 190
.241
.351
.280
.313
.238
.264
.201
.131
27.167 42.250 48.500. 50.375 55. 000 58.900 44.125 44.875
8.125
7.156 10.875
9.556 13.500
8.600 10. 975
6.545
. 158
.159
.126
.229
. 176
.205
.145
.131
.631
.640
.512
.615
.618
.432
.376
.276
.652
.569
.406
.403
.579
.374
.223
.318
.073
.085
.071
.091
.066
.054
.050
.031

$14.969 $14,400 $13,906 $12.600 $15-031
• 223
.209
. 195
.213
.205
17.000
17. 000 17. 000 17.000 17.000
14./25
14. 513 14.435 14.806 13.975
.212
.219
.218
. 211
.220
. 3(35
. 356
.331
.316
.306
.206
.200
.208
.210
.210
40.400
43. 438 42. 300 42.813 42.250
7.344
13. 003 13.525 14. 250 12.525
. 172
. 195
.251
.196
.200
.549
.639
.571
.663
.622
.388
.413
.411
. 450
.515
.067
.061
.079
.061
.081

( б ) Vegetable.
W heat, No. 1, n o rth e rn __
W heat flour, standard p a te n t
Corn, No. 2, m ix ed........
Corn m e a l........................
O ats, s tan d a rd , in sto re__
R ye, No. 2........................
R ye flour..........................
Barley, fair to good m alting.
Rice, H onduras, h e a d ...
Potatoes,, w h ite ................
Sugar, g ra n u la te d ............

B u ........
B b l .. ..
B u .......
100 lb s.
B u .......
B u .......
B b l .. ..

Bu....

L b .......
B u .......
L b .......

1.170
6.100

.808
1.982
.405
.960
5.035
.746
.045
.803
.075

13.538
1.450
3.013
.833
1.568
8 . 513
1.390
.128
2.678
.150

2.755
13.165
1.579
3.450
.901
1.744
9.510
1.518
.125
3.291
.137

3.006
14.281
1.706
3.775
1.003
2.007
11. 138
1.656
.123
4.249
. 192

3.075
15.031
1.995
4.220
1.095
2.174
11.869
1.725

1.350
.088

2.931
14.444
1.503
3.080
.836
1.766
9. 538
1.494
.127
2 . 621
. 154

.355
.611
.229
.294
1.236

.393
.727
.285
.323
1.236

.388
.747
(3)
.333
1.236

.414
.755
(3)
.333
1.230

.424
. 77S
(3>
.333

.414
.767
(3)
.333
1.164

2.170
2.582
12. 750 210.702
1. 665
2.044
4.825
4.880
.765
. 764
1.705
2. 226
11.417 10- 500
1.125
1.391
.094
.070
1.035
2.375
.074
.075

2.223
12.275
1.401
3.150
.653
1.613
8.738
.956
.091
1.084
.088

2.589
12.215
1.609
3.525
.681
1.741
10.060
1.133
.087
1.152
.088

2.680
12.155
1.920
4.488
. 764
1.555
8.050
1.268
.133
1.683
.088

2.625
12.031
1.400
2.950
.706
1.388
7.413
1.299

.312
.041
(3)
.250
1.437

.296
.445
.191
.209

.290
.417
. 150
.176
1.091

.351
.591
.219
.274
1.236

.121

2.688

.122

4.425
.225

2.900
14.160
1.851
4.375
1.114
2 . 208
12.010

1. 520
. 123
3.975
.212

TEXTILES AND LEATHER GOODS.

C otton, u p la n d , m iddling.........
C otton y arn , carded, 10/1..........
Sheeting, brow n, Pepperell----Bleached m uslin, Lonsdale___
Wool, 1/4 an d 3/8 grades, scoured


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

.2 21

.073
.082
.471

.130
.253
.078
.088

.261
.450
.140
.160

.686

1.200

1.200

1.200

.393
.730
(3)
. 33o
1.000

REV IEW ,

C attle, good to choice steers__
Beef, fresh, good n ativ e steers..
Beef, salt, ex tra m ess.................
Hogs, h e av y .................................
Bacon, sh o rt, clear sides............
H am s, sm oked, loose.................
L ard , prim e, co n tract................
P ork, s a lt, m ess...........................
Sheep, ew es.......... .......................
M utton, dressed..........................
B u tte r, cream ery, e x tra ............
Eggs, fresh, firsts........................
M ilk................................................

W orsted y arn , 2/32’s .....................
Clay w orsted suitings, 16-oz.......
Storm serge, all-wool, 50-in.........
H ides, packers’ heavy n ativ e
s te e rs............................................
L eather, chrom e calf....................
L eather, sole, oak..........................
Shoes, m en ’s, Goodyear w elt,
v iei calf, blu ch er.......................
Shoes, w om en’s Goodyear welt,
kid, 8 -in. la c e 4............................

L b ..........
Y d .........
Y d .........

.777
1.382
.563

.650
1.328
. 505

.850
1.508
.539

1.100
2.000

2.600
3.250
1.176

2.150
4.450
1.470

Î. 750

1.500

1.750

2.250

1.G42

1.054

1.223

1.374

(3)

1.421

2.250
5.423
1.421

2.200

.760

L b ..........
S q .f t...
L b ..........

.184
.270
.449

.194
.275
.475

.258
.280
.495

.270
.460
.635

.330
.540
.815

.324
.640
.830

.280
.660
.785

.295
.680
.825

.486
1.100

.482
1.250
1.025

.400
1.275
.915

.403
1.275
.915

.364
1.275
.915

(3)

( 3)

1.000
( 3)

.950

(3)

5.423
1.421

2.200

5.423
1.421
.361
1.250
.915

2.000 I

2.000

.354
1.175
.910

.341
1.075
.900

5.423 I
1.421

P a ir.......

3.113

3.150

3.250

3.750

4.750

5.645

6.500

6.500

7.476

9.000

9.282

9.500

9.600

9.600

9.600

P a ir.......

9.100

2.175

2.260

2.350

2.750

3.500

5.000

5.350

5.350

7.250

8.000

8.000

8.250

8.250

8.250

8.250

7.750

5.313

2.200
2.000

6.693
4.100

8.050
4.100
5.781
.204
.228
33.600
43.500
7.350
.715
.056
.074
4.000
.175
.245

8.017
4.000
3.900
.153
.175
29.350
38.500
7.000
.725
.051
.065
4.000
.185
.245

8.304
4.000
4.095
.215
.244
39.350
38.500
7.000
.702
.056
.079
4.000
.205
.245

8.507
4.500
4.825
.217
.264
29.350
38.500
7.000
.560
.064
.079
4.250

8.518
4.100

8.513
4.100

6.000

8.514
4.100

6.000

.193
.228
40.400
48.000
7.000
.637
.087
.097
5.063
.224
.257

6.000

.191
.230
42.900
55.250
7.000
.603
.088
.092
5.513
.240
.265

.186
.230
43.400
60.000
7.000
.621
.092
.089

8.523
5.500
10.500
.192
.230
43.650

MINERAL AND METAL PRODUCTS.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

2.240 lbs
2.000 lbs
2.000 lbs

2.200

2.538
L b ........
.157
L b ........
.167
2.240 lbs 17.133
2.240 lbs 25.789
100 l b s . . 3.558
L b ........
.449
L b .........
.044
L b .........
.058
B b l___
2.450
G al........
.123
G al........
.168

5.241

.134
.148
14.900
19.000
3.350
.311
.039
.051
1.750

5.200
2.200

2.750
.199
.210

14.950
21.380
3.175
.391
.058
.220

1.350

.120

.120

.140

.120

5.507
5.933
5.000
2.750 15.000
.265
.318
.325
.328
21.950 57.450
41.000 100.000
5.875 12.000
.389
.620
.069
.114
.113
.093
2.600
3.100
2.200

.120

.120

.240

.240

6.000

.255
.285
36.600
47.500
7.750
.932
.080
.087
4.000
.171
.241

.220

.245

60.000
7.000
.623
.090
.086

6.100 6.100
.250
.2S0 .260
.285

a ™ ndardewar flom!ied qUarterly in the February> MaY August, and November issues of the Monthly L abor R eview .
3 No quotation.
4 Prior to January, 1918, prices are fcr gun m e ta l,button.

9.039
6.000
12.000

.191
.230
44.025
60.000
7.000
.557
.086
.081
6.100

.260
.294

9.462
6.000

14.300
.190
.230
44,800
60.000
7.000
.410
.085
.080
6.100

.260
.300

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING.

Coal, an th racite, ch estn u t.........
Coal, bitum inous, ru n of m in e .
Coke,furnace, prom pt sh ip m en t
Copper, electrolytic.........
Copper w ire, bare, No. 8 .
Pig iron: B essem er..........
Steel billets........................
T in p late, domestic, coke
Pig t i n ................................
Pig le a d ..............................
S p e lte r..............................
Petroleum , c ru d e............. .............
Petroleum , refined, w ater-w hite.
Gasoline, m otor...........

5.423
1.421

05
CO

a

W H O L E S A L E P R IC E S IN C E R T A IN MONTHS, 1914 TO 1920, AS C O M PA RED W IT H A V ER A G E P R IC E S IN 1913—Concluded.

Relative prices.
J u ly Article. •>

FOODSTUFFS.
*

1920

1919

1913
1914

1915

/:§

t,

[276]

1916

1917

1918

Jan.

Apr.

July.

Oct.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

A pr.

May.

June.

117.4
108.5
96.4
117.5
123.6
114.5
119.1
120.9
139.6
127.2
89.0
98.7
88.6

147.6
126.2
161.2
184.8
195.3
144.0
182.7
188.0
183.5
140.8
121.3
140.7
142.9

207.2
184.6
184.3
211.8
217.3
182.5
240.0
215.8
234.2
169. 0
139.4
165.5
154.3

216.4
188.5
187. 6
209.7
227.6
210.2
216.4
224.2
203.9
170.9
199.4
256.2
260.0

215.4
188.5
187. 6
245.1
256. 7
216.9
284.5
244.8
288.0
222.3
198.4
178.3
188.6

198.3
160.0
181.3
265.4
265.4
231.3
319.1
262.1
173.4
154.4
165.2
184.1
202.9

206.8
176.2
122.9
175.2
178.7
174. 7
254.5
196.4
152.7
122.3
208.4
251.8
208.6

187.4
178.5
98.4
180.4
174.0
177.1
219.1
199. 7
232.0
153.4
203.5
288.5
242.9

176.0
163. 8
89.8
173.5
173. 2
184.3
190.9
193.3
278. 7
200.0
200.6
227.9
231.4

169.3
157. 7
89.8
172.6
166.1
190.4
190.9
188.2
288.6
190.3
213.9
199.1
225.7

163.5
160. 8
89.8
177.0
172.4
199.4
181.8
190.5
304.0
243. 7
206.1
182.7
174.3

148.1
150.0
89. 8
167. 1
171.7
214.5
189. 1
188.0
267. 2
189.3
184. 2
181.9
174.3

176.7
171.5
89. 8
176. 0
166.9
219.9
187.3
179. 8
156. 7
167.0
177.1
171.7
191.4

331.8
308.9
296. 2
273.6
296.3
347.2
346.3
243.2
241.2
647.4
493.0

(a) Anim al.

C attle, good to choice steers...........................
Beef, fresh, good n ativ e steers.......................
Beef, salt, e x tra m ess.......................................
Hogs, h eav y .......................................................
Bacon, short, clear sides..................................
H am s, sm oked, loose.......................................
Lard, prim e, contract......................................
Pork, salt, m ess...............................................
Sheep, ew es........................................................
M utton, dressed................................................
B u tte r, cream ery, e x tra ..................................
Eggs, fresh, firsts...............................................
M ilk......................................................................

106.6
92.7
105.1
96.8
92.2
87.1
82.7
85.7

108.3
101.5
92.5
87.0
87.4
97.0
73.6
82.3
116.7
105.8
84.2
74.8
85.7

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

102.6
100.2
113.6
111.3
98.1
97.2
88.7
85.3
105.9
196.4
97.7

159.0
153.4
125.3
109.4
140. 7
162.9
159.5
118.9
96.1
72.3
134.9

133.9
133.1
120.3
124.0
107.7
. 151.9
145.2
119.4
88.2
140.6
174.4

295.4
278.1
327.0
305.2
203.2
350.0
329.2
222.6
137.3
386.6
174.4

248.3
i 233.5
266.4
301.8
203.5
268.1
302.8
180.0
154.3
168.6
172.1

254.3
224.1
224.2
197.0
173.7
253.6
252. 0
153.0
178.4
176.5
204.7

296.2
266.5
257.4
220.4
181.1
273.7
290.1
181.3
170.6
1S7. 6
204.7

306.6
265.2
307.2
280.7
203. 2
244.5
232.1
202.9
260.8
274.1
204.7

300.4
262.5
224. 0
184.5
187.8
218.2
213.8
207.8
237.4
219.9
204.7

335.4
315. l l
240.5*
192.6
222.3
277.7
275.0
239.0
249. 0
426. 9
358.1

307.6
295.3
232.0
188.4
221.5
246.5
245.5
222.4
251.0
436.2
348.8

315.2
287.2
252.6
215.8
239.6
274.2
274.2
242.9
245.1
536.0
318.6

343.9
311.5
273. 0
236.1
266.8
315.6
321.2
265.0
241.2
692.0
446.5

351. 8
327.9
319.2
263.9
291.2
341. 8
342. 2
276.0
239.2
720.7
523.3

100
100
100
100
100
100

71.9
102.3
97.3
72.4
95.9
82.2
103.7
91.5
94.3
118.3
83.7 I 109.4

101.6
114.5
106.8
107.3
145.6
141.6

203.9
203.6
191.8
195.1
254.8
205.9

243.8
289.6
(2)
304.9
305.1
276.7

231.3
201.4
261.6
254.9
254.8
225.2

226.6
188.7
205.5
214.6
231.6
193.1

274.2
267.4
300.0
334.1
262.4
205.9

277.3
276.5
313. 7
358.5
262.4
225.2

307.0
329.0
390.4
393. 9
262.4
289.6

303.1
338.0
(2)
406.1
262.4
289.6

323.4
341.6
(2)
406.1
262.4
283.1

331.3
352.0
(2)
406.1
254.8
283.1

323.4
347.1
(2)
406.1
247. 1
257.4

108.4
103.8
91.2
104.8
111.0

(&) Vegetable.
W heat, No. 1, northern...................................
W heat flour, stan d ard p a te n t........................
Corn, No. 2, m ix ed ...........................................
Corn m eal...........................................................
O ats, stan d ard , in store...................................
R ye, No. 2 .........................................................
Rye flour........................................................
Barley, fair to good m altin g ...........................
Rice, H onduras, h e a d .....................................
Potatoes, w h ite.................................................
Sugar, granulated.............................................
TEXTILES AND LEATHER GOODS.

Cotton, upland, m iddling...............................
Cotton yarn, carded, 10/1................................
Sheeting, brow n, Pepperell............................
Bleached m uslin, L onsdale...........................
Wool, 1/4 to 3/8 grades, scoured....................
W orsted yarn, 2/32s.........................................


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

i

ft

307.0
330.3

(2)

406.1
212.3
257.4

REVIEW.

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
£ 100

Clay w orsted suitings, 16-ounce....................
Storm serge, a ll wool, 50-inch........................
H ides, packers’ heavy native steers............
L eath er, chrome calf........................................
L eath er, sole, o a k .............................................
Shoes, m en’s, Goodyear w elt, vici calf,
blu ch er............................................................
Shoes, w omen’s, Goodyear w elt, k id ,
8 -inch lace 8................................................... .

100
ICO
ICO
ICO
ICO

96.1
89.7
105.4
101.9
105.8

109.1
95.7
140.2
103.7

100

235.2
208.9
179.3

110.2

144.7
135.0
146. 7
170.4
141.4

101.2

104.4

120.5

100

103.9

108.1

ICO
ICO

98.6
1C0.0
78.8
85.4

69.0
126.8
125.7
87.3
82.9
89.2
87.1
131.8
379.3
55.1
97.6
71.4

108.4
168.8
195.6
128.1
159.0
165.1

392.4
252.4
219.0
472.2
203.8

392.4
252.4
197.8
472.2
203.8

392.4
252.4
196.2
463.0
203.8

392.4
252.4
192.4
435.2
202.7

392.4
252.4
185.3
398.1
200.4

305.2

308.4

308.4

308.4

292.3

312.3

312.3

312.3

312.3

293.4

100.3
186.4
236.4
118.5
137.7
253.3
232.7
196.7
138.3
209.1
153.4
249.0
203.3
166. 7

100.4
250.0
413. 7
122.3
137.7
254.8
232.7
196.7
138.8
204.5
148.3
249.0
211.4
169.6

170.5
272.7
472.8
121.7
137.7
257.0
232.7
196.7
124.1
195.5
139. 7
249.0
211.4
175.0

171.8
272.7
563.4

(-)
291.7
152. 2
244. 4
174.8

(2)
187.2
160.3
251.9
183.7-

(2)
217.2
264.1
407.4

181.5

322.0
261.1
176.1
237.0
184.9

152.6

181.3

208.8

208.8

240.2

289.1

298.2

126.4

160.9

189.2

202.6

202.6

274.5

302.8

302.8

97.9

103.7
100.0

111.7
227.3
591.0
202.5
202.4
335.3
387.8
337.3
138.1
259.1
160.3
126.5
97.6
142.9

126.0
186.4
236.4
162.4
170.7
213.6
184.2
217.8
207.6
181.8
151.7
163.3
139.0
143.5

151.5
186.4
227.8
129.9
136.5
196.1
168.7
206.6
159.2
127.3
127.6
163.3
142.3
145.8

150.9
181.8
153.7
97.5
104.8
171.3
149.3
196. 7
161.5
115.9

156.3
181.8
161.3
136.9
146.1
171.3
149.3
196.7
156.3
124.7
136.2
163.3
166.7
145.8

160.1
204.5
190.1
138.2
158.1
171.3
149.3
196.7
124.7
145.5
136.2
173.5
178.9
145.8

160.3
186 4
236.4
122.9
136.5
235.8
186.1
196.7
141.9
197.7
167.2
206.7
182.1
153.0

100.2

100.0

200.0

211.6

(2)
244.0
262.0
463.0
228.3

(2)
252.4
217.4
472.2
203.8

MINERAL AND METAL PRODUCTS.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1 Standard w ar flour.

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
ICO

100

ICO

88.6

87.0
73.7
94.2
69.3
88.6

87.9
71.4
97.6
83.3

86.6

156.8
194.8
106.1
97.6
142.9

* No quotation.

112.1

163.3
150.4
145.8

186.4
236. 4.
121.7
137.7
250.4
214.2
196.7
134.3
200.0

158.6
225.0
195.1
157.7

3 Prior to January, 1918, prices are for gun m etal, button.

121.0

137.7
261.5
232.7
196.7
91.3
193.2
137.9
249.0
211.4
178.6

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING,

Coal, an th racite, c h estn u t.............................
Coal, bitum inous, ru n of m ine....................
Coke, furnace, p ro m p t sh ip m e n t................
Copper, electrolytic.........................................
Copper wire, bare, N o. 8 ...............................
Pig iro n , B essem er.........................................
S teel b illets......................................................
T in p la te , dom estic, coke.............................
P ig tin ...............................................................
Pig lead .............................................................
S p elter...............................................................
P etro leu m , c ru d e ...........................................
P etro leu m , refined, w ater-w hite.................
Gasoline, m o to r...............................................

OH

or

66

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

Cost of Living in Massachusetts in 1919-20.1
COMMISSION to investigate living costs, especially those of
the necessaries of life, was created by the Massachusetts
Legislature in 1919. The commission assumed its duties on
August 1, 1919, and in accordance with the general demand for
action rather than study the commission at once took over many of
the duties of the war-time food and fuel administrations.
At that time the Army authorities were about to place on sale the
surplus Army stores of food, and the commission was able to effect a
considerable saving to the people of the State by obtaining a larger
proportion of these supplies than could otherwise have been secured,
which, in addition to being sold at a lower price, had the effect of
lowering prices on similar goods. An ice famine in the summer and
a coal famine in the fall were also dealt with successfully by the
commission, and the limited supply of sugar was conserved and dis­
tributed as equitably as possible. The housing shortage had resulted
in many cases of excessive increases in rentals, and such cases were
adjusted by the board with the aid of a group of real estate men who
advised as to what constituted a fair increase. About 3,000 cases
were adjusted, and the publicity acted as a deterrent to other land­
lords from making excessive charges. I t is stated in the report that
while these administrative duties were perhaps outside the legal scope
of the commission’s authority it was felt that it was the main justifi­
cation for its existence, since by these measures it had effected such
material savings to the people of the State.
In January, 1920, the cost of living in Massachusetts had. increased
92 per cent over the cost in 1913. The principal reasons for increases
in prices are believed to be (1) the law of supply and demand, under
which are included the wastage of war; loss of productivity due to
reduction in man power, shorter hours of labor, and labor unrest
resulting in strikes, changing jobs, and the tendency to take frequent
vacations; extravagant expenditures; foreign exports and imports;
(2) currency expansion and inflation of credit; (3) increase in costs
of production; (4) increased taxation; and (5) so-called profiteering.
Idle general effects of increased prices are shown in the variations
in commodity prices, in wages and incomes, and in business changes.
Food prices were the first to reflect the upward trend, but clothing,
while slower in getting under way, has gone to a point much higher than
food. This is accounted for by the fact that the period of time be­
tween the creation and consumption of food is ordinarily shorter than
in the case of clothing, which may be influenced by the price of raw
materials of as much as a year previous.
The changes in wages and incomes have been of different kinds.
Measuring the “ money wage” by the amount of goods which the
money will buy—the “ commodity wage”—it is found that manu­
facturers and factory wage earners have gained greatly in their pur­
chasing power while that of professional workers has relatively
decreased. The combined index numbers for incomes of professional
men and women had reached only 124.1 in 1919, with 1913 taken as
a base—lawyers showing a reduction in income, the index for 1919

A

1 R ep o rt of th e M assachusetts Commission on th e N ecessaries of Life.

pp.

H ouse D ec. No. 1500.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[278]

B oston, F e b ru a ry , 1&2Q. 182

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING.

67

being 96.1, and the greatest increase being in the dental profession, in
which the index number was 148.7. On the other hand, the combined
index number for factory operatives was 219 in 1919, with wages in
1913 taken as 100. In the different industries the index numbers
range from 179.2 for machine shop workers to 255.4 for emplo3mes in
woolen mills. The effect of advancing prices on business has been to
create an abnormal condition in which, while there is great prosperity
with the smallest number of business failures in 1919 since 1881, the
smallest amount of total liabilities since 1904, and the smallest recorded
percentage of failures, there is also great danger, since this prosperity
is based on credit inflation. Business conditions show a decided
change, since, owing to the new wealth in new hands, the demand is
for luxury goods, while the former well-to-do members of the com­
munity are curtailing purchases, even of necessaries, very greatly.
It is stated that many retailers are viewing with alarm the situation
which they will have to meet with the termination of the demand
for luxuries.
Proposed Remedies for High Prices.
ATION of the proposed remedies for high prices, such
tio piu,o fixing, prosecution of profiteers, decrease in demand,
deflation, and legislation, leads to the conclusion by the commission
that price fixing is a failure, since anything less than complete Fed­
eral control of all commodities defeats its own ends. Likewise, the
pursuit of profiteers is considered as a dangerous power which can
be used only as a temporary remedy and that in the long run compe­
tition is the only reliable and permanent check on excessive profits.
~ lower to cause deflation of both currency and credit lies in the
3 of the Federal Reserve Board, but in the exercise of this power
there are many factors for consideration and too abrupt and violent
a deflation which would bring ruin must be avoided. Much can be
done toward curtailing prices, it is stated, by the people at large
through reduction of their expenditures to the minimum. Legisla­
tion as a remedy is believed to be entirely useless and may do more
harm than good, since the laws of economics are unchangeable.
With all these facts in mind, therefore, the commission recom­
mends that ordinances should be passed by the cities and towns or a
measure by the State legislature to insure a reasonable degree of
heating and repairs by landlords, since this has been used as a means
to make tenants leave. Closer supervision of storage of foodstuffs
and greater publicity to price changes and movements of food into
the State by the State department of agriculture, in conjunction
with the State department of health and the Federal Bureau of
Markets are advised, as is also an amendment to the law allowing
cities or towns of 10,000 or more to establish local markets that will
give the department of agriculture more power to compel munici­
palities to furnish such facilities, the fee charged for market space to
be uniform for each market. Establishment by the legislature of a
standard weight for a loaf of bread is recommended, and also the
establishment of a standard bushel box. Conservation of timber
and reforestation are regarded as of the utmost importance, as well
as further experimentation in types of crops and methods of farming
suitable to the climate and other conditions, so that the large amount


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[279]

.

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

68

of idle fand in the State may be utilized. In conclusion it is recom­
mended that the State bureau of statistics be empowered to collect
the necessary data and prepare and publish the index of living costs.
Report of Commission’s Study of Prices.
DART II of the report is devoted to a study of the prices and conditions affecting the supply of the various commodities^ which go
to make up the necessaries of life. The percentage distribution of
the various budget items used by the commission is the same as_that
used by the National Industrial Conference Board in its cost-of-liVing
studies, and the average price in 1913 was used as the basis of com­
parison. Thus the index number in January, 1920, for all living
costs was found to be 192_which dropped in February to 190.8. The
index number for combined food prices in February, 1920, ^vas
195.5; for combined clothing prices, 291.3; for housing, 131; for fuel,
160.7; and for sundries, 175.9.
The prices of most food items are considered to be somewhat higher
in New England than in many other sections of the country, owing to
the fact that so many supplies have to come such great distances.
For this same reason this locality is more directly dependent on cold
storage than any other part of the country. While there is a popular
belief that cold-storage food may be unwholesome and that it is used
as a means of manipulating markets and raising prices, the_ con­
clusion reached by the commission, however, is that the existing
State laws in limiting the length of time which goods may remain in
storage meet the first objection, and, as to the second, that while in
some cases the storage facilities may have been used to influence
prices, this is not a sufficient argument against the system and that
the remedy lies in better regulation.
It is believed by the commission that speculation, using _the word
in the sense of advance buying, is necessary, and although in periods
of advancing prices dealers whose business makes such advance
buying necessary make relatively large profits still the competition
in foodstuffs is so keen and sources of supply so numerous that it is
not considered that the advance in prices can be ascribed in any
marked degree to speculation. The competition of the so-called
chain stores has had a tendency to keep down the prices of groceries,
but in the case of meats, dealers have been slow in following the
market downward.
Reestablishment of agriculture in the State is considered a necessity
as there are nearly 2,000,000 acres not under cultivation which are
capable of producing crops. This is due to lack of farm help, to
western agricultural competition, and to failure to make a reasonable
profit.
The average increase in the cost of clothing from 1913 to January
1, 1919, was 186 per cent, more than is shown in any other item of the
family budget. As stated before, the prices of these articles reflect
the price of raw material much later than in the case of crops which
go into direct consumption. In woolen and worsted manufacturing,'
owing to the cutting off of foreign supplies during the war and the
increase in labor and overhead costs, the per cent of increase in


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[2S0]

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING.

69

manufacturing costs of yard goods in 1919 over 1915 was 145 while
the increase in net profit was 190 per cent.
Cotton goods show an increase of_ 193 per cent in manufacturing
costs of gray cloth for the same period, while the increase in profit
was 3,240 per cent. The report states, however, that this increase
m profits is not so excessive as it seems since in 1915 the margin of
profit was only $0.0082 per pound of goods, a condition which was
last driving the mills to bankruptcy.
yhe manufacturing cost of shoes has increased 185 per cent from
1913 to 1919, while the increase in cost to the consumer has been 154
per cent for men’s shoes and 142 per cent for women’s shoes of
medium-cost types.
Rents show an average increase in February, 1920, of 31.01 per
cent over 1913 for tenement, apartment, and family houses, averaged
ior a number of cities, while the decline in building reached its lowest
point in 1918, being but 21.67 per cent of 1913 building operations.
Fuel prices show an increase in the retail price of stove coal in
Boston of 45 per cent in January, 1919, over the same month in 1913,
while because the increased use of fuel oils since 1916 has increased
the price of all petroleum products heavier than gasoline, the prices
of kerosene show an increase of 118 per cent since 1910.
. The relative increase in different items included under sundries
is greatest for house furnishings and ice, which is 150 and 140 per
cent, respectively; for other items the percentage increases are as fol­
lows: Reading matter, 100; carfare, 75; tobacco, 60 to 100; organiza­
tion dues, 50; costs for entertainment, insurance, and church contri­
butions, 50. Drugs and medicines have more than doubled in price.

Retail Price Changes in Great Britain.
HE following table gives for Great Britain the increase over
July, 1914, in the cost of food and general family expenditure
for July of each year, 1915 to 1920, and for each month in
1920. The food items included in this report are: Ribs and thin flank
of beef, both British and chilled or frozen; legs and breast of mutton,
British and chilled or frozen; bacon; fish; flour; bread; tea; sugar;
milk; butter, fresh and salt; cheese; margarine; eggs; and potatoes.
The table gives percentage of increase and is not one of relative
prices, as is the table given for the United States. When making
comparisons this should be borne in mind, and to obtain the relative
prices it is necessary to add 100 to the percentage as given, e. g.,
for January, 1920, the increase in cost of food is 136 per cent, the
relative price being 236.
The figures represent two comparisons: Fust, the increase in prices,
based on the same kinds and quantities as used in July, 1914; second,
the increase, based on the change in the standard of living, resulting
from a substitution of one kind of food for another to meet war-time
conditions. Since March, 1920, this second comparison has not been
secured, mainly owing to decontrol.
q The table shows that retail prices of food were 159 per cent higher
in July, 1920, than in July, 1914, and that the increased cost of
all items in the family budget was 152 per cent.

T


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[281 ]

70

MONTHLY LABOE REVIEW.

P E R C E N T IN C R E A S E IN CO ST O F FO O D A N D A L L IT E M S IN F A M IL Y
G R E A T B R IT A IN , B A S E D ON J U L Y , 1914.

B U D G E T IN

[Compiled from th e B ritish L ab o r Gazette.]
Food.

All item s in fam ily budget.

E xpenditures
E xpenditures
R e ta il prices
Cost
(assum ing same (allowing for (assuming same (allowing for
estim
ated
estim ated
kinds and
kinds a nd
in con­
changes in con­
quantities). changes
quantities).
sum ption).
sum ption).

Y ear and m onth.

324

J u ly , 1915 ...................................................
J u ly , 1916 ...................................................
July ] 1917 ...................................................
J u ly ] 1918.......................................................
J u ly , 1919.......................................................

HI
104
no

1920.
J a n u a ry ..........................................................
F e b ru a ry ........................................................
M arch..............................................................
A p ril................................................................
M ay.................................................................
J u n e .................................................................
J u ly .................................................................

136
135
133
135
146
155
159

72
3 67
3 97

109

2 41-45
2 75

i «100-105
105-110

3 75-c0
3 100

125
130
130
130-135
141
150
152

115
115
115

115
112

107
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)

(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)

1 Including ta x on sugar a n d tea.
a N o t including taxes.
s Based on change in sta n d a rd of food consum ption a d o p ted b y th e M inistry of Food.
* T he increase, excluding ad d itio n al ta x a tio n , is 7 p e r cent less.
&No longer calculable, m ain ly owing to decontrol.

Retail Price of Coal in the United Kingdom.1
N INTERESTING statement in regard to the cost of raising coal
in the United Kingdom at the present date was made in the
* House of Commons on May 20, 1920, when the president of the
(Government) Board of Trade declared that the costs “ could only
be estimated from those of past periods, and that in view of the
changes in wages which had recently taken place such estimates
could only be approximate, especially as the figures relating to the
quarter ending March 31, 1920, are not yet available.” The present
maximum retail price of best Derby coal in central London is 57s. 2d.
($13.91, par) per ton, as compared with 27s. ($6.60 par) per ton in
1913. An analysis of these prices follow:

A

P R IC E O F COAL IN U N IT E D K IN G D O M ON M AY 19,1920, C O M PA R E D W IT H T H E Y E A R
1913, B Y IT E M O F COST.
[Is. a t par=24.3 cents; Id . a t par=2.03 cents.]
P ric e in
1913.

Ite m of cost.

P it p ric e .....................................................................................................................................
R ailw ay r a te ..............................................................................................................................
W agon h ir e ................................................................................................................................
F actorage. .
.................................................................................................................
D istrib u tio n charges:
W ages, loaders and c a r m e n ..........................................................................................
O th er cartage charges, including sacks.......................................................................
Loss on sm alls............................. ......................................................................................
Fstahlishrnent, charges, including siding r e n t ........................................................
A lanagement an d in te r e s t..............................................................................................
P ro fit...................................................................................................................................
T o ta l................................................................................................................................

s. d.
13 0
6 4


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

s.
33

d.
5
2
6

1

0

8
1

1
1

10
1}

2

4
54

4
3

27

1 F rom Commerce R ep o rts (W ashington) for Ju n e 18,1920, p. 1609.

[282]

P rice on
May19,1920.

4

10}

1

9
7
7
4
3
3

0

57

2

3

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING.

71

Cost of Living in Uruguay in 1919 Compared
with 1913.1
HE bureau of statistics and information of the national labor
office has published the results of observations, beginning with
_1913, relative to the economic situation of the laboring classes,
especially as to expenditures for dwelling, food, clothing, etc., and the
income per family. From this investigation it appears that in 1913
the balance was in favor of the laborer, while in 1919 deficits of more
or less importance are indicated.
The average increase in the cost of living in 1919 over 1913 as
shown for the entire country is distributed as follows: 39 pesos
($40.33, par) for food; 58 pesos ($59.97, par) for clothing, and 22
pesos ($22.75, par) for various other items of expense. Rents have
remained practically stationary during the period.
Three budgets are given as concrete demonstrations of the extent
of increase in the four general groups of expenses. They are as
follows:

T

INCOM E 'AND E X P E N S E S AS SH O W N B Y T H R E E S E L E C T E D B U D G E T S IN 1919 AS
C O M P A R E D W IT H 1913.
[1 peso a t par=$1.034.]
E x p en ditures.
Income.

D ay laborer:
1913.........................
1919.........................
Laborer, m arried:
1913.........................
1919........................
L aborer, m arried, 4
children:
1913........................
1919.........................

O ther
ite m s.

Total.

Pesos.
55.64
87.91

Pesos.
57. 78
78.58

Pesos.
293.42
421.37

52.18

173.28
263.30

101.32
160.08

102.60
139 54

497.20
682.92

132.80

218.48
332.08

121.86

191.96

108.05
146.96

616.39
839.00

26.81

R en t.

Food.

Clothing.

Pesos.
345.60
0)

Pesos.
36.00
36.00

Pesos.
144. 00
218. 88

630.00
0)

120.00
120.00

643.20
C1)

168.00
168.00

Surplus.

Deficit.
Pesos.
75.77
52.92

195.80

th a t th ere was no change in income.

The relative prices of food by half-year periods, 1913 to 1919, are
arc shown in the following table:
R E L A T IV E P R IC E S O F FO O D B Y H A L F -Y E A R P E R IO D S , 1913 TO 1919.
[July-D ecem ber, 1913=100.]
Period.
Jan u a ry to J u n e ....................................
Ju ly to D ecom ber.............................

1913

100

1914

1915

1916

1917

191S

10L5
107.0

112.5
112.5

111.7
115.0

121.0

127.0

132.5

1919

0)

1 N ot reported.

The principal increases reported, expressed in percentages, are:
Rice, 70.6; oil, table, 97.9; tapioca, 40; vermicelli, 25; fat (suet),
41.7; eggs, 51.9; beef, 50, and pork, 37.5.
In the city of Montevideo the increase is more pronounced than in
the country districts. The following table gives the increase in
1 B o letín de la Oficina N acional del Trabajo.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[283]

M ontevideo, M ay to A ugust, 1919.

72

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

average prices of certain articles for June, 1919, as compared with
prices in June, 1913:
P E R C E N T O F IN C R E A S E IN A V E R A G E P R IC E S O F P R IN C IP A R IT E M S E N T E R IN G
IN T O COST O F L IV IN G IN M O N T E V ID E O , U R U G U A Y , IN J U N E , 1913, C O M PA R ED
W IT H JU N E , 1919.
P er cent
of in ­
crease,
June,
1919,
over
June,
1913.

Article.

104.3

R ic e ................
S u g ar..............
O il, ta b le ___
Coffee.............
T ap io ca..........
M acaroni.......
S u e t................
P a s ta ..............
Corn m e a l. . .
F lour, w heat
E g g s...............

1 22 .0

125.0

3.3
27.3
50.0
21.4
66.7
25.0
25.0
172.7

Article.

Per cent
of in ­
crease,
June,
1919,
over
June,
1913.
25.0

M ilk..............
B re ad ...........
B ean s...........
G rits.............
S alt, t a b l e . .
S alt, coarse..
V inegar........
Tea (n ativ e)
B eef..............
M u tto n .........
P o rk .............

i Decrease.

20.0

52.6
12.5

100.0
100.0

87.5
17.9
128.6
66.7
42.9

A rticle.

F ish (o rd in a ry )___
P otato es....................
O nions......................
M oniatos 2 ................
Tobacco....................
A lc o h o l... ...............
Alcohol, denatured.
M atches....................
Firew ood..................
K erosene...................
A ll a rticles...............

Per cent
of in ­
crease,
June,
1919,
over
June,
1913.
3.0
50.0
i 28.6
133.3
57.1
184.8
123.1
57.1
81.0
75.0
52.7

2 A farinaceous root used in bread m aking.

I t is stated that Uruguay produces a major portion of the articles
needed for food, and has thus been affected less than have other
countries by the high cost of living.
The cost of clothing has gradually increased from 1913 to 1918,
the relatives being 100.0, 111.3, 114.3, 122.6, 136, and 158, re­
spectively.

The Food Situation in Austria and Hungary.
Austria.
R. LOEWENFELD-RUSS, the Austrian food minister, in a
recent interview made the following statement concerning
the food situation in Austria.1

D

The situation is still extremely unsatisfactory. The 200,000 tons of flour from the
Grain Corporation, which are expected to arrive by the middle of May, will enable
us to hold out until the beginning of September, and efforts must be made to effect
new purchases overseas before that date. The present crisis is mainly due to trans­
port difficulties. The 20,327 tons of grain purchased by the Import Corporation
(Einfuhrgesellschaft) are somewhere en route from Rotterdam to Austria. Of the
20,000 tons promised by the Italian Government, in return for a corresponding quan­
tity in May, only about 3,000 tons have arrived. The remainder had to be diverted
via Yillach, owing to the strikes on the Southern Railway (Sudbahn) and in Jugoslavia,
whereby considerable delay has resulted. Of the 40,000 tons purchased in Paris,
13,039 tons are still lying in Holland. Of the 5,000 tons of grain promised by Switzer­
land, only 1,703 tons of wheat, 540 tons of rye, and 1,507 tons of maize have arrived.
With respect to potatoes, fats, meat, and sugar similar difficulties exist. The potato
supply is affected by transport difficulties, as well as by the state of exchange; 20,000
tons have now been ordered from Holland and 6,000 tons of seed potatoes from Sweden.
¡' An increase in the number of cattle is hoped for, but for the time being it is very
difficult to supply the 1,600 tons of meat required to cover Vienna’s weekly ration of
1 N eue Freie Fresse.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

V ienna, A nr. 28,1920.

[2841

E vening edition.

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING.

73

10 dekagrams [0.22 pound] per head. Sugar requirements for the autumn are still
uncovered.
The whole outlook is, therefore, very gloomy, nor does the justified hope of food
credits make any great difference. Austria is incapable of existing as an independent
economic territory, and must either be united to a great economic country like Ger­
many or else the former economic connection with the National States must be
restored.

Hungary.
TNT THE course of an address delivered to the Budapest Society for
"*■ the Combating of Unemployment, Dr. Emerich Ferenczistated that
the time had come for Hungary to appeal to neutral and ex-enemy
countries for relief and to furnish reliable data regarding the growing
distress,2 and said:
Budapest is in urgent need of foodstuffs of all kinds, particularly condensed milk,
and of infants’ clothes, underwear, clothing, and shoes. Hungary would be able to
support herself even in her enfeebled condition were it not for Greater Budapest’s
1,600,000 population, which is mainly unproductive. The population of Budapest
itself has increased from 863.000 in 1910 to about 1,100,000 on March 14, 1920, and the
population of the neighboring communes has probably increased even more. Since
during the war the death rate exceeded the birth rate, this increase is mainly attributable
to the inllux of unproductive elements, including from 50,000 to 70,000 civil servants
from occupied territory. Though there has recently been an improvement in certain
industries, and though there is actually a labor shortage in the lumber and clothing
industries and in some branches of the metal industry, yet there are still whole indus­
tries and trades which have been at a standstill for months. The number of persons
employed in industries who are compulsorily insured against sickness showed a decrease
of 14.3 per cent for the first quarter of the year as-compared with the 1917 average.
The main cause of distress, apart from actual unemployment, is the disproportion
between the incomes of all the working classes, particularly those with fixed incomes,
and the cost of living. While the most important necessaries have risen in price on
an average to 67 times the prewar price, salaries have only increased three or four fold
and wages 10 to 20 fold. Barely 3 per cent of the population, that is, 30,000 persons,
were in receipt of an adequate income. During the period November, 1918, to March,
1920, the weekly rations of foodstuffs in Budapest were decreased as follows: Flour,
including the bread allowance, from 7.2 to 3.6 kilograms [15.9 to 7.9 pounds]; sugar,
from 0.75 4o 0.3 kilogram [1.65 to 0.66 pound]; fats, from 0.3 to 0.1 kilogram [0.66 to
0.22 pound]. Fats have not been issued for a year, and the 0.25 kilogram [0.55 pound]
ration of legumes has not been issued for an even longer period. The majority of the
population can no longer afford the illicit trade price of 32 or 34 crowns per kilogram of
flour [|6.50 to $6.90 at par for 2.2 pounds]. The present daily allowance of bread isO.12
kilogram [0.265 pound] per head, but in March the Government was 30 carloads in
arrears, so that 140,000 persons had to forego their full rations in that month. The
supply of meat works out at 0.13 kilogram [0.287 pound] per head per week at 100
crowns per kilogram) $9.20 at par per pound] as against 0.97 kilogram [2.14 pounds] in
1912. The market arrivals of vegetables dropped from 15,000 metric centners [33,069
cwt.] in February, 1914, to 8,100 metric centners [17,857 cwt.] in February, 1920;
those of fruit from 11,000 to 8,500 metric centners [24,251 to 18,739 cwt.]; those of pota­
toes from 9,500 to 3,500 metric centners [20,944 to 7,716 cwt.]; and those of other articles
from 61,000 to 27,137 metric centners [134,482 to 59,827 cwt.]. Milk deliveries dropped
from 304,753 liters [322,027 quarts] per day in 1913 to 49,895 liters [52,723 quarts] in
1919. The maximum daily allowance for infants under 12 months was 0.5 liter [0.53
quart]. The municipal hospitals were frequently confronted with the problem of how
to divide 3 liters [3.17 quarts] milk among 100 patients.
The dangers arising from underfeeding have been intensified by the shortage in
dwellings. Hundreds of families are living in railway cars and other structures
available for human occupation. Conditions are aggravated by the shortage of wearing
apparel. Thousands of children can not go to school in bad weather because they have
no shoes. Deaths due to tuberculosis increased from 3,266 in 19.12 to 4,611 in 1919, i. e.,
the rate of mortality from tuberculosis was 43.9 per 10,000 inhabitants. Infant mor­
tality increased during the war from 142.7 per 1,000 in 1912 to 183.3 in 1919. ■
—


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

2 P ester Lloyd.

B u d ap est, M ay 4,1920.

[285]

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR,
Hours and Earnings in the Boot and Shoe In­
dustry,
HIS article presents in a summary form the facts as to the hours
of labor and the earnings of employees in a number of the more
important occupations of the boot and shoe industry in the
United States in 1920. There is added a table showing the changes
in average hours and earnings since 1913 for each of the selected
occupations and for the industry as a whole.
The investigation was confined to establishments whose principal
or only products are shoes made by the McKay, welt, or turn process.
It covers the manufacture of men’s, women’s, and children’s shoes.
Data are not included from establishments whose main or sole
products are pegged shoes, or such specialties as slippers, leggings, or
felt or rubber boots or shoes.
In mapping out the territory to be covered by the investigation the
Bureau selected States on the basis of the number of wage earners
in the industry as reported in the Abstract of the Census of Manu­
factures for 1914. Lapse of time and the disturbing effects of the
war have rendered those figures somewhat obsolete, but it is probable
that no serious changes have occurred in the relative rank of the
different States in the industry. In selecting establishments within
the States attempt was made to give each State adequate repre­
sentation to insure typical results for the State, rather than to cover
the same proportion of the wage earners in each State. As a general
principle the larger the number of employees in a State the smaller
the proportion needed to give typical averages.
The number of establishments and the number of employees
reported for each State in the 1914 abstract and the numbers covered
by the Bureau’s investigation are shown in the following table. It
should be noted that the figures are not absolutely compara!)Je,
since the Census figures cover several minor varieties of product not
represented in the Bureau’s figures, and since the Census figures also
include salaried employees, who are not included in the Bureau’s
figures.

T


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

WAGES AND HOUES OF LABOR.

75

T a b l e 1 .—TO T A L N U M B E R O P E S T A B L IS H M E N T S A N D E M P L O Y E E S IN T H E B O O T AN D

I I o W n I n Y920,CB y 1 tY t 1 1 D U ST R Y IN 1914’ A N D N U M B E R S F 0 R W H IC H D A TA A B E
U n ited States Census,
1914.

Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 1920.

State.
N um ber of N um ber of N um ber of
establish­ employees. establish­ N um ber of
employees.
m ents.
m ents.
Illinois................................
Maine...........................
M assachusetts_____
Michigan.........................
M innesota.....................
Missouri..........................
New H am p sh ire..............
New Jersey......................
New Y o rk .........................
O hio....................................
Pen n sy lv an ia...................
V ireinia..............................
W isconsin..........................
O ther S ta te s.....................

47
50
464
24
14
49
55
42
235
62
131
61
113

13,169
12,937
3,834
26,193
14,461
13,184
1,555
5,772
4,573

T o tal........................

1,355

191,555

8

6,071
8,815
76,944
2,035
2,012

5

3
5

2,152
2,453
16' 342
'567
1,028
5' 671
4'953
'882
5,668
5,526
3; 819
853
1,294

117

51,208

29
3
3
11

13
5
13
11
11

The pay-roll material on which the following tables are based was
gathered in the spring of 1920. Of the 117 establishments covered
in the investigation the selected pay-roll periods of 83 terminated
in the month of April, 14 in May, 18 in March, and 1 each in February
and January. In only one of the 117 establishments, so far as could
be ascertained, was there any change in rates of pay during the prog­
ress of the investigation. In that establishment an increase in rates
averaging approximately 10 per cent was granted after the pay-roll
material had been copied by the agents of the Bureau, such increase
being retroactive beyond the date of the pay-roll period used by them.
As it was found to be impossible to make the necessary changes in
the earnings with the requisite accuracy the material from that
establishment was tabulated as it wTas originally copied.
The effort was made to confine the investigation to establishments
working full time. In some parts of New England, however, it was
necessary to include establishments working only 5 days a week,
and in Virginia one pay-roll period of 11 days was taken in a two-week
establishment. There were in all 112 one-week pay rolls and 5 twoweek pay rolls. Of the former group 10 were for five days only,
the rest for six days; of the latter group all were for 12 days except
the 11-day pay roll referred to above.
The data concerning hours and earnings on which the tables are
based were obtained directly from the pay rolls or other records
of the companies by agents of the Bureau* Wherever the records
of the company failed to indicate the time actually worked by piece­
workers, arrangements were made to have such a record kept for a
selected period, and that record was later copied by the agents.
Table 2 presents the results of the investigation in the* form of a
number of averages. The significance of the figures in the various
columns is indicated in a general way by the headings of the columns.
For a full discussion of the significance of the figures, the method of
computing them and the limitations under which they should be
used see the M o n t h l y L abo r R e v ie w for January, 1920, pages 120


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[287]

76

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

to 124, and May, 1920, pages 96 to 100. A few points need to be
particularly noted.
The figures in most of the columns deal with actual hours and
actual earnings. They represent conditions as they were found in
one particular pay-roll period for each establishment. Under average
hours are shown "the average hours worked during the selected pay­
roll period by employees on one-week pay rolls and by those on
two-week pay rolls separately, and the average hours worked per
week day and per week by the two combined. The last figure is
brought into comparison with the average normal full-time hours
of the same employees, and the results of that comparison are shown
in the column “ Per cent of full time worked.7’
Under “ Actual earnings” are shown the average earnings for the
pay-roll period of those on one-week pay rolls and those on two-week
pay rolls separately, and the average actual earnings per hour and per
week worked for the two combined. The figures for average actual
earnings per week are affected by the number of hours per week
actually worked by different employees and should not be confused
with full-time earnings or the average that would have been shown
if all employees had worked exactly full time. Nor can it be safely
assumed that average earnings for the year would be 52 times the
average per week shown in the table. The last supposition would be
true only if the week covered by the investigation was exactly an
average week and if all the plants included operated full 52 weeks
per year.
t .
" 'v’
Labor in the boot and shoe industry is highly specialized and the
number of distinct occupations is very large. For the limited
space available in the R e v ie w it has been necessary to confine
the present report on hours and earnings to a rather small number
of the more important occupations. The occupations that have
been selected are those for which the Bureau has already published
similar detailed studies in earlier years.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[2SS]

T a b l e 2 — A V E R A G E H O U R S A C T U A L L Y W O R K E D A N D A V E R A G E A M O U N T A C T U A L L Y E A R N E D IN 1920, B Y S E X , D E P A R T M E N T , O C C U PA T IO N ,
A N D P A Y R O L L P E R IO D .

2386°—20---- 6

Sex, d ep artm en t, a n d occupation.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

N um ber
of estab­
lishments
w ith b i­
weekly
p ay
period.

N um ber
of em­
ployees
in estab lishments
w ith
w eekly
pay
period.

N um ber Average
of em­
ployees
in estab­
lishments
In
w ith b i­ weekly
weekly
pay
period.
pay
period.

hours actu ally w orked—

In b i­
w eekly
p ay
period.

Per
week
day.

Per
week.

Average a m o u n t actually earned—
P u ll
Per
tim e
cent
hours of full
In
per
tim e
weekly
week. worked.
pay
period.

In b i­
weekly
pay
period.

Per
hour.

Ter
week.

87
52
26

4
3
3

1,999
903
77

51
27
10

42.1
43.6
43.0

93.9
73. 7
83.2

7.0
7.2
7.1

42.0
43.2
42.6

47.8
48.9
48.1

89

$35.32
35. 51
27.21

$62. 00
49. 72
29.25

$0. 850
.826
.596

$35. 22
35. 23
25.87

58
104

2

4

323
232

8
8

46.6
46.8

96.6
94.2

7.8
7.8

46.8
46.8

48.4
48.8

97
96

33.54
32.83

61.42
57.73

.721
.705

33.47
32. 71

30
53

1
2

74
392

1
8

45.3
43.7

86.8

85.6

7.5
7.3

45.0
43.8

48.4
47.9

93
91

26.61
31.00

34.97
38.95

.582
.709

26.49
30.78

84
25
97
41
47
89
28
32

4

668
211

23
20
6

2
1

532
439
305
1,209
207
641

29

1

102
68

7.3
7.7
7.4
7.4
7.3
7.5
7.6
7.4
7.4
7.9

43.8
46. 2
44.4
44.4
43.8
45.0
45.6
44.4
44.4
47.4

48.6
47. 0
48.8
48.2
48.9
48.7
48.9
47.1
48. 6
49.1

90
98
91
92
90
92
93
94
91
97

28.36
36. 87
36.83
31.06
34.39
35. 65
36. 88
40.00
33.69
45.03

45.47

4

44.0
46.2
44.1
44.2
44.1
44.9
45.3
44.5
44.4
47.2

.650
. 817
.845
.714
.773
.796
.808
.896
. 767
.959

28.20
36.87
36.92
31.11
34.25
35.52
36.52
39.58
33. 69
44.33

76
78
82
44
107
33
99
93
108
108

4
4
4

7.4
7.2
7.6
7.6
7.7
7.4
7.5
7.5
7.6
7.6

44.4
43.2
45.6
45.6
46.2
44.4
45.0
45.0
45.6
45.6

48.6
48.7
48.6
49.4
48.7
47.4
48.8
48.8
48.7
48.7

91
89
94
92
95
94
92
92
94
94

43.25
40. 83
37.33
32.52
37. 86
40.11
40. 70
32. 75
41.34
40.26

.989
.942
. S27
.728
.842
.906
.916
.732
.912
.884

43.19
40. 71
37.56
32.50
37. 93
40.11
40.51
32. 66
41. 29
40. 04

88
88

.

1

4
4

10

1

4
4
4
4
4

399
228
576
157
369
533
277
188
803
813

17
43
6

25
3
16
12

23
1

13
7
7
25
32

44.0
43.2
45.2
45. 6
45. 4
44.4
45.1
44.9
45.4
45.3

83.7
91.0
73.8
88.2

87.5
97.5
88.7
93.0
94.7
96.7
104.4
96.5
96.1
97.8
94.4
97.4
97.2

77.40
68 .74
62.13
62.26
48.59
57.29
57.11
81. 66
75.35
76.27
60. 56
78.47
65. 76
59. 40
77. 98
67. 62

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR.

[289]

MALES.
Cutting department.
C u tters, v a m p a n d w hole shoe, h a n d .................
C u tters, v am p an d w hole shoe, m achine...........
Skivers, u p p e r, m ach in e.........................................
Sole-leather department.
C u tte rs, outsole.........................................................
C hannelers, insole a n d outsole...............................
F itting or stitching department.
E y e le te rs .....................................................................
V am p ers......................................................................
Lasting department.
A ssem blers for pulling-over m achine.................
P ullers-o v er, h a n d ....................................................
Pullers-over] m ach in e..............................................
Side lasters, h a n d .....................................................
Side la sters, m achine...............................................
B ed-m achine operators............................................
H an d -m eth o d , lasting-m achine operators..........
T u rn lasters, L a n d ............ ......................................
T u rn lasters, m achine.............................................
T u rn sew ers...............................................................
Bottoming department.
G oodyear w elters......................................................
R ough ro u n d ers.........................................................
G oodyear stitc h e rs ...................................................
M cK ay sew ers...........................................................
H eelers.........................................................................
W ood h e e le r s /...........................................................
H eel trim m ers or sh av ers.......................................
H e elb rea ste rs............................................................
E dge trim m ers..........................................................
E dge s e tte r s ........................... ..................................

N um ber
of estab­
lishments
w ith
weekly
pay
period.

T a b l e 2 .—A V E R A G E H O U R S A C T U A L L Y W O R K E D A N D A V E R A G E AM OUNT A C TU A LL Y E A R N E D IN 1920, B Y SE X , D E P A R T M E N T , O C C U PA T IO N ,

A N D P A Y R O L L P E R IO D —Concluded.

Sex, dep artm en t, a n d occupation.

N um ber
of estab­
lishm ents
w ith
weekly
p ay
period.

N um ber
N um ber
of em­
of estab­ ployees
lishm ents in estab­
w ith b i­ lishments
weekly
w ith
weekly
pay
period.
pay
period.

N um ber Average hours a ctually w orked—
of em­
ployees
in estab­
lishm ents
In b i­
In
Per
w ith b i­ weekly weekly
Per
week
weekly
week.
pay
pay
day.
period.
period.
pay
period.

-T
GO

A verage a m o u n t actually earned—
F ull
Per
cent
tim e
hours of full
In
per
weekly
tim e
week. worked.
pay
period.

In b i­
w eekly
pay
period.

Per
hour.

855.23
52.33
54.90

80.732
.715
.737

$32.83
31.46
33.11
31.37
29. 29

Per
week.

males —concluded.

[290]

H eelscourers.............................................................
H eel b u rn ish ers.........................................................
B uffers.........................................................................
Finishing department.
T reers or iro n e rs, h a n d ............................................
Treers or ironers, m ach in e......................................
T o ta l.................................................................

-

44.7
44.2
45.4

97.9
94.0
94.0

7.5
7.4
7.6

45.0
44.4
45.6

48.7
48.7
48.8

92
91
93

832.92
31.63
33.23

44

45.1
46.8

94.1

7.5
7.8

45.0
46. 8

48.2
48.8

93
96

31.61
29.29

52.32

.699
.625

14,957

470

44.4

91.8

7.4

44.4

48.4

92

35.70

61.51

.808

73
585

47.4
42.9

85.5

7.9
7.1

47.4
42.6

53.8
48.7

88

26

18.60
19.08

26.79

.415
■ .445

18.60
18.84

43.4
43.1
42.8
43.9
43.4
45.2
43.3

91.3
84.0
76.5
90.3
80.8
82.8
84.2

7.3
7.2
7.1
7.3
7.2
7.5
7.2

43.8
43.2
42.6
43.8
43.2
45.0
43.2

48.7
48. 7
48.5
49.4
48.5
48.7
48.8

90
89
.89
89
92
89

19.51
18.37
16.33
16.13
19.71
20.07
22.44

38.13
26.59
24.70
21.49
30.02
33.62
33.78

. 450
.424
.381
.366
.455
.447
.518

19. 51
18.15
16.18
15.93
19.53
19.99
21.39

6.9

41.4

48.5

85

20.58

.505

20.58

.400

17.93

104
105
107

4
4
4

438
293
439

84
18

4

893
169

112

5

10
100

5

13
11
10

*

-

FEMALES.

Cutting department.
C utters, vam p a n d whole shoe, m achine............
Skivers', u p p er, m ach in e........................................
F itting or stitching department.
T ip stitc h e rs...............................................................
Ba~ckstay s titc h e r s ...................................................
L in in g m ak ers...........................................................
Closers-on....................................................................
T op stitch ers or u n d e rtrim m ers...........................
E y e le te rs.....................................................................
V äm pers......................................................................
Lasting department.
Assemblers for p n l li n g - o v e r m achine .................
Finishing department.
Treers or ironers, h a n d ........
js

T o ta l.................................................................


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

101

93
107
45
107
88

106

5
5
5
2

5
4
5

12
20

45
5
46
7

70

77

23
35
112

343
408
1,104
128
1,141
225
1,243

41.4
45.0

283
5

5,610

231

43.4

82.6

87

88

7.5

45.0

49.9

90

17.93

7.2

43.2

48.8

89

19.31

29.81

.446

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,

Bottom ing department—Concluded.

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR,

79

The Bureau carried on investigations of the boot and shoe manu­
facturing industry in 1913, 1914, 1916, and 1918.1 In Table 3 the
results of the present investigation are brought into comparison with
those of the earlier studies. The comparison is made in the form of
relative full-time hours and relative hourly earnings of each of the
selected occupations for each year. The hours and the earnings of
1913 have been used as the base or 100. The movement of hours and
earnings is obvious from the table. No one will fail to notice the
remarkable increase in hourly earnings between 1918 and 1920, which
reaches its maximum in the case of male hand-turn lasters. The
rise of their relative from 146 to 289 shows an increase in hourly
earnings of 98 per cent during the two years.
T able 3 .—R E L A T IV E F U L L -T IM E H O U R S P E R W E E K AN D H O U R L Y E A R N IN G S IN
S P E C IF IE D Y E A R S , 1913 TO 1920, B Y D E P A R T M E N T , O C CU PA TIO N , A N D S E X .

D epartm en t, occupation, sex,
and year.

R elative elative
full-time Rhourly
hours
earn­
per
ings.
week.

D e p artm en t, occupation, sex,
and year.

R elative elative
full-time Rhourly
hours
earn­
per
ings.
week.

Fitting or stitching department—
Cutting department.
Concluded.
C utters, vam p and Whole shoe,
hand, male:
B ackstay stitchers, female:
100
100
1913............................................
100
100
104
99
1914............................................
99
101
1914
107
99
1916............................................
99
1916
109
138
95
1918...................................i . . . .
95
134
1918
242
88
1920............................................
1Q90
89
217
C utters, vam p and whole shoe,
Lining m akers, female:
m achine, male:
100
100
1913............................................
100
100
1913............................................
99
99
1914
101
100
1914............................................
104
99
1916
102
99
1916............................................
94
127
1918
94
137
1918............................................
201
89
1920
256 Closers-on,
8S
1920............................................
female:
Skivers, upper, machine, male:
100
100
1913............................................
100
100
1913............................................
1914
99
100
100
1914....... ....................................
105
99
1916
104
100
1916............................................
122
96
1918
141
93
1918............................................
1920
189
91
88
199 Top stitchers or u n d e rtrim ­
1920............................................
Skivers, u p p er, m achine, female:
m
ers,
female:
100
100
1913............................................
100
100
1913
100
99
1914............................................
1Q"| 4
101
100
99
1916............................................
99
105
1916
128
95
1918............................................
137
1918
94
213
89
1920............................................
89
217
1920
V am pers, male:
Sole-leather department.
100
100
1913............................................
C utters, outside, male:
98
100
1914............................................
100
100
1913............................................
104
100
1916
100
1914............................................
99
138
1918
101
99
1916............................................
222
1920
87
94
134
1918............................................
pers, female:
238 V am1913
87
1920............................................
100
100
Channelers, insole and outsole,
99
99
1914.............. ..............................
male:
103
99
1916............................................
100
100
1913............................................
127
1918
95
100
99
1914............................................
211
89
1920
102
99
1916............................................
l
95
129
1918............................................
Lasting department.
'■>
212
88
1920............................................
Fitting or stitching department.
Assemblers, for pulling-over
m achine, male:
T ip stitchers, female:
100
100
191.3
1913............................................
100
100
103
100
1914............................................
100
1914...
99
107
99
1916............................................
105
1916..
99
146
1918............................................
95
132
1918.
95
88
239
1920............................................
205
89
1920............................................
i See B ulletin No. 178 of th e B ureau of L abor S tatistics, covering 1913 and 1914; B ulletin No. 232, covering
1914 and 1916; and B ulletin No. 260, covering 1916 an d 1918.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1291]

80

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,

T able 3 .—R E L A T IV E F U L L -T IM E H O U R S P E R "W EEK AN D H O U R L Y E A R N IN G S IN
S P E C IF IE D Y E A R S, 1913 TO 1920, B Y D E P A R T M E N T , O C CU PA TIO N , AN D S E X —Concluded.

D epartm ent, occupation, sex,
and year.

R elative
elative
full-time Rhourly
hours
earn­
per
ings.
w eek.

Lasting department—Concld.

Bottoming department.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Relative
full-time Relative
hourly
hours
earn­
per
ings. ,
week.

Bottoming department—Concld.

Pullers-over, hand, male:
1913............................................
100
1914............................................
99
1916............................................
. 99
1918............................................
93
1920............................................
85
Pullers-over, m achine, male:
1913............................................
100
1914............................................ "
100
1916............................................
99
1918............................................
: 95
1920............................................
l 88
Side lasters, hand, male:
f •
1913............................................
100
1914..........................................
100
1916............................................
100
1918............................................
96
1920.......................................
89
Side lasters, m achine, male:
1913..........................................
100
1914............................................
97
1916............................................
98
1918............................................
93
1920............................................
87
Bed-m achine operators, male:
1913............................................
100
1914............................................
100
1916............................................
100
1918.....................................
94
1920.....................................
• 88
H and-m ethod lasting m achine
pf
operators, male:
1913............................................
100
1914.....................................
100
1916.....................................
100
1918............................................
96
1920............................................
88
T u rn lasters, h an d , male:
1913.......................................
100
1914.......................................
99
1916............................................
100
1918.....................................
98
1920............................................
86

Goodyear w elters, male:
1913............................................
1914............................................
1916............................................
1918.............. '.............................
1920............................................
R ough rounders, male:
1913............................................
1914............................................
1916............................................
1918............................................
1920............................................
Goodyear stitchers, male:
1913............................................
1914............................................
1916............................................
1918............................................
1920............................................
M cK ay sewers, male:
1913............................................
1914............................................

D e p artm ent, occupation, sex,
and year.

r"
100

105
104
144
245
100
101

107
146
241
100
102

107
145
236
100

106
105
145
239
100

97
106
152
241
100

97
101

134
226
100

105
118
146
289
W
r

100
100

100
100

99
95

M cK ay sewers, male—Concld.
1916..
1918..
1920.
Heelers, male:
1913.
1914..................
1916. .
1918..
1920..
H eel trim m ers or shavers, male:
1913___
1914....................
1916...
1918...
1920..
H eel breasters, male:
1913..........
1914..................
1916___
1918___
1920..
E dge trim m ers, male:
1913... .
1914.-.........................
1916..
1918..
1920.. ..
E dge setters, male:
1913.........
1914...........................
1916.........................
1918..
1920.. .
H eel scourers, m ale:
1913.........
1914..................
1916...............................
1918..
1920..................
H eel burnishers, male:
1913...........
1914............
1916.....................................
1918...................................
1920.....................................
Buffers, male:
1913....................
1914.........
1916..............
1918..................
1920..............

88

104
124
197

100
100

100
101

Finishing department.

99
95

99
119
190

Treers or ironers, hand, male:
1913...........
1914....................
1916.........................................
1918.........
1920..................
Treers or ironers, hand, female:
1913.............................
1914..............
1916............................................
1918.........
1920___

88
100
100

99
95
88
100
100

100

103
110

132
207
100

106

[292]

99
95
89

141
228

100
100

100

99
95

101

95

118
,.199

88
100
100

100

99
95

100
11 Q

97

88

204

100
100

100

88

97
109!
135$
234

100

100

99
99
95

133

88

222

100
100

99
95

100
100
101
1?8

88

215

99
05

98

103

100
100

100

99
95

110

99
13Q
233

88
100
100

100

103
103
137
226

99
95
88
100
100

100

97
108
13.3
232

99
95
88

;
100
100

99
95
87
100

96
97
98
91

i
100

99
105
145
248
100
111

119
147
253

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR.

81

A few occupations have been included in the 1920 investigation for
which similar data for 1913 are not available. The following table
shows relatives for each of those occupations with the earliest year
for which the Bureau has information taken as a base:
T able 4 .

R E L A T IV E F U L L -T IM E H O U R S P E R W E E K A N D H O U R L Y E A R N IN G S IN
C E R T A IN O C C U PA T IO N S IN S P E C IF IE D Y E A R S , 1914 TO 1920.

T u rn sewers, male.
Year.

Treers or ironers,
m achine, male.

Eyeleters, female.

Heelers, wood,
male.

R elative
R elative
R elative
R elative
full-tim e R elative full-tim e R elativ e full-tim e R elative full-tim e R elative
hours per h ourly hours per h ourly hours per hourly hours per hourly
earnings
earnings.
earnings.
week.
earnings.
week.
week.
week.

1914............
1916............
1918............
1920.......................

100
101
100

91

100
110

100

125
239

96
89

1ÓÒ

140
235

100

94

100

167

100
88

100

190

The movement of hours and earnings in the industry as a whole is
reflected in the relatives shown in the following table. These rela­
tives for the_industry as a whole, like those for the selected occupa­
tions shown in the previous table, are based on the averages for 1913
as 100. For the year 1913 the Bureau possesses data for hours and
earnings for the selected occupations only, while for all the other years
the data cover all employees in the industry. I t was therefore
necessary to assume that the relative obtained by comparing averages
for the selected occupations for the two years would agree with the
relative obtained by the use of averages for all employees. Moreover
the changes in hours and earnings between 1913 and 1914 were so
slight that any discrepancy that might arise would have no
appreciable influence upon the rapidly changing relatives of later
years. The relatives are not based on averages for identical estab­
lishments, but each year’s averages are computed for the entire num­
ber of employees for which the Bureau possesses the necessary
information.
T able 5 .—R E L A T IV E F U L L -T IM E H O U R S P E R W E E K A N D H O U R L Y E A R N IN G S TN
S P E C IF IE D Y E A R S , 1913 TO 1920, F O R T H E IN D U S T R Y AS A W H O L E .
IN
[1913=100.]

Year.

1913.............................
1914.............................
1916.........................
1918................
1920.........................


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

N um ber
N um ber
of
of
estab ­
lishm ents. employees.
88

91
136
143
117

R elative
full-tim e
hours per
week.

» 19,910
53„ 071
63,634
63,275
51,205

1 Selected occupations only.

[293]

100

99
99
95
88

R elative
hourly
earnings.

100
101

108
139
232

82

MONTHLY LABOE REVIEW.

New Wage Scale of the Alaskan Engineering
Commission.
A CIRCULAR (No. 411) issued in March, 1920, by the Alaskan
Engineering Commission, with headquarters at Anchorage,
Alaska, gives a revised wage scale for hourly employees, effective
April 1, 1920. Since publication of the schedule, however, the com­
mission states that it was found necessary further to increase the
wages by 21 cents an hour and by $5 a month to men on monthly
basis, effective the same date. The following table gives the scale
now being paid to employees of the commission:
H O U R L Y R A T E S O F P A Y F O R E M P L O Y E E S O F T H E A L A SK A N
M ISSIO N , E F F E C T IV E A P R IL 1, 1920.

O ccupation.

A ir-brake m e n ..............
Baggagemen, tr a i n ...........
B lack sm ith s........ ................
B lack sm ith s’ h e lp e rs..
B lack sm ith s, sp ecial..........
B o ile rm a k ers............................
B oiler m ak ers’ helpers...........
Boiler m ak ers’ helpers, ad v an ced __
Boiler m akers, special..............
B rak em en (over 240 h o u rs )... .
B rass m olders.........................
B rick lay ers........ .
C arp en ters..........
C arp en ters’ helpers........
Calkers, w ood...............
C onductors (over 240 hours).
Coyote m e n ..............................
C ranem en................................
C ranem en, shop.............................
Drillers, h a n d ...........
D rillers, m achine.............
D rillers, m achine, h elp ers........
E lectrician s...........................
Engineers, d e rric k ................
E ngineers, d itc h e r..........
Engineers, locom otive (over 240 h o u rs )..
Engineers, locom otive crane...............
E ngineers, steam shovel.............
F irem en, locomotive (over 240 h o u rs)__
F irem en , pile-driver, locom otive..........
F irem en, s tatio n ary ...........................
F irem en , steam sh o v el. .
Forem en, locomotive c ra n e ..........
H eelers.................................
H od carriers.......... ...
Laborers, p it.................
Laborers' u n s k ille d ..............

ENGINEERING COM ­

R ate per
hour.

Occupation.

Cents.
82 Y 90
75
82-4- 90
794
921-1024
90"
72]
74]- 77.1
92J-102J
75
90
87]
821- 90
72}
87]- 00
92]
724
75}
774
72]
77]
67]
82]- 90
82]- 90
92]
97]
824- 90
92]
77]
72]
72}
72]
67]
67}
82]
674
62]

L a th e rs..................
Linem en, con stru ctio n .
L inem en’s helpers...
Linem en, pipe*...
Loggers.....................
L ongshorem en........
M achine h a n d s ..
M achinists...............
M achinists’ help ers..
M achinists’ helpers, advanced
M achinists, sp ecial. .
M iners...................
M uckers.........
P a in te rs.............
P a in te rs’ h elp ers.
Pile-driver m e n . . .
P ip e fitters___
P itm e n . . . .
P lasterers..........
P lu m b ers__
P lu m b ers’ h elp ers...
Pow der m en (w ith steam shovel or
d itc h e r).
R ad io operators, overtim e
R epairm en, e a r__
Saw m ill m e n .................
Section m e n ...........
S heet-m etal w orkers... .
Sheet-m etal w orkers’ h elp ers. .
S p ik e rs......................
Steam fitters............
S trap p e rs........
T im b er fa lle rs..
T im b erm en .
T in sm ith s..
Toolm akers, m a c h in ist___
T rack la y e rs ___

R ate per
hour.
Cents.
87J-90
823
723
67]
824-90
82]
754-77]
82]-90
‘ 72}
74}
92]
88 ?
781
82}-go
' 724
77}
824
67}
87}-90
871-90
72}
77}
90
82}
821-90
62}
821-90
724
674
87}-90J
67}
82}-90
72-1
824-902
' 90
674

_With respect to men on monthly basis and administrative, super­
visory, and clerical employees, the circular provides—
Par. 2. Wages of monthly employees, not employed on an annual basis, will receive
an increase of $10 per month, where the wage does not include board, and provided no
increase has been granted such employee within the past six months. Where such
increase has been granted within the past six months the case will be taken under
special consideration.
Where board is furnished, the wages of monthly employees will be raised approxi­
mately $5 per month; under the same general restrictions as set forth in the above
paragraph.
The exceptions noted in the above two paragraphs will also apply to employees who
have been employed during the past six months under new employment contract, or


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[294]

83

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR.

who have entered into reemployment under the reorganization which took effect
December 1, 1919.
Par. 3. In regard to administrative, supervisory, and clerical employees, whose
terms of employment are usually on an annual basis, and whose salaries are set to fit
the position they are filling, these cases will be considered individually by the heads
of departments. Generally speaking, where increases have been granted this class of
employees during the past six months no increase in pay will be authorized.

In conclusion the commission announces an increase in the price of
board from $1.25 to $1.50 a day, effective April 1, 1920.

New Fair Wage Schedule on Public Works in
Manitoba.1
SCHEDULE of hourly wage rates and hours per week applicable
in Winnipeg and in the Province of Manitoba outside of Winni­
peg and a radius of 30 miles therefrom, from May 1, 1920, to
April 30, 1921, has recently been approved by the provincial minister
of public works acting under authority of the Manitoba fair wages
act, 1916, being section 10 of chapter 121 of the Statutes of Manitoba,
1916. The schedule is as follows:

A

S C H E D U L E O F W A G E R A T E S P E R H O U R A N D H O U R S P E R W E E K ON P R O V IN C IA L
P U B L IC W O R K S IN M A N IT O B A , E F F E C T IV E F O R Y E A R E N D IN G A P E . 30, 1921.
R a te p e t H ours
hour.
p e r week.

O ccupation.
L aborers, engaged on b u ild in g c o n stru c tio n .................................. .. .
T e a m s te r s .............
B ric k la y e rs.........................................................
Stonem asons............. .................
M arble s e tte rs ................. .................
Mosaic a n d t ile s e tte f s ................................
T e rraz o w orkers:
(a) L a y e r s . . . ............ ..................................................................
(b) H e lp e rs ................ ..........................................
Stone c u tte rs :
(a ) C arv ers......................................................
( 6 ) Jo u rn e y m en ....................................................................................
(c) P la n e rm e n a n d la th m en ..............................................................
P la s te r e r s ..... ....... ......................... .............. ......... ..
W ood, w ire , a n d m e ta l la th e rs .....................................................................................
P lu m b e rs . / ............................................... ............................ ........................
Steam f it te r s ................... ....................................................................................
O p e ra tin g en g in eers on con stru ctio n :
(a) E ngineers in charge o f m achines w ith th re e or m ore d ru m s ................................
(b) E n g in eers in charge o f double-drum m ach in es.........................................................
(c) Engineers in charge of sin g le d ru m m ach in es.........................
(d) F ire m e n __ ___ ,T ........... A ......... ........ ....... ........ ..........................................................
S h eet-m etalw o rk ers................................................................................
P a in te rs , decorators, pap er hangers, an d glaziers...................................................................
B la c k s m ith s ............ .......................................I .....................................................
E lectrical w orkers (journeym en in sid e w ire m e n )..................................................................
B ridge a nd s tru c tu ra l stee l a nd iro n w orkers . ........................................................................
A sbestos w orkers:
(o) Jo u rn ey m en ...............................................................................
(&) First-class im p ro v ers........................................... ....... .............. ........ ...........................
(c) Second-class im p ro v ers....................................................................................................
A sp h a lte rs:
(e) F in ish e rs ..............................................................................................................................
(&) Men engaged preparing^ m ixing, a n d h eatin g m a te ria ls ....................... ...............
C a rp e n te rs___ .1 __. . . " ____ .............. T.................... .1 ...........................................................

o$0.60
a . 60
1. 25
1.25
1.20
1.00

50
60
44
44
44
44

.85
.65

44
50

1. 12*
1. 00 “

44
44
44
44
44
44
44

.90
i. m

1.00
1.00
1.00

1.25
.75
.90
.87*
. 85
.92*
1.25

5®
50
5d
50
44
44
44
44
44

.90
.80
.70

44
44
44

.75
.60

44
50
44

1. 12*
1.00

1.00

a T h e ra te is five c en ts less in th e Pro v in ce o u tsid e of W innipeg a n d a radius of 30 m iles therefrom .
1 D a ta ta k e n from th e L ab o r G azette, O ttaw a, for June, 1920, p. 716.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[295]

84

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

New Rates of Pay and Requirements of the
British Consular Service.
CCORDING to a report from the United States commercial
attaché at London, published in Commerce Reports (Washing­
ton) for June 25, 1920 (p. 1753), the British Government is to
hold a qualification examination on August 10 for appointments to
the consular service. The age limits are 22 to 28 years for the Levant
service and 22 to 25 years for the Far Eastern service. I t is stipu­
lated that candidates must have served in the Army or Navy or A ir
Force, but a candidate who, being physically unfit for general service,
has served for at least a year in a Government department may be
considered eligible. Continuous and systematic schooling up to the
age of 17 is required. Examinations will cover such subjects as
English, French, general knowledge, and arithmetic—French being
considered essential.
Upon passing the examination a probationary period of two years
at home will be required, the candidate to receive half salary, or,
£150 ($729.98, par), plus the war bonus. The first part of this training
consists of an economic course at the London School of Economics,
where finance, banking, currency, and commercial law are taught;
the second part consists of visits to industrial concerns. There is
also a period of training at the head office before the candidate goes
abroad. The new scale of salaries paid to consular officers, compared
with the old scale, is as follows:
A

O LD A N D N E W SCALE O F S A L A R IE S P A ID TO B R IT IS H C O N SU L A R O F F IC E R S .
[£ 1 a t p a r = $4.8665.]
P o sitio n .

Old scale.

Vice consul............................................................................
C onsul......................................................................
Consul g en eral..............................................................................

£
300- 500
600- 800
900-1,200

New scale.
£
300- 600
800-1,000
1,200-1,500

It is calculated that a vice consul will attain the rank of consul in
about 10 years. In addition to the salaries, it is stated that there are
representation allowances ranging from £100 to £400 ($486.65—
$1,946.60, par) andrent allowances of £50 to £250 ($243.33-$!, 216.63,
par). There appears to be a difference of opinion whether the new
scale includes the war bonus and the matter is now pending decision.

Minimum Rates of Wages of Agricultural
Laborers in England and Wales.
ARTICULARS of revised minimum rates of wages and over­
time rates for female workers and for male workers under 21,
years of age, as fixed by the Agricultural Wages Board for
England and Wales, are given in the British Labor Gazette for
June, 1920 (pp. 291, 292).1
P

i The revised wages a n d overtim e ra te s of m ale ag ricu ltu ral laborers of 21 years of age an d over in E ng­
land a n d W ales a n d of all classes of a g ricu ltu ral laborers in Irela n d were given in th e Monthly Labor
R eview for Ju ly , 1920, p. 111.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[296]

WAGES AÏSTD HOURS OF LABOR.

85

The new minimum rates, effective as from May 31, 1920, give to
female workers of 18 years of age and over lOd. (20.3 cents, par) per
hour in Yorkshire, 8d. (16.2 cents, par) per hour in Somerset, and
7d. (14.2 cents, par) per hour elsewhere in England and Wales, as
compared with 7d. and 6d. (14.2 and 12.2 cents, par) previously in
force. For girls under 18 years of age the new rates range from 5d.
(10.1 cents, par) per hour for those under 14 years to 8d. (16.2 cents,,
par) in Yorkshire, from 3d. (6.1 cents, par) to 6d. (12.2 cents, par)
m Somerset, and from 2|d. to 5£d. (5.1 to 11.2 cents, par) in other
districts. These minimum rates are for an 8^-hour day in summer,
with an 8-hour day in force during the winter, in some counties, and
for an 8 and an 8£ hour day the year round in the others. The
revised overtime rates for women of 18 years of age and over are Is.
£d. (25.3 cents, par) per hour on week days and Is. 3d. (30.4 cents,
par) per hour on Sundays in Yorkshire, lOd and Is. (20.3 and 24.3
cents, par) per hour in Somerset, and 9d. and 10£d. (18.3 and 21.3
cents, par) per hour in other districts.
For ordinary male workers under 21 years of age the revised mini­
mum rates and overtime rates in 37 counties are uniform as shown
below:
¥ , W E E K L Y R A T E S O F W A GES A N D O V E R T IM E R A T E S P E R H O U R F O R O R D IA N D ^W A L ES A G R IC U L T U R A L L A B O R E R S U N D E R 21 Y E A R S O F A G E IN E N G L A N D
[Is. a t par=24.3 cents; Id . a t par=2.03 cents.]

M inim um
weekly
rate.

Age group.

s.
40
38
36
29
24
19
15

20 a n d u n d e r 21 years.....................
19 a n d u n d e r 20 years.................

18 a n d
17 a n d
16 a n d
15 a n d
14 a n d
U nder

u n d e r 19 years..........
u n d e r 18 years.................
u n d e r 17 years.................
u n d e r 16 years........................
u n d e r 15 years...............
14 years.............................

d.
0
0

O vertim e rates per
hour.
W eek
days.
s.

Sundays.
d.

6

1 0
0 Hi
0 11

0
0

0
0

9
7i

0

6

0
0

4J
3"

6

0

10 0

-

s.

d.

1 2i
1 2
1 lè
0 10è

0
0

0

0

9
7
5è
3|

In the remaining counties the minimum weekly rate for those
under 14 years is 10s. ($2.43, par), except in two counties where it is
12s. ($2.92, par); for the other ages the rates are generally slightly
higher. These minimum rates are for a 50-hour week in summer
and a 48-hour week in winter, and include the value of certain allow­
ances in kind, as cottage, food, lodging, milk, and potatoes.
It is stated that no really satisfactory comparison with figures
for 1914 can be made, but a comparison of the minimum wage for
1920 with the average wage for 1914 shows an increase of 140 per
cent, the matter of hours not being taken into consideration. It is
believed, however, that the actual increase was substantially greater.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[297]

86

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

New Scale of Wages in the British Pottery
Industry.
NEW scale of wages for the British pottery industry has re­
cently been announced, effective from March 25, 1920, ac­
cording to a report from the American consul at Stoke-onTrent, published in the Commerce Reports (Washington) for June
10, 1920.
The consul states that prior to the advances granted under the
new agreement, wages in all branches of the industry stood at 50
per cent bonus (incorporated as wages), plus 20 per cent bonus, or a
total of 80 per cent above prewar rates, and that the present rate is
50 per cent incorporated, plus 33J per cent bonus, which works out
at exactly 100 per cent on prewar pay. I t is claimed, however,
that the new scale is not equivalent in purchasing power to the pre­
war wage, and many committees are to be organized immediately
to deal with cases of hardship, and particularly with reference to
fixing a minimum wage.

A

The New Schedules.

rFHE new terms as approved by the executives of the operatives’
unions and by the Manufacturers’ Federation are as follows:
General provisions.
1.
Wages increase.—The fallowing to be substituted for the existing rates and war
bonus, viz, incorporated, 50 per cent; bonus, 33J per cent.
2.
Placers (biscuit and glost) and sagger makers.—The base rate per day to be increased
from 6s. 8d. to 7s. [$1.62 to $1.70, par] plus 50 per cent and 33J per cent.
3.
Minimum wage for women and girls.—(a) Warehouse women and girls (excluding
electrical fittings trade).—All per week, and plus 50 per cent plus 33J per cent.
[Is. a t par=24.3 cents; Id. a t p ar= 2 .03 cents.]

S. d.
Age.
13 y e a r s ........................... .................... 6 4
14 y e a r s ...................... .... .......................... 7 0
15 y e a r s ........................... .......................... 8 0
16 y e a r s ........................... .................... 9 0
17 y e a r s .......................... .................... 10 3

Age.
y e a r s ...........................
y e a r s ...........................
y e a r s ................. .........
y e a r s ...........................

18
19
20
21

....................
....................
....................
....................

S'.

d.

11
13
14
16

9
4
8
0

(b) Dipping-house women (excluding dippers, scourers, and electrical ware clean­
ers).—First year, 12s. [$2.92, par]; second year, 15s. [$3.65, par]; third year, 18s.
[$4.38, par]. All per week, and plus 50 per cent plus 38 J per cent.
(c) Women scourers.—Where rumblers are used for china scouring, scale (a) to
apply; where hand scouring is done, 2s. [$0.40, par] in excess of scale (a) to be paid.
Where any of the above operatives commence at a late age, special arrangements
to be made in scales (a) and (c).
4. Laborers, stokers, and enginemen.—Laborers (over 21), 30s. [$7.30, par]; stokers
(over 21), 32s. 3d. [$7.86, par]; enginemen (over 21), 35s. [$8.52, par]; all plus 50 per
cent plus 33J per cent. Special arrangements to be made in the case of elderly or
partially disabled men. Laborers and stokers when left in charge of engine for any
length of time, say, half a day or longer, shall be paid enginemen s rates for such time
as they shall be so employed.
5. Packers.—Where, by reason of exceptional circumstances such as are caused by
the abnormal transport difficulties at present prevailing, an unreasonable amount of
handling of packages is involved, such payments be made as shall be mutually agreed
at individual works to meet the circumstances of each particular case. Any dispute
to be settled by a conciliation committee under rule 15 of the late conciliation board.

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[298]

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR.

87

Electrical fittings trade.
6- Electrical fittings trade.—(a) Day-wage females.—The day-wage rates to women,1
which at present consist of the agreed standard plus 20 per cent plus 8i~ per cent plus
the appropriate ministry of munitions award according to age, to be all incorporated
and regarded as new base rates, and 10 per cent to be added to such new base rates
according the the following scales:
W E E K L Y W A G E R A T E S F O R W O M E N IN. E L E C T R IC A L F IT T IN G S T R A D E .
[Is. a t par=24.3 cents; Id. a t par= 2 .0 3 cents.]

Glost and
biscuit
warehouse.

Age.

s.

13 y e ars...............................................
14 y e ars...................................................
15 y e ars............................................
16 years.................................................
17 y e ars............................................
18 y e ars...................................................
19 years............................................
20 y ears...............................................
21 y ears.......................................................

Glost placers,
Pressers,
and biscuit
lettlers,
placers w ork­
dippers, and ing w ith m en
cleaners.
in placing
houses.

d.

12 0

13
14
16
18
23
24
-27
29

s.

d.

15
iß
19
24
26
28
30

3
A
0
0

1
6
6

9
0
4
0
0

2

4
6

s.
1ID
K
1A
ID
17
I/
1B
iy
26
OO
Q
Z
on
O
U
QO
oz

Fem ale
printers,
decorators,
an d tra n s­
ferrers.

d.
oQ
4A
7
O
a
d

s.
13
14
15
16
20

2

1

24
26
28
30

4A
0A
O
y

All plus 10 per cent.
(b) Piecework, females.—The present piecework rates for women plus 8J percem j
and plus the ministry of munitions award to be advanced 10 per cent.
Earthenware branch.
7. Earthenware fiat pressers’ attendants.—The flat pressers’ departmental committee
to consider the position of these operatives where present allowances do not cover
the increase in attendants’ wages.
8. Earthenware potters attendants.—(a) The following to be the revised minimum
scales of wages for potters’ attendants, and be applied in lieu of clause 3 (a) of the
terms of settlement of departmental demands in the general earthenware section,
which came into operation on December 19, 1919:
M INIM UM W E E K L Y W A G E SCALE F O R P O T T E R S ’ A T T E N D A N T S .
[Is. a t par=24.3 cents; Id. a t p a r= 2 .0 3 cents.)

Age.

13 years................................
14 years................................
15 years................................
16 years................................
17 y ears.............................. .

O ther
potters’
atten d an ts.

Mold
runners.
s. d.
7 0
8

0

9 0
9 8
10 6

d.
7 0

Age.

s.

8

0

9 0
9 8
10

6

18 y ears................................
19 y ears______
20 v ears............__
21 v ears.....................

Mold
runners.
s.

d.

11

10

O ther
potters'
a tte n d an ts.
s.

d.

11

10

13
14
16

8
0

4

All plus 50 per cent plus 33J per cent.
(b)' Any adjustment in the piecework rates necessary to enable the journeymen
and journey women to pay the above minimum rates to be arranged at individual
works—any difference between individual manufacturers and their operatives to be
referred to this joint committee for settlement.
9. Earthenware apprentice transferrers.—The printers and transferrers’ departmental
committee to consider the position of these operatives.
China trade—miscellaneous agreements.
10. China trade.—(a) The annual settling time in the English China Manufacturers’
Association and the Parian Association to be March 25 in each year, as in all other
branches.
. (&) Departmental committees of manufacturers and operatives to be set up to con­
sider the following departmental demands now in course of preparation, viz, slip
makers, packers, lathe treaders.
11. Stoppages.—No stoppages to be made for lighting, sweeping, kale, printers’
mixing, or hot water.
[299]

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

88

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

12.
Departmental demands.—The departmental notices given by the operatives to
be withdrawn, and departmental committees of manufacturers and operatives to be
set up to fix minimum prices where such minimum prices are not already in existence
in the following branches: Warehousemen, engravers, earthenware polishers, earthen­
ware dish makers, earthenware saucer makers, earthenware cup makers, earthenware
hollow-ware jiggerers, earthenware casters, earthenware mold makers, earthenware
cup handlers, earthenware and rock and jet sagger makers, earthenware glost printers
and transferrers and fine china notices in this branch, earthenware dippers, firemen
and oddmen, kilnmen, slip makers, tile trade, sanitary casters and pressers, fireclay
trade, jet and rockingham trade, electrical fittings trade; on the understanding that
such minimum prices shall not involve any general advance in wages, and shall
become operative and apply to the first full settling week after confirmation by the
union and the federation.
j 13. Higher existing rates.—Where higher rates are being paid than provided by this
offer the same to remain, and the increase in wages conceded by clause 1 to be added,
until such higher rates are altered by giving the usual notice six weeks prior to any
25th of March. Any dispute arising out of this clause to be referred to a conciliation
committee under rule 15 of the late conciliation board.
I 14. Time recording.—In order that accurate particulars of time worked may be
recorded, all employees, where requested to do so, shall “ clock on” and “ clock off.”
Period and application of new schedules.
15. Period and application of terms.—Except where otherwise expressly provided,
these terms to apply to all sections of the industry, and to be in settlement of all general,
departmental, and individual notices given by either the federation or the unions,
or any members thereof six weeks prior to March, 1920, and also any outstanding
matters under clause 8 of the terms of settlement of the notices given by the operatives
six weeks prior to March, 1919.
16. Commencement of terms.—This agreement, except as to clauses 5, 7, 9,10 (6), and
12, to become operative, as from March 25, 1920, if accepted by April 30, failing
acceptance within that period to apply to the first full settling week after accept­
ance by the union; any decisions arising out of the above-mentioned clauses to
become operative and apply to the first full settling week after confirmation by the
federation and the union.

Wages in Japan in 1918 and 1919.
HE thirty-fifth statistical report of the Department of Agri­
culture and Commerce of Japan1contains (pp.279-281) a tableof
average wages in various groups of industries in specified years
1900 to 1918, and a table showing changes in index numbers of wages
during the same period for the same groups of industries. Index
numbers of wages in specified years, 1900 to 1918, for certain indus­
try groups, are given as follows:

T

A V E R A G E IN D E X N U M B E R S O F W A G E S IN JA P A N IN S P E C IF IE D Y E A R S 1900 TO 1918,
B Y G R O U P S O F IN D U S T R IE S .

l

[1900=100.]
Year.
1900....................................................
1905....................................................
1906....................................................
1907....................................................
1908....................................................
1912....................................................
1918

........

Ï9 1 4 ,................................................
1915....................................................
1916....................................................
1917....................................................
1918....................................................

Agricul­ Clothing, Food and House
tu re, etc.
etc.
drink. building,
etc.
100.0

100.0

109.7
111.9
126.0
135.0
156. 8
160.1
163.5
159.2
158.4
180.7
239.8

112.5
121.5
131.5
136.6
148.4
151.9
151.0
151.2
158.3
183.3
243.8

1 Jap an , D ep artm en t of A griculture a n d Commerce.
701 p p.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1300]

100.0
111.2

100.0
111.8

113.4
125.8
133.0
147.3
152.7
157.2
161.1
167.3
185.4
230.4

121.3
142.9
155.7
165.0
167.7
164.3
161.0
164.6
187.0
253.2

In s tru ­
m ents,
etc.

Miscel­
laneous.

100.0

100.0

114.9

112.4
116.7
138.0
148.6
164.9
166.5
164.9
167.7
173.5
199.6
253.5

122.1

134.1
141.7
155.5
161.2
157.9
153.6
160.4
187.3
215.0

T h irty -fifth S ta tistic a l R eport.

Average.
100.0
112.1

118.4
134.1
143.0
157.2
160.8
160.1
158.6
163.1
186.8
245.5

[Tokyo] 1920.

'4

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR,

89

There is also included in the report (pp. 281-813) a table giving
wages by occupations in March, June, September, and December,
1918, by city or town, showing the “ highest,” “ common,” and
“ lowest” wages in each month. The following table shows such
wages for June and December, 1918. The wages given for each occu­
pation are not necessarily averages for the same number or grouping
of localities.
“ H IG H E S T ,” “ COMMON,” A N D “ L O W E S T ” D A IL Y W A G E S PA ID IN JA P A N IN J U N E AND
D E C E M B E R , 1918, B Y OCCU PA TIO N S.
[1 yen a t p a r= 49.85 cents.]
June, 1918.

December, 1918.

' Occupation.
H ighest. Common

F a rm laborers, m ale i .......................................
F a rm laborers, fem ale 1..................................
S ericultural laborers, m ale............................
S ericultural laborers, fem ale...........................
Silk stunners,-fem ale......................................
G ardeners.................................................
Fish erm en ...................................................
W eavers, m a le ...................................................
W eavers, fem ale................................................
D yers.............................................
C otton w h ip p ers..............................................
Tailors, Japanese dress . ................................
Tailors, E uropean d ress..................................
Pouch m a k e ri.....................................................
Clog m akers........................................................
Shoem akers.................................................
Soy brew ers........................................................
Sake brew ers...........................................
Confectioners.........................................
Tobacco c u tte rs......................................
Rice p o u n d ers................................................
C arpenters............................................
P lasterers...................................................
S ton ecu tters..................................................
Saw yers..........................................................
Shingle roofers..........................................
Tile roofers..........................................................
B ricklayers.........................................................
B rickm 'akers.......................................................
Ship b u ild ers.......................................................
Floor-m at m a k e rs.............................................
Screen an d door m ak ers..................................
P aperhangers......................................................
C abinetm akers...................................................
Coopers................................................................
C artm ak ers.........................................................
H arnessm akers...................................................
Lacquerers...........................................................
G oldsm iths an d silversm iths........................
F o u n d ers.............................................................
B lack sm ith s........................................................
P o tters..................................................................
Oil pressers.........................................................
T aper m ak ers.....................................................
T y p esetters.........................................................
P rin te rs................................................................
D ay lab o rers.......................................................
Servants, m a le ...................................................
Servants, fem ale................................................

Yen.
0.89
.54
.81
.53
.65
1.41
.83
1.03
.62
.95
.99

Yen.
0.73
.46
.67
.44
.40
1.17
.70
.76
.47
.71

1.21

.93

1.52
1.23
1.17
1.39
3 21.56
3 29.30
.88
1.11

.69
1.45
1.51
1.58
1.53
1.48
1.75
1.73
1.44
1.82
1.21

1.38
1.36
1.38
1.13
1.28
1.26
1.38
1.40
1.43
1.43
1.30
1.04
.82
1.04
.93
1.06
3 9.34
3 6.36

.86
1.10

.98
.92
1.03
3 16.42
3 22.70
.65
.82
.56
1.19
1.26
1.38
1.27
1.29
1.47
1.48
1.07
1.57
1.03
1.16
1.07
1.15
.96
1.04
1.01

1.07
1.03
1.10

1.08
.85
.86

.65
.79
.72
.89
3 6.89
3 4.45

Lowest.
Y en.
0.61
.38
.57
.35
.27
.97
.55
.61
.33
.53
.64
.65
.77
.73
.71
.78
3 12.37
3 17.17
.43
.59
.48
1.03
1.08
1.19
1.11
1.10
1.21
1.22

.80
1.27

Highest. Common. Lowest.
Yen.
0.96
.63
2.97
3.57
.67
1.69
1.12

1.13
.69
1.10
1.22

1.49
1.80
1.65
1.38
1.66

3 26.61
3 35.50
1.02

1.50
.83
1.85
1.81
1.97
1.75
1.76
2.02

2.19
1.58
2.11

.86

1.49

.95
.85
.94
.78

1.55

.86

.76
.85
.74
.84
.83
.63
.69
.51
.59
.55
.76
3 5.19
3 3.26

1.68
1.68

1.36
1.58
1.52
1.58
1.68

1.70
1.70
1.48
1.28
1.10

1.14
1.04
1.31
310.75
3 7.46

1 I t is n o t sta te d w hether farm wages do or do n o t include board,
s Wages are for Septem ber; D ecember wages n o t reported.
s M onthly wage.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

0.81
hi
2 76
3.47
.47
1.40
.89
.85
.54
.83
1.04
1. 11
1.37
1.24
1.08
1.29
3 18. 82
3 26.80
.75
1.03
.70
1.46
1.48
1.68

1.52
1.47
1.74
1.85
1.23
1.81
1.26
1.39
1.29
1.36
1.11

1.27
1.26
1.24
1.29
1.28
1.30
.98
1.07
.83
.88

.82
1.10
3 8.02

3 5.27

0 6Q
2 38
.30
1.18
.71
67
.38
.62
.81
.82
1.00

.99
.82
1.04
3 44. 72
3 20.85
.50
.70
.56
1.25
1.25
1.42
1.28
1.23
1.38
1.50
.90
1.51
1.07
1.14
1.01
1.11

.91
1.05
1.00

.98
.95
.91
.97
.74
.90
.67
.69
.62
.92
3 5.63
3 4.01

90

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,

Wages in Yokohama.
rpH E following table was compiled from statistics submitted to the
British Foreign Office in a report on Japanese labor, noted
more in detail on pages 38 to 43 of this issue of the M o n t h l y L a b o r
R e v ie w .
C O M PA R A T IV E T A B L E O F A V E R A G E D A IL Y W A G E S P A ID IN Y O K O H A M A , JU L Y , 1914,
A N D J U N E , 1919, W IT H O U T B O A R D
[1 yen, a t par=49.85 cents.]
A verage daily wage.

Average daily wage.
Occupation.

Occupation,

73nnkhi n ri p.rs
P ripkla yp.r’s
flfSrpPTLt.PTJi
f!log makp.rs
Dny lp.hnrp.rs
'PirftTnp.n
F u rn itu re
(E uropean
sty le ):
Fin prfl vers
.7ni n p.rS
Pni n t,p.rs
FlTTni f.nrp. Tiiakprs
G ardeners.............................
^ ^ sm ith s
#
Jo in ers...................................
Masons
Mat- m akprs
O il prp.ssers
P aintprs
P aper h a n g ers.....................

0


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Ju ly , 1914.

June, 1919.

Y en .
0.70
1.30

Y en .
1.80
2.30

.65
.60
.80

.90
1.70

1.10

.90
.90
.70

1.00
,80
.65
.95
1.25

1.20
.42
1,10
.95

2.00
2.00
2.00

1.80
1.80

2.00
1.50
1.80

2. 00
2.00
2. 00
1.50
1.80
1.50

July, 1914.

P lasterers..............................
P o tte r s ..................................
Pouch m a k e rs.....................
P r in te rs ................................
Roofers................. ................
Saw yers................................
S h ip w rig h ts.........................
Silk han d k erchief sew ers:
Male............. , , ...............
F em ale................... .
S m ith s ..................................
Soy brew ers.........................
Tailors (E u ropean clothin g ) .....................................
Tailors (Japanese clothin g ).....................................
T ilers.....................................
T in sm ith s ............................
T y p esetters..........................
W h ite sm ith s........................

2W ith board.

P er m o nth.

[302]

Yen.
1.15
.85
.70
.70

1.20
1.15
1.15

June, 1919.
Yen.

2.00
2.00
1.80
1.80

2.00
2.00
2.30

.50
.30
1.30
117.00

1-29.0Ö

128.00

i 45.00

.55

* 1.00
2.30
1.80
1.80
.91

1.20
1.10
,75
.85

.70

2.20

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
Educational and Vocational Courses for Enlisted
Men.
A VIRTUE of an appropriation by Congress of $2,000,000 for
vocational training in the Army for the year ending June 30,
1920,_ and a fund of $2,500,000 turned over to the education
and recreation branch of the Army by the various welfare agencies
whose activities were taken over by the War Department, Novem­
ber 1, 1919, the United States Army has for several months been
offering cpiite an extensive educational program to enlisted men.
According to data submitted by the Adjutant General’s Office for
the month of April, 1920, 100 different courses were being given
and 3,335 classes held. The courses have since been increased to
200. There were at that time 3,678 instructors, 613 of whom were
commissioned instructors, 1,494 enlisted instructors, and 1,571
civilian, instructors. The report shows an attendance of 86,269 men,
a number considerably below the actual number of men enrolled,
since several of the posts conducting classes had not reported when
the statistics for the month were compiled. I t is believed that
more nearly correct figures would show an attendance of between
100,000 and 125,000 men.
The educational work is as regularly scheduled as military training.
The training is voluntary, but when once enrolled as a student the
soldier is required to complete the course undertaken, and normally
an average of three hours a day, five days a week, is devoted to such
training. To carry out the program as outlined by the War Depart­
ment an educational organization has been set up at Washington
and in the various camps and posts. The work is in charge oi the
war plans division of the General Staff, War Department, and asso­
ciated with it is a civilian advisory board. The camps, posts, and
stations have each their education and their recreation department
and their school officers. In addition, there are development experts
for each of the courses offered and consulting experts for each of the
17 large departments of study into which all the courses are grouped.
These development experts are detailed to the various camps, posts,
and stations throughout the service, while the consulting experts are
responsible for certain groups of camps where they supervise and
direct the educational program.
The training generally given throughout the service includes the
following:

B

Vocational training.—Automotive, electrical, building, textile, food, animal trans­
portation, metal, printing, medical, highway construction and topography, power,
music, leather, machine, business, agriculture, and miscellaneous.
Educational training.—Basic courses consisting of penmanship, English, arithmetic,
spelling, geography, United States history, civics, and elementary science; advanced
courses comprising mathematics, general history, modern languages, economics, and
sciences.
Each of the main departments is, of course, further subdivided; for example, the
course in agriculture includes truck gardening, horticulture, agronomy, farm mechan­
ics, farm economics, economic entomology and zoology, and animal husbandry.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[303]

91

92

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

The report for April shows more than one and one-half times as
many enrolled in the vocational as in the educational classes. In
addition to the courses mentioned special courses may be given in
the special services at the various centers. In all cases practical work
is insisted upon. The training given must be valuable not only to
the men receiving it, but to the military service and the country as
well. The following excerpt taken from the War Department state­
ment is indicative of the attitude of the department toward this phase
of its work:
Henceforth the young man who enters the United States Army will be given a
course of training which will be equivalent to an industrial training school. When
he has completed the years of his service as a soldier and returns to civil life he will
return qualified for a definite occupation. Those who seek expert employees will
look to “graduated” Army men as probably the best equipped technically trained
men to be had.
The Army training will, however, be broader than merely to fit a man into industry.
I t will make a better citizen, a broader-minded man in every way. I t will bring
to thoroughly practical industrial training the culture that can reasonably be com­
bined therewith.
I t is proposed to make the Army not only a military force to be trained and ready
in time of national emergency, but to make it a great educational institution where
young men with the best mental, moral, and physical qualities and with the highest
ideals of patriotic citizenship will be produced.

Among the most interesting of the classes are those composed of
illiterates and men who can neither read nor write English. With
these men school work is compulsory. An enlisted man unable to
speak English is at once assigned to an Americanization class. In
April, 1920, 5,390 such men were receiving instruction which when
they leave the Army will have made them citizens fit to take their
place in national life.
An additional appropriation by Congress of $3,000,000 provides for
a continuance of the educational work in the Army during the fiscal
year 1920-21.

Proposed Training of Management Men.1
HE essential supply of men trained for management is, according
to Dr. Hollis Godfrey, president of Drexel Institute, Philadel­
phia, Pa., and formerly of the Council of National Defense, to
be met through a recently developed plan of cooperation between
industry and the colleges. The necessity for such cooperation, he
says, has grown out of three great world needs:

T

First, the need of using to the utmost the existing machinery of production and
distribution to meet the world shortage of goods out of which have come the high cost
of living, social unrest, and industrial confusion; second, the need of developing
rapidly new machinery of production and distribution to meet the shortage and the
demands of the future; and third, the need of producing a large number of properly
trained management men (mind workers in industry from foreman to president)
essential for the complete utilization of our present industrial resources and for the
speedy development of new industrial capacities. The satisfactory solution of the
first two needs, therefore, depends in large measure upon meeting effectively and
as speedily as possible the third. Men trained for industry in a well-ordered way
will not only aid directly the processes of producing and distributing goods, they
will help indirectly by relieving the serious strain which abnormal conditions have
placed upon both executives and operatives in industry.
i Sum m arized from “ Cooperation betw een in d u stry an d th e colleges,” b y H ollis Godfrey, in E ducational
R eview , E asto n , P a., June, 1920, pp. 42-51; a n d “ Urges elim ination of educational w aste,” in School Life,
W ashington, D . C., May 1-15, 1920, pp. 4, 5.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[304]

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.

93

The originators of this cooperative plan recognized the fact that no
training for management could be effective unless combined with
actual experience in the shop, and, furthermore, that specific training
for specific jobs must be had in addition to a general knowledge of
any industry. They therefore conceived the idea of utilizing all
available resources both in industry and in the colleges and of en­
couraging the development of new ones.
To accomplish this purpose it was proposed that a set of soecifications prepared jointly by industry and the colleges should be drawn
up setting forth industry’s needs and education’s ability to meet
them. Accordingly data were collected and put into shape, and, in
addition, an intensive personal survey was made of a group of great
industries and of a group of colleges in the East, Middle West, the
Southwest, and the South. This survey, covering a period of six
weeks, was based upon the work already'done.
The plan itself has been formulated with great care. More than
100 college executives were consulted regarding it and more than
30 college executives and 70 industrial executives worked on the
specifications. As a result many valuable suggestions and much
constructive criticism were received and embodied in the final draft.
The joint specifications were approved by the Technology Clubs
Associated at its meeting in Philadelphia, March 26 and 27, 1920,
and, up to May 15, 200 firms and corporations had also approved and
subscribed to the plan as set forth in them.
Industry and the colleges will be brought together for the accom­
plishment of the end defined in the plan by a joint industrial-educa­
tional body, or cooperative committee in which industry will be
represented by an industrial agency to be known as the council of
management education, and education will be represented by the
American Council on Education.
The work of the council of management education is to be that of determining for
each industrial group represented in the movement the needs of industry as regards
quantity and quality of management men, of keeping these requirements up to date
yeayby year, of specifying the types of men to be produced by the colleges, and of
helping to improve the processes and increase the resources for developing the men
desired. The council of management education will also determine and publish such
educational opportunities as can be offered undergraduates through cooperative sum­
mer courses. I t will also undertake to inform graduates of the opportunities in the
industrial field for management work. * * *
The American Council on Education, on the other hand, is prepared to bring edu­
cational opinion to bear upon the strictly educational problems involved in this great
undertaking, and to serve as a medium of communication between the colleges and
industry. * * *
The work of the cooperative committee will be that of a clearing house in which the
specifications of industry, of jobs and men will be refined and clarified. I t will also
decide upon the best educational processes for the accomplishment of specific ends.
In a word, it will review and coordinate the work of cooperation undertaken by the
two organizations already discussed.

2386°—20---- 7

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[305]

EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT.
Employment in Selected Industries in June, 1920.
HE Bureau of Labor Statistics received and tabulated reports
concerning tbe volume of employment in June, 1920, from
representative establishments in 13 selected manufacturing in­
dustries and in coal mining. Comparing the figures of June, 1920,
with those of identical establishments for June, 1919, it appears that
in 10 industries there were increases in the number of persons em­
ployed. The largest increases, 42.9 per cent, 20.4 per cent, and 15.6
per cent, appear in men’s ready-made clothing, car building and re­
pairing, and paper making. .F our industries show decreases, the
largest being 3.1 per cent in leather manufacturing.
All industries show increases in the total amount of the pay roll
for June 1920 as compared with June 1919. The greatest increases,
99.7 per cent, 57.4 per cent, and 48.1 per cent, appear in men’s ready­
made clothing, paper making, and coal, while the smallest increase,
12.2 per cent, is shown in the woolen industry.

T

C O M PA RISO N O F E M P L O Y M E N T IN ID E N T IC A L E S T A B L IS H M E N T S IN J U N E , 1919,
A N D 1920.
N u m b er on pay roll.

In d u stry .

Iro n and s te e l.........................
A utom obile m anufacturing.
Car b uilding a n d re p a irin g ..
C otton m an u factu rin g ..........
Cotton finisning.....................
H osiery an d u n d e rw e ar----W oolen.....................................
S iik ............................................
Men’s ready-m ade clothing.
L eath er m an u factu rin g .......
Boots an d shoes.....................
P a p e r m a k in g ........................
Cigar m a n u factu rin g ............
Coal m ining (b itu m in o u s)..

E s ta b ­
lish­
m ents
report­ Period of
in g for pay roll.
June,
b o th
years.

113
43
48
54
16
53
50
43
42
31
70
55
48
67

i m o ___
I w k ....
[ m o ----1 w k ....
. . . d o ----.. .d o ----. . . d o ----2 w ks. . .
1 w k ___
.. .d o ----.. .d o ----.. .d o ----.. .d o ___
J m o ___

June,
1919.

June,
1920.

168,332 190,072
119,649 133,416
49,251 59,289
41,478 42,403
12,031 12,487
25,803 26,312
44,435 44,850
12,408 12,340
17,190 24,573
13,798 13,365
55,705 60,090
27,872 32,226
15,129 14,997
19,667 19,616

A m ount of pay roll.

P ercent
of in ­
crease
( + ) or June, 1919.
de­
crease
(-)•

June, 1920.

P ercen t
of in ­
crease.

+ 12.9 $10,346,834 $14,576,514
3,368,889
4,544,703
+11.5
3,766,262
2,668,837
+20.4
996,710
+ 2.2
745,091
341,299
258,056
+ 3.8
571,142
414,712
+ 2.0
925,028
1,037,795
+ .9
552,111
438,496
.6
771,347
386,170
+42.9
371,501
302,214
- 3.1
1,134,367
1,493,656
+ 7.9
978,982
621,973
+15.6
343,232
244,318
.9
1,445,786
976,183
.3

40.9
34.9
41.1
33.8
32.3
37.7
12.2
25.9
99.7
22.9
31.7
57.4
40.5
48.1

Comparative data for June, 1920, and May, 1920, appear in the
following table. The figures show that in five industries there was
an increase in the number of persons on the pay roll in June as
compared with May, and in nine a decrease. The greatest increases,
5.3 per cent and 3.2 per cent, are shown in iron and steel and car
building and repairing, while decreases of 6.4 per cent, 5 per cent,
and 3.7 per cent appear in woolen, hosiery and underwear, and leather
manufacturing.
94


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[306]

EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT.

95

When comparing June, 1920, with M ay,1920, seven industries show
ail increase in the amount of money paid to emplovees and seven
show a decrease. The most important increases, 17.8 per cent, 11.8
per cent, and 10.1 per cent, appear in cotton finishing, cotton manu­
facturing, and coal. Woolen and men’s ready-made clothing show
respective decreases of 17 per cent and 8.6 per cent.
C O M P A R IS O N

OF

EM PLOYM ENT

IN

ID E N T IC A L

E S T A B L IS H M E N T S

N u m b er on pay roll.

In d u stry .

Iron and s te e l.....................
A utom obile m anufacturing.
Car b uilding and re p a irin g ..
C otton m anufacturing. .
Cotton finishing...............
H osiery an d u n d erw ear___
W oolen.....................
S ilk .............
Men’s ready-m ade clothing.
L eath er m an u factu rin g ___
Boots an d sh o es.............
P a p e r m ak in g .................
Cigar m an u factu rin g ............
Coal m ining (b itu m in o u s)..

E sta b ­
lish­
m ents
report­ Period of
ing for p ay roll.
May
and
June.

114
43
41
50
16
54
49
44
39
31
67
55
49
82

h m o ___
Ï w k ___
i m o ......
1 w k ___
. . . d o ___
. . . d o ___
.. .d o ___
2 w k s. . .
1 w k ___
.. .d o ___
.. -d o ----. . . d o ___
.. .d o ___
I m o -----

May,
1920.

M AY

AND

A m ount of pay roll.

P ercent
of in ­
June, crease
1920. ( + ) or May, 1920.
de­
crease
(-)•

173,833 183,004
127,526 124,443
50,845 52,480
37,743 38,100
12,266 12,487
28,410 26,991
47,606 44,556
13,494 13,238
21,843 21,143
13,885 13,365
57,960 57,430
32,195 32,226
14,381 14,241
22,423 22,351

IN

P ercen t
of in ­
crease
June, 1920. ( + ) or
de­
crease
(-)•

+ 5 .3 $13,248,900 $14,213,114
-2 .4
4,488,810
4,249,162
+ 3 .2
3,207,666
3,331,317
+ .9
808,565
903,797
+ 1.8
289,815
341, 299
-5 .0
596,539
589,343
- 6 .4
1,239,308
1,028,794
- 1 .9
631,830
602,855
- 3 .2
711,160
649,795
- 3 .7
374,310
371,501
- .9
1,458,591
1,464,454
+ •1
955,334
978,982
-1 .0
328,587
325.093
- .3
1,503,144
1,655,652

+ i •3
- 5.3
+ 3.9
+ 11.8
+ 17.8
- 1.2
-1 7 .0
- 4.0
- 8.6
- .8
+ -4
+ 2.5
- 1.1
+10.1

In addition to the data presented in the above tables as to the
number of employees on the pay roll, 107 plants in the iron and steel
industry reported 159,119 employees as actually working on the last
lull day of the pay-roll period reported for June, 1920, as against
140,932 for the reported pay-roll period in June, 1919, an increase of
12.9 per cent. Figures given by 107 establishments in the iron and
steel industry for June, 1920, and May, 1920, show that 153,000 em­
ployees were actually working on the last full day of the pay period
reported for in June, 1920, as against 142,518 for the period in May,
1920, an increase of 7.4 per cent.
Wage Changes.
TN 13 of the 14 industries there were establishments reporting wage
rate increases during the period May 15 to June 15, 1920. One
industry made no report of any changes in wage rates. Of the
establishments reporting, many did not answer the inquiry relative to
this item, but in such cases it is not likely that changes were made.
Iron and steel. An increase ol approximately 10 per cent was given
to 7 per cent of the employees in one plant. Two mills reported an
increase of 8 per cent, affecting 75 per cent of the force in one mill
and 40 per cent in the other. One concern granted a 5 per cent
increase to 40 per cent of the workers.
Automobiles.—One plant granted an increase of 10 per cent to about
11 per cent of the force, while another plant granted an increase of
2 per cent to 38 per cent of the force.
Car building and repairing. One establishment repo: ted an increase
of 10 per cent, affecting 12 per cent of the employees.

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[3071

96

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

Cotton manufacturing .—An increase of 15 per cent was granted by
19 concerns, affecting the entire force in 16 concerns, 99 per cent in
one, and 95 per cent in another, while one concern did not state the
number affected. All employees of 4 firms were given an increase of
approximately 15 per cent. Increases ranging from 10 to 15 per cent
were granted to the entire force by one firm. An increase of about 10
per cent, to all men, was given by one establishment. One mill re­
ported an 8 per cent increase to all employees.
Cotton finishing .-—Eleven establishments reported an increase of 15
per cent, affecting the entire force in 9 establishments and 95 per cent
of the force in another, while one establishment did not report the
number affected. An increase of 10 per cent was granted by two
firms, affecting all the employees in one firm and 15 per cent of the
employees in the other.
Hosiery and underwear.—Five establishments reported an increase
of 15 per cent, affecting the entire force.
Woolen.—An increase of 15 per cent was granted by 45 mills, affect­
ing the entire force in 14 mills, 99 per cent of the force in one mill, and
approximately 95 per cent of the force in 30 mills. All the employees
in one establishment were given increases ranging from approxi­
mately 7% per cent to 9 per cent.
Silk .—All the employees of one mill were given an increase of 15
per cent.
Leather manufacturing .—One establishment granted a 15 per cent
increase to the entire force. An increase of 12% per cent was given to
two-thirds of the men by one concern, and another concern gave a 10
per cent increase to all employees. All the workers in one plant
received a 5 per cent bonus. One mill reported increases of 7 per cent,
4 per cent, and 3%per cent, affecting 2 per cent, 7 per cent, and 27 per
cent of the force, respectively.
Boots and shoes.—-Two establishments reported a 30 per cent in­
crease, affecting 20 per cent of the men in the one establishment and
12 per cent of the men in the other. An increase of 23 per cent was
granted to about 2 per cent of the employees in one plant, and another
plant granted an increase of 20 per cent to all employees. About 2
per cent of the men in one firm received an increase of 12| per cent.
The entire force of one mill was granted a 5 per cent increase.
Paper making .-—An increase of 11 per cent was given by one mill to
40 per cent of the employees. An increase of approximately 10 per
cent was received by all workers in two plants, while another plant
granted an increase of 9 per cent to 12 per cent of the employees.
An increase of about 7% per cent, affecting all employees, was reported
by two plants. Four establishments reported an increase of 7 per
cent, affecting the entire force in three concerns, and 6 per cent of the
force in the fourth concern. One establishment gave an increase of 6^
per cent to about 94 per cent of the force, and another establishment
reported a general increase in wages, but made no other statement.
Cigar manufacturing .—In one concern 90 per cent of the employees
were given an increase of 10 per cent. Another plant reported
increases ranging from 7% to 10 per cent, affecting 50 per cent of the
force.
Coal.—All employees in one mine were granted an increase of 26
per cent, and another mine gave an increase of 12^ per cent to 10 per
Lcent of the employees.

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[308]

EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT.

97

Extent of Employment of Women and Minors in
Montevideo, Uruguay.
IIE United States Consul at Montevideo, Uruguay, under date
of May 3, 1920, reports that the National Bureau of Labor
has sent the following statistics to the Senate regarding the
number of women and minor children who are at present working in
the factories of that city:

T

W O M E N E M P L O Y E D IN FA C T O R IE S IN M O N T E V ID E O , B Y N A T IO N A L IT Y AND
CO N JU G A L C O N D IT IO N .
N atio n ality .

N um ­
ber.

U ru g u a y a n ..........................
S p a n ish ............
I ta lia n .....................
A rg en tin ian ..................................
O th e rs.......................

4,489
256
163
125
127

T o t a l.............................

N um ­
ber.

C onjugal condition.
U n m a rrie d
M arried
W id o w s...

4,425
552
183

T o tal

5,160

5,160

It is noted that the married women and widows have 851 children
There are 3,141 minor children to be found in the factories of Mon­
tevideo. _ The statistics further show that there are to be found in
general industrial and commercial work the following numbers of
women and minor children:
Women
Girls...........
Boys..........

8, 219
2, 455
11,218

Total

21,892

Opportunities for Employment of Women in
Australia.
HE commission sent to Australia in the latter part of 1919 by
the British Government, “ to ascertain what openings there
might be for the employment and settlement of women upon
the land, and what demand, if any, existed for women in industrial
commercial, and other classes of occupations,” submitted its report
to the Secretary of State for the Colonies and President of the Over­
sea Settlement Committee, in June, 1920.1 The report lends little
encour agemcnt to the idea that unemployment among women in
England can be materially relieved by emigration to Australia. There
is a demand for women in many of the normal occupations of women,
but only those who are trained and experienced workers are desired*
and the_ authorities view with alarm any scheme of assisted migra­
tion which may tend to create an oversupply of woman labor for
factories and thus reduce the standard of living. Teachers for the
State schools are not required, and there is no demand whatever for

T

i G reat B ritain . Oversea S ettlem ent Com m ittee. R ep o rt of delegates appointed to inciuire as to
opem ngs m A u stralia for w om en from th e U nited K ingdom . London, 1920, 24 pp. Cmd. 74o.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[309]

98

MONTHLY LABOE EE VIEW.

clerks or typists, or shop assistants. Women as agricultural workers
are not wanted, and the commission records its conviction that 1‘any
attempt to introduce women as agricultural laborers would meet with
the strongest opposition, not only from organized labor, but from
every section of the community.”
There is a strong demand for women as domestic servants, but the
account given of the conditions and wages prevailing does not seem
likely to attract women from England or elsewhere. An attempt is
being made in New South Wales to standardize hours and conditions,
but this is as yet in its incipiency, and in general “ the worker’s daily
duties are determined by the individual employer. ’’ Women who lack
training as domestic servants can not hope to succeed, the commission
found, and since there are no facilities for training in Australia, this
must be secured before leaving England. The women who before
the war were sent out as domestics were often very unsatisfactory,
and it is important that if any attempt is made to renew such work,
the migrants should be selected with care, and proof should be
required of their experience and ability.
While there is no demand for women as agricultural workers, there
are chances for groups of women working together to make a success
of farming, dairying, truck growing, and the like. The essentials for
success in such ventures are (1) a sufficiency of capital; (2) previous
agricultural experience; (3) settlement upon good, improved land.
Lacking these, success is unlikely.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[310]

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY.
Hours and Conditions of Work for Women in
Industry in Virginia.
REPORT (Bulletin No. 10) recently issued by the Women’s
Bureau of the Department of Labor gives the result of a survey
of hours and conditions of work for women in industry in Vir­
ginia. The survey was made, at the request of the governor of Virginia,
in the last quarter of 1919, in cooperation with the State bureau of labor
and industrial statistics, for the purpose of securing a foundation of
facts upon which legislation might be enacted in the interest of women
workers. The survey covered 146 establishments employing 18,781
women, or 53.8 per cent of the total employees in these plants. Of
the total women employed, 10,344 were employed in the tobacco
industry. Briefly stated, it was found that 46.2 per cent of the women
were working 10 hours or more a day; 11.1 per cent worked 8 hours
or less; 40.3 per cent worked over 54 hours a week; 19.3 per cent
worked 48 hours or less a week. Slightly over 3 per cent of the
women were working at night.
The data as to daily hours of work are shown, by industries, in the
following table, which Covers 144 of the 146 plants:

A

N U M B E R O F W O M E N W O R K IN G E A C H C L A S S IF IE D N U M B E R O F D A IL Y H O U R S IN
144 P L A N T S IN V IR G IN IA IN D E C E M B E R , 1919, B Y IN D U S T R IE S .1

U n d er 8
hours.

8 hours.

Over 8
and
un d er
9 hours.

9 hours.

O ver 9
and
under
10 hours.

10 hours
and
over.2

Total.

In d u stry .
d

d

CO

'c3S ao
E is •E
T obacco .................................
T extile....................................
C lothing.................................
H osiery a n d .k n it goods__
B akeries a n d o th e r food
p ro d u c ts.............................
Boots an d shoes...................
P a p e r and p ap er p ro d u c ts.
P e a n u ts..................................
P rin tin g and p u b lish in g ...
M iscellaneous.......................
T o tal............................
P e r cent of w omen employed in eaeh hour
gro u p ..................................

2 1,188

d

ao

5
1

420
230

2

6

1
1

41

3 1,229

6.8

1
1

48
3

11

772

4.3

¿¡3

E

a 1

o
£

Ph

dCD

§
£

4 2,454
2
454
1
46
1
132

6 1 239
1
61
4
299

1
4
4

4
2

7
5

36
485
140
208
96

2

dCD
o
rs

-+2
c3
s

a

+2
c3

E

d

'S

is

5

8
1
3

906
46
186

97

10

366

1

29

110

2
2

97

4
2

134
106

3

44

5

219

150

29 4,051

19 1,956

29 1,681

22.5

10.9

9.3

d

ao

28 5 04«
12 2 299
1
67
3
420

a

o
is

46
L6
16
5
18
4
13
4
9
16

Q 647
2,206
783
485
485
203

297
512

56 8,322 3 147 18,011

46.2

100

1 In 2 p lan ts employing 41 w om en.the daily hours of w ork were n o t reported. T he hours of 729 w om en
em ployed on n ig h t sh ifts in 6 p lan ts a re n o t included in th is table.
2 Tw o p lan ts, em ploying 405 women, in th e tobacco in d u s try w orked oyer 10 hours.
s T h e to ta l n u m b er of p lan ts reporting hours w orked w as 144. Three of th e tobacco p la n ts, how ever,
reported workers in more th a n one h o u rly classification, a n d ;are therefore counted more th a n once, m a k ­
ing th e ap p aren t to ta l 147 in stead of 144.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[311]

99

100

MONTHLY LABOE EE VIEW.

As to working conditions the report states that equipment, cleanli­
ness, and other conditions of buildings and workrooms in the ma­
jority of establishments were very unsatisfactory from the viewpoint
of comfort, sanitation, and efficient management, and that provi­
sion for the comfort and health of workers was most inadequate.
Superintendents of many plants, it is stated, requested advice and
assistance in raising the standard of working conditions. As a result
of the survey, which included many conferences with employers,
workers, and others interested in the subject, the Women’s Bureau
recommends that the following standards he established either
through specific laws or through legislation empowering the State
Bureau of Labor and Industrial Statistics to regulate conditions of
employment:
Hours.

1 . Women should not be required or permitted to work more than eight hours in

any one day.
2 . Women should not he required to work more than one-half day on Saturday.
3. Not less than 30 minutes should be allowed for a meal in each working day.
4. No woman should be employed between the hours of 12 midnight and 6 a. m.
5. The time when the work of women employees shall begin and end and the time
allowed for meals should be posted in a conspicuous place in each workroom, and a
record should be kept of the overtime for each woman worker.
Working conditions.
1. Where women are employed there should be provided one toilet for every 20
women and one toilet for every additional 15 women or fraction thereof. These
toilets should be properly screened, should have outside ventilation, and should be
kept in a clean and sanitary condition.
2. Washing facilities with hot and cold water, soap, and individual towels should
be provided.
3. Drinking water should be cool and accessible, with individual drinking cups or
sanitary bubble fountains provided.
4. Cloakroom facilities should be provided, and provision made outside of the
workroom for eating lunch and resting.
5. Adjustable seats with backs should be supplied for all woman workers.
6. The dust-protection law in Virginia should be extended to include protection
in all processes involving exposure to dust and fumes.
Administration of labor laws.
1 . One or more women should be appointed in the bureau of labor and industrial

statistics with full authority to investigate conditions and enforce the laws.
2 . There should be an adequate number of inspectors to enforce the laws regulating
conditions in industrial establishments.

F irst Report of the Indiana State Department of
Women and Children.
HE department of women and children established by an act
of the Indiana General Assembly of 1919 began its work as a
department May 1, 1919, and the first report of its operations
has been issued as a part of the annual report of the State industrial
board for the year ending September 30, 1919.
This report states that for the five months’ period intervening be­
tween its formation and the issuance of the report the department
has a good record of accomplishment to its credit. In addition to
carrying out the varied and exacting details incident to organiza­
tion, the department of women and children, in order to meet the

T


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[ 312]

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY.

101

demand for such information throughout the State, made a complete
compilation of all laws and parts of laws relating to the employment
of women and children. By this means employers and others inter­
ested in the subject were afforded first-hand reliable authority.
The director of the department also assisted in working out such
changes in the State system of issuing employment certificates to
minors as would bring it into accord with the requirements of the
Federal child labor act and obviate the necessity and confusion of a
dual employment certificate system. The plan as finally adopted
by the State department and approved by the Bureau of Internal
Revenue imposes no additional work upon the school executives
who issue the certificates beyond what is already required by State
law except the mailing of a duplicate of each certificate issued to
the industrial board.
An investigation made by the department of 122 minors 16 years
of age and under who were injured in the industries of the State
during a two months’ period showed 31 per cent illegally employed.
Moreover, a summary of the routine work done by the department,
in addition to the special services rendered, includes the inspection
of 41 plants employing women and. children, the issuance of orders
to 252 plants, the issuance of 43 orders for violations covering 119
cases of child labor, and other items indicative of the regular scope
of -the department’s activities.
The following is the plan of organization approved by the Governor
and industrial board, which became effective October 1, 1919:
Plan of the organization of the Department of Women and Children.
I. Name:
Department of Women and Children, Industrial Board of Indiana.
II. Scope of work:
1. Inspect all places employing women and children for the purpose of car­
rying out the provisions of all laws or parts of laws pertaining to women and
children.
2. Confer with employers on the particular problems in their own plants,
especially those brought about by new and changing conditions to which no
existing standards apply.
3. Make such special studies and surveys as the Industrial Board may deem
advisable to a further legislative program for adequate protection of the gen­
eral welfare of women and children.
. 4. Cooperate with the Department of Public Instruction, including the Voca­
tional Department, State Board of Truancy, State Board of Health, State Em­
ployment Commission, Federal Children’s Bureau, Women’s Bureau of the
U. S. Department of Labor, and all other agencies having for their purpose
the welfare of women and children.
5. Make monthly reports requested by Internal Revenue Department and
the U. S. Department of Labor on subject of employment certificates, dupli­
cates of which are filed with the Industrial Board.
III. Organization:
1. A director under the control and direction of the Industrial Board.
2. Two assistants, one for each of the two districts into which the State shall
be divided.
3. One stenographer-clerk.
IV. Division of work:
1. District one: That part of the State north of the southern boundary of
Vermilion, Fountain, Montgomery, Clinton, Tipton, Grant, Blackford, and
Jay counties. Full time of one assistant.
2 . District two: That part of the State south of the southern boundary of
the above-named counties. Full time of one assistant.
3. State in general: Director of department to give all time not required for
administrative work to field work throughout the State.
[313]

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

102

MONTHLY LABOE REVIEW.

V. Records:
1. Regular inspection record cards containing points covered by existing
standards, and additional information desired by the Industrial Board.
2. Special schedules for surveys or studies as directed by the board.
VI. Reports:
1. Weekly report of each assistant to the director.
2. Monthly reports of the director to the board.
3. Such other reports as the board may from time to time request.

Employment of Women in France Before and
A fter the W ar.1
HE economic stagnation in France caused by the declaration of
war was immediately followed by industrial activities, and the
demand for labor made it necessary to employ a large number
of women to fill places which had theretofore been occupied by the
mobilized men. There are no statistics as to the total number of
women leaving domestic service or seasonal employment to accept
work in regular occupations, but the partial figures available show
the scope of the movement.
Two investigations have been made by the minister of labor relative
to the employment of women in such establishments as are subject
to inspection by the department The first covered 52,278 establish­
ments, employing under normal conditions 487,474 women. Soon
after mobilization this number fell to 199,107. In July, 1915, the
number exceeded 400,000, and in July, 1917, there were 626,881
women employed in these establishments.
The investigation made in 1918 covered only 41,475 establishments
and showed the following results: In July, 1914, there were 454,642
women employed; in August the same year 179,398; in July, 1917,
543,025; and in July, 1918, 533,523.
The trades in which there was an increase in the number of women
employees were naturally those engaged in work for the national
defense. Thus for every 100 women employed in 1914 there were in
July, 1918, 677 in the metal trades, 461 in transportation and main­
tenance, 301 in building trades, 156 in woodworking, and 141 in the
chemical trades.
The trades which showed a decrease in the number of women
employed were those in which generally lower wages obtained. In
the manufacture of food products there was in July, 1918, 69 per cent
of the prewar number employed; in textiles 92 per cent, and in the
printing trades 73 per cent.
In July, 1914, women formed 32.8 per cent, and in August, 1914,
38.2 per cent, of all employees in the establishments studied. This in­
crease in ratio was not due to the employment of a larger number of
women, but to the decrease of male employees through mobilization.
Later, when industrial activity was resumed, this percentage increased
to about 40 and was maintained at this point with slight changes
from July, 1915, up to the signing of the armistice.
The department caused a third investigation to be made on the
same lines as the first two, except that it was limited to establish-

T

1 La Problèm e du T rav a il F é m in in . A ssociation F ran çaise po u r la L u tte co n tre le Chômage, etc.,
Ju n e, 1919. 28 p p. Paris. B u lle tin N o. 26.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[314]

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY.

103

merits engaged in work for the national defense and included a certain
number of State-operated arsenals and workshops.
In October, 1914, there were 446,210 women employed and in
October, 1918, 600,733 in the establishments canvassed, showing an
increase of 34.6 per cent during the last year of the war. Women
formed 47 per cent of all employees in the health service, and for
every 100 women employed in manufactures of war on January 1,
1916, there were 361 in January, 1918. Outside of the industrial
establishments there were 132,468 women employed a t the latter
date by the war ministry in its various bureaus and warehouses.
During the war these women were engaged in the most varied oc­
cupations, and there are but few occupations in which they were not
employed as substitutes for men. At first they were employed upon
work requiring more skill than strength, but later they were called
upon to perform laborious tasks, and to do work calling for ablebodied workmen. In this class of work that most suited to their
ability was found in the innumerable tasks included under the term
“ works of maintenance.” Here they were engaged in loading and
unloading raw materials in the steel works, forges and rolling mills,
ship cargoes on the docks, and packages and goods in the railway
stations. In inside shopwork they performed such arduous tasks
that intervention in their behalf became necessary.
Frequently they carried on transportation by wheelbarrows, hand
carts, etc., or by means of horse-drawn vehicles, auto trucks, and
electric cars.
A large number of women were employed in the inspection of
manufactured articles; they examined munitions, verifying the
dimensions of the different pieces of ordnance in factories engaged in
war manufactures. The checking and examining of the articles pro­
duced were almost exclusively done by women. In addition they
were charged with making inventories, and in marking, storing
ticketing, sorting, and packing the goods. In these last-mentioned
occupations they showed remarkable ability, as well as in packing
cartridges and weighing powder charges, and they have been em­
ployed with success in nailing boxes, assembling and putting together
the panels of barracks, etc.
Comparison of Women With Men Workers.
TN general the work done by women has been satisfactory, and it
would have been more so had there been greater care taken to
place them with respect to their individual capacities. A comparison
of their work with that of men shows that women fall short in pro­
duction, but the general opinion prevails that they are more attentive,
and often more skillful and zealous than men. They are more subject
to fatigue, less regular in reporting for work, and finally, for a given
piece of work, it is necessary to employ a larger number of women
than men. In continuing the comparison it must not be assumed
that these conclusions are general as to all classes of work. In
machine weaving and work done in a series of operations automati­
cally by power tools women equal the men in execution, but in more
arduous tasks where greater physical exertion is demanded rather
t aan alertness of movement they are not equal, and under all condi­
tions specialization is necessary.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[3151

104

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

Observations, especially those made in the Toulouse district, lead
to quite definite appraisement of the value of women’s work compared
with that of men’s. With the exception of one process, 4 women
were required to perform the amount of work done by 3 men. For
handwork divideu up into a series of operations in which the worker is
a specialized handworker, the production of women workers is in
inverse ratio to the effort required in each operation. In the manu­
facture of large and heavy shells the employment of women was not
advantageous, but in handling the smaller sizes the contrary was
true. It was admitted that in working before fires 2 women were
not worth 1 man, but on the other hand women showed remark­
able results when operating instruments of precision, electric machines,
and electric cranes.
In general, it was found that the employment of women necessi­
tated an increase in the number necessary to complete any given
piece of work; either more women than the normal number^of men
were required or they had to have the assistance of men. The increase
in the number of employees is estimated at one-quarter at least, and
not more than one-third as a maximum. Often it became necessary
to include skilled workmen in the group of women workers until such
time as their apprenticeship should be terminated. _ In machine
trades women have not been charged with the sharpening or adjust­
ment of the tools. For this reason the organization of a shift has in
general been as follows: A number of good tool men w^ere assigned
to the machines while the women were engaged in doing the mechan­
ical part of the work and in measurements. Thus a workshop which
formerly employed 16 men and 16 women later employed 32 women
and 7 men as machine men, freeing 9 men, and in another where 8
women and 8 men were formerly employed there were later employed
8 women and 2 men. In this latter case the average output was
increased.
The employment of women in such large numbers has been pro­
ductive of other results than the increase in the number of employees.
Employers have found it expedient to modify their working apparatus
so as to limit the physical effort required to the strength of their
employees. The workers have been spared every operation that
could be performed by machines so that transportation of work and
lifting and distribution of raw materials are now done by automatically
operated machinery, while in foundries new machines have been
installed for core making, closing molds, metal trimming or cutting,
sealing bottles, etc. In many shops monorails, traveling ways, and
simplified methods have been adopted, as well as special working
methods and special machines for the manufacture of articles made in
a series of operations.
The matter of shop hygiene has been influenced by the presence of
women, since they are more exacting in these matters than men.
Their demands'for better working conditions have been met by the
installation of dressing rooms, wash rooms, and toilets. Women
manifested a desire to introduce measures of economy, and as a result
factory canteens, restaurants, and cooperative stores were established.
Their employment called for medical and surgical services and for
the establishment of special departments—nursing rooms for the
use of mothers and infants' nurseries where children could be cared
\ for while their mothers were at work.

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[316]

WOMEN IN INDUSTKY.

105

Reemployment of Women After the War.
T H E stopping of munitions work following the armistice materially
X affected the woman workers of the country. I t became neces­
sary to discharge large numbers of them, without, however, provoking
an unemployment crisis, and it was necessary, therefore, to institute
measures for aiding them and securing other employment for them.
. As early as November 13, 1918, the minister of munitions issued a
circular, partaking somewhat of the nature of a proclamation, to his
working forces, in which he said: “ There should be no unemploy­
ment ; the interests of the country demand that all resume as quickly
as possible their prewar work. All women who leave the munitions
factories before December 5 will receive one month’s pay and free
transportation to the place chosen for their future residence.” This
circular was not as effective as was anticipated and the date of
separation was advanced. There was much hesitation in resigning
from the service through fear of difficulty in securing a new employ­
ment. Soon after another circular pointed out the necessity of
women looking for work in other occupations, and advised that in
order to prevent a period of unemployment the workday in munitions
factories^should be reduced to five hours in order to permit reappren­
ticeship in or effort to secure other employment. A slight reduction
in wages was ordered for the purpose of impelling the workers to seek
other work.
A census ot workers in the war establishments was taken for
the purpose of determining the former occupations of the employees.
The labor exchange was to undertake the classification of those who
were to be discharged. This inquiry, which promised excellent
results, met with no great success. Many of the employees were
found to be not thoroughly qualified to resume their former occupa­
tions, since they had either lost their skill in their former occupations
during the four yearn of service, or, according to their own statements,
had never been qualified and had been let out because of industrial
incompetency.
In the agricultural districts classification was more easily effected,
and when on December 13 the women working in the powder works,
generally located in the country districts, were discharged but little
difficulty was encountered. In order to facilitate the movement
an indemnity of 140 francs ($27.02, par) was awarded to all persons
over 18 years of age who had been in the service one month prior
to the armistice and who left before March 1, 1919. This date was
later extended to May 1, 1919. The State agreed to assume the
payment of a portion of this indemnity. Difficulties in applying
this regulation arose which were settled by a special arbitration
commission.
In the Government offices, particularly in the war m inistry, the
services of many of the woman employees were unnecessary after
the armistice. These were paid indemnities as follows: One month’s
wages to those who had been in the service at least six months before
November 11, 1918; 15 days’ wages to those who had been employed
for a shorter period, and to those who had been in the service over
six months a supplemental indemnity of two days’ pay for each
three months of service more than six. As a matter of fact there
have been but few discharged from public offices.

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[317]

106

MONTHLY LABOE EEVIEW.

At various dates the minister of labor or the minister of the
interior has solicited private employers and public officials to en­
deavor to secure new employees through the departmental labor
exchanges. The activity of these exchanges has increased, and their
biweekly reports usually show an increasing number of placements
for each successive period. I t is difficult to forrcq any idea of the
movement for absorbing the discharged women in industries, or
the manner in which these discharged persons have been absorbed.
The situation varies according to the industrial character of the
different districts. In some sections there is an increasing demand
for workers in clothing trades, in others in cardboard making, and
in others for domestic help, while in other localities industry is at a
standstill and skilled women are without employment. Frequently
women look with disdain upon appeals to accept the_ employment
offered them. Their habits of work have been subject to great
changes, and those who have been employed as substitutes for male
workers prefer to remain in such employment. One labor exchange
reports that “ men returning from the war look with contempt upon
their former work and demand positions requiring less physical
effort, while the women are inclined to seek work requiring physical
strength. ”
However, women are gradually returning to their former trades,
but under conditions which are causing changes in the old economic
and social régime. Leaving well-organized shops, they demand
equivalent conditions in their new places of employment, and in­
sist on better hygienic provisions and improved working appliances.
Accustomed to standard wages in the war establishments they have
been obliged to accept, during the transitional period and in order
to escape unemployment, positions less remunerative than were
those they left, but the time has come when they are demanding a
wage corresponding to their abilities, their efforts, and their neces­
sities. This has been demonstrated in the recent strikes in the
clothing, food-preparation, and chemical trades.
I t has become necessary to make renewed efforts to organize the
female-labor market. In order to do this successfully the labor
exchange must be enlarged, increased, and “ professionalized, ” an
effort must be made to provide training facilities adapted to women’s
requirements, and the trades must be organized to secure fair wages
to the workers.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[318]

INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS.
#

Health Hazards in the Millinery Industry in
New York City.
HE New York City department of health in its M onthly Bulletin
for April, 1920, gives a brief review of conditions affecting
health in the m illinery industry. I t seems that there are so
many different industries contributing to the m illinery business that
it is quite difficult to estimate definitely the industrial hazards
peculiar to the trade as a whole, but a few are pointed out, notably
those arising from the use of certain poisonous materials employed in
dyeing, cleaning, etc. The following materials and activities enter
into the manufacture of m illinery: A rtificial flowers, velvets, frame
making (buckram, straw, wire), feathers (treating, finishing, and
dyeing), dyeing, assembling, and selling. The ribbon and silk indus­
tries are not included, as there are but few of these factories in New
York City.
The report states that the making of artificial flowers probably
carries the greatest menace to health, as w ill be appreciated when it
is suggested that the materials used include Brazil wood, madder lake,
salt of tartar, various alkalies, alum, starch, arsenic (Scheele’s green),
blue stone,_ chrome yellow, annotto, carmine, garancine, salt of
potash, various strong acids, flour, indigo, Prussian blue, wood alco­
hol, gamboge, lead (white most frequently), zinc oxide. Chief among
these are the hazards presented by wood alcohol, arsenic, and white
lead. I t is suggested, however, that arsenic has to a large extent
been supplanted by anilin dyes, while zinc oxide powder has to a
certain extent been substituted for white lead. A distinct menace
is found in the use of wood alcohol, which is used extensively as a
solvent for various colored pigments, because of the fact that it is
rarely labeled as such, its label often containing a trade name which
disguises its nature, so that workers are ignorant of what they are
using and fa il to take the necessary precautions. Gas is extensively
used in several processes, principally in dyeing, and this presents a
fire hazard as well as a hazard to health because of fumes.
Perhaps one of the greatest menaces to the health of individual
workers, according to this report, is the irregularity of hours of em­
ployment, many of the women who make artificial flowers perform­
ing their fu ll day’s work and then taking work home to be done by
themselves. This home work is intended to be done by other mem­
bers of the family, it is claimed, but “ proof of this is practically im­
possible.” A considerable amount of home work, it is believed, is
done by small children. “ There is serious need for some method,”
declares the report in this connection, “ by which the hours of women
and girls working at home could be definitely ascertained and the
law prohibiting night work adequately enforced in this industry.”

T


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[319]

107

108

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

It is difficult to see how this is possible, as long as factory workers are permitted to
work in establishments and then, in addition, are permitted by employers to take
work to their homes, under the flimsy pretext that it is being done by others of the
employee’s family, when it is known by both employer and employee that such is not
a fact. It is therefore suggested that those working in licensed tenements be made to
procure their materials from firms who do no manufacturing^on their premises, and
that firms which do manufacture be prohibited from permitting full-time employees
from taking work home on any pretext, or that the pay roll record be made to include
time performed under both factory and home conditions.

This suggests another aspect to which attention is drawn, and that
is the employment of children. Certain stages in the manufacture of
artificial flowers are sufficiently simple as to be possible of per­
formance by the very youngest children, and this is the character of
the work usually taken home. Under the circumstances it is ad­
m itted that enforcement of the child-labor law is difficult. The re­
port suggests that in families in which there are many young children
such home work should be under constant supervision, especially
after school hours and in the early evenings, and that reports of work
assigned to be done at home be made by manufacturers to the divi­
sion of industrial hygiene of the city department of health, and,
further, that inspectors be assigned to supervise this home work,
particularly during the rush season, to prevent the employment of
very small children, and especially of school children, in factory
work.
In the manufacture of velvet the hazard to the worker arises from
the use of sharp knives w ith which the roving waste is stripped from
the bobbins and in the process of dyeing. The presence of floating
particles, of steam, and the haziness of the atmosphere which causes
difficulty of observation, and a large amount of aqueous condensa­
tion when there is so much heat and moisture, and the use of acids
and alkalies in watery solutions, in the presence of conditions par­
ticularly suitable for irrita tin g the skin and other sensitive organs,
are the chief disadvantages. The presence of water, causing slippery
floors, and the lack of proper ventilation are other hazards noted.
Myositis is said to be common, the employee who has been in this
form of work for any length of time frequently showing deposits
similar to those observed in rheumatoid arthritis.
In the manufacutre of wire hat frames, which is done mostly by
men, the hazards present were found to be not so much in the in­
dustry itself, although the machinery seemed to be inadequately
guarded, but in the uncleanliness of the shop environment. The
men seemed quite indifferent to the lack of proper ventilation and
the disorderliness of the shop.
Another branch of the m illinery industry presenting health hazards
to the workers is the treating of feathers and the making of feather
ornaments—work which is d irty, dusty, and insanitary. I t is
admittedly difficult to remove all health hazards because of the nature
of the work,“ but when, as in this city, a great proportion of the work
is performed in ancient, converted houses, mostly old tenements,
unsuited for any manufacturing purposes, this labor actually becomes
a very hazardous occupation.”
Toilets were found to be inadequate, heating and lighting poor,
and washing facilities often negligible. _ The report states that often
lunches were eaten by operatives amid the dust and d irt of their
work and often without the form ality of washing their hands.

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[320]

INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS.

109

A brief description of the classification of feathers and methods of
handling is included in the report.
. Attention is called to the fact that some manufacturers use indi­
vidual chemicals which, if properly used, and in suitable shop condi­
tions, present no special hazard, but in the instances encountered,
these mean special hazards to the workers, who are usually unaware
of the dangers to which they are exposed.
. Benzine, benzol, turpentine, wood alcohol, analin, essential oils, petroleum, and
similar chemicals are quite often found masquerading in the millinery industry under
trade names or disguised under factory cognomens, entirely unfamiliar and unknown
to all but the individual responsible for the new nomenclature.

The use of some of these chemicals in the manufacturing of m illinery
and the well-known effects upon the health of workers are described
briefly. Particular mention is made of the use of dyeing mixtures,
and the danger from anilin poisoning, etc.
Aside from the hazards encountered by the use of chemicals,
machinery, etc., the^ report lays some emphasis upon insanitary
conditions under which the operatives are very frequently forced
to work, and notes the indifference of many of them to this unhealthfu l environment. _ In most of the modern m illinery establishments
up-to-date plumbing fixtures have been given careful attention, “ but
it is regrettable to have to state that toilets are not carefully used
by workers.” There also appears to be a very trying indifference
on the^ part of the m ajority of workers concerning the necessity of
using individual drinking utensils and individual towels. Where
these are provided by the management the result is disappointing.
Since the health of the workers themselves is so intimately concerned in these
matters, it should be taken up carefully by the organizations concerned in labor’s
welfare, and an intensive ‘educational campaign waged to impress upon them the
importance of observing sanitary precautions, if they are to remain well, since only
through intelligent cooperation and consistent compliance can improvement in working
conditions be attained.

Poisons in the Tar Products Industry.
N 1917 (the latest date for which the statistics are available) 190
manufacturing firms were reported to the United States Tariff
Commission as engaged in the production of coal-tar derivatives.
One hundred and seventy-eight of these plants are listed alphabeti­
cally by name and office address in a bulletin published by the com­
mission entitled “ Census of dyes and coal-tar chemicals.” The 12
remaining companies withheld their consent to the publication of
their names.
According to this bulletin “at least 125 different chemical substances
have been isolated from coal tar.” Though a mere by-product in
the manufacture of coke and of illuminating gas, coal tar is itself
the raw material from which other important manufacturing sub­
stances are obtained by fractional distillation, as, for example, benzol,
toluol, naphthalin, anthracene, the phenols, etc. From coal tar are
derived various dyes and chemicals, medicinal preparations and
flavoring extracts, synthetic tanning materials, colors, and explosives.
Cutaneous affections result from direct contact w ith the tar. They
develop also from exposure to tar fumes which are irritatin g to the

I

2386°—20---- 8

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[321]

110

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

skin, and, when inhaled to the whole respiratory tract, and tnese
effects can not be entirely obviated by good ventilation. Toxic
absorption is probably more often due to the action of the fumes than
to direct contact with the solid tar. Otherwise the symptoms of
irritation would be more frequently seen on the hands and arms,
since these parts of the body are subject to the direct action of the
tar. As a matter of fact, however, facial inflammations predominate.
It can not be assumed, however, that the so-called coal-tar derma­
titis is always provoked solely by the tar products themselves. It
is due in part to the solvents used for some of them.
One such solvent is benzol, a member of the aromatic series of
hydrocarbons and nearly related to the phenols (cresol, carbolic
acid, etc.). It serves as a solvent for tar and tar colors. Its vapor
when inhaled causes severe poisoning, manifesting itself by vertigo,
and by a condition simulating inebriation accompanied by tremors,
loss of consciousness, and convulsions.
Dr. Beisels-Tutzing describes a typical case of benzol vapor poi­
soning in No. 42 of the Munich Medicinische Wochenschrift, 1912.
A wealthy master brewer descended through a manhole into the
interior of a vat to paint the inside of it with a 10 per cent solution
of tar in benzol, as a protective and preservative. _ Notwithstand­
ing the fact that there were openings in the cover of the vat for the
access of air, the man collapsed, and about five minutes later he was
drawn out in an insensible condition. The warm outer air had^pre­
vented the escape of the poisonous gases. In the open air he quickly
recovered consciousness. Aside from the symptoms above men­
tioned, the victim’s memory was indistinct concerning events im­
mediately preceding the accident. The symptoms of illness disap­
peared in the course of the day, but for a whole week the color of
the skin remained noticeably pale.
Chronic poisonings by benzol vapor are relatively rare in the
recovery of coal tar, because the employees work in the open air or
in well-ventilated rooms. The precise nature of the changes wrought
by the vapor in the blood of benzol workers lias not yet been fully
determined; but its injurious effects are unquestionable.
In the manufacture of tar there remains, after the abstraction of
the oils, a residuum which contains phenols, pyridin bases, cresols,
etc., and this residuum is hurtful to the eyes on account of the cor­
rosive action of the ingredients. The result of such irritation is
conjunctivitis, followed by corneal inflammation and ulceration.
Sometimes the cornea in the space between the eyelids looks as if
it had been tattooed. Wartlike growths are produced by the dust
arising from this composite paste. These drop off, leaving small
ulcers instead.
The ultimate residue of the dry paste, which consists of nothing
but pitch, is practically harmless to eyes and skin. But even coaltar pitch may, under special conditions, occasion morbid symptoms,
and these symptoms are closely related to the effect of light on cer­
tain dyes. This is called the photodynamic effect, and it is worthv
of note that photography itself is possible only because of the action
of light on readily decomposable chemical substances.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[322]

INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS.

Ill

Results of Studies by Lewin, of Berlin.
L ™
’ Rerlin, has published the results of important studies on
, .¿hls subLect m. ^°* ^8
ihe Munich Medicinische Wochenschnit. the following excerpt from his report is of value:
Certain fluorescent dyes are capable of injuring, and even of destroying, mono­
cellular 01 gam sms m the light, though in the dark they are inert. In like manner
V m W er^ msD^ af damaSed by such dyes. Fluorescent acridine acidu'i
l .bydrocblonc acid, for example, kills infusoria in diffused daylight though
a mi hon times diluted Fishes which were kept in a solution of eosin, one part to
T u ’ °LBeugii] ? Se’,0ne Part t0 !hirty thousand, in shallow glass vessels ex[ T f
i 1 , af1t1er a few hours showed necrosis of the outer row of cells, especially
mt v
cells were extruded, hanging down in the form of tattered shreds.
In 36 hours the fishes died, while controls kept in darkness remained alive for a long
4
1• V
and f^bbits, inoculated with eosin, ulcers were observed to develop
llght of da7 011 S e ea3 wh,lle the hair on the head and back fell out, and doughy
tumors appeared on the affected parts. In epileptics, to ’whom eosin was given in
!a 7 1 d(tees as,a rerncdy, doughlike swellings appeared on the face and hands, with
iovered'parts'ofX sbody
bUt theS6 Phenomena were Present only on the un-

These phenomena unmistakably are due to the action of livht.
Among electrical workers in a Berlin establishment such symptoms
are regarded as photodynamic. It is significant that laborers hanalmg coal-tar pitch complained of discomfort only in rare instances
until other substances were incorporated with the tarry mass. Com­
plaints began with the manufacture of paper tubing when these other
ingredients were employed to form an admixture suitable for the
new product. Then men and women began to suffer from burning
and itching sensations of the skin on the face, neck, hands, and fore­
arms, at times very severely.
Yet visible alterations of the skin were slight. They consisted
chiefly ol a general diffused redness. In some cases hard nodules on
a red base were found, generally on the neck. In some patients the
cuticle was loosened in large, ragged patches. Others had only
discrete spots of reddened skin. I t was remarkable that, without
exception, the complaints concerning irritation of the skin referred
to parts accessible to light. Still more striking was the fact that
YI •1 man7 Patients, the itching ceased at night or when in the shade!
Inis suiely indicates that the irritation is caused by photodynamic
action.
a
On analyzing the clinical histories of 103 patients (53 men and
50 women) Lewin found that 88, or 85.4 per cent, had the itching
sensation whenever light, especially sunlight, fell on the affected
parts ol the body, and only 15 suffered both in the light and in the
shade. He further testifies that, of those afflicted with the itchhm
89 or 86.4 per cent, were light haired, or blonds, and only 14 wein
dark haired. The blonds, therefore, were apparently more suscep­
tible to the injurious effects. In 91 cases the face was primarily
affected, and the hands and arms secondarily.
I he photodynamic symptoms above described are of course an­
noying m and of themselves, and to some extent incapacitating,
but they are not significant of immediate danger. More serious
are the tumors which frequently occur in workmen who have to do
with anilin dyes. These tumors develop most commonly in the
urmary bladder, not only of workmen engaged in the manufacture
ol anilm dyes, but of the dyers of textiles who merely make use of
[323]

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

112

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

these colors. According to Leuenberger, of Basle, who has observed
59 tumors of this kind, various substances of the aromatic series
possess tumor-forming potency; namely, anilin, toluidin, naph­
thyl amin, etc.
But since the action of this and of other chemical substances does
not for long periods of time cause tumors in all persons employed in
handling them, it is evident that an idiosyncrasy, or special suscepti­
bility, exists in the individuals affected. In any case, workers in
such dyes should consult a physician as soon as possible at the first
signs of vesical disturbance.
As to treatment of the dermatitis, inunctions with fats and wash­
ing with very dilute solutions of medicated soap have proved useful.
These applications promptly relieve the irritation; but washing with
water is said to aggravate the trouble.

Industrial Poisoning in German W ar Industries.
HE German factory inspection report for the four years of the
war,1 mention of which was made in the July issue of the
M o n t h l y L a b o r R e v i e w (pp. 116-128), contains much data
of interest on the subject of occupational diseases and industrial
poisons, giving particularly the experience of German manufacturers
with certain new poisons used in the munitions industry. The results
are not summarized, and it is impossible to compute from the data
given accurate totals of cases of sickness and death from the various
substances, as the different inspectors do not pursue the same method
of making their reports. While one will give all the cases of a cer­
tain kind of poisoning, fatal and nonfatal, but omit to say how many
were exposed to the danger, another will tell the number of employees
exposed and the deaths, but say nothing of the milder forms. It is
evident also, from some of the statements therein, that the reports
were not edited by a physician and need correction by someone with
medical training.
These particular volumes are interesting beyond the ordinary be­
cause they give a picture of German industry during those years when
information from that country was cut off and when industry was
being carried on under the stress not only of the war but of the
blockade. The effect of the latter is seen on almost every page—in
the lack of raw materials for soap, overalls, aprons, and respirators,
in the difficulty of getting enough food for workers in heavy occupa­
tions and working long hours, and in the forced substitution of un­
familiar chemicals for well-known ones which were no longer available.
The account of the war industries, especially the manufacture and
loading of explosives, is of special interest to the student of industrial
poisons, as it presents an experience different in many ways from •
that of Great Britain, France, and the United States. It is only
with this part of the report that this review deals—the effect of the
various poisons used in war industries, including those which had to
be introduced into ordinary industry because of the lack of more
harmless substances shut out by the blockade.

T

1 Jahresberichte der G ew erbe-A ufsichtsbeam ten u n d B ergbehörden fü r die Jah re 1914-1918.
1919 a n d 1920.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[324]

B erlin,

INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS.

113

Conditions Favoring Occupational Diseases.
TNDUSTRIAL poisoning is influenced by many general factors—
by factory construction and management, by long hours, by im­
maturity or physical unfitness of the workers, and so on. The Ger­
man reports dealing with these subjects sound very familiar to an
American. _The inspectors lament the hasty construction of the war
plants, the impossibility of getting proper washing facilities installed,
the difficulty of making the military mind see the importance of any­
thing but immediate production, the enormous labor turnover, and
the necessity of substituting women and the physically unfit for
strong men. Naturally they, much more than Americans, deplore
the employment of women at night, for Germany, along with other
European nations, abolished such employment at the time of the
Bern Convention in 1904, while it is still retained in many States.
The features of war industry which increased the incidence of oc­
cupational poisoning may be summarized as follows: Changes in the
working force, progressively increasing as the war went on, strong
men being replaced by women, young persons, old men, men unfit
for military service, criminals and prisoners of w ar; increased hours,
night work for women and young persons; poor food, poorer each
year; lack of soap and of material for clothing—aprons, gloves,
shoes. _ One of the tables given shows the increase of sickness and
death in a large iron works caused by these war-time conditions, as
follows:
1914.

Deaths per 1,000 workers...........................................
6.0
Sickness, incapacitating, per 1,000 workers..............
25. 8
Sickness, not incapacitating, per 1,000 workers___ 1, 394. 0

1918.

12.2
35. 5
1, 811. 0

The substitution of women for strong men in heavy work led to
much illness. In a plant in the Arnsberg region, where 10.4 cm.
shells were made, no less than 33 per cent of the women were sick,
with “ swelling of the liver,” “ swelling of the bladder,” pains in the
back and in the stomach, and cramps of muscles. Work requiring
them to stoop a great deal gave the most trouble. Later on this
plant began to make 15 cm. shells, and then sickness increased and
the weaker women had to be weeded out and eventually mechani­
cal means for handling the shells introduced. Women seemed to
be more ruthless with themselves than men, and for the sake of
overtime pay would often work excessively long hours even when
they were ill. The Düsseldorf inspector speaks of pelvic disorders
in the women workers, and general abdominal ptosis, caused not only
by the lifting of heavy weights but also by the disappearance of ab­
dominal fat. Hernias developed and heart strain sometimes brought
about irreparable injury. The women had not only long hours in
the factory but their own housework to do, and night workers were
unable to get enough sleep by day.
In one textile mill in the Breslau region the cases of sickness among
the women increased from 30.9 per cent in 1913 to 88.6 per cent in
1918. The increase was in respiratory diseases, nervous weakness,
general exhaustion, attacks of fainting, anemia, and gastrointestinal
diseases. Influenza and lack of food broke down the resistance to
.disease. These factors were also seen in the sickness rate for men,
who as the war went on were recruited more and more from among


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[325]

114

MONTHLY LABOE EEVIEW.

the old and the physically handicapped. In this same textde mill
the sickness rate for men rose from 19.1 per cent in 1913 to 39.3 per
cent in 1918. In machine shops men had often to work 14 to 16
hours out of the 24, and this on insufficient food. The winter of
1917-18, with its terrible food shortage, made great inroads on the
endurance of both men and women, and in many large factoiies an
increasing weakness became evident, so that sometimes men would
sink down from exhaustion at their work. Then came the great
epidemic of grippe in 1918, which cut down the depleted people.
In the fall of that year some factories were almost empty of workers.
War prisoners, Russian and Polish, are mentioned as being em­
ployed in the zinc and lead smelters, and are said not to have suf­
fered much from lead poisoning because of continual shifting, but
they showed little resistance to the influenza and many died in the
epidemic. Altogether three epidemics of influenza are mentioned,
and also a severe epidemic of dysentery, which occurred in 1917.
One interesting observation with regard to the influenza is made.
The workers in arsenic smelting practically escaped it, while men
employed in a neighboring ammonium nitrate plant suffered severely.
In the same way the gas and coal tar plants in Döbeln were free from
influenza, while 30 to 40 per cent of the factory hands had it.
*
Of the common industrial poisons lead almost ceased to give any
trouble. There was no raw material for the white lead plants and so
they closed down, one of them, in the Düsseldorf region, utilizing the
chance to install alterations which would eliminate hand work and
make handling of the lead from the time it is first hung in the corrod­
ing chamber till it leaves the factory entirely mechanical. Lead
paint, of course, was no longer made, and the potteries were practi­
cally closed down. Anthrax was lessened because of the lack of for­
eign hides. On the other hand arsenical poisoning increased decid­
edly. In the plant mentioned above the cases increased from 7 cases
out of 107 employed in 1913 to 111 out of 137 employed in 1917.
This increase was due to shifting labor, unskilled and uninstructed,
many of them war prisoners, to lack of proper protective working
clothes and underwear, to the necessity for increased production, and
to the impossibility of replacing dust collecting apparatus when it
got out of order.
New Industrial Poisons.
poisons, introduced as substitutes (Ersatzmittel), gave
THErise new
to much trouble. Germany has no petroleum and the lack
of machine oils and lubricating compounds of all kinds made itself
keenly felt. All sorts of substitutes were introduced, the composi­
tion of which was not known to the bujmr, but most of them seem to
have contained high boiling coal-tar oils and pitch with creosotes.
These oils were very irritating to the skin and every district reports
more or less trouble from this source; indeed, one gains the impression
that dermatitis and ulceration from machine-oil substitutes was the
greatest single cause of trade sickness during the war. In one plant
using an oil with creosote in it, 200 cases of dermatitis occurred and
50 of them lasted long enough to be classed as occupational accidents.
The evil was increased by lack of impervious material for gloves and
aprons, for the clothing would get saturated with oil and the erup[326]

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS.

115

tion spread all over the body. Ulcers would form and cause weeks
of disability, with feverishness and general malaise. The best pre­
ventive, neutral soap, was lacking in great measure, although an
effort was made to provide it in such cases. Nor were bland ointments
available; vaseline was almost impossible to procure.
The soap used was not only insufficient but irritating to both mak­
ers and users. Laundry workers suffered from the caustic effect of
the soap powders, and when that happened there was nothing to do
but to discharge them, for means of protection were not forthcoming.
In the soap factories there was much inflammation of eyes, never
seen in peace time. The officially approved formula for soap powder
was as follows: Fatty acids, 4.5 percent; soda, 30 percent; sulphate,
5 to 10 per cent; water glass, 10 to 15 per cent; kaolin, 0.5 to 1 per
cent. The soda was chiefly responsible for the trouble, and it was
impossible wholly to protect the women’s eyes from it.
Turpentine seems to have been before the war a more important
constituent of paint than it has been of late j^ears in the United States.
The war cut off all of the supply and benzol (benzene) was used instead*
with resulting disastrous effects on the painters, as noted in several
reports. In the Stettin region small torpedo boats were made and
the men who painted the tiny spaces suffered much from benzol
fumes even when fresh air was driven in. It was found to be unsafe
to employ them for more than one-half hour at a time during summer weather.
linseed oil was also replaced by coal-tar oils, and itching eruptions,
together with impairment of vision, fogginess, and dimness, are men­
tioned as following the use of such paints. To impregnate railwav
ties and telegraph poles naphthalene and anthracene were used, and
the men handling them, especially those carrying the poles on their
shoulders, suffered from ulcerations where the coal-tar residues
soaked through to the skin. For varnish, not only benzol but solvent
naphtha a mixture of toluol and xylol—was used, and sometimes
the very poisonous dichlorbenzol. In one factory using paint of this
kind 12 workers fell sick one day, 4 the next day,‘and 3 the third day.
¿he women seemed as if drunk, became irrational, and fell to the
floor with convulsive twitchings. They recovered, however, in a few
days. The trouble seems to have been attributed to solvent naphtha
with a high acetone content.
Carbon disulphide in varnish caused some women to become men­
tally. deranged, three of whom had to be sent to an asylum, but the
physician m charge seems to have concluded that there was too little
carbon disulphide present and that the trouble was imaginary.
However, the statement is made that in another region varnish or
lacquer sometimes contained as much as 85 per cent of carbon disul­
phide (CSJ, and the remaining 15 per cent was composed of nitrobenzol. The use of this varnish gave rise to much poisoning. The
lack of benzene to clean metallic surfaces led to the use of trichlorethvlene, the fumes of which caused nausea and mental confusion,
so that susceptible workers had to give it up. They then tried to
use oO per cent tetrachlorethane, but were obliged to desist because
the cases of poisoning in airplane works in 1914 had made the Govern­
ment forbid its use. Wood alcohol was often substituted for grain
alcohol.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[327]

116

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

A substance new in industry, perchlornaphthalin, was used to
impregnate fabric for gas masks. It proved, contrary to the^ verdict
of the scientists who had tested it, to be very poisonous, causing skin
lésions like those of chloracne, confluent ulcers, and also weakness
in the legs; uncertain gait. Not only contact, but the fumes would
cause these skin lesions and even daily baths and semiweekly medical
examination did not serve to control it. In one plant employing
90 persons there were 50 cases in a space of nine months, and later
on the condition became even worse. Finally it was found that the
use of artificial sunlight {künstliche Höhensonnenstrahlapparat) cured
the ulcers after a few applications. In another region an excellent
exhaust apparatus carried off the fumes and protected the workers,
but unfortunately spread them over the countryside so that the
cattle fell sick and died or had to be slaughtered. The factory had
to be moved to a site where no such harm could be done.
Munition Poisons.

experience with munition poisons was quite different
GERMANY’S
from that of France on the one hancf and of the United^ States
and Great Britain on the other. In France the favorite explosive was
a mixture of picric acid, trinitrophenol, and dimtrophenol, and it was
the latter which gave rise to almost all the serious poisoning m French
explosive works. The French did use trinitrotoluene, but with almost
no trouble—indeed, they insist that TNT is fairly harmless if
pure—and they had not one death attributable to it. In Great Biitam
and in the United States TNT, usually mixed with 50 per cent
or 80 per cent of ammonium nitrate, was the high explosive used for
shell and in both countries it was the cause of a great deal of poison­
ing among the shell loaders. British TNT manufacturing plants
were free from poisoning, but in the United States such plants were
almost as bad as the loading plants. Nor did the British and Ameri­
cans find pure TNT harmless; quite the contrary.
Experience With Dinitrobenzene.

In Germany TNT was used at the outset, with 40 per cent
ammonium nitrate, at first in powder form, pressed into shell, then
molten and poured. Apparently not enough could be obtained, for
at the end of 1916 they began to manufacture and load dinitrobenzene
and shortly after, picric acid and trinitroanisol, but the former seems
to have been used only for the booster charge, the detonator. Dinitro­
benzene is so much more poisonous than TNT that most of the
German reports deal with it, and when the numbers of cases of sick­
ness caused by DNB in the different districts are added together
the result is striking, although the fatalities are not very numerous
in proportion to the numbers employed. I t is stated, however, that
only extraordinary precautions kept this number down.
The Germans do not consider picric acid particularly troublesome,
but dinitrophenol caused some poisoning. Trinitroanisol, which the
French pronounced more toxic than any other substance used, except
dinitrophenol, was also in Germany the source of much industrial
sickness and disability. I t was never used in either England or the
United States. On the other hand, the poison which gave rise to


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[328]

INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS.

117

more sickness and death than any other in the United States, nitrogen
oxide fumes,_generated in the manufacture of guncotton and picric
acid, and which was also a serious danger in English explosive manu­
facture, is only mentioned two or three times in the German reports.
Nor did the French have much trouble w ith nitrous fumes. Tetranitromethy 1anilin, or tetryl, which caused so much dermatitis in
British and American detonator loading, was not used at all in
Germany.
The change from ordinary manufacture to munition work resulted
in a decided rise in the sickness and death rate. For instance, the
following is the record for a Düsseldorf textile plant which began
toward the end of 1916 to make munitions.
SIC K N ESS AN D D E A T H R A T E S IN A D Ü S S E L D O R F T E X T IL E P L A N T , 1916 TO 1918.

Year.

1916....................
1917................
1918...........................

Sickness
rate per
employee.

D ays of sick­
ness per
employee.

0.49
.75
1.19

Deaths
per 1,000
employees.

8.6
12.6
17.9

2.9
5.0
8.4

A contrast is drawn between the people employed in the metal
trades (4,320 men and 2,500 women) and those handling explosives
(340 men and 620 women) during the year 1917.
SIC K N E S S R A T E S P E R 100 E M P L O Y E E S IN T H E M ETA L T R A D E S A N D T H E
M A N U FA C T U R E O F E X P L O S IV E S IN 1917.
Metal trades.

Explosives.

Item .
Men.
Skin diseases...................
R espiratory diseases................
D igestive...........................................................
Blood a n d blood vessels.................

1
1

q
s
s
^

n
s
s
o

W omen.

Men.

4.1
8.6
16.2
20.3

7.1
16.5
20.3
4.1

IVomen.
10.5
18.7
46.1
27.4

The danger with DNB is from fumes, but far more from contact.
In Bavaria from 1915 to the end of the war there were fu lly 1,000
cases of DNB poisoning, and many of the victims had from two to
five attacks. There were, however, only 12 deaths. In one factory
the cases of poisoning reported averaged (calculated on the basis of
the average payroll) in November, 1917, 13.3, and in August 69.7.
This plant had been b u ilt down in a sandy, windless hollow.
Tim districts reporting cases of DNB poisoning are Potsdam,
Bavaria, Düsseldorf, Wiesbaden, Oberpfalz, Oberfranken, Ludwig­
shafen. In Düsseldorf there were 81 deaths—71 men and 10 women.
In four regions, excluding Düsseldorf, there were altogether 1,923
cases of poisoning and 22 deaths. Adding the Düsseldorf figure of
81 and also 6 from Wiesbaden and 4 from Breslau, there seems to
have been altogether 113 deaths from DNB. Whether the Düssel­
dorf region had more of such work than all the others put together
or had much worse conditions is not stated, and no explanation is
given for these 81 deaths. The proportion of cases of DNB


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[329]

118

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

poisoning among women was greater than that among men, in 1916
it being 66 per cent as against 56.7 per cent, and in 1918 it being 119
per cent as against 100.5 per cent. One of the Wiesbaden plants
had to close down because of “ anilismus” (cyanosis, headache, diz­
ziness, faintness, etc.) among its force. The inspectors state that,
in contrast to the other explosive poisons, practically everyone
seems to be susceptible to DNB.
The symptoms of poisoning are general malaise, sense of weari­
ness, loss of appetite, itching, roaring in the ears, dizziness, fainting,
palpitation of the heart, and sleeplessness. Then the lips become
blue, with marked pallor of the face; there is sweating, vomiting,
cramps, swelling of the legs, difficult urination, and, in women,
paralytic symptoms. No description is given of the fatal form.
Experience With TNT.

With TNT, Koelsch, the chief inspector for Bavaria, had a
favorable experience, the cases in the Bavarian factories being few
and light—cyanosis, headache, nausea. One death occurred, a little
girl of 14 years, with organic heart disease, who was cyanosed after
two days’ work and died shortly after—a shocking instance of the
way all rules as to the employment of the young and the handi­
capped were thrown overboard during the war. To tetranitromethane Koelsch attributes three severe cases of lung edema in men,
with one death. There was no case of toxic jaundice in the Bavarian
TNT loading plants. In Potsdam, however, TNT shell loading
gave rise to much sickness, and in one plant in 1917 there were seven
deaths within a short time from toxic jaundice. Inasmuch as con­
ditions in this factory were good and no further deaths occurred after
that, it is supposed that the TNT at that time was contaminated,
probably with tetranitromethane. Up to the end of 1917 the Pots­
dam region had, in addition to these seven deaths, seven nonfatal
cases of TNT poisoning, not toxic jaundice, but catarrh of the
intestines, gastric hemorrhage, bronchitis, cardian neurosis, and
anemia. In 1918 there were several more cases of this kind, but no
toxic jaundice. The women suffered distinctly more than the men.
In Wiesbaden large quantities of TNT were made, but there
was no sickness in connection with it. Loading shells caused mild
symptoms in girls, distress in the stomach, headache and dizziness,
and later on only men were allowed to do it. A girl died of TNT
poisoning in the Magdeburg region, and it is said that the girls em­
ployed there in this work had respiratory troubles, were very pale,
and looked older than they were. Five cases of toxic jaundice are
reported, four of them fatal.
Nowhere is the number of cases, fatal and nonfatal, of TNT
poisoning given. The statistics of sickness in one Potsdam plant
show that 4 out of 340 women, or 1.2 per cent, and 9 out of 620 men,
or 1.5 per cent, had toxic jaundice, but nothing else is given.
Experience With Other Poisons.

Trinitroanisol is apparently terribly irritating to the skin. Women
and alcoholics are especially susceptible. Sometimes poisoning
followed a few hours’ exposure, the whole face being swollen, accom­
panied by burning and itching. Not all were susceptible, but in one


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[330]

INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS.

119

loading plant in the Rhineland 30 out of 40 women suffered from
eruptions. Fulminate of mercury caused dermatitis and more or
less inflammation of eyes, nose, and throat, but was not nearly so
troublesome as trinitroanisol.
The only mention of nitrous fumes seems to be in the reports from
Wiesbaden, where four nonfatal cases occurred, and from NurnbergFurth, where there were eight cases. The Draeger helmet is said to
be an uncertain protection against these fumes. Picric acid was
apparently manufactured without the enormous evolution of nitrous
fumes which characterized its production in the United States.
The only trouble in connection with picric acid took place in the
loading of detonators, when a dermatitis, not serious, appeared, and,
m three women, anemia and gastric disturbance. Trinitronaphthalene, when used in powder form, set up inflammation of eyes and
mucous membranes, but these ceased after the stuff was granulated.
Phosgene, accidentally spilled or leaking, caused eight deaths in two
factories.
The Germans had learned before the war of the poisonousness of
airplane dope made from cellulose acetate with tetrachlorethane as a
solvent, and such dope was not allowed to be used, so that they
escaped the very serious condition which obtained in the first years
of the war in British airplane works, where this solvent was the cause
of at least 70 cases of toxic jaundice and 12 deaths. The solvent
used by the Germans seems to have contained ketones, chloroform,
methyl alcohol, and formic ether. Curiously enough the inspectors
attribute all the harm done by it to decomposition of the last sub­
stance with production of formic acid fumes. The inflammation of
eyes and nose and the salivation they describe may well have been
caused by the formic acid, but it is certainly probable that the
chloroform and methyl alcohol played their part in producing head­
ache, nausea, loss of appetite, dizziness and fainting attacks.
Efforts to Safeguard Employees.

The inspectors seem to have made valiant efforts to safeguard their
charges against the effect of these new and unfamiliar poisons, but
their difficulties increased as the war went on, even though the knowledge gained of the nature of the poisons was a help. But soap grew
scantier and poorer, rubber gloves were unattainable, and even stuff
for aprons was hard to get. The employes were more and more unfit
to stand exposure to poisons, there were exhausted women, old and
sick men, young girls and boys. Finally the food blockade, which
was closer each year, and the terrible influenza epidemics com­
bined to render the workers defenseless against attack from poisonous
fumes and dust. Yet a great deal was done to help. The food
ration was the largest that was allowed, and in addition many factory
owners installed their own kitchens and lunch rooms. Milk was
somehow procured and given free to workers in DNB, picric acid,
and TNT plants. Because poisoning was so much increased in
hot weather, Koelsch, in Bavaria, had the hours of work changed so
as to avoid the hottest part of thé day—from 10 in the morning to
4 in the afternoon—and to utilize the early and late coolness. In
one plant during the rest periods milk was given and also regular


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[331]

120

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

oxygen inhalations, which were considered of decided benefit. In a
loading plant for DNB and trinitroanisol in the Rhineland, almost
all the work was mechanical and the benches were provided not only
with suction fans to carry off fumes and dust but with a stream of
compressed air. In a plant in Bavaria the DNB was conveyed
in closed pipes and discharged into closed receptacles, yet even here
four deaths from poisoning are recorded. Although in most places
the washing facilities, lunch rooms, etc., are said to have been
insufficient, the famous plant of Friedrich Bayer and the Krupp
works were complete in every detail.
* A quite unexpected source of occupational poisoning proved to be
the dehydration of vegetables which was done on an enormous scale,
and in some places the heat was produced in coke ovens and carried
with it carbon monoxide and sulphuretted hydrogen. In one such
plant there was 11.1 per cent of sickness among the employees and in
another, 20.5 per cent, while the average for the sick fund for that
region was only 4 per cent. There was a difference of opinion as to
the cause of this increased sickness rate, some physicians holding
that it was not caused by carbon monoxide but by the chilling effect
of leaving the dehydrating rooms for cold rooms. As precautions,
however, proper fuel was ordered, careful firing, good ventilation, no
youthful labor, and a night shift of only eight hours.

I

,v


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[332]

WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION.
“ Loss of Use” or the Impairment of Function.
By Martin C. F rincke, J r .

O

NE of the many problems which confront the commissions,
boards, and courts administering the workmen’s compensa­
tion laws is the question of compensation for injuries which
do not result in the amputation or severance of any member or part
of the body, but which, nevertheless, do cause a permanent or partia l loss of the use of a member or the impairment of its function.
The State compensation laws generally provide compensation for
any partial disability, either temporary or permanent, which an
injury may cause. For temporary partial disability the injured
worfanan usually receives a certain percentage (50 to 66§ per cent)
of his wage loss during the term of the disability but lim ited to a
certain fixed maximum period. The fact is also generally recog­
nized that an employee may become permanently partially disabled
by the loss of some member of his body without suffering a loss in his
earning capacity, and a m ajority of the States have provided in their
laws for a schedule of such injuries, awards being granted for certain
fixed periods or amounts, to compensate the injured workman for
the loss he has sustained. The general underlying theory of these
schedules is the allowance of compensation to a workman who has
suffered the loss of a member and a consequent impairment of the
function of his body, but who, under the general provisions of the
statute for partial disability, would not be entitled to compensation
because his inju ry has not resulted in a loss of earning capacity.
Under the general theory of the laws as to partial disability com­
pensation is dependent upon the loss of earning capacity. Thus in
a decision by the Industrial Commission of Ohio 1 it was held that
where a man injured the ligaments of his leg so that he was par­
tia lly disabled the inju ry came under the general provisions of the
act as to partial disability (sec. 26, Acts of 1911), and he was not
entitled to compensation since he had been able to get another job
at a better wage. Under the schedules of injuries, on the other hand,
the basis for the allowance of compensation is the permanent loss of
a member or function of the body. I t is the handicap resulting
from the deprivation of a member or its use that constitutes the
reason for awarding the fixed compensation for the scheduled injuries.
This theory has been contested m only a few of the compensation
States, but where it has been put to an issue the m ajority of the
rulings hold with the decision of the Supreme Court of New Jersey
in the case of De Zeng Standard Co. v. Pressey,2 where it was said:
The prosecutor’s principal claim is that there can not be a statutory “ disability”
when it appears that the earnings of the petitioner had not been impaired. With
this we can not agree. It may well be that for a time an injured employee might be
■m.1, f !urn„s v- Leonard C. & R . Co., B ulletin of th e In d u strial Commission of Ohio, vol. 1, No. 7, December,
1914, p . 5.
’
’
’
2 92 A tl. 278; B u lletin of th e B ureau of L abor Statistics No. 169, p. 208.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[333]

121

122

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

able to earn the same wages as before the accident; but, as we read the act, the dis­
ability intended thereby is a disability due to the loss of a member, or part of a mem­
ber, or of a function, rather than to mere loss of earning power.

This decision was made the basis by the same court for awarding
compensation to a workman who had lost one of his testicles, but
who, as the result of the loss, had not suffered any loss in his earning
capacity. In this case3 the court gave the following rather clear
definition of the controlling principles in cases of this kind :
Whatever view medical experts may entertain * * * the indispensable fact re­
mains that the injured defendant has suffered the loss of a portion of his anatomy
which nature planted in the human organism, as a dual reservoir of complete effi­
ciency equally with eyes, ears, and limbs.
. .
In harmony with these considerations, it has been held that the sole criterion of a
disability, partial in character and permanent in quality, under the statute, is not
limited to the loss of earning power. (Burbage v. Lee, 87 N. J. L. 36, 93 Atl. 859.)

Other States that have expressly adopted this line of reasoning are
Connecticut, Michigan, and Montana. In Connecticut it was said 4
that the word “ loss” as applied to members of the body meant
deprivation, and the purpose of the law was to compensate for the
handicap of being without the lost member and not the impairment
of earning power. In referring to the schedule of awards in the
Michigan law, the industrial accident board of that State declared
that: “ The law is so framed because of the fact that throughout
the remainder of his life he w ill be deprived of the fingers so lost.” 5
I t was declared by the Montana Industrial Accident Board in its
first annual report8 that the length of the period of disability is not
a feature in determining the compensation due an injured employee
for injuries of this character.
A ll the States do not agree, however, that an award under a
schedule is to be made regardless of whether or not the injured
workman has suffered a loss in his earning capacity. A few States
hold that the scheduled awards represent the presumed or estimated
loss of earning capacity, and that this presumption may be rebutted
by showing that the injured workman is receiving the same or higher
wages after his injury than before it. Thus, the Appellate Court of
Indiana, in the case of Centlivre Beverage Co. v. Boss,7 where the
employee had suffered the enucleation of a testicle but had failed to
prove any loss in his earning capacity, said:
We must keep in mind the fact that the act does not give compensation for loss of
a member, such as the loss of a limb, but for the loss of earning capacity caused by the
loss of a limb.

The Industrial Accident Commission of Maryland has taken the
same stand as the Indiana court, and in a case8wdiere a man had two
of his fingers lacerated, which caused them to be disabled but did
not result in any loss of earning capacity, it wras held that:
No element of damages other than loss of earning power can enter into our considera­
tion of claims for compensation under this act; and the claimant having suffered no
loss of earning power, he sustained no disability for which he can be compensated.
s Hercules Pow der Co. v. Morris C ounty C ourt (N . J.), 107 A tl. 433.
4 Franko v. W illiam Schollhorn Co. (Conn.), 104 A tl. 485.
5 B ulletin of th e Michigan In d u strial Accident Board No. 3 (1913), p. 14; and Lordie v. G rand R apids
Show Case Co., Michigan W orkm en’s Com pensation Cases, 1916, p. 17.
6 F irst an n u al rep o rt of th e M ontana In d u stria l A ccident Board, 1916, p. 249.
i 125 N. E . 220.
s L eonard v. Cam bridge Mfg. Co., M aryland W orkm en’s Com pensation Cases, vol. 1, 1916, p. 87.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[3341

w o r k m e n ’s c o m p e n s a t io n .

123

Although _there is a difference of opinion on this point, it may
safely he said that the prevailing view seems to hold with the deci­
sion in the De Zeng case.9 This is undoubtedly the most reasonable
attitude, because the workmen’s compensation laws cut off all
common-law remedies for injuries to employees, and where an
employee has sustained an actual loss or loss of use of a part of his
anatomy he should be allowed damages or compensation for such
loss.
The schedules of injuries constituting permanent partial disabilities
as found in the workmen’s compensation laws, as a general rule, con­
template the loss of a member by severance or amputation. Because
of this fact the question has arisen whether it would be proper to
award compensation under the schedule to an injured workman who,
by reason of his injury, has sustained an impairment of the function
of some member without in fact having had it severed from his body.
Cases have arisen where an employee has suffered the loss of the use
of a member which was equivalent to its loss by severance. In some
of such cases the commissions or courts have decided that this was
equivalent to an actual loss by severance, while in others a strict
interpretation was placed upon the statute and compensation was
denied.
The purpose of this article will be an attempt to show, by a careful
survey of the laws and decisions of the various States, when compen­
sation may be had under the different workmen’s compensation stat­
utes by an injured employee who has suffered the loss of use of a
member of his body or the impairment of its function. An endeavor
will also be made to outline the principles which have been laid
down by the different administrative bodies in determining what
injuries amount to an impairment of function or loss of use of a
member.
Statutory Provisions.
TN a number of States the question of whether the loss of the use of
A a member shall be compensated for on the same basis as loss by
amputation has been determined by legislative action. Thus it is
found that specific provision is made in 27 States that have compen­
sation laws for the treatment of cases involving the loss of use of a
member or the impairment oi its function on the same basis as cases
coming under the schedules involving amputations. A review of
the laws of the remaining 19 compensation jurisdictions shows that 4
have no schedules whatever for awarding compensation for perma­
nent partial disability. These jurisdictions are Arizona, New
Hampshire, Porto Rico, and the United States. The hardship to
the employees by reason of the absence of such schedules in these
lavTs is very great. Thus an employee of the United States may lose
his lep’ or may permanently lose the use of it and receive no compensa­
tion for the loss, provided he is able to resume his duties or sustains
no loss of earning capacity by reason of the injury. Twelve of the
remaining States have schedules in their compensation laws but
make no specific provision for the inclusion of cases involving the loss
of use or the impairment of function under the schedule benefits for
permanent partial disability. While in some of these States such


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

» D e Zong S ta n d a rd Co. v. Pressey, 92 A tl. 278.

[335]

124

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

cases have been compensated under the compensation benefits found
in the schedules it can be done only by a liberal judicial interpreta­
tion of the laws. In Nevada before the law was amended specifically
to include under the scheduled benefits injuries resulting in the loss
of use of a member, the industrial commission made a ru lin g 10
“ that the complete loss of the functions of a thumb, finger, toe,
hand, arm, foot, leg, or eye should be considered as the total loss of
such member.” Three other States make no specific provision for
the inclusion of cases involving the loss of the use of a member
under the permanent partial disability schedules, but do, however,
include in the schedules cases which involve ankylosis or stiffness of
the joints and contractures due to burns or scars. The effect of this
inclusion is much narrower in scope, but has to a lim ited extent much
the same effect as the more liberal statutes which specifically include
cases involving the impairment of function.
The following table shows the various compensation jurisdictions
grouped according to the provisions in their laws for granting perma­
nent partial disability compensation to cases suffering only a “ loss
of use” or “ impairment of function” :
S T A T E S H A V IN G C O M P E N S A T IO N L A W S W H IC H IN C L U D E P R O V IS IO N S F O R LOSS
O F U S E O R T H E IM P A IR M E N T O F T H E F U N C T IO N O F A M E M B E R .
Loss of use or func­
tio n specifically pro­ A nkylosis a n d con­
tractu res provided
vided for in sched­
for in schedules.
ules.

Loss of use or function
n o t specifically pro ­
vided for in sched­
ules.

A labam a.
Colorado.
Connecticut.
Delaware.
H aw aii.
Illinois.
In d ia n a .
K ansas.
Louisiana.
Maine.
M aryland.
M assachusetts.
M innesota.
N ebraska.
N evada.
New Jersey.
New Mexico.
New Y ork.
O klahom a.
Oregon.
Pen n sy lv an ia.
South D akota.
Tennessee.
Texas.
U ta h .
V erm ont.
W isconsin.

A laska.
California.1
Idaho.
Iowa.
Michigan.
Missouri.
M ontana.
N orth D akota.2
R hode Island.
Virginia.
W ashington.
W est V irginia.3

K en tu ck y .
Ohio.
W yom ing.

Jurisdictions having
n o schedules.

A rizona.
New H am pshire.
Porto Rico.
U n ite d States.

■■

1 T he law has tables of percentages based u p o n to ta l d isab ility , leaving i t to th e a d m in istra tiv e com­
m ission to form ulate schedules of injuries. I t provides t h a t th e loss of th e use of b o th h a n d s shall con­
s titu te to ta l d isab ility , b u t says n othing as to p e rm a n e n t p a rtia l d isab ility .
T he law has tab les of percentages based u p o n to ta l d isab ility , leaving it to th e a d m in istra tiv e com­
m ission to form ulate schedules of ihjuries.
The law provides th a t th e loss of th e use of b o th h an d s shall con stitu te to ta l d is a b ility , b u t says
no th in g as to p erm an en t p a rtia l d isab ility .

2
3

I t is to be noted in connection with the 27 States that make pro­
visions in their laws for the compensating of injuries resulting in loss
of use on the same basis as the injuries listed in the schedules and
resulting from losses by amputation, that the declarations contained


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

10

R eport of N evada In d u s tria l Commissions 1914, p. 23.

[336]

WORKMEN ’S COMPENSATION.

125

m the laws, as in other features of the workmen’s compensation laws,
are by no means uniform. The various laws may, however, be
roughly thrown into two groups or classes. Fourteen States 11 make
a blanket provision covering all injuries resulting in the loss of use of
a member or the impairment of some bodily function. The provision
of the Louisiana act,12 which is typical of this group of laws, declares
that “ where the usefulness of a member or any physical function is
seriously permanently impaired, the court * * * may allow such
compensation as is reasonable in proportion to the compensation”
allowed for specific injuries in the schedule. The second group, con­
sisting of the laws of 13 States,13make provision for allowing compensa­
tion for loss of use by specifically naming the members for which
compensation may be allowed_ on this basis. Thus 10 States speci­
fically provide that compensation shall be awarded for the loss of the
use only of an arm, a hand, a foot, or an eye. Other States include
these members and add fingers, thumbs, toes, and phalanges; but
the Massachusetts law, while including these minor members, fails to
include arms, legs, or eyes. The effect of these specific enumerations
is to eliminate all the members not so listed, and in this way to narrow
the scope of the laws. The practical benefit to the workman is,
however, by reason of liberal judicial interpretations, substantially
as great as under the blanket or all-inclusive provisions mentioned
above. Although in the table Ohio is classed with the States pro­
viding compensation for this class of injuries where they are caused
by ankylosis, the law of that State also compensates for the loss of
vision without requiring the enucleation of the eye. The California
and West Virginia laws do not make any specific provision for com­
pensating for the loss of use of individual members, but they do state
that the “ loss of the use” of both hands shall be equivalent to total
disability.
The provisions of the laws of the three States (Kentucky, Ohio,
and Wyoming) which allow compensation for members made useless
by ankylosis or contractures extend only to the fingers, except that
Ohio includes thumbs.
Interpretative Decisions.
AS pointed out above, therefore, compensation for the loss of the
use of a member may be allowed an injured employee either
under legislative enactment or by interpretative construction. In
the majority of jurisdictions the former method prevails.
The lack of published opinions or authoritative rulings has made it
impossible to find expressions on the part of all the States on this
point. However, of the 12 States that make no provision in their
laws for the loss of the use of a member, 5 have made rulings on this
subject. In Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, and Montana it has been
held that, notwithstanding the fact no provision is found in the laws
of these States for the awarding of compensation for “ loss of use”
according to the schedule, such awards could, nevertheless, under a
11 A labam a, Colorado, C onnecticut, L ouisiana, Maine, M innesota, N ebraska, New Jersey, New Mexico,
Tennessee, Texas, U ta h , V erm ont, a n d W isconsin.
12 A ct No. 20, Acts of 1914, as am ended, sec. 8 (e).
is Delaware, H aw aii, Illinois, In d ia n a , K ansas, M aryland, M assachusetts, N evada, New Y ork, Okla­
hom a, Oregon, P en n sy lv an ia, an d South D akota.

238G0—20----- 9

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[337]

126

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

liberal construction of the statutes, be made.14 The ground for this
construction lies in the interpretation of the meaning of the word
“ loss/1 these States having held that a member is lost when it can no
longer be used in a gainful occupation.
The reasoning underlying this construction is clearly outlined in a
decision of the Montana Industrial Accident Board in the case of a
printer who had his hand crushed in a printing press so that he was
totally unable to use it in his occupation as printer. The board
rendered the following decision:15
While possibly the hand can not be literally described as completely or entirely
paralyzed at the present time, because there is, as stated, some slight function in the
third and fourth fingers, yet the function existing is not such as to entitle the injured
member to consideration as a “ useable hand,” in the ordinary, normal, accepted use
of the term, and judging by the medical testimony adduced, it is only a question of
time until the paralysis will be complete.
In the matter of earning a living, through the medium of manual labor, such as he
was following at the time he received the injury, the hand is worthless and clearly
falls within the meaning of-the law, as expressed in section 16 (i) of the Montana act,
containing the schedule of compensation for specified injuries, consisting of “ for the
loss of.”
The board reaches the question of whether or not the loss of the use of the hand of
the claimant is entitled to consideration, calling for compensation, as provided for
in the Montana workmen’s compensation act, regardless of what wages he may now
be earning as a “ messenger boy.” The accident resulted in the total incapacity of
the claimant to continue the work or occupation that he was engaged in at the time
of the injury and has so circumscribed his usefulness as to limit his field of future
endeavor to that of the “ messenger boy,” and kindred callings, which is a rather
severe sentence to impose on a 20-year old boy.
It is evident, from the opinion of numerous authorities on this question, as well
as the decisions of the courts that have been referred to, that the meaning of the
language of section 16 (i) in the words “ for the loss of” should be accepted in its
ordinary, logical, and reasonable meaning, which would unquestionably be “ for the
loss of the use of” whatever member might be affected or injured to such an extent
that the injured person can make no further practical use of same. Such a condition
would mean or constitute the loss of said member and call for the payment of com­
pensation accordingly.

The Supreme Court of Rhode Island has held16 that an impairment
of the vision of an eye which leaves only 10 per cent of the vision
remaining and renders the eye absolutely useless in any vocational
pursuit whatever, is not “ the entire and irrecoverable loss of the
sight of either eye,’1 so as to entitle the injured workman to the
additional compensation allowed under the schedules of specific
injuries. In this case, in reply to the employee’s contention that,
inasmuch as he could no longer use his eye to earn a livelihood, he had
entirely lost the sight of his eye, the court said:
With this contention of the petitioner we can not agree. We think the words of the
statute must be taken in their ordinary sense, and that their meaning is clear. To
say that this statute was designed to go any further than to provide for additional
compensation for injuries which resulted in total and complete loss of sight would
14 Loss of use of foot: P u rd y v. C ity Of Sault Ste. M arie (M ich.), 155 N. W . 597.
Loss of use of th u m b : A donites v. R oyal F u rn itu re Co. (M ich.), 162 N . W . 965.
Loss of use of h a n d : A m erican Car & F o u n d ry Co. v. Bischofl (M ich.), 8 Negligence a n d Compensation
Cases A n n o tated , 479; D avis v. A etn a Life Ins. Co., F ir s t A n n u al R eport of M ontana In d u stria l Accident
Board, 1916, p . 252.
Loss of use of eye: Howell v. W allace & L. Co., B iennial R eport of Iow a W orkm en’s Com pensation Com­
mission, 1918, p . 61; Nelson v. K e n tu ck y R iver Stone & Sand Co., Decisions of K en tu ck y W orkm en's
C om pensation Board, 1917, p . 24.
Loss of use of finger: B u lletin No. 3 of M ichigan In d u stria l A ccident Board, 1913, p. 13; L o rd ier. G rand
R apids etc. Co., M ichigan W orkm en’s Com pensation Cases, 1916, p. 17.
Loss of use of arm : N arrell v. A m erican Bridge Co., K en tu ck y W orkm en’s Com pensation B oard Leading
Decisions, 1917, p. 41.
15 D avis v. A etn a Life In su ran ce Co., R ep o rt of th e M ontana In d u s tria l A ccident B eard, 1915-16, pp.
2o0-256.
16 K ey w orth v. A tla n tic Mills, 108 A tl. 81.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[338]

w o r k m e n ’s

c o m p e n s a t io n

.

127

amount to a distortion of its language. The view which we now take is in accord
with the opinion of this court in Weber v. American Silk Spinning Co., 38 R. I. 309,
95 Atl. G03, Ann. Cas. 1917E, 153.

The Supreme Judicial Court of Maine made a similar ruling in a
case where a workman so injured his third and fourth fingers as to
render them stiff, bent, and totally useless.17 The court said that in
order to have compensation under the schedule the fingers must have
been amputated. This decision, aside from the expression of prin­
ciple, is no longer of importance in Maine because the legislature of
that State amended the law in 1919 so that it would cover injuries
involving a loss of use or the impairment of any physical function.
This was also the case in Louisiana, where the law was subsequently
amended in 1918 to include injuries resulting in the loss of use.18
No cases could be found where California had directly ruled upon
the question of the loss of use of a member. This question is, how­
ever, of but little importance in that State, because the law provides
merely a schedule of percentages of total disability, under which the
commission has prepared a complicated schedule or table by which
compensation is determined. I t is believed that compensation
would be awarded for the impairment of a physical function under
this law, but only to the extent the injury of the employee bore to
total disability, taking into consideration the employee’s occupation,
age, aptitude, intelligence, etc. In some cases this compensation
would be only nominal while in other cases it would be a substantial
part of the total compensation for the man’s injury.
What Constitutes Loss of Use.
T H E determination of what may constitute the loss of use of a
■ member or the impairment of a physical function is left entirely
to the discretion of the bodies which administer the workmen’s
compensation laws. In order to ascertain the principles and con­
struction adopted by the courts and commissions and to obtain
illustrations of the application of these principles to specific cases,
a thorough survey was made of the available published decisions.
The Supreme Court of Colorado ruled 19 in the case of a miner of
foreign birth and low mentality who had broken his leg two inches
above the knee, thus rendering the leg stiff and useless so far as
engaging in mining was concerned, that the miner had lost the use
of his leg and was entitled to compensation as for the loss of the leg.
The court, giving the reasons for this construction, said in part:
We are of the opinion that the widest possible discretion is vested in the commission
to determine whether, under a given set of circumstances and a particular state of
the evidence, the first or second rule, or a combination of both, should be applied.
Age, education, training, general_physical and mental capacity, and adaptability,
may and often should be taken into consideration in arriving at a just conclusion
as to the percentage of impairment of earning capacity.

The fact that with the aid of some mechanical contrivance an
injured workman is able to regain a part of the use of an impaired
member does not in any wTay affect his right to compensation for the
entire loss of the use of the member. Tne use to which the member
17 In re M erchants’ Case, 106 A tl. 117.
is Norwood v. L ake B isten eau Oil Co., 83 L a. 25.
19 Globe In d e m n ity Co. v. In d u stria l Commission, 186 Pac. 522.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[339]

128

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

must be capable oi being put must be of practical value in manual
labor, so as to enable the employee to resume his former occupation.20
The foregoing quotation pretty clearly outlines the general princi­
ples upon which the majority of the administrative bodies allow com­
pensation for the loss of use under the permanent partial disability
schedules for the loss of a member. The mere inclusion in a law of a
provision for the compensating of cases involving an impairment of a
function on the same basis as cases involving a loss of a member by
amputation, although very greatly simplifying the problem, by no
means serves conclusively to solve it. In determining what con­
stitutes the loss of use of a member, the injured man’s occupation
should take a prominent place, for it is the impairment of his ability
to follow his trade or calling for which the compensation laws seek
to afford redress. A man who greatly depended upon the use of
his limbs, such as a laborer or a railroad conductor, brakeman, or
engineer, vTould be very greatly handicapped and even absolutely
prevented from further continuing at his calling by an injury which
impaired the function of an arm or leg. In cases of this kind, the
impaired functioning of the limb need not mean the absolute inability
to employ it for the purpose of performing small personal services 21
such as dressing or eating or the limited use of the member at the
same or a different occupation with the aid of some mechanical
contrivance.22 It is now generally recognized that every workman
is entitled to the free and unimpeded use of his members at his
occupation, and compensation should be awarded notwithstanding
the fact that an impairment of a function has not occasioned any
reduction in his earning capacity.
The age of the injured man and his training, education, aptitude,
and physical condition are also taken into consideration as factors in
determining whether or not he has suffered a loss of the use of a
member and the extent to which a member has been impaired.23
The loss of the use of a member may be a more serious matter to an
old man than to a young man, for to the former such a loss would be a
greater drain upon his vitality and morale. A young man would also
be more able successfully to take up a new occupation and thus
to alleviate in a measure the hardships resulting from the deprivation
of the use of any of his members. The general aptitude of an injured
man to take up some new employment where his disability will not
be so great a handicap is another consideration which is being regarded
as of increasing importance in the determination of cases of this kind.
This is reflected in recent legislation of a number of States24 which
have enacted laws for the rehabilitation of industrial cripples. All
these considerations, however, only go to the extent of the recovery.
As pointed out in an earlier part of this article, a man who sustains a
loss of the use of a member is in most States entitled to some compensa­
tion for the deprivation he has suffered without regard to his earning
capacity in some other line of work.
The application of these principles to specific cases under the
workmen’s compensation laws may be through a broad and inclusive
so M ark Mfg. Co. v. in d u s tria l Commission (111.), 122 N . E . 84.
..
2! M asett v. H u b b a rd & Co., P ennsylvania W orkm en’s C om pensation B oard Decisions, 1916, p. 102;
E ad m an v. J. H . & C. K . Eagles, Pennsylvania W orkm en’s Compensation B oard Decisions, 19±7, p . 514.
22 M ark Mfg. Co. v. In d u stria l Commission (111.), 122 N. E . 84. (Loss of use of h and.)
20 Globe In d e m n ity Co. v. In d u stria l Commission (C olo.), 186 Pac. 524. ^
21 California, Illinois, M innesota, N evada, New Jersey, New Y ork, N orth D akota, Oregon, Pennsylvania,
R hode Island, Virginia, an d th e U nited States.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[340]

WORKMEN ’S COMPENSATION.

129

construction or a narrow and strict application of the statute. The
schedules of nearly all the States provide compensation for the loss
of each of the various fingers, toes, thumbs, hands, and feet, as well
as for the loss of the arms and legs. Some laws also stipulate that
an amputation below the elbow or the knee shall constitute the loss
of a hand or foot respectively. Under the broad method of con­
struction it has been held that a man who has lost three of his fingers,
the entire hand being thus rendered useless for the purposes of his
occupation, would be compensated for the loss of the use of his hand
and not for the loss of the individual fingers;25 and where a man
has had his arm amputated between the wrist and elbow, but so close
to the latter as to render the joint useless, compensation was allowed
for the loss of the use of the arm instead of for the loss of the hand.26
Ih e States that have adopted this method of construction, so far as
could be determined from an examination of the published decisions,
are Colorado, Illinois, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minne­
sota, Montana, Nebraska, New York, Oklahoma, and Pennsylvania.
t nder the strict construction of the statutes compensation is
awarded only for the members actually severed or impaired. Thus
in Louisiana the supreme court held that where a man lost by sever­
ance his index finger and at the same time the partial loss of the use
of his arm, he could only be awarded compensation for permanent
partial disability under the schedule for the loss of the finger and
the indeterminate compensation for partial disability based upon
loss of earning capacity for the loss of the use of his arm.27 In New
Jersey the court held that in a case where a man lost the use of his
thumb and two fingers from ankylosis he should be allowed compen­
sation only for that loss and not for the loss of the use of the hand.28
Instances of injuries to eyes resulting in the loss of sight without
enucleation of the eyeball, or injuries causing such an impairment of
the vision as to render the eye useless, have occasioned the courts
and commissioners no little difficulty in arriving at just and equitable
settlements. Much of the difficulty lies in the wording of the statutes.
Where the law allows compensation only for the ‘doss of an eye” it
is possible to restrict compensation to cases where the eye has been
actually removed. Thus in New York the appellate division of the
supreme court held in the case of Frings v. Pierce-Arrow Motor Car
Co.,29 where an employee had lost the lens of his right eye so that it
could not be used in coordination with his left eye but when used alone
with glasses had a normal vision, that the injured employee had not
lost his eye, because should he lose his perfect left eye he would then
with the aid of glasses have normal sight in his injured eye. The
courts of this State have since adopted a more liberal view, so that
now compensation is allowed for the loss of the use of an eye where
the power of coordination is destroyed and where the employee
retains one-third normal vision in his injured eye.30 The only State
25 R ockw ell v. Lewis, 168 A pp. D iv. (N . Y .) 674; Meley v. Mass. E m ployees’ Ins. Ass’n. (M ass.), 106
N . E . 559; U pdike G rain Co. v. Sw anson (Nebr.)., 174 N . W . 862.
26 P a te r v. Superior Steel Co. (P a .), 106 A tl. 202; Stocin v. C. R . W ilson B ody Co. (M ich.), 171 N W
352; L am b v. Choctaw P o rtla n d Cem ent Co. (O kla.), 189 Pac. 750; B ristow C otton Oil Co. v. In d u stria l
Commission (O kla.), 188 Pac. 658.
22 Norwood v. Lake B isteneau Oil Co., 83 So. 25.
26 Newcomb v. A lbertson, 89 A tl. 928.
29 169 N . Y. Supp. 309.
so Sm ith v. F. & B. C onstruction Co., 172 N . Y . Supp. 581; B u lletin of th e U nited States B ureau of
Labor Statistics No. 258, p. 181.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[341]

130

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

that could be found which still holds to the view expressed in the
earlier New York case is Rhode Island. The supreme court of that
State has held that compensation could not be allowed under the
schedule for “ the entire and irrecoverable loss of sight of either eye”
where an injured employee still retained 10 per cent of the normal
vision in his injured eye, although the eye was absolutely useless in
any vocational pursuit at which he might earn a living.31
The prevailing opinion, however, seems to be in accord with a
decision32 of the Supreme Court of Illinois in which it was said, in
awarding compensation to a workman for the loss of the use of his
eye where he still retained one-fourth vision in the injured eye but
had lost the ability to use it in conjunction with his good eye:
For all practical purposes, when a person has lost the sight of an eye, he has lost the
eye, and to say that the statute providing compensation for the loss of the sight of an
eye does not apply here because of the remote possibility of Kaage losing his good eye,
whereby he can through artificial means gain a certain amount of the use of the injured
member, is to place a construction upon a remedial act which deprives it of all prac­
tical effect.

The other States which are known to have adopted this general
theory are Iowa,33 where compensation was allowed for 50 per cent
of the loss of an eye, where the sight of the eye was impaired one-half;
Kansas,34 where an award of compensation for the loss of the use of
an eye which had lost the power of coordination was affirmed;
Louisiana,35 where an award for permanent total disability was made
to an employee who had so impaired the vision of his remaining good
eye as to render him unable to work; Oklahoma,36 where an award
was allowed for the loss of the use of an eye which had 16 per cent
vision remaining. The Oklahoma Industrial Commission has, how­
ever, refused to allow an award for the loss of the use of an eye which
still retained one-third normal vision.37 Pennsylvania has held that
such a loss of sight as to render the remaining vision in the injured
eye of no practical benefit was equivalent to the loss of the use of the
eye,38 and in one case has also held39 that an employee who retained
twenty-two one-hundredths per cent vision in his injured eye had
lost the use of the eye.
Just where the line is to be drawn in the percentage of vision an
injured man may retain and still recover for the loss of the use of his
eye can not be determined. It is perhaps best that no effort should be
made to fix any definite percentage, so that each case may be decided
upon the basis of practical usefulness as a means of earning a liveli­
hood, in accordance with the general considerations outlined above.
si K eyw orth v. A tlan tic Mills (R . I.), 108 A tl. 81.
32 Juergens Bros. Co. v. In d u stria l Commission (111.), 125 N . E . 337.
sa Howell o. W allace & Linnam e, B iennial R ep o rt of Iow a W orkm en’s Com pensation Laws, 1918, p. 61.
34 Stefan v . R ed S tar M ill & E lev ato r Co., 187 Pac. 861.
35 Brooks v. Peerless Oil Co., 83 So. 663.
38 R oberts v. Polsome-Morris Coal Mining Co., O klahoma In d u stria l Commission R eports, 1918-1920, vol.
2 p 272
’37 Zaione v. Rock Island Coal Mining Co., O klahoma In d u stria l Commission, vol. 2, p. 208.
33 Brow n v. Bessemer, etc. R. Co., Pennsylvania W orkm en’s Com pensation B oard Decisions, 1917, p. 201.
33 H ay d en v. L ehigh,etc., R. Co., Pennsylvania W orkm en’s Com pensation B oard Decisions, 1917, p. 50.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[342]

WORKMEN ’S COMPENSATION.

131

Recent Reports on Operation of W orkmen’s
Compensation Laws.
Indiana.1
HE greater part of the report of the Industrial Board of the
State of Indiana covers the subject of workmen’s compensation
(57 pages), the remainder of the pamphlet being taken up with
the report of the department of women and children, the boiler depart­
ment, the department of factory inspection, and the department of
mines and mining.
The compensation department reports 35,232 accidents for the year
1918-19, this being a reduction from 37,520 in 1917-18, and 42,000
cases in 1916-17. “ The gradual decrease in accidents obviously indi­
cates that accident prevention is being emphasized more and more.”
Disability continued for not more than seven days in 60 per cent of
the cases reported. Of the compensable cases 14,304 were settled by
agreement with the approval of the board, while 958 cases were con­
tested. There were 268 fatal cases, and 745 cases resulting in dismem­
berment; injuries to one or both eyes were suffered in 3,606 cases,
“ and it has been our observation that nearly all eye injuries could have
been prevented by the use of goggles.”
Automobile manufacturing was responsible for the largest number
of accidents, 2,767 being injured in this line of work. Coal mining is
reported as responsible for 2,243 accidents, but it is believed that the
actual number was greater, since a great majority of the mines were
not operated under the compensation act prior to May 15, 1919, so
that accident reporting was probably not complete.
Compensation payments during the three years of the act aggregate
more than $3,270,000, the amount for the year ending October 1,1919,
being $1,090,737.83. “ These figures represent the actual amount
paid out as shown by the receipts in our files. I am unable to obtain
definite information as to the medical expense covering these acci­
dents.” Fuller reports of medical benefits are urged, and the opinion
is expressed that medical, hospital, and surgical benefits received by
injured employees during the year amounted to $750,000.
The statistical report presents accidents classified as to industry,
cause of injury, nature of injury, wages of injured workman, age, dura­
tion of disability, etc. No averages, totals, or summaries are pre­
sented. Separate presentation is given for dismemberment cases,
fatal cases, children 16 years of age and under, and females.

T

British Columbia.2
HE law of British Columbia provides for exclusive state fund insur­
ance, the cost of administration being met by assessments col­
lected from employers in industries under the act. The indus­
tries of the Province are grouped in 16 classes, 4 of these being newly
created in 1918. Separate and self-sustaining funds are arranged for
in each class, and merit rating was announced as contemplated for the

T

19* R eport of In d u stria l B oard of th e S tate of In d ian a for th e year endin g Sept. 30, 1919.

F o rt W ayne,

2 Second A nnual R ep o rt of th e W orkm en’s Com pensation B oard of th e Province of B ritish Colum bia for

th e year ending Dec. 31,1918.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Victoria, 1919, 48 pp.

[343]

132

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

year 1919. During the two years of operation, the cost of administra­
tion was 4.83 per cent of the amount collected from the employers. In
none of the 16 classes were the expenditures such as to require a full
assessment of the basic rates established. In but one, coal mining,
was a full assessment made in 1917, while hi 1918 the rate in this class
was three-fourths of the basis. In lumbering, etc., the assessment
the first year was one-half the basis and the second year three-fourths.
The class funds showed a balance aggregating $206,716.67 besides
reserves of $847,024.14. Two of the funds showed deficits, coal min­
ing being short $1,135.55, and municipalities $865.73. The receipts
for the two years from assessments amounted to $2,037,079.91 and
the disbursements to $980,289.26.
The promptness of action by the hoard, though it covers a wide
area many sections of which are not easily accessible, was shown by
the fact that with an average number of claims per month of 1,875, the
number unfinished at the end of the year, 1,493, was less than one
month’s accretion.
. .
The act makes no schedule provision for mutilation or mannings
such as is found in many of the State laws, but the board has recog­
nized that in such cases there is in fact “ an impairment of true earning
capacity, although the evidence in actual loss of wages may not yet
have developed.” It was found that many workmen who had lost
one or more fingers, or even an eye, returned to work shortly after
their injury, earning as much as before. However, instead of requir­
ing continued reporting for an indefinite period in order to discover
the facts as to wage loss, the board has adopted the practice of esti­
mating the probable future loss of wage to be sustained on account
of the disability and making final settlement therefor at 55 per cent of
such estimated impairment.
An incidental fact not frequently mentioned in reports of this
kind relates to the cost of interruption of work and the replacement
of injured employees. ‘‘There are many items which must enter
into the establishment of definite figures, so necessarily there are
many difficulties to be overcome before it can be expressed in terms
of dollars and cents.” The excitement and natural discussion and
examination among the workmen following a serious injury is to be
taken into account, as well as the loss of time by a foreman or other
person who will naturally be detailed to look after the injured man
until he can receive needed attention or be removed from the shop.
In fatal cases and other serious injury cases,_a new man must be
broken in. The estimate is submitted that in a reasonably sized
plant the cost of interruption and replacement due to fatal injuries
is $50; for permanent and serious temporary injuries, $30; while in
those involving from one to five days’ loss of time the amount is
fixed at $10, and in case of “ no time loss” injuries at $5.
A quite full statistical presentation is made with an endeavor “ to
make an exhaustive analysis of the three primary classifications
which are acknowledged to be vital to sound statistical work, i. e.,
industry, cause, and nature of injury.” Of 8,841 accidents producing
temporary total disability more than one-half occurred in four classes
of industry, shipbuilding leading with 1,444, logging next with 1,282,
then saw mills with 943, and coal mining with 932. Of these, 1,954
were due to falling objects, the next cause, producing less than one-


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[344]

w o r k m e n ’s

c o m p e n s a t io n

.

133

half of this number, 924, being the handling of heavy objects. There
were 420 accidents producing permanent partial disability or other
accidents classed as of a more serious nature. Of these, 148 caused
loss of one finger, 35 of two fingers, 16 of three fingers, and 6 of four
fingers. In 24 a thumb was lost, and in 25 others a thumb and one
or more fingers. One led to loss of a hand, 12 to amputation of the
arm, and 17 to arm impairments. Eye injuries numbered 39, in 25
of which there was the loss of sight of one eye. Pension awards
were made in 1918 in the case of 111 fatal accidents and burial awards
in 152 cases.
Temporary total disabilities finally disposed of in 1918 caused a
wage loss of $944,722.90, on account of which $456,902.45 was paid
in compensation.
The report concludes with a discussion of the desirability of uniform
compensation laws for the western Provinces and of health insurance
as a means of promoting industrial efficiency.
Ontario.3
A SUMMARY of the report of the Workmen’s Compensation Board
^
of Ontario for the year 1919 shows the total amount awarded
to workmen and their dependents to be $4,192,859.93, an average of
$14,000 per day. The total number of accidents reported was
44,260, of which 429, or somewhat less than 1 per cent, were fatalless than one-tenth of 1 per cent resulted in permanent total disability;
and about 6J per cent in permanent partial disability; 57 per cent
involved only temporary disability, and about 36 per cent, causing
less than seven days’ loss of time, received medical aid only.
Omitting fatal and permanent disability cases the time Toss was
573,653 working days. The average in temporary disability cases
was 19.75 days. In 47 per cent of these cases the time loss did not
exceed two weeks. _ The average cost of all compensated accidents
was $135.80, of which $121.71 was for compensation and $14.09 for
medical aid. The average cost for all death cases was $2,156.28, the
average cost of dependency cases being $3,092.37.
The act has grown in popularity with employers, many making
application to bring their industries under the act. Employees have
from the beginning generally regarded the act with favor.
.The collective liability principle of the Ontario law is in contrast with the indi­
vidual liability law of Great Britain and with the company insurance individual
liability laws in existence in most of the United States. In Great Britain the system
of individual liability and court procedure and appeal has rendered the act so un­
satisfactory,reducing its efficiency, it is said, to 50 per cent, that a special commission
is now seeking a remedy. In the United States, where the insurance companies are
allowed to deal with the workmen, investigation has disclosed short settlements and
other abuses which seem inevitable under such a system. Statistics there show
that under the old employers’ liability insurance, after deducting profits and legal
and other expenses, less than 25 per cent of the premiums paid by employers actually
reached the workmen or their widows and children. In Ontario last year only 1.71
per cent of the assessments paid by employers went toward expenses. Probably
under no other law does so nearly the whole of what employers pav for accidents
go for the benefit of the injured workmen and their families.
s R ep o rt for 1919 of th e W orkm en’s C om pensation B oard, O ntario.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[345]

Toronto, 1920. 70 pp.

134

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

It should be noted in connection with the amount of assessments
going toward expenses, that there is an administrative allowance
of $100,000 from the consolidated revenue fund of the Province.
However, as the assessments, _etc., during 1919 amounted to
$3,387,207.22 and the total administrative expenses to_ $167,844.75,
there remain abundant grounds for a claim of economical adminis­
tration.
The number of accidents in 1919 was less than in 1918, being
44,260, as against 47,848 in the earlier year. However, benefits
allowed were some $300,000 larger in amount in the later year,
partly due to the increase in wages, which afford the basis on which
benefits are computed, and partly because of the increase in death
benefits and in medical aid under an amendment made in the early
part of 1919. The average weekly wage of injured workmen increased
from $13.27 in 1915 to $15.63 in 1916, $19.06 in 1917, $21.93 in 1918,
and $24.80 in 1919, being a gain of 87 per cent in the five years.
Accident frequency has increased rather than diminished during
the four years’ operation of the act, 1915 to 1918, unless the apparent
increase can bo attributed to more efficient accident reporting. In
1915 there were 4.32 accidents for every hundred full year workers,
while in 1916 the number was 5.88, in 1917, 6.57, and in 1918, 6.54.
On the other hand, the per cent of the pay roll charged to employers
has decreased rather than increased, the total pay roll subject to
assessment having steadily and rapidly increased from year to year.
In 1915 the subject pay roll was $147,602,561.67, while in 1918 it was
$310,450,067.17. The per cent charged employers for the mainte­
nance of the provincial compensation fund was 0.0127 in 1915, 0.0109
in 1916, 0.0099 in 1917, and 0.0109 in 1918; or, figuring on each $100
of pay roll, the rates would be $1.27, $1.09, $0.99, and $1.09 for the
respective years. The adjustments for 1918 on account of merit
rating led to increased charges amounting to $139,887.41, and refunds
amounted to $253,286.92, an excess in favor of employers of $113,399.51.
Statistical tables show the condition of funds, 34 in number, a
complete accident report for 1918, including number, month of
occurrence, time loss, average age and wage, total and average com­
pensation and medical aid, sex, nature and causes of injury, etc.
Accompanying the report is a memorandum of amendments to the
compensation act made in 1920. This shows an increase of compen­
sation benefits from 55 per cent to 66§ per cent of the average earnings
of the injured worker, the minimum benefit to be $12.50 per week
unless the earnings are less, when the full amount will be paid. The
maximum allowance for burial expenses is raised from $75 to $125,
and a lump-sum allowance of $100 is given the widow besides her
monthly pension, which is increased to $40 per month. Other
increases apply to children and other dependents, the increase in
death benefits applying not only in cases newly arising, but, beginning
July 1, 1920, to affect all existing death pensions. Medical aid is
to include the supply of artificial members and apparatus and their
repair for a period of one year.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[346]

SOCIAL INSURANCE.
Pensions for Public Service Employees in
Uruguay.1
HE law passed by the National Congress of Uruguay, September
30, 1919, relative to pensions for employees in the public serv­
ice, was made effective October 6, 1919, on which date a decree
. was issued establishing the State pension fund. The law provides
for the pensioning of all employees who now are or may be here­
after employed in the railroad, telegraph, tramway, telephone, and
water and gas distributing services in the Republic. Employees in
restaurants and confectioneries, adjuncts of the railroad service, are
included, even though employed by concessionaires.
The fund is administered by a board of directors (Consejo Nacional)
consisting of 9 members, 3 representing the services, 3 representing
employees and_ laborers, and 3 designated by the President of the
Republic. It is supported by an assessment of 8 per cent on all
wages and earnings of the employees, payable by the employers; an
obligatory deduction of 4 per cent of wages paid; donations and
legacies; fines collected for violation of this law; receipts from sales
of articles abandoned on the railroads and tramways; overpayments
not reclaimed within 6 months; interest on accumulated funds; the
increase in wages of an employee or laborer the first month after
wages are increased, providing’such wages equal 50 pesos ($51.70,
par), if permanent, and, after three years, a tax of 1 to 3 per cent on
charges paid by patrons of the various services. This tax is regu­
lated by the President within the limits indicated with respect to
the needs of the fund and the services affected.
The directors of the services included are required to deduct the
contribution of employees from accrued earnings and deposit it to
the credit of the fund within 10 days after the month ends. The
fund is to be invested in national bonds or other recognized subsid­
iary State-guaranteed bonds paying the highest rate of interest. I t
is not subject to any process of attachment

T

Retirement.

rT10 BE entitled to retirement with full pension a service'of 30 years
is required, but a right to a proportional pension is acquired
after 10 years of service, continuous or not, in any of the mentioned
services, if the employee is (1) discharged, (2) physically incapaci­
tated to continue in his employment, or (3) 50 years of age, whether
at that date in active service or not.
1 Boletín de la Oficina Nacional d el Trabajo, M ontevideo, Septem ber to December, 1919, pp. 19-35.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[347]

135

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

136

Employees in these three classes are entitled to one-thirtieth part
of full pension for each year of service. Persons becoming per­
manently incapacitated in an act of service, whatever the length of
their service, are entitled to retirement.
The scale of pensions is based on the average wages for the last
five years of service, and is as follows:
S C H E D U L E O F P E N S IO N P A Y M E N T S U N D E R U R U G U A Y R E T IR E M E N T LA W .
[1 peso a t p a r= 11.034.]
P er cent
to be added
for each
M axim um
M inim um
peso of
pension.
wages in
pension.
excess of
th e m in i­
m um .

Range of earnings (in pesos).

50
50 to
60 to
80 to
100 to
125 to
150 to
175 to
200 to
225 to
250 to
275 to
300 to
325 to
350 to
375 to
400 to
425 to

...........................
60............................................
80............................................
100............................................
125............................................
150............................................
175............................................
200............................................
225............................................
250............................................
275............................................
300............................................
325............................................
350............................................
375............................................
400............................................
425............................................
450............................................

Pesos.
50.00
50.00
59.50
77.50
94.50
114.50
133.25
150.75
167.00
182.00
195.75
208.25
219.50
229.50
238.25
245.75
252.00
257.00
260.75

95
90
85
SO
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10

Pesos.
50.00
59.50
77.50
94.50
114.50
133.25
150.75
167.00
182.00
195.75
208.25
219.50
229.50
238.25
245.75
252.00
257.00
260.75

All pensions less than 100 pesos ($103.40, par) are subject to de­
duction of 4 per cent. Pensions date from the day following retire­
ment, but application must be made within six months from date of
quitting work, otherwise the pension dates from the date of the
petition.
In cases (1) and (2), as noted on page 135, the contributions paid
into the fund, with interest thereon, shall be deposited with the
State Insurance Bank in the name of the contributing employee,
who is then entitled to a pension corresponding to the contributions
made. The same rule applies to those leaving the service, for what­
ever reason, before 10 years of service have been rendered.
Upon returning to service, the amount deposited with the State
Insurance Bank must be redeposited in the pension fund.
Persons leaving'the country forfeit their right to a pension. In
case of absence of more than six months’ payment shall be made only
when expressly authorized by the directors of the fund
Provision for Dependents.
TTPON the death of a contributing employee the widow, invalid
^
widower, children, or, if there are no children, the parents, and if
these are not living, the unmarried sisters of the deceased are entitled
to a pension. If the deceased was in receipt of a pension, the persons
enumerated are entitled to a pension subject to the following condi­
tions ;

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[348]

137

SOCIAL INSURANCE.

I f he had served 10 years, the dependents are entitled to a pension
equal to that to which he would have been entitled had he been
retired for incapacity. I f he had served less than 10 years, the con­
tributions are deposited with the State Insurance Bank, which will
grant pensions based upon this sum.
A full pension is equal to 50 per cent of the retirement pension.
Pensions run from date of death. Their sequence is as follows:
(1) To the widow, or incapacitated widower, concurrent with the
children.
(2) To children alone.
(3) To the widow concurrent with the parents of the deceased, pro­
vided they were dependent.
(4) To dependent parents.
(5) To unmarried sisters, if dependent.
Pensions cease upon the widow’s or mother’s remarriage; when the
sons reach the age of 18 years; when the daughters reach the age of
25 years, unless incapacitated. All pensions terminate upon emigra­
tion of the beneficiary.
In cases (1) and (2) when the right to a pension ceases as to any one
of these, that portion is distributed among the other beneficiaries.
Dependents may not benefit from more than one pension. In case
they are entitled to more than one pension they may elect which they
will accept.
Employees who desire to claim pensions for periods of employment
previous to the date of this law must pay contributions for that
period, these contributions to be deducted from present wages at the
rate of 3 per cent. If entitled to a pension before the full amount of
this sum is paid, the balance shall be deducted from the pension at
the rate of 10 per cent per month.

Unemployment Insurance in A ustria.1
HE new Austrian unemployment insurance act of March 24,
1920, supersedes a temporary measure on the same subject.
A change in the unemployment relief system had become neces­
sary in order to relieve the State of its heavy financial burden and
because of the steady fall in the number of unemployed. (The num­
ber on April 1, 1920, was only 50,000, as compared with the maxi­
mum of 186,030 reached on February 1, 1919.)
Under the new act, one-third of the cost of unemployment insurance
is to be borne by the State, the remaining two-thirds by employers and
workers. The contributions are to be paid at the same time as those
for sickness insurance. Only persons who have worked for at least
20 weeks in the preceding year are entitled to claim unemployment
benefit. The benefit must not be granted for more than 12 weeks in
any year, and payment does not begin until the eighth day of unem­
ployment. Workers who give up their work arbitrarily and without
justifiable reason lose all claim to unemployment benefit for a period
of four weeks. I f an unemployed person has been in receipt of benefit

T

i E x tracted from th e L abor G azette, London, for June, 1920, p. 294.
O esterreichisehen Staatsam tes fü r Soziale Verw altung, A p ril 15,1920.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[349]

Source: A m tliche N achrichten des

138

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

for eight weeks and there is no prospect of his obtaining work in his
own trade, he must take up any properly paid employment suited to
his capacities. If necessary, training must be given in the new trade.
Groups of industries in which the conditions of employment are con­
sidered to be favorable may be excluded from the benefits of the act.
The benefit for unmarried workers, manual and nonmanual, is to
be 60 per cent and for married workers, 80 per cent of the daily sick­
ness benefit due to the worker in the last employment in which he was
compulsorily insured against sickness. In order to make the transi­
tion to the new system easier, the Government has arranged that for
the period during which the disturbance of economic life due to the
war continues, the unemployment benefit may amount to 100 per cent
of the sickness benefit for unemployed persons with families dependent
upon them, and to 75 per cent for others. In certain individual cases
workers who have already received unemployment benefits for the
maximum period of 12 weeks may be granted an extension up to a
maximum of 20 weeks.
The administration of the unemployment relief scheme is to be in
the hands of district industrial committees, which are to be com­
posed of employers and employed persons in equal numbers. These
committees are to nominate subcommittees, also consisting of an
equal number of employers and workpeople, to act as arbitration
bodies at each employment exchange for the settlement of com­
plaints formulated by unemployed persons with regard to decisions
of the exchange affecting the amount, the refusal, or the duration of
relief, etc.
The new act became operative on May 9, 1920.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

LABOR LAWS AND DECISIONS.
Rehabilitation Law of New York.
S NOTED in the M o n t h l y L a b o r R e v ie w for June (pp. 186,
187) the Federal Congress, near the close of its recent session,
enacted a law providing for cooperation with the States in the
vocational rehabilitation of disabled persons. Such action had been
anticipated in a few States, by the enactment of laws looking toward
the same end and authorizing cooperation with the Federal Govern­
ment when it should act; other States had independent laws (see
M o n t h l y L a b o r R e v ie w for April, pp. 202-206). The Legislature
of New York, by an act of May 13,1920 (ch. 760), provides for work of
the same nature to be carried on by an “ advisory commission for the
rehabilitation of physically handicapped persons/’ which is to arrange
for the vocational training of persons adapted thereto, cooperation
with the department of education, the State industrial commission,
and the department of health being contemplated. The State also
“ accepts the provisions of any law of the United States making
appropriations to be apportioned among the States for vocational
rehabilitation of disabled persons.”
The definition of physically handicapped persons embodied in the
New York law is identical with that contained in the Federal statute,
as is also practically true of the definition of rehabilitation. The act
therefore includes those defective by reason of congenital infirmities
or disease as well as from industrial accidents or injuries. Special
courses of training in the public schools, in private or commercial
educational institutions, and in establishments or employers pro­
viding for the training of physically handicapped persons, are to be
arranged for, and cooperation in placement is to be so worked out as
to avoid duplication. Artificial limbs and other orthopedic and
prosthetic appliances may be furnished at cost, to be paid for in
installments. An appropriation of $75,000 was made to assist the
department of education in carrying out the provisions of the act,
this amount to be in addition to any moneys allotted to the State by
the Government of the United States.
The act also amends the workmen’s compensation law of this
State, authorizing the payment of a maintenance benefit of not to
exceed $10 per week for injured employees undergoing vocational
training. To provide funds for this purpose a special fund is created,
to be maintained by payments of insurance carriers in fatal injury
cases where no beneficiaries survive. The amount to be contributed
is $900 for each case, to be in the custody of the State treasurer and
subject to distribution by the industrial commission. This amount
is evidently independent of the contribution of $100 to be paid in
similar cases for the maintenance of a second injuries fund.

A


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[351]

139

140

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

Occupational Diseases Under the Massachusetts
Compensation Law.
HE workmen’s compensation law of Massachusetts provides
benefits for persons receiving a personal injury arising out of
and in the course of employment, the words “ by accident” not
being used in the law. This left the door open to a construction of
of the law in regard to the inclusion of so-called occupational diseases,
and in a case decided in 1914 (Johnson v. London Guaranty & Acci­
dent Co., 217 Mass. 388, 104 N. E. 735) compensation was allowed
for a case of lead poisoning, the court stating that “ under the act,
‘personal injury’ is not limited to injuries caused by external violence,
physical force, or as the result of accident in the sense in which that
word is commonly used and understood, but under the statute is to
be given a much broader and more liberal meaning, and includes any
bodily injury.” It is further stated that “ it is clear that ‘personal
injury’ under our act includes any injury or disease which arises
out of and in the course of the employment, which causes incapacity
for work and thereby impairs the ability of the employee for earning
wages.”
But a few weeks prior to this decision the same court sustained an
award in behalf of a workman who was blinded by the inhalation of
poisonous gases while employed in an establishment in which he was
exposed to this danger (In re Hurle, 217 Mass. 223, 104 N. E. 336;
see also Doherty’s Case, 222 Mass. 98, 109 N. E. 887).
In view of the definite and apt statement as to the scope of the act,
and the repeated affirmations of awards classifiable as occupational
diseases, the law of Massachusetts had been regarded as in the same
class as the Federal law and that of North Dakota, in that it was
believed to include occupational diseases by a construction based
upon the phraseology of the law, not indeed specifically including
such injuries, but not excluding them and thus leaving the adminis­
trative parties free to make awards for this form of industrial injury
as well as for the results of accidents. This view was also in line with
the liberalizing tendency manifested in the amendments of the laws of
California, Connecticut, New York, and Wisconsin, specifically includ­
ing occupational diseases. It was a considerable surprise therefore to
read in a decision of May 22, 1920 (Pimental’s Case, 1.27 N. E. 424)
the following: “ If it could be held that the employee was suffering
from an occupational disease, still the workmen’s compensation act
does not in terms include disease. It can not be held to cover disease
contracted by employees in the course of and arising out of their em­
ployment.” Tire opinion in this case was written by Judge Crosby,
who also wrote the opinion in the Johnson case in which a diametri­
cally opposite statement (see quotation above) was made. The court
said in this connection that “ The language in the opinion in the John­
son case is to be limited to the precise facts in that case and is not an
authority in favor of the contention of the employee in the case at bar.”
The case at bar did not involve occupational diseases, but was one
in which neuralgic pain was developed as the result of a faulty position
assumed by a deformed man while employed steadily at laborious
work. The declaration that the laAV “ can not be held to cover
disease contracted by employees in the course of and arising out of

T


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[352]

LABOR LAWS AND DECISIONS.

141

their employment’ is not therefore essential to the decision, as it
was found by the court that the condition “ would have been equally
liable to arise in whatever employment he might have been engaged
or if not employed at all.” Perhaps there is still room to hope that
this broad exclusion of occupational diseases will be regarded as
obiter, and not a binding precedent, though it must be admitted that
it makes uncertain the attitude of the court so clearly expressed in
1914 in the Johnson case.

Injunction in Strike for Closed Shop Upheld by
Wisconsin Court.
HE Supreme Court of Wisconsin recently delivered an opinion of
special interest by reason of its interpretation of a type of law
that has received considerable attention. The law under consideiation was chapter 211 of the Acts of the Mhsconsm Legislature of
1919 and is patterned after the Federal statute known as the Clay­
ton Act. I t provides that the antitrust laws of the State shall not
be applicable to labor organizations; that labor unions are legal and
may be organized for aiding workers in securing improved conditions
of employment; and that no restraining order or injunction shall be
issued in cases between employers and employees growing out of dis­
putes “ concerning terms or conditions of employment” unless neces­
sary to prevent irreparable injury to property or a property right for
the redress of which there is no adequate remedy at law. I t was also
provided that picketing and peaceful persuasion are not to be the
subject of injunctions.
In the case at hand (A. J. Monday Co. v. Automobile, etc., Workers
of America, 177 N. W. 867) there was a strike of members of a local
union employed by a company whose business was the building,
painting, and trimming of automobile bodies. No question of wages
or hours was involved, the sole point being the refusal of the employer
to establish a closed shop. An injunction was issued restraining the
members of the union and other defendants from certain acts of inter­
ference with the conduct of the employer’s business. The contention
was raised that such an injunction violated the act above mentioned,
and a motion was made to vacate the order. The court held, how­
ever, that the act was not applicable to the present case, since none
of the things enumerated in it as looking toward the betterment of
employment conditions was involved in the case. “ It is a strike
purely and simply for the closed shop. The closed shop does not aid
the members of Local No. 25 to become more skillful or efficient
workers, to promote their general welfare, elevate their character, or
to regulate their wages, hours, or conditions of labor in any except
an indirect and remote way.” The constitutionality and construction
of the act were, therefore, not discussed, as not being involved in the
case. The motion to vacate was denied, as was the employer’s motion
to extend or amend. I t was modified so as to restrain picketing and
patroling and guarding the streets, and also so as to permit advice and
persuasion by peaceful and lawful means to prevent workers from
accepting employment and customers from patronizing the plaintiff’s
establishment.

T

2386°—20---- 10

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[353]

142

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

Decision of Kansas Court of Industrial Relations
as to Certain Employees of Railroads.
HE International Brotherhood of Stationary Firemen and
Oilers, as existing in the State of Kansas, came before the
State court of industrial relations in March last with a
complaint as to the amount of wages received. The complaint was
submitted by the vice president of the brotherhood in behalf of
himself, an employee of one of the roads, and of 25 local unions of
the brotherhood located at various points in Kansas. The respond­
ents were nine railroad companies operating in that State as common
carriers.
The workmen involved were not directly connected with the
movement of the trains, but were engaged in various capacities at
work which directly affected their operation. Among the workmen
involved were stationary firemen, engine watchmen, turntable opera­
tors, engine wipers, fire builders, oilers, cinder and ash pit men, and,
in general, laborers working in and about engines, turntables, round­
houses, and store and supply houses. The employers are engaged in
both intrastate and interstate commerce.
The complaints alleged insufficient pay, and the court found that
the wages were in fact inadequate to supply a family “ with the neces­
saries of life and a reasonable share of the comforts of life,” though
an unmarried man could get along fairly well on the present wage.
The carriers were unwilling to submit the matter to the State
court of industrial relations, the subject being presented by the
representative of the brotherhood with the request that the court
take jurisdiction of the controversy and make such investigation as
would enable it to determine a reasonable wage. The railroads filed
answers which were very similar. Among their statements were a
general denial, a claim that the respondents were engaged in inter­
state commerce, that under the transportation act of 1920 they are
paying wages fixed by the Director General of the United States
Kailroad Administration, that the industrial court has no jurisdic­
tion on account of the provisions of the transportation act of 1920
for the settlement of disputes by the railroad labor board, etc. The
legal questions involved made it necessary for the court to decide
first of all as to its jurisdiction, and whether its findings would con­
flict with the provisions of the transportation act of 1920. A quota­
tion was made from a decision of the United States Supreme Court
(Simpson v. Shepard, 230 U. S. 298) setting forth the competence of
a State to govern its internal commerce and adopt measures of a
reasonable character in the interests of its people, “ although inter­
state commerce may incidentally or indirectly be involved.” It was
decided that any action that the court might take would be presumed
to be fair and reasonable, and if so, no injury could come to interstate
commerce and no unnecessary burden be imposed upon it. Neither
could it be presumed that the Federal labor board would render an
award which would be unfair to the public, nor that the court of
industrial relations would refuse to approve a reasonable order
made by the labor board if such was accepted by the disputants,
i The Kansas law provides only that the orders fixed by its court

T


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[354]

LABOR LAWS AND DECISIONS.

143

shall continue “ for such reasonable time as may be fixed by said
court, or until changed by agreement of the parties with the approval
01 the court.’ This was held to make it entirely possible for the
State and Federal laws to exist side by side without conflict, leaving
each free to act in its field, and providing a ready means of adjust­
ment if anything in the nature of conflict should arise.
It was concluded therefore to issue an order to be effective for six
months from July 1, 1920, unless changed by agreement of the parties
with the approval of the court, the scale to apply only to actual
residents of the State of Kansas, members of the International
Brotherhood of Stationary Firemen and Oilers, and such other rail­
road employees performing the same or similar services as are not
now being paid wages under existing agreements. Only a few of the
men were said to be what are usually called “ skilled laborers.”
Some of them are what is known as 'common laborers,’ but a very
lar^e number of them are engaged in a work which calls for some
skill and much care and fidelity.”
The eight basic considerations that have been cited in other find­
ings by the court are again brought to mind—the scale of wages paid
for similar kinds of work in other industries, the relation between
wages and the cost of living, the hazards of the employment, the
training and skill required, the degree of responsibility, the character
and regularity of the employment, inequalities due to previous ad­
justments, and the skill, industry, and fidelity of the individual
employee. It was recognized that the rates fixed were not as high
as for similar work elsewhere, but they were fixed upon as reason aide
in view of the steadiness of the employment. The highest rate, 60
cents per hour, was ordered paid to chief stationary engineers, coalhoisting engineers, and clam-shell engineers. Stationary firemen and
stokers receive 55 cents per hour; stationary oilers, boiler washers,
boiler fillers, water tenders, power operators, transfer operators, and
turntable operators, 53 cents per hour; pumpers, storehouse and
warehouse foremen, and countermen 50 cents per hour; engine watch­
men, janitors, engine washers, engine wipers, fire knockers, etc., 47
edits per hour; while helpers and workmen of lower grades receive
45 cents per hour. While much of the work must be done on all the
seven days of the week, “ the members of the court feel that the
seven-day week ought to be discouraged.” To this end a revolving
system was recommended, but the court did not deem it wise to
embody such a system in an order, and based the wage scale on an
eight-hour day with time and one-half for overtime, Sundays, and
legal holidays. This order was issued June 16, 1920, to be effective .
on the first of the succeeding month.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1355]

/

HOUSING
Housing in Great B ritain.1
OUSING has been a “ problem” in all civilized, countries, in all
times, but the lack of proper habitation for the working classes
was never so acutely felt as at the close _of the war. All
countries seem to have suffered about equally in this respect, whether
or not they were actual participants in the war. The practical
cessation in building for over four years was in itself sufficient cause
for this lack, hut beyond that there seems everywhere to have come a
sudden focussing of determination to secure better living conditions
for Workers. In spite of the fact that all countries are faced with
the housing problem, England is probably the only country in the
world that has yet evolved and entered upon a national housing
program.
Some 10 .years before the war approximately 100,000 new houses
were being built annually in England and Wales, almost wholly by
private enterprise, to supply the normal working-class demand.
For various reasons, however, such as the increased cost of building
materials, the decreased output of labor, and especially the decreased
pecuniary benefit of speculative builders consequent upon the pre­
ceding causes, hut also, and to a greater degree, upon certain duties
imposed under the finance act of 1909-10, coupled with some uncer­
tainty as to the ultimate effect of that act, this high rate of production
was not kept up. Thus, there was already a considerable shortage
in housing throughout the country, when, in 1914, all building not
directly required by war operations practically ceased.2 The houses
built during the war were chiefly in the munitions areas, and then
only with a free State grant of something like one-third of the capital
expended. It was conservatively estimated, therefore, that at least
one-half million new houses were sorely needed when the armistice
was signed, in order to anywhere near adequately provide decent
living quarters for the families of men engaged in industry. Even
under normal conditions this would have been a formidable under­
taking, but at that time it was almost unthinkable. The building
industry of England had, it is estimated, lost 200,000 (or one-quarter)
of its able-bodied skilled men, and the cost of materials had advanced
so enormously that even the proper repair of existing buildings prom­
ised to be difficult after their years of neglect. The reconstruction
period rendered the future most uncertain, and the agencies formerly
engaged in providing housing were reluctant, if not totally unable,
to set about the undertaking.

H

i T he d ata on w hich th is article is based were secured from th e Local A uthority Assisted Housing Schemes
R egulations, 1919, issued by th e M inistry of H ealth, Dec. 31, 1919; circulars and official m em oranda of the
M inistry of H ealth; Housing; M onthly Circular of th e L abor Research D epartm ent; H andbook of Local
G overnm ent for England and W ales, published b y th e L abor P a rty ; Local G overnm ent Chronicle; Garden
Cities and Tow n Planning Magazine; B ulletin of th e Federation of B ritish Industries; W ays and Means;
The G arden C ity, b y C. B. Purdom ; T h e H ousing Problem , b y J. J. Clarke; th e London Tim es; th e Daily
Herald; an d th e M anchester Guardian. Personal inform ation was also furnished b y Sir F ran k Bines,
of th e Office of W orks; M r. G. L . Pepler, of th e M inistry of H e alth ; M r. E . C. P . Lascelles, of th e M inistry of
Labor; and Mr. E. G. Culpin.
, K:d >O
L'-G
a See Monthly R eview , Decem ber, 1917, pp. 220-229.

144

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[356]

HOUSING.

145

Housing Acts.

the last months °/ the war the Government, through the
Ministry of Reconstruction, initiated a housing program, the
work of which was taken over in 1919 by the new Ministry of Health,
the first step toward the working out of this program was accomplished with the passage of the housing and town-planning act, July
1919. Phis act made the local authorities responsible for providing
the necessary housing accommodations, but the Government, having
to undertake responsibility for the financial results, was to have
complete control and supervision of all undertakings. The com­
munity and the Nation were each to provide a specified proportion of
the cost of building.
Within a few months, however, it became apparent that the difficulties m the way of raising funds in the various communities were
retarding the effects of the act to such an extent that results were
almost negligible, and accordingly a new act was passed, the housing
(additional powers) act, December, 1919, giving the minister of
health authority under specified conditions to make grants for houses,
or, in other words, to invite private enterprise to cooperate and to
oiler it a subsidy for so doing.
The two acts of 1919 clearly give evidence that the State admits its
responsibility lor the housing of the working classes and no longer
regards it as a purely local problem. Earlier legislation had given
local authorities power to develop housing schemes but also gave
them the burden of providing the necessary financial backing. Now
under the new acts, the Ministry of Health is empowered to require
the local authorities to prepare and carry out schemes for needed
housing, and also, for a specified number of years, to pay to them out
ol btate hinds 75 per cent of any loss resulting from "the difference
between the economic rent on the increased cost of building and the
reasonable rent which working-class tenants can bear.
the ministry also has power to put through a scheme of its own
and assess the locality its proper share.
The housing (additional powers) act of last December marks n
n V - ^ dva)lce 111 1f,s appeal to private enterprise. It provides
£15,000,000 ($72,997,500, par) to be used for grants to persons or
associations of persons who will construct houses for the working class.
Ihe additional powers act enables the minister of health, with the
sanctum ol the Treasury, to make grants for houses, the construction
ol which is begun within one year after the passage of the act and
completed within that year, or, in special circumstances, within four
months longer. The grants allowed vary with the accommodation
piovided, and as the act was passed were as follows:
For a cottage containing living room, parlor, and three or four
bedrooms, and comprising not less than 920 square feet of floor
space, £160 ($779, par) per house.
I oi a cottage containing living room and three bedrooms, and
comprising not less than 780 square feet of floor space, £140 ($681
par) per house.
*
For a cottage containing living room and two bedrooms, and com­
prising not less than 700 square feet of floor space, £130 ($633, par)
per house.
1 '


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[357]

146

MONTHLY LABOE EEVIEW.

These provisions were amended on May 14, 1920, when the Min­
istry of Health announced that, in view of the increased cost of
building, the grant to private builders had been increased as follows:
One hundred pounds ($487, par) per house for houses begun on
or after April 1. Fifty pounds ($243, par) per house for houses
begun before April 1 and after December 23, 1919.
Thus the total grant for houses begun on or after April 1 is £230,
£240, or £260 ($1,119, $1,168, or $1,265, par) a house, according to
the size of the house.
No grants are made for house having more than four bedrooms,
and the number of houses per acre is restricted to 20 in urban areas
and 8 in agricultural areas, except with the express concurrence of
the Ministry of Health.
For convenience and to secure more rapid progress the housing
department of the Ministry of Health has been subjected to drastic
decentralization. The country has been divided for housing pur­
poses into 11 regions, each with a regional commissioner, armed with
large delegated powers of assent or dissent, and readily accessible to
each local authority in his district at all stages of the housing scheme
which it has in hand.
Results of Housing Survey.
T TNDER the new housing acts each local authority was required
^ to make a return of a survey of the housing needs of its district
for the next three years to the Ministry of Flealth. The results
of his survey are given in the May 10, 1920, issue of Housing, the
official organ of the ministry. Absolute accuracy in such a survey
is obviously impossible, but the net number of houses shown to be
required to meet the needs of the country—800,000—is accepted as
being nearer the truth than was- the previously estimated 500,000.
The general schemes submitted by the 1902 local authorities provide
for a total of some 600,000 houses; over half of the schemes are
classified as satisfactory and only 40 as unqualifiedly unsatisfactory.
Factors of the Problem of Housing Reform.
A CCORDING to the Labor Party’s Handbook of Local Government, housing reform involves: (a) The provision of new houses;
(b ) clearance of slum areas and preparation of improvement or
reconstruction schemes; (c) closing and demolition of unfit houses
and obstructive buildings; (d ) the improvement and repair of
existing houses.
Obviously the provision of new houses (a) should involve such
careful selection of sites as to insure that the newly built areas shall
not give rise to more of the conditions which make (b) and (c) neces­
sary. This naturally is less difficult in rural and village com­
munities than in urban districts, but the financial problem generally
can be solved more easily in the larger commercial centers so that in
general neither rural nor urban district has any great advantage
over the other, and apparently both arc suffering about equally from
lack of housing. To provide inadequate and unsuitable housing to
meet the emergency would be only to increase the areas to be cleared
later on and would have little effect in promoting the general wellbeing; of industry.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[358]

HOUSING.

147

As to whether the housing program should lay emphasis on quick
results or on permanence and quality, the London Times says:
We are not concerned to defend the policy of the Government or to contend that
there is no truth m the charges of delay, incapacity, greed, and what not that have
3ir"ed against the various interests and agencies engaged in building or in not
building. A mistake^ was undoubtedly made in relying too much on municipal
authorities and ignoring private enterprise. And the lesson should not be lost.
11 is a warning against policies inspired by doctrinnaire theories and at variance
with practical experience. * * * Criticism has a proper function; it corrects and
stimulates up to a point. _But carried too far it is more than sterile; i t sterilizes. And
there has been enough of it for the present. * * * But a general advance is incom­
patible with an immediate production of houses on a large scale. Plans must be
eai eiully prepared, and many details settled before the work of building is approached
at all. A
'
And this not in a haphazard way, but in accordance with a consid­
ered scheme of development and with an eye to the future. * * * Delav is the
price paid for quality and eventual satisfaction.

Treatment of Slum Areas.

JUNE 10 the minister of health, replying to questions of mem­
bers of the House of Commons, said that his department had
already approved schemes for the purchase of building sites in
the county of London covering 777 acres, at an average cost per
•acre of £564 ($2,745, par) and in the rest of the Metropolitan Police
district, covering 2,646 acres, at an average price per acre of £309
($1,504, par), fu rth er he said that local authorities throughout
the country had been requested to proceed with the survey of the
unsanitary areas in their districts and with the preparation of schemes
m the most urgent cases. Already improvement schemes had been
submitted for areas comprising lOf acres and having 494 houses
occupied by 2,938 persons of the working classes. Sanitary h o u sin g
accommodation, under the new regulations, to take the place of that
removed, was to be provided for 2,820 persons.
While agreeing that 10 J acres was a very small percentage of the
slum areas m the country’s industrial towns, the minister said it was
scarcely practical to deal on a large scale with slum areas or to under­
take the demolition of houses until much more had been done to
meet the prevailing shortage of houses.
i his and other points entering into the housing problem are dealt
with in the interim report of the committee which the minister of
health appointed with the following terms of reference:
To consider and advise on the principles to be followed in dealing with unhealthy
areas, including the circumstances in which schemes of reconstruction, as distinct
irom clearance, may be adopted, and as regards cleared areas, the extent to which
rehousing on the site should be required, the kind of housing which should be per­
mitted, and the use of the site for factory or other purposes than housing.

A summary of the report follows:
From our survey of the position and from the evidence we have received three
main impressions have been left upon our minds:
First, the vast size and complexity of the problems to be solved in London;
becond, the fact that the housing question is so intimately linked up with the
ransporb question and the ultimate distribution of dwelling houses, commercial
and industrial premises, etc., that i t can only be successfully attacked by the simul­
taneous consideration of all these aspects over a wide area; and
J hird, the fact that at present the situation is dominated by the acute shortage of
oil ses, which makes any large scheme of reconstruction impossible for some con­
siderable time. Incidentally, this inevitable delay at once gives opportunity for


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[359]

148

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

further consideration of the ultimate solution and indicates the necessity for tem
porary devices of a palliative character.
Workmen’s fares.—The question of the cost of traveling has an important bearing
on the problem.
Results o f overcrow dingUndoubtedly the result of overcrowding has been to
deteriorate property itself as well as the health of the inhabitants. Many thousands
of houses originally built for one family are now occupied by two or even three or more,
without any addition to the sanitary and washing conveniences, etc., and even where
the houses themselves are not overcrowded, the absence of these conveniences ren­
ders them insanitary. Thus it may be said that the condition of working-class dwell­
ings in London is considerably worse now than it was before the war, and the combi­
nation of overcrowding and deterioration makes the problem of improvement ex­
tremely urgent.
Alternative methods.—In view of the excess population in the crowded areas of Lon­
don, it is clear that there are only two main alternatives before us by way of remedy.
The one is to allow the population to expand vertically instead of horizontally; the
other, to remove a large part of it bodily elsewhere, rearranging what is left on the old
sites, but with adequate accommodation, including the requisite open spaces.
Multi-story buildings.-^-The first alternative has recently attracted a good deal of
attention. I t has been represented that it would require no interference with exist­
ing industries, and that the piling up of the population in lofty buildings would enable
considerable open spaces to be left below, which could be used as recreation grounds
for children or as parks and gardens. Nevertheless, we are convinced on the evidence
before us that this system is quite unsuitable for a working-class population who are
dependent on their own efforts for domestic services and the care of their children.
Redistribution.—Turning now to the second alternative, namely, redistribution,
it is obvious that this is a method requiring considerable time in its application, and
one which must be combined with measures of prevention as well as of cure. It
would be useless to hope for improvement in the congested areas if these are allowed
to become still more congested by the further demolition of houses to make way for
more profitable buildings, and it would appear necessary to take measures to dis­
courage any increase of labor-employing establishments in such areas. A recommen­
dation with this object will be found among our conclusions.
Garden cities.—Many of the factories now located in London might apparently have
been placed elsewhere without any disadvantage to themselves, and we are strongly
of opinion that, side by side with the restrictions we suggest below upon factories in
London, there should be encouraged the starting of new industries and the removal
of existing factories to garden cities which should be found in the country where the
inhabitants will live close to their work under the best possible conditions. Generally
speaking, these communities should not exceed from 30,000 to 50,000 people, and should
be suiTounded by a belt of agricultural land for the purpose of health and recreation,
and for local food production.
Slum clearance.—If, by the adoption of preventive measures and the creation of
garden cities which would at least provide for the natural increase in the population
of London, we can stop further deterioration of the central area, the first step will
have been taken toward the improvement of the existing state of things. In con­
sidering what has already been done in the way of slum clearance your committee
have been impressed by the fact that all attempts to rehouse the existing population
appear to have been completely disconnected from one another or from any con­
spectus of the problems as a whole. The interrelation of housing, transport, and in­
dustry has not been taken into account.
Unhealthy areas, methods o f treatment.—Although we have spoken of the reconstruc­
tion of London and of the clearances to be made in unhealthy areas it is obvious that
until new houses are available in sufficient number to drain off the excess population
no such clearances can be made. Are we thus condemned to fold our hands and do
nothing to improve the existing plague spots of London for an indefinite period of
years? To this question your committee return an emphatic negative.
It must be borne in mind that, however much the inhabitants of unhealthy areas
dislike and resent the conditions under which they live, they do not in a great many
cases desire to leave the locality in which they have been brought up, where they
live among their friends and where they find themselves conveniently close to their
work. Moreover, the effect of slum clearances in the past has often been to push the
old inhabitants out into adjoining areas which have thus become themselves over­
crowded and consequently have rapidly degenerated into fresh slums. Our evidence
shows that where new dwellings have been erected in place of those demolished very
few of the original occupiers have returned. We were informed, for instance, that as
regards six improvement schemes carried out by the London County Council, only


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[360]

HOUSING.

149

about 2 per cent of the displaced population became tenants in the new dwellings
Various reasons are given for this remarkable fact, including the tenants’ dislike to
new and strange conditions, their objection to the measure of discipline exercised
and perhaps also to the higher rents charged. We are not satisfied that any persistent
and continuous effort has been made to retain them; on the contrary, it is probable
that a certain selection has been exercised in the choice of the tenants of the new
buildings which has had the effect of introducing a somewhat different class
In Liverpool, where determined efforts have been made to retain the old inhabitants
undoubtedly a very large part have come back, but in London the old population
has tor the most part flowed into the surrounding areas, and in this connection it must
be remembered how large a part the obtaining of credit plays in the life of the poorer
population and how necessary it is for them therefore to remain in the locality where
they are known.
Generally speaking, we are of opinion that it is wise to avoid a sudden change in
the conditions and standard of life of the classes we are considering. I t was the opin­
ion ot che late Miss Octavia Hill that old houses when carefully repaired and kept
under kind but strict supervision provide quite as good homes for working-class
tamilies as new buildings or houses; and, moreover, the rents of such houses can be
kept comparatively low, as large amounts of capital have not been laid out upon them
this opinion was confirmed by Mr. George Duckworth, who has had great experience
m working under the late Mr. Charles Booth. Property managed on the Octavia
H i l l system exists in London to-day and shows not only that it can be kept clean
tu com*or^atie, but that under this management the general standard of life among
the tenants rises very considerably. We believe that the system might be extended
with immense advantage to all concerned pending the possibility of reconstruction,
but we do not see how any such extension is to take place upon the present system
ot ownership.
J

Restriction of Luxury Building.
rjPHE housing acts give the minister power to restrict so-called
“ luxury building,” i. e., construction or alteration which may
in his judgment interfere with the building of dwelling houses.
This power he has utilized in the London area to the dismay of pro­
jectors of building schemes for offices, hotels, works, and places of
amusement, who protest that this prohibition deprives many me­
chanics of work and does not help housing, ‘‘because the men em­
ployed on ferro-concrete and steel structure, ” for example, “ do not
build houses.”
This restriction of so-called luxury building also has another effect.
The lack of office buildings almost equals that of houses and thè
result has been that would-be office tenants have taken over hotel
rooms for their purpose and this in turn considerably curtails the
already meager supply of hotel accommodations available for legiti­
mate travelers and visitors. Thus each phase of the housing question
reacts upon all the others.
A t the end of June the Government was reported to be drafting a
new hausing bill which will definitely fix the powers of the Ministry
of Health along certain lines which have been found to be inade­
quately established by the existing laws, especially with regard to
restriction of luxury building, and the seizing of empty houses to be
converted to working-class uses.
Effect of Changes in Employment Upon Housing Needs.
T H E effect upon housing needs of changes in employment between
prewar and postwar conditions is being consistently considered by
the Government. The temporary emergencies of war times could
be met by temporary expedients but the problem now is to provide
fohipermanent needs in so far as they can be forecast.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1361]

150

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

Many local authorities have been enormously hampered in their
plans by uncertainty as to the ultimate disposal ol Government
plants—dockyards and munition works—and of collieries. Some huge
plants established during the war will of course be abandoned but
final decisions have not yet been possible in many cases. Then again
in some instances where works have been definitely closed the other
local industries may expand sufficiently to absorb the released
workers, but much of this possible expansion is still uncertain.
Changes in local distribution of employment are shown in the
following table, which gives the number of persons employed in indus­
trial establishments at the date of the armistice and in July, 1919,
respectively, expressed as percentages of the numbers employed in
July, 1914, in various geographical divisions:
P E R C E N T A G E C H A N G E S IN LO CA L D IS T R IB U T IO N O F E M PL O Y M E N T .
Division.

London and South E a s te rn ...........................
South M idlands a n d E a s te rn ........................
South W estern ..................................................
Y orkshire and E a st M idlands......................
W est M idlands................................................
N o rth W este rn .................................................
N o rth e rn ...........................................................
W ales..................................................................
Scotland..............................................................

Before th e
war.

A t th e
armistice.

Ju ly , 1919.

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

115
92
102
98
106
91
' 96
88
95

110
100
108
104
105
96
105
98
99

The London County Council and the Royal Statistical Society
have suggested that the proposed census of 1921 should "take account
of workplace, as well as residence, whereby local authorities would
have information with regard to the number of persons working in
their area and the relation between place of work and place of resi­
dence, while in subsecpient enumerations the trend of industrial and
commercial development could be determined.”
There has been discussion, for a long time, in England of the ques­
tion of retention of commerce and business in the central area and
of the removal of factories to districts outside. Congested traffic
due to insufficient facilities prevails in every thriving town of the
United Kingdom as it does in every country to-day.
Housing, speaking upon this subject in a recent issue, has the fol­
lowing to say regarding the housing and traffic problems of London:
In London, especially, the removal of factories is a matter of great importance in
view of the growing urgency of the traffic problem, which is almost as serious as the
housing problem itself. In traffic, as in housing, there has been a cessation of con­
struction, but whereas in housing there has been no abnormal increase in the popula­
tion in recent years, in traffic the demand has increased almost beyond control.
The number of passenger journeys increased from 600 millions in 1894 to 1,019
millions in 1904, to 1,459 millions in 1909, to 2,005 millions in 1914, and to 2,573 millions
in 1919.
At the rush hours, when workers are traveling to and from their work, the pressure
is almost intolerable, and the shortening of hours and the increase of wages and leisure
are resulting in intensifying the pressure.
If factories were removed from the central districts into the outskirts, even before
houses were erected in the immediate neighborhood, the result would be that the
workman would travel in uncrowded conditions in the opposite direction to the rush
traffic. From the manufacturer’s standpoint there are sound reasons for removing
his industry into the outskirts where land is cheap, especially in cases where expan­
sion has become necessary; business and commerce (as distinguished from industries)


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[362]

HOUSING.

151

will continue to bo concentrated in the central districts, and the increasing demand
for premises of all kinds should enable a manufacturer to secure a high price for his
vacant factory buildings. Another desirable result would be to retard the encroach­
ment of commerce on housing, and thereby reduce the total amount of new housing
to be provided.
Hitherto, however, the outward movement has been exceedingly slow.
The suggestion that new industrial towns should be established outside London was
considered by the Select Committee on Transport (Metropolitan Area) in 1919 and
was reported as valuable, the committee laying stress on the fact that the establish­
ment of residences without industries would not respond to the actual public re­
quirements. Public opinion in favor of the joint establishment of industries and
residences is growing in force.

Garden Cities.
Letchworth.

?P H E most conspicuous example of transferring industries and popu­
lation from congested areas to newly developed self-contained
towns is found at Letchworth, in Hertfordshire, some 35 miles (or
50 minutes by rail) north of London. This town was inspired hy
Ebenezer Howard’s Garden Cities of To-morrow, published in 1898.
The basic idea of this book is to deal at once with the two vital ques­
tions of overcrowding in towns and the depopulation of rural dis­
tricts. A group of people purchased a tract of open country, about
4,500 acres in extent, and in 1904 formed a company, with dividends
limited to 5 per cent, for the purpose of developing this land into a
garden city. The area near the railway was reserved for factories,
other areas were reserved for residential districts, with a strict lim­
itation of the number of houses to the acre, and a central area was
left vacant so that at a later date, when the town had developed, it
could be used for public buildings and offices. A shopping center was
situated close to the railway and bordering on the central square. A
large amount of land was reserved for parks and open spaces. Of the
entire tract about one-third, was allotted to the town proper, the
remaining two-thirds (or 3,000 acres) forming a permanent agricul­
tural belt of small holdings and small farms.
It is calculated that the town, when fully developed, will have a
population of some 30,000, and already there are more than one-tliird
of that number and over 40 factories.'
The combination of the advantages of town and country would
seem to have been safeguarded in this instance by the permanency
feature of the agricultural belt. The scheme provides that if neces­
sary other rings of alternating town and agricultural lands can be
added. _ This is possible in this case, as there are no large towns
immediately adjacent.
This town-planning experiment does not, of course, solve the vital
problem confronting England to-day—-the provision of housing for
communities already established. It is, however, of the greatest
importance as showing what can be done to forestall a repetition of
the existing congestion, once the present emergency has been over­
come.
It should be noted in passing that Letchworth was not intended as
an industrial experiment exclusively, and that a fair amount of its
acreage is devoted to the houses of well-to-do people who are not
, connected with its factories. It is in fact a miniature self-contained
ordinary town, having people of all classes, except the very poor, and,


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

(363]

152

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

so far as the industrial housing problem goes, was a great attempt at
constructive reform—the provision of decent conditions for the aver­
age artisan who can afford to pay a fair rent, but is unable to get
decent accommodation. Naturally, however, the lowest-paid labor
also was attracted to the town and was to some degree necessary to
the local, industries, and this class gravitated to its accustomed level
of accommodation because that level could he found, owing to the
proximity of a few old villages. Not only did these workmen take
possession of existing lower-standard accommodation in these old
villages, but also speculators took advantage of the ill-advised demand
to increase the number of unsightly and objectionable cottages, using
poorly paid labor and inferior material. The leaders in the Letchworth scheme advise the builders of the next garden city to bear this
condition in mind and seek a more isolated location—a difficult
undertaking, however, in England.
Welwyn,

A second real garden city has now been successfully launched at
Welwyn by a private company, several of whose members were inter­
ested‘in Letchworth. Welwyn is about 15 miles from Letchworth
and that much nearer London. The total area of the site is nearly
4 square miles, 1,600 acres of which have been planned as a town
intended to house between 40,000 and 50,000 people, the remainder
being retained as permanent agricultural or park land. The company
will provide water, gas, electricity, and drainage, and develop the
town as a complete unit, laying out residential, shopping, and park
areas, erect public buildings, and equip factory sites with power,
railway sidings, etc. Building has already commenced and it is hoped
to have 500 houses completed by the end of the year.
There is sufficient gravel, sand, and brick earth on the site for the
building of a town, together with considerable timber, all of which
will operate to reduce the cost of building.
The company is issuing 250,000 seven per cent cumulative shares of
£1 ($4.87, par) each at par, the financial basis of the scheme being the
improvement of land values by the conversion of rural into urban
land, to which the whole of the expenditure by the company and the
builders and the inhabitants will contribute. “ The return to the
shareholders is therefore purposely limited to 7 per cent.” Welwyn
is likely to develop more rapidly than Letchworth, owing to its
greater proximity to London, to the present generous subsidies and
other aids of the Government, and to the fact that advantage can be
taken of the experience gained at Letchworth.
Several companies, more or less allied to the promoting company,
have been formed to undertake the building of houses, and a promi­
nent London newspaper has secured 50 acres of the estate on 999
years' lease and proposes to construct an “ ideal village” of middleclass houses costing from £500 to £750 ($2,433 to $3,650, par) each.
One of this village’s leading purposes is to display and test new
methods of construction. Specimen houses will be erected, after
they have first formed part of an exhibition in London, and communal
advantages, such as common orchards and parks, will be added to this
ideal village. The project will obviously be of great value to hous­
ing authorities, as it will enable them to see in one center, in actual


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[364]

HOUSING.

153

use, numerous varieties of alternatives to the brick house, without
journeying to many different districts to collect their technical
information.
Other Cities.

But for the war undoubtedly other garden cities would have been
projected. There are throughout the country many admirably
planned and well conducted villages, such as Port Sunlight, Earswick, Bournville, Woodlands Colliery Village, etc., which are de­
signed to provide housing for the workmen in some particular,
well established industry. Also, some admirable permanent housing
schemes ha\^e been successfully put through since the beginning of
the war under Government supervision, such as those at Coventry 3
Koe Green,4 and Well Hall,5 outside Woolwich. Well Hall was
p aimed and completed under forced speed by the Government
during 1915_ when the huge increase in munition workers at Woolwich lnade it one of the war’s vital necessities. However a wise
oresight enabled the Office of Works to put through a permanent
scheme of extraordinary merit which is of the utmost benefit now
that the;war demand is over. ^ Other schemes of a temporary charac­
ter were also carried out at Woolwich, but the resulting accommoda­
tions were far fiom satisfactory at any time and, in general, conserved
neither time nor money. The houses of these latter schemes will be
razed as soon as other accommodations can be provided.
Garden Suburbs
66 Q.ARDEN

suburbs” (by no means to be confused with “ garden
cities” ) are no solution of the problem of providing housing
for workpeople. In any well-established city of considerable size
they have to be located so far from the work places that the daily
journeys are almost prohibitive, while the sites are so expensive as
a rule that the class for whom the houses are designed can not afford
to live in them.
In writing of such unsuccessful attempts about London, Mr.
Purdom, secretary of the Garden Cities and Town Planning Associa­
tion, says—
To buy up private open spaces, and agricultural land in the country or just out­
side, including some of the richest agricultural land in the neighborhood and build
houses there at an enormous cost for additional transport, in other words to continue
the incoherence of London development, is such a casual and feeble proceeding
bereft of all foresight and lacking any grip of economic factors, that surely it can not
be tolerated.

Cost of Houses.

H^HE following table reproduced from Housing for June 7, 1920,
shows the cost of houses of different types included in lump-sum
contracts for which tenders have been approved and examined at
the Ministry of Health up to May 15, 1920. The contracts generally
provide for variation according to rise or fall in wages or cost of
materials. The cost of land, road making, and sewering is not
included.
¿Monthly L abor R eview for D ecember, 1918, pp. 329-335
4Id em , October, 1918, pp. 251-257.
‘Idem , D ecember, 1917, a n d June and October, 1918


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[365]

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

154

COST O F A P P R O V E D H O U SE S , B Y T Y P E O F H O U SE .
[£1 a t p a r=$4.8605.]
Parlor types.

N onparlor types.

Cost a s approved.

Living room, scullery, and—

2

1

bed­ 3 bed­ 4 bed­
bed­
room. rooms. rooms. rooms.
4
199

£501 to £000
£6(11 to f. 760
£701 to £K0O
£801 to £900 .........
£901 a n d o v e r...........
T o tal................

211
183
78
5

4 I

706
h

✓

134
719
2,238
| 026
1,283
149

0

10,549

Aver­
age
cost
per
house.

6

3
19

£442
571
660
761
831
1,048

28

732

Parlor, living room,
scullery, and—

2

bed­ 3 bed­ 4 bed­
rooms. rooms. rooms.

13
81

11

105

32
174
640
3,596
9,273
3,456
17,171

Total
A ver­ num ­
ber
of
age
cost houses.
per
house.

89
334
226

£462
574
674
761
854
951

170
1,105
3,127
9', 897
11,068
3,847

651

845

29,214

2

17,927

, 2S7

*

The average cost per house of the 29,214 houses shown above is
£801 ($3,898, par); that of the 11,287 houses without parlors is
£732 ($3,562, par); and that of the 17,927 houses with parlors is
£845 ($4,112, par).
Of the 29,214 houses, 22,926 were in urban districts and cost on
the average £805 ($3,918, par) each, while 6,288 were in rural dis­
tricts and cost on the average £797 ($3,879, par) each.
Finance.
T^VERYWHERE the local authorities have been hampered by the
^
lack of funds, and have shown a natural hesitancy to add further
to the burden of the taxpayers, and therefore, owing to the difficulty
of obtaining funds, very little building was undertaken during the
autumn of 1919, even after the local authorities were given powers
and responsibility by the passage of the housing act of July, 1919.
Accordingly on October 31, 1919, the Treasury appointed a commit­
tee on housing finance to consider the steps to be taken by local
authorities to facilitate the raising of capital to defray the cost of
housing schemes.
The committee was of opinion that money could at present best
be secured by the issue of short-term securities, and its recommenda­
tions were included in the housing (additional powers) act of Decem­
ber. Under this act the local authorities, with the consent of the
minister of health, may issue local housing bonds, payable after five
years, of the denomination of £5 ($24, par) and multiples thereof,
which, according to a decision of the Treasury, shall bear interest at
the rate of 6 per cent per annum. The campaign is now being carried
on in nearly every town, and an attempt is being made to attract all
classes of investors.
With regard to the bond issue Sir Herbert Morgan, a lormer official
of the Government, expressed the opinion that local bonds are desir­
able, since each subscriber will be assured that his money is being
used for the improvement of his own district, and his local patriotism
will thus be aroused.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[366]

H O U S IN G .

155

The point of view of labor, on the other hand, as given by Mr.
G. D. H. Cole, of the advisory committee of the Labor Party, is that
the financial obligations should have been assumed bv the nation as
a whole, since under the scheme of local finance the poorer districts
will be at a disadvantage. It is contended that the poorer districts
where the need is greatest will be precisely the districts where funds
will not be available in sufficient amounts.
The housing bond campaign commenced in April, and has met with
varying success m the several localities during the few weeks which
it has covered in any region. But the Ministry of Health explains
that immediate success in all districts was not anticipated, and that
it was expected that ultimate success could only be achieved by per­
sistent effort over a protracted period. Even now, however, some
towns of moderate size have raised in the neighborhood of a half
million pounds. The London campaign not having been started until
June, is vet too young for the results to have become significant, but
the indications are that the goal, £5,000,000 (.$24,332,500, par), will
be reached without difficulty, as one-tenth of this sum was subscribed
within the first two weeks. The week of July 12-17 has been desig­
nated as “ London housing bond week/7 and the preceding week vail
be given over to big meetings, at which prominent public men and
v omen will endeavor to arouse a genuine public interest in the cam­
paign.
Extent of Assistance and Control by the Government.
M Ran authority on housing and town planning, in
the Bulletin of the Federation of British Industries of May 24
1920, describes the working of a public utility society, designed to
put through building schemes to assist in the present housing pro­
gram. Regarding the part which the Government is prepared to
take m financing a scheme he says:
At the present time the Government lends 75 per cent of the approved cost of a
scheme, including land, buildings, fees, etc., and the society has to find the other
. P.er c?n t- Rie Government loan is for 50 years with interest at 6 per cent and a
sinking fund of one-third o 1 per cent, making the total loan charges (U per cent per
annum. To meet the high cost of building tjie Government will remit annually
oO pel cent of the total loan charges, equivalent to a free grant of about one-third of
the whole capital. To meet the very abnormal position at the present moment this
is increased to 50 per cent yntil July, 1927, in order to enable a house to be let at a
moderate sum, and the society to be run without loss.
With these terms there is no difficulty whatever for a society in connection with
any lndustnai works, cooperative organization or trades-union, all of which have
funds, at their back, to build houses, and it should be quite simple for any group of
individuals to be able to provide their own houses, if they can each put up capital to
the extent of £150 to £250.
1 1
When building begins there is naturally a lot of work to attend to and the society
will be well advised to arrange its finance in advance of its requirements. Although
the Government promises 75 per cent of the approved cost and the Public Works Loan
Hoard are empowered to advance this as the work goes on, there will necessarily be
considerable delays, and it will not be possible to hold up the builder’s certificates
until something is received from the Government. In fact, if it is possible to do so the
total amount of the contract should be provided before the work is started, and’this
A j. ?/ rePa , as * ie Government installments come along. I t must not be forgotten
tliat these schemes are to all intents and purposes Government housing schemes and
every item is subject to the scrutiny of various Government officials. Any varia­
tion from what lias been allowed may bring its penalty in the shape of a decreased
allowance, th e terms quoted are not fixed terms (they are the maximum allowed


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[367]

156

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

under tlie act), and although there is every reason to believe that the Government will
act generously in the matter, there will be swift retribution in the event of any extrava­
gance being indulged in.

Rules and regulations are modified from time to time as experience
shows this to he necessary, and in the complication of present-day
building many concessions as to materials and design doubtless are
imperative to reduce cost and to hasten results.
The ministry is still insisting upon sufficient light and air as prime
requisites for" houses. The detached or semidetached house is
demanded whenever practicable, and the abolition of the cramped
frontage and the consequent back projection is counseled in every
case where building in groups seems advisable.
The regulations regarding location and arrangement of scullery,
living room, and bath, and methods of heating and ventilating are
such as are made necessary by the exigencies of English climate, or
by the force of custom, and are naturally different from those re­
quired in the United States.
Some schemes for supplying heat and hot water from a central
plant are being tried out, and in many instances an arrangement
somewhat similar to a latrobe furnace is being used in fireplaces, to
heat bedrooms above, as well as the living room below.
The Ministry of Health has issued a manual dealing with the prepa­
ration of State-aided housing schemes, and giving guidance for all
stages, from the choice of the site, the lay-out plan and the density
and distribution of the houses, the types and construction of roads
and sewers, and the planning and design of the houses themselves.
Some annoyance is manifested with the delays and irritations
arising from Government control Ways and Means (London) says,
on this point:
The would-be builder has not only to conform to all the requirements of the numer­
ous parties which made his business harassing enough before the war, but he has also
to submit to a mass of rules and regulations designed in response, strange as it may
seem, to a national desire to get more houses.

And, doubtless, the devious way to be followed by the prospective
builder is disconcerting. It begins with various committees set up
by the local authority and leads through the building material sup­
ply department of the Board of Trade, to the Ministry of Health,
the final authority. So long as the Government heavily subsidizes
the project, however, such control would appear to be a necessity.
Work of Building Guilds.
TN MANCHESTER some of the construction work is to be done by
the Manchester Building Guild. Its work has been held up for
some months owing to difficulty over certain details of contract.
The Ministry of Health is stated to have had a favorable attitude
toward the building guild principle, but it insisted on an agreement
on certain details of the contract before allowing the guild to proceed.
The Guild’s work has therefore been held up until such an agreement
could be reached. It is now decided that the guild will give a definite
estimate of cost for each type of house to be built, which must be
approved by the local authority and the Ministry of Health. The
guild will receive a lump sum of £40 ($195, par) per house, plus 6 per
cent of the “ prime cost” of the house.
[368]

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

H O U S IN G .

157

In the event of the actual cost of a house proving less than the estimated cost, the
actual cost only, plus the £40 and the 6 per cent overhead charges, will be paid bv
the local authority. The guild recognize and agree that in any case the 6 per cent
lor overhead charges should not be paid on any increase in the cost of materials taking
place during the progress of the work, although for the purpose of determining whether
the estimate has been exceeded or not, fluctuations in the standard rates of labor and
prices ot materials will be allowed for.
If the actual cost should prove to be more than the estimated cost, after the usual
allowance tor the fluctuation m ivages rates and prices, the guild will receive the £40
as above, but the 6 per cent will not be payable on the amount of the extra cost.

Now that an agreement has been reached, the actual building of a
iarge number of houses is expected to go ahead at full speed. The
Cooperative Wholesale Society is to supply materials and the Cooperatiye Insurance Society is guaranteeing the ability of the Manches­
ter Guild to complete its contracts.
A guild similar to the Manchester Guild is being formed in the
Ton don building trades, and it is likely that if the Manchester Guild
is successful, the London organization will also be given some of the
housing work in the London district.
Actual Progress of the Housing Work.
JDY THE middle of June, 1920, the Ministry of Health had sanc­
t i o n e d building schemes upon sites representing a total area of
49,779 acres, and had further schemes under consideration covering
17,000 acres. Plans for 201,370 actual houses had been sanctioned
and tenders for 112,658 houses had been approved. The number of
houses actually completed is still relatively small, but the Government
exEI®ss<-'a
hope that 100,000 may be completed by the late autumn.
The following account of housing at Newbury ‘is taken from the
Monthly Circular for June of the Labor Research Department:
It will be interesting to see the accounts of the Newbury Housing Committee when
they are complete. At present it seems that the parlor houses built by direct labor are
going to cost roughly £700 each. The original estimate was £600, but since then the
prices of building materials have risen considerably, and a private tender for the same
houses would now work out at about £940. A hundred houses are included in the
scheme, and for the four now on the point of completion the amount of expenditure
on each is officially accepted at £684. The Newbury Council is the first in actually
producing houses built by direct labor, and the success of its scheme is serving as an
incentive to other councils who wanted tangible proof that the direct labor policy
was practicable. One of the features of the Newbury scheme is that employment is
given to the laborers on wet days by the making of concrete partitions, lintels and
posts, and blocks for the inner lining of the hollow walls. In this way a 48-hour week
can be guaranteed; and the men are working at top speed, the bricklayers laying over
600 bricks a day. _The wages are slightly above the local rate, but no bonus on output
is given. Conditions at Newbury are perhaps rather unusually favorable; bricks are
produced close to the building site, and sand and gravel can be had for the digging.
Moreover the council own the gas works and provide the necessary breeze for concrete
block making. But whatever the advantages of the particular district, it is clear
that a saving of £200 per house on the local builders’ charges is being effected. Ban­
bury, Tonbridge, Chelmsford, and other towns have sent deputations to investigate
me Newbury scheme, and have decided to adopt a similar one to meet their own needs.
The Southgate Council has meanwhile had the satisfaction of opening the first three
of the houses it has undertaken to build. The policy which has been followed here is
described as “ semidirect labor,” that is to say, that separate contracts have been
made with the various trades concerned in the building of a house, instead of making
one contract for the whole. This has resulted in an evident saving of cost, but the
nature of the scheme makes it difficult to ascertain the exact amount of expenditure
on each house. _The figure was first given as £690, but was later admitted to be £750.
It is encouraging in these times to hear that even one house has been actually built
and to hear that Newbury hopes to turn out four every month until 200 are completed!
2386°—20----- 11

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[369]

158

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

Housing Shortage and Housing Measures in
European Countries.1
Compiled by Alfred Maylander.

Spain.
EWSPAPERS of all shades of political opinion are calling
attention to the enormous rise in rents in Madrid, which
are being doubled and even trebled. Legislation is urgently
called for and the Government is being blamed for its apathy. Sev­
eral bills have been introduced in the Chamber of Deputies, but
according to speakers at a meeting of the Tenants’ Association these
bills do not sufficiently benefit the tenants. The association has
drafted a scheme of its own which contains the following demands: 3
The profits of the landlord must be restricted, as in the case of
maximum prices; guaranties must be established to protect tenants
in general, and shopkeepers in particular; the sole causes for eviction
should be nonpayment of rent and expiration of the lease, which,
in the case of shopkeepers, should be of 30 years’ duration.
A proposal has been laid before the Chamber by socialists, repub­
licans, and two liberal leaders demanding a Government bill to re­
strict the rise in rent.
An architect supplies the following information as to the scarcity
of housing accommodations in Madrid: 3

N

There is not a room to be had, and “ To le t” signs have completely disappeared
from windows. When a flat becomes vacant, the janitor’s lodge is besieged by appli­
cants, who hold a regular auction of tips in order to obtain priority for their applica­
tions. Renting agents for houses, especially in the center of Madrid, receive the
most tempting offers for their owners and for themselves. The writer then gives the
following reasons for the increase of urban population: During the 10 years imme­
diately preceding the war there was a slight check in the growth of cities, but since
the war the increase of the population of large towns has developed to an extraordinary
extent. The insecurity of life in the country, due to social unrest, and the scarcity
there of certain necessaries of life, have caused an induct into populous towns.
Barcelona and Madrid have each increased by some 200,000 inhabitants within the
last few years, and similar phenomena are to be observed in Seville, Bilbao, and
other provincial capitals.

In view of the urgent demand for remedial legislation the Permanent
Parliamentary Commission of Justice has drafted a bill authorizing
the Government to introduce provisionally certain reforms in the
system of urban leases of private houses, flats, shops, business, and
other premises.* The substance of the main provisions of the bill is
as follows: Obligatory extension of leases, but without alteration of
rent, infavor of the tenant who punctually pays his rent and per­
forms his covenants; suppression of the landlord’s right of summary
eviction except in cases of nonpayment of rent, other cases to be sub­
mitted to a board of tenants to be constituted for this purpose; this
board to be empowered to revise increases of rent imposed since No­
vember 1, 1914; the Government to be authorized to adopt measures
to stop negotiations tending to raise the rents of unoccupied flats' and,
in addition, to pass special enactments for the leasing of new blocks
1 This article has been com piled from th e Econom ic R eview (R eview of th e Foreign Press), London,
issues of Mar. 31 to Ju n e 16,1920. The original sources are show n here in footnotes.
2 Sol. M adrid, Mar. 12, 1920.
3 Sol. M adrid, Mar. 12, 1920.
4 Epoca. M adrid, A pr. 3, 1920.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[370]

H O U S IN G .

159

of dwellings, and for the rapid construction of houses*such provisions
to include remission of such dues and taxes as it may deem fit, the
authority granted by the bill to the Government to be in force until
December 31, 1921.

Czecho-Slovakia.
TN view of the shortage of housing accommodations and the conseA quent tendency of landlords to demand unreasonably high rents
the Czecho-Slovakian Government has introduced a new tenants’
protective bill, to be in force from April 1, 1920, to December 31,
1921.5 Its most important provisions are as follows:
Article! provides that notice to vacate can not be given to a tenant
without the consent of the district court, and details reasons that
would be considered valid for giving notice. Article 3 provides that
the rent and other charges may not be raised by more than 20 per cent
of the rent charged on August 1, 1914, without the approval of the
rent office or the district court. Article 9 provides similar protection
for the subtenant. Article 12 prohibits the landlord from making
the purchase by the tenant of the fixtures a condition of the letting.
Article 13 provides that the rent and other charges may only be paid
in _Czecho-Slovakian kronen currency. Article 14 prohibits out­
going tenants from demanding a premium from the new tenants, and
also prohibits extortionate commissions on letting.
In incorporated towns and in communes with over 20,000 inhabit­
ants housing boards will be established, and in other communes they
may be established by decree of the town council.

Belgium.
TN Belgium many owners have evaded the provisions of the dwellinghouse law of August 25, 1919, by selling their properties. The
Belgian Government has introduced a bill extending the above law,
and, in order to avoid hardships to tenants, a clause has now been
added to the effect that change of ownership does not alter the terms
of the tenant’s lease. Under this bill, which was passed in May, it
will be a punishable offense to increase house rent beyond the 30 per
cent allowed by the Government, but the new measures are not
applicable to newly built premises. People who have been forced to
pay unreasonable rents will be able to have them, revised. Premises
to let must show the amount of rent asked on the “ To le t” signs, so
as to prevent speculation. A clause providing for expropriation of
empty premises will also be included in the new bill.6
House owners are protesting that the new bill will be most unjust.
The cost of living has increased by 400 per cent, and the 30 per cent
increase in rent allowed by the Government is quite insufficient to
compensate them for losses suffered during the Avar, for the cost of
raw material, which is five or six times higher than formerly, and for
increased wages. They demand a thorough inquiry into existing
conditions, and incidentally point out that the Government has done
nothing to oppose the pulling down of rows of houses for theaters,
moving-picture s I io a v s , and dance halls, and has taken no action to
6 Prager T agblatt. Prague, Mar. 26, 1920. Evening edition.
6 H andelsblad van A ntw erp. A ntw erp, A pr. 20 a n d M ay 5, 1920.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[371]

160

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

prevent the raising of rent by foreign purchasers, who, taking advan­
tage of the low rate of exchange, buy up houses and let them at
fabulous prices.
In order to accelerate the reconstruction of the southern district of
West Flanders, where 20,000 houses and public buildings have to be
erected, the Supreme Royal Committee of this district has issued a
circular to Belgian architects inviting them to cooperate in the
rehabilitation of the devastated area. The minister of the interior
has offered to have the houses of those who have suffered in the war
rebuilt at the State’s expense, on condition that such persons sign a
contract renouncing all rights to indemnities with regard to these
premises. An advisory committee will draw up a list of accredited
architects. The owners can choose their own architects, and the
State will bear all expenses; the plans must be submitted to the
Supreme Royal Committee, which reserves the right to Reject or revise
the projects. A technical bureau will exercise the necessary control.7
The Government has also sanctioned the establishment of a
national company for cheap houses. The chief aims of this company
will be (1) to establish local organizations for cheap houses, ana (2)
to grant credits to these local organizations.8
Netherlands.
A CENSUS of dwellings recently taken in Amsterdam indicates
that there is an alarming housing shortage in the Netherlands.
This census showed the following results:9
During 1919 the total number of premises was 142,073, including
128,047 private dwelling houses, and 14,026 dwelling houses with
shops. Only 471 houses, or 0.3 per cent, were vacant. Of these
only 3 were to let; 38 were under repair; 15 had been left vacant
by the owners for unknown reasons; 127 were for sale; and 288 were
let, but the tenants had not yet taken possession. About 8,311
premises were occupied by two families, 383 by three, 50 by four,
and 15 by five families; 13,492 people lived in apartments, and 11,671
were lodgers.
As far back as 1913 the increase of new houses was inadequate for
the increased -population. During the war private building enterrise stopped entirely, with the result that housing accommodation
ecame very scarce and rents rose phenomenally. The Government
took steps to alleviate the situation by expropriation laws and by
giving facilities for repaying grants, etc. Between 1913 and 1919
the municipalities and a number of building societies disbursed a total
of 104,000,000 florins ($41,808,000, par) in Government building sub­
sidies. In addition to this the Chamber of Deputies appropriated
15,000,000 florins ($6,030,000, par) for emergency buildings. The four
new proposals recently submitted to the Chamber of Deputies, relating
to the extension of leases, to revisions of the rent board act, to the dwell­
ing-house emergency act, and to the act concerning inhabited premises,
will further assist in alleviating the situation. It is generally feared,
however, that although speculation in houses will henceforth be

E


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

i Ilandclsblad v an A ntw erp. A ntw erp, M ay 2, 1920.
8 Idem , Mar. 31, 1920.
9 R otterdam sche C ourant. R o tterd am , A pr. 14, 1920.

[S72]

Evening edition.

H O U S IN G .

161

stopped, t l i G actual housing crisis will not be removed. The Govern­
ment aims at returning to normal conditions by restoring unre­
stricted free trade and by trying to reduce subsidies.
Switzerland.

T HE Swiss Congress for Trade and Industry petitioned the Govern­
ment to allow funds obtained for the erection of workmen’s
dwellings to be exempt from the war profits tax. The committee of
Government experts appointed to examine the war profits tax was
unable to grant this request but has proposed a compromise on the
following lines :10
1. Only moneys received by public welfare institutions for the
erection oi workmen’s dwellings, i. e., payments made by manufac­
turers to such building funds in form of a donation, will be exempt
rrom the war profits. The buildings in such cases will belong, not to
the manufacturers, hut to the public welfare institutions, as well as
all income derived from rent, etc. On the other hand, the manu­
facturer supplying the capital may stipulate that as long as his es­
tablishment continues to be in operation and is not in liquidation
these dwellings must he placed at the disposal of his employees.
2. Manufacturers desirous of building for themselves will be allowed
to write off 50 per cent of the cost of building, including the value
of the site, which amount w ill be exempt from the tax. This cor­
responds to a State contribution of 20 per cent toward the building.
3. If a manufacturer holds shares in cooperative buildino- societies
he will be permitted to write off 50 per cent of the shares*as exempt
from the tax.
4. A manufacturer participating in cooperative building societies
by guaranteeing certain sums covered by mortgages will be permitted
to write off as exempt from the tax a sum proportionate to the inter­
est on the mortgage. Thus, a 15 year 3 per cent mortgage would
entitle him to write off 50 per cent.
Sweden.
A GOVERNMENT bid dealing with the housing shortage has been
introduced in the Swedish Riksdag.11 The principal features of
this bill may be summarized as follows:
The normal annual output is estimated at 24,000 rooms, but at
present it is impossible to rely on private enterprise for production
to such an extent. In the course of a period of five years it is pro­
posed to increase the normal annual construction of 24,000 rooms
to 40,000 rooms with the aid of State funds. A further 5,000 rooms
will be provided direct by the State for the use of its employees. A t a
cost of 6,000 crowns ($1,608, par) per room this will involve a total
expenditure of 270,000,000 crowns ($72,360,000, par).
. As regards State building grants to the local authorities, a provi­
sional arrangement is suggested whereby a special fund should be
set aside as the State housing loan fund, which would be increased
by degrees to a maximum of 100,000,000 crowns ($26,800,000, par).
One of the conditions of the grant is that the builder should raise


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

10 B asler N achrichten. Basel, Mar. 23, 1920.
11 Svensk H andelstidning. Stockholm, Max. 23, 1920.

[373]

162

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

capital to cover 50 per cent of the costs of construction, apart from
ground values. When the builder is a private person, company, or
society, a mortgage of 50 per cent would be raised, accompanied by
the guaranty of the local authorities, as security for the State. The
loan would be valid for 20 years and could be prolonged after that
period, but not longer than until the year 1958. A loan is, however,
not considered sufficient, and direct subsidies are also contemplated.
The results of an investigation of the rise in rents in Stockholm
have been published by the Swedish statistical office.12 The inquiry
covered about 87,000 dwellings, of which 8,000 were provided with
central heating. The following table shows the per cent of increase in
rents charged at the end of 1919 over those prevailing at the end of
1914 and 1918.
A V E R A G E A N N U A L R E N T S F O R D W E L L IN G S O F V A R IO U S SIZ E S P R E V A IL IN G IN
STO CK H O LM ON DEC. 31, 1919, A N D P E R C E N T O F IN C R E A S E O V E R T H O S E P R E ­
V A IL IN G ON D EC . 31, 1914 AN D 1918.
[1 crown a t par=26.8 cents.]

A nnual
Size of dwelling.

31, 1919.

P er cent increase
over—
Dec. 31,
1914.

Dec, 31,
1918.

..........................................................................................................
............
_ . . ____________
k itc h e n ....................................................................................................
k itc h e n ....................................................................................................
k itc h e n ....................................................................................................
k itc h e n ....................................................................................................
k itc h e n ....................................................................................................

Crowns.
271
412
648
982
1,339
1,765
2,288

27.8
27.2
25.8
28.5
33.0
33.7
32.3

9.3
10.2
9.3
10.1
11.5
11.8
9.9

Average p er room, including k itc h e n ..........................................................

253

29.1

10.0

1 rnmn

1 room and lcit.Ah <vn

2 rooms
3 rooms
4 rooms
5 rooms
6 rooms

and
and
and
and
and

Norway.
TN Norway a State subsidy of 5,000,000 crowns ($1,340,000, par)
was granted for housing purposes, on condition that the local and
municipal authorities contribute a corresponding sum. The matter
is in the hands of the Ministry for Social Welfare.13
The Housing Committee has approved a proposal for the erection
of workmen’s dwellings in the environs of Christiania. The esti­
mated cost is 1,860,000 crowns ($498,480, par), of which the corpora­
tion will pay out about 930,000 crowns ($249,240, par) for the pur­
chase of sites and building materials. A peculiarity of the scheme is
that the prospective tenants will be asked to cooperate by taking
part in the actual building operations instead of by investing capital.11
Finland.
rp iIE results of the housing census taken in Finland on April 25, 1919,
show that in general overcrowding is worse in the suburbs of
towns than in the towns themselves, except in Helsingfors.15 In
Helsingfors the unoccupied dwellings constitute only 0.5 per cent of
the total; in the towns with a population of under 3,000 they form


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

12 Stockholms Tidningen. Stockholm, Apr. 10, 1920.
13 A ftenposten. C hristiania, Mar. 21, 1920.
14 Idem ., Mar. 30, 1920.
15 H u fv u d stad sb lad et. Helsingfors, Mar. 7, 1920.

[374]

H O U S IN G .

163

2.8 per cent. The Finnish Diet recently granted 20,000,000 Finnish
marks ($3,860,000, par) to relieve the shortage of dwellings in the
towns. The conditions for obtaining subsidies were later to he
determined by the Government. The Ministry for Social Welfare
has now prepared its scheme, and this will immediately be con­
sidered by the Government.16 According to this scheme, which will,
it appears certain, be approved, subsidies in the form of interest-free
loans w ill be granted to: 1. Communes which themselves intend to
erect dwellings; 2. Cooperative building societies or associations,
which in accordance with their by-law^ do not distribute more than
6 per cent interest to their shareholders, and on whose board of
directors the commune has a majority of votes.
Subsidies will be granted only for such building enterprises as were
commenced after January 1, 1919, and are completed at the latest by
October 15, 1921. The dwellings concerned consist mainly of one
room and kitchen. The commune must further pledge itself to grant
to such cooperative societies or associations building sites free of
ground rent on a lease of at least 50 years, and, in addition, an interestfree loan corresponding to 15 per cent of the building costs on the
same conditions as the State’s interest-free loans. The subsidies of
the State in the form of interest-free loans amount to 30 per cent of
the building costs, and the State pledges itself not to call these loans
until 10 years have elapsed. At the expiration of this period the
buildings will be valued, and the State pledges itself to v/rite off twot h i r d s of the building costs wdiich then are not yielding interest,
whereupon a new amortization deed will be drawn bearing at most
3 per cent interest, and providing for amortization wdthin 20 years.
The commune is at liberty to wrrite off in the same way the remaining
one-third and to make a newr mortgage with the same rate of interest
and period of amortization.
With respect to rents of houses erected by cooperative building
societies and associations, it is to be enacted that the representatives
of the commune shall have the right of determining the rent. The
commune, moreover, will be entitled, in the event of the sale of a
house erected with the assistance of the State, to redeem the building
at the original cost of building in accordance with which the State’s
subsidy has been computed. The houses are to be of the so-called
standard type, and built so solidly that they will be inhabitable for at
least 50 years. Plans must be annexed to applications for subsidies
and the Ministry for Social Welfare reserves to itself the right to
make any necessary alterations before giving approval. I t is further
stipulated in the scheme that the workers to whom the houses will be
allotted are to be, as far as possible, residents of the district.
According to the scheme only the communes and certain cooperative
building societies and associations can benefit by the State’s sub­
sidies. Of the wdiole building costs, the commune, if it itself under­
takes the work of construction, will be granted 30 per cent in an
interest-free loan. The commune is entitled to grant the remaining
70 per cent. A cooperative building society or association receives 30
per cent in State aid, and 15 per cent from the commune, or in all 45
per cent. Of the remainder (55 per cent), 60 per cent may beraised by
a mortgage; 30 per cent the Ministry for Social Welfare proposes that


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

16 Abo U nderratelser. Abo, A pr. 8,1920.

1375]

164

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

the commune should grant as a loan under a second mortgage. The
society or association can raise the remaining 10 per cent by sub­
scriptions or the sale of shares.
France.
Tl/T LOUCHER, president of the committee appointed under the:
iVX. French Ministry of Hygiene to study measures to alleviate the
housing shortage, has drawn up a report for submission to the
National Assembly which provides for the construction, within 10
years, of 500,000 new dwellings.17
The report states that the law of October 24, 1919, would have to be
remodeled in order to facilitate the new plans. Under these plans the
loans by the Deposit and Consignment Office would be allowed to reach
80 per cent of the costs of construction instead of 50 per cent, and would
be repayable within 40 instead of 25 years. All abandoned construc­
tions, for which the funds for completion could not be supplied by the
Contractors’ Bureau or the Crédit Foncier, would be requisitioned for
the benefit of the associations or towns concerned. Fifty thousand
dwellings a year would be built, and a good proportion reserved
primarily for large families. The cost of the undertaking would
amount to 7,500,000,000 francs (81,447,500,000, par), and would be
supplied by the issue of special debentures. The funds obtained
would be placed at the disposal of the building offices or private com­
panies at a rate of interest not exceeding 3 per cent. The Departments
and communes would be asked to furnish building sites or provide
labor for the foundation works. The cost to the State would be
22,500,000 francs ($4,342,500, par) in the first year, and 225,000,000
francs ($43,425,000, par) in 1930. Possibly the State would have to
raise the necessary funds by putting a tax of 1 per cent on employers’
wage disbursements. As regards labor and material, since the war
and the 8-hour day have diminished by 40 per cent the output and
working time of building trades’ workers, it would be necessary to
resort to foreign labor.
Germany.
"GWEN before the war Germany had suffered from a serious short-*-J age of housing accommodations. During the war the problem
became still more acute because all building activities, except for
military purposes, ceased entirety. The fact that, during the entire
war rents remained at prewar levels was due to the enactment of
drastic emergency laws against rent profiteering and the establish­
ment of rent arbitration boards in all communities.
Recent Government Measures.

Of more recent Government measures there should be mentioned
a decree issued in March by the National Ministry of Labor and di­
rected against rent profiteering.18 It provides that a fine not ex­
ceeding 10,000 marks ($2,380, par) may be imposed upon persons
who by advertisement or other public announcement (1) Offer re­
wards "for information concerning premises to let or for the con-


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

17 Journal des D ébats. Paris, Mar. 28. 1920.
is K ölnische Zeitung. Cologne, Mar. 13, 1920.

[376]

Morning édition.

HOUSING.

165

elusion of leases; (2) offer to let premises under a covering address
(letters of the alphabet, box number, and the like); (3) offer to let
premises to the highest bidder; (4) offer to let premises on condition
that the furniture, etc., in them is taken over simultaneously.
The same penalty is to be imposed upon persons who, on giving
information or acting as agents with regard to lettable premises, re­
ceive higher fees than those fixed by the communal authorities for
transactions of this nature.
A bill containing measures for the relief of the housing shortage
was passed by the German National Assembly on May 11, 1920. Its.
principal provisions are as follows:19
The existing legal regulations relating to the alleviation of the
housing shortage are to remain in force. The central provincial au­
thorities may empower or require the communes to take suitable
measures or may themselves take such measures or transfer their
authority to some subordinate body. In the case of extraordinary
abuses the central provincial authorities may, with the sanction of
the national minister of labor, authorize or require the communal
authorities to take other measures in addition to those contained in
existing orders and decrees, e. g., to encroach on the freedom of mi­
gration and the inviolability of property and of dwellings, or they
may transfer the authority to do so to their subordinate authorities.
Questions relating to compensation may, with the approval of the
minister of labor, be settled out of court. Also, the new bill author­
izes direct police intervention to enforce the regulations designed to
combat the housing shortage. The maximum fines for contraven­
tion of these regulations are increased from 1,000 marks to 10,000
marks ($238 to $2,380, par).
With regard to the letting of furnished rooms the bill contains the
following provisions:
The amount of the rent and the remuneration for subsidiary serv­
ices of every description are subject to the sanction of the communal
authorities. In Greater Berlin, maximum rents are to be based on
the value of the empty room, which is found by dividing the rent paid
for the whole dwelling by the number of rooms, plus 15 per cent of
the original cost of the furniture in the room, from 25 to 30 marks
($5.95 to $7.14, par) per month for attendance, etc., and from 5
marks ($1.19, par) upward for light. A reasonable fee may be
charged for bed linen, towels, bath, etc.
Costs of Building.

According to Soziale Praxis,20 at the present time building, opera­
tions present almost insuperable difficulties. The cost of small
dwellings has risen from 13 to 17 marks ($3.09 to $4.05, par) per cubic
meter (35.31 cubic feet) before the war to 80 to 90 marks ($19.04
and $21.42, par) in September and October, 1919, when the last
subsidy was granted, and to-day a cost of 180 to 200 marks ($42.84
to $47.00, par) has to be considered.
19 F ran k fu rter Zeitung. Fran k fo rt on th e Main, A pr. 22, 1920. D eutsche Allgemeine Zeitung.
M ay 20, 1920.
^ Soziale Praxis u n d A rchiv für Volkswohlfahrt. Berlin, May 5, 1920.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[3771

Berlin,

166

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.
Socialization of the German Building Trades.

The operatives in the German building trades are making strenuous
efforts to amalgamate the various organizations in these trades in a
federation which would include both manual and brain workers in
ail the numerous branches, e. g., civil engineering, building materials’
manufacture, building, installation of heating plant, lighting and water
supply, stonemasons, bricklayers, plasterers, carpenters, painters,
chimney sweeps, etc.21
{
The Congress of Building Operatives recently held in Karlsruhe,'
after detailed discussion of this project, unanimously decided in its
favor. With respect to the question of socialization, it was pointed
out that the present method of production could not possibly solve
the housing problem, as Government and communes had neither the
strength nor the desire to act energetically. It was decided to found'
an association for socialized building undertakings and, until State
aid is forthcoming, to employ 5,000,000 marks ($1,190,000, par)'
of the capital of the Building Operatives’ Association for this purpose.
As to the housing question, stress was laid on the need for the trade-1
unions to pursue not only a wage policy but a production policy. A
demand was made for the creation of a responsible central authority/
which should be empowered to carry out the immediate socialization^
of cement, lime, and other building materials, and to prohibit the
pulling down of old buildings. A Social Building Society for Hesse*
and Idesse-Nassau was created which is to be financed by contribu-j
tions. In addition, all the building operatives in this district will
contribute a day’s wage for this cause.
Slump in the Real Estate Market.

The economic impossibility of a resumption of building activity/
has brought business in the real estate market to a complete stand-'
still. As an illustration of the gravity of the situation the Deutschn
Allgemeine Zeitung (May 27,. 1920) states that the Keal Estate
Trading Co. (Ilandelsgesellschaftfur Grundbesitz), whose balance sheet
at the end of the last financial year showed a loss of 4,618,650 marks;
reports that the deficit has increased to 5,500,000 marks ($1,099,-)
238.70 to $1,309,000 par), or half the entire capital stock. '
Austria.
T<HE Austrian State credit for meeting the housing shortage has
recently been increased by 3,000,000 crowns ($609,000 at par),1
making altogether 13,000,000 crowns ($2,639,000, par), which, with
the contributions from the communes, brings up the actual expendi­
ture to at least 20,000,000 crowns ($4,060,000, par). The increase in'
wages and cost of materials has led to an expenditure which greatly,
exceeds the estimated cost of building, and a large part of this in­
crease must be borne by the State.22
21 F ran k fu rte r Zeitung. F ran k fo rt on th e Main, M ay 26, 1920.
22 R eichspost. V ienna, A pr. 18, 1920.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[378]

HOUSING.

167

Hungary.

A RECENT Hungarian decree regulating rents for dwellings distinguishes between the actual rent increase and the amount
which the tenant has to pay through the landlord to the Budapest
municpality in consequence of the increased water rate and the
charges for carting away refuse.23
Under the latter head every tenant in Budapest from May 1, 1920,
has to pay to the landlord a 20 per cent increase on the present rent’
the first quarterly payment being payable at the latest by the end
of May. This charge is not to be considered as rent, either as regards
taxation or rent Increase. Independently of this charge, from
August 1, 1920, the decree permits an increase of rent, but in the
case of small dwellings whose yearly rent does not exceed '4,000
crowns ($812, par), the resulting rent must not be more than
30 per cent above the rent charged on November 1 , 1917. In the
case of dwellings whose rentals exceed 4,000 crowns ($812, par) per
year and in the case of business premises, the landlord and the
tenant are free to come to an agreement as to the rent, but the tenant
possesses the right of appeal to the housing authorities against an
excessive increase.
In the rural districts, where the water rate and refuse removal
charges do not exist, dwellings consisting of not more than four
rooms are considered as small dwellings, and an increase of not more
than 35 per cent is permissible from August 1, 1920, while the pro­
visions as to larger dwellings and business premises are the same as
in the capital. The rent of small dwellings tenanted by civil or
military pensioners or by widows of civil or military public officials
may not be increased, but the 20 per cent increase charged in Buda­
pest is t,o be paid by these also. In special circumstances a higher
rent increase may be demanded subject to the approval of the hous­
ing authorities.
The decree further regulates the rent of furnished rooms, of sum­
mer apartments elsewhere than in summer resorts, etc.
In view of the difficult circumstances of civil servants, the Govern­
ment has decided to raise the allowances for rent of Government,
municipal, railway, and military public officials in Budapest from
May 1, 1920, by 20 per cent, and from August 1, 1920, by 50 per
cent in all, and in the country by 35 per cent from August f, while
widows of officials and pensioned officials in Budapest will receive
a 20 per cent increase of the housing allowance from May 1.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

P ester Lloyd.

B u d ap est, May 1, 1920.

LABOR ORGANIZATIONS.
Fortieth Convention of the American Federation
of Labor.
HE American Federation of Labor met in annual convention for
the fortieth time at Montreal, Canada, on June 7, 1920. The
constructive demands of the Federation as set forth by its
executive council and indorsed by the convention are as follows:

T

Industry to-day requires these remedial measures:
I t requires greater democracy in order to give to the workers full voice in assisting
in its direction.
It requires more intelligent management and acceptance of the principle that pro­
duction is for use and not for profit alone.
It requires full and free acceptance and use of the best that invention has to offer.
It requires bold and audacious reconstruction of method and process in the conduct
of basic industries.
Labor does not oppose introduction of improved methods in industry. It courts
and encourages improvements in processes and in machinery. What it will always
resist is the introduction of these processes and this machinery at the expense of the
workers.
There is a knowledge of industry among the workers in industry of which society
has not begun to avail itself. The effort has been to suppress use of that knowledge
and to demean those who possess it. The workers know their work as none but the
workers can know it. The shoemaker knows his last and the engineer understands
the capacity of his engine.
The workers are appalled at the waste and ignorance of management, but they are
too frequently denied the chance to offer their knowledge for use.
They decline to be enslaved by the use of their own knowledge and they can not
give of it freely or effectively except as equals in industry, with all of the rights and
privileges and with all of the stature and standing of employers.
Adoption of the principle of voluntary effort, of full cooperation in industry, will
bring to the industrial life of the Nation such an impetus that production will cease
forever to be a problem in American life.
Adoption of the principles we here urge will inevitably result in a rapid decrease
of the number of nonproducers who at present live by fastening themselves in one
useless capacity or another upon the industrial life of the country. Proper absorption
of nonproducers into useful channels would be but a simple problem.
The welfare of the workers must be a paramount consideration. There can be no
progress and no gain in production volume if there is not such consideration. But a
greater mutuality in industry would insure proper safeguarding of the rights of workers.
Only by such methods and under such principles can there be an advance in pro­
duction which does not penalize the worker for his own industriousness and for his
own alertness and inventiveness.
Autocratic industry kills incentive. It punishes brilliancy of attainment. It
warps the mind and drains the energy from the body. We have repeatedly condemned
the principle of autocratic control of industry, and we now declare that short of its
complete removal from our industrial life there is no industrial salvation and no hope
of abundance in our time.
We urge the setting up of conference boards of organized workers and employers,
thoroughly voluntary in character and in thorough accord with our trade-union organi­
zations, as means of promoting the democracy of industry through development of
cooperative effort. We point out to employers the fact that industry, which is the
life blood of our civilization, can not be made the plaything and the pawn of a few
Who by chance to-day hold control. Industry is the thing by which all must live,
and it must be given the opportunity to function at its best.
168

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[380]

LABOR ORGANIZATION'S.

169

Labor turnover is but one of the evils which will disappear in proportion as the
workers are given voice in management. This is proven by statistics which show
the lowest turnover in those industries where the workers exercise the most effective
voice by reason of the highest degree of organization.
We propose the salvation of industry. We propose the means whereby the world
may be fed and clothed and housed and given happiness. We have service to give,
and if permitted to give freely and on terms of manhood and equality we will give
in abundance. We can not be driven as slaves, but we can give mighty service in
a common effort of humankind.

Resolutions.
fTHE most contentious issue fought out on the floor of the conA vention during its 12 days’ session was the question of Gov­
ernment ownership of the railroads. The resolution in favor of Gov­
ernment ownership and democratic operation, which was passed by a
vote of 29,058 to 8,348, is as follows:
Resolved, That the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of
Labor go on record as indorsing the movement to bring about a return of the systems
of transportation to Government ownership and democratic operation; and be it
further
Resolved, That the executive council be, and are hereby, instructed to use every
effort to have the transportation act of 1920 repealed and legislation enacted pro­
viding for Government ownership and democratic operation of the railroad systems
and necessary inland waterways.

President Gompers, opposing the resolution, said: “ If I were in a
minority of one, I should want to cast my vote so that the men of
labor shall not willingly enslave themselves to Government authority
in their industrial capacity.”
The question of the admission of colored workers to organizations
affiliated with the Federation again came before the convention.
This time the question arose over the “ white only” clause in the con­
stitution of the Brotherhood of Railway Clerks. In spite of the pro­
test of the railway clerks that the question would be properly handled
by their organization, the convention adopted a resolution requesting
the brotherhood to eliminate the words “ white only” in its constitu­
tion and to admit colored workers within its jurisdiction to full mem­
bership. More than ip0 of the 110 national and international or­
ganizations affiliated with the Federation now admit colored workers
to membership.
The convention indorsed the covenant of the League of Nations
without reservations. “ I t is not a perfect document and perfection
is not claimed for it. I t provides the best machinery yet devised for
the prevention of war. I t places human relations upon a new basis
and endeavors to enthrone right and justice instead of strength and
might as the arbiter of international destinies.”
Other resolutions adopted by the convention may be summarized
as follows:
Compulsory military training and military training in schools were
condemned as “ unnecessary, undesirable, and un-American.”
Public officers were urged to make all possible effort to release
political prisoners.
The Kansas court of industrial relations was condemned and its.
abolition urged. Four resolutions on this subject were referred to


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[381]

170

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

the executive council of the Federation for action in bringing about
the repeal of the law involved.
Congress was enjoined to enact immediately the legislation neces­
sary to establish the United States Employment Service as a perma­
nent bureau in the Department of Labor.
The creation of a Federal compensation insurance fund for mar­
itime workers, under the administration of a Federal or State com­
pensation commission, was urged to offset the recent decision of the
United States Supreme Court denying longshoremen the benefits of
State workmen’s compensation laws.
Reclassification of the civil service was advocated and the adoption
of a wage scale commensurate with the “ skill, training, and respon­
sibility involved in the work performed.” Enactment of legislation
granting civil-service employees the right to a hearing and to an
appeal from judgment in case of demotion or dismissal was also urged.
The nonpartisan political campaign inaugurated by the Federation
at its Atlantic City convention in 1919 to defeat candidates for office
“ hostile to the trade-union movement” , and “ elect candidates who
can be relied upon to support measures favorable to labor,” was
indorsed. A fund of $29,545.42 was donated to the campaign com­
mittee by members of the Federation between February 24, 1920,
and April 30, 1920.
Repeal of the Lever law and of the espionage act and other war­
time legislation was demanded. Legislation against profiteering,
in support of the Women’s Bureau and of a Federal housing program
was advocated, and the strengthening of the Department of Labor
was urged.
Continued organization of the steel industry and particular atten­
tion to organization of laundry workers and telephone operators
were ordered.
The Nolan minimum-wage bill (H. R. 5726), providing a minimum
wage of $3 a day for Federal employees, was approved.
The secession movement of the “ outlaw” railway unions was
condemned.
The convention adopted a resolution in favor of the independence
of Ireland and voted against recognition of the Soviet Government.
Cooperation between labor unions and the farmers was advocated.
A committee was appointed to report upon the question of health
insurance to the 1921 convention of the Federation.
On the question of Asiatic immigration, the convention concurred
in the resolution proposed by the Building Trades Council of Cali­
fornia urging upon Congress: “ First, cancellation of the ‘ gentle­
men’s agreement;’ second, exclusion of ‘ picture brides’ by action
of our Government; third, absolute exclusion of Japanese, with
other Asiatics, as immigrants; fourth, confirmation and legalization
of the principle that Asiatics shall be forever barred from American
citizenship; fifth, amendment of section 1 of Article X IV of the
Federal Constitution, providing that no child born in the United
States of Asiatic or Oriental parents shall be eligible to .American
citizenship unless both parents are eligible for such citizenship.”
The employment of alien labor on the Panama Canal was protested.
Fullest support was pledged to “ reestablish the rights of free
speech, free press, and free assemblage,” wherever denied.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[382]

LABOR ORGANIZATIONS.

171

A congressional investigation into conditions in the West Virginia
coal fields was asked.
Congress was urged to make adequate provision for World War
veterans.
Relief for the people of Austria, Serbia, Armenia, and neighboring
countries was urged.
Statistics of Membership and Benefits.
TyTEMBERSHIP in the American Federation of Labor has passed
'
the four million mark. The paid-up and reported membership
of affiliated unions for the year ending April 30, 1920, was 4,078,740.
This number does not include the 207,065 members of the national
organizations at present suspended from the Federation, nor does it
ixiclude! the membership of those railway brotherhoods partially
affiliated. The membership of the Federation in 1920 represents an
increase of 109.6 per cent over the membership in 1915, when it was
1,946,347.
There are 36,741 local unions in the 110 national and international
unions directly affiliated with the Federation in addition to the
1>286 local trade and federal labor unions, which are similarlv
affiliated.
The strike benefits paid by the Federation to local trade and fed­
eral unions for the year ending April 30, 1920, totaled $67,912.95.
A total of $3,213,406.30 in death benefits, $937,219.25 in sick bene­
fits, and $65,026.42 in unemployed benefits, was paid during the
same period by affiliated international organizations. These figures
do not include the benefits paid by local unions, many of which pro­
vide death, sick, and out-of-work benefits, and therefore represent
but a small proportion of the aggregate sum paid by trade unions
lor these purposes.
The officers elected at this convention for the ensuing year are as
follows:
President, Samuel Gompers (cigar makers).
First vice president, James Duncan (granite cutters).
Second vice president, Joseph F. Valentine (molders).
Third vice president, Frank Duffy (carpenters).
Fourth vice president, William Green (mine workers).
Fifth vice president, W. D. Mahon (street railways).
Sixth vice president, T. A. Rickert (garment workers).
Seventh vice president, Jacob Fischer (barbers).
Eighth vice president, Matthew Woll (glass-bottle blowers).
Secretary, Frank Morrison.
Treasurer, Daniel J. Tobin.

r The 1921 convention of the American Federation of Labor will be
held in Denver, Colo.

Labor Organization in Canada in 1919.
HE ninth annual report on labor organization in Canada for the
calendar year 1919, published by the Department of Labor,
states that the total membership of the 99 national organiza­
tions operating in the Dominion was 260,247, an increase for the
year 1919 of 58,815, comprising 2,309 local branches. Including all
[383]

T


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

172

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

classes of trade unions the report gives a total membership in Canada
of 378,047; distributed as follows:
B ranches.

M embership.

International.................................................................. 2, 309
260, 247
N oninternational..................................................
325
33, 372
Independents................................................................
29
8, 278
National Catholic............
83
35, 000
One Big Union..................................................................
101 41,150
Total.................................................................... 2,847

378,047

These figures represent an increase over 1918 of 573 branches
and 129,160 members. The percentage distribution of the total
members for 1919, by trade groups, was as follows:
P er cent.

Railroad employees.........................
Metal trades.......................................................................................
Building trades..................................................................................
Public employees, personal service, and amusement trades..........
Other transportation and navigation trades.....................................
Clothing, boot and shoe trades.........................................................
Mining and quarrying.......................................................................
Printing trades...................................................................................
All other trades and general laborers 1.............................................

23. 45
11. 05
10. 58
6. 69
6. 33
5. 48
4. 59
2. 44
29. 38

It will be seen from the table giving total membership that the
bulk of the organized workers in the Dominion are connected with
international organizations whose jurisdiction covers the whole of
the North American continent. The following table contains the
names of 18 international unions, each having 5,000 or more mem­
bers in Canada in 1919.
M E M B E R S H IP IN CANA D A O F 18 IN T E R N A T IO N A L U N IO N S.

N am e of organization.

A m erican Federation of L abor..........................................................................
B oilerm akers a n d Iro n Shipbuilders, In te rn a tio n a l B rotherhood o f].. !
Bricklayers, Masons a n d P lasters’ In te rn a tio n a l U nion.....................
C arpenters a n d Joiners of A m erica, U n ite d B rotherhood o f.....................
C lothing W orkers, A m algam ated....................................................................
E lectrical W orkers, In te rn a tio n a l B rotherhood o f......................................
Locom otive E ngineers, B rotherhood o f.........................................................
Locomotive F irem en a n d E n g inem en, B rotherhood o f ............................
M achinists, In te rn a tio n a l Association of.............................................
M aintenance-of-W ay Em ployees, U n ite d B rotherhood o f........................
M ine W orkers of A m erica, U n ite d ...................................................................
P u lp , Sulphite an d P ap er Mill \V orkers, In te rn a tio n a l B rotherhood of.
R ailroad Telegraphers, Order of.......................................................................
R ailroad T rain m en , B rotherhood of............................................................
R ailw ay C arm en of A m erica, B rotherhood of.........................................
R ailw ay an d S team ship Clerks, B rotherhood of..........................................
Street a n d E lectric R ailw ay Em ployees, A m algam ated Association of.
T ypographical Union, In te rn a tio n a l................................................................
T o ta l..........................................................................................................

N um ber
R eported
of C ana­
m em bership
d ian
of all u n its
local
in C anada.
units.
65
51
49
142
13
55
97
97
111
178
74
25
12
89
103
46
30
54

5,421
8,123
7,600
16,496
9,500
5,371
5,429
8,373
17,800
15,000
15,000
5,000
6,250
13,506
12,644
9,206
7,000
5,136

1,291

172,855

A section of the report is devoted to a statement of the benefits
paid by trade-unions, both the international group and the local
branch unions in Canada. Of the 99 international organizations
operating in the Dominion, 75 have benefit features of a varying
nature. The total expenditures by these international organizations
1 T he report states th a t owing to incom plete reports from a considerable n um ber of unions an d from the
O ne Big U nion th e larger p a rt of th e ir m em bership is included in th is group, th u s m a k in g th e proportion
unduly large.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[384]

LABOR ORGANIZATIONS.

173

amounted to $15,550,052, a decrease of $1,252,040 as compared
with 1918. The distribution of these benefits was as follows:
Unemployed and traveling.................................................’ ’
Strike.
................................................................ *
hick and accident............................................................
Old age pensions and other benefits......................................

529s’ 902
1, 789,’ 961
2 828 218
l ’ 196; 300

lo tal.............................................................................

15,550,052

The local branch unions in Canada expended a total of $583 093
m benefits, the largest amount, $198,438, or 34 per cent, being for
strike benefits. The total amount was an increase of $151 589 or
35.1 per cent over 1918.
’
The report- gives a brief history of the One Tig Union movement
and of the activities of the I. W. W. There is a summary of the
work of the British Trade-Union Congress, of the Western Canada
Bab or Conference, and of the Trades and Labor Congress of Canada
and a chapter is devoted to an account of the organization of the
new international Federation of Trade Unions. Efforts to avoid
jurisdictional disputes are noted and the details of the scheme for
the adjustment of disputes in the building industry, the agreement
between railroad organizations, and the plan for the organization of
a conference council for the printing trades are included. Attention
is also given to the activities of district councils and of trades and
labor councils in the Dominion.

First Meeting- of Executive Committee of Inter­
national Federation of Trade Unions.
HE executive committee of the International Federation of
Trade-Unions, which was elected by the conference held last
year at Amsterdam,1 was in session in that city from April 8
1 1920.2
In addition to Jouhaux, Appleton, Mertens, Fimmen
and Oudegeest, the members of the committee, there were also present
Dumouhn (France), Dürr (Switzerland), Ole Lian (Norway), Tayerle
(Czeclio-Slovakia), and Williams (England). Germany and Italv
were not represented owing to the fact that the Dutch authorities
had refused to vis6 the passports of Legien and the Italian repre­

T

In discussing the attitude of the labor delegates at the international
labor conference at Washington, the meeting was of the opinion that
these delegates showed a lack of solidarity. This opinion found ex­
pression m the following resolution proposed by Dürr (Switzerland) :
With respect to the report of the executive committee of the Federation on the
Washington conference the meeting expresses the well-considered opinion that it is
unsuitable Üiat the labor delegates to international labor conferences take there an
attitude differing from that of the International Trade-Union Federation. The
executive committee demands of all labor delegates to future conferences that thev
assume a compact and solidary attitude.
^
192ojppai36&-366n t ° f t h e organizatio:l of tho foderation, see Monthly L abor R eview for D eeem ber,
2 Die Gewerkschaft. V ienna, M ay 25, 1920.

23S6°—20-

-12


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[385]

174

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

Albert Thomas, the director of the International Labor Bureau,
who in passing through Holland had stopped off at Amsterdam, was
invited to attend the meeting. The executive committee of the
federation discussed with him the future relations between the
federation and the International Labor Bureau and assured him of
the fullest cooperation of the federation.
The executive committee resolved to hold next summer in Borne
an international congress of agricultural workers’ organizations, at
which the problem of emigration shall be discussed. A ll countries
interested in this problem w ill be invited to attend the congress.
The vote taken on the affiliation of the central labor organizations
of South Africa and Greece with the federation was in the affirmative.
The application of the Federation of German Trade-Unions of Czecho­
slovakia for affiliation with the International Federation was declined
in accordance with a provision of the by-laws of the federation which
stipulates that only one central organization of each country may be
allowed to affiliate with it. The meeting resolved, however, to send
a delegation into Czecho-Slovakia which shall attempt to bring about
an approachment between the Czech and German trade-unions. The
meeting declared national unity to be indispensable, but at the same
time admonished national majorities to give due consideration to the
demands of national minorities. I t advised the Czechs to grant
broad autonomy to the German groups in Czecho-Slovakia, which
advice the Czech delegate seemed inclined to heed.
A lengthy discussion of conditions in Bussia ended in a resolution
that Jouhaux and one of the secretaries of the federation should
accompany into Bussia the delegation of the International Labor
Council. In the meantime everything should be done to prevent
military action against Bussia. The executive committee declared
it would request the labor organizations of all countries to follow the
example of the French seamen and refuse to transport munitions to
Bussia.
I
A thorough discussion of European economic conditions led to the
conclusion that international distribution of raw materials and inter­
nationalization of credit would be the best means for the economic
rehabilitation of Europe. The meeting instructed the executive com­
mittee to make representations in this sense to the Supreme Council
of the League of Nations.
Finally, the meeting occupied itself with the socialization of in­
dustry. I t resolved to hasten the international investigation at
present under way. As soon as the results of this investigation are
available the executive committee will draft a program of action.
W ith respect to the labor demonstrations of May 1, the meeting
resolved that these demonstrations should be adapted to the customs
of each country and should be devoted to socialization and the enact­
ment of the resolutions adopted by the International Labor Con­
ference.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[3861

LABOR ORGANIZATIONS.

175

A New Labor Movement in India.
HE first conference of the Bombay m ill hands held December 14,
1919, under the auspices of the Kamgar Hitwardhak Sabha,
marked the inception of a labor movement in India. A t that
conference 28 resolutions were adopted setting forth the demands
of the textile workers. While the character of the resolutions clearly
indicates that the demands are those of a group of workers who are
just becoming articulate as to their needs, they are, nevertheless, of
interest as an indication of a recognition on the part of the workers
of the need of improvement in their working conditions; and, further­
more, they are strongly suggestive of the actual industrial condition
ot one important industry of Bombay. The resolutions, quoted
from the April, 1920, number of the American Federationist (pn.
345-347), follow in full:

T

1. The workmen of Bombay congratulate the King Emperor at the most successful
peace celebrations and express their loyalty to the British Raj.
. 2• That the present system of 12 hours’ work be reduced to 9, as the strain of con­
tinuous 12 hours’ work tells upon the health of mill workers; that one hour recess be
given instead of one-half hour.
3.
That arbitrary and inequitable mill rules and regulations be abolished and that
employers be asked to adopt uniform, humane, and equitable rules.
4.
That Government be requested to procure detailed figures under the heads of
forfeited and unclaimed wages and fines in mills and factories, with a view to publish
the same in the factory report, and that these hard-earned wages of the poor be utilized
for the betterment of the employees.
5.
That payment of wages be made on one fixed date, the 15th of every month and
the authorities be requested to close liquor shops in the afternoon of that day ’
6.
That the age of half-timers be raised from 9 to 12, as the present system of em­
ploying child labor is injurious to the health of working-class children.
/ . That half-timers from 12 to 14 years be compelled to attend schools in mills
and that these schools be under the control of the municipal schools committee.
8.
That Government be asked to give in the annual factory report a more detailed
list of serious accidents in mills and factories so as to include also those not due to
machinery.
9.
That legislation based on the lines of workmen’s compensation act and employers’
liability which prevail in England be introduced in this country.
10.
That full-time doctors be employed in our mills and factories so that medical
aid may be available to employees^ whether in mills or at their homes.
11. That creches be established in mills for the children of women workers.
12.
That banks be started in mills and arrangements made to advance moneys to
employees without charging any interest; that employers be requested to start provi­
dent funds and cooperative stores for their employees.
13.
That employers be compelled by legislation to provide cheap and sanitary
housing for their men.
14.
That liquor shops, both foreign and Indian, be closed during holidays and
that Government be asked to take steps for the early closing at 8 p. m. of liquor shops
15.
That mills and factories be closed on every Sunday irrespective of any holidays
in the week days.
J
16.
That departments like the reeling and winding, where only females work, be
under the supervision of literate women, and that the clerical staff in these depart­
ments should consist of females.
17. That first-aid and ambulance training be made compulsory in mills.
18.
That the system of withholding small copper change at the time of payment of
wages be discontinued and mill hands be not compelled to contribute for medical aid
from their meager earnings.
19.
lh a t mill owners be asked to erect decent halls for their employees for takim*
their midday meals.
&
20.
That employers be requested to provide swimming baths, adequate latrines,
and water-closets according to the latest sanitary principles for their employees.
21- That mill hands in the city of Bombay are grateful to their employers for the
bonus promised to them this year and pray that workers in the blow room, ring


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[387]

176

MONTHLY LABOE EEVIEW.

throstle, side piecers, doffer boys, and half-timers will be equally dealt with in a
liberal spirit, so that each adult may receive a minimum of 20 rupees [$6.48, pari and
half-timers 10 rupees [$3.24 par] each.
22. That the practice of sucking shuttles in weaving department is highly unsani­
tary and that some hygienic measures be taken by mill owners to prevent any conta­
gious disease being carried to other works by such sucking.
23. That workingmen submit to Government the necessity of nominating repre­
sentatives from the backward communities in the municipal'corporation and in the
legislative councils to safeguard their interests on these bodies.
24. That when nominating any delegates for the International Labor Conference
that Government will be pleased to make the choice from the backward communities,
and strongly protest at the favoritism shown by Government when nominating a
representative at the last conference at Washington.
25.
_That Government be asked to appoint a commission to inquire into their poor
condition, due to the high prices and fix the minimum wages for laborers.
26. That these resolutions be submitted to the Bombay Government, the viceroy,
the State secretary, the International Labor Conference, leading labor federations in
Europe and America, and the Bombay Mill Owners’ Association.
27. That the committee of the Kamgar Hitwardhak Sabha be asked to arrange
about the next conference.
28. That a vote of thanks be proposed to the president.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[388]

STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS.
Strikes and Lockouts in the United States, Jan­
uary to March, 1920.
CCORDING to information received by the United States
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 730 strikes and lockouts occurred
m this country during the first quarter of the year 1920
Inasmuch as many reports do not reach the Bureau until several
months after the strikes occur, the number of strikes occurring
during the quarter was probably somewhat larger than the above
figure would indicate. Complete data relative to these strikes have
not been received by the Bureau and it has not been possible as yet
to verify what have been received. The figures in the following tables
should therefore be understood to be only an advance statement and
not to be accepted as final.

A

N U M B E R O F S T R IK E S A N D LO C K O U TS B E G IN N IN G IN EA C H M O N T H JA N U A R Y TO
M ARCH, IN C L U SIV E , 1919 A N D 1920.
’ JAiNUAKY lO
K in d of dispute.
Strikes:
1919................
1920................
Lockouts:
1919............
1920............
Total:
1919................
1920................

M onth
not
stated.

January.

F ebru­
ary.

184
193

183
184

175
267

32
67

574
711

5
6

7
4

6
6

1
3

19
19

189
199

190
188

181
273

33
70

593
730

...................

March.

Total.

. rbhe figures in the above table indicate an increase in strike activity
m 1920 as compared with the corresponding period in 1.919.
Few strikes of any prominence occurred during the three months
under consideration. Those in which the largest numbers were
involved were the strikes of 50,000 sugar workers in Porto Rico
12,000 others in Hawaii, and 15,000 railroad laborers in the Canal
Zone. Other strikes that might be mentioned were those of the em­
ployees of the Norfolk & Western Railroad, workers in the Chicago
cto Alton Railroad shops, the longshoremen along the Atlantic coast,
employees of the Railway Express in Chicago, workers in the building
trades m St. _Louis, Cincinnati, New York, and Dallas; leather
workers m Philadelphia, van drivers in Chicago, chauffeurs, harbor
boatmen, meat cutters, shoemakers, sailor-suit workers, petticoat
makers, dressmakers, and garment workers in New York, shirt makers
m Philadelphia, clothing workers in Albany, spinners in Fall River
brass workers in Ansonia, Conn., and the steel workers at Lackawanna!
Pa.
The data in the following tables relate to the 711 strikes and 19
lockouts reported to have occurred in the three months under con­
sideration. A few strikes that occurred during the quarter but in
which the exact month was not stated appear m a group by themselves.

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1389]

177

178

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

S T A T E S IN W H IC H 10 O R M O R E S T R IK E S A N D L O C K O U TS W E R E R E P O R T E D AS OCCURR IN G D U R IN G T H E F IR S T Q U A R T E R O F 1920.
January.
State.

New Y o rk .......................
M assachusetts...............
P en n sy lv an ia.................
Ohio..................................
Illin o is.............................
C o n n ecticu t....................
R hode Isla n d .................
N ew Jersey.....................
W a sh in g to n ...................
T e x a s .............. ................
W est V irg in ia ................
C alifornia!.......................
M aryland........................
In d ia n a ...........................
M issouri...........................
M ichigan.........................
N ew H am pshire............
M in n eso ta.......................
O regon.............................
W isconsin.......................
27 other States and
Territories...................
T o ta l........................

F ebruary.

M onth not
stated .

March.

Total.

G rand
Lock­
Lock­
Lock­
Lock­ total.
Strikes. Lock­
outs. Strikes. outs. Strikes. outs. Strikes. outs. Strikes. outs.
34
35
16
8
10
4
14
11
3
5
4
2
1
4
1
5
3
3
2
3

2
1

25
193

1
6

1

1

32
24
13
15
8
7
4
9
5
5
3
7
9
2
4
2
4
2
2
1

1
1
1

1

26
184

4

43
45
26
16
18
14
7
6
9
5
6
5
3
4
6
4
3

1
1
2

17
9
3
3
4
7
2
1
3
1
2

1
1

1
2
1
1

4
4

1
1

1

34
267

6

9
67

1
3

126
113
58
42
40
32
27
27
20
16
15
14
14
12
12
11
H
10
8
9

3
1

2
1

129
114
58
46
43
33
28
27
20
lß
15
14
14
13
12
11
11
10
10
10

94
711

2
19

96
730

4
3
1
1

1

Of these disputes, 543 strikes and 15 lockouts occurred east of the
Mississippi and north of the Ohio and Potomac Rivers; 120 strikes and 4
lockouts occurred west of the Mississippi, and the remaining 48 strikes
south of the Ohio and Potomac Rivers and east of the Mississippi, j
As to cities, New York City had the largest number of disturb­
ances—80; followed by Chicago, with 28; Boston, with 14; Balti­
more, with 13; Seattle, with 12; Cleveland, with 11; and Lynn,
Philadelphia, and Providence, with 10 each.
f
As to sex, the distribution was as follows: Males, 494 strikes and
7 lockouts; females, 55 strikes and 1 lockout; both sexes, 15 strikes
and 1 lockout ; sex not reported, 147 strikes and 10 lockouts.
\
The industries in which 13 strikes and lockouts were reported are
shown in the table which follows:
N U M B E R O F S T R IK E S A N D LO C K O U TS IN S P E C IF IE D IN D U S T R IE S R E P O R T E D AS
O C CU R R IN G D U R IN G T H E F IR S T Q U A R T E R O F 1920.
Jan u ary .
In d u s try or occupation.

C lothing..........................
B uilding tra d e s.............
T e x tile s...........................
M etal tra d e s ...................
T elephone a n d telegrap h............................
M iners..............................
T eam sters.......................
W aiters a n d cooks........
S treet ra ilw a y s..... ........
P rin tin g a n d publish in g ..........................
S hip b u ild in g ..................
Longshorem en...............
M eat c u tte rs...................
P a p e r m ak ers.................
R ailroads........................
M iscellaneous.................
N ot reported..................
T o ta l.....................


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

F eb ru ary .

M onth n o t
stated .

March.

Total.

G rand
Lock­
Lock­
Lock­
Lock­ to ta l.
Strikes. Lock­
outs. Strikes. outs. Strikes. outs. Strikes. outs. Strikes. outs.
17
30
28
17

2

7
6
4
5
5
3
2
3
5
4
57
193

1

1
2
6

1

20
8
16
23

37
32
30
32

19
y
3
8
5

4
8
re-

1

4
6

2
1

5
6
5
1
3
3
49
7
184

1

3
4

267

1

[390]

1

4

4

3
5
6
3
6
77

17
ii
5

1
1
1
1
6

67

4
1

23
19
19
18
17

1
3
i
3
18

91
81
79
76

1
1
3

95
81
80
76
23
19
19
18
17

1
1

15
15
13
13
H
13
201
7

2

711

19

6
4

16
16
13
13
13
13
207
11
730

STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS.

179

Included in the above are 32 strikes of molders, 20 of machinists,
30 of boot and shoe makers, 16 of tailors, 14 of plumbers, 13 of hat­
ters, and 10 of carpenters.
In 359 strikes and 11 lockouts the emploj^ees were reported as con­
nected with unions; in 12 strikes they were not so connected; in 340
strikes and 8 lockouts the question of union affiliation was not reported.
In 429 strikes and 13 lockouts only one employer was concerned
in each disturbance; in 15 strikes, 2 employers; in. 11 strikes, 3
employers; in 4 strikes, 6 employers; in 5 strikes, 3 employers; in
149 strikes, more than 5; in 98 strikes and 6 lockouts the number
was not reported.
In the 370 strikes for which the number of persons on strike was
reported there were 272,361 strikers, an average of 736 per strike.
In 59 strikes, in each of which the number involved was 1,000 or
more, the strikers numbered 217,079, thus leaving 55,282 involved
in the remaining 311 strikes, or an average of 178 each. By months,
the figures are as follows: January, 62,212 strikers in 106 strikes,
average 587, of whom 14,812 were in 93 strikes of less than 1,000
persons each, average 159; February, 116,841 strikers in 94 strikes
average 1,243, of whom 14,641 were in 74 strikes of less than 1,000
persons each, average 198; March, 72, 232 strikers in 142 strikes,
average 509, of whom 21,253 were in 122 strikes of less than 1,000
persons each, average 174. In 6 lockouts the number reported to
have been involved was 1,362, averaging 227 persons each.
The following table shows the causes of the strikes and lockouts in
so far as reported. In about three-fourths of the disturbances the
question of wages or hours was prominent and in nearly one-fourth
the question of union recognition or existence was involved.
P R IN C IP A L C A U SES O F S T R IK E S A N D L O C K O U TS R E P O R T E D AS O C C U R R IN G D U R IN G
T H E F IR S T Q U A R T E R O F 1920.
Jan u ary .
Cause.

M onth not
reported.

March.

Total.

G rand
Lock­
Lock­
Lock­ total.
Lock­
Strikes Lock­
outs. ¡Strikes outs. Strikes outs. Strikes outs. Strikes outs.

F or increase in w ages..
B ecause of decrease in
wages............................
N o n p ay m en t of w ages.
Increase in h o u rs ..........
F or decrease of h o u rs..
F or increase of wages
a n d decrease of hours.
R ecognition...................
Recognition a n d wages
R ecognition an d h o u rs.
R ecognition, w a g e s ,
a n d hours....................
R ecognition a n d cond itions..........................
G eneral conditions.......
Conditions a n d w ages..
C onditions, wages, and
hours.........................
Em ployees discharged.
F or discharge of objectionable perso n s........
N onunion m e n ..............
R elative to a g re em en t.
F or a new a g re em en t...
S y m p a th y .......................
Jurisdictio n ....................
M iscellaneous.................
N ot reported ................
T o tal.....................

February.

84

85

4

4

1

131

26

1

2
1

5

4

7

1

17

25
14
5

23
18
7

16
17
5

7
3
5

71
52

2

2

1
2

1

4

1
1

4
4

1
1

1
1

6

1
2

1
2

7

3

1
11

17

4

9
16

193

6

184

71
58
24
2

5
4
8

2

9

2

2

28

28

2
11
2
2

3
17
4

3
17
4

6

6

4

14
3

4

1

26

2

I
17

......

76

7

14
3
33
83

*1

267

6

67

3

711

19

730

2
12

j

6
2

1
8

7

2

h

1

5
2
2

22
2

328
9
4
4
17

5

2

7

2

1

2


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

326
9
4

1
2

[391]

33

180

MONTHLY LABOE REVIEW.

It is frequently difficult to state exactly when a strike terminates
since many strikes end without any formal vote on the part of the
strikers. The following table relates to such strikes and lockouts as
the Bureau has been advised actually terminated during the first
quarter of 1919 and of 1920.
N U M B E R O F S T R IK E S A N D L O C K O U TS E N D IN G D U R IN G JA N U A R Y , F E B R U A R Y , A N D
M ARCH IN 1919 A N D 1920.

Year.

Jan u ary .

F e b ru ­
ary.

116
82

105
60

113
81

13
1

347
224

2
2

2
2

5
1

1

10
5

118
84

107
62

118
82

14
1

357
229

Strikes:
1919................................................ ..................................
1920....................................................................................
Lockouts:
1919....................................................................................
1920....................................................................................
Total:
1919.........................................................................
1920.........................................................................

March.

M onth
not stated.

Total.

Disputes terminating in favor of the employers numbered 24,
disputes terminating in favor of the employees*-numbered 39, dis­
putes compromised numbered 56. In 10 strikes, the employees
returned to work under promise of the employer to arbitrate* the
matter in dispute. In 95 strikes and 5 lockouts the result was not
reported. In 20 strikes, the duration of which was not reported,
the statement was simply made that the trouble was soon termi­
nated. In 2 strikes the positions of the strikers were filled with
practical^ no interruption in the work. Twenty-one strikes were
reported as unauthorized.
D U R A T IO N O F S T R IK E S A N D LO C K O U TS E N D IN G D U R IN G T H E F IR S T Q U A R T E R
O F 1920, O F N U M B E R R E P O R T IN G .

The number of days lost in strikes ending during the quarter was
IsIhTp. The average duration of these strikes was about 35 days.
The Average duration of strikes lasting less than 90 days was 8 days.
By months the record is as follows: January, days lost, 664, average
30 days; February, days lost, 661, average 25 days; March, days lost,
1,845, average 44 days. The one lockout reported as ending in the
quarter lasted for 7 weeks.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[392]

CURRENT NOTES OF INTEREST TO LABOR.
Waste of Woman Power on the Farm s.1
KECENT survey of 10,000 farm homes in 33 Northern and
Western States has been made under the direction of the
States Delations Service of the United States Department of
Agriculture. This investigation leads to the conclusion that the
wastage of woman labor in these agricultural communities constitutes
“ one of the greatest menaces to the rural life of the Nation.”
The lack of modern equipment makes many of these farm homes
centers of drudgery and explains in part why women object to farm
life. The average farm woman, according to the survey, works 11.3
hours the year round, and in summer 13.12 hours. Over 80 per cent
of these farm women have no regular vacation during the year.
Fifty per cent start work at 5 a. m. Approximately 60 per cent
must go to the pump or spring for water. Eighty per cent have no
bathrooms. Ninety-six per cent do the family washing and only
half of these have washing machines. Seventy-nine per cent have
kerosene lamps to fill and trim, and 54 per cent care for two coal or
wood stoves.
Ih e report suggests that if the farmer would spend less in acquir­
ing additional land and more in modernizing his home so as to make
it as up to date as his barn, the result would be not only the conser­
vation of the energies of the women of his household, but an increase
m the profit and comfort of agricultural life.

A

Report of the Department of Labor of New
Jersey, 1918-19.
HE report of the Department of Labor of New Jersey for the
year ending June 30, 1919, notes the operations of various
bureaus, including the Bureau of Hygiene and Sanitation, of
Industrial Statistics, of Mines and Quarries, the Bureau of Indus­
trial Accidents, the Employment Bureau, and the Workmen’s Com­
pensation Bureau. Under factory lighting there is a paper giving
the status of the industrial lighting code in New Jersey.
The Workmen’s Compensation Bureau report notes changes made
in the compensation law, including an increase in the maximum
compensation from $10 to $12 and in the minimum from $5 to $6,
and an advance in the compensation rate from 50 to 66§ per cent of
weekly wages. The statistical report shows a total c:
1,
accidents and 13,021 nonfatal accidents during the year ending June
30, 1919. Of the nonfatal cases closed during the year compensation
was paid to 11,791, the total amount so paid being $1,695,132.40, or
an average of $137.94 per case. The total compensation paid to

T

1 D ata supplied b y th e S tates R elations Service of th e U. S. D ep artm ent of A griculture from a forth­
com ing rep o rt e n title d ‘‘ The F a rm W om an’s Problem s. ”


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[393]

181

182

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

dependents in 334 fatal cases was $715,732.33, or an average of
$2,142.91 per case.
During the year the Industrial Accident Board received 31,251
reports of tabulatable accidents, including 523 fatal, and in addition,
20,000 reports of minor accidents. Both fatal and nonfatal accidents
are distributed in four occupation groups, as follows: Factories and
workshops, 350 fatal and 17,304 nonfatal; building construction, 57
fatal and 7,084 nonfatal; mines and quarries, 17 fatal and 205 non­
fatal ; miscellaneous, 99 fatal and 6,135 nonfatal. The greatest single
cause of fatal accidents in the factory and workshops group was
explosions of powder and dynamite, the number being 120, or 34.3
per cent. In the same group the chemical industry was responsible
for the largest number of fatal accidents, 192, or 54.9 per cent,
while the metal-products industry was responsible for the largest
number of nonfatal accidents, 4,571, or 26.4 per cent. A large
number of eye injuries was reported in the factory and workshops
group, the total being 1,716, or nearly 10 per cent. In the buildingconstruction group more than 17 per cent of the fatal accidents were
caused by falls from ladders, scaffolds, etc.

Plan for a Group Industrial Surgical Hospital.
NOVEL plan for caring for the industrially injured is that
advanced by Dr. A. Moncrieff Carr of the United States
Public Health Service in a recent issue of Modern Medicine.1
Dr. Carr believes that in the general hospitals where the majority
of those injured are now treated the physicians frequently lack
knowledge of modern bone surgery or other industrial surgery and
fail also in the understanding of plant relations which may have an
important bearing on the successful handling of these cases. _ The
nurses, too, often fail to appreciate the problem of the injured
worker and both staff and nurses, it has been observed, commonly
consider the industrial case as a nuisance. His solution of the
problem, therefore, is “ a central hospital, with outlying dressing or
emergency stations, organized for prompt, efficient service, serving
'a group of industries, emergency and surgical; cooperative and
follow-up, reconstruction and rehabilitation services, with a selected
trained personnel, developed on a unit system for the special needs
of the group.’’ In establishing such a hospital he emphasizes the
need of a preliminary survey of the industrial group to be served,
including an estimate of the types of accidents and comparison
with those of other industrial groups.
I In regard to the qualifications of staff and nurses the writer stresses
the fact that the chief surgeon in addition to recognized surgical
ability, including, preferably, experience in modem war surgery,
should have executive ability and also be thoroughly conversant
with industry, and his assistants and nurses should have experience
and adaptability sufficient to enable them to cooperate fully with
him In order to attract desirable people to these positions it would
be necessary to pay them on the same basis as that of the remuneration
they would receive in private practice or employment. This is one

A

1 T h e group in d u stria l surgical hospital. B y A. Moncrieff Carr, M. D ., U nited States P u b lic H ealth
Service, P hiladelphia, Pa. In Modern Medioirne, Chicago, June, 1920, pp. 426-430.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[394]

CURRENT NOTES OF INTEREST TO LABOR.

183

of the strongest arguments for the group hospital since it is only the
comparatively few large industries which can afford to maintain
adequate establishments and employ the best surgical skill. Aside
from the usual hospital facilities a department for preemployment
and periodic physical examinations is advised. Vocational training
either along the lines of the patient’s work or in some similar trade
should be given as early in convalescence as possible. The book and
chart work can be begun in the ward, thus giving the injured man
the incentive toward recovery which he needs in order to meet the
natural discouragement attendant on his accident. Follow-up or
social service work is likewise regarded as of great importance.
I his includes keeping clear records of all patients in the hospital and
a weekly or monthly report of all patients discharged within one
year at least.
rIhe writer believes that the establishment of group hospitals
presents a solution of the problem of caring for the industrial cripple
such hospitals also offer the best possible opportunity to
utilize the experience sained in the war for the good of industry
at large.
J

Formation in Belgium of a Corps of Strike
Breakers.
HE Handelsblad van Antwerp (May 7, 1920) reports that the
Belgian Middle Classes’ Committee for the Protection of
Civic Rights ( M id d e n c o m ite it v a n P r o p a g a n d a e n B u rg e rv e rw e e r), which was recently established, has for its aim the formation
oi a well-organized body of strike breakers. The public u tility
services have been divided into the following twelve groups: Police,
fire department, water works, electric light, gas, roads, transport
and street cars, railways, post, telegraph and telephone, hospitals,
and miscellaneous services. Large numbers of citizens have received
directions as to the action expected of them in case of strikes, and
many fresh applications to join the organization are being received
c ally. Many men already hi the post, telegraph, and telephone
services have joined the Middle Class Union to show their disap­
proval of strikes.

T

Status of Spanish Workmen in France.
HE labor committee of the Spanish Chamber of Commerce in
Pans has drawn up a lengthy report on the status of Spanish
workmen m France, and recommended a convention between
ranee and Spain with regard to them.1 The Chamber of Commerce
has obtained from the French Central Service for the Recruiting and
Placing of Foreign Workers CS ervice C en tra l de R e c r u te m e n t et de
P Lacem ent d es T r a v a ille u r s É tr a n g e r s ), hereinafter referred to as
the Central Employment Service, the following information on the
condition of Spanish workers in France:
I f the Spanish workman on entering France applies at the official
Crovernment depots created for the purpose he will receive a pass

T

V V V a i P ken fT m th e Eeonomic Review (R eview of th e Foreign Press), L ondon, M ay 26,1920 (p 811
Source: E sp añ a Económ ica y Fin an ciera. M adrid, M ay 1,1920.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[395]

184

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

{carte verte) allowing him to travel in France. A workman who on
the termination of a contract has another place assured him will
encounter no difficulty in proceeding to it. If he has no such place
then he can always apply to the control centers at Marseilles, Lyons,
Nantes, Toulouse, and Bordeaux, or at the central office in Paris.
Even the immigrant who does not procure a pass {carle verte) on
application, to the above-mentioned centers, will receive such assist­
ance and employment as may be possible. This pass is a war
expedient and will soon be replaced by some other system. In the
case of a strike the foreign workman is in a difficult position, seeing
that if he takes part he is liable to deportation for intervening in
politics, and if he abstains he is liable to be treated as a blackleg.
The Central Employment Service can not interfere in such disputes,
as the French workman has the unquestioned right to strike.
An important question is that of the remittance to Spain of the
workman’s earnings, since the act of April 3, 1918, prohibits the
sending out of France of sums exceeding 1,000 francs ($193, par).
However, the Central Employment Service believes that if the work­
man applies for assistance to the heads of the labor depots of Peripignan and Hendaye the custom authorities will place no difficulties
in the way of allowing such sums to leave the country. The Central
Emplojunent Service, however, advocates an agreement between the
savings banks of France and Spain, such as already exists with
Belgium and Italy, and which has produced excellent results. This
agreement could be incorporated in the general convention between
France and Spain relating to workmen, to which the Central Em­
ployment Service would give its cordial support.
The Central Employment Service has full statistics of the state of
the labor market, and can give precise information as to where work
may be obtained. For instance, at the present time workmen can
find immediate and lucrative employment in any branch of the build­
ing trade, not only in the devastated areas, but all over France. The
labor depots above mentioned have been created on purpose to
facilitate the immigration of workmen, especially of Spanish work­
men, whose qualities are highly appreciated, by receiving and main­
taining them until employment is found for them.
The Central Employment Service transmits to the depots the
demands of employers on a stock form {contrat type,), which sets out
the exact conditions of work, thereby enabling the workman to
obtain employment as soon as he presents himself. The costs of
bringing the workman into the country are advanced by the Govern­
ment and immediately refunded by the employer. The conditions
of work are identical with those offered to the French workman. In
addition to the “ contrat type,” which only applies to industrial
labor, certain forms are supplied by the National Agricultural Em­
ployment Office {Office National de la Main d*Oeuvre Agricole),
which employers of agricultural workers are obligated to fill in ; these
set forth the terms of the contract relating to wages, food, lodgings,
time, and expressly bind the employer at the time of the termination
of the contract to repay to the workman his fare from and to Spain,
provided always that he be duly qualified to perform the special
work for which he has applied. The Central Employment Office has
offered to consider any demand or claim which may be made by the
Spanish Chamber of Commerce in Paris.

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[396]

PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO LABOR.
Official—United States.
A rizona .—State mine inspector.

Annual reports. Vols. 7 and 8; 1918 and 1919
[Phoenix, 1918 and 1919]. 99 pp; 79 pp.
I l l i n o i s .—Legislative Reference Bureau. Social and economic problems. Springfield
[1919], pp. 1130-1189. Constitutional convention. Bulletin No. 14 .
This bulletin deals with the economic provisions of the State constitution and
covers housing and ownership of homes, social insurance, soldiers’ bonuses and prefer­
ences, injunctions in labor cases, and corporations and public utilities.
I n d i a n a .— Industrial Board. Report for year ending September 30, 1919 [Indian­
apolis] 1920. 109 pp.
An account of the recently organized women and children’s department included,
in this report appears on pages 100 and 102 of this issue of the Monthly L abor R eview ]
Also, a report of the compensation department on page 131 is noted.
N ew Y ork .— University.

Organization and administration of part-time schools
Albany, Nov. 1,1919. 42 pp. Bulletin No. 697.
A law providing for compulsory part-time education for boys and girls, between the
ages of 14 and 18, who have discontinued attendance upon school before graduation
from high school, was enacted by the New York State Legislature during 1919. Bulle­
tin No. 697 defines the law and gives the regulations of the regents of the university
governing the establishment and administration of part-time schools. It also con­
tains the recommendations of the commissioner of education relating to their organi­
zation and management.
(C it y ). —Department of Health. Clinical types of occupational diseases, by Louis I
Hams, New York City, 1919. 20 pp. Reprint series No. 83.
An address read before the section on pathology and physiology of the seven­
tieth annual session of the American Medical Association, Atlantic City, June, 1919.
Reprinted from the Journal of the American Medical Association, September 20
1919, vol. 73, pp. 880-886.
This is a study of methods of preventing occupational diseases. Special attention is
given to carbon monoxid, chemical, and lead poisoning, apparent carbon dioxid
poisoning, and anthrax. Other subjects under consideration are industrial disease
and hygiene in the medical curriculum, insufficient information of private practi­
tioners, and opportunities of health officers.
------------• Conditions affecting health in the millinery industry, by S. Dana Hubbard
and Christine R. Kefauver. New York, April, 1920. Monthly Bulletin vol 10
No. 4, pp. 81-97.
'
A brief digest of this report appears on pages 107 to 109 of this issue of the R eview .
P e n n s y l v a n i a .—Department

of Labor and Industry. [Bureau of Mediation and
Arbitration. Report and record of strikes, 1916-1919.] Harrisburg, 1920. 24 pp.
Bulletin of the Department of Labor and industry, vol. 7 , 1920, No. 1.
Department of Mines. Report, 1917. Part I.—Anthracite. Harrisburq, 1919
750 pp.
Part II of this report concerns bituminous coal mining and was noted on page 225
of the M o n t h l y L a b o r R e v i e w for March, 1920.
----- Workmen’s Compensation Board. Decisions for the year 1918. Vol. III. Harris­
burg, 1920. 420 pp.
[397]
185

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

186

MONTHLY LABOE EE VIEW.

R h o d e I s l a n d .—Factory

inspectors. Twenty-sixth annual report of factory inspection,
1919. Providence, 1920. 81 pp.
The report shows that during the year 7,158 establishments were inspected, includ­
ing 184,135 workers over 16 years of age and 7,595 workers under 16 years of age, a
total of 191,730. The percentage of child labor is, therefore, 3.96.
U n it e d S t a t e s —Department of Labor. Office of the Secretary. Labor conditions in
Porto Rico. Washington, 1919. 67 pp.
Presents the results of a study of economic conditions in general and conditions of
Porto Rican laborers in particular with a view to determining whether or not Porto
Rico needs an employment office and how such an office could be of assistance to its
people. Among the subjects dealt with in the report are strikes, housing, a living
wage, emigration as a solution of the Porto Rican labor problem, need of new indus­
tries, and solution of the land problem.
------------Women’s Bureau. Home Work in Bridgeport, Conn. Washington, 1920.
85 pp. Bulletin No. 9.
This report on home work in a city containing, according to the Report of the
State Commissioner of Labor of Connecticut, 528 home workers, or about 20 per cent
of a total of 2,575 in the State, and in which home work increased 51 per cent from
1917 to 1918, while it increased only 15 per cent in the State as a whole during the
same period, was made by the Women’s Bureau at the request of local agencies inter­
ested in industrial conditions. The Bureau found that the median wage for home
workers was between $4 and $5 per week. A memorandum of recommendations was
submitted to a conference of Bridgeport employers, but no definite results seem to
have ensued. The report covers facts disclosed, remedies suggested, the attitude of
the people of Bridgeport mostly concerned with the subject, and the legal remedies
that are being applied in other States. There is appended a statement of the various
State laws prohibiting or regulating home work compiled from data furnished by the
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
—— Federal Board for Vocational Education. Safety lamps. Including flame safety
lamps and approved electric lamps. Washington, November, 1919. 71 pp. Bul­
letin No. 42. Trade and industrial series No. 12.
A series of 12 simple lessons on safety lamps for use in the trade extension classes
organized in coal-mining communities.

Official—Foreign Countries.
( S o u t h A u s t r a l ia ). —Statistical department. Statistical register of the
State of South Australia for the year 1918-19. Part V.—Production. (Section 1.—■
Prefatory report.) [Adelaide] 1919.
Includes a statement of the number of hands employed in farming and in factories
and gives tables showing average salaries and wages by industries in 1913, 1917-18,
and 1918-19.
C a n a d a .—Department of Labor. Ninth annual report on labor organization in Canada
(for the calendar year 1919). Ottawa, 1920. 299 pp.
A b r ie f d ig e s t of t h i s r e p o r t is g iv e n o n p a g e s 171 to 173 of t h is issu e of t h e R e v i e w .
----- (B r i t i s h C o l u m b ia ). — Workmen’s Compensation Board. Workmen’s compensa­
tion act. Accident prevention regulations. Vancouver, 1920. 30 pp.
Rules and regulations adopted by the board for the guidance of employer and
employee in accident prevention work.
• --------- Second annual report for the year ending December 31, 1918. Victoria,'
1919. 48 pp.
This report is noted on pages 131 to 133 of this issue of the R e v i e w .
•----- (O n t a r io ).-—Workmen’s Compensation Board. Report for 1919. Toronto,
1920, 70 pp. .
A brief digest of this report appears on pages 133 and 134 of this issue of the R e v i e w .
[398]
A u s t r a l ia


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

187

PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO LABOR.

Board of Education. Report for the year 1918-19. London 1920
98 pp. Cmd. 122.
Chapter III, in which continuation schools, classes for employees, juvenile em­
ployment committees, university tutorial classes, etc., for both England and Wales
are considered, is of special interest.
------ Laws, statutes, etc. Manuals of emergency legislation. War material supplies
manual. Fifth edition, revised to Dec. 31, 1919. London, 1919. xxviii, 170 pp.
■
----- Ministry of Labor. Lndustrial councils. [London, 1920.] 32 pp. Industrial
reports No. 4 {revised).
This report contains suggestions as to the constitution and functions of a national
joint industrial council, of district councils of national joint industrial councils, and
of works committees in industries in which national joint industrial councils are estab­
lished. The first part of this report as originally issued was published in the M o n t h l y
L a b o r R e v i e w for August, 1918 (pp. 76-79), and the second and third parts as origi­
nally issued were published in the M o n t h l y L a b o r R e v i e w for May, 1919 (pp. 116122). They are also included in Bulletin 255.
G r e a t B r it a in .

Industrial courts act, 1919. Report by a court of inquiry concerning trans­
port workers—wages and conditions of employment of dock labor. London 1920
20 pp. 55.
'
A s u m m a r iz a tio n
1920 ( p p . 54-62).

of t h i s r e p o r t a p p e a r e d i n t h e M o n t h l y L a b o r R e v i e w fo r M av

*

Ministry of Munitions. Annual accounts of the ordnance factories for the year
1918-19, with the report of the comptroller and auditor general thereon. London
1920. 10 pp. 99.
Oversea Settlement Committee. Report of delegates appointed to inquire as to
openings in Australia for women from the United Kinqdon. London 1920 2.1
pp. Cmd. 745.
’
'
A brief digest of th is report appears on pages 97 and 98 of th is issue of th e R e v ie w .
Department of Statistics. Large industrial establishments in India. Calcutta
1920. 72 pp. Fourth issue. No. 1161.
Shows the name and situation of all large industrial concerns in India. A diagram
illustrates the relative importance, according to the average number of persons daily
employed, of the different classes of industries.
I n d ia .

jAPArm Tdepartment of Agriculture and Commerce. Thirty-fifth statistical report
[lokyo] 1920. 761 pp.
An excerpt from this report, giving wages current in various occupations in June
and December, 1918, appears on pages 88 and 89 of this issue of the R e v i e w .
Department of Education. Forty-fourth annual report of the Minister of State for
Education {1916-17) {abridged). Tokyo, November, 1919. 382 pp. Charts.
Includes statistics of pensions paid to retired teachers and to families of deceased
teachers.
Delegation at the Interallied Housing and Town Rlanning Congress, London
June, 1920. The housing question in Sweden. [Stockholm, 1920.] 64 pp.
A short descriptive account of the housing situation in Sweden, considering such
subjects as production of houses and housing requirements in Sweden, housing and
town-planning legislation, garden city movement in Stockholm, housing inspection,
credits for house building, effect of the war upon housing, rent restriction legislation,
and Government and municipal support of housing. A feature of this pamphlet is its
analysis of housing requirements in Sweden.
As a result of the war the supply of dwellings in 1919 was 46 per cent less than the
normal requirements of 1912-13, while the number of rooms was 53 per cent less
than the normal requirements, based on the year 1912-13.
Sv e d e n .


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[399]

188

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

S w e d e n .—Government

Delegation for International Socio-political Work. The seafaring
trade in Sweden. [Stockholm, 1920.] 48 pp.
This comprises principally a description of the laws and regulations governing
working conditions of Swedish seamen and fishermen. It includes such topics as
the manning of vessels, engaging and shipping of seamen, wages, working conditions,
institutions for pensioning and relief of seamen, organization among seamen, and the
extent of collective agreements.
----- Socialstyrelsen. Kollektivavtal i sverige dr 1918. Stockholm, 1920. vi, 4S pp.
This report shows that there were concluded in Sweden, in 1918, 855 new collective
agreements affecting 4,526 establishments and 118,098 wage earners. At the begin­
ning of 1918 there were 1,779 collective agreements in force affecting 297,346 workers,
and at the end of the year the number of agreements had increased to 2,041 and the
number of employees affected to 316,772.
Reports from 4,414 employers in whose establishments were employed 115,562
workers, or practically 98 per cent of those for whom collective agreements were nego­
tiated in 1918, gave the distribution of workers according to certain classified hours
of labor per week. This is indicated in the table.
NUM BER

AN D

PER

C EN T O F E M P L O Y E E S U N D E R C O L L E C T IV E
W O R K IN G S P E C IF IE D H O U R S P E R W E E K .

AGREEM ENTS

•
Em ployees.

H ours p e r week.
N um ber

48 hours a n d less............
49 to 53 h o u rs..................
54 hours...........................,
55 to 56 h o u rs..................
57 hours.............................

6,223
32,211
5,580
3,925
47,978

Per
cent.

5.4
27.9
4.8
3.4
41.5

Per
cent
work­
ing
speci­
fied
hours
in 1916.
4.0
3.1
9.9
4.0
23.9

Em ployees.

H ours per week.
N um ber.

Per
cent.

1.4
3.1

58 h o u rs............................
59 hours................. ...........
60 ho u rs............................
Over 60 h o u rs.................

1,643
3,598
13,916
488

12.1

T o ta l......................

115,562

100.0

.4

Per
cent
work­
ing
speci­
fied
hours
in 1916.
3.6
6.5
43.0

2.0

Unofficial.
Proceedings of annual congress, New York City,
October 20 to 24, 1919. Indianapolis [1920]. 627 pp.
A s s e m b l y o f C i v i l S e r v i c e C o m m is s io n s . Twelfth annual meeting. Tackling
employment problems; veteran preference in nation, State, and city. Experts dis­
cuss vital needs before assembly of civil service commissions at Rochester (New York),
conference, June 11, 12, and 13, 1919. Washington, John T. Doyle, Secretary, 1724
F Street NW., 1919. 189 pp.
B a k e r , R a y S t a n n a r d . The neiv industrial unrest: Reasons and remedies. New
York, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1920. 231 pp.
A study of the present industrial unrest and suggested solutions of the problem, such
as Americanization, political action, welfare work, and the shop-council system.
The writer seeks to present the matter from the viewpoint of both employer and
employee.
B e e r , M . A history of British socialism. Vol. II. London, G. Bell & Sons, Ltd.,
1920. 413 pp.
The first volume of this work, covering the period up to the rise of Chartism in
1836, appeared in 1919 and was reviewed in the M o n t h l y L a b o r R e v i e w for August,
1919, page 295. The first part of this volume is devoted to the growth and influence
of Chartism and the second part to modern socialism; that is, from 1855 to 1920,
with especial attention to developments from the beginning of the war to the present
time.
[400]
A m e r i c a n P r i s o n A s s o c ia t io n .


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO LABOR.

189

B ulman , H. F.

Coal mining and the coal miner. London, Methuen & Co., Ltd.
[1920]. 3S8 pp. Ulus.
This volume comprises a descriptive account of conditions in coal mining in Great
Britain in normal times and is written by a mining engineer who has been a colliery
manager and a director of colliery companies, and who has also lived for many years
among the miners. “ It may perhaps serve as a useful corrective to some erroneous
ideas, which have arisen from the proceedings of the coal commission.” The book
covers such topics as labor, wages, disputes and methods of settlement, trade-union­
ism, housing, accidents and disease, as well as the technological and financial aspects
of the coal industry.
The writer is obviously opposed to Government intervention in the control of the
coal industry and deprecates governmental action in relation to employer and em­
ployee in the industry. “ An agreement made under governmental intervention is
not accepted with the same cordial assent as one made by mutual consent.”
Carlton, F. T. Organized labor in American history. New York, D. Appleton &
Co., 1920. SIS pp.
In this volume the author traces the development of trade unionism in the United
States from its start up to the present time in its relation to the development and
growth of the country. An account of the various labor and reform movements is
given and present-day tendencies and reforms are discussed.
Carnegie E ndowment for I nternational P eace . Negro migration during the
war, by Emmett J. Scott. New York, Oxford University Press, American branch,
35 West Thirty-second Street, 1920. 189 pp. Preliminary economic studies of the
war No. 16.
A study of the economic results of the migration of approximately 400,000 Negroes
from the South to the northern States during the three years following the outbreak
of the war in Europe, particularly during 1916 and 1917. The lure of high wages
and more independence are suggested as the real reasons for the migration. The
author believes that on the whole the movement has been and will continue to be a
benefit to the South, since it has brought about a change of attitude toward the Negro
and has compelled the thinking classes of the South “ to construct and carry out
a policy of fair play to provide against the day when the South may find itself again
at the mercy of the laboring classes of the Negroes.” The tendency to maltreat
the Negroes without cause, the custom of arresting them for petty offenses, and the
institution of lynching have, in the opinion of the author, been somewhat checked
by “ a reshaping of public opinion.”
Coderch, R afael . Retiros obreros. Estudio critico. Real Decreto de 11 de marzo de
1919 que ha de regular su implantación en España. Madrid, 1919. 355, xli pp.
Graphics.
This volume is a critical study of the royal decree of March 11, 1919, establishing a
system of workmen’s retirement in Spain. The author says that this analysis and
criticism is for the purpose of explaining ambiguities which necessarily will be found
in the execution of the obligatory workmen’s retirement fund.
C5le , G. D. H. Chaos and order in industry. London, Methuen & Co., Ltd. \1920\
292 p p .

In this book the author urges a “ complete overhauling” of the industrial system or
threatens that England will plunge slowly, like Europe, “ into a chaos out of which
a better order may arise, but which will certainly first cause untold suffering in every
class,” and he sees nowhere in Europe except in the soviet countries a government
which has either the courage or the power to remedy one of the fundamental evils of
the present system. As usual with the writer the “ guilds” are the solution of the
problem, and he advocates nationalization of railways and mines and the socialization
of banking. He believes that the power of the Whitley councils is negligible and that
the proletariat must not allow “ preoccupation with such immediate schemes to divert
23S6°—20-

13


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[401]

190

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,

our main attention from our fundamental object—the abolition of the wage system—or from the constructive steps which the Working class itself must take with a view
to securing that object.”
Cole, G. D. H. Social theory. London, Methuen & Co., Ltd. [1920]. 220 pp.
This book is a study of social organization not from the standpoint of the State or
any other particular form of association, which has been the usual way of developing
the subject, but from the standpoint of the community, and it deals with “ association
as a whole and the way in which men act through associations in supplement and
complement to their actions as isolated or private individuals.”
D avies , A. E mil. The casefor nationalization. London, Allen & TJnwin, Ltd. [1920].
310 pp.
The author of this volume is chairman of the Railway Nationalization Society.
He presents the program of the British Labor Party in respect to Government owner­
ship of railroads, with some consideration given to other national utilities. “ The
purpose of this work is to put forward in brief form the replies to the various attacks
on nationalization that are printed so freely in the press * * *. The case for
nationalization consists largely in the argument that, with some vital services and
industries, the profit-making incentive, which can not be dissociated from private
enterprise, becomes a hindrance to social development and must be replaced by an
organization working solely with the idea of service * * *. In so far as private
enterprise is condemned in this book, it is the system, and not individuals, which is
aimed at. It is of no use blaming people for making big profits.” For any business
“ not to make the largest possible profits would, moreover, in most cases merely result
in subsidizing competitors. It is the system which permits—nay, even inculcates as
a duty—the making of the greatest possible profits out of the needs of one’s fellow men
without thought of the results to the community, which is at fault; and it is up to those
who, like the present writer, believe that the evils of this system can only be elimi­
nated by means of national or municipal ownership of some of the great vital services
and industries, to set forth, for the consideration of others, the arguments and instances
in support of this belief. And that is the purpose of this modest volume.”
F ay , C. R. Cooperation at home and abroad. A description and analysis, with a supple­
ment on the progress of cooperation in the United Kingdom (1908-1918). Second
edition. London, P. S. King & Son, 1920. 447 pp.
H arris , L ouis I. Occupational causes of ill health. [New York.] A. R. Elliott
Publishing Company, 1919. 13 pp. Reprintedfrom the New York Medical Journal,
November 29, 1919.
Considers occupational diseases in two groups, specific and nonspecific, the first
group being those diseases which are due to particular poisons or to special conditions
in certain industries of such character that when the disease is mentioned it imme­
diately calls to mind a specific industry; and the second those diseases in which the
occupation of the individual plays a small or a large part as a cause of the disease.
I nstitutes S olvay. Institute de Sociologie. Travaux des Groupes d’Etudes de la
Reconstitution Nationale. Brussels and Paris, 1919. 9 vols.
This series of studies on national reconstitution includes: (1) Taxes on excess war
profits (158 pp.); (2) The question of rents (128 pp.); (3) State action against alcoholism
(97 pp.); (4) Senate reform, by Georges Smets (355 pp.); (5) Autonomy of railroads of
the State, Belgium (278 pp.); (6) Inheritance tax (78 pp.); (7) Tariff reform in relation
to food products (79 pp.); (8) Return to legal regime (88 pp.); and (9) District organiza­
tion of public services, by Gustave Abel (104 pp.).
I oteyko, D r . J osefa . La fatigue. Paris, Ernesi Flammarion, Editeur, 1920. 331
pp. Ulus.
This work deals with fatigue from its biological standpoint, its origin, location,
character, and intensity, taking up fatigue of the muscles, of the heart and respiratory


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[402]

PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO LABOR.

191

organs, of the brain, etc. The latter part of the book is devoted to the illnesses due
to fatigue and to the psychoneuroses and neurasthenia induced by the war.
L everhulme , L ord . The six-hour shift and industrial efficiency. Being an abridged
and rearranged edition of the author's Six-hour day. New York, Henry Holt & Co.
1920. 265 pp.
A review of The six-hour day, of which this is an abridgment, appeared in the
Monthly L abor R eview for April, 1919, pp. 168-173.
Marcy, Mary E. The right to strike. Chicago, Charles H. Kerr and Company. [1920.]
32 pp.
Ma s s é , D aniel , and B ovier -L apierre , M. Cours de legislation du travail et pré­
voyance sociale professé à VEcole spéciale des Travaux Publics, du Bâtiment et de
VIndustrie. Paris, 1919. 477 pp.
This is a revised and enlarged edition of a former philosophical treatise on the
progress of labor legislation in France, as taught in the special school of public works,
construction, and industry (Paris). The discussion is presented under three principal
heads: Labor contracts, labor regulations, and social insurance and welfare legislation.
Merchants’ A ssociation op N ew Y ork . Industrial pensions. Report of special
committee on industrial pensions and report of a survey of industrial pension systems
by the industrial bureau. New York, 1920. 49 pp.
The report contains a summary of the essentials of a successful pension system, an
analysis of the provisions of the 142 systems studied, and reports as to the results of
the systems. From the replies as to the success of the plans it was found that there
is little foundation for the belief that pension systems bring about increased efficiency
or loyalty among employees. A typical pension plan, a list of firms maintaining
pensions, and tabular statements as to the source of funds and the success of the plans
are appended.
N ational Canners A ssociation. Canners directory and lists of members of the
Canning Machinery and Supplies Association and the National Canned Foods
and Dried Fruit Brokers Association. Washington, D. C., 1739 H Street NW.,
1920. 232 pp.
N ational Conference on I mmigration. Proceedings of National conference on
immigration, under auspices of the Interracial council, New York, April 7, 1920.
233 Broadway, New York, 1920. 113 pp.
N ational R esearch Council. Research laboratories in industrial establishments of
the United States of America. Washington, D. C.; March, 1920. pp. 45-130.
Bulletin. Vol. 1, part 2, No. 2.
A classified list of industrial establishments with some information about staff
work, and equipment.
Ontario S afety L eague and Canadian N ational S afety L eague . Papers pre­
sented at three-day safety convention, Toronto, April 13 to 15, 1920. Toronto, 189
Church Street, 1920. 72 pp.
This pamphlet contains 15 papers, with discussions, on industrial safety, as pre­
sented at the three-day safety convention of the Ontario Safety League and the Cana­
dian National Safety League held in Toronto in April, 1920, being the first annual
meeting of the Canadian National Safety League and the sixth annual meeting of the
Ontario Safety League. The subjects treated are industrial hygiene, accident pre­
vention in the steel industry, elevators, grinding wheels, hazards in grain elevators
and cereal mills, accident prevention in the rubber industries, accident prevention in
the automobile industry, industrial dust, shop lighting, resuscitation, accident pre­
vention in the pulp and paper industry, shop safety committees and industrial rela­
tions, steam railroad hazards, and fire prevention. At the annual luncheon an address
on the safety movement was delivered by R. M. Little, director of the Safety Institute
of America, New York City.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[403]

192

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW.

P rice, E nid M.

Changes in the industrial occupations of women in the environment of
Montreal during the period of the war, 1914-1918. (A thesis for the degree of master
of arts, McGill University.) Montreal, The Canadian Reconstruction Association,,
1919. 86 pp.
Sets forth the results of a personal investigation into the changes brought about by the
war in the industrial activities of women in and near Montreal, and the comparative
views and opinions of the employers regarding changed conditions in their respective
industries and the future outlook for women.
S ociété Coopérative S uisse de Consommation de Gen èv e . La Coopération à
Genève et en Suisse. Geneva, 1918. 158 pp. Chart.
An account of the 50-years’ development of the Swiss Consumers’ Cooperative
Society of Geneva, Switzerland. The society now has 22,852 members; its sales for
1918 amounted to 11,120,931 francs ($2,146,341, par), and the sum of 722,945 francs
($139,528, par) was returned as a dividend on sales.
U nion L abor D irectory. Chicago and vicinity. Architects, builders, contractors’
guide. (Formerly Macdonald’«.) Fifteenth edition. Chicago, 154 West Randolph
Street \_1920~\. 160 pp.
Contains official wage scales of the building trades-unions for 1920.
V aldour, J acques. L ’ouvrier agricole. Observations vécues. Paris, Arthur Rous­
seau, éditeur, 1919. 309 pp.
This volume is one of a series of labor studies which together are planned to present
a fairly comprehensive picture of labor conditions in France in the first part of the
twentieth century. This study, which covered three Provinces, deals with the work­
ing conditions of persons employed in harvesting hay and grain and in gathering grapes,
and also with the material details of their lives, their habits, language, morality,,
and political or religious ideas.
Y oung , A rthur H. Industrial cooperation. A n address presented at the twenty-sixth
annual convention, National Implement and Vehicle Association, Chicago, October
16, 1919. Chicago, National Implement and Vehicle Association, 72 West Adams
Street, 1919. 11 pp.
Sets forth the aims, methods, and results of the Harvester industrial council plan..


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

[404]

SERIES OF BULLETINS PUBLISHED BY THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS,
LThe p u b lic a tio n o f th e annual an d s p e c ia l r e p o r ts an d o f th e b im o n th ly b u lle tin w a s
d is c o n tin u e d in J u ly , 1 9 1 2 , an d sin ce th a t tim e a b u lle tin h as b ee n p u b lis h e d a t ir r e g u la r
in te r v a ls . Each n u m b er co n ta in s m a tte r d e v o te d to one o f a s e r ie s o f g e n e r a l s u b je c ts .
T h ese
b u lle tin s a r e n u m b e re d c o n s e c u tiv e ly , b eg in n in g w ith N o. 1 0 1 , a n d up to N o. 2 3 6 ; th e y a lso c a r r y
c o n s e c u tiv e n u m b ers u n d e r ea c h s e r ie s . B egin n in g w ith N o. 2 3 7 th e s e r ia l n u m b erin g h as b een
d is c o n tin u e d . A lis t o f th e s e r ie s is g iv e n b e lo w .
U n d e r ea c h is g r o u p e d a ll th e b u lle tin s
w h ich co n ta in m a te r ia l r e la tin g to th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f th a t s e r ie s . A li s t of th e r e p o r ts and
b u lle tin s o f th e B u reau issu e d p r io r to J u ly 1, 1 9 1 2 , w ill b e fu rn ish ed on a p p lic a tio n .
The
b u lle tin s m a r k e d thus * a r e o u t o f p r in t.]
W holesale P rice s.
* B u i. 114. W h o le sa le p ric e s, 1 8 9 0 to 1912.
B u i. 149. W h o le sa le p ric e s , 1 890 to 1913.
* B u i. 173. In d e x n u m b e rs o f w h o le sa le p ric e s in th e
c o u n trie s .
B u i. 181. W h o le sa le p ric e s, 1 8 9 0 to 1914.
B u i. 200. W h o le sa le p ric e s, 189 0 to 1915.
B u i. 226. W h o le sa le p ric e s , 1 8 9 0 to 1916.
B u i. 269. W h o le sa le p ric e s, 189 0 to 1919. [ I n p re s s .]

U n ite d

S ta te s

B eta il Prices and Cost o f L iving.
* B u i. 105. R e ta il p ric e s , 1 8 9 0 to 1911 : P a r t I.
R e ta il p ric e s , 189 0 to 1911 : P a r t I I — G e n e ra l ta b le s.
* B u i. 1 0 6 . R e ta il p ric e s , 1 8 9 0 to J u n e , 1912 : P a r t I.
R e ta il p ric e s , 1 8 9 0 to J u n e , 1912 : P a r t I I — G e n e ra l ta b le s .
B u i. 108. R e ta il p ric e s , 1 8 9 0 to A u g u st, 1912.
B u i. 110. R e ta il p ric e s , 1 8 9 0 to O c to b er, 1912.
B u i. 113. R e ta il p ric e s, 189 0 to D ecem b er, 1912.
B u i. 115. R e ta il p ric e s , 1 8 9 0 to F e b r u a r y , 1913.
* B u i. 121. S u g a r p ric e s , fro m re fin e r to c o n su m e r.
B u i. 125. R e ta il p ric e s, 189 0 to A p ril, 1913.
B u i. 1 3 0 . W h e a t a n d flo u r p ric e s, fro m fa r m e r to c o n su m e r.
B u i. 132. R e ta il p ric e s, 1 8 9 0 to J u n e , 1913.
B u i. 136. R e ta il p ric e s, 1 8 9 0 to A u g u st, 1913.
* B u i. 138. R e ta il p ric e s, 1 8 9 0 to O c to b er, 1913.
B u i. 140. R e ta il p ric e s , 1 8 9 0 to D e ce m b e r, 1913.
B u i. 156. R e ta il p ric e s , 190 7 to D ecem b er, 1914.
B u i. 164. B u tte r p ric e s , fro m p ro d u c e r to c o n su m e r.
B u i. 170. F o r e ig n fo o d p ric e s a s a ffe c te d by th e w a r.
* B u i. 184. R e ta il p ric e s , 190 7 to J u n e , 1915.
B u i. 197. R e ta il p ric e s , 1 907 to D ecem b er, 1915.
B u i. 2 2 8 . R e ta il p ric e s , 1 9 0 7 to D e ce m b e r, 1916.
B u i. 2 6 6 . A s tu d y o f fa m ily e x p e n d itu re s in th e D i s t r i c t o f C o lu m b ia .
B u i. 270. R e ta il p ric e s, 1913 to 1919.
[ I n p re s s.]

and

fo re ig n

[ I n p re s s .]

W ages and Hours of Labor.
B u i. 116. H o u rs , e a r n in g s , a n d d u r a tio n o f e m p lo y m e n t o f w a g e -e a rn in g w om en in
s e le c te d in d u s tr ie s in th e D is tr ic t o f C o lu m b ia.
B u i. 118. T e n -h o u r m a x im u m w o rk in g -d a y f o r w o m en a n d y o u n g p e rs o n s.
B u i. 119. W o rk in g h o u rs o f w o m en in th e p e a c a n n e rie s o f W isc o n sin .
* B u i. 128. W a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in th e c o tto n , w oolen, a n d silk in d u s tr ie s , 1890
to 1912.
* B u i. 129. W ag e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in th e lu m b e r, m illw o rk , a n d f u r n itu r e in d u s ­
tr i e s , 1 8 9 0 to 1912.
* B u i. 131. U n io n s c a le o f w a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r, 1907 to 1912.
* B u i. 134. W a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in th e b o o t a n d shoe a n d h o s ie ry a n d k n it goods
in d u s tr ie s , 1890 to 1912.
* B u i. 135. W ag e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in th e c ig a r a n d c lo th in g in d u s tr ie s , 1911 a n d
1912.
B u i. 137. W ag e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in th e b u ild in g a n d r e p a ir in g of s te a m r a ilr o a d
c a rs , 1 8 9 0 to 1912.
B ui. 143 U n io n s c a le o f w a g es a n d h o u rs o f la b o r, M ay 15, 1913.
B u i. 146. W ag e s a n d r e g u la r ity o f e m p lo y m e n t a n d s ta n d a r d i z a tio n o f pie c e r a te s
in th e d re s s a n d w a is t in d u s tr y o f N ew Y o rk C ity .


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

(I),

W ages and Hours of Labor— C o n clu d ed .
B u i. 147. W a g e s a n d r e g u la r ity o f e m p lo y m e n t in th e c lo a k , s u it, a n d s k i r t in d u s tr y .
B u i. 150. W a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in th e c o tto n , w o o le n , a n d s ilk in d u s tr ie s , 1907
to 1913.
B u i. 151. W a g e s a n d h o u r s o f la b o r in th e iro n a n d s te e l in d u s tr y in th e U n ite d
S ta te s , 1 907 to 1912.
♦ B u i. 153. W ag e s a n d h o u r s o f la b o r in th e lu m b e r, m illw o rk , a n d f u r n i t u r e in d u s ­
tr i e s , 1 9 0 7 to 1913.
B u i. 154. W a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in th e b o o t a n d sh o e a n d h o s ie ry a n d u n d e r ­
w e a r in d u s tr ie s , 1 9 0 7 t o 1913.
B u i. 16 0 . H o u rs , e a r n in g s , a n d c o n d itio n s o f la b o r o f w o m e n in I n d ia n a m e rc a n tile
e s ta b lis h m e n ts a n d g a r m e n t fa c to rie s .
B u i. 161. W a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in th e c lo th in g a n d c ig a r in d u s tr ie s , 1911 to
1 9 13.
B u i. 16 3 . W a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in t h e b u ild in g a n d r e p a ir in g of s te a m r a ilr o a d
c a rs, 190 7 to 1913.
B u i. 168. W ag e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in th e iro n a n d s te e l in d u s tr y , 1907 to 1918.
B u i. 171. U n io n s c a le o f w a g e s a n d h o u r s o f la b o r, M ay 1, 1914.
B u i. 177. W a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in th e h o s ie ry a n d u n d e r w e a r in d u s tr y , 1907
to 1 9 14.
* B u i. 178. W a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in t h e b o o t a n d sh o e in d u s tr y , 1907 to 1914.
B u i. 187. W a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in t h e m e n ’s c lo th in g in d u s tr y , 1911 to 1914.
* B u i. 190. W a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in th e c o tto n , w oolen, a n d s ilk in d u s tr ie s , 1907
to 1 9 14.
* B u i. 194. U n io n s c a le o f w a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r, M ay 1, 1915.
B u i. 20 4 . S tr e e t ra ilw a y e m p lo y m e n t in th e U n ite d S ta te s .
*
B u i. 21 4 . U n io n s c a le o f w a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r, M ay 15, 1916.
B u i. 2 1 8 . W a g e s a n d h o u r s o f la b o r in t h e iro n a n d s te e l in d u s tr y , 1 9 0 7 to 1915.
B u i. 22 1 . H o u rs , fa tig u e , a n d h e a l th in B r itis h m u n itio n fa c to rie s .
B u i. 2 2 5 . W a g e s a n d h o u r s o f la b o r in th e lu m b e r, m illw o rk , a n d f u r n i t u r e in d u s ­
tr ie s , 1 9 15.
B u i. 2 3 2 . W a g e s a n d h o u r s o f la b o r in th e b o o t a n d sh o e in d u s tr y , 1907 to 1916.
B u i. 23 8 . W a g e s a n d h o u r s o f la b o r in w o o len a n d w o rs te d g oods m a n u f a c tu r in g ,
1916.
B u i. 2 3 9 . W ag e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in c o tto n g o o d s m a n u f a c tu r in g a n d fin ish in g ,
19 1 6 .
B u i. 2 4 5 . U n io n s c a le o f w a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r, M ay 15, 1917.
B u i. 2 5 2 . W a g e s a n d h o u r s o f la b o r in th e s la u g h t e r in g a n d m e a t-p a c k in g in d u s tr y .
B u i. 2 5 9 . U n io n s c a le o f w a g e s a n d h o u r s o f la b o r, M ay 15, 1918.
B u i. 26 0 . W a g e s a n d h o u r s o f la b o r in t h e b o o t a n d shoe in d u s tr y , 1907 to 1918.
B u i. 2 6 1 . W a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in w o o le n a n d w o rs te d goods m a n u f a c tu r in g , 1918.
B u i. 262. W a g e s a n d h o u rs o f la b o r in c o tto n g o o d s m a n u f a c tu r in g a n d fin ish in g ,
1918.
B u i. 26 5 . I n d u s t r i a l s u rv e y in s e le c te d in d u s tr ie s in th e U n ite d S ta te s , 1919. P r e ­
lim in a r y re p o r t.
[ I n p re s s .]
B u i. 27 4 . U n io n s c a le o f w a g e s a n d h o u r s o f la b o r, M ay 15, 1919.
[ I n p re s s.]
E m ploym ent and U nem ploym ent.
* B u i. 10 9 . S t a tis tic s o f u n e m p lo y m e n t a n d t h e w o rk o f e m p lo y m e n t offices.
B u i. 11 6 . H o u rs , e a r n in g s , a n d d u r a tio n o f e m p lo y m e n t o f w a g e -e a rn in g w om en in
s e le c te d in d u s tr ie s in th e D i s t r i c t o f C o lu m b ia.
B u i. 172. U n e m p lo y m e n t in N ew Y o rk C ity , N . Y.
B u i. 1 8 2 . U n e m p lo y m e n t a m o n g w o m e n in d e p a r tm e n t a n d o th e r r e t a i l s to re s of
B o sto n , M ass.
B u i. 183. R e g u la r ity o f e m p lo y m e n t in th e w o m e n ’s re a d y -to -w e a r g a r m e n t in d u s tr ie s .
B u i. 192. P ro c e e d in g s o f th e A m e ric a n A ss o c ia tio n o f P u b lic E m p lo y m e n t Offices.
* B u i. 195. U n e m p lo y m e n t in th e U n ite d S ta te s .
B u i. 1 9 6 . P ro c e e d in g s o f th e E m p lo y m e n t M a n a g e rs ’ C o n fe re n c e h e ld a t M in n e a p o lis ,
J a n u a r y , 1 9 16.
B u i. 202. P r o c e e d in g s o f th e c o n fe re n c e o f th e E m p lo y m e n t M a n a g e rs ’ A ss o c ia tio n of
B o sto n , M ass., h e ld M ay 10, 1916.
B u i. 206. T h e B r itis h s y ste m o f la b o r e x c h a n g e s.
B u i. 2 2 0 . P ro c e e d in g s o f th e F o u r th A n n u a l M e e tin g o f th e A m e ric a n A ss o c ia tio n of
P u b lic E m p lo y m e n t Offices, B u ffalo , N. Y ., J u ly 20 a n d 21, 1916.
B u i. 223. E m p lo y m e n t o f w o m en a n d ju v e n ile s in G r e a t B r ita in d u r in g th e w a r.
* B u i. 22 7 . P ro c e e d in g s o f th e E m p lo y m e n t M a n a g e rs ’ C o n fe re n ce , P h ila d e lp h ia , P a .,
A p ril 2 a n d 3, 1917.
B u i. 235. E m p lo y m e n t s y s te m o f th e L a k e C a r r ie r s ’ A ss o c ia tio n .
B u i. 241. P u b lic e m p lo y m e n t offices in th e U n ite d S ta te s .
B u i. 247. P r o c e e d in g s o f th e E m p lo y m e n t M a n a g e rs ’ C o n fe re n c e , R o c h e s te r, N . Y .t
M ay 9 -1 1 , 1918.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

W omen in Industry.
B u i. 116. H o u rs , e a r n in g s , a n d d u r a tio n o f e m p lo y m e n t o f w a g e -e a rn in g w o m e n in
se le c te d in d u s tr ie s in th e D i s t r i c t o f C o lu m b ia .
* B u i. 117. P r o h ib itio n o f n ig h t w o rk o f y o u n g p e rs o n s.
B u i. 118. T e n -h o u r m a x im u m w o rk in g -d a y f o r w o m en a n d y o u n g p e rs o n s.
B u i. 119. W o rk in g h o u rs o f w o m e n in th e p e a c a n n e rie s o f W isc o n s in .
* B u i. 122. E m p lo y m e n t o f w o m e n in p o w e r la u n d r ie s in M ilw au k e e .
B u i. 160. H o u rs , e a r n in g s , a n d c o n d itio n s o f la b o r o f w o m en in I n d ia n a m e rc a n tile
e s ta b lis h m e n ts a n d g a r m e n t f a c to rie s ,
* B u i. 167. M in im u m -w a g e le g is la tio n in th e U nited- S ta te s a n d fo re ig n c o u n trie s .
* B u i. 175. S u m m a ry o f th e r e p o r t o n c o n d itio n o f w o m a n a n d c h ild w a g e e a r n e r s in
th e U n ite d S ta te s .
B u i. 176. E ffe c t o f m in im u m -w a g e d e te r m in a tio n in O regon.
B u i. 180. T h e b o o t a n d sh o e i n d u s tr y in M a s s a c h u s e tts a s a v o c a tio n fo r w om en.
B u i. 182. U n e m p lo y m e n t a m o n g w o m e n in d e p a r tm e n t a n d o th e r r e t a i l s to re s of
B o sto n , M ass.
B u i. 1 9 3 . D re s s m a k in g a s a tr a d e f o r w o m en in M a s s a c h u s e tts .
B u i. 2 1 5 . I n d u s t r i a l e x p e rie n c e o f tra d e -s c h o o l g ir l s in M a s s a c h u s e tts .
B u i. 217. E ffe c t o f w o rk m e n ’s c o m p e n s a tio n la w s in d im in is h in g th e n e c e s s ity o f
in d u s t r i a l e m p lo y m e n t o f w o m en a n d c h ild re n .
B u i. 223. E m p lo y m e n t o f w o m en a n d ju v e n ile s in G r e a t B r i t a i n d u r in g th e w a r.
B u i. 253. W o m e n in t h e le a d in d u s tr y .
W orkm en’s Insurance and C om pensation (including law s relating th ereto).
B u i. 101. C a re o f tu b e r c u lo u s w a g e e a r n e r s in G e rm a n y .
B u i. 102. B r itis h N a tio n a l I n s u r a n c e A ct, 1911.
B u i. 103. S ic k n e ss a n d a c c id e n t in s u r a n c e la w o f S w itz e rla n d .
B u i. 10 7 . L a w r e la tin g to in s u r a n c e o f s a la r i e d em p lo y e es in G e rm a n y .
* B u i. 1 2 6 . W o rk m e n ’s c o m p e n s a tio n la w s o f th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d fo re ig n c o u n trie s .
B u i. 155. C o m p e n sa tio n f o r a c c id e n ts to e m p lo y e es o f th e U n ite d S ta te s .
* B u i. 185. C o m p e n s a tio n le g is la tio n o f 1 9 1 4 a n d 1915.
B u i. 203. W o rk m e n ’s c o m p e n sa tio n la w s o f th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d fo re ig n c o u n trie s .
B u i. 2 1 0 . P r o c e e d in g s o f th e T h ir d A n n u a l M e e tin g o f th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A ss o c ia tio n
o f I n d u s t r i a l A c c id e n t B o a rd s a n d C o m m issio n s.
B u i. 2 1 2 . P ro c e e d in g s o f th e c o n fe re n c e o n s o c ia l in s u r a n c e c a lle d b y th e I n t e r ­
n a tio n a l A ss o c ia tio n o f I n d u s t r i a l A c c id e n t B o a r d s a n d C om m issio n s.
B u i. 21 7 . E ffe c t o f w o rk m e n ’s c o m p e n sa tio n la w s in d im in is h in g th e n e c e s s ity of
i n d u s tr ia l e m p lo y m e n t o f w o m en a n d c h ild re n .
B u i. 24 0 . C o m p a ris o n o f w o rk m e n ’s c o m p e n sa tio n la w s o f t h e U n ite d S ta te s .
B u i. 243. W o rk m e n ’s c o m p e n s a tio n le g is la tio n in th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d fo re ig n
c o u n trie s .
B u i. 248. P r o c e e d in g s o f th e F o u r th A n n u a l M e e tin g o f th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c ia tio n
o f I n d u s t r i a l A c c id e n t B o a r d s a n d C o m m issio n s.
B u i. 264. P r o c e e d in g s o f th e F i f t h A n n u a l M e e tin g o f th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A ss o c ia tio n
o f I n d u s t r i a l A c c id e n t B o a r d s a n d C o m m issio n s.
B u i. 2 7 2 . W o rk m e n ’s c o m p e n sa tio n le g is la tio n o f th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d C a n a d a ,
1 9 19. [ I n p re s s .]
B u i. 273. P ro c e e d in g s o f th e S ix th A n n u a l M e e tin g o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A ss o c ia tio n
o f I n d u s tr ia l A c c id e n t B o a r d s a n d C o m m issio n s.
[ I n p re s s .]
B u i. 2 7 5 . C o m p a ris o n o f w o rk m e n ’s c o m p e n s a tio n la w s o f th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d
C anada.
[ I n p re s s .]
Industrial A ccidents and H ygiene.
B u i. 104. L e a d p o is o n in g in p o tte r ie s , t i l e w o rk s, a n d p o rc e la in e n a m e le d s a n it a r y
w a r e fa c to rie s .
B u i. 120. H y g ie n e o f th e p a i n t e r s ’ tr a d e .
* B u i. 1 2 7 . D a n g e r s to w o rk e rs fro m d u s ts a n d fu m e s, a n d m e th o d s o f p ro te c tio n .
B u i. 1 4 1 . L e a d p o is o n in g in th e s m e ltin g a n d re fin in g o f le a d .
* B u i. 1 5 7 . I n d u s t r i a l a c c id e n t s ta t is tic s .
B u i. 1 6 5 . L e a d p o is o n in g in th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f s to ra g e b a tte r ie s .
* B u i. 179. I n d u s t r i a l p o is o n s u s e d in th e ru b b e r in d u s tr y .
B u i. 188. R e p o r t o f B r itis h d e p a r tm e n ta l c o m m itte e on th e d a n g e r in th e u s e o f
le a d in t h e p a in tin g o f b u ild in g s .
* B u i. 201. R e p o r t o f c o m m itte e o n s t a t i s t i c s a n d c o m p e n s a tio n In s u ra n c e c o st o f th e
I n t e r n a t i o n a l A ss o c ia tio n o f I n d u s t r i a l A c c id e n t B o a r d s a n d C om m is­
s io n s.
[L im ite d e d itio n .]
B u i. 20 5 . A n th r a x a s a n o c c u p a tio n a l d is e a s e .
B u i. 2 0 7 . C a u s e s o f d e a th by o c c u p a tio n .
B u i. 209. H y g ie n e o f t h e p r in t in g tr a d e s .
B u i. 216. A c c id e n ts a n d a c c id e n t p r e v e n tio n In m a c h in e b u ild in g .
B u i. 21 9 . I n d u s t r i a l p o is o n s u se d o r p ro d u c e d in th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f ex p lo siv es.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

In d u s tria l A ccidents and H ygiene— C o n clu d ed .
B u i. 221. H o u rs , fa tig u e , a n d h e a lth in B r itis h m u n itio n fa c to rie s .
B u i. 23 0 . I n d u s t r i a l efficiency a n d fa tig u e in B r itis h m u n itio n fa c to rie s .
B u i. 2 3 1 . M o r ta lity fro m r e s p ir a to r y d is e a s e s in d u s ty tra d e s .
B u i. 2 3 4 . S a fe ty m o v e m e n t in th e iro n a n d s te e l in d u s tr y , 1907 to 1917.
B u i. 23 6 . E ffe c t o f th e a i r h a m m e r o n th e h a n d s o f s to n e c u tte r s .
B u i. 2 5 1 . P r e v e n ta b le d e a th in th e c o tto n m a n u f a c tu r in g in d u s tr y .
B u i. 253. W o m en in th e le a d in d u s tr y .
B u i. 2 5 6 . A c c id e n ts a n d a c c id e n t p re v e n tio n in m a c h in e b u ild in g .
R e v isio n
B u i. 216.
B u i. 267. A n th r a x a s a n o c c u p a tio n a l d is e a s e .
(R e v ise d .)
[ I n p re s s .]
B u i. 2 7 6 . S ta n d a r d iz a tio n o f i n d u s tr ia l a c c id e n t s ta t is tic s .
[ I n p re s s .]

of

C onciliation and A rbitration (including strikes and lockouts).
* B u i. 124. C o n c ilia tio n a n d a r b i t r a t i o n in th e b u ild in g tr a d e s of G r e a te r N ew Y ork.
B u i. 133. R e p o r t o f t h e i n d u s tr ia l c o u n c il o f th e B r itis h B o a r d o f T r a d e on its in ­
q u iry in to in d u s tr ia l a g re e m e n ts .
B u i. 139. M ic h ig a n c o p p e r d i s t r i c t s trik e .
B u i. 144. I n d u s t r i a l c o u r t o f th e c lo a k , s u it, a n d s k ir t i n d u s tr y o f N ew Y o rk C ity.
B u i. 145. C o n c ilia tio n , a r b i t r a t i o n , a n d s a n it a tio n in th e d re s s a n d w a is t in d u s tr y o f
N ew Y o rk C ity .
• B u i. 191. C o lle c tiv e b a r g a in in g in th e a n t h r a c i t e c o al in d u s tr y .
B u i. 198. C o lle c tiv e a g re e m e n ts in t h e m e n ’s c lo th in g in d u s tr y .
B u i. 233. O p e ra tio n o f th e I n d u s t r i a l D is p u te s I n v e s tig a tio n A c t of C a n a d a .
Labor Laws o f th e U nited States (including decisions of eourts relating to labor).
* B u i. 11 1 . L a b o r le g is la tio n o f 1912.
* B u i. 1 1 2 . D e c is io n s o f c o u r ts a n d o p in io n s a ffe c tin g la b o r, 1912.
* B u i. 148. L a b o r la w s o f th e U n ite d S ta te s , w ith d e c isio n s o f c o u r ts r e la tin g th e re to .
B u i. 15 2 . D e c is io n s o f c o u rts a n d o p in io n s a ffe c tin g la b o r, 1913.
* B u i. 1 6 6 . L a b o r le g is la tio n o f 1914.
* B u i. 169. D e c is io n s o f c o u r ts a ffe c tin g la b o r, 1914.
* B u i. 18 6 . L a b o r le g is la tio n o f 1915.
* B u i. 1 8 9 . D e c is io n s o f c o u rts a ffe c tin g la b o r, 1915.
B u i. 2 1 1 . L a b o r la w s a n d t h e ir a d m in is tr a tio n in t h e P a c ific S ta te s .
* B u i. 21 3 . L a b o r le g is la tio n o f 1916.
B u i. 2 2 4 . D e c is io n s o f c o u rts a ffe c tin g la b o r, 1916.
B u i. 2 2 9 . W a g e -p a y m e n t le g is la tio n in th e U n ite d S ta te s .
B u i. 244. L a b o r le g is la tio n o f 1917.
B u i. 2 4 6 . D e c is io n s o f c o u r ts a ffe c tin g la b o r, 1917.
B u i. 2 5 7 . L a b o r le g is la tio n o f 1918.
B u i. 2 5 8 . D e c is io n s o f c o u r ts a n d o p in io n s a ffe c tin g la b o r, 1918.
B u i. 277. L a b o r le g is la tio n o f 1 9 19. [ I n p re s s .]
Foreign Labor Law s.
B u i. 142. A d m in is tr a tio n o f la b o r la w s a n d fa c to r y in s p e c tio n in c e r ta in E u r o p e a n
c o u n trie s .
V ocational Education.
B u i. 145. C o n c ilia tio n , a r b i t r a t i o n , a n d s a n i t a t i o n in th e d re s s a n d w a is t in d u s tr y of
N ew Y o rk C ity .
B u i. 147. W a g e s a n d r e g u la r ity o f e m p lo y m e n t in th e clo ak , s u it, a n d s k ir t in d u s try .
* B u i. 159. S h o r t- u n it c o u rs e s f o r w a g e e a r n e r s , a n d a f a c to r y sch o o l e x p e rim e n t.
B u i. 162. V o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n s u rv e y o f R ic h m o n d , V a.
B u i. 199. V o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n s u rv e y o f M in n e a p o lis .
B u i. 271. A d u lt w o rk in g -c la s s e d u c a tio n in G re a t B r ita in a n d th e U n ite d S ta te s .
[ I n p re s s .]
Labor as
B u l.
B u i.
B u l.
B u l.
B u l.
B u l.
B u l.
B u l.

Affected by the W ar.
170. F o r e ig n fo o d p ric e s a s a ffe c te d by th e w a r.
219. I n d u s tr ia l p o is o n s u s e d o r p ro d u c e d in th e m a n u f a c tu r e of e x p lo siv es.
221. H o u rs , fa tig u e , a n d h e a l th in B r itis h m u n itio n fa c to rie s .
222. W e lfa re w o rk in B r itis h m u n itio n fa c to rie s .
2 2 3 . E m p lo y m e n t o f w o m en a n d ju v e n ile s in G re a t B r ita in d u r in g th e w a r.
230. I n d u s t r i a l efficiency a n d f a tig u e in B r itis h m u n itio n fa c to rie s .
23 7 . I n d u s t r i a l u n r e s t in G r e a t B r ita in .
2 4 9 . I n d u s t r i a l h e a l th a n d efficiency. F in a l r e p o r t o f B r itis h H e a lt h o f M u n i­
tio n W o rk e rs C o m m itte e .
B u l. 255. J o i n t i n d u s tr ia l c o u n cils in G r e a t B r ita in .


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

(IV )

M iscellaneous Series.
* B u i. 117. P r o h ib itio n o f n ig h t w o rk o f y o u n g p e rs o n s.
B u i. 118. T e n -h o u r m a x im u m w o rk in g d a y fo r w o m en a n d y o u n g p e rs o n s.
* B u i. 123. E m p lo y e r s ’ w e lfa re w o rk .
B u i. 158. G o v e rn m e n t a id to h o m e o w n in g a n d h o u s in g o f w o rk in g pe o p le in fo re ig n
c o u n trie s .
* B u i. 159. S h o r t- u n it c o u rs e s fo r w a g e e a r n e r s , a n d a f a c to ry sch o o l e x p e rim e n t.
* B u i. 167. M in im u m -w a g e le g is la tio n in th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d fo r e ig n c o u n trie s .
B u i. 170. F o r e ig n fo o d p ric e s a s a ffe c te d by th e w a r.
B u i. 174. S u b je c t in d e x o f th e p u b lic a tio n s o f th e U n ite d S ta te s B u re a u o f L a b o r
S t a t i s t i c s u p to M ay 1, 1915.
B u i. 208. P r o f it s h a r in g in th e U n ite d S ta te s .
B u i. 222. W e lfa re w o rk in B r itis h m u n itio n fa c to rie s .
B u i. 24 2 . F o o d s itu a tio n in C e n tr a l E u ro p e , 1917.
B u i. 250. W e lfa re w o rk f o r e m p lo y e es in in d u s tr ia l e s ta b lis h m e n ts in th e U n ite d
S ta te s .
B u i. 254. I n t e r n a t i o n a l la b o r le g is la tio n a n d th e s o c ie ty o f n a tio n s .
B u i. 263. H o u s in g by e m p lo y e rs in th e U n ite d S ta te s .
[ I n p re s s .]
B u i. 268. H is to ric a l s u rv e y o f in te r n a tio n a l a c tio n a ffe c tin g la b o r.
[ I n p re s s .]


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

(v)

SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
D escriptions of occupations, prepared for the U nited States Em ploym ent Service, 1918-19.
B o o ts a n d sh o es, h a r n e s s a n d s a d d le ry , a n d ta n n in g .
C a n e -s u g a r re fin in g a n d flo u r m illin g .
C o al a n d w a te r g a s, p a in t a n d v a r n is h , p a p e r, p r in t in g tr a d e s , a n d ‘ ru b b e r goods.
E le c tr ic a l m a n u f a c tu r in g , d is tr ib u tio n , a n d m a in te n a n c e .
L o g g in g c a m p s a n d s a w m ills.
M e d ic in a l m a n u fa c tu rin g .
M e ta l w o rk in g , b u ild in g a n d g e n e r a l c o n s tr u c tio n , r a ilr o a d t r a n s p o r ta tio n , a n d s h ip ­
b u ild in g .
M in es a n d m in in g .
Office em p lo y ees.
S la u g h te rin g a n d m e a t p a c k in g .
S tr e e t ra ilw a y s .
T e x tile s a n d c lo th in g .
W a te r t r a n s p o r ta tio n .


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

o

(V I)


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis