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THE 7q0 MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE, Established July, 1839, BY FREEMAN HUNT, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. VOLUME XI. SEPTEMBER, CONTENTS 1844. O F NO. I l l , NUMBER III. VOL. XI. ARTICLES. ART. P AG E . I. Trade and Commerce of Sweden,......................................................................... 203 II. Labor— its Relations in the United States and Europe, Compared. By Hon. N athan A ppleton, of Massachusetts,............................................................... 217 III. Ohio— its Wealth and Resources. By J. W. Scott, of Ohio,......................... 223 IV. Merchant Seamen. By J ames H. L anman, of Massachusetts,.......................... 230 V. History o f Banks and Banking in Illinois. By H enry B rown, author of the “ History of Illinois,” ........................................................................................... 240 VI. Mercantile Biography: Brief Notices o f Merchants, distinguished in the early or Revolutionary history o f the country. Thomas C. Amory— Hon. Jonathan Belcher— Hon. Thomas Cushing—Hon. Tristram Dalton— Hon. Thomas Davis. By the late A ldenB radford, ................................................ 251 VII. The Nature and Effect of Protective Tariffs. By H azen J. B urton, Mer chant, of Massachusetts,...................................................................................... 254 VIII. The Question for Accountants. By J. W . W right, of New York,............ 258 MONTHLY COMMERCIAL CHRONICLE, EMBRACING A FINANCIAL AND COMMERCIAL REVIEW OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC., ILLUSTRATED W ITH TABLES, AS FOLLOWS : Produce shipped from Buffalo and Black-Rock, in 1844,........................ ..................... Tolls on the New York canals, to August 1, 1843 and 1844,..................................... Banks of New York State, from 1831, to August, 1844,.............................................. Immediate Means and Liabilities of the Banks of New York, to August, 1844,.... MERCANTILE LAW D E P A R T ME NT . Cases in the United States Circuit Court, New York,.................................................. Rights and Remedies of Foreigners—John A. Barry’s case,........................................ Violation of Patent— Stephens vs. D. &. W . Felt,.......................................................... Action to recover Duties exacted at the Custom-House—Wetzlar vs. Swartwout Action to recover Duties paid on importation of Merchandise— Paton vs. Curtis, Bottomry Bonds— the Brig Bridgeton,............................................................................ VOL. XX.---- NO. I I I . 260 260 262 264 20 265 265 266 267 267 268 202 Table o f Contents. PAG E . Action on a Charter-Party— Burgess vs. De Zaldo,........................................................ 268 Loan— Hypothecated Stock— Farmers’ Life and Trust Co. vs. Samuel B. Jewett,.... 269 COMMERCIAL S T A T I S T I C S . Commerce and Navigation of the United States, in 1843,........................................... Domestic Exports of the United States, from 1st October, 1842, to 39th June, 1843, Value of Domestic Exports of the United States, in American and Foreign vessels, to each country,............................................................................................................. Value of Foreign Merchandise exported from the United States to each Foreign country,........................................................................................................................... Imports into the United States, from each Foreign country,.......................................... Exports to, and Imports into, the United States, from each Foreign country,............ Navigation of the United States with different countries,............................................. Commerce of each State and Territory, from 1st October, 1842, to 30th June, 1843, Tonnage, Crews, etc., entered each State in the United States,.................................. Tonnage, Crews, etc., cleared from each State in the United States,.......................... Tonnage of the several Districts of the United States, on 30th June, 1843,.............. Vessels built in each State and Territory, in 1843,........................................................ NAUTICAL 270 271 272 274 275 276 277 279 280 281 282 284 INTELLIGENCE. Drew’s Plan for Preventing Ships from becoming Hogged,......................................... Description of a Shoal off St. Croix,................................................................................ Privilege of American Whale Ships at New Zealand,................................................. A Practical Life-Preserver,............................................................................................... MERCANTILE 284 285 286 286 MISCELLANIES. A Lucrative Commercial Enterprise,..........,................................................................... Commercial Value of Old Paintings in England,.......................................................... The Guano Trade in England and the United States,.................................................. The Fresh Fish Trade of Boston,................................................................................... Lafitte, the French Banker; or, a Fortune made by Picking up a Pin,...................... Smelting Copper Ore in the United States,..................................................................... Gigantic Commercial Enterprise,...................................................................................... American Fur Company’s Stores at St. Louis,................................................................ “ He will Never make a merchant,” ................................................................................. An Instance of Commercial Integrity,............................................................................ 286 286 287 288 289 290 291 291 292 292 T H E L OOK T R A D E . Griswold’s D’lsraeli’s Curiosities of Literature,.............................................................. Brown’s History of Illinois,............................................................................................... Jacobs’s Pacific Ocean— Strauss’s Life of Christ,.......................................................... Works of Charlotte Elizabeth— Lady’s Work-Table Book,......................................... Cooper’s Naval Court-Martial in the Case of Mackenzie,............................................ Napier’s Peninsular War— Morse’s Geography,.............................................................. HerschbergePs Horseman— Taylor’s Apostolic Baptism,................................................ Foster’s Miscellaneous Essays on Christian Morals,..................................................... More’s (Hannah) Domestic Tales— Bush’s Notes on Judges,........................................ Works in Pamphlet form, received since our last,.......................................................... 293 293 294 294 294 295 295 295 296 296 H U N T ’S MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE. S E P T E M B E R , 1844. A rt . I.— T R A D E AND COM M ERCE OF SW EDEN. N atural R esources of S wedes— A griculture— G overnment and T reaties with F or eign S tates — C ommercial R egulations and T ariffs— M oney, W eights and M ea sures— G otha C anal — N avigation and T rade of S weden— S hipping— E xports and I mports— T rade of S tockholm— T rade of G othenburg, etc.* T h e kingdoms o f Sweden and Norway comprise a large peninsula, united to the continent by the isthmus which separates the Gulf o f Bothnia from the White sea. The aspect o f the sea-coast o f Sweden, is generally low, and greatly broken up by bays, harbors, lakes and torrents. O f the numerous rivers, the Tornea and the Angerman are the principal. In the northwestern parts, bordering on Norway, the country is rugged, hilly and even moun tainous. The soil, where the surface is not occupied by rocks, is chiefly light and sandy. Rich alluvial tracks occur, and mosses and marshes are extensive. The soil and climate are ungenial to agriculture ; some fer tile tracks are met with, south o f 61° north, which produce rye, barley, a little wheat, potatoes, carrots, turnips, beet-root and various vegetables; tobacco, flax, hemp, some hops, and some fruit, such as apples, pears, plums, currants and gooseberries. T o the north o f 61°, a rugged, mossy and dreary country, generally prevails to the Arctic sea. The forests o f Sweden produce excellent timber o f the fir tribes, and good tough ash. Beeches grow as far north as 56° 30', beyond which, as far as nearly to latitude 70° north, firs and birches are the common forest-trees. South o f 63° ash-trees thrive, and lindens, walnuts, maple, oak, elm, & c., all grow south o f latitude 61°. In the southern parts, there is great scarcity o f wood and fuel; and the poor inhabitants o f many districts are said to * For the materials of this article, we are indebted mainly to documents, presented to both Houses of Parliament, by command of her majesty, 1st of February, 1844, by John Macgregor; politely furnished us by his excellency, Edward Everett, our minister to England.— [E d. M erchants’ M agazine.] 204 Trade and Commerce o f Sweden. remain in bed, for warmth, during the greater part o f the cold days of winter, merely from want of fuel. In the northern and wooded, though coldest parts o f Sweden, people are found lodged comparatively in com fort, and in affluent circumstances. The horses are lively, strong, and although not generally large, much esteemed. The pastures are good in summer, and horned cattle, sheep and hogs, are bred with care ; the former are small in size. The reindeer, particularly in the north, are useful domestic animals. Bees thrive, although the climate is so very cold. Various medicinal plants are abundant. The coasts, rivers and lakes, swarm with fish. The lobsters and oysters are remarkably fine. Game is plentiful and excellent. The forests, though for a long time recklessly destroyed, yield timber for exportation ; and the streams afford numerous sites for saw-mills, and the means o f conveying the timber and deals to shipping ports. Great care is now taken to preserve the woods from wanton destruction, and planting o f oak, pine and spruce-firs, has, for some time, been rather ex tensively attended to. The mineral riches o f Sweden are, however, the most important, es pecially the iron mines, which produce the best iron and steel, in great abundance ; gold and silver, copper, lead, alum, coal, saltpetre, porphyry, marble, alabaster, slate, asbestus, loadstones, talc, amethysts, & c., are also found in this kingdom. The principal seaports are Stockholm, Nykoping, Nordkoping, Kalmar, Carlscrona, Malmoe, Helsinburg, Halmstadt, Gottenburg, Gefle, Hudikswald, Hernosand, Umea, Pitea, Lulea and T o rn e a ; along the coasts there are several islands, the largest are Oeland, Gothland and Wisby. A G E ic u iT u n E o f S w e d e n . — It has been estimated, that seven-eighths o f the population o f Sweden are engaged in agriculture. This statement must be taken in a very modified interpretation : for, though nearly that number may be occupied in agriculture, the same individuals are, the most o f them, also, for a greater part o f their time, engaged in other pursuits, such as wood-cutting, fishing, common domestic fabrics, & c. The whole surface o f Sweden is computed at 171,015 English square miles, or 109,449,600 acres, or nearly one-half more than the whole sur face o f Great Britain and Ireland. O f the whole area o f Sweden, about one-half lies north o f 63° north latitude, beyond which, little grain, ex cept barley, will ripen. O f the whole surface, 3,490 square miles or 2,233,600 acres, or about 1 in 50, is arable, and about twice that extent is under meadows and pastures. All the vast remaining regions are oc cupied by woods, bare rocks, marshes, bogs and lakes. Industry has done much, in a country where the climate and the soil are both so unfavorable to agriculture; and if the extent o f cultivated land is small, the population is also so limited that there are two-thirds of an acre o f arable land for each individual inhabitant. This extent under cultivation, with the animal food, butter and cheese df the meadows and pastures, and the support derived from the fisheries, have rendered it un necessary to import much corn, except after the bad harvests, which are often occasioned by frosts. Potatoes and barley are generally raised. Some hemp, and a good deal o f excellent flax are raised, and used in making domestic linens. A little tobacco is grown ; and on the low grounds bordering the Lake Wener, and on other places where alluvial or tolerably fertile spots o f soil are found, agriculture is in a creditable state. Trade and Commerce o f Sweden. 205 S tatement Of the average quantity o f Grain, and other Produce, raised in Sweden, according to official returns, for the jive years from 1833 to 1837, both inclusive. Quantity annually Quantity an- produced, the seed Description. nuallysown. being deducted. Wheat,........................................Swedish bbls. 37,476 244,709 R ye,............................ 406,548 2,278,366 Barley........................................................................ 401,071 1,800,712 Oats,................................................................... 444,434 1,532,046 Barley and oats, mixed,........................................... 192,350 774,677 Peas,.................................................................. 65,861 299,109 Potatoes,................................................................... 614,396 4,113,442 N ote.— Two Swedish barrels, or tunnar, may be considered in round numbers to be equal to an imperial quarter, as 100 English quarters are equal to 198 65-100ths Swedish barrels, or tunnar. The cultivated surface o f Sweden is divided into 65,219 J estates, or hemmans o f land; and although these originally belonged to single pro prietors, they are now generally subdivided among about 150,000 indi viduals, exclusive o f the hemmans belonging to the church, colleges, towns, hospitals, the crown, the army, sailors, & c. The value o f all the hemmans was estimated, in 1836, at 396,193,366 r. d. Highest annual value o f the hemman, 9,034 r. d. ; lowest annual value, 1,807 r. d. ; aver age annual value, 4,186 r. d. G o v e r n m e n t o f S w e d e n , a n d T r e a t i e s w i t h F o r e i g n S t a t e s .— The Swedish monarchy, comprising Sweden and Norway, includes a greater extent of territory than any other European sovereignty, except Russia. In 1808, Sweden lost Finland, which was conquered by Russia ; but, in 1814, this loss was repaired by the acquisition o f Norway. The three general divisions o f Sweden, viz. : Gothland, Sweden Pro per and Norrland, are now divided into twenty-five Ians or governments ; and Norway, formerly divided into the four dioceses or governments, o f Aggerhuus, Christiansand, Bergen and Drontheim, is now formed into seventeen bailiwicks or divisions.* Sweden and Norway have different constitutions, though under the same king. The monarchical power is hereditary— females are exclu ded. The king appoints to all employments, and grants pardons. He cannot make new laws, interpret old ones, raise taxes or declare war, without the consent o f the states, which he alone has the power o f con voking. The liberty o f the press is guarantied. The senate or court o f peers, is composed o f twenty-two members, and twelve councils o f the crown form a council o f state. The legislative body, styled the Diet or States-general, consists o f four orders : 1st, nobles, in which order each noble family has its representa tive ; 2d, clergy, represented by the bishops and also by pastors chosen in each chapter; 3d, burgesses, who are chosen by tl e principal towns ; and 4th, peasantry, chosen by themselves in their assemblies. Each deputy must be o f one o f these orders, profess the Protestant religion and be twenty-five years o f age. Each order deliberates and votes separate ly. The states, which assemble every fiv^years, except in extraordinary * See Royal Almanack of Sweden and Norway, (Sveiiges och Norriges Calender, 1829 and 1830.) M. Hagelston thus distributes the bailiwicks among the three geograph ical regions:— 10 to Sonderfields, 5 to Nordenfields, and 2 to Nonlanden. 206 Trade and Commerce o f Sweden. cases, have the right o f legislation and taxation, and the superintendence o f the finances ; but the king has an unconditional veto. Council o f State.— This council is composed o f the minister o f justice, the minister o f foreign affairs and colonies, six counsellors o f state, and the chancellor; which, with the chancellor o f justice, secretaries at war, o f the interior, of the finances and commerce, o f public worship, and the heads o f the army and marine, form the ministry. S w e d i s h T r e a t i e s w i t h F o r e i g n S t a t e s . — Sweden has treaties o f reciprocity with Great Britain ; with Russia, giving special privileges to Finnish vessels, and o f perfect reciprocity in regard to all other Russian vessels; with Prussia, Denmark, Hanse Towns, United States o f Amer ica, Turkey, Belgium, Greece, States o f the Church, Sardinia, & c. B r i t i s h T r e a t i e s w i t h S w e d e n . — Several treaties o f peace, amity and commerce, have been negotiated between Great Britain and Sweden ; and the latter has also signed a treaty, similar to those which Great Britain has with France and most o f the states o f Europe and America, for the suppression o f the slave trade. C o m m e r c i a l L e g i s l a t i o n a n d C u s t o m s T a r i f f s , & c ., o f S w e d e n . — From an early period, the national councils o f Sweden have attempted to encourage domestic manufactures, by prohibitions and severe restric tions ; and they have persevered in this fallacious legislation, with little deviation and without success, up to the present d a y : for the manufac turing population are generally poor, and manufactures have not thriven. N o country could have been more unnaturally oppressed by restriction, than one like Sweden— cold, generally barren, and having little else to export than the produce o f her mines, woods and fisheries. Her prohib itive system has been remarkably oppressive to the peasantry and labor ing classes. In addition to prohibitions and high import, export and transit duties, convoy duties, o f 5, 10 and 15 per cent, are charged on the amount o f all other duties, or valuations o f duties; town dues, o f 23 per cent by privileged, and 40 per cent by non-privileged vessels, are charged; and tonnage duties, o f 12 skellings per cent on Swedish, and 36 on non-privileged vessels. Sails, cordage, gunpowder, refined sugar, iron, steel, the greater number o f articles o f cottons, woollens, earthen ware, & c., are prohibited. The revenue is derived from a poll-tax, o f about Is. 3d. sterling for each inhabitant, from duties on imports and ex ports, (the former, though oppressive, yet comparatively unproductive,) mines, excise on S| irits, monopolies and the produce o f the royal de mesnes ; the whole revenue being less than one million and one-fourth sterling. The Swedes, or their government, do not seem to comprehend that their true course would have been to purchase, in the cheapest markets, all manufactured goods, and those articles which they have not cheap at home, in exchange for their iron, deals, timber, lobsters, fish and fish-oils. For them to attempt forcing either the cultivation o f wheat in an uncon genial climate, or to raise up manufactures by the aid o f prohibitions of, and high duties on, foreign commodities, is to persevere in a course the most pernicious to their real interests. The tariff now in force, promul gated the 23d o f October, 1F41, will be found as restrictive as, and more complex than, that o f Russia. Norway, by a recent law o f the Storthing, has also imposed enormous duties on foreign manufactures. 207 Trade and Commerce o f Sweden. S w e d is h T a r if f of D u t ie s of C u sto m s on Im ports and E x p o r t s .* — The rates, as well as the official values, are in Swedish bank money, in the reduction o f which into sterling, an average exchange of 12 r. d. banco to the pound, has been taken. Besides the duties stated in the tariff, there are the following imposts levied on foreign trade, viz. : Convoy Duty, Town Dues, Tonnage Dues. The Convoy Duty is paid only on imports, at the rate o f 1 per cent on the amount o f duties o f cus toms. The Town Dues are charged at a per centage on the official value stated in the tariff, and for Stockholm consist o f 2J per cent on im ports, with an increase thereon o f 40 per cent by unfree ships, namely, such as are not by treaty on the same footing as Swedes; and o f 1J per cent on exports, with an increase thereon of 50 per cent by unfree ships. The Tonnage Dues are levied as follows, inwards as well as outwards, viz. : at 12 sh. banco per last on Swedish ships, equal to 2 l-12d. ster ling per English ton ; and at 36 sh. banco per last on foreign ships, equal to 6 3-12d. sterling per English ton, unless the latter are placed by treaty on the same footing as Swedes. M o n e y , W e i g h t s a n d M e a s u r e s o f S w e d e n . — The current rixdaler consists o f 48 shillings; the shilling, 12 rundstycks. Banco money is also counted in rixdalers, and is o f higher value than the former— often 50 per cent. The skeppund victuallic, or commercial weight, is divided into lispunds and lbs. : 1 skep. lb. = 20 lis l b . ; 1 lis lb. = 20 lbs. The skeppund inetal weight is divided in the same manner, but is equal only to 320 lbs. commercial weight. O f the commercial weight, 100 lbs. are equal to 93 76-100 lbs. avoirdupois English. The ell consists o f 2 feet; 1000 feet Swedish, equal to 975 feet English ; the oxhufond, or hogshead, contains 1j ams, or awmes, equal to 90 leans; the am contains 60 kans; the barrel 48 kans; 100 kans are equal to 69 9-100 gallons; the com mon barrel, in corn measure, contains 32 kappars, equal to 4 157-100 bushels, Winchester measure ; the barrel o f rye, wheat, barley and oats, is reckoned at 36 kappars ; the barrel o f malt, at 38 kappars ; and o f salt and lime, at 34 kappars; 100 lasts Swedish, are equal to 239J tons English. The tariff is arranged according to the relative proportions o f the Swe dish rates and monies with the English rates and monies ; but, in calcu lating the duties, two important facts must not be overlooked. The first is, that the official values are nearly all far greater than, often more than double, the real values. Consequently, the real per centage duties are in the same proportion greater than the official rates. The second is, that when the values or duties are rated either by the weight, package or measure, the duties are also unequally levied ; ordinary and coarse manu factures o f cotton, linen and wool, which would be generally used by the peasanlry and laboring classes, pay, in consequence, a much higher per centage than the finer woven goods which are used by the more wealthy. T h e G o t h a C a n a i .. — The inlets, lakes and rivers o f Sweden, have always afforded great facilities for the transportation o f the produce o f her forests and mines. A canal, to avoid the long and tortuous navigation of the sound and the sound dues, was projected, at an early period, by Swe den. The Maeler, a deep inlet, enters Sweden, at Stockholm, from the * W e have in our possession a copy o f this tariff, but its great length compels us to omit it altogether. It would occupy about 50 pages o f our Magazine.— [E d. M ek. M ag.] 208 Trade and Commerce o f Sweden. Baltic, and branches north to Upsala, and west 70 miles amongst a mul titude o f islands, to within a few miles o f the Lake Hielmar. The Arboga canal, opened during the latter end o f the last century, is navigable between the Maeler and that lake ; and it was then considered that it might be continued from the Hielmar to the Wettern lake, but the pro ject was found impracticable; the distance between the Maeler and the Lake Sodree Barker, near the confines o f Dalecarlia and the mining dis tricts, was opened at the same period by means o f the Stroemsholm canal and the Lake Freda, and rivers. The Gotha river, which runs from the Lake Wenern (the largest in Europe, except the Ladoga) into the sea at Gothenburg, though in many parts deep and navigable, was interrupted by falls and islands. These were finally surmounted, after extraordinary difficulties, (the whole o f the gigantic works having all been once swept off by the impetuosity o f the water,) by the execution o f the Trollhoetta canal, in 1800. It is 3 miles long, and has 8 sluices to ascend and descend 112 feet. At one place, it was cut 70 feet deep through the rocks. The whole expense was about £80,000. The Lake Wenern was afterwards joined by a canal to the Lake W ettern, and finally the canalization o f the whole distance to Soderkoping and the Baltic was completed in 1832. N a v i g a t i o n a n d T r a d e o f S w e d e n . — The fisheries, the mines and the forests o f this kingdom, were the early sources o f Swedish trade. In 1680, Puffendorff, who was then one o f the councillors o f state to the king o f Sweden, says : “ Sweden produces more copper and iron than any other kingdom in the world, and the mines are fitted by nature for that purpose, being surrounded by woods and rivers. There is a silver mine in Westmanland. Finland brings forth pitch, and tar, and d eal; and Wermanland good store o f masts. The native commodities o f Swe den are copper, iron, tar, pitch, masts, deals, boards, & c. In lieu o f which, Sweden receives from abroad, wine, brandy, salt, spices, cloths, silks and woollen stuffs, fine linen, French manufactures o f all sorts, furs, paper and such like ; all which, in some years, surpasses in value the commodities exported hence. T o recompence this, navigation and com merce has been encouraged o f late years among the natives, and several sorts o f manufactures are made, whereof theme made o f copper, iron and brass, would questionless turn to the best account, if these artists were duly encouraged to settle in this kingdom.” Oddy, in his work on Eu ropean Commerce, describes the products and trade o f Sweden, previous ly to the year 1805, as follows : “ The produce o f Sweden, generally, for exportation, consists o f iron, wood, tar, pitch and a little copper. Its produce, in other articles, is scarcely sufficient for its own consumption. The principal source o f the wealth o f Sweden is its mines, o f which there are a great variety, o f gold, silver and copper; but the iron is o f all others by far the greatest. “ The progress made in the establishment o f iron foundries, in Russia, (which country used to have her iron from Sweden,) has been so rapid, that the mines o f Russia are fast rivalling those o f Sweden. W e find, by a manuscript register taken o f all the mines, by the government, in 1748, that, in the latter kingdom, there were no less than 496 foundries, with 539 large hammers, 971 smal er ones, for making bar iron, and other manufactures o f iron which produced, in that year, 304,415 skeppunds, Trade and Commerce o f Sweden. 209 or 40,588 tons English. The present produce o f all the Swedish iron mines, is about 400,000 skeppunds, or about 53,330 English tons ; and this increase, notwithstanding the great quantity made in Russia, may be attributed to the superior quality o f the Swedish, which is esteemed all over the w orld; as well as to their making different sized bars, square and flat, which are more easily converted into the general uses for which they are required, than that which is shipped from Russia. Great Britain takes half, or rather more, o f the whole quantity which Sweden exports. “ The Swedish government established an office, in 1740, to promote the production o f iron, by lending money on the ore, even at so low a rate as 4 per cent. A correct register was then made o f the mines, which is still continued. The latest statement o f them, is a manuscript account, which the author saw, in the end o f the year 1804. Their foundries are now above 5 00; each foundry has its particular mark stamped on the bars o f iron it produces, which is likewise correctly co pied into the manuscript; likewise the name o f the place where the es tablishment is situated; the names o f the proprietors o f the w o rk ; the commissioner or agent for the sale o f the iron ; the assortment each makes, and to what country it is generally shipped ; the quantity annually made by each work ; the quantity which each work delivers to the gov ernment, (which is about 1 per cent on the quantity o f the iron produced ;) the estimation of the quality o f the iron o f each work, which is variable ; the place and province in which the works are situated; the place from whence the iron is generally shipped; and how many hammers each work has; all which, are regularly and alphabetically described and arranged. “ Each furnace, upon the average, makes but about 80 tons o f iron in the year, with 1 large hammer and 2 smaller ones. There are some small works, or little jprges and smithies, however, which make only from 10 to 30 tons the year; others, from 100 to 500 tons. But the mine o f Dannemvra, which was established in 1527, produces from 13,000 to 20,000 tons annually; it has the richest ore, and its iron is o f a superior quality, and preferred amongst the steel manufacturers in England. “ O f the next importance to Sweden, after the iron, are the copper mines, which have undergone a variety o f changes in their produce, and that chiefly in the principal one o f Fahlun; the richness o f the ore, in that mine, has considerably fallen o ff; in 1650, its produce was 20,321 skeppunds, or near 3,000 tons ; in 1690, it fell to 10,000 skeppunds; in 1751, it was on ly4,938 skeppunds; but since that period it has improved a little, and its annual produce, at present, is betwixt 6,000 and 7,000 skeppunds. Otevidberg, a copper mine, has lately been reopened, and others worked, so that the whole aggregate quantity o f copper produced in Sweden, at the present time, is estimated at about 10,000 skeppunds, or near about 1,400 tons. “ In the year 1738, a gold mine was discovered at ASdelfors, in Smoland; but its annual produce not exceeding from 500 to 600 ducats, it has, o f late years, been entirely abandoned. “ The silver mine o f Salberg, in Westmanland, is the most ancient and the richest o f all, having continued upwards o f 300 years. In the four teenth century, it is reported to have produced nearly 24,000 marks per annum, or, according to others, about 18,000, when silver was three times the value that it is n o w ; but, in latter years, the quantity is considerably 210 Trade and Commerce o f Sweden. diminished; so that, at the conclusion o f the last century, the produce amounted only to from 1,600 to 1,800 marks. The lead mines averaged, in the year 1751, 4 4 j skeppunds; and from 1763 to 1770, only 9. In consequence o f the great falling off o f the produce, the lead mine in Fin land was at last entirely abandoned, and lead is now one o f the imports from England into Sweden. “ The next article o f the produce o f Sweden, for reputation, is tar, from whence all Europe was formerly supplied for a considerable time ; and had it not been for the spirit o f monopoly in Sweden, arising from the idea then entertained, that it could not be had elsewhere, this branch o f their trade might have been preserved exclusively to them to this day, in stead o f Russia participating in it, and Great Britain being driven to her colonies, to manufacture and procure it from thence, in such quantities, as even to supply other nations at a cheaper rate ; but the Swedish tar is certainly o f a superior quality to any other. “ The tar, exported from Sweden, is principally produced on the east side o f the Gulf o f Bothnia; the west side produces some. There are only four principal places in the gulf, from whence considerable quanti ties are sent to the staple ports for exportation, and those which chiefly collect and send off the tar, are Wasa, which produces about 10,000 barrels, besides pitch and deals; Jacobstaat, 20,000 ; Gamla Carleby, 30.000 ; Brahestadt, from 8,000 to 10,000 ; Uleaborg, from 50,000 to 60.000 ; Sweden, producing for her own consumption and exportation, from 100,000 to 130,000 barrels o f tar, besides pitch. “ The tar, from Calmar and Westervik, is in very small quantities, and inferior to the tar o f the Finnish ports. Archangel is the only Russian port, from which tar is exported to England. Swedish tar and crown pitch, is higher in price than any other; as the pitch which is sent from Russia and America, to England, is inferior to die Swedish. “ A considerable quantity o f timber is now shipped from Sweden, chief ly to Great Britain ; the prohibition to the exportation o f that article, from Russia, threw a share o f this branch to Sweden, as well as to Denmark. The Gulf of Bothnia produces the most considerable quantity; but the ports therein, not being staple towns, the principal exportation, it will be observed, is, by the ports o f Stockholm, Gottenburg, Gefle and Abo. “ In general, the produce o f a country which furnishes the inhabitants with food, is first described ; but the natural situation o f Sweden reverses that system, and, therefore, we have rather described the means which enable them to purchase food— their mines. The climate o f Sweden, is unfavorable for the production o f grain : it is very common, that, in ten years, there are only two, and, at the most, but three ripe crops. In the same period, there are but four or five crops middling, and the remainder wholly bad. Sweden reaps only two-thirds o f what is necessary for the inland consumption. The deficiency is imported from the Baltic ports. The corn-brandy, o f which the Swedes are very fond, consumes a large quantity o f grain. It is said, that in years o f scarcity, the Swedish poor, in some provinces in the interior, distant from the seacoast, make a com position of bark, or roots, with coarse meal, to preserve existence by this miserable food; yet Sweden annually imports grain from the ports o f the Baltic. A stipulation existed, betwixt Russia and Sweden, that a certain quantity o f grain should always be allowed to be exported from Riga. Swedish Pomerania principally produces wheat; but as rye is the grain 211 Trade and Commerce o f Sweden. chiefly used for food in Sweden, she goes to other ports, whilst Swedish Pomerania exports her produce to foreigners. C orn I mported and E xported into and from S weden, in 1802. Imported. Peas.................... tons or bbls. Wheat,..................................... Wheat flour,............. lispunds Oats,................................. bbls. Barley,..................................... Malt,......................................... R ye,.......................................... Rye meal,................... lispunds 10,612j 17,7414 1,8314 6,5024 71,805 57.718J 175,7374 244,562 Exported. Peas,...................................bbls. Oats,........................................... Wheat........................................ Barley,............... Rye,............................................ 14 10 85| 677 17,940 “ The Swedish herring fishery, is chiefly carried on at Marstrand Skiaren, (the shoals o f Marstrand,) where herrings were caught, not only by the Swedes, but also by the Dutch and Scotch, till the year 1679, when the fishery ceased ; but it was renewed in the year 1753, and at present is carried on with such success, that 300,000 barrels o f herrings, and 20,000 barrels o f their oil, are frequently produced in the season, but the fish are not all cured. (See decline o f this fishery hereafter.) “ In the year 1803, the custom paid in Sweden, was only on 1,764 acums, or barrels, o f train-oil; 2,637 barrels o f smoked, or red herrings, and 203,209 barrels o f salted herrings. “ Though there are a few manufactories o f paper, soap, glass, sugarrefineries, & c., & c., in Sweden, yet none o f them are carried to great perfection; so that the imports o f Sweden consist in those manufactured goods, which nations, whose capital is more abundant, and the arts further advanced, produce, and its exports consist o f its natural produce, chiefly iron, timber, copper, tar and pitch.” S h i p p i n g o p S w e d e n . — In the year 1800, the number o f merchant vessels belonging to Sweden, amounted to 956 ; total burden, 63,534 tons ; and navigated by 9,929 men. O f these ships, 526 were out, or on the passage, and 430 at home, at the close o f the year; 118, new built, are included in that statement. Stockholm possessed 234 ships, o f 20,085 tons ; Calmar, 43 ; Gottenburg, 168 ; Gefle, 54 ; Helsingfors, 25 ; Norkoping, 22 ; Westervik, 24 ; Wisby, 55 ; Carlscrona, 33 ; Carlsham, 4 0 ; Malmo, 3 1 ; Ucidevalla, 2 4 ; Abo, 16, & c., & c. In the year 1801, the shipping of the whole kingdom consisted o f 974 vessels; total burden, 62,751 tons; and manned by 9,689 seamen; new built vessels, 105; at the end o f the year, 493 were at sea and 481 at home. In the year 1802, Sweden possessed 946 ships; their total burden, 62,294 tons, including 127 new built vessels; the whole manned by 10,185 men. The number and tonnage o f vessels, entered inwards and cleared out wards, at ports in Sweden, to and from all countries, in each year, from 1830 to 1834, was as follows :— I nwards. Year. 1830, 1831, 1832, 1833, 1834, ........ ........ ........ ........ ....... Swedish. Vessels. Tons. 2,290 162,954 2,426 165,835 2,384 170,224 2,701 174,713 2,647 175,193 Foreign. Vessels. Tons. 1,781 169,810 1,659 161,622 1,669 175,279 1,707 176,888 1,773 198,346 Total. Vessels. 4,071 4,085 4,053 4,408 4,420 Tons. 332,764 327,457 345,503 351.601 373,539 212 Trade and Commerce o f Sweden. O utwards. Year. 1830,......... 1831,......... 1832,......... 1833........... 1834,......... Swedish. Vessels. Tons. 2,292 173,907 2,379 171,163 2,421 176,315 2,772 180,083 2,677 174,094 Foreign. Vessels. Tons. 1,755 182,083 1,576 163,830 1,560 178,617 1,748 180,436 1.707 206,282 Total. Vessels. 4,047 3,955 3,981 4,520 4,384 Tons. 355,990 334,993 354,962 360,519 380,376 The number and tonnage o f merchant vessels, belonging to the several ports o f Sweden, in 1837, was as follows :— T ons burthen , in— No. of Vessels. 924 Swedish lasts. 49,219 English tons. 118,125 C ommerce of S weden in 1781, in S terling M oney, ( from O ddy.) Exported. £160,063 22,358 Denmark and Norway,.............................. Dantzic,........................................................ England,....................................................... France,....................................................... Holland,....................................................... Konigsburg and Prussia,............................. Italy and the Mediterranean,...................... Pomerania, (Swedish,)................................ Portugal,...................................................... Russia and Courland,.................................. Spain,........................................................... Hamburgh, Holstein, &c.,.......................... West Indies,................................................ East Indies,................................................. Total,............................................... 203,762 107,103 82,166 67,938 58,229 128,911 873 Imported. £66,595 33,246 97,762 83,145 151,583 07,580 33,170 187,144 40,340 202,781 14,711 38,202 10,810 £1,397,048 £1,027,069 “ The balance in favor o f Sweden, was £370,000 ; besides which, she is estimated to gain something considerable by the freight o f ships, so that the whole, at that time, might amount to about £400,000 sterling. “ The following table will show the state o f the trade, each five years, from 1700 to 1785, betwixt Great Britain and Sweden ; and from 1791, each year, to the present period, distinguishing England and Scotland — A ccount, Exhibiting the official value o f the Exports from, and Imports into, Sweden, and the amount o f Customs Revenue, for the ten years ending with 1840. Tot. customs Total value revenue, inValue of Value of C ustoms of exp. and R evenue . clud'g ton’ge Year. exports. imports. imports. On exp’ts.* On imp’ts. duties, &c. r. d banco. r. d. banco. r. d. banco. v. d. banco. r. d. banco. r d. banco. 1831, 25,868,000 423,426 13,565,000 12,303,000 1,717,845 2,641,687 1832, 13,757,000 28.404,000 423,139 14,647,000 2,172,609 2,796,344 1833, 30,789,000 16,903,000 13,886,000 451,004 2,265,408 2,952,378 1834, 14,527,000 30,709,000 15,882,000 425,474 2,238,399 2,934,539 1835, 34,147,000 15,562,000 18,585,000 512,971 2,611,969 3,377,229 1836, 34,371,000 427,761 18,834,000 15,537,000 2,520,158 3,185,636 1837, 33,909,000 16,456,000 328,690 17,453,000 2,985,274 3,605,305 1838, 22,160,000 19,499,000 41,659,000 480,573 3,987,174 3,277,253 1839, 19,363,000 40,381,000 21,018,000 593,315 3,026,910 3,792,678 1840, 18,308,000 38,872,000 20,434,000 322,226 3,055,903 3,600,203 * Nearly all on bar iron. 213 Trade and Commerce o f Sweden, W e give below, the total value o f the imports and exports, at the ports o f Sweden, in each year, from 1830 to 1833, in British sterling, as fol lows :— I mports. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1833. i l l ,290,423 £1,080,935 £1,172,561 £1,210,155 E xports. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1833. £945,415 £947,385 £881,221 £983,406 Quantities of V arious A rticles imported into Sweden during each year, from 1834 1838, inclusive. Articles. to Q uantities . 1834. 1833. 1816. 1817. 1818. 5,189 5,625 Porter, and other beer,......... galls. 3,210 1,149 1,688 1,849 Porcelain and earthenware,.cwts. 1,889 1,766 779,266 1,038,808 1,038,780 1.,101,094 907,272 Cotton yarn,..............................lbs. 595 416 704 Oil, from hemp-seed,..............tuns 1,295 138 141 133 215 186 “ linseed and rape,................... 143 Machinery and mechanical imple ments, ........................................ 13 Paper, packing,.......................cwt. 2,182 2,216 4,073 2,274 2,252 “ other kinds,.............. reams 19 Soap,......................................... lbs. 39,996 45,924 36,980 33,466 Tobacco, manufactured,......... 47,296 318,917 285,437 531,875 214,050 414,116 “ cigars,.......................No “ leaf,...........................lbs 2,793,725 3,012,074 2,833,470 2,944,640 2,733,197 630 385 578 368 342 Hides, dressed,.................. ....cw t 15,101 10,359 17,703 9,928 6,974 “ raw,.............................. 7,954 7,491 8,026 Ribbon,.....................................lbs Cotton and linen: 48,774 41,491 Printed cloths, hdkfs.,........ yds 131,238 Do., other kinds,................. 1,543 5,192 3,239 11,448 7,314 Sailcloth,.............................. 680,638 Other kinds, cotton,............. 175,032 237,455 Do., linen,............................ 526,670 669,329 449,739 639,602 584,264 Woollen goods,........................ Silk do., except ribbons,......... 20,616 34,225 24,236 20,361 24,263 “ raw,..................................lbs 221,660 291,613 573,851 397,177 Glassware, bottles,................. No “ other kinds,......... 7 Old rags,................................cwts, 711,020 797,705 1,104,364 931,369 1,215,301 Cotton wool,,.......................... lbs. 28,816 41,200 31,693 34,187 26,651 Oleaginous seeds,................. bush, Wool, inferior,..........................lbs 1,138,655 1,411,244 l 715,288 1,420,875 1,161,928 39,214 11,878 “ fine,............................... 72 814 495 405 329 Flax,...................................... cwts 3,330 2,991 3,044 2,626 2,901 Hemp,...................................... 96,575 120,360 64,512 99,446 109,786 Sugar,....................................... S tatements of the Q uantities of V arious A rticles exported from S weden, during each YEAR, FROM Articles. Porter, and other beer,.... Porcelain,.......................... Oil,.................................... Mechanical implements,... Paper, packing,................ “ other kinds,.......... Soap,................................. 1834 TO 1834. 1838, INCLUSIVE. 1835. 30,178 Q uantities . 1836. 1837. 1838. 46,723 51,459 34,389 36,548 33,450 26,587 73 188 30,283 26,656 222 32,573 18,450 36,297 18,562 214 S tatement Trade and Commerce o f Sweden. of Q uantities of V arious A rticles exported from “ cigars,.................. ...No. Hides, dressed,.................. Ribbon, principally tape,... Cotton and linen, sailcloth, ...yds. etc.—Continued. 1814. ©>S GO Tobacco, manufactured,.... ....Ibs. S weden , Q uantities . Articles. 1836. 1817. 1818. 197,039 133,747 120,730 94,514 91,454 8,750 7 3,060 12 22,800 40 829 9 615 15 295 175,032 30,686 197,691 40,515 114,121 4,966 33,837 52,110 361 336 1,052 Glassware,.......................... ..No. Oleaginous seeds,................ W ool.................................... ...lbs. Flax,.................................... 49,746 17,702 154 65,439 205 67,472 29,321 389 T r a d e o f S t o c k h o l m . — Stockholm is built upon several islands and two peninsulas, betwixt the Maeler lake and the Baltic sea, which, prop erly, here forms the harbor in a bay. The largest ships can come along side the quays, which are commodious, and lined with warehouses and other structures, for the accommodation of trade. The entrance into the harbor, from the Baltic, is rendered intricate for shipping, by the rows o f rocks and the numerous rocky islands o f the Upland Shallows ; between these, are four passages, two o f which are for large ships. Pilots are indispensable ; and ships sailing to Stockholm, are compelled to take the first pilot on board six leagues and a half from Daleron. Here, again, they receive a second pilot, who conducts the ship to Stockholm, which is eleven leagues and a half distant, from Daleron. The buildings, parks and environs of Stockholm, have been greatly improved, and its streets exhibit great activity. Stockholm, being the capital o f the kingdom, and also the first staple town in Sweden, has the most extensive trade to foreign parts and with the interior. In the inland trade, it has the most convenient intercourse by the numerous lakes which are connected by canals. Exclusive o f these advantages, and being possessed o f nearly one-half o f the trade o f Sweden, its importance is increased by the circumstance, that it is the central point o f all the different commercial establishments, such as the College o f Trade, the Commercial College, Bank, & c., & c. Popula tion, in 1840, 83,885. It has long been stationary, and the deaths ex ceed the births; the country annually supplies the town with about the difference o f decrease caused by the deaths. The proportion o f legiti mate births is less than to 1. Formerly, there was scarcely an inn in this capital, now there are some tolerably good, and numerous eatinghouses. Its manufactures, are woollen cloths; stuffs, as camlets, shal loons, & c. ; ribbons, stockings and silk handkerchiefs ; some silk and cot ton goods ; leather and sail-cloth ; tobacco manufactures and sugar-refin eries ; several iron foundries, a cannon foundry, some manufactures of china and earthenware, a glass-house, looking-glass manufactory; some few and valuable articles in steel, are also made here ; clocks and watches, mathematical and optical instruments, & c., & c. There is also a steam engine manufactory, conducted by a Scotchman from Glasgow. In the ship-yards, a number o f ships are annually built, o f oak and fir, for the foreign, as well as coasting trade. Trade and Commerce o f Sweden. 215 During the year 1841, there arrived at Stockholm, 405 vessels, o f 51,408 tons, 3,512 men ; value o f cargoes, £811,915 : and there departed 491, o f 01,009 tons, with 4,258 m en; value o f cargoes, £558,219. O f these arrivals, 11 were British, v iz .: 4 vessels had coal and coal tar; 1 vessel, coals ; 2 vessels, coals and cotton yarn ; 1 vessel, clay and stone; and 3 vessels in ballast. O f those departed: 5 vessels had iron and bones ; 2 vessels, iron, bones and cobalt; 2 vessels, iron, tar, pitch and deals ; 1 vessel, tar, & c . ; 1 vessel in ballast. The importation, chiefly in manufactured goods, from Great Britain, has increased by £5,738, during the year 1840, as compared with the preceding year, but it is believed that a much greater quantity has been smuggled into Sweden. The exportation to Great Britain, has decreased by £16,952, in the year 1840, as compared with the preceding year. This decrease has been attributed to the low prices o f iron in the United Kingdom. The commerce o f Sweden, with foreign nations, continues to be carried on chiefly in Norwegian vessels. In the ports to the north, ward o f Stockholm, not one vessel o f any other nation has been employed in carrying timber to foreign countries, although there has been a very considerable increase in the exportation. The speculation which excites most interest at Stockholm, at present, is that o f sending out furniture, and even ready-made houses, to the British colonies in Australia, in the anticipation that the British government will extensively encourage emi gration. Cargoes o f that description, for several large vessels, are now in preparation, Sweden having great advantages in preparing these arti cles o f good materials, and at a comparatively moderate expense. These wooden houses can be delivered at Australia, at from £ 3 0 to £ 9 0 ster ling each, by which the merchant will gain from 50 to 75 per cent. Those o f £90, (one o f which I have seen,) contain one sitting-room, 21 feet by 10 ; three bed-rooms, a kitchen, pantry and hall, all one floor, (o f wood,) having glass windows in the English style. The area, occu pied by this house, will be about 70 square yards. It is very comfortably and substantially fitted with deal floors, and every convenience for fire and cooking included. A ship can carry out about 60 o f these houses, so that her cargo, exclusive o f other furniture, would be in value about £3,500 sterling. The returns o f the manufactures o f this country, cannot be depended on, as it is well known, that the greater part (in value) given in as Swe dish manufactures, is in reality smuggled. The great cotton manufactory o f Stockholm, actually imports from England the greater part o f the fine cotton twist sold there. The quantity o f iron exported to foreign countries, from Stockholm, during 1841, is about 304,701 skeppunds = 40,289 tons ; value, at £ 1 10s. per skeppund, £456,256 10s. T o the north o f Stockholm, 80,000 skep punds = 10,915 tons, value £120,000 ; making the whole quantity 51,204 tons, and value £576,256 10s. The royal navy is nearly in the same state as last year, the projects for reducing and increasing, having been severally rejected by the Diet. For the merchant navy, a number o f ships and brigs have been built, at the ports in the Gulf o f Bothnia, 4 at Stockholm, and 3 at Calm ar; but they are generally sold soon after launching, and, therefore, the ton nage has only increased 15,000 tons, nearly half the amount o f tonnage launched, while 10 vessels are at present on the stocks, making 3,000 216 Trade and Commerce o f Sweden. tons more. T w o post-office steamers have been built, one o f which is o f iron, but they are small vessels, with only 60 horse power.— Stockholm, 31 st D ec., 1841. T r a d e o f G o t h e n b u r g . — Gothenburg is situated in the Cattegate, nearly opposite to Skaw, at the mouth o f the Gotha, and in 57° 42' north latitude. Population, formerly, said to have exceeded 95,000. It de creased to less than 25,000. Since 1830, the population has so far in creased as to be now estimated at nearly 30,000. It is the second trading town in Sweden. In winter, vessels must take pilots on board. Large vessels cannot come up to the city o f Gothenburg, but are obliged to re main at a small distance from thence in the roads, whence the goods are conveyed to the warehouses, by means o f canals. In this town, are manufactories o f cloth and other woollen articles, particularly o f the coarser kind; three or four cotton-mills, linen and canvass fabrics, & c. There is an Exchange, East India House, docks for ship-building, & c. As far back as 1798, there arrived 652 foreign, and 688 Swedish ships, & c. The following goods were exported from Gothenburg, to foreign places, in the year 1804 :— 77,303 7,401 2,813 28,114 79,512 28,589 1,266 ship-pounds iron, “ forged work, “ steel, dozen boards ordeals, barrels salt herrings, lispounds mountain moss, barrels smoked herrings, 556 barrels of cod, 12,378 ells Swedish linen, 10,662 “ sail duck, 2,679 barrels tar, 730 “ pitch, Window-glass for 13,263 rix-dollars. There were imported into Gothenburg, in the year 1804, 55,503J tons, barrels o f salt, being 29,000 less than in 1803; 148,494 tons, or barrels o f grain, or 54,200 less than in 1803. O f East India articles, in that year, there were exported only to the value o f 4,964 rix dollars; o f fishoil, scarcely any. T o inland parts, there were exported 26,304 barrels o f herrings. The quantity and value o f iron and deals, the principal articles o f mer chandise, exported from the port o f Gothenburg, in each o f the three years, ending with 1831, was as follows :— I ron. 1829. Quantity. t Tons. 17,567 Value, .£184,458 Quantity. Tons. 16,433 1810. Value. £172,547 Quantity. Ions. 21,639 1811. Value. £227,210 D eals. Dozen. 56,371 Value. .£41,000 Dozen. 52,534 Value. £38,400 Dozen. 52,866 Value. £45,075 The principal articles o f import into Gothenburgh, are sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, rice, indigo, train-oil, hides, rum, dyewoods, salt, cotton yarn. The value o f these articles, imported in 1829, was £148,750 ; in 1830, £1 8 5 ,2 5 0 ; in 1831, £180,820. Labor, its Relations, in Europe and the, <SfC. 217 A rt . II.— LABOR, ITS RELATIONS, IN EUROPE AND T H E UNITED STA TE S, COMPARED. H uman labor is the only source o f wealth. This is a settled axiom in political economy. Labor acts upon materials, furnished by nature ; but nature is gratuitous in her gifts, and it is only when acted on by man, that her productions acquire value in his estimation. This is no very new discovery; it is as old as the time o f Locke, who set forth the principle with great clearness. It has been adopted and confirmed by the best modern writers. Labor, then, o f the human body or the human mind, has furnished whatever exists o f accumulated wealth. It continues, by daily action, to furnish the daily consumption o f man, beside laying up a surplus for future use. Whatever exists under the name o f property, wealth or capital, is, therefore, the result or representative o f previous labor— an accumulation not wanted for present, but put aside for future use. Wealth is power. Its influence on society, on the character o f man, is the subject o f frequent contemplation and examination, in all its as pects. Its possessor is the object o f envy and flattery, while, in its origi nal humble state of labor, it is passed by, almost without notice, except sometimes a sigh o f pity for its hardships. Nothing is more striking than the distinction made, more especially in Europe, between labor in possession, and labor in action : in other words, between capital and labor. In Europe, and especially in England, we find the inheritor o f wealth, o f the accumulated labor o f others, looking down with something like contempt, not only on labor itself, in its lowest form o f mere manual occupation, but on all those employments whose object is the immediate accumulation o f property. The possession, by the accident o f birth, o f wealth produced by the labor o f others, is held vastly more honorable than the creation o f wealth by one’s own labor. In the United States, it is quite otherwise. With all our inheritance of British notions and prejudices, there is nothing more striking than the change which has taken place in this country, in the estimation o f wealth derived by inheritance, or acquired by the possessor himself. Here, all our wealth has been produced by direct labor. It has grown up in our sight, and it is impossible to attach any higher honor to him who obtains it by accident, than to him who possesses it by his own acquisition. On the contrary, the inheritor o f a fortune in this country, is judged wholly by the use which he makes o f it. It gives him no advantage in the public estimation, any further than his own character will sustain it self, independently o f this circumstance. It is not difficult to perceive the causes which have produced this differ ent estimate o f the character o f labor in action, in connection with indi vidual respectability in the two hemispheres. It is an interesting inquiry, still more so, is an examination, how far this difference o f estimate is amongst the most active causes, in giving an impress to society in America, essentially different from its character in Europe. There is no circumstance, in our institutions, more deserving the attention o f the philosophic observer. In tracing the history o f European civilization, we find labor always and everywhere degraded. Under the Romans, labor was performed, V OL. X I .---- NO. I I I . 21 218 Labor , its Relations, in Europe and the and wealth produced, by slaves. The barbarians who overran the R o man empire, attached no value to an3' acquisitions, but those o f the sword. Under the feudal system, hereditary honors were attached to the posses sors o f the fiefs, whilst the cultivation o f the lands was performed by the serfs, held in an estimation but one degree above the cattle, who were their fellow-laborers. The present state o f England, is the result o f the Norman conquest. The followers o f the conqueror were permitted to divide that beautiful island amongst them, and from them are derived in succession the splen did and powerful aristocracy o f the present day. Their wealth and hon ors were originally acquired by the sword. It is not surprising that they should continue to attach the highest honor to birth, to an hereditary suc cession to such honors and such estates. The present aristocracy o f Eng. land is, undoubtedly, the richest and the most intelligent which has ever existed in any country. Fenced in, by the rights of primogeniture, they have, for centuries, possessed the political power o f the country. It is not surprising, that newly-created wealth should there be held in far less estimation, than that which descends from such an ancestry. This feeling pervades the whole community. The distinctive appella tion o f gentleman and gentry, is applied to the inheritance o f an estate, especially in lands, which enables the possessor to dispense with labor, with any occupation, for the purpose o f deriving profit from it. Even the inheritor o f a fortune, so limited as to compel the possessor to a life o f celibacj', prides himself as belonging to a caste elevated above the trades man, with whatever fortune he may have acquired by his own industry. It is true, there are many degrees in the scale o f human occupation. The higher offices in the church and the army, furnish convenient support to the younger branches o f the nobility, and partake o f their honor. The profession o f the law produces talent, and trade produces wealth, which occasionally admit their possessors within the much courted pale o f the aristocracy. These new comers, however, require a generation or two to pass away, before they can take equal rank, in the public estimation, with the old families. The only occupation, compatible with the highest dignity, is the direct service o f the crown in the higher offices o f state. Thus labor, in all its forms, stands in a secondary or degraded state. Nothing can be more abject than the condition o f the lowest class of agri cultural laborers, or o f the manufacturing operatives. H ow different this, from the whole fabric o f society in America? The founders o f the American colonies, brought with them, neither wealth nor titles o f nobility. They had no accumulated stores o f either wealth or honors, on which to subsist. Nature offered them this fertile domain, on the sole condition o f appropriation by labor. Their earliest political in stitutions, establishing perfect equality, left no avenue open to wealth or power, but labor. Under these circumstances, it followed, o f course, that active industry should be in the highest esteem. Industry was the only road to wealth, and wealth, is power, in every part o f the world. There are instances o f fortunes accumulated in large masses, during the life o f an individual, but, subject to our laws o f equal distribution, they are sure to be absorbed or dissipated, in the course o f one or two generations. In this state o f things, it is not surprising that the acquisition o f prop erty, by one’s own labor and skill, should be held in equal, or even higher estimation, than the inheritance by the accident of birth. It is true, that United States, Compared. 219 the sons o f the rich usually receive a better education than their fathers; and we award higher honors to the successful efforts o f intellect, than to those o f mere industry in the accumulation o f wealth. Such an estima tion, is, however, wholly founded on personal character. Manual labor has a position with us, which it has never possessed in any period o f the world. Agricultural labor is, in a very great measure, performed by the own ers o f the soil and their sons. The universal diffusion o f education, places our mechanics higher in the scale o f intelligence, than the same class has ever stood in any country. They have the elements o f charac ter, which enable them to rise to any position in society. The high reward o f labor, in all its branches, is the great, the impor tant distinction, which diffuses comfort, intelligence, self-respect, through the whole mass o f the community, in a degree unknown in the previous history o f civilization. Titles o f nobility, we have none. W e attach no respect to birth. The highest offices in our little army, and even o f our navy, are o f no peculiar esteem. There is a scramble for the highest political places. At the same time, political office does not, o f course, carry with it a high degree o f public estimation. Occupation, labor, is the natural lot o f all. The eloquent advocate, the learned divine, the able writer, the successful mer chant, manufacturer or agriculturalist, are allotted the highest places in society. These places are only obtained through an active and success ful industry. W e have no class, as in all the countries o f Europe, born to a life o f leisure, to honors and distinctions. A few sons o f the rich, inherit fortunes, which enable them to dispense with labor or profitable occupation ; but they cannot be said to constitute a class, and the wisest o f them, by a sort o f necessity, adopt a literary or other useful employ ment. The mere possession o f wealth, without personal character, is as little valued in this as in any other country. It will thus be seen, that the whole fabric o f our society is essentially different from any which has preceded it. Society, in England, consists o f the favored few, born to ease and independence, constituting the no bility and gentry. T o them, everything is subservient; from them, every thing takes its tone. Travellers o f this class, find in America, a lower civilization in our highest classes, than belongs to the upper class in Eng land. It is true, ours is a working-day world W e cannot adopt the hours, nor many o f the customs nor opinions, o f a state o f existence, which has no counterpart amongst us. The attempt at imitation, which sometimes prevails, is a mistake and a blunder. W e should do better to make our manners and opinions conform to our actual position, less in fluenced by those o f Europe. There is enough in our position to be satis fied with— a diffusion o f the comforts, and even elegancies o f life, through the whole mass o f our population, in a degree never before seen. This is the result o f an universal and well-paid industry. Ours is a great novel experiment in politics and civilization. What ever the result, it is our destiny to make it. It is our mission; our care should be to understand it, and make it succeed. It is an attempt to amal gamate, equalize and improve the whole mass o f population, by elevating the lower portions from their usual abject state, and depressing the high er, in dispensing with a privileged aristocracy. The process consists, in 220 Labor, its Relations, in Europe and the the higher reward and higher estimation o f labor, with the permission to enjoy its own fruits. There is another point o f view, in which this difference in the actual condition o f our labor, compared with that o f Europe, involves most im portant consequences; that is, in connection with the science o f political economy. The modern school o f political economy, is founded on the theory o f Malthus on population. That theory, as is well known, supposes a ten dency in the human race, to increase in population, in proportion to the means o f subsistence; and that that tendency is kept in check, by the deficiency o f those means, except during the existence of peculiar circum stances, which form an exception to the general rule. This theory, in its application to fully-peopled countries, with a circumstantial territory, like the British islands, is undoubtedly true ; but the manner in which Malthus undertook to account for it, involved the theory in some discredit which does not belong to it. He undertook to account for it, by the different ratios in which population and subsistence naturally increase, applying a geometrical ratio to the former, and the slower arithmetical ratio to the latter. It was a fanciful idea, but wholly false and absurd in its applica tion. With room for expansion, food is increased more rapidly than popu lation, as is abundantly proved in the United States. W here there is no power o f expansion, the greater power o f increase in food is kept in check, as well as the lesser tendency in population. By this theory of Malthus, population is constantly pressing on the means o f supporting life, that is to say, a portion o f the human race, in its natural condition in every country, is in an actual state, or immediate danger, o f starvation. In this extremity, there is a constant struggle on the part o f laborers to obtain employment, as the means o f preserving life by their wages. This struggle, is supposed to keep wages at the lowest point which will actually support the life o f the laborer and his family. This point is thus taken to be the natural rate o f wages. The history o f labor, as far as we can follow it, during the whole course o f European civilization, and its present actual state in Europe, and es pecially in England, furnish but too sad a confirmation o f the fact, that this has been, and now is, its actual condition. This, then, is taken to be the natural state o f labor— a power seeking employment beyond the means o f finding it, which are limited by the amount o f capital devoted to this object in the payment o f wages. This low and abject state o f labor, is the original principle from which McCul loch, Ricardo, Senior and others, o f the modern school o f economists, have drawn most important conclusions as the foundation o f their system. Labor is thus an indefinite quantity, limited in its action, by the capital devoted to its maintenance. Without capital to set it in motion, it is an inert mass, useless and impotent. A result o f this view is, that the in crease o f wealth in a community, goes wholly to the owner o f the capital as his profits. The laborer, obliged to be content with a subsistence, is not supposed capable o f any accumulation. This is the rule, subject, o f course, to occasional exceptions. It is, however, on this axiom, as its corner-stone, that the whole modern doctrine o f free trade rests. The question is, the increase o f national wealth. It being admitted, that pro fits go wholly to the owners o f the capital employing labor, and no part o f this accumulation to the laborer himself, it follows, that legislative in United States, Compared. 221 terference can only change the application o f capital from one object to another, without increasing the quantity o f labor which it sets in motion, and this change is sure to be from a more profitable application to one less so, since the sagacity o f the capitalist, without this interference, would be sure to lead him to the most profitable employment o f his capital. Hence is deduced another proposition— that no act of legislation can cre ate wealth. It requires little observation to perceive, that views founded on such premises, have no application to us. The unlimited quantity o f fertile land, placed within the reach o f every individual, is the distinguishing pe culiarity o f our situation, in an economical point o f view. This furnishes to labor the easy means o f subsistence, and may be considered the con trolling cause, whose effects are to be traced through all the ramifications o f our society. This establishes the high reward, or wages o f labor, ele vating the lowest laborer from the position o f a mere machine, where the modern school o f political economy has placed him, to one in which he becomes, at his own will, the possessor o f capital. The labor o f a single year, gives to every laborer, if he choose to save his earnings, a very considerable capital. He take's, at his pleasure, a place in society. It is true, that the United States may be said to form an exception to the general rule, arising from the circumstance o f its containing a quan tity o f unimproved land; but since this condition which forms the excep tion, this power o f expansion, will necessarily continue for one or more centuries, it is sufficient for our present government; and we should be cautious in adopting, as rules o f action, theories o f political economy, drawn from a state o f society so different from our own. They have no application to us. When we see a house erected out o f the clay o f our fields, and the wood o f our forests, we perceive that there has been a creation o f wealth. When we see that this creation has been shared by the brickmaker, the mason and the carpenter, we cannot but laugh to scorn those theories which tell us that labor cannot accumulate capital. W e see the thing done before our eyes. With us, labor is, in fact, the great accumulator. It goes to work, without difficulty, on its own account. It is, therefore, perfectly clear, that that legislation which calls most labor into action, which gives it its fullest scope, is, with us, most productive o f wealth. The doctrine o f free trade, is founded upon the assumption, that labor is everywhere in excess, waiting to be employed by capital, in itself powerless, dependent, only asking to live. With us, labor assumes a higher tone— it treats with capital on equal terms— it shares in the profits, hand in hand with capital. The protective system rests as its basis, on the. principle o f an enlarged field for labor, resulting from that legislation which restricts or shuts out the competition of the cheaper and more degraded labor o f Europe. The oppositon comes from capital, which alleges that this system gives to labor too great an advantage, in the power o f levying a contribution in the prices o f the commodities consumed by capital. The answer is, that, with us, labor and capital are so mixed together, that, in the general pros perity resulting from an active, well-paid industry, capital is sure to get its share. All writers on political economy, recognise the high reward of labor as indicating the highest measure o f general prosperity. It ele vates the industrial classes in the scale o f society, by giving them a power 222 Labor, its Relations, in Europe and the, <fyc. and a taste, in the enjoyments o f civilized life, and in the cultivation of their minds. With us, it does more. In addition to all this, it enables them to lay by a surplus as capital. One great advantage, lies in the abundance and cheapness o f our lands. This gives to the immediate tiller o f the soil, an easier and more abun dant subsistence than can be obtained, by the same labor, in any other part o f the world. Hut he requires other enjoyments than food, and the whole question is, how can these be supplied in the manner most condu cive to the wealth and happiness o f the whole country. It would seem to be a simple proposition, that the application o f a portion o f our labor to the working up the raw materials which we produce, into the manufac ture which we consume, must be the simplest and most direct mode of equalizing and diffusing the peculiar advantage which we possess, in the abundance o f food, through all classes o f society. As a question o f po litical economy, o f the increase o f national wealth, the whole consists in inquiry, whether this system does not call into action a greater amount o f labor than would find employment without it ? The answer would seem to be easy, and plain common sense can hardly mistake it. With the as surance o f a home market, both capital and labor set freely to work to supply it. The question is frequently complicated, by the inquiry, why we should make at home what we can buy cheaper from abroad ? This is a ques tion which can only be put by capital. There is nothing cheaper to la bor, which is purchased by idleness. A nation can buy nothing cheap, which slackens the arm o f its industry. The term cheap, in such a case, has no application. The matter is only confused by reference to a money price. The real question is, the best application o f labor. It is thus apparent, how different is the position o f labor, in the United States, in relation to the science o f political economy, compared with la bor in England. Free trade, in England, is quite a different affair from free trade in the United States. Its great effort, in England, is directed against the corn laws. It is labor, striving for cheaper food, against a landed monopoly. It rests, then, on the same principle, as the protective system with us— the benefit o f labor. It is there, resisting a monopoly against itself. It here establishes a monopoly in its own favor, if one may be allowed to apply the term to an object so universal. It will be seen at once, that, both socially and politically, the position o f labor in this country, opens a wide field for speculation and observation. W e are, in this respect, a world by ourselves. The country o f Europe, which ap proximates nearest to us, theoretically, is France, since the revolution. She has abolished the right o f primogeniture, and her peerage is a mere shadow; but with a crowded population, and so many old prejudices re maining, labor will find it a hard struggle to acquire much estimation there. Military glory, military command, will continue to be awarded the highest honors in France, as at all the courts o f the continent, as the best security o f their thrones. It is true, the present is a new era in Europe. The last half century has developed industrial power, under the direction o f science, in a de gree, which has no parallel in previous history. This power has brought, and will continue to bring, into existence, a mass o f wealth capable of maintaining a claim for influence, with the landed interest, which has heretofore been supreme. It has already produced a considerable change, Ohio, its Wealth and Resources. 223 in raising the industrious classes in public estimation. But there is a wide gulf in public opinion, which will continue to separate Europe and the United States, in their estimates o f labor and industrious occupation, which will endure as long as their different institutions o f government. A rt . I l l — OHIO, ITS W E A L T H A N D RESOURCES. B u t little over fifty years ago, the state o f Ohio, now containing 1,680,000 inhabitants, would have appeared to a person, placed high enough above it to take the whole in at one view, one great level plain, covered over, with slight exceptions of prairie, by one huge forest. When it emerged from the ocean, under which, for ages, it lay, it must have been nearly a horizontal plane, except the northwestern counties, which formed a regular plane inclined to the northeast. When the rivers first began to carry off the water that came from the clouds, they must fre quently have been at a loss what course to take, so level was the surface. Accordingly, we find them between their sources and their mouths, box ing the compass, as if determined to visit the north and the south, the east and the west, before the final determination was made to join the Mississippi or the St. Lawrence. There seem to be strong evidences that there has been some change in the elevation o f some parts o f the state, since the streams were established in their courses. For instance, the highest ground or range of highlands, between the lake and the Ohio, is several miles south o f the sources o f the streams that flow into the Ohio. However this may be, it is well established, that the tops o f all our highest hills are nearly in the same plane, and that they have been made, not by an upheaving force from below, but by the removal o f earth between them, by the streams that now run at their base. In other words, our hills are all hills o f denudation, or, as Dr. Hildreth calls them, hills o f degradation. They are in their original position, but the earth between them has been carried away, to fill up the Gulf o f Mexico, and the borders o f the lake. That this is so, is proved conclusively by the correspondence o f the strata o f the opposite hills bordering all our streams. The amount o f earth that has been excavated from the great western plane, and carried into the gulf, is enormous. More than 200 miles, have the delta o f the Mississippi been pushed into the Gulf o f Mexico, making a large territory o f country, where once the ocean wave rolled in solitary grandeur. Ohio has had enough carried out o f her limits, to have made a stratum fifty feet deep, over the entire surface o f the states o f Massachu setts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. The lowest point in Ohio, is the bed o f the Ohio river, where it leaves the state, which is 415 feet above the ocean at New York, and 149 feet below the surface o f Lake Erie. The highest grounds are at Hillsbo rough, in Highland county, 50 miles east of Cincinnati, and the highland west o f Akron, in Summit county, being 560 feet above the lake, and 1,124 above the ocean. Columbus is 200 feet above the lake, and has probably about the average elevation o f the whole state. The elevation at St. Mary’s, (canal level,) is 278 feet; and at Defiance, (canal level,) 98 feet. Nearly over the entire surface o f the state, where it has not been cut 224 Ohio, its Wealth and Resources. through by the streams, there lies a deposit o f various thickness, from one foot to 100 feet, the last made before it emerged from the waters. This overlays the edges or out-cropping o f the various strata beneath, and has taken its shape from those edges, as is shown by its having about the same thickness over the hill-sides, as on the plains. This stratum is known by the name o f diluvium, and is sometimes classed among the tertiara strata. The portion o f it which lies immediately on the previously formed strata, is commonly blue clay, containing water-worn pebbles o f various kinds o f rock. Upon this blue clay, commonly rests a bed o f yel low clay, also containing water-worn pebbles, and is frequently interstratified with sand. This whole diluvial deposit, is believed to have been made by oceanic currents. The strata, on the out-cropping edges o f which it lies, have a general dip to the east and south, and southeast, o f from 20 to 30 feet in the mile. The most important o f these strata, is a transition limestone, supposed to be equivalent to the mountain limestone o f Europe. This is the uppermost rock, in the whole western half o f the state, and constitutes the beds o f most o f its streams. In many places, it crops out, and thus furnishes a building material o f the best quality, that may be obtained at small cost o f quarrying. The islands in Lake Erie, are composed of, and based on this rock. East o f the Huron and Olantangv rivers, this lime stratum dips under a stratum o f skale, sometimes called clay slate ; going farther east, this passes under a stratum o f sand stone ; still farther east, or rather southeast, the sandstone is overlaid by a conglomerate ; this, still farther in that direction, is overlaid by the low er coal series, and this, by a calcario-silicious rock, above which, lies the upper coal series, passing beyond the eastern and southeastern bounda ries o f the state. Thus, it appears, that notwithstanding the general level character of the whole state, the strata are so disposed, as to give us most o f the valu able minerals to be found in all countries, and many o f the most indis pensable metals. Nearly one-third o f the state, is within the great coal basin, of which Wheeling is near the middle. In several o f the southernmost counties, there are beds o f the best iron ore, interstratified with coal and lime rock, which beds are extensive, and capable o f furnishing iron to a vast extent. It is estimated, that the beds o f workable coal would be sufficient to last 10,000 years, supposing Ohio to use as much as England and Wales now use, with a population o f 16,000,000. In western Ohio, we need never expect to find beds o f coal, as our limestone stratum lies below the coal series; but we may have gypsum, and salt and lead. The former is, at present, only known to exist on San dusky bay, but will probably, hereafter, be discovered in other places. The best soil in the world, is found in those countries, where the moun tain limestone is the upper rock stratum. Poland, the midland counties o f England and Ireland, are examples. This is an important fact, and noxvhere more clearly exemplified than in our western states. It xvould seem almost superfluous, to speak o f the fertile character o f the soil o f Ohio, but there are some varieties, due to geological formation, which may be properly noticed. That part, xvliich has transition lime rock as its upper stratum, is, o f course, possessed o f a soil remarkably durable, and xvell adapted to wheat and grass. This portion embraces nearly half o f the state, the eastern line o f it commencing at the lake, near the mouth Ohio, its Wealth and Resources. 225 o f the Huron river, and passing in a southerly direction, leaves Columbus a few miles east, and touches the Ohio river in Adams county. All lying west o f this line is emphatically a limestone country. A great part o f the ten counties constituting the Connecticut reserve, is based on shale and sandstone, and although good land, and capable o f producing, with careful culture, all kinds o f grain and fruit, suitable to the climate, yet, lacking calcarious matter in the soil, is less fertile than the rest o f the state. The middle and southeastern section o f Ohio is much more un even than the western and northern, the streams having carried away the earth to a greater extent, because it was from its nature less able to resist the action o f flood and frost. This great section has the debris o f the lime strata that lies in the coal series, scattered on all its hill sides and r allies, and mingling with the debris o f the beds o f shale and sand stone, that lie above and below them, constitutes a soil o f great excel lence, that has within itself, the renovating power to prevent its exhaus tion, under the most constant culture. When thoroughly tested, about seven-eighths o f the soil o f Ohio will be found well adapted to the perma nent production o f wheat. Without entering into minute calculations, or pretending to accuracy, we will now state some other o f the natural capabilities o f the state. On the southeast and south, it has a river shore 450 miles long, which is visited by steamers, from four to eight months o f every year : and on the north it is penetrated by the southern bend o f Lake Erie, which gives it a water communication for 200 miles, eight months in the year. Its in terior streams, though worthless for navigation, are invaluable as feeders for canals, and for the water power which they almost everywhere afford. Ohio has 25,000,000 o f acres, nearly every acre o f which may be cheap ly brought into tillage ; and its average fertility exceeds that o f the best interval lands o f primitive countries. I f it were all under cultivation in wheat, it might produce 500,000,000 bushels, being nearly five times as much as is grown in the United States. It is fully able to sustain in com fort and happiness 10,000,000 o f people ; and with that number it would average but 250 to the square mile, or one person to every 24 acres. In climate, we believe no other state equals it, for mildness and uniformity. Its winter cold and its summer heats are greatly tempered on the north, by the extensive body o f water which bounds it in that direction ; and in its southern slope it has the benefit of the soft breezes from the Gulf. Taken as a whole, it is not probably excelled, if it is equalled, in the healthfulness o f its atmosphere, by any sister state. Her position among the states, would seem to give her a better title to be called the Keystone than Pennsylvania; for she holds a middle ground between the northeast, and the northwest; and when Canada becomes an integral part o f this country, Ohio will be more central than any other state. Before that time arrives, she bids fair to have more natural ways o f intercourse, connecting her with the north and south, the east and the west, to the remotest bounds o f the nation, than any other o f the sister hood. The Ohio river gives her on the south, cheap intercourse with all the states o f the Mississippi basin ; extending westward to the foot o f the Rocky Mountains, southward to the Gulf, and northward to the falls o f St. Anthony. Lake Erie furnishes to her northern counties, still superior facilities for intercourse with the northwest, to the 49th degree o f lati 226 Ohio, its Wealth and Resources. tude, and towards the northeast to the ocean, and by means o f the Erie canal to the eastern states. Her artificial ways, to connect these natu ral high roads, and to give all portions of her people easy access to them, are honorable to her industry and enterprise. The Ohio canal, begun in 1825, and completed in 1832, is 309 miles long, 40 feet wide at the water surface, and 4 feet deep. Its branches, beginning at the south, are 1st, the Columbus feeder, 9 miles lo n g ; 2d, the Hocking canal, 56 miles ; 3d, the Muskingum improvement, 91 m iles; 4th, the Walholding canal, 25 m iles; 5th, the Canton side-cut, 19 miles; and the Mahoning canal, 87 miles ; making in all 596 miles o f artificial navigation in eastern Ohio, terminating in Cleveland, and touching the Ohio river at Portsmouth, and Marrietta. The Mahoning branch, is connected with the Pennsylvania improvements, and with them makes a continuous line o f artificial high way to Philadelphia. The Wabash and Erie canal, from its eastern termination to the junc tion with the Miami, 68 miles, is more than double the size o f the Ohio can al; and thence to the state line, 20 miles, it is 50 feet wide, and 5 feet deep, where it is met by the Indiana portion, o f the same size to Fort Wayne. The Wabash and Erie canal, in Ohio, with its side-cuts, is 91 miles long. The Miami canal, which joins it 81 miles above Defiance, is 170 miles in length, and has navigable feeders— 1st, the Sidney feeder, 13 miles ; 2d, the Warren county canal, 22 miles; and the Whitewater canal, 25 miles ; in all, 321 miles navigable canal within the western part o f the state, and terminating at the western extremity of Lake Erie. From the above, it appears, that when the 35 miles o f the Miami canal, now nearly completed, shall be filled with water, Ohio will have, within her borders, including the 3 mile Milan canal, 920 miles o f navigable canals, built at an expense o f near $17,000,000. Pretty well for a state but 42 years old. OfMcAdamized roads, made in part by the state, there are at present, it is believed, upwards o f 800 miles ; and o f railroads com pleted, about 80 miles. Labor to the amount o f not less than $20,000,000, and probably dou ble that sum, has been laid out on common earth roads ; so that, in some seasons when they are dry or frozen, they are exceedingly pleasant to travel on, being smooth and level, without the dust so annoying on McAdamized roads. The yearly tax for opening and keeping in j'epair these common roads, is, probably, with what labor is given, not less than $1,500,000. It is impossible with the facts that have been collected, to make a very accurate estimate, either o f the gross amount o f wealth, or the yearly earnings o f this state. The statistics obtained in 1840, in connexion with the United States census, are exceedingly imperfect and , defective, but they necessarily constitute our main reliance in exhibiting our pecuniary condition. W e propose to give a brief sketch o f the wealth o f Ohio, giving to the word wealth its popular meaning, which, in our apprehension, will em brace every result o f labor that tends to promote the comfort, conve nience, and enjoyment o f civilized man. The chief wealth o f Ohio is in her lands, o f which there are 25,000,000 o f fertile acres. At $10 per acre, including all improvements, which we deem a fair average value, this is worth $250,000,000. The town property is worth $70,000,000. It will be safe to set down the whole real estate, as worth $320,000,000. The person al property, including household furniture, carriages, farming utensils, farm Ohio, its W ealth and Resources. 227 ing live stock, mechanics tools, and machinery o f all kinds, stocks of turn pike, railroad and canal companies, o f banks and insurance companies, merchandise on sale, steamboats and other vessels, owned in the state— $440,000,000. This we are satisfied, is rather under than over the true amount. Estimating the population at 1,650,000, it would be $267 to each person, and about $1,400 as the average for each family. In mak ing this final estimate, we have put down the different branches as fol lows :— Household furniture, $6,600,000, equal to an average o f $200 to the family ; farming utensils $2,300,000, being an average o f $100, for each farmer; live stock, $40,000,000, estimating the number o f horses and mules at 500,000, neat cattle at 1,500,000, sheep at 3,000,000, and hogs at 3,000,000. The capital employed in the various branches of manufactures, is estimated at $20,000,000 ; about $3,000,000 above the returns in 1840, as exhibited in the sixth census, which we believe was de ficient to more than that amount. But without allowing anything for that, it is not too sanguine to estimate the increase o f the last four years at $3,000,000. The capital employed in commerce is greater than most persons, without examination, would suppose. In round numbers we set it down at $40,000,000, o f which $7,000,000 for foreign trade and com mission houses, $25,000,000 for retail stores, $5,000,000 for butchers, packers, & c., and the other $3,000,000 for steamers, canal boats, and other means o f transportation. O f the whole $440,000,000 fixed capi tal, the farmers probably own some $260,000,000, the merchants $ 100,000,000, the manufacturing interests, $60,000,000, and the profes sional men and capitalists, the remaining $ 20,000,000. By far the great est concentration o f this capital is in the southwestern portion o f the state, in and around Cincinnati. Cleveland and the country around it, is fast coming forward to be the second in the state for wealth and business, if it has not already arrived at that distinction. Zanesville forms the third focus o f wealth, and on account o f the fine beds o f coal and iron in the surrounding country, bids fair, some day, to become extensively engaged in manufacturing. Trumbull, Ashtabula, Geauga, and Portage, are rich in fine cattle and the best productions o f the dairy. The southeastern and central counties, constitute, at present, the most productive wheat re gion in the United States. The Scioto valley is distinguished for its corn, cattle and hogs, which it produces in great abundance. The northwest ern quarter o f the state is too new to have acquired much wealth o f any kind ; but when settled, it will be second to no quarter, but the south west, and it may possibly overtake that beautiful and rich section. Its position, for commerce and manufactures is remarkably good, and its soil will bring forth in abundance all the productions grown in other parts o f the state. It would be an interesting problem to solve, how much o f the $440,000,000 o f capital has been created by labor in the state, and how much has been brought in by immigrants: but we have no reliable data to ground a speculation upon. The early settlers, it is well known, came in with very small accumulations from previous labor, but the immigrants of the last fifteen years have brought a large amount o f capital with them. At the same time, it must be remembered, that Ohio has sent out a great mass o f emigrants farther west, who have carried away no inconsiderable sum, earned on the soil within her borders. A great part, nearly the whole o f the $250,000,000 value, now existing in the land, has been giv- 228 I Ohio, its W ealth and Resources. en to it, by the labor o f the settlers and their sons ; and the $70,000,000, now concentrated in her towns, has been mostly created by labor exerted within her limits. The commercial and manufacturing capital, has come mostly from the eastern states and Europe. Having taken a general survey o f the topography, geography and fixed capital o f the state, we will now enter into an examination o f the annual value o f her labor and capital. The subjects on which these are mostly employed, will be taken up in the order adopted in the census returns of 1840. These returns, when not obviously incorrect, we shall adopt as the basis o f our calculations, adding the probable increase since they were compiled. The product o f her mines is small, as it is but recently that labor has been directed to that branch o f business. In 1840, Ohio had 72 furnaces, producing 35,000 tons o f cast iron ; 19 bloomeries, forges and rolling-mills, producing 7,500 tons o f bar iron. The men employed, were 2,300, and the capital invested, was $1,200,000. Estimating the cast iron at $30 per ton, (much o f it having been made into stoves and other hollow-ware,) and the bar iron at $50 per ton, the value, in 1840, was near $1,500,000. I f we add 25 per cent for the increase of the four years since, we have the sum o f upwards o f $1,800,000, as the product of iron mines in Ohio, in 1843. In coal, the census returns are evidently defective. The following ta ble shows the increase o f receipts o f mineral coal, at Cleveland, by the Ohio can al:— In 1838........................................... i “ 1839......................................... “ 1840,......................................... “ 1841,......................................... “ 1842,......................................... “ 1843,......................................... 73,292 bushels. 134,881 “ 172,206 “ 478,370 “ 466,844 “ 387,834 “ The number o f bushels raised in the state, in 1839, is put down in the census at 3,500,000. W e believe that 5,000,000 would have been nearer correct. Admitting, however, the increase o f other parts o f the state to equal that which seeks Cleveland for a market, and we shall make a low estimate if we set down the number o f bushels raised in 1843, at 12,000,000. At an average o f 6 cents the bushel, the value o f this mineral will be $720,000. O f salt, the production, like that o f coal, is rapidly increasing. In 1839, it was 300,000 bushels. I f we put it at 450,000 bushels, in 1843, at 20 cents the bushel, it will amount to $90,000. O f stone, quarried, the census has the yearly value o f less than $200,000. W e know some counties, where stone is extensively quar-» ried, that are blank under this head. Among these, are Hamilton and Erie. W e have no hesitancy in putting down the value o f stone, quar ried in the state, at $800,000, which we believe to be an under estimate. The products o f mines, will, put into a table, stand thus:— Iron,...................................................................... C oal,..................................................................... Salt,...................................................................... Stone,................................................................... $1,800,000 720,000 90,000 800,000 Total, $3,410,000 229 Ohio, its W ealth and Resources. Next to mines, comes agriculture. The number o f horses and mules, is 500.000. I f we take one-fourth, as the yearly product, and value them at $40 each, it will make $5,000,000. O f neat cattle, there are 1,500,000, worth $8 each. Allowing one-third, as the annual product, and it amounts to $4,000,000. The present number o f sheep is about 3,000,000. The annual product, in wool and increase, can scarcely be less in value than $4,500,000. The swine may be set down at 3,000,000, o f which 1,500,000 are yearly put into pork, and in that shape are worth $5 each, making $7,500,000. Poultry, $1,000,000; wheat, 20,000,000 bushels, worth $13,000,000 ; 250,000 bushels o f barley, worth $160,000 ; 17,000,000 bushels o f oats, worth $4,500,000 ; 1,000,000 bushels o f rye, $500,000 ; 1.000. 000 bushels o f buckwheat, $4(K),000 ; 40,000,000 bushels o f maize, worth $ 13,000,000 ; hops and wax, worth $30,000 ; potatoes, 8,000,000 o f bushels, $2,000,000 ; hay, 2,000,000 o f tons, at $5 the ton, $10,000,000 ; hemp and flax, 12,000 tons, $500,000; tobacco, 7,500,000 pounds, at 5 cents the pound, $375,000; 5,000 pounds o f silk coccoons, $15,000; 7.000. 000 pounds o f sugar, at 6 cents, $420,000 ; 6,000,000 cords of wood, (by estimate, for the census gives no light on the subject,) at $1 the cord, $6,000,000 ; products o f the dairy, (by estimation,) $9,000,000 ; products of orchards, $3,000,000 ; home-made family goods, $4,000,000 ; gardens and nurseries, $1,500,000. The above, all added together, make the large sum o f $90,400,000. T o this should be added 500,000 acres o f land, cleared and fenced, at $10 per acre ; making, as the gross earnings of the farmers and gardeners o f Ohio, $95,400,000. The yearly earn ings o f commerce, in 1840, were estimated, by Professor Tucker, at a lit tle over $8,000,000. This was evidently too low, being based on the census, which, in some parts, bears on its face, evidence o f its defective character. The amount o f commerce, in its various branches, on the Ohio river, on the lakes, on her 900 miles o f canal, on her MeAdam and other roads, embracing transportation and all the exchanges, by whole sale and retail, over the whole state, was, in 1840, according to the cen sus, but about $35,000,000. I f we put it at $40,000,000, and its gross yearly earnings at $18,500,000, it will rather fall short of, than exceed, the true amount. In the department o f manufactures, the census appears to be particularly defective, yet the amount o f capital given for the whole state, is less than $17,000,000. The gross yearly earnings o f all branches o f manufacture, including mills, houses, ships and boats, we estimate at $20,000,000. The products o f the fisheries, in all the rivers and Lake Erie, would be esti mated low, at $100,000. Those o f the forest, o f which lumber, pot and pearl-ashes, and skins and furs are the principal, may be safely estimated at $900,000. The yearly earnings o f the state, then, in the various branches o f in dustry, may be fairly set down as follows :— O f mines........ $ 3,400,000 Agriculture,. . 95.400.000 C om m erce,.. 13.500.000 20 100.000 Manufactures, 100,000 F isheries,.. . . 900,000 Forest............. . Total, $133,400,000 230 Merchant Seamen. This is about $60,000,000 above the estimate o f Professor Tucker, and yet we are satisfied that it is rather under than over the true amount. Our estimate is intended to embrace the increase o f the four years since the census, on which Professor Tucker’s estimate is based. Our estimate makes the yearly earnings o f each family $404, working on an average capital o f over $1,400. T o each person in the state, it allows an aver age o f $80, out o f which he must be fed, clothed, educated, & c., and from which, all additions to the fixed capital o f the state, must come. The yearly earnings o f Massachusetts, are known to amount to not less than $100,000,000. This is twice as much in proportion to her numbers as those o f Ohio. This, we believe, is owing far more to the greater va riety o f employments, especially manufacturing, than to the superior in dustry o f the people o f the bay state. There, profitable employment is given to persons o f both sexes, and to every age and condition. In Ohio, women and children have few employments that can be exercised to much pecuniary profit. In fixed capital, too, Massachusetts has greatly the advantage, which she is sure to keep as long as the silly enactments o f our legislature are directed against the introduction o f foreign capital. A steady course o f legislation, favorable to the introduction o f capital from the old states and from Europe, would soon put a new face on our indus trial affairs, and cover Ohio with the blessings o f a durable prosperity. A rt . IV.—M ERCH AN T SEAM EN. T h e large amount o f merchant shipping engaged in the imports and exports o f the United States, the capital invested and the number o f indi viduals whose interests are involved in the navigation o f ships, induce us to devote the present paper to a brief review o f the legal rights and duties o f merchant seamen. In prosecuting this labor, we shall only exhibit the more prominent principles that govern those who are employed in our merchant service, either as mariners or masters of ships, without attempt ing to develop that vast body o f complex law bearing upon the subject, and, o f course, not adapted to the design o f a popular mercantile journal. It is obvious that, in order to the security o f the rights o f the owners o f the merchant vessels that are continually entering and departing from our ports, by hundreds, as well as that o f seamen, the laws regulating the merchant service should be as clearly defined and operative, in every part o f the wide ocean navigated by those vessels, as those which govern our rights and duties upon the land. Accordingly, a vast body o f commercial law has grown up, deriving its origin from the earliest period in which the sea has been navigated by ships, and it will be our design to exhibit some o f its more practical rules, that are the most frequent in their appli cation to common voyages. The mariner is deemed in the eye o f the laxv, in one sense, a citizen o f the world, whose homo is on the deep, and entering the service o f any nation where he is legally permitted, he can seek the compensation for his labor, at the hands o f the law, for his contract is recognised by general jurisprudence. W e will, therefore, consider him first on entering the service, and the nature o f his contract. There are certain peculiarities, which govern the contract made with Merchant Seamen. 231 seamen, entirely distinct from those o f the land; and these peculiarities grow out o f the necessity o f the case, and the singular nature o f the ma rine service. The principal o f these, in our own country, relate to the apprehension o f the seaman and his punishment, if he fails to render him self on board the vessel in which he is employed, according to his con tract, and the infliction o f corporal punishment upon him, if he wilfully fails to perform his duty. Let us now examine the contract made by the seaman with his em ployers ; for, to that contract, there are three parties, the mariner, the master and the ow ner: the mariner constituting, in legal phrase, the first party to the contract, and the master and the owner the second party. The maritime law, doubtless, permits the mariner to contract for a sail ing voyage on the same terms that he would be permitted to make any contract upon the land. A person o f full legal age, twenty-one years, can enter into a contract o f this sort, but not a miner or apprentice; and if a minor or apprentice enters into this contract without the consent o f his parent or guardian, the sum paid to either o f them may be recovered by the latter; or, if a minor child is induced to go a voyage upon the high seas against the consent o f the parent, an action for damages will lie against the person who induced him, by the parent. The master o f the vessel is usually employed to hire the seaman, and although in this hiring, he is the agent o f the owner, and they have co ordinate power, still, if the owner does not dissent, the engagement en tered into by the master with the seaman, will be binding on the master. The contract is, however, not made with the person o f the master, but with the ship, or rather the ow n er; and if there is no master, yet the owner may make a contract with the seaman to sail with whatever mas ter may be appointed. Thus, on the one side o f the contract is the sea man, and on the other, the master and the ow n er; the former acting as the agent o f the latter, under most circumstances, although the latter is, of course, from his holding the property in the ship, more directly affected by the contract. The master and owner, on their side, agree by the contract, which is executed in the form o f what is denominated “ shipping articles,” or a pa per drawn up and signed by all the seamen, usually expressing the terms of the voyage, to pay to the mariners their wages. It is also implied in the contract, that the voyage shall be legal, that the vessel shall be sea worthy, or provided with all the requisites for navigation, and that the voyage shall be definite and certain, without deviation, unless it is abso lutely necessary for the safety o f the crew, vessel or cargo. It is also a part o f the contract, that the seamen shall be treated with humanity, and that they shall be provided with subsistence according to the laws o f their own country, unless the contract otherwise expressly provides, or the usages o f particular trade otherwise warrant. I f the seaman is sick, from causes occurring during the voyage, and not from his own fault, he may be cured at the expense o f the ship, and the law requires the master to bring the seaman back to his own country. The seaman, on his side, by the act o f signing the shipping articles, contracts to do all within his power for the welfare o f the ship; engages that he is o f competent health and knowledge to perform the duties o f the station for which he contracts; to be on board at the precise time agreed upon, which, by our own law, constitutes a part o f the shipping 232 Merchant Seamen. articles; and to remain in the service o f the ship, until the voyage is completed. I f he does not so render himself on board the vessel, he may be apprehended and committed to the custody o f the law until the ship is ready to sail. The seaman, moreover, contracts to obey all the lawful commands of the master, to preserve the order and discipline o f the ship, and to submit to the same subjection, as a child to a parent, for the pur pose o f preserving that order and discipline during the voyage. It is not proposed to enter into a minute description o f the “ shipping articles,” a paper that is the ordinary evidence o f the contract between the master and the seamen. It usually states the commencement and end o f the voyage, and the 3d section o f the act o f July 20th, 1840, de clares, that the articles and list o f the crew “ shall be deemed to contain all the conditions o f contract with the crew, as to their service, pay, voy age and all other things.” Although the shipping paper is ordinarily the evidence o f the voyage, still, where there is fraud, or mistake in its terms, the usage is for courts to exercise a liberal discretion in favor o f the mari ner. By the act o f Congress, o f 1790, it is provided that, if a seaman is taken upon a voyage without the execution o f the shipping paper, the master or mariner shall pay to the seaman the highest wages that have been given within three months, next before the time o f such shipping; and a later statute, o f 1840, declares, that all shipments o f seamen made contrary to this and other acts o f Congress, shall be v oid ; and any sea man so shipped, may at any time leave the service, and demand the high est rate o f wages given to any seaman shipped for the voyage, or the sum agreed to be given to him on his shipment. In the bank and cod fishe ries, the contract o f seamen with the masters and owners, is required to be in writing, expressing the general terms o f the voyage; and in the whale fishery, although no shipping paper is absolutely required by the law, still they are uniformly employed, stipulating, among other things, the terms o f the voyage, and the shares or “ lays” o f each officer and seaman on board the ship. The several modes in which the contracts o f seamen are executed, are the hiring by the voyage, by the month, during so long a time as the voy age shall continue, for a share o f the profits o f a certain described voy age ; or for a share o f the freight o f a certain described voyage, the first two involving the hiring on time, and the last two, the hiring for a stipu lated share o f the freight or profits. W e now proceed to a consideration o f the master’s authority over the crew and passengers, and it must be admitted that the responsibilities o f masters o f vessels are deep and various. The master is employed as the agent o f a large amount o f property, and the director o f a crew o f men under circumstances the most difficult, and frequently the most dangerous. Forecast, decision, courage, judgment, are all required during most hazardous periods, in contending with the passions o f men, and the equally terrible storms o f the sea. Traversing the lonely waste o f the ocean, away from succor, with a body o f men at his command, with the safety o f lives depending on his skill, and valuable cargoes in his custody, he is in vested with a power by the law, which, upon the land, would equal almost a despotism, and this from the very necessity o f the case. He possesses in fact the same kind o f power as is exercised by a parent over a child. H e is invested by our own law with the sole government o f his ship, with the right o f direction, subject however to the legal consequences o f the Merchant Seamen. •233 abuse of bis powers. He may, for example, enforce his authority by the infliction o f due punishment upon the crew, but if he exceeds the proper limits, he will be liable to an action by the seaman for civil damages, as well as to a criminal prosecution by a statute o f the United States. The proper measure o f punishment as proportioned to the offence, is to be as certained by the particular circumstances o f the case. The punishment must be also with proper weapons. So also the master has the right to imprison a seaman on board ship, especially when a serious crime has been committed, calling for legal investigation. T o the passengers, how ever, the master stands in a different relation from that with the crew. Although he possesses the right to restrain them from violating the order and peace o f the ship, he can require them to perform no services, ex cept in time o f danger. Even this they can avoid by leaving the vessel if they choose so to do. He is bound to treat them with courtesy and kindness, and a course o f conduct, either tyrannical or malicious, will be punished by courts o f justice. He is also bound to provide sufficient stores for their use, being responsible for any neglect in this respect. The duties of the mate are similar to those o f the master o f a vessel. In the absence o f the master ho stands in his place, and his ordinary duty is to see that the commands o f the master are obeyed, to exercise a gene-, ral superintendence over the affairs o f the ship, to advise the master o f that which requires his notice, to attend to the receiving and stowing o f the cargo, to attend to the sailing o f the vessel while at s.ea, and to keep the log book, that important evidence in all maritime cases, in which he should enter an accurate and minute journal o f the voyage. In fine, he should be a vigilant, dutiful, aud finished seaman> and should be compe tent to discharge the duties imposed upon him, If the master is dead or absent, the mate, as the next highest officer on board, succeeds to his office with all its responsibilities and duties. I f he is guilty o f gross negligence, involving the loss o f cargo, he alone is responsible ; and if he interfere with the responsibility o f another, he is also responsible. For example, if he undertakes to remove any merchandise, and it is, lost, thus interfer ing with a wharfinger, who, according to usage, is responsible for the safe delivery o f goods on board the vessel, the loss thus accruing, by such in terference, is to be deducted from the amount o f his wages. Our own law has also provided for the subsistence o f seamen, by re quiring a certain amount o f provisions to be shipped on board o f every vessel, o f one hundred and fifty tons burthen, hound on a voyage across the Atlantic Ocean, and elsewhere, and in like proportion for shorter or longer voyages. Their right to be cured o f sickness, at the expense of the ship, is clear and wjell established, although it is equally clear that this sickness must occur while in the service o f the ship, and must not be occasioned by the faults or vices o f the mariner, or while absent on bu siness or pleasure, or without permission. In accordance with the pro visions o f that act, our own vessels, above a certain tonnage, and bound for any ports beyond the limits o f the United States, must be provided with a medicine chest, with all proper directions for the benefit o f sea men. Provision has, moreover, been made for sick and disabled seamen,. byr the erection not only o f temporary but permanent hospitals. T o that end the law requires that when any one of our ships arrives from a fo reign port into one o f our own, before she is admitted to an entry, th$. master or owner must pay into the hands o f the collector twenty centsVOL. xi.— n o . m. 22 234 Merchant Seamen. per month for every seaman employed; and this, also, is the case in every vessel employed in the coasting trade. This sum is retained out o f the wages o f the seamen, and constitutes a fund under the management o f the President o f the United States and directors appointed by him, for the maintainance o f marine hospitals, in the several districts. The law is, moreover, peculiarly strict, regarding marine offences, and we shall now briefly consider the principal offences o f this sort. Barra try, it is well known, is a term applied to a breach o f duty by the master or mariners, against the owner, relating either to the ship or cargo, and its consideration belongs more especially to the subject o f marine insu rance. The penalties for maritime offences act against the offender, either by legal sentences, in courts o f law, direct corporeal punishment, or the for feiture o f wages. Among these offences are, destroying and running away with the ship, mutiny, piracy, piratical confederacy, endeavor to commit a revolt, desertion, absence, embezzlement, negligence, drunkenness, and disobedience ; all o f which are very grave offences, and punishable in a greater or less measure by the law. As it is the duty o f the seaman to adhere to the ship, under ordinary circumstances, until the completion o f the voyage, so, also, it is the duty of the master to return the seaman to the port o f departure. There are cer tain general circumstances, and also particular acts on the part o f the sea man, which will warrant a discharge. Misconduct on the part o f the sea man, amounting to continuous drunkenness, disobedience, negligence, or dishonesty, tending to a radical disqualification or unfitness for duty, would warrant such discharge. But if the seaman offers amends, even in the case o f aggravated offences, it is usual to refrain from giving this dis charge. By a law o f the United States, the master o f every ship, bound for a foreign port, is required to deliver to the collector o f the port from which he clears, a list o f his crew, and to receive a copy o f this test, cer tified by the collector. He is also required to exhibit this test to the first boarding officer, at the first port o f the United States to which he shall arrive, and produce the persons named in the list, to the boarding officer, who reports the same to the collector. I f a ship or vessel o f the United States is sold in a foreign country, and her company discharged, or if a seaman, mariner, or citizen o f the United States is discharged, it is the duty o f the master or commander, to produce to the consul or vice consul, the commercial agent, or vice commercial agent, the list o f his ship’s company, and to pay to the officer for every man discharged, three months pay, over and above the wages due to him, two-thirds o f which are to be paid to each seaman or mariner so discharged, on his engagement on board o f any vessel to return to the United States, and the other remain ing third to be returned as a fund for the payment o f the passages o f sea men or mariners o f our own country who desire to return to the United States, and to support American seamen who are destitute in such foreign port. The money is to be accounted for with the treasury every six months. This provision, however, only applies to the voluntary discharge by the master, and not to those cases where the discharge has resulted from inevitable necessity or superior force. The occurrence o f an inevitable disaster at sea, will not exempt the master from the payment o f the sum alluded to, unless the vessel can be repaired at a reasonable expense. I f the ship is captured, the seamen Merchant Seamen. 235 have a right to remain by the ship, anti await the prize proceedings, and if the crew are discharged while the ship is able to proceed on her way, they will be entitled to their two months pay. The act o f Congress of 1840, however, somewhat enlarges the discretionary powers o f consuls or commercial agents, in foreign ports, in discharging mariners from their vessels. I f application is made by the master and mariner for a discharge, he may give tins discharge upon such terms as he can make with the master, in order to exempt the United States from a liability to support the mariner so discharged, and without the payment of any sum o f mo ney ; and if a mariner has deserted, and is reclaimed by the consul, if it is ascertained that this desertion has been caused by ill treatment, the con sul may discharge the mariner, who will be entitled to receive three months pay, besides the wages up to the time o f the discharge. The con suls are also bound to provide for the passage o f all destitute seamen o f our own, found within their districts, to their own country; and the mas ters of vessels belonging to our own country, are also bound to take such mariner^ on board their vessels, on terms agreed upon between the par ties, not exceeding ten dollars for each person, and under certain other conditions. A law o f the United States also prohibits the forcing ashore a seaman in a foreign port, maliciously, and without a justifiable cause, under certain penalties. W e now proceed to a consideration o f the master’s relation to the ship. The property o f the ship being the owners, the majority, o f course, have the power o f appointing a master, who acts, in relation to the ship, as their agent. I f unable to attend to his duties, the master has the power, while in a foreign port, to appoint a substitute, or the consignees o f a ship or cargo in a foreign port, have likewise the power to appoint a sub stitute, (if the master should die, and devolve the management upon them selves,) who assumes all the rights and duties o f his predecessor. It ap pears that the owners have the right to remove the master, who is part owner o f a vessel; but if he is removed without good cause, and he is en gaged for a particular voyage, they must answer to him in damages. Where, however, he has only a general engagement with the vessel, his relation to the owners would seem to be a mere agency, liable, however, at any time to be revoked. Nor can the master himself, leave the ship in which he has contracted to sail, without being liable in damages, un less the owners desire to keep him from his post, and in that case he must give notice. In his authority, over the ship, the master is the agent o f the owners, and must manage the vessel for their interest. Although bound by their orders, where express orders are given, still, in the absence o f those or ders, his own authority governs as master o f the ship. I f the ship has been accustomed so to be let, he can let the ship, to be chartered by an other, according to the usual course o f its trade, provided that it is in a foreign port. But if it is let to charter in a home port, it must be with the owners’ knowledge. The case is the same in the procuration o f freight, the master acting as the agent o f the owners, their own assent being pre sumed, if they are present, and make no objections. He may, also, receive goods on board the vessel, as a general ship, and give bills o f lading, which will be binding upon the owners when signed by the master; and if a merchant ships goods as freight, he has a lien on the vessel for all damages that they may sustain through the carelessness o f the master, or 236 Merchant Seamen. i the unseaworthiness o f the vessel, it being hypothecated to him for his damages. But it is necessary, in this case, that the ship should be a gene ral freighting ship. The master o f the ship is, moreover, usually empower ed to hire the other officers and seamen, unless the power is withheld by the owners. The master also has the right to order the victualling and repairing o f the ship, unless it is shown that the owner, or ships husband, managed the vessel ; and such contracts will be binding on the owners upon two grounds, first, the authority upon which the master acts, as agent for his principal, their owners; and secondly, the fact that they receive the bene fits o f the contract. He may even borrow money necessary for the prose cution o f the voyage, if in a foreign port, and the owner will be responsi ble. If, however, he cannot otherwise obtain a supply o f money for that object, he may resort to the direct hypothecation o f the ship, by a bottomrv bond. I f by the bottomry bond alone, the supply o f money can not be procured, the master is empowered to draw bills o f exchange upon the owners, collateral to the bond, and the owners are bound to their accept ance. But it is necessary in order to make the owners responsible, that the advances thus made should be necessary supplies for the prosecu tion o f the voyage, or the safety o f the ship. But the master cannot resort to bottomry, if there are funds o f the owners on board the ship, to which he is first bound to resort, and even if the master possesses funds on board, an opinion has been pretty strongly intimated by Mr. Justice Story, that he is bound to apply those funds to the safe prosecution o f the voyage. The ship can, however, only be hypothecated in a foreign port, and it was adjudged by the great authority o f Chief Justice Mar shall, that in our own country, a foreign port was any port out o f the state in which the owner resides. I f the vessel is wrecked, and becomes so out o f repair as not to be navigated, and no money can be procured for that object, or the vessel cannot be repaired but at an expense o f half her value, when repaired she can be sold by the master. In general the owners are responsible for injuries committed by the master in that capacity, as in cases o f collusion, discharges o f mariners, damages to cargo, in consequence o f the want o f ordinary care, and em bezzlement. W e now come to the personal liability o f the master, who is, doubtless, answerable for all the contracts which he makes, connected with the na vigation o f a ship, as well as on charter parties and bills o f lading signed by him. He is, moreover, liable for all damages springing from his own want o f skill or care, repairs and supplies, pilotage and wages o f sea men. But if supplies and repairs are made upon the exclusive credit o f the owner, the master will not be responsible ; but ordinary supplies and repairs, ordered by the master, will usually be a valid charge against him. H e is also liable for the illegal injuries done by himself and those o f his crew, but not for the wilful trespasses o f his crew not done within the scope o f his commands. I f the master o f a ship is at the same time commander and consignee, he stands in two relations, both as agent o f the owner and the consignor, and is invested with appropriate duties in these two capacities. Inasmuch, as the master and owner are in law common carriers, it is the duty o f the master to see that his vessel is seaworthy, provided with a proper crew, and to take a pilot, where a pilot is required by custom or the law, to Merchant Seamen. 237 stow the goods properly, to set sail in fair weather, to transport the cargo with due care, and to provide against all mishaps but those which arise from the acts o f God and the public enemy. So, also, in the power pos sessed by the master over the cargo, if he cannot obtain funds on a pledge o f the ship, he can bind the whole cargo for those repairs neces sary for the prosecution o f the voyage, or he may sell a part o f it for the same purpose. But in this matter he must act with reasonable dis cretion. He may throw overboard a part o f the cargo in a storm to save the ship and cargo, or he may part with a portion of the cargo as a ransom for the remainder, or he may bind the entire ship and cargo for the same object. If, moreover, the vessel is driven into an intermediate port, in a state requiring repairs, and the ship cannot be repaired at all, or without great loss o f time, the master may tranship the cargo into an other vessel and send it on. I f the vessel can be thus repaired, he may wait until the repairs are made ; but if the cargo is perishable, and there is no time or chance to consult the proprietor, he may sell a part, or hypothecate the whole, or do the best as in his judgment is for the interest o f the whole cargo, or if his own ship becomes disabled, it is the duty o f the master to go to a contiguous port, to procure another ship, and if it cannot be found there, he is bound to go no further. Finally, the master must proceed from the port o f departure to the port o f discharge, in the most ordinary track, without deviation, remain by the cargo, in case o f capture, and deliver it to the consignees on the termination o f the voyage. The power o f the master in relation to the freight, results from his du ties as agent o f the owner, and he may receive the freight, retain the goods until the freight is paid, and when arriving at his port o f dis charge, he may demand his full freight, or if he can procure the money from no other source, he may hypothecate the freight by a bottomry bond. The freight and ship are in fact required to be hypothecated, before the cargo can be touched. Although the master possesses no lien upon the ship for his wages, yet it would seem that he holds such a lien upon the freight; at all events, he has the right to retain it when it once comes into his hands, in order to reimburse himself as a general creditor o f the owner. W e now arrive at the consideration o f the payment o f wages. It is clearly the duty o f the mariners to remain by the vessel until the cargo is discharged, it being a part o f their contract so to do. When thus dis charged, the seamen have a claim to their wages in our own country; and if not paid within ten days after such discharge, they have a right to admiralty process against the vessel. Only one-third o f the wages earned can be demanded by the mariner at any port o f delivery during the voyage, unless expressly stipulated, and if the ship is lost, or is captured, those wages that were earned up to the last port o f delivery, may be recover ed by the mariner upon his return home, unless the vessel has earned freight; and unless she has made the entire voyage, wages are not re coverable by the seaman, and inasmuch as they depend upon the safety o f the vessel and cargo, and the earning o f freight, they cannot be in sured. If the vessel is lost on the homeward voyage, and freight was, or might have been earned on the outward voyage, the wages are due at the port o f delivery o f the outward cargo, “ and the port o f destination is in general to be deemed a port of delivery for the purpose o f wage-3, 238 Merchant Seamen. though the vessel may have gone there in ballast.” In case o f capture, the seamen lose their wages, unless the ship is restored, and in case freight is decreed, even under sentence o f condemnation, when their wages are due. In all cases o f rescue, recapture and ransom, the wages o f mariners are subject to a general average, but in no other cases are they liable to contribution. In case o f shipwreck, it would seem that if parts o f the ship are saved by the exertions o f the seamen, they hold a lien on those parts for some kind and extent o f compensation, but this may be consid ered somewhat in the light o f salvage. The general rule is, that freight must be first earned, in order to entitle the seaman to wages. It would also seem clear, that where the duty o f a crew has ceased, and they are discharged from their ship, they may, in some cases, by res cuing the vessel, become salvors; but those cases occur in extraordinary emergencies. When a seaman dies on board ship, wages are usually allowed up to the time o f the decease, if the cause o f the death occurred, not from his own fault, and while thus shipped; and these wages are re coverable by the representatives o f the mariner. In the whale fishery, the representatives o f a deceased mariner are entitled to that share o f the profits, which the term o f his service bore to the whole voyage, accord ing to his contract. If a voyage is broken up, by the fault o f the master or owner, full compensation is rendered to the seaman in the nature of damages; so, also, in cases o f wrongful discharge, the seaman usually re covers full indemnity in our courts o f law. Sometimes, however, the conduct o f the mariner operates a forfeiture o f his wages, either in the whole or in part. Sometimes, there is a stat ute forfeiture, and in that case, where the statute does not cover the of fence, the master or owner may fall back upon the original principles o f the contract and seek compensation for the damage received, and he may set off the claim fordamage against the claim for wages. Total forfeiture o f wages, is, however, seldom inflicted, unless the misconduct o f the sea man is o f an aggravated character, amounting to a breach o f the con tract, such, for example, as desertion. Embezzlement, negligence, drunk enness and disobedience o f orders, usually incurs a forfeiture o f less than the entire wages ; and, in case o f a condonation or a pardon, the mariner is re-established in all his rights, and the forfeiture o f his wages is cured by a faithful performance o f duty afterwards. In those cases, however, where the offence o f the seaman is not aggravated, and punishment has been inflicted at the time, no forfeiture o f wages accrues. W e now come to the remedies, possessed by mariners, for the recovery o f their wages. The seaman, as has been before intimated, has a lien for his "wages, and the master is empowered to sell the vessel, if he cannot otherwise pay the seamen : for it is declared by the Consolato del Marc, that the seamen ought to be paid, “ though there remains hut a. single nail f o r the payment.” The nature o f the lien held by the seaman upon the vessel, is distinct from a lien as it is understood in reference to other sub jects, for it is a special charge upon the ship, and entitled to be paid be fore any other special charge upon the same thing, and it attaches to the proceeds of the ship, even if converted into money. It is even entitled to be paid before the debts, for which an express hypothecation o f the ship may have been given, and can only be extinguished by the destruction of the thing, by payment, or by prescription, or laches, or a renunciation o f his rights by the mariner. In the first case, there must be a total destruc Merchant Seamen. 239 tion of the thing, for if any part is saved, the original lien adheres to it. The lien, of course, is lost by payment, or in proportion to that amount which is paid. It is also lost, by negligence on the part o f the mariner: for example, his permitting a vessel to pass into other hands, when he knew it was thus passing, without making known his claim, would be a waiver o f his lien, still, the equitable circumstances o f each case must govern. A seaman, also, has a lien upon the freight for the payment o f his wages, and this lien can bo enforced by seizing it in the hands o f the master, or the merchant, before it is paid o v e r: for, as he has his remedy against the last plank o f the ship, so, also, he has against the last particle of the freight. The mariner, moreover, has his remedy against the master, for he can recover his wages o f him personally, or he can recover them o f the owner or owners o f the vessel, or the person who appointed the master and gave him his authority. But in the case o f a chartered ship, it would seem that the hirer o f the ship or the master whom he appoints, and not the general owner, is responsible for wages ; but the last case has not been directly decided. . For those personal injuries, inflicted by the master upon the mariner, such as assaults, batteries or imprisonments, the seaman has his remedy, either by an action o f tresspass at the common law, or by a libel in the admiralty, in what is technically denominated a cause o f damage. So, also, in a wrongful discharge, a cause o f action would lie, not only in the special tort committed, but also for the wages upon the original contract o f hiring, the wrongful discharge being void. In order to institute suits in courts o f admiralty, it is necessary that the voyage should be on tide waters, and that the service on which suit is brought, should bo connected with commerce and navigation. The juris diction o f those courts in personal suits, embrace claims founded in con tract and in wrong, and also those cases where claims, founded in a hy pothecary interest o f the nature o f a lien, are urged. The jurisdiction extends, moreover, to those cases in which shares o f fish, taken in the bank and other cod fisheries, and o f oil, in the whale fishery, are claimed ; and it is a peculiarity o f admiralty jurisdiction, that the seamen may unite the claims founded upon their distinct contracts, in one suit, but this only in their demands for wages. The courts o f common law, also, take co g nizance o f mariners contracts, but they are not competent to give the remedy so as to enforce the mariners lien upon the vessel, and they con fine their jurisdiction to personal suits against the master or owner, ac cording to the contract made by the employers with the seaman; but in cases o f torts that have been committed upon the high seas, and where the form o f the action is trespass, or a special action on the case, the com mon law has concurrent jurisdiction. We have thus concluded a sketch o f the rights and duties o f merchant seamen, a body o f men that have grown to a vast number, with the rap idly increasing commerce o f the country. The very large amount o f capital employed in commerce, and the enormous quantity o f property afloat upon the ocean, and committed, while thus afloat, to their charge, render their labors and duties those o f high responsibility. Exhibiting in their characters, a combination o f excellent and evil qualities, they have always been under the especial guardianship and protection o f our courts o f admiralty, and, as we have already seen, many precautionary measures 240 History o f Banks and Banking in Illinois. have been adopted by the laws for the benefit of those who may be desti tute. Nor has philanthropy been wanting, in extending its efforts in their behalf, by establishing for them the means o f education and religion. W e hope that, as our commerce dots the ocean with its canvass, and crowds our ports, from Maine to Louisiana, with its shipping, the im provement of the seamen will keep pace with its increase ; so that those who are made the agents in pouring wealth into the country, may also be the efficient agents in its amelioration. A rt . V.— H ISTO R Y OF BANKS AND BANKING IN ILLINOIS. B anks m I llinois— A t S hawneetown— A t E dwardsville— A t C airo— R elief L aws— O ld S tate B ank— L ate S tate B ank— I ts H istory— P rogress and D ecline— L egis lative A cts relative thereto— B anks go into L iquidation.* T iie cause o f heat and cold, in different latitudes, and o f rain, hail and snow, in different seasons, says a distinguished writer, with more truth than poetry, are explained by professors o f natural science, to our entire satisfaction. The change o f climate, the approach o f storms and the ori gin and cause, the course and progress of the wind, are also explained, and the future predicted with some considerable certainty. In banking, however, it is otherwise. Like the weather, it is affected by causes which control the latter, and possesses, in an eminent degree, some un certainties peculiarly its own. While the storm and the tempest rage, and pestilence and famine reign, the fondest hopes that man e ’er cherish ed, are frequently blasted. His property is destroyed by the tempest, or swallowed up by the earthquake ; he is exposed alike, to the tornado and to the avalanche, the consuming fire, the wasting pestilence, the devour ing famine; and an excess of heat or cold, fixes frequently his destiny. In banking, similar contingencies not unfrequently happen ; and to these, man’s caprice and human depravity, the infidelity o f agents and the insta bility o f popular opinion, (banks being the creatures o f the latter,) are often to be added. O f the truth o f these several positions, historic recol lections, especially in Illinois, are decisive. Men in business, it is said, are like patients in the last stages o f the consumption— hoping for a favorable change, but growing worse and worse every day until they expire. I f we are to credit reports, said to be authen tic— if the defalcations o f clerks, agents, cashiers and presidents, with which the public car has recently been filled, are real— banks, and their officers are worse than formerly, and, like the consumptive patient, in spite o f legislation, must shortly expire. All the banks in Illinois, have ceased to be. Their history is brief, their story is instructive, and the lesson taught will long be remembered. Under the territorial government, three banks were chartered: one at Shawneetown, one at Edwardsville and one at Cairo. There was also a bank at Kaskaskia. O f the latter, it is needless now to speak ; it issued no bills, and o f course defrauded no man. W e regret our inability to say as much in favor o f the others. When these banks were chartered, the * See Chapter X X III, Brown’s History of Illinois, p. 428. ter, 1844. New York, J. Winches History o f Banks and Banking in Illinois. 241 whole population o f the state was less than 30,000— a bank for every 10,000 souls. At that rate, Illinois ought now to have fifty banks and up ward ; and were the losses occasioned by each, to be in the same ratio as before, a part o f such losses only would finish the canal. The bank of Cairo, like the town in which it was located, existed for several years merely in imagination. It was revived in 1836, by specu lating men for speculating purposes; flourished, for a short time, with various success, and, at last, like the lamp in its socket, went out o f itself and peaceably expired. Its charter was repealed on the 4th of March, 1843. The banks at Shawneetown and Edwardsville, became deposit banks, and received the public monies arising from the sale o f public lands in Illinois, and converted it to their use. The former, accounted in whole or in part; the latter, never. A suit was afterward brought by the Uni ted States against the latter, and a judgment for $54,000 obtained. No part o f it, however, has been collected. I'he bank at Shawneetown was incorporated on the 28th o f December, 1816, by the name and style o f “ the president, directors and company, o f the Bank o f Illinois.” Its capital, at first, was $300,000, one-third of which w^s reserved to be subscribed by the state. It was chartered for twenty years, or until the 1st o f January, 1837. It commenced business immediately, and, by the aid o f government deposits, acquired an exten sive credit, issued and redeemed its bills for several years, and paid specie as late as August, 1821, a considerable time after the Kentucky banks had failed, it finally yielded to the force o f circumstances, and settled or com pounded with government for its deposits, and remained dormant till the 12th of February, 1835, when an act was passed by the legislature, ex tending its charter for twenty years, after the 1st o f January, 1837. The bank was required to pay into the state treasury, for state purposes, onehalf o f 1 per cent annually, on its capital stock, and in consideration there for, was exempted from further taxation. On the 4th of March, 1837, another act was passed, for increasing its capital stock $1,400,000, all o f which was to be subscribed by the state, (the bank consenting thereto;) and in order to raise the necessary funds, state bonds were issued, and the faith o f the state was pledged for their payment, with interest, in 1860. The constitution, adopted on the 26t.h o f August, 1818, declared, that there shall be no other banks or monied institutions in Illinois, but those already provided by law, except, a state bank and its branches. It became desirable, therefore, for the legislature (as was then supposed) to receive the Shawneetown bank into close communion, (when its charter was re newed,) to aid the gigantic system o f internal improvements about to be commenced. On the 22d of March, 1819, a bank was incorporated, by the name and style of the “ president, directors and company, o f the State Bank o f Illi nois,” to continue for twenty-five years, with a capital not exceeding $4,000,000— a real mammoth, considering our wealth and population— one-half o f which was to be subscribed by individuals, and the other half by the state, when “ the legislature, thereof, should deem it proper.” No attempts having been made to set this mammoth institution agoing, the charter was repealed at the next session o f the legislature, in 1821, and another bank chartered in lieu o f it, with a capital o f $500,000, to 242 „ History o f Banks and Banking in Illinois. be owned by the state, and to be managed and superintended by the legis lature. The act was entitled “ an act establishing the State Bank o f Illinois.” It was a singular specimen o f legislation, and deserves, therefore, to be fully considered. The legislature, like others elsewhere preceding it, was actuated apparently by the impression, that paper money could be made to supply every financial want. During the American revolution, when con tinental money for the first time was issued, to doubt its value or its final redemption, was exceedingly hazardous. It implied a want o f patriotism, and many, smarting under the appellation o f tories and speculators, had their stores forcibly broken open, and their goods sold at limited prices, by committees o f their neighborhood. When the army of the revolution was destitute o f food and raiment, and almost perishing from want, a patriotic old lady, it is said, exclaimed : “ What a shame it is, that Congress should let the poor soldiers suffer, when they have power to make just as much money as they choose !” The paper money o f Russia, issued by the emperor, and predicated on taxes— the assignats o f France, during the reign o f terror and the throes and convulsions o f anarchy— the paper money of some o f the American states, when colonies o f England— the Mississippi scheme o f John Law, and the South sea bubble, in England, all o f which were “ parts o f one stupendous whole,” ought to have taught our legislature wisdom. The times, however, were perilous. Corn, in 1824, was sold at Cincinnati, for ten cents a bushel; wheat, from twenty-five, down to twelve and a half cents; flour, at Pittsburgh, was, at that time, a dollar per barrel; other produce in the same ratio. A bushel and a half of wheat would buy a pound o f coffee ; a barrel of flour would buy a pound o f tea ; and twelve and a half barrels o f flour, a yard of superfine cloth. The legis lature o f Ohio, had passed a law to prevent property from being sold on execution, unless it would bring a certain amount to be fixed by appraisers. Kentucky also adopted “ the relief system,” and stay laws and replevin acts followed in quick succession. Commonwealth banks, or state loan offices, issued their thousands and their millions; and the creditor had no alternative, but to receive it in payment o f his debts, or to await the arri val o f better times. Governor Adair, in his annual message to the legislature of Kentucky, said, that “ the paramount law o f necessity” had compelled the legisla ture to adopt measures, against which much could be said ; but added, that “ a half million o f agitated and endangered people had been thus tranquillized, without the infliction o f legal justice or the example o f vio lated morality. In the history o f nations, as well as o f individuals, there are occasional moments o f frenzy, in which every movement baffles all human calcula tions. The politician, the moralist and the philosopher, are equally sur prised. The court o f appeals, in Kentucky, immediately declared the re lief laws unconstitutional. The people at once divided into two great po litical parties upon the subject, and the contest was carried on wi ll extra ordinary violence. A new court of appeals was established, and the relief laws declared constitution i l ; and in a few years thereafter, when a sudden and unexpected change came over the scene, preparations were made to defend the records o f the new court with powder and ball. In 1826, the History o f Banks and Banking in Illinois. 243 friends of the old court obtained a majority in the legislature, and the whole system was abandoned. The relief system, it was Ihen conceded, did not effect the object in tended— did not produce an equitable adjustment o f the affairs of debtor and creditor. In every age o f the world, that relation has been one o f deep solicitude. In a savage state, it is o f but little consequence, because where there is but little wealth, there is no theatre for its display. As soon, however, as man begins to accumulate, and form associations other than what mutual dependence and common danger require, wealth be comes important, and the desire for its accumulation, a prominent feature in our character. Hence, the relation between debtor and creditor, and hence, too, its importance. It is, however, to be hoped, that so long as a sense o f justice shall ani mate the councils o f our nation— so long as our eagle shall maintain its ascendency in her sky, and the American flag wave in triumph on her shores, no temporary expedients will again be resorted to. By the act last referred to, a bank was created, to continue for ten years, with a capital o f $500,000, known and distinguished by ti e name and style o f “ the president and directors o f the State Bank f Illinois.” Four branches were established : one in Madison county, at Edwardsville; one at Brownville, in Jackson county; one at Shawneetown, in Gallatin county ; and one at the seat o f justice, in Edwards county. In addition to the above branches, there was the principal bank also. The president and directors were elected by the Senate and House o f Repre sentatives, on a joint ballot; six directors for the principal bank, 'nd five for each o f the branches. The cashiers were appointed by a majority o f the directors. Its officers were authorized to procure plates, & c., and $2,000 out o f the public treasury were appropriated to defray the ex penses. The plates, like those o f the Mormon prophet, constituted all o f its capital; $300,000, in bills, were directed to be issued, and distributed in the several districts, in proportion to the population o f each. These bills were to be loaned on notes, with mortgage security, and no individ ual was entitled to a loan for more than $1,000. The notes issued by the bank, bore an interest o f 2 per cent per annum; and the person who effected the loan, paid 6 per cent interest upon his note and mortgage. Its bills were receivable, in payment o f taxes, and all debts due to the state, to any county, and to the bank. The notes given for money, were loaned, payable in one year; and on paying 10 percent o f the principal, the maker was entitled to a renewal o f his note ; and so on, from year to year, until the expiration o f the charter, at which time the whole was to be paid. The president o f the principal bank, was to have a standing accommodation o f $2,000, on paying 2 per cent therefor, and giving ade quate security. The president o f each branch, $1,000, and each direc tor $750. The cashiers were to receive a salary not exceeding $800 each. The twenty-third section o f the act, is in these words:— “ Be it further enacted, That all the lands, town lots and other property, belonging to the state, and all the funds, and all the revenue, which now is, or may hereafter become payable to the state, shall be, and the same are hereby pledged for the redemption of the notes and bills, which may be issued by virtue of this act. And the people of the state of Illinois, by their representatives in the general assembly, convened, do hereby pledge themselves, at, or before the expiration of the said ten years, recited in the first section, 244 History o f Banks and Banking in Illinois and before the final dissolution of this institution, to redeem all such notes and bills as may be presented to them, in gold or silver coins.” The twenty-seventh section o f the act, is in these words :— “ Be it further enacted, That no execution shall issue on any judgment, or replevy bond, now in force, or which shall be hereafter rendered, or entered into, until the 1st day of November next. And all executions which shall thereafter issue on judgments, now existing, or that shall be rendered on existing causes of action, or on causes of ac tion which shall accrue before the 1st day c f May next, or on contracts entered into be fore the 1st day of May next, may be replevied for three years from the date of the levy of the execution, unless the plaintiff or the plaintiffs, by him, her, or themselves or agents, shall endorse on the back of the execution, ‘ That the notes or bids, of the State Bank of Illinois, or of either of its branches, will be received in discharge of the exe cution.’ ” By the thirty-fourth section, certain judgments were required to be en tered, “ payable in the notes or bills o f the State Bank o f I l lin o is a n d by the thirty-fifth section, the school fund, and all specie or land-office money, were required to be paid into the principal bank. The whole resources o f the state, its credit, its capital and its honor, were thus concentrated in this single institution. It had hardly com menced business, before its bills fell to seventy cents on the dollar, and soon thereafter to fifty. They at length fell to twenty-five cents, when they ceased to circulate. No specie, or none o f consequence, was received at the principal bank, or any o f its branches.* A currency, composed entirely o f irredeemable paper, flooded the country, and expelled the precious metals. The de struction o f public and private credit, national torpor, individual ruin, dis graceful legislation and the prostration o f morals, followed o f course. The above is a mere outline o f the calamities that succeeded. JNothing was seen but a boundless expanse o f desolation. Wealth impoverished, enterprise checked, the currency depreciated, and all that was indicative o f public and private prosperity plunged, apparently, into the vortex of ruin. The farmer had no incentive to industry or exertion. The ef forts o f the merchant were fruitless, and the energies o f the state, to all appearance, were temporarily annihilated. The guilty authors, how ever, o f the mischief, escaped with impunity; while the innocent, the unsuspecting and uncorrupted, were plundered without necessity and with out mercy. This was in a time o f peace. It cannot, however, be pretended, that the state bank was the cause o f all the misfortunes that followed ; it was rather their effect. The difficulties had commenced, previous to its in corporation. The remedy, it is true, was worse than the disease ; and instead of healiqg, it excited the wound, postponed the cure and prolonged the agony. A special law was afterward passed, to pay the officers o f government their salaries in depreciated paper, at its then market price. The mem bers o f the legislature received, on one occasion, nine dollars per day for their services. This, o f course, became a debt against the state for its whole amount, for the payment o f which, its faith and its honor were ir revocably pledged; and when Wiggins made a loan to the state o f Illinois, o f i 100,000— all o f which has since been paid in good faith, and with in* At one of the branches, but two dollars in specie were received, both of which were preserved as curiosities. History o f Banks and Banking in Illinois. 245 terest— a considerable portion o f the $100,000 was received from him at par, which had been paid out at fifty cents per dollar. The case is as similated to one who sells his own notes at 50 per cent discount, and re deems them afterward at par; or, like the market-woman, who, having sold her wares considerably below their cost, and being asked how she made her profits, said, “ it was by the amount o f her sales.” The state or the individual, who acts thus, must, we apprehend, do a vast deal o f business before he will be rich. The failure of all the banks which had hitherto existed, and the losses which had been sustained, were remembered for some months, and somesay, even for years. Emigration, however, began to increase, and prop erty to rise in value. The cupidity o f white men saw, and coveted therich lands on the Upper Mississippi. They had already been ceded tothe United States, but the Indians were permitted to enjoy them until they were required for use. A war with Black Hawk, was, therefore, provoked. Nothing, perhaps, diffuses civilization more rapidly, than the march o f armies, (civilized armies, we mean, not barbarous hordes.) Roman civ ilization kept pace with the flight o f her eagles. English civilization has done the same. And in our own country, the establishment o f a military post, is a signal for its whole population to advance. When Black Hawk was making a triumphant tour through the Atlan tic cities, in 1833, the sturdy emigrants at the west, unwilling that his broad acres should be converted into a waste, planted them with corn. Others followed in their rear ; and when the savage war-whoop yielded to the bugle’s blast, hundreds and thousands o f speculators preceded, and followed by an industrious population, resorted to northern Illinois, and the South sea bubble, the Mississippi scheme an-dthe speculations in Maine, were reacted in our very midst. An English historian once described Chicago, and other towns and vil lages in its neighborhood; to that description we have nothing to add. Although written o f a century and upward since, it would seem as if some modern town had then “ sat for her picture.” In 1835, the reign o f speculation commenced, and as bank and specu lation went hand in hand, like Adam and Eve as they departed from para dise, the charter o f the Shavvneetown bank was extended, as we have al ready remarked, for twenty years; and a new state bank, on the 12th o f February, 1835, was incorporated, by the name o f the “ president, direc tors and company, o f the State Bank o f Illinois.” Its capital, at first, consisted of $1,500,000, with the right to increase it another $1,000,000 ; the state was to become a partner, and to have $100,000 of its stock. On the 4th of March, 1837, an addition o f $2,000,000 was made to its capital,Jill o f which was subscribed by the state. The bank and the state were now firmly united, but whether the bank or the state profited or suf fered most by the alliance, it is difficult to determine. Their love for each other, was like the love o f Master Slender for Mistress Anne Page, in Shakspeare, “ not great in the beginning, and it pleased heaven to de crease it upon better acquaintance, when they had more occasion to know' one another.” Its charter was to continue till the 1st of February, 1860, and the bank was required to pay a bonus to the state annually, o f half o f 1 per cent, in lieu o f all taxes and impositions whatever. Previous to this time, on the 16th of January, 1836, a law was passed authorizing 246 History o f Banks and Banking in Illinois. the bank to establish three new branches, in addition to the six originally contemplated. The time for redeeming its paper in specie, without for feiting its charter, was extended also from ten to fifty days ; and as a con sideration therefor, the bank was to redeem the loan, commonly called “ the Wiggins loan,” made by authority o f the state, on the 29th o f Janu ary, 1831, together with the interest which might thereafter accrue on said loan. By the act o f 1837, the fund commissioners were authorized to subscribe the $2,000,000 o f stock, and to issue $2,000,000 in bonds, for the purpose o f raising money to pay for such investment. Difficulties soon began to thicken around the bank. Some of its loans were made to irresponsible persons, esteemed perfectly good when made, but found afterward to be otherwise. The speculating mania in the country having ceased, and many o f its debtors becoming insolvent, the bank, o f course, participated in their reverses; and, on the 21st o f July, 1837, an act was passed to authorize the suspension o f specie payments, on condition, however, that the bank should conform to, and comply with, certain terms therein enu merated. These terms were :— 1st. The bank was restricted from making a dividend till it resumed specie payment. 2d It was prohibited from selling, disposing o f or paying out, any of its specie, except for change, and in sums under five dollars. 3d. It was to make monthly returns, & c., o f its condition. 4th. It was forbidden to increase its circulation beyond the amount o f its capital paid in. 5th. It was required to receive and pay out, any funds belonging to the state, free o f charge. 6th. Citizens and merchants o f the state, on paying 10 per cent on the principal o f any notes, were entitled to have them renewed. 7th. The violation o f any o f the above provisions, exposed the bank to a forfeiture o f its charter. Under the operation o f this law, the bank lingered along till the 24th o f January, 1843, when, by a legislative act, it went into liquidation. On the 27th o f February, 1841, another act was passed to save the for feiture of the charter o f the Bank o f Illinois, at Shawneetown. Certain conditions, however, were imposed: and, among others, that the bank should buy $200,000 of state bonds, at par, the avails o f which, should be applied to the redemption o f internal improvement bonds, hypothecated by the fund commissioners, and to the payment o f interest on state in debtedness, other than to said bank. On the 3d o f March, 1843, the bank at Shawneetown went also into liquidation.* The question has frequently been asked, whether the protection given by the state to the banks, was o f service to the latter ? The state had borrowed, and was indebted largely to each, for monies advanced on the faith and credit o f the state. The banks were delinquent, and could not, therefore, look danger in the face. They complied with unreasonable terms, probably on that account. The state and the bank were, there fore, in all probability, “ a mutual curse” to each other; and the protec* This forced loan of $200,000, which would of course require the issuing of $200,000 in bills, or the abstraction of so much from its available means, was not calculated to sus tain an institution on the verge of bankruptcy. History o f Banks and Banking in Illinois, 247 tion which the former gave the latter, was like that which “ vultures give to lambs,” covering and devouring them. On the 24th o f January, 1843, an act was passed “ to diminish the state debt, and put the state bank into liquidation.” The title o f the act is somewhat extraordinary. That, however, is o f but little consequence if the object be just and reasonable. Some pills, we are told, require gilding to be palatable. On the 25th o f February, 1843, an act was passed to put the Bank o f Illinois, (at Shawneetown,) into liquidation. Some o f its provisions are also extraordinary.* After providing for the appointment o f three commissioners, the 4th section o f the act requires “ the said commissioners, or either o f them, immediately after they shall have been qualified as aforesaid, to proceed to Shawneetown, and to any other place where the said bank has a branch, and shall then and there take possession o f the banking-house o f said bank and branches, and also o f all the goods and chattels, title-papers, credits, effects, cash and bank bills, belonging to said bank, wheresoever the same may be found.” The 5th section o f the act requires the sheriff, & c., “ to assist said com missioner or commissioners, and to call to his aid the power o f the county, & c .; and if any officer or agent o f the bank, or any other person or per sons, shall wilfully resist or hinder, or in any wise obstruct the said com missioner or commissioners, or any other person or persons, called to his or their aid, as aforesaid, in performing any o f their duties, imposed upon them by the act, he, she or they, shall be deemed guilty o f felony, and on conviction thereof, they shall be imprisoned in the penitentiary for a term not exceeding ten years.” The Bank o f Illinois, (at Shawneetown,) had been incorporated for several years ; had done a large amount o f business; had dealt exten sively with the state ; had performed all the duties which the legislature had required o f i t ; and many individuals had embarked “ their little all” in its stock. The bank, however, had yielded to the force o f circum stances, and, like others, had suspended specie payments. The legisla ture, thereupon, without a trial, without a judicial investigation, appointed commissioners, and directed them to proceed immediately to Shawnee town, to take possession o f the banking-house and its effects, the notes, the money, and everything belonging to it, and in case its officers re sisted said commissioners in doing so, the whole power o f the county was to be summoned to their a id ; and the officers o f the bank, their agents and every other person, even stockholders, whose means o f living were all concentrated in its vaults, by this law were declared to be felons, and subjected to imprisonment in the penitentiary, “ for a term not ex ceeding ten years.” The king o f England, when the Star Chamber was in all its glory— the autocrat o f all the Russias— the turbaned Turk, from whose cimeter the truth o f Mohammed’s creed had flashed on prostrate nations— would have paused ere they sanctioned an act like this. Fortunately, however, for * This act, though passed the 25th of February, 1843, was not to be in force until the 3d of March following, and was, therefore, regarded by many, as a kind of “ ruse de guerre” to bring the bank to terms. Another act being afterward passed, it became in operative. That circumstance, however, ought not to withdraw our attention from some of its provisions. 248 History o f Banks and Banking in Illinois. the honor and credit o f the state, before any action was had in relation to the several matters above referred to, the law was suspended in its operation, and another act passed upon the subject which has since gone quietly into operation. The 4th article in the amendment o f the constitution o f the United States, which provides that “ the right o f the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated;” and the 7th article in the constitution o f this state, declaring “ that the people shall be secure in their persons, houses, papers and possessions, from unreasonable searches and seizures;” and the 8th article in said constitution, which declares that “ no freeman shall be disseized o f his freehold, or in any manner deprived o f his prop erty, but by the judgment o f his peers or the law o f the land,” was thus preserved from violation. On the 4th o f March, 1843, an act was passed “ to repeal the charter o f the Bank o f Cairo.” W e merely state the fact, because we find it of record, without commenting on the legislative right to repeal charters, that being at present out o f our province. The bank, however, was, at the time, useless; and its annihilation, in some way or other, was conse quently demanded. On the 25th o f February, 1843, an act was passed “ to reduce the pub lic debt $1,000,000, and to put the Bank o f Illinois into liquidation.” The title to this act is liable to the same objection as the other. That, however, is o f but little importance. Other principles and other consider ations, are involved; and however reluctant we are to enter into a dis cussion of those principles, a regard to historic truth renders it imperative. Witnesses in courts o f justice, are required to tell not only “ the truth,” but “ the whole truth ;” and sins “ o f omission,” are sometimes equally heinous with those “ o f commission.” The 7th section o f the act “ to diminish the state debt, and put the state bank into liquidation,” is in these w ords:— “ Section 7. The State Bank of Illinois shall, within three days after the passage of this act, signify its acceptance of the provisions of this act, by writing, signed by the president and cashier, under the seal of the bank, and to be filed in the office of the secretary of state. And the said bank shall, within five days after the passage of this act, deliver to the governor acting in behalf of the state, an amount of state bonds, scrip, and other evidences of debt, without interest, equal on their face to the sum of $2,050,000, reported by the bank to be on hand, on the 1st of December, 1842; in which event, the governor is hereby authorized, on the part of the state, to assign to the bank, $2,050,000 of bank stock, owned by the state in said bank; and all the interest of the state in the assets of the bank, real, personal and mixed, except so much of the assets as the state may be entitled to, as the holder of $50,000 of the stock of said bank ; in which event, also, the directors in said bank, except the commissioner aforesaid, shall be withdrawn.” The 1st section o f the act “ to reduce the public debt $1,000,000, and to put the Bank o f Illinois into liquidation, is in these words :— “ Section 1. The governor shall be authorized to negotiate a sale of the stock held by the state in the Bink of Illinois, to said bank upon the following terms: That is to say, that the bank shall surrender to the governor, for the use of the state, as an equiva lent for said stock, an amount of the liabilities of the state, equal on their face to the sum of $1,000,000; one-half of said amount to be surrendered as aforesaid, within five days after the passage of this act, and the residue, with 6 per cent interest thereon, from the date of sale within twelve months after the passage hereof,” The 17th section o f the act, last aforesaid, is in the words follow ing X History o f Banks and Banking in Illinois. 249 “ Section 17. I f the bank shall accept of the foregoing provisions of this act, and shall go into liquidation as aforesaid, then, and in that case, the provisions of an act entitled ‘ an act to put the Bank of Illinois into liquidation,’ shall be suspended for, and during the term of five years, from and after the 4th day of March, 1843, and no longer; and for the purpose of enabling the bank to signify such acceptance, and to go into liquida tion as aforesaid, the operations of the provisions of this act, the title of which is above recited, shall be, and the same are hereby suspended for the period of thirty days, from and after the passage hereof.” When the state bank was incorporated, the private stockholders, espe cially the small ones, paid in cash the whole amount o f their stock. When the state became a partner, instead o f paying cash for her stock, she gave her bonds for $3,100,000, and authorized their sale to raise the necessary funds. When the state became a stockholder in the Bank o f Illinois, at Shawneetown, she gave her bonds in lieu o f money. The Bank o f Illi nois sold a portion o f these bonds when the credit o f the state was current, and received their full value. This furnished, o f course, a part o f her capi tal. Whether the State Bank o f Illinois did the like, we are unadvised. The bonds o f the statevbeing in N ew York and in London, and “ as plen ty as blackberries,” in both places, and being the sport o f brokers, o f bankers and o f bankrupts, it is difficult to ascertain whether the bonds given up in 1843 to be cancelled, were the same that were issued in 1837. The acts before referred to, require “ an amount o f state bonds, scrip, or other evidences o f debt.” I f the bonds issued in 1837, were sold at par, as they might have been, and as several millions in fact were ; and oth ers purchased at thirty, forty or fifty cents upon the dollar— when the credit o f the state had fallen so low— a speculation either was, or might have been made, o f $1,000,000 or $2,000,000, by the bank or its officers, by individuals or speculators. Whether such was, or was not the fact, we neither assert nor deny, having no evidence to predicate a charge o f that nature upon, or to repel it. In 1843, when the State Bank and the Bank o f Illinois went into liqui dation, their bills were worth in market about 50 per cent. They had, at that time, a large amount o f state bonds, and state indebtedness on hand. They had a large amount o f debts, good, bad and indifferent, due them— several thousand acres o f land, which they had received in satis faction o f judgments, obtained in favor o f the banks against individuals. The State Bank had also a banking-house at Springfield, erected at an expense o f some $50,000, after the bank had suspended payment. It is not singular, therefore, that public indignation should have been excited against the banks ; nor is it strange that such indignation should have reached our legislative halls.* Some doubts have recently been expressed, whether the cancelling of $3,050,000 o f state bonds, and the transfer o f an equal amount o f bank stock by legislative acts, was doing justice to the billholders, or to the stockholders who had paid cash in full for their stock, while the state, like other speculating stockholders in eastern cities, had given her bonds or stock notes on ly ; it becomes as imperative upon us as upon a grand juror, to speak “ without fear, favor, affection or hope o f reward,” upon the subject. That the cancelling o f so much o f our public debt was desirable, all * Notwithstanding the apparent severity which characterizes the several acts above mentioned, it is more than probable that the billholders and the stockholders are gainers by their operation. That the speculators are, there can be no doubt V O L . X I . -----N O . I I I . 23 250 H istory o f Banks and, Banking in Illinois. admit. That it was expedient, if it could be done without a sacrifice of principle, is admitted also. Expediency, however, is a dangerous word, especially in legislative bodies. Its banners, as Burke once said o f the French revolutionists, are too frequently stolen from the altar o f God, and its allies congregated from the abyss o f hell.” The same question was once agitated in a public assembly at Athens, and a decision was thereupon had against the doctrine o f expediency. Although the proceedings o f an Athenian assembly, we admit, are not o f high authority, “ its fierce democracy” having been, as we are informed, ruled and governed at times by demagogues, lessons may be learned from its history replete with instruction. Aristides, who, during his whole life, was exceedingly poor— notwith standing he held some o f the highest offices in the state, and was the friend and companion o f Alexander and Pausanias, o f Miltiades and Themistocles— by a series o f virtuous actions, had acquired the name of “ the Just.” Themistocles, whose reputation for integrity was not equal ly apparent, (although Napoleon cites him for a model,) having once said in a public assembly at Athens, “ that he had thought o f an expedient which would be salutary to the state, but its success would depend upon its being kept a secret,” xvas commanded to submit it to Aristides, and to abide his decision. Aristides, having heard Themistocle’s proposal, returned to the assembly and said, that “ nothing could be more advantageous than the project o f Themistocles, and at the same time, nothing could be more unjust.” Themistocles was thereupon ordered to abandon his scheme. It is needless, perhaps, to inform our readers, that the project o f Themistocles was to burn the fleet, “ not the bonds,” * o f the confederates, (allies and friends o f the republic,) to secure the ascendency o f Athens. ’Tis needless, perhaps, to say more in relation to our bonds. They have been destroyed by the joint action o f the bank and the legislature, and our debt has thus been reduced $3,050,000.f Had those bonds been the notes o f individuals, given for stock in 1837, and lain dormant in the bank till it became insolvent, and had they been given up by the bank to be cancelled on the assignment o f so much stock, in an institution acknoxvledged to be bankrupt, Judge Lynchj: would have erected his throne on Capitol Square, in Springfield; a thousand jurors, xvithout a summons, would have appeared at his b a r; a sentence o f con demnation would have been pronounced against the stockholders, and the officers thus offending ; and, in less time than was consumed in destroy ing the Bastile, the banking-house at Springfield, erected at so much ex pense, would have been levelled with the dust— not one stone would have been left upon another. The act, however, was a legislative act. The people were interested in the reduction o f the debt, and truth and justice were drowned by “ mock hosannas to the Son o f David.” Men, in their corporate capacity, do that o f xvhich, as individuals, they would be ashamed. Lord Coke, in speaking o f corporations, said “ they had no souls, and therefore could not be excommunicated.” There is, * The state bonds were afterward burned on the capital square, in Springfield. t Fifty thousand dollars of stock, is still held by the state. t Judge Lynch’s courts have been described too often, to require a definition here, or a description of the “ modus operandi” in these courts. Mercantile Biography. 251 however, a bar, to which legislators are amenable— the bar o f public opinion ; and, although public opinion may sometimes be wrong, “ its so ber second thought” is generally right. The legislature o f Georgia once burned their records, and the legislature o f Illinois may, perhaps, yet profit by their example. The above remarks are not intended as an apology for the banks. Our experience in banking has been unfortunate. A want o f capital, in some instances, and a want o f integrity in others, (not but that many excellent men— men o f principle and character, have been thus engaged,) have subjected this community to more than they can bear. The bubble has burst, and left nothing but “ ruins and demagogues.” Banks, in many cases, are a public convenience. Bills are preferable, frequently, to specie. The millions, however, which have been lost by fraud and by counterfeiting, will long be remembered. Those losses have seldom happened to the wary. The broker, the speculator and the man who deals in his thousands, are seldom “ their victims.” The hard laboring man, the unwary, the credulous and those living remote from towns and cities, are generally the sufferers. The duty of the legislature to protect the latter is imperative. Whatever, therefore, may be the action o f the legislature hereafter, in relation to the State Bank or to banking generally, the protection o f those whose circumstances require its aid, will, it is hoped, now and forever, be the objects o f its watchful care.* A r t . VI.— M ERCA N TILE BIOGRAPHY. BRIEF NOTICES OF MERCHANTS, DISTINGUISHED IN THE EARLY OR REVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF THE COUNTRY. THOM AS C . A M OR V . T h o m a s C. A m o iiy , was a citizen o f Boston, and educated for the pro fession and business o f a merchant. His father and others o f the name, were merchants o f high standing and extensive business; and it is no small praise to say o f any one, o f whom it may be said with truth, that he was one o f the first class o f merchants in that place. For several gen erations, the Boston merchants have been o f high and honorable charac ters. They were industrious, enterprising and honest, in their dealings. They have made money, but most o f them made it honestly. Their style of living was not so expensive and extravagant as at present; but there was convenience, comfort and competency, in their dwellings, at the so cial board and in their general manner o f living. Thomas C. Amory, ranked among the most honorable merchants in Boston, forty years ago. He died in 1812, at the age o f forty-five. There were, indeed, many others, who were highly esteemed for their probity and fair dealing, and who, at the same time, gradually accumulated large estates. Mr. Amory was particularly beloved by his intimate acquaintances, for his upright and benevolent conduct, and for the manifestation o f the social affections. * The History of Illinois, from its First Discovery and Settlement to the Present Time. By Henry Brown, Counsellor at Law. New York, J. Winchester. 252 Mercantile Biography. H e died in the career o f successful business, and surrounded by the en dearments o f family connections. Jonathan Amorywas a younger broth er o f the former, and had a degree in Harvard College, in 1787. He engaged in mercantile pursuits, and was greatly esteemed for probity and fair dealing, for benevolent and honorable feelings. IION . JO N A T H A N B ELC H E R. J o n a t h a n B e l c h e r was governor o f Massachusetts about ten years, from 1730 to 1740. He was a native o f Boston, and his father was a citizen o f great wealth and respectability, a friend to religion, an honora ble merchant and an honorable counsellor. The son received his public education in Harvard College, where he took his first degree in 1699. He was a good scholar, and had quite a literary taste, but gave his atten tion to trade and commerce, as his father had done, and not without suc cess. Mr. Belcher early visited Europe, and became acquainted with literary and political characters o f influence. When he returned to Bos ton, he resumed his business as a merchant, but took an interest in politi cal affairs ; was chosen a representative from Boston, and afterwards had a seat at the council. In 1730, Mr. Belcher succeeded Governor Burnet as chief magistrate o f Massachusetts. Burnet was not very popular, and had a long dispute with the House o f Representatives respecting his salary. Belcher had again visited E ng land, and when he found that Burnet would probably not be continued in office, he applied for it through his friends and received the appointment. At first, the people were pleased that a native o f the province was to be their governor ; but he had a similar dispute with the general court as his predecessors had. Mr. Belcher was also governor o f New Hampshire, that province being included in his commission for Massachusetts. He opposed the issue o f paper money, in 1733, and that rendered him obnox ious to speculators and bankrupts. At a later period, he was appointed governor o f N ew Jersey, and removed to that colony in the year 1739. He died in 1757, at the age o f seventy-six, and was greatly lamented for his many virtues and useful public services. He was esteemed as a pious man, and some thought him an enthusiast. He was a great admirer o f Whitfield. HON. THOMAS CUSHING. T h o m a s C u s h i n g received his first degree in Harvard College, 1744. He soon after engaged in trade, and was a respectable merchant in Bos ton, then a place o f commerce with foreign countries, and the largest sea port in New England. In the year 1761, he was chosen a member o f the general court, in Massachusetts, for Boston, and elected speaker the first year he held a seat in the assembly. His father, who was also a very respectable inhabitant o f Boston, occupied that station twenty-seven years before. Mr. Cushing, the son, was one o f the representatives o f Boston for fourteen years, till the revolution, and most o f the time pre sided in the house. He had much influence with his fellow-citizens, and with the members o f the general court; and yet he did not rank with Otis, or S. or J. Adams, in political knowledge or in public debate. The people had great confidence in his patriotism, at the critical period o f 1764-’74, for he was decided and judicious. The ministerial party o f those years, did not indeed fear him so much as they did the other patriots Mercantile Biography. 253 just mentioned. In 1774, he was one o f the five delegates from Massa chusetts, chosen to attend a Continental Congress to consult on measures for the preservation o f the rights and liberties o f the British North Amer ican colonies, then assailed by an arbitrary administration in England. He was also returned as a member o f that august assembly, for several succeeding years. When the Constitution o f Massachusetts was adopted, in 1780, Mr. Cushing was chosen lieutenant-governor; and re-elected in 1781 and 1782. His station entitled him to respect, and he was esteemed as a sincere patriot and an honest merchant. Like most o f the patriots of that period, he was a public professor o f religion ; and his life corres ponded to his faith and profession. He died in 1788, at the age o f sixtyfive. HOW. TRISTRAM DALTON. T r i s t r a m D a l t o n was a citizen o f Newburyport, and born in that vi cinity. He prepared for college under Master Moody, the able teacher in Byfield Academy, and was graduated at Harvard University, in 1755. He studied law, but early engaged in commercial pursuits. In the politi cal dispute with England, he ranked among the whigs o f the day, and was one o f the leading patriots in the county o f Essex, though there were many choice spirits in that part o f the province. He was often elected to the House o f Representatives and the Senate o f Massachusetts, and was also a member o f the Continental Congress and o f the Senate o f the United States. In all these important stations, he had the character of an able and faithful public servant. He was also distinguished for his courtesy and polished manners, and he paid more attention to dress than great men usually do ; but, perhaps, more attention was bestowed on dress and manners, sixty and seventy years ago, than at present. It seems to have been expected o f men o f wealth and in public office. The opinion of Addison probably then prevailed, that neatness was nearly allied to the moral virtues. Mr. Dalton had the reputation o f a good general scholar, and was an original member o f the American Academy o f Arts and Sciences. He lived to an advanced age, and was one o f the principal officers in the custom-house, in Boston, for several years near the close of his life. HON. THOMAS DAVIS. was a native o f Plymouth, Massachusetts, and was born about the year 1758. His father was concerned in trade and fishery, in that place, and though he gave one son— Hon. Judge Davis, o f Boston— a collegiate education, Thomas had no better means o f acquiring know ledge in his youth, than a common school, provided for children o f all classes o f the people. This defect, however, was in a great degree reme died, by personal application and study. With much propriety, he may be said, therefore, to be a self-taught man. Diligence, industry and so briety, were displayed in his conduct in very early life. The business of his father, probably led him to give his attention to trade and navigation, and to subjects connected with commerce. He soon became distinguished for his information on mercantile affairs, and as an accountant; and dis covered all that accuracy, good judgment and method, which are import ant in all departments o f business, and especially in commercial pursuits. He became concerned in navigation and in the fisheries, and trade to the T h o m a s D a v is 254 The Nature and Effect o f Protective Tariffs. West Indies, soon after his years were such as to render it proper he should engage in business for himself. It soon appeared that he was ac cumulating property,slowly, perhaps, but surely; and this is to be chiefly attributed to regular habits, to industry and diligent attention to the busi ness in which he had engaged. And who can justly expect to accumu late property or to prosper in business, without diligence, method and per severing efforts? At an earlier age than is usual, he was chosen a repre sentative to the general court, for his native town ; and after a few years, he held a seat in the Senate, to which he was elected by his fellowcitizens, who had witnessed in his course so much good judgment, up rightness and fidelity, as to deserve their entire regard and confidence. Mr. Davis was chosen a member o f the Senate, from Plymouth county, at several annual elections, and was then appointed president o f an insu rance company in Boston— the second company o f that character in that ancient town. In this station, he was continued till his death, in 1805, at the age o f forty-eight. Few men in the community, during the last generation, were so much esteemed and confided in, as Mr. Davis. He was accurate, judicious and faithful, in the various stations which he oc cupied. The interests o f others might be entrusted to him with perfect assurance o f his care and fidelity; and his conduct, both in public and private, furnish an example which may be safely followed, and fully prove that, by diligence, sobriety’ and integrity, a young man may' justly expect a competency, if not great wealth, and will certainly secure the esteem and respect o f his fellow men. A kt. VII.— T H E N A T U R E AN D E F F E C T OF PR O TECTIVE TAR IFFS. T he report o f a bill in Congress, at the last session, to modify the tariff law o f 1842, offers a timely opportunity to present some inquiries in re gard to the nature o f protective tariffs, and their effect upon the industry in the development o f the resources o f the country. Although not among those who heartily approved o f the tariff o f 1842, we had some faint hopes that, subject as we might be to some incon venience and oppression thereby’, our revived business prosperity’ W’ould not so soon fall into the disarrangement ever caused by a change o f policy in government. Such changes are particularly to be lamented on account o f their moral influence. Small and sure gains, make industrious, frugal and persevering men. Interfere wdth these, and you find the weak op pressed and trodden down, while the strong grasp with reckless avidity’, utterly regardless of consequences, at so much more as will be required to ensure to them a competency, if not wealth. It should be, then, the strong and earnest voice o f all good citizens, that some policy’ be adopted by government that may have as much permanence as is consistent wdth the transitory character o f human laws. It is a serious question, W'hether the most popular theories o f politicians and the restrictive systems that have at various times been adopted, are, or can be, in their nature, of this stable quality? It is no easy matter to introduce artificial regulations o f industry and commerce, so that all par ties, all trades and every section o f our widely-diversified country, can all and equally, be the recipients o f justice. It is not our purpose, at this The Nature and E ffect o f Protective Tariffs. 255 time, to show the inconsistency o f partizan doctrines, or to point out the partiality o f all attempts at governmental protection. There is a deeper and firmer ground to be sought for, would we find a sure basis upon which we may build a sound policy. W e look for this, only, in the natural economy o f the earth. Every clime affords its peculiar contribution, to be used and exchanged for its own and the general good. In this beautiful diversity o f products, we learn a lesson o f deep significance which the acquaintance with artificial theories cannot efface. There is involved a condition, to supply and re ceive, that cannot be disregarded. It is this which binds the whole race o f mankind into one great brotherhood, and renders a rapid commercial interchange o f commodities requisite for the well being o f the whole. In terfere with this harmony o f nature’s order, which provides for all nations the highest prosperity, and for individuals all the necessaries, the com forts and the luxuries o f the world, and you introduce confusion in national intercourse, and inequality into the conditions o f men. The simple truths o f political economy are lost sight of, and the wildest vagaries, and the most inexplicable enigmas are offered in their p la ce; while a practical refutation is going on about us, where human beings starve in the very midst o f plenty. W e have no desire to indulge in Utopian theories, but we cannot rid ourselves o f the impressive lesson taught by the providence o f the Creator himself, nor enough deplore the short-sighted wisdom which would set this aside and substitute in its place imaginary expediency. W e are in a mood even to deny, theoretically, that any government has a legitimate right to interfere with the industry o f its subjects. Protect our persons, protect our rights, but, if you please, leave us to manage our own profes sions, and molest us not in the pursuit o f honest wealth. It is, moreover, rank fallacy, to suppose that any artificial regulation o f production and commerce can be o f any permanent duration. Forced or encouraged out o f their natural and congenial channels, endless legislating is required to sustain and regulate them. The restrictive policy has ever grown out of the difficulties and misfortunes o f other nations— has been caused by short supplies, wars, revolutions and the colonization o f distant states. Look ing to the present condition o f the world, and considering the great phi lanthropic projects for the civilization and amelioration o f the human race, there seems little wisdom in continuing to calculate upon the frequent o c currence o f scourging calamities. The calculations, in regard to the future welfare o f nations, are to be founded upon far other premises. The world is at peace. The ideas are becoming prevalent, that there is sufficient room for all men and all na tions ; that man may be used for other purpose than to be butchered ; that he has powers that m aybe successfully used for his own welfare and hap piness, and for the aid o f his fellow man ; that the welfare o f the race depends much upon the well being o f each and every individual. E ng land may hold on to her odious corn laws, with increased tenacity, and retain her authority over her rebellious subjects at the point o f the bay onet ; China may draw closer about her that impenetrable robe o f exclu siveness, and pass gradually out o f existence through the stagnation that is penetrating to her very core ; Spain may continue that protective pol icy that is fast driving all enterprise and progress from her shores; even the Sandwich Islanders might impose the duty o f prohibition upon all for 256 The Nature and Effect o f Protective Tariffs. eign imports, and smack, with increased zest, their rancid whale-oil, hew on with their stone hatchets, poke the earth with their rude wooden uten sils, cover their nakedness with uncouth woven mats, and stride about their little domains with the pride o f conscious independence; je t we prophecy that all such restrictions o f commerce are ultimately destined to be abolished, and when viewed in the history of the past, will have the appearance o f lingering remnants o f barbarisms that are now fast dis appearing from the earth before the march o f improvement o f the race. As we have before stated, we stand in fear o f all sudden changes in the policy o f government. Many evils can be more easily tolerated than the direful disarrangement that invariably follows the hasty adoption o f new, or the abolition o f old systems. Yet we cannot blind ourselves to that liberal policy which is certain to be brought about by the increase of general intelligence, the world at peace, the progress o f the arts, and the more frequent communication o f all nations. This state is to be prepared for, and o f all governments now existing, it accords with admirable pro priety with the spirit o f ours to take the lead. Is there really so much to fear ? I f we are not utterly mistaken in our notions o f this matter, that nation which soonest founds its policy upon the natural economy o f the world, will be the first to reap its rich fruits. In the nearest approach to this great practical truth, we have some idea o f what may be. It is the voice o f all history and all experience, that trade has been most prosper ous where it has been most free. When repressed by restrictions, we have seen it avoid the most fertile and best situated countries, and flee to some barren coast that boasted not o f custom-houses and prohibitions. An eloquent writer has said— “ It was free trade that reared the splendors of Tyre upon a miserable islet ; that raised the glories o f Palmyra in the midst o f a sandy desert; that built the marble palaces and churches o f Venice upon shoals which scarcely rise above the surface o f the Adriatic ; that fixed wealth and letters upon the frowning rocks o f Amalfi ; and that so overflowed the marshes o f Holland with riches and inhabitants, that the latter built their fine cities upon piles, and encroached upon the do main of the ocean.” No principle o f political economy, in fact, is more undoubtedly true than this,— that .the resources o f a nation will be most rapidly developed, and its prosperity built upon the surest basis, by the absence o f all inter ference o f government with its commerce and industry. It is true that the wealth and prosperity o f a nation is hereafter to de pend very much upon its natural facilities. An extensive and rich terri tory, deep and safe harbors, lakes, navigable rivers, and great water privi leges, these are indispensible. Yet the race is no longer to the Alexan ders, the Neros and the Napoleons. It is to the wise, industrious and skilful. W ho can discover a new compost to enrich the field, who can produce a new species o f fruit or grain, who can bring the greatest power o f nature to bear most economically upon human industry, who can in vent the cunningest machine, who can in any way contribute to the well being and progress o f the race 1 These, each and all, are to be the dis tinguished men, and these are they who will reap the richest rewards. In this light what chance has our country in the great competition of nations ? Favored by a broad and rich territory, stretching far over dif ferent climes, and possessing a fertility unequalled, it is no difficult matter to produce bread stuffs sufficient to feed the whole human race. Our The Nature and Effect o f Protective Tariffs. 257 shores are laved by the waters o f every ocean. Our navigable rivers flow deep and wide from the most inland parts. Our mountains pour down the foaming stream for the manufacturers use. Nothing seems wanting in the natural resources o f our favored land. And the character of our population, too, is that best fitted to turn all facilities to use. A c tive, enterprising at home, known and represented abroad. Where is the land that has not been seen and trodden upon by Americans, where the sea that has not been navigated by American ships ? Can we be told o f any chance for discovery or speculation, that multitudes of our country men are not ready at once to enter upon ? All things are to be proved, if all do not afford a profit. Our national character may be derided by foreign tourists, who have not the capacity to comprehend it, merely be cause we are ignorant of, or undervalue those artificial customs which grow out of, inequality or indolence. There is something more to be done here than to learn conventional life. W e have no oppressive sys tems to be revolutionized, nor long festering corruptions to be eradicated. No national debt hanging like an incubus upon our prosperity. Here is real and true freedom and equality. Here is everything to encourage enterprise in individuals, every requisite to found national success. Are we to be reminded that the rapid development o f our national re sources is to be attributed to the very policy that we deprecate ?— that the manufactories could not have been put in operation without that pro tection under which they have grown so strong ? It is not our purpose at this time to disapprove o f all the influences from this source, although we have some doubts as to the general benefit upon the country. Certain it is, that some o f the most serious changes and commercial distresses can he traced to the partial and oppressive effect o f the protective system. A few years since, so large a duty was levied on cotton and woollen manu factured goods, that it amounted nearly to prohibition. The immediate consequence was, much capital and industry was transferred from its ac customed channels to manufacturing. There followed a host o f attendant evils on this change. The deserting o f other employments, the change of habits, the oppression o f those classes whose pockets furnished the means o f paying for this protection o f monopolies. Yankee Jonathan’s wits, soon taught him that this manufacturing was a game that more men could play at, and vigorously fell to. Competition reduced the price o f labor and the profits o f the work, and high prices lessened the consump tion and demand. The manufacturer was completely hedged in by ta riffs, still was he in a sinking condition, and cried out lustily for more pro tection. He could not stand up under the system, he could not exist without it, and failed. This was not caused by any foreign competition; it was no more than the legitimate effect o f the restrictive system carried out. W e hesitate not to say that we recognise somewhat o f the same fea tures in the present state o f manufacturing. The tariff o f 1842 gave the business a new impulse. Capitalists moved at first with great caution, but all philosophical prudence is easily dissipated by the reports o f eight, ten, and twelve per cent semi-annual dividends. Old companies make more money than they dare divide. New companies are going into ope ration, whose capitals are counted by millions. The demand for goods, o f every description, after the past period o f poverty, has created a brisk trade. It remains to be proved whether this protected industry can be 258 The Question f o r Accountants. managed in such a manner as not prove its own ruin, and the cause o f much trouble to all who are in any way connected with it. W e are not prepared, under the existing artificial regulations o f ma nufactures and commerce, to declare openly, at this time, for free trade. W e fear all sudden changes : but we contend for that liberalizing spirit, which looks forward to the future— to an unrestricted commercial inter course throughout the world. As far as is consistent with the safety of our industry, let our country take the lead Deliver us from all high pro tective tariffs. Favor no particular industry at the expense o f other equally necessary callings. Let such duties as are levied upon foreign imports, bear equally upon all kinds o f industry, and every section o f the country. Encourage all commerce that will facilitate an acquaintance with all nations, that will enable us to dispose o f that immense surplus o f produce and manufactures that is yearly increasing in our land. Let all change in the restrictive policy be downward, in so gradual a manner as may not cause distress, but perseveringly in this direction, until, as a na tion, we can rely entirely upon our great resources, and our skill and in dustry in their improvement, for the welfare o f our people. h. j. b. A kt. VIII.— TH E QUESTION FO R ACCOUNTANTS. To the Editor o f the Merchants’ M agazine:— S i r — The receipt o f f o r t y - t h r e e communications, ineffectually at tempting to solve my “ Question for Accountants,” in your last number, has placed me in possession of the absolute existence o f facts, with which I have long since been but partially impressed, namely, that the general ity o f our public teachers o f book-keeping, and, as a legitimate conse quence, our private accountants,* are lamentably deficient in a thorough knowledge o f the theoretical laws and practical adjustment o f complex accounts, more particularly those connected with partnerships and their dissolutions, & c. This opinion is either founded in fact, or it is not. I f the affirmative position be tenable, what unenviable feelings must it generate in the minds o f such merchants as have noticed the article in question, particu larly when they reflect, not on the probable, but certain blunderings with which their accounts must be occasionally bolstered up, in order to pre sent plausible but erroneous closures, fraught with nothing more com mendable than uncertain or unmeaning efforts at adjustment. I f the ne gative, how ridiculous the assumptions o f the censor. Let none o f your generous readers (amongst whom, I rejoice to hope, many o f my courteous respondents are to be found) do me the injustice to suppose, that my object in arraigning their pretensions is to elevate my own at the expense o f theirs. No, s ir ; my only motives at the outset were, and since have been, to ascertain, if possible, the true state o f the * The remark of our correspondent, relative to teachers and private accountants, we are disposed to consider as altogether too severe. A student of Mr. Jones, an accom plished teacher of book-keeping and penmanship, has, we may state on the authority of Mr. Jones, solved the question of Mr. Wright, but declines submitting it to that gentle man. The solution of B. Garrick or E. L. H., or both, will appear in the October num ber of this Magazine.— [E d. M erchants’ M agazine.] The Question f o r Accountants. 259 particulars conceived, and o f the facts now elicited, under the anxious hope, that erroneous conceptions, in matters so vitally important, may, by a lau dable industry, supported by a praiseworthy vigilance, be speedily applied by all concerned, as the first and only proper step toward the attainment o f a remedy for so pernicious an evil. As, in all human probability, some, or any o f your or my correspon dents may feel disposed to controvert the justness o f my opinion, whether in the premises or conclusion, I shall merely observe, that I know not a more effectual mode o f testing the merits o f the discrepancies, thus ne cessarily at issue, than that o f submitting, under the real signature o f the party so conceiving, a practical representation o f his accounts, (apart from a tale o f his method,) when, as a matter o f course, I shall follow the pre cedent by exhibiting my objections on the one hand, my proofs on the other. T o the result o f this proposal, I am intuitively instructed to be lieve that your politeness will be no barrier. T o recognise, individually, the tenor o f the several communications re ceived by me on this occasion, and to comment on each, would be to tres pass unnecessarily, as well as ungenerously on your valuable pages. T o one gentleman, who signs himself “ An Unemployed Book-keeper,” my disposition must, however, undergo an exception, if for no other reason, than to acknowledge his brief communication, embracing only nine closely written and ruled pages o f most appropriately selected foolscap, all occu pied in the adjustment o f what he properly denominates my “ simple ques tion !” Having, with elaborate skill, and with a subtile ingenuity which would have added another plume to the brow o f Aristarchus himself, pointed out to my dull perception the difference between closeing (as he writes it) accounts and adjusting them ; and having, with all the assumed gravity o f a modern Stagyrite, shown me the “ important bearing” which my indiscriminate use o f these words must have on the solution o f the question submitted, he winds up, by sagaciously informing me, that I can entertain “ no hope o f closeing my books or haveing them closed for me, till I (or somebody for me) sells off the merchandise on my hands, and that, too, at such a rate, as to cover my losses hitherto incurred!” O f “ An Unemployed Book-keeper,” I am induced to say that he occu pies his proper position. His left-handed knowledge o f his once assumed profession, entitles him to no other; inasmuch, as his debits occasionally become his credits, and vice versa. His wit and his orthography are well chosen companions, and pronounce him at once a rare genius. The one hobbles on worn out crutches, the other totters on crazy stilts. His pru dence is, however, commendable— it has taught him to conceal his proper name. How strange that no two o f your correspondents agree, either in details or aggregate results ! The doubting, or laudably inquisitive, can be satis fied o f this fact, on application to the subscriber at 219 Mulberry-street. With great respect, I am sir, your obliged and obedient servant, J. W . W RIG H T. P. S. I am much gratified to be able to say that, since the above was written, I have received a correct solution to the question from a gentle man who signs himself B. Carrick, o f 45 Front-street. Should no true adjustment o f the question be presented by any other o f your readers be fore the 20th proximo, I shall submit the accounts, correctly balanced, both as to order and result. 260 Monthly Commercial Chronicle. I 0 N T H I Y COMMERCIAL CHRONICLE. T he general state of affairs presents gratifying evidence of a continued advance in pros perity. All descriptions of property are apparently in an‘Improving condition. The large moneyed institutions, and capitalists generally, experience, in the more prompt payment of interest upon mortgages, the sure evidence that industry is receiving a better reward for its labors. Since the great revulsion of 1837, when an enormous amount of loans was outstanding upon real estate, there has been a gradual concentration of that description of property into the hands of the lenders. Each successivb'year has found the quantity ac quired by foreclosure larger than the amount sold. There are now indications that the amount of foreclosures will be sensibly diminished, and that a demand for real estate will induce a more general distribution of that description of property; because the profits of industry becoming greater, enable the owners of real estate to make their payments with promptness, and to avoid the penalty of defalcation; while, for the same reason, property becomes more valuable. The increase of manufacturing prosperity is evident, in the growth of the markets of New York for western produce. The following is an official table of the quantities and value of produce coming from other states, entered on the New York canals, from the opening of navigation to the 22d July, 1844 ; and the quantities and values of the same articles which had arrived at tide-water, on the 1st August:— Produce shipped from Buffalo and Black-Rock, to July 22. Quantity. Value. Flour,............... ■bbls. 671,310 $3,020,895 Wheat,.............. bush. 982,707 982,707 Corn,................. ........ 47,402 23,701 Barley,.............. Beef,................. ..bbls. 24,985 137,417 Pork,................. ........ 37,809 321,376 Ashes,.............. ........ 34,460 689,200 Butter and lard, ...lbs. 4,859,044 485,904 Cheese,............ ....... 174,004 10,440 Wool,................ 453,154 Total,........ $6,124,794 Arrived at tide-water, August 1st. Value. Quantity. 908,164 $4,086,738 347,939 347,939 2,575 5,150 5,039 13,620 30,539 167,964 34,974 297,279 52,577 1,051,540 664,573 6,645,734 180,496 3,008,268 3,527,450 1,234,607 $8,038,760 Excess arrived on the Hudson. Quantity. 236,854 ....... ....... 13,620 5,554 ....... 18,117 1,786,890 2,834,264 2,232,722 Excess shipp'd. Q'ntity. 634,768 42,252 2,835 ....... Out of near 1,000,000 barrels of flour and wheat arrived at tide-water, only about 100,000 barrels were of the growth of New Y o rk ; whereas, in 1841, 500,000 barrels, of the growth of New York, reached tide-water. The column of the “ excess arrived at tide-water,” indicates that which is of the produce of this state, and is about 25 per cent of the whole quantity. A j the same time, the quantities of goods going west, from New York and Boston, in exchange, are largely increasing. The effect of this improving trade is very evident upon the canal revenues of the state ; which, up to August, were as fol lows, as compared with the previous year:—■ Tolls on the New York canals, to August 1st, 1843,..................................... “ “ “ “ 1844,..................................... $858,485 1,137,717 Increase,................................................................................................. $279,232 The increase is classified as follows:— On produce of western states,............................................................................. “ New York state,......................................................................... On goods going up the canal,............................................................................. $93,085 103,520 82,627 Total increase,.......................................................................................... $279,232 261 Monthly Commercial Chronicle, The goods going up the canal, are partly for consumption in this state, and partly to go to other states, and exhibit (the figures) the improved state of business in Boston and New York, on western account There is no means of ascertaining what proportion of goods paying tolls at Albany and Troy, co»es from Boston, over the railroad. The proportion is, however, large, and constantly increasing. This western trade increased, in 1843, to a considerable extent over the previous year ; and the direction which it took, is seen in the following table:— 1842. 1848. states,.................... x ... Erie canal,................... Champlain,.................. Oswego........................ Cayuga,....................... Chemung,.................... Crooked Lake,............ Chenango,................... Genesee Valley,.......... rfons. 20,525 39,400 10,395 9,245 6,760 1,210 1,137 3,082 2,459 Tons. 32,798 41,237 13,152 11,607 6,310 1,347 1,496 2,883 2,856 Total tons............................. Tolls,..................................... 94,213 $453,568 113,686 $566,144 To western Left on the “ “ 14 “ “ “ “ Decrease. lncr’se. 12,273 1,837 2,757 2,362 450 187 359 199 397 19,473 $112,576 The increase was largest in the exports to other states, it appears; and those exports formed 30 per cent of the whole amount of merchandise shipped at tide-water. The in crease in the tolls at that point are, it appears, this year, $82,627 ; being 15 per cent o f the whole tolls of last year, levied on merchandise ascending the canal. It is much to be feared that the arrangements for supplying the western states with goods, across the lakes, are prepared in a manner and on a scale which will greatly interfere with the tolls of the canal, as w’ell as with the federal revenues, and the profits of the manufacturers. The advancing prices of goods and merchandise are now such as to tempt, in a great degree, the cupidity of the smuggler; whose illicit trade is eminently favored by the fa cilities offered along the whole lake frontier. One of the most efficient means of check ing the growth of that trade, is to extend the means of internal communication, and thereby of lessening the cost of transportation to market. It appears, from the above statements, that over $226,400 of tolls were derived from goods passing through the ca nal, from Boston and New York, for winter consumption, in 1843. The amount derived from tolls on western produce, coming through the canals to market, is $604,319 ; and during the present year, the revenues derivable from the same sources will be near $1,000,000— equal, at 6 per cent, to the interest on a capital employed in the transmission of the goods to market, of $16,600,000. This large revenue is derived from a business of less than eight months in the year. It is highly probable that the construction of the Erie railroad would open a local business fully equal to the whole expenses of the road, and obtain a large proportion of the western trade, in addition to considerable revenues derivable from passengers. The road can be completed by a subscription of little over $6,000,000, and be to the mines of Pennsylvania a far more efficient protector from foreign minerals than ever a tariff, with a fluctuating currency, can be ; inasmuch as it will reduce the cost of transportation to market in a degree that will defy foreign competition. The increase of business creates slightly an enhancement in the value of money. On the other hand, the individual and government deposits in the vaults of the New York banks, are still increasing. Since January, 1843, the upward tendency of the bank move ment has been very apparent. In July, 1842, exchanges were very low, and in favor of New York, from all points of the world. An influx of specie then commenced, which resulted in an addition of $23,000,000 to that in the banks, and in circulation. This long continued accumulation of the precious metals soon stimulated the institutions into a dis 262 Monthly Commercial Chronicle . position to push their loans; and every successive quarterly return, from that period, shows several millions added to the outstanding debts due the banks. The following table gives the leading features of the institutions, up to August 1st:— B anks of N ew Y ork S tate. Capital. Jan’ry, Dollars. 1831, 27,555,264 1836, 31,281,461 1837, 37,101,460 1838, 36,611,460 1839, 36,801,460 1840, 52,028,781 1841, 51,630,280 1842, 44,310,000 1843, 43,950,137 August, 1843, 43,019,577 November, 1843, 43,369,152 February, 1844, 43,649,887 May, 1844, 43,462,311 August, 1844, 43,443,005 Loans. Dollars. 57,689,704 72,826,111 79,313,188 60,999,770 68,300,486 67,057,067 69,230,130 56,380,073 52,348,467 Stocks. Dollars. 395,809 803,159 1,794,152 2,795,207 911,623 5,464,120 6,738,000 10,291,239 12,446,087 Deposits. Specie. Bal. duebks>. Circul’n. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. 2,657,503 4,310,936 17,820,408 19,119,338 6,224,646 3,892,314 21,127,927 20,088,685 6,557,020 2,630,569 24,198,000 30,883,179 4,139,732 2,025,292 12,460,652 15,221,860 9,355,495 1,222,158 19,373,149 18,370,044 7,000,529 1,031,419 14,220,304 20,051,234 6,536,240 1,302,000 18,456,230 20,678,279 883,099 13,949,504 17,063,774 5,329,857 8,477,076 7,771,112 12,031,871 19,100,415 58,593,081 12,320,987 14,091,779 10,611,940 14,520,843 24,679,230 61,534,129 11,665,311 11,502,789 4,941,076 17,213,101 27,387,160 65,418,762 11,052,458 10,086,542 5,343,347 16,335,401 29,026,415 70,161,068 10,362,330 9,455,161 6,650,315 18,365,031 30,742,289 71,623,929 10,648,211 10,191,974 7,743,594 18,091,364 28,757,112 During the eighteen months which have elapsed since January, 1843, it appears that the banks have increased their loans by the important sum of $20,000,000, or half their aggregate capital. As most of the paper so discounted matures within a circle of sixty days, the increase represents a sum equal to $120,000,000, added to the business paper of the state. The demand for money, to meet bank debts, is now $70,000,000 every sixty days, where it was but $52,348,467 in Jan., 1843— being an increase of 40 percent in the demand; yet the value of money has not been materially enhanced, because the demand has been freely met by the increasing liabilities of the institutions. The increase in bank loans, from 1831, when the expansion commenced, to 1837, when the explosion took place, was $22,000,000, only; but in that period an important amount was added to the bank capital, and the nature of the loans was very different from those now created. The proportion o f accommodation paper, or that not represented by actual transactions, was larger, and the borrowers were of small capital, and depended on renewals for a continu ation of their movements. The flexibility of the bank credits was by this means greatly lessened; and the means of the banks being more beyond their control, they had not the ability to realize with sufficient rapidity to meet the demands upon them. In 1839, the banks had again extended their loans, but the nature of the paper had undergone a change; so that, notwithstanding a powerful combination in that year was formed to compel a sus pension, by promptly enforcing large payments in specie, it proved entirely powerless. The institutions could promptly meet all demands, simply by ceasing to loan. The sound paper regularly maturing, afforded ample funds to meet their own obligations, as fast as presented. Very much of the same nature are the present assets of the banks; and while that is the case, the mere fact that the amount of loans is larger, does not argue that the position is less safe. No matter how great, soever, is the amount to be paid in a given time, if the sum to be received is equal to it There is no extra demand for money, nor will its price be affected. When, however, the institutions, having payments to make, are deprived, through the necessity of renewal, of a part of that which should be returning to them, through the maturity of notes, they become immediately embarrassed— a part of the active capital is taken out of the circle of operations, and the value of money becomes advanced, which only enhances the evil, until explosion follows. The discount of long Monthly Commercial Chronicle. 2*53 renewable paper is a prolific source and instrument of overtrading; by which we under stand, in a general sense, the purchase of more goods for the consumption of a country, or part of a country, on credit, than its annual productions and exports will pay for. When that is the case, bank means are brought into requisition to supply the place of products for export, and specie goes abroad. This year, the imports have been large ; but they have been paid for mostly in cash, at the time of purchase, or sent here on consignment, to be paid for when sold. In the latter case, the time of the remittance is at the option of the agent; and that moment is chosen when it can be done at the least expense, or when bills are cheapest. The tendency of the banking movement has been rapidly expanding in the last eighteen months. I f we take a table of the immediate liabilities and cash means, for several pe riods, this result will be the more apparent, as follows:— I mmediate M eans and L iabilities of the B anes of N ew Y oke. May, 1833. Net circulation,.. $5,832,818 18,411,860 Deposits,............. Canal fund,......... 1,010,210 Banks,..................................... U. States,............ ........ Liabilities. Jan., 1843. Nov., 1843. May, 1844. Aug., 1844. $7,143,884 $12,952,055 $14,987,410 $15,349,205 19,100,415 27,389,160 30,742,289 28,757,122 1,495,888 1,157,203 1,506,167 1,210,794 5,372,635 4,941,514 6,650,803 7,744,118 ....... 1,645,320 2,238,083 3,674,171 Total,............. $25,054,888 $33,112,822 Specie................. Cash funds,........ May, 1838. $9,355,495 960,037 $48,085,252 $56,124,752 $56,735,410 Means. Jan , 1843. Nov., 1843. $8,477,076 $11,502,789 2,273,131 3,102,856 May, 1844. Aug, 1844. $9,455,161 $10,191,974 5,999,952 4,916,862 Total,............. $10,315,532 $10,750,207 $14,605,645 $15,465,113 $15,108,836 Total liabilities,.. 25,054,888 33,112,822 48,085,252 56,124,752 56,735,410 Excess liabilities, $14,739,356 $22,362,615 $33,479,607 $40,689,639 $41,626,574 ■'Loans.................. 57,903,043 52,348,467 61,514,129 70,061,068 71,643,929 In January, 1843, it is apparent that the banks, owing to the general stagnation of business, and indisposition to borrow, were in a stronger position than even at the time of their resumption, in May, 1838, in the face of the combined southern suspension. Since January, 1843, the amount of specie has been large—increasingly so— with exchanges from all points in favor of New Y o rk ; and the movements of the banks show a corres ponding increase of their liabilities, which, in eighteen months, have increased 80 per cent, nearly, or $23,000,000; while the cash means have increased only $5,000,000. The loans of the institutions have shown a corresponding extension, and are now at a point higher than they have reached since the suspension of specie payments, in 1837. The disposition of banks to multiply, and extend their operations, under the new law of this state, is very perceptible. The August report of the comptroller shows an increase of seven new institutions, as compared with the May report. These are mostly individual concerns, of small capital, designed to put afloat a part of the surplus capital of the own ers, to use in their individual business. At the great west and south, the contraction in banking has been very great; and the business of sections, for its facilities, leans more upon the banks of New York, giving greater scope to their movements, with more com parative safety. The state of the currency throughout the Union, as a great whole, is in a most unusu ally contracted state. O f the banks in eighteen states, reported nearest to January, 1844, the results were as follows:— Circulation,........................... $50,328,587 Nett circulation,.................. $39,491,363 Capital,................................. 148,096,486 Specie,................................. 43,899,678 Notes on hand,................... 10,737,224 Loans,.................................. 193,936,751 264 Monthly Commercial Chronicle . Of the amount of notes on hand, a portion were checks and cash items. The nett cir culation was about $41,000,000, or near $3,000,000 less than the specie on hand— a most extraordinary position of affairs, and eminently indicative of the blight which, in the past few years, has overtaken paper credits. In the present state of affairs throughout the commercial world, it would seem that spe cie, at all the great commercial centres, is a mere drug. The quantities lying idle in bank at Paris, London, and New York, at latest dates, were as follows:— Silver in Bank of France, July 1st,............................................................ Gold “ England, “ ............................................................ “ in banks of New York, August,....................................................... $48,750,000 74,880,000 9,100,000 Total, three cities,...................................... ..................................... $132,730,000 This is an enormous amount, lying absolutely dead and useless; and the quantity of gold is apparently on the increase. Recent advices from London state that the supply of gold from the Russian mines has reached the enormous sum of £4,000,000 annually, and that Russia has begun to “ scatter her gold” through Europe. The mines of the Ural mountains are very prolific, and yield a rich ore, worked at small expense, by the serf labor of Siberia. O f this gold, $1,500,000 has been, within a few months, received in London and Germany, in exchange for goods and iron for the great railroad now in pro cess of construction, from St. Petersburgh to Odessa. The continuance of so large a supply of gold, for any length of time, must have the effect of reducing the relative value of gold to silver; and, under our present laws, of inducing an import of the former with an export of the latter metal. The old legal proportion of gold to silver, was fifteen to on e; and, practically, that was found too low. It restrained the circulation of gold; and, by causing it to be at a premium, induced its export to Europe, where it speedily assumed other shapes. Fina%y, in 1834, the legal value of gold was increased 6 68-100 per cent, by reducing the weight and fineness of the gold contained in an eagle. The effect of this law has been to induce the import of gold, and the expert of silver. Should the actual value of gold now become reduced in the market, through the effect of increased supply* the drain of silver may be inconveniently large. It was known, formerly, that the disco very of the mines of America diminished the value of both gold and silver, throughout the world. This fact was made evident in a general rise of prices, diminishing the value o f a money rent. The mines of Russia may now have the same effect on gold-, in its relation to silver, and diminish the value of rents and annuities, and lighten taxation in those countries where gold alone is the legal tender, and increase them in those where silver is the standard. The currency of Russia has, for a long time, consisted mostly of paper roubles, first is sued by the great Catharine ; and subsequently, from increase of quantity, they became miserably depreciated—more particularly when the invasion of Napoleon compelled the government to have recourse to that means of raising supplies. This medium of circula tion, in that despotic country, although very oppressive to the people, has been far too useful to the government to be dispensed with. However, on the 1st of January, 1840, a ukase was issued, ordering that, thereafter, all accounts should be kept in silver roubles, and quotations for foreign exchange to be made in that medium. This produced a de mand for silver, which has had the effect generally of raising its value, throughout the world— an effect which is heightened by the increased supply of gold from the Russian mountains. The accumulation of that metal at all the great commercial centres, as indi cated above, is very remarkable ; more particularly so, when we consider that the circu lation of paper credits is far less than it has been at some former periods, when more gold apparently was in circulation, or at least not accumulated in bank vaults. Mercantile Law Cases. 265 MERCANTILE LAW DEPARTMENT. CA SE S IN TH E U N IT E D STATES C IR C U IT COURT, (N E W Y O R K ,) BEFORE JU D G E B E T T S .* RIGHTS AND REMEDIES OF FOREIGNERS. John A. Barry’s case, April 24, 1844.—This case, because it presents points of interest in respect to the rights and remedies of foreigners, in the United States tribunals, is re ported, although no questions of commercial law are involved in it. John A. Barry is a native and resident of Nova Scotia. He intermarried with the daughter of an American citizen in this city, and after his marriage resided some time in Nova Scotia with his wife, and then moved to this city with his family, and went into mercantile business here. Tw o children were bom of the marriage here, during that period. At the expiration of two or three years, he broke up business in this city, and removed to Nova Scotia ; but his wife being unwilling to return with him, it was afterwards arranged between them that she should remain in her father’s family for a time fixed between the husband and wife; keep, ing the infant daughter with her to that time, and the son so long as his father consented to his remaining. Shortly after, he took his son with him to Nova Scotia ; and, at the expiration of the time limited, demanded his daughter, and also required his wife to return to her home. The daughter was not given up, and difficulties between him and his wife became so serious, that she refused to live with him. A writ of habeas corpus was sued out by him before the chancellor, against his wife and her father, demanding the restora tion of the child. The chancellor decided that the child should remain with its mother, it being an infant, and requiring her nurture, &c. Another writ was shortly after sued out before a judge of the Court of Common Pleas, and he decided against the restoration of the child. An appeal was taken to the Supreme Court of the state, from this last de cision ; and it was by that court reversed, upon the ground that the father was by law en titled to the child. This judgment was removed to the Court of Errors, and was there reversed. Another writ of habeas corpus was taken out before a judge of the Superior Court; and he, following the decision of the chancellor, refused to award the custody of the child to the father. Thi3 latter decision was, by the father, appealed to the Supreme Court, and reversed there, upon the doctrine declared in the previous decision. This lat ter judgment was removed to the Court of Errors, and was by that court again reversed. At the last term of the Supreme Court of the United States, the father applied to that court for a habeas corpus. The petition was denied, because the court has no original jurisdiction over the subject. A petition was then filed by him in the Circuit Court of this circuit, praying the writ against his wife and her mother, with whom she is residing since the death of her father; and that the custody of the child, (still under seven years of age,) be awarded to him. The case was argued at great length by the petitioner; and in rendering its decision, the court discussed all the main points presented in the petition and argument, and d e c id e d T h a t the habeas corpus prayed for is a prerogative writ, emanating from the common law, by which the government, as parens patrice, takes to iteelf the guardianship of infant children, and exercises an authority in their disposal para mount to that of their natural parents. That no such common law prerogative is vested in the government of the United States, or any of its courts. That the true interpretation ef the act of Congress of September 24, 1789, section 14, which authorizes the courts of the United States to issue writs of habeas corpus, limits them to cases of commitment or * Reported expressly for the Merchants’ Magazine. V O L . X I . -----N O . I I I . 24 266 Mercantile Law Cases. detention, under color or claim of authority from the United States; or if not, and the writ may issue in this court in behalf of any party entitled to sue here, yet that, in respect to matters touching the domestic relations and institutions of the state, the decisions of the highest tribunal of the state supply the law of the subject, and that same law must be administered in the United States Court. That, by the law of the state so declared, the alien father of an infant daughter, under seven years of age, is not entitled, by any fixed legal right, to have the custody of such child awarded him, on habeas corpus against its mother. The habeas corpus was accordingly denied. It is understood the petitioner in tends removing the case to the Supreme Court of the United States, at its next term. VIOLATION OF PATENT. Stephens vs. D. & W . Felt, Hay 11, 1844.— This was an action for the violation of the plaintiff’s patent for the manufacture of blue writing ink, or a blue liquid for staining paper, &c. The cause occupied the court from April 21 to May 11, numerous witnesses having been examined on both sides— on the part of the defendants, to prove a discovery and use of the article prior to the patent; and on the part of the plaintiff, to counteract that evidence, and prove he was the first and original discoverer, and that the defendants had wilfully violated his right, and to a great extent. The discovery consisted in the ap plication of oxalic acid as a solvent to Prussian blue, by which a combination of the two substances is effected, and the blue is held suspended after being dissolved. It was proved that the discovery is highly valuable, and that the article is in extensive use in this country, as a writing fluid and a dye; and evidence was given tending to prove that the defend ants had simulated the plaintiff’s label, and had applied these simulated labels to bottles, or had used bottles before filled and labelled by the plaintiff; and, in vending their manu facture, had represented it to be that of the plaintiff The judge instructed the jury that— 1. The true construction of this patent is, that it secures an improvement in the use in combination of oxalates, or oxalic acid, and Prussian blue, in the manner pointed out in the specification, for the purpose of manufacturing a coloring matter, and rendering the color more applicable to dyeing, staining, and writing. 2. The patent is valid to this end, if the proofs show that the plaintiff’ is the first and original inventor of the composition claimed, and that it is useful for the purposes described in the patent. 3. A claim in the patent for more than plaintiff was the first and original discoverer and inventor of, will not avoid it as to that which is n ew ; and if his process in the separate preparation of either of the ingredients named in his patent was before known and used, yet, if his com bination of them is new, and the result produced is new and useful, his patent is valid. 4. A mere abstract discovery or knowledge, by others, of the preparation of Prussian blue, as described in the patent, or the properties and effect of oxalic acid, in combination with Prussian blue, unless such knowledge was in actual practical use prior to plaintiff’s discovery, will not defeat his patent. 5. Any prior discovery, and practical use of the subject patented, however small and limited such use was, will defeat the potent, unless such use was secret, and confined to the knowledge of the discover alone. 6. The patent will be defeated if the proofs show that the coloring fluid claimed thereby has been before produced by the same combination of ingredients, whether the product was intended for or applied to the same purpose and use as that contemplated by plaintiff, or not; or whe ther or not the product was less complete and perfect, in all respects, than that of the patentee. 7. If the plaintiff’s patent is sustained, the use of labels by the defendants, counterfeiting his, affords no ground for damages in this action. The jury must give da mages only to cover the injury sustained by the plaintiff by means of the manufacture and sale, by defendants, of coloring matter, made in violation of his patent. The jury found a verdict for plaintiff, $2,000 damages. Mercantile Law Cases . 267 ACTION TO RECOVER DUTIES EXACTED AT THE CUSTOM-HOUSE. Wetzlar vs. Swartwout, May 27,1844.— This was an action to recover back $2,787 45 and interest, duties exacted at the custom-house, on the importation, by the plaintiff, of various invoices of brown linens. The collector charged duties on the goods as colored, and the plaintiff insisted that they were unbleached linens, and duty free. These goods were imported between the 31st of December, 1833, and the 39th of June, 1842 ; and evidence was offered to show that the dark brown of the goods arose from the manner of rotting the flax. For the United States, it was claimed that the goods had been dyed or stained. The judge charged the jury that, by the act of July 14, 1832, section 2, article 24, a duty of 15 per cent was imposed on bleached and unbleached linen; but, by the fourth s'ection of the act of March 2, 1833, these articles are made free, if imported after the 31st of December, 1833, and prior to the 30th of June, 1842 ; and that the provisions of the latter law would apply to these goods, if they are of the quality therein specified. The testimony of the plaintiff is offered in a double point of view. First, to prove that the goods are the color of the rotted flax ; and second, that if any coloring matter is min gled with the water in which the flax is rotted, the fact is unknown to the trade, and that the article is always bought and sold in market, and known in commerce as unbleached linen. I f either fact is proved to the satisfaction of the jury, the plaintiff is entitled to a verdict; for the goods would not be liable to duty, though subjected to a staining process, if their known denomination in commerce was still that of unbleached linen. Verdict for plaintiff, $3,217 99. ACTION TO RECOVER DUTIES PAID ON IMPORTATION OF MERCHANDISE. Paton, et al., vs. Curtis, May 30, 1844.— This was an action to recover brek $255 88, duties paid on the importation of “ worsted window lines, and mohair cord.” The lines were charged with the woollen duty, as being a manufacture from w ool; and the cord was also charged the like duty, as bindings. The plaintiff protested against the payment of duties, claiming that the lines and cords were free, as non-enumerated articles. Tes timony was offered on both sides— the plaintiff proving that the lines were worsted, some times entirely; sometimes woven hollow, and enclosing a small wire, or small twine of linen, tow, cotton, or hemp; and that they are bought and sold, and known in commerce as worsted articles. That the cord was also wholly worsted, though known in trade by the name of mohair cord. The defendant insisted— 1. That the lines were woollen, and subject to woollen duty; or, 2. That the lines, having inner strings of linen or cotton, are in part composed of cotton or linen, and are thus subject to the duty on these articles. 3. That the mohair is known as bindings, and subject to a specific duty as such. The court charged the jury that the tariff acts were to be understood as making a distinction between wool and worsted; so that a duty imposed on woollen goods would not, under that name, apply to worsted goods. If the jury are satisfied, upon the evidence, that the lines were manufactured from worsted, the plaintiffs are entitled to enter them free of duty, there being no description of dutiable articles in the act applicable to them. Nor does the fact, if proved, that they are woven round a linen or cotton string, bring them within the duties laid on those articles; first, because the duty is imposed by the tariff laws on linen as an entire article, and not where it forms only a part of the manufactured thing; and secondly, the interior string, or filling, if of cotton, does not, upon the evi dence, appear to constitute a component part of the lines, in the sense of the duty acts; for each part is a complete and perfect fabric in itself, and is in no way changed or varied by being used in union with the other. But, thirdly, this point is no way material; for, in the present case, there is no proof that any cotton string was found in these lines. So, as to the mohair cord, if that is its known appellation in commerce, it is free of duty, al though it be made of wool, or be used as bindings; for, when the name of articles known and established in trade is not specified in the tariff acts, they are regarded as non-enumerated. The jury found a verdict for the plaintiffs. 268 Mercantile Law Cases, BOTTOMRY BONDS— THE BRIG BRIDGETON. A bottomry bond was given by the master of the brig, at Pensacola, to secure the sum of $2,179 18-100, stated in the bond to have been advanced by the obligee, for the ne cessities of the vessel. The master also, at the same time, drew a bill on the owner, for the same amount. It was proved that the vessel required some repairs and supplies, but the evidence on the part of the claimant showed that not over $350 was required for these purposes. There was no proof, other than the recital in the bond, that the master had no other means for obtaining the money, or that the full sum advanced by the obligee was necessary for the outfit of the brig. It was contended for the libellant that the bond was prima facie evidence of the necessities of the brig, and of the inability of the master to procure funds otherwise, and was sufficient to entitle him to a decree for the amount. It was further urged, that the evidence produced by the claimant established the existence of a necessity on the part of the vessel, and that the lender was not bound to examine into the extent of that necessity, but rightfully confided in the representations of the mas ter. Judge Betts decided that when parties came in, and contested the validity of a bot tomry, the bond, of itself, was not sufficient evidence upon which to found a decree. If the old rule is not to be regarded in full force—that the bottomry holder must prove a ne cessity equal to the sum loaned, and that the master had no other resources than a bot tomry loan to supply it—still, the doctrine has never been established, that the mere assertions of the master, oral or written, were sufficient to support a bottomry. All the mischiefs which the law has sedulously endeavored to restrain or counteract, as likely to result from the exercise of this extraordinary power by ship-masters, would be tolerated and encouraged if a bottomry bond wa3 to be enforced in admiralty on the mere proof of its execution. The judge further remarked, that upon this ground he had refused to decree in behalf of the bond at the first hearing; but, upon the suggestion of the libel lant, that he was taken by surprise, and wished an opportunity to furnish additional evi dence, the cause was kept open for further proofs. That the new proofs offered by the libellant removed the difficulty only in part, as he proved no necessity for a bottomry, nor was it indeed shown, by his own clerks, that money to the amount secured by the bond had been advanced, or what, if any, maritime interest was reserved. The judge stated that he considered the true rule to be, that a bottomry holder must prove, by evidence ex traneous of the bond, the existence of a necessity on the part of the vessel; and at least by bills and vouchers, if no higher evidence, the sums advanced by him ; and, if the mari time interest is included in the face of the bond, and not designated by it, the rate of pre mium or interest exacted. That, in this case, there is no proof of the amount of marine interest reserved, the bond being taken for a gross sum; and that, upon all the circum stances in proof, the bond ought to operate only as a hypothecation of the vessel, for the amount actually required for her repair and outfit; and, as the testimony showed that the sum did not exceed $350, the decree was granted for that amount, with interest and costs, and the bond pronounced against as to the residue. ACTION ON A CHARTER-PARTY. Burgess vs. De Zaldo.— This was an action on a charter-party of the brig Virginia, from New York to Cuba and back, executed between the libellant (the owner) and the defend ant. The agreed affreightment was $1,100, one-half of which was to be regarded earned and due on the discharge of the outward cargo, or the other half to be paid on the dis charge of the homeward cargo. It was stipulated that the defendant should advance to the captain, at Havana, “ sufficient for his sundry expenses” at that port The outward cargo was safely delivered, and the defendant’s correspondent at Havana paid the captain, from time to time, as he required money, the whole $550 due; $288 of which was ap plied to the necessities of the brig, $155 25 remitted the libellant, and $106 75 retained and appropriated by the master. On the return of the vessel to this port, the owner set- M ercantile Law Cases . 269 tied with the master for the voyage, and took his promissory note for $200, due from him to the vessel, and discharged him from his command. The defendant shipped, for return cargo, a large quantity of cigars, (4,500,) and three quarter boxes of which were crushed and destroyed on the homeward voyage, by occasion of perils of the sea; and all the resi due, with the exception of one quarter box, were safely delivered to the defendant. On the discharge of the vessel, one quarter box was found without mark, and was deposited in the public store; and the delivery was short of the contents of the bill of lading one quarter box, of a specified mark. The libellant claimed the recovery of the whole stipu lated freight, less the $288 expended on the brig at Havana, and $155 25 paid him ; and contended that the further payments to the captain were without authority, and the loss must be borne by the defendant. The defendant insisted that the charter contract had not been fulfilled, as the libellant failed to deliver at this port the cargo shipped on board at Havana; and that he was not bound to pay any freight without an entire delivery of the cargo. If the decision of the court should be against him on the general defence, he claimed credits for $550, paid at Havana; also, for the entry charges of the vessel, on her return to this port, and for $25 cash, paid the master here, on his return; and for the value of the cigars destroyed on the voyage, and the quarter box not delivered. The court (Judge Betts) decided that the charterer was not an insurer of the cargo, and that his contract was performed on his part by the delivery of the cargo in the condition it was on arrival here, as defendant was bound to bear all losses from perils of the sea; and that the transportation of the number of quarter boxes of cigars called for by the bill of lading satisfied the bill of lading, though one box was without the designated mark ; it not ap pearing that any other person claimed it, or had laden on board similai boxes. The court farther decided, that the captain was appointed by the charter-party to receive at Havana money necessary for his expenses; and, independent of that, he was, by the law mari time, the agent of the owner in foreign ports, if no other one was specially appointed or designated, in respect to the reparations and supply of the vessel; and that the defendant rightfully paid to the master, on his requisition, at Havana, the sums claimed as credits, and was not answerable for their proper application by the master. The court farther de cided, that if the payment of $25 to the master, in this port, by the defendant, was with out authority, yet, as it had been in part applied in payment of the mate’s wages, and as the libellant had not disavowed the payment to the defendant, and had subsequently set tled with the master, and taken his obligation for the money, he had ratified the payment, and the defendant was entitled to credit therefor. Decree for the libellant, (after such al lowances,) for $502 03-100, and costs. LOAN— HYPOTHECATED STOCK. In the Circuit Court, (New York.)— Farmers’ Loan and Trust Company vs. Samuel B. Jewett. The company brings action to recover $8,000, being the amount of a loan in 1838, for which Mr. Jewett hypothecated 120 shares Southern Life Insurance and Trust Company stock, worth at the time $12,000. The loan, it is said, was on certificates of deposit, at one year’s date, at 5 per centum interest, which were below par in the market. The obligation on which the suit is brought, is a promise to pay any deficiency after the sale of the stock at the broker’s board, and to pay 7 per cent for the loan. This, it is con tended, is usury. Also, that the company never offered the stock for sale, but let it run down in their hands. The non-sale was shown to be in accordance with the written re quest of Mr. J., who wished that it might not be sold, as it would be sacrificed. The stock, when first pledged, paid regular dividends. Verdict for plaintiff, $10,109 ; subject to the opinion of the Supreme Court. Commercial Statistics , 270 COMMERCIAL STATISTICS. COMMERCE AND NAVIG ATIO N O F T H E UNITED STATES. T he Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, communicating the annual state ments of the commerce and navigation of the United States, for the last quarter of the calendar year, 1842, and the first two quarters of the year 1843, has been printed. It will be noticed that the present report embraces only nine months. This occurs in con sequence of an act passed August 26, 1842, changing the fiscal or commercial year, so that it will hereafter commence on the 1st day of July, and end on the 30th day of June of the succeeding year, instead of commencing on the 1st day of October, and ending on the 30th of September. The next annual report will, therefore, be complete for one year, (i. e., from July, 1843, to June 30th, 1844.) That report will be laid before Congress at it3 next session, and we see no reason why it should not be printed immediately there after ; at least before the commencement of 1845. The importance of prompt informa tion touching our commerce and navigation, is not properly appreciated, either by the department or the government printer. In Great Britain, the annual reports correspond ing with our own, are made up to the 5th of January in each year, laid before Parliament, and published before the expiration of a week. The British government publish, in ad dition, quarterly reports. W e receive, from our correspondent in Paris, the “ Tableau General Du Commerce de la France,” although a quarto volume, much larger than our treasurer’s report, for the same year, long before the United States annual report reaches us from Washington. The acknowledged industry and efficiency of Mr. Spencer led us to hope that this delay would have been remedied ; and we have no doubt that such would have been the case, had he continued in the department We trust, however, that Mr. Bibb, the new secretary, will take the matter in hand; as the chief value of these docu ments, to the great commercial interests of the country, consists in their prompt and early publication. In accordance with our custom, we now proceed to lay before our readers a summary and tabular view of the commerce and navigation of the United States, as derived from the annual report before us. From this report, it appears that the exports during the nine months ending 30th June, 1843, have amounted to $84,346,480; of which $77,793,783 were of domestic, and $6,552,697 of foreign articles. Of domestic articles, $60,107,819 were exported in American vessels, and $17,685,964 in foreign vessels. Of the foreign articles, $4,945,817 were exported in American vessels, and $1,606,880 in foreign ves sels. The imports during the nine months ending the 30th June, 1843, have amounted to $64,753,799 ; of which there were imported in American vessels $49,971,875, and in foreign vessels $14,781,924. 1,143,523 tons of American shipping entered, and 1,268,083 tons cleared, from the ports of the United States. 534,752 tons of foreign ship ping entered, and 523,949 tons cleared, during the same period. The registered tonnage, as collected in the register’s office, is stated at... 1,009,305.01 The enrolled and licensed tonnage, at........................................................... 1,076,155.59 And fishing vessels, at.................................................................................... 73,142.33 Tons,.................................................................................. : ............... 2,158,602.93 O f registered and enrolled tonnage, amounting, as before stated, to......... 2,085,460.60 There were employed in the whale fishery,....... .......................................... 153,374.86 The total tonnage of shipping built in the United States, during the nine months end ing on the 30th June, 1843, viz:— Registered,................................................................................. 27,275.32 Enrolled,.................................................................................... 36,342.45 Tons,............................................................................. 63,617.77 271 Commercial Statistics. D omestic E xports of the U nited S tates. Summary statement o f the value o f the Exports, o f the growth, produce, and manufac ture o f the United States, during the nine months commencing on the 1st day o f Oc tober, 1842, and ending on the With day o f June, 1843. T he S ea. Fisheries— Dried fish, or cod fisheries,............................. Pickled fish, or river fisheries, (herring, shad, salmon, mackerel,)....................................... Whale and other fish oil,................................. Spermaceti oil,................................................. Whalebone,...................................................... Spermaceti candles,.......................................... $381,175 116,042 803,774 310,768 257,481 243,308 --------------$2,112,548 T he F orest. Skins and furs,..................................................... Ginseng,............................................................... Product of wood— Staves, shingles, boards, hewn timber,.......... Other lumber,.................................................... Masts and spars,.............................................. Oak bark, and other dye,................................ All manufactures of wood,.............................. Naval stores, tar, pitch, rosin, and turpentine, Ashes, pot and pearl........................................ 453.869 193.870 $1,026,179 211,111 19,669 39,538 391,312 475,357 541,004 A griculture. Product of animals— Beef, tallow, hides, hornedcattle,................... 1,092,949 Butter and cheese,............................................ 508,968 Pork, (pickled,) bacon, lard, livehogs,........... 2,120,020 Horses and mules,........................................... 212,696 Sheep,............................................................... 29,061 Vegetable food— ----------------Wheat............................................................... 264,109 Flour,.................. 3,763,073 Indiancorn,...................................................... 281,749 Indian meal....................................................... 454,166 Rye meal,......................................................... 65,631 Rye, oats, and other small grain,and pulse,. 108,640 Biscuit, or ship bread,...................................... 312,232 Potatoes............................................................. 47,757 Apples............................................................... 32,825 1,625,726 Rice,................................................................. 2,704,170 -------------- 3,963,694 6,955,908 -------------Tobacco......................................... Cotton............................................ All other agricultural products— Flax-seed,................................. Hops,......................................... Brown sugar,............................ Indigo,....................................... 49,406 123,745 3,435 198 ------------- M anufactures. Soap, and tallow candles,.......... Leather, boots and shoes,........... Household furniture,.................. Coaches, and other carriages,__ Hats,........................................... Saddlery,.................................... Wax,........................................... Spirits from grain,...................... 3,351,909 407,105 115,355 197,982 48,036 39,843 17,653 137,532 21,395 10,919,602 4,650,979 49,119,806 176,784 Commercial Statistics . 272 D omestic E xports of the U nited S tates — Continued. Beer, ale, porter, and cider,............................... Snuff and tobacco,..............),................................. Lead,.............................................. Linseed oil, and spirits of turpentine,................ Cordage,............................................................... Iron—pig, bar, and nail,...................................... “ castings,..................................................... “ all manufactures of,. ............................ ... Spirits from molasses,.......................................... Sugar, refined,...................................................... Chocolate,............................................................. Gunpowder,.......................................................... Copper and brass,................................................ Medicinal drugs,................................................... 44,064 278,319 492,765 29,434 22,198 120,923 41,189 370,581 117,537 47,345 2,032 47,088 79,234 108,438 » 2,786,048 Cotton piece goods— Printed and colored,......................................... W hite,.............................................................. Twist, yarn, and thread,.................................. All other manufactures of,.............................. Flax and hemp—bags, and all manufactures of, Wearing apparel,.................................................. Combs and buttons,.............................................. Brushes,............................................................... Billiard-tables and apparatus,.............................. Umbrellas and parasols,...................................... Leather and morocco skins, not sold per lb...... Printing-presses and type,................................... Musical instruments,............................................ Books and maps,.................................................. Paper and stationery,........................................... Paints and varnish,.............................................. Vinegar,................................................................ Earthen and stone-ware,..................................... Manufactures of glass,......................................... “ tin,................... “ pewter and lead,. “ marble and stone,. “ gold and silver, and gold leaf,. Gold and silver coin,........................................... Artificial flowers and jewelry,............................. Molasses,.............................................................. Trunks,.................................................................. Bricks and lime,................................................... Domestic salt,...................................................... 358,415 2,575,049 57,312 232,774 ---------------- 3,223,550 326 28,845 23,227 4,467 415 4,654 26,782 20,530 6,684 23,643 51,391 ' 28,994 7,555 2,907 25,348 5,026 7,121 8,545 1,905 107,429 3,769 1,317 2,072 3,883 10,262 3,630,647 Articles not enumerated— Manufactured,.................................................. Other articles,................... .......... .................... 470,261 575,199 1,045,460 Total,. $77,793,783 V alue of the D omestic E xports of the U nited S tates, in A merican and F oreign V es sels, to each F oreign C ountry and P ower. The following table exhibits the value of the goods, wares, and merchandise, of the growth, produce, and manufacture of the United States, exported from the United States; distinguishing the value in American and foreign vessels, and also the value exported to each foreign country, and to the dominions of each power, for the three quarters ending 30th of June, 1843:— Commercial Statistics. Whither Exported. Russia,.......................................... Prussia,.......................................... Sweden and Norway,.................. Swedish West Indies................... Denmark,..................................... Danish West Indies,.................... Hanse Towns,............................. Holland,......................................... Dutch East Indies,....................... Dutch West Indies,..................... Dutch Guiana,............................. Belgium,........................................ England,........................................ Scotland,........................................ Ireland,.......................................... Gibraltar,....................................... Malta,............................................ British East Indies,...................... Cape of Good Hope,................... Australia,....................................... British Guiana,............................. British West Indies,..................... British American colonies,.......... France on the Atlantic,............... France on the Mediterranean,.... French West Indies,................... French Guiana,............................ Miquelon, and French fisheries,. Bourbon, &c.,................................ French African ports,.................. Spain on the Atlantic,................. Teneriffe, and Canaries,............. Manilla, and Philippine islands,. Cuba,............................................. Other Spanish West Indies,........ Portugal,........................................ Madeira,....................................... Fayal, and other Azores,............. Cape de Verd islands,................. Italy,....... *..................................... Sardinia,........................................ Sicily,............................................ Trieste, and Austrian ports,........ Turkey, Levant, & c.,.................. Hayti,............................. Texas,..................................... Mexico,......................................... Central Republic of America,__ New Granada,............................. Venezuela,..................................... Brazil,................................ Cisplatine Republic,..................... Argentine Republic,..................... Chili,............... China,.................... West Indies, generally,............... South America, generally............ Europe, generally,........................ Asia, generally,............................ Africa, generally,......................... South Seas, and Pacific ocean,... Total............................... In American In foreign vessels. vessels. $293,677 $16,190 120,702 101,337 3,420 14,961 31,228 8,635 66,022 667,199 4,959 827,788 2,071,160 1,536,933 161,394 90,239 204,937 24,680 1,322,238 351,986 26,716,513 10,432,582 1,082,729 1,280,625 184,287 24,215 175,125 43,126 6,436 237,576 30,055 57,805 92,278 68,915 47,230 1,958,854 373,455 1,393,557 1,223,448 9,561,732 822,846 1,186,294 280,491 1,337 45,374 5,215 29,245 1,532 48,602 1,498 7,099 57,743 2,710,020 216,902 437,876 4,158 56,843 2,253 37,649 8,569 52,227 485,765 55,735 108,091 6,085 26,473 341,885 118,355 108,465 596,270 14,526 99,949 5,291 833,388 74,357 34,469 72,009 443,153 39,924 1,514,710 53,874 219,576 168,083 869,883 1,755,393 93,065 2,347 98,713 36,066 253,861 249,194 31,866 58,961 273 To each To each country. Power. $309,867 $309,867 222,039 222,039 18,381 49,609 31,228 74,657 746,815 672,158 2,898,948 2,898,948 1,698,327-1 90,239 ► 2,018,183 204,937 24,680 1,674.224 1,674,224 37,149,0951 2,363,354 208,502 218,251 6,436 237,576 - 45,428,811 30,055 57,805 92,278 116,145 2,332,309 2,617,005 J 10,384,5781,186,294 281,828 45,374 • 11,934,066 5,215 29,245 1,532 J 50,1001 7,099 57,743 - 3,483,898 2,926,922 442,034, 59,09637,649 157,541 8,569 > 3 52,227 541,500 541,500 108,091 108,091 32,558 32,558 460,240 460,240 108,465 108,465 610,796 610,796 105,240 105,240 907,745 907,745 34,469 34,469 72,009 72,009 483,077 483,077 1,568,584 1,568,584 219,576 219,576 168,083 168,083 869,883 869,883 1,755,393 1,755,393 95,412 95,412 98,713 98,713 36,066 36,066 253,861 253,861 281,060 281,060 58,961 58,961 $60,107,819 $17,685,964 $77,793,783 $77,793,783 274 Commercial Statistics, The total value of our domestic exports, for the nine months, amounts, as will be seen by the footing of the foregoing table, to $77,793,783. O f this amount, $45,428,811 were exported to England, and her dominions in the four quarters of the globe; leaving only $32,364,972 of exports for all other countries and dominions. V alue of F oreign M erchandise exported from the U nited S tates, in A merican and F oreign V essels, to each F oreign C ountry and P ower. The following table exhibits the value of goods, wares, and merchandise, of the growth, produce, and manufacture of foreign countries, exported from the United States, for the nine months commencing 1st of October, 1842, and ending 30th of June, 1843 ; distin guishing the total value to each foreign country, and to the dominions of each power, and also the value in American and in foreign vessels:— Value o f Merchandise exported to each Country. Whither Exported. Russia,........................................... Prussia,.......................................... Sweden and Norway,................... Danish West Indies,.................... Iianse Towns,............................... Holland,......................................... Dutch East Indies,....................... Dutch West Indies,...................... Belgium,........................................ England,........................................ Scotland,........................................ Ireland,.......................................... Gibraltar,....................................... Malta,............................................ British East Indies,..................... Australia,....................................... Honduras,...................................... British West Indies,..................... British American colonies,.......... France on the Atlantic,............... France on the Mediterranean,__ French West Indies,.................... Spain on the Atlantic,................. Teneriffe, and other Canaries,.... Manilla, and Philippine islandsj. Cuba,............................................. Other Spanish West Indies,........ Portugal,........................................ Madeira,........................................ Fayal, and other Azores.............. Cape de Verd islands,................... Italy................................................ Sicily,............................................. Trieste, and other Austrian ports, Turkey, Levant, and Egypt,....... Hayti,............................................ Texas,............................................ Mexico,.......................................... Central Republic of America,.... New Granada,.............................. Venezuela,..................................... Brazil,............................................ In American vessels. $72,785 6,261 13,628 2,346 6’510 73,920 89,833 226,535 103,742 10,819 260,815 198,796 2,000 37,847 11,471 140,136 11,232 16,304 5,405 55,173 307,846 83,701 13,108 240 3,925 54,435 399,754 11,321 1,538 3,856 621 4,978 169,412 98,923 68,014 41,308 36,885 555,787 18,497 89,944 96,656 218,765 In foreign vessels. $4,141 12,069 2,179 620 303,151 11,605 35,670 907,268 12,657 1,180 350 695 20,266 52,244 133,732 121 17,309 51,871 20,015 1,266 828 8,405 3,769 4,939 To dora. of each Total. Power. $76,926 $76,926 18,330 18,330 15,807 2,346 6'510 ! 81,050 74,540 392,984 392,984 238,140 \ 103,742 V 352,701 10,819 ) 296,485 296,485 1,106,064' 14,657 1,180 38,197 11,471 140,136 [■ 1,473,024 11,232 16,304 695 25,671 107,417 441,578 83,701 538,387 13,108 2401 3,925 469,796 54,435 399,875 11,321 1,538-1 3,856 621 4.978J 186,721 186,721 51,871 51,871 118.938 118,938 68,014 68,014 42,574 42,574 37,713 37,713 564,192 564,192 18,497 18,497 84,944 84,944 100,425 100,425 223,704 223,704 275 Commercial Statistics. V alue of F oreign M erchandise Whither exported. Cisplatine Republic,................. Argentine Republic,................. Chili,......................................... China,...................................... We&t Indies, generally,........... Europe, generally,.................... Africa, generally,..................... South Seas, &c.,..................... exported feom the In American vessels. $75,549 179,580 663,565 125 140 267,296 21,659 U . S tates , etc.— Continued. In foreign vessels. 530 Total. $75,549 94,026 179,580 663,565 125 140 267,296 22,189 18,805 To each Power. $75,549 94,026 179,580 663,565 125 140 267,296 22,189 18,805 Total,............................ ... $4,945,817 $1,606,880 $6,552,697 $6,552,697 Entitled to drawback,............. ... Not entitled to drawback,........ $1,914,993 3,030,824 $1,027,731 579,149 $2,942,724 3,609,973 $2,942,724 3,609,973 Of the foregoing value of foreign exports from the United States, $3,096,125 were ad mitted into the United States free of duty; $1,889,257 paid duties ad valorem, and $1,567,315 paid specific duties; of which $2,942,724 were entitled to drawback, and $3,609,975 were not entitled to drawback. Of the total amount of foreign goods ex ported, ($6,552,697,) $1,473,024 were sent to England, and her dominions throughout the world. I mports into the U nited S tates, from each F oreign C ountry and P ower. In the following table of the goods, wares, and merchandise of foreign countries, im ported into the United States, for the nine months ending 30th of June, 1843, the value in American and foreign vessels is distinguished, as also the value to the dominions of each foreign power:— From dom. In American In foreign of each Total. vessels. Power. Whence imported. vessels. $742,803 Russia,........................................... $731,603 $11,200 $742,803 227,356 48.900 178,456 Sweden and Norway,................... ! 278,674 Swedish West Indies,.................. 51,318 51,318 Danish West Indies,.................... 485,285 14,451 485,285 470,834 Hanse Towns,.............................. 920,865 908,631 12,234 920,865 Holland,......................................... 430,823 359,355 71,468' Dutch East Indies,........................ 121,524 121,524 815,451 Dutch West Indies,...................... 230,571 223,771 6,800 32,533 Dutch Guiana,.............................. 32,533 Belgium,........................................ 171,695 114,782 56.913 171,695 England,........................................ 26,141,118 14,637,732 11,503,386"] 128,846 Scotland,........................................ 84,782 44,064 Ireland,.......................................... 43,535 43,535 Gibraltar,....................................... 23,915 16,809 7,106 Malta,............................................ 27 27 British East Indies,...................... 689,777 689,777 •28,978,582 Cape of Good Hope,................... 31,192 31,192 44,910 44,910 Australia,....................................... Honduras,...................................... 136,688 136,688 43,042 British Guiana,............................. 34,216 8,826 British West Indies,..................... 837,836 538,798 299,038 857,696 British American colonies,........... 541,969 315,727 France on the Atlantic,............... 7,050,537 6,756,403 294,1341 France on the Mediterranean,.... 609,149 546,746 62,403 French West Indies.................... 135,921 112,040 23,881 • 7,836,137 French Guiana,............................. 40,411 40,411 119 Miquelon, and French fisheries,.. 119 49,029 Spain on the Atlantic,................. 48,474 5551 Spain on the Mediterranean........ 415,069 343,880 71,189 Teneriffe, and other Canaries,.... 15,058 8,983 6,075 ■ 6,980,504 Manilla, and Philippine islands,.. 409.290 469,290 Cuba,........................ 5,015,933 4,883,185 132,748 Other Spanish West Indies,........ 1,072,199 3,926 J 1,076,125 276 Commercial Statistics. I mports into the U nited S tates, from each F oreign C ountry and P ower— Continued. Whence imported. Portugal,........................................ Madeira,........................................ Fayal, and other Azores,............. Cape de Verd islands,.................. Italy,............................................. Sicily,............................................ Trieste, and other Austrian ports, Turkey, Levant, and Egypt,....... Hayti,............................................ T exas,.......................................... Mexico,.......................................... Central Republic of America,.... New Granada,............................. Venezuela,..................................... Brazil,............................................ Cisplatine Republic,..................... Argentine Republic,..................... Chili............................................... Peru,.............................................. China,............................................ Asia, generally,.............................. Africa,............................................ South Seas, and Pacific ocean,... Uncertain places,........................... Total. $46,713 7,160 12,783 4,713 394,564 169,664 72,957 182,854 898,447 445,399 2,782,406 132,167 115,733 1,191,280 3,947,658 121,753 793,488 857,556 135,563 4,385,566 445,637 353,274 45,845 623 In American vessels. $40,243 7,160 12,783 4,713 377,797 155,856 72,957 182,854 885,998 444,463 2,621,052 132,167 115,133 1,082,880 3,644,723 121,753 766,333 857,556 135,563 4,385,566 445,637 327,454 45,845 623 In foreign vessels. $6,4701 From each Power. j- .. J 16,767 13,808 12,449 936 161,354 600 108,400 302,935 27,155 25,820 71,369 394,554 169,664 72,957 182,854 898,447 445,399 2,782,406 132,167 115,733 1,191,280 3,947,658 121,753 793,488 857,556 135,563 4,385,566 445,637 353,274 45,845 623 Total,................................. $64,753,799 $49,971,875 $14,781,924 $64,753,799 E xports and I mports of the U nited S tates. Statistical View o f the Commerce o f TJ. States, exhibiting value o f Exports to, and Im ports from, each foreign country, from 1st October, 1842, to 30th June, 1843. Value of E xports . Countries. Russia,...................................... Prussia,..................................... Sweden,.................................... Swedish West Indies,............ Denmark,................................. Danish West Indies,................ Holland,................................... Dutch East Indies,.................. Dutch West Indies,................ Dutch Guiana,......................... Belgium,................................... Hanse Towns,......................... Hanover,.................................. England,................................... Scotland,...... ............................ Ireland,..................................... Gibraltar,.................................. Malta,..... ................................. British East Indies,................ Australia,.................................. Cape of Good Hope,.............. British African ports,.............. British West Indies,............... British Honduras,..................... British Guiana,........................ British American colonies,..... Other British colonies,............ France on the Atlantic,.......... France on the Mediterranean,, Value of imports. $742,803 Domestic produce. $309,867 222,039 18,381 31,228 74,657 672,158 1,698,327 90,239 204,937 24,680 1,674,224 2,898,948 Foreign produce. $76,926 18,330 15,807 2,346 6,510 74,540 238,140 103,742 10,819 37,149,095 2,363,354 208,502 218,251 6,436 237,576 57,805 30,055 1,106,064 14,657 1,180 38,197 11,471 140,136 11,232 38,255,159 2,378,011 209,682 256,448 17,907 377,712 69,037 30,055 26,141,118 128,846 43,593 23,515 27 689,777 44,910 31,192 2,332,309 92,278 116,145 2,617,005 25,671 16,304 695 107,417 2,357,980 108,582 116,840 2,724,422 837,836 136,688 43,042 857,696 10,384,578 1,186,294 441,578 83,701 10,826,156 1,269,995 7,050,537 609,149 296,485 392,984 Total. $386,793 240,369 34,188 33,574 81,167 746,698 1,936,467 193,981 215,756 24,680 1,970,709 3,291,932 227,356 51,318 485,285 430,823 121,524 230,571 32,533 171,695 920,865 277 Commercial Statistics. E xports a sd I mports op the U nited S tates — Continued. V alue of E xports . Countries. Bourbon,.......................................... French West Indies,..................... French Guiana,............................. Miquelon, and French fisheries,... French African ports,.................... Hayti,.............................................. Spain on the Atlantic,................... Spain on the Mediterranean,......... Teneriffe, and other Canaries,....... Manilla, and Philippine islands,... Cuba,....................................... . Other Spanish West Indies,......... Portugal,.......................... :............. Madeira,.......................................... Fayal, and other Azores,............... Cape de Verd islands,................... M y , ................................................ Sicily,............................................. Sardinia,.......................................... Trieste,........................................... Turkey,........................................... Morocco, &c.,................................. Texas,.............................................. Mexico,........................................... Central America,............................ Venezuela,....................................... New Granada,................................. Brazil............................................... Argentine Republic,........................ Cisplatine Republic,....................... Chili,................................................ Peru,................................................ South America, generally,............. China,............................................. Europe, generally,.......................... Asia, generally............................... Africa, generally,........................... West Indies, generally,................. Atlantic ocean,................................ South Seas,......■............................. Sandwich Islands,......................... Uncertain places,............................ Domestic produce. $29,245 281,828 45,374 5,215 1,532 610,796 50,100 Foreign produce. $13,108 42,574 240 Total. $29,245 294,936 45,374 5,215 1,532 653,370 50,340 7,099 57,743 2,926,922 442,034 59,096 37,649 8,569 52,227 541,500 32,558 108,091 460,240 108,465 3,925 54,435 399,875 11,321 1,538 3,856 621 4,978 186,721 51,871 118,938 68,014 11,024 112,178 3,326,797 453,355 60,634 41,505 9,190 57,205 728,221 84,429 108,091 579,178 176,479 105,240 907,745 34,469 483,077 72,009 1,568,584 168,083 219,576 869,883 37,713 564,192 18,497 100,425 89,944 223,704 94,026 75,549 179,580 142,953 1,471,937 52,966 583,502 161,953 1,792,288 262,109 295,125 1,049,463 98,713 1,755,393 36,066 253,861 281,060 95,412 663,565 140 267,296 22,189 125 98,713 2,418,958 36,206 521,157 303,249 95,537 58,961 18,805 77,7G6 Value of imports. $135,921 40,411 119 ' 898,447 49,029 415,069 15,058 409,290 5,015,933 1,076,125 46,713 7,160 12,783 4,713 394,564 169,664 72,957 182,854 445,399 2,782,406 132,167 1,191,280 115,733 3,947,658 793,488 121,753 857,556 135,563 4,385,566 445,637 353,274 45,845 623 Total,................................... $77,793,783 $6,552,697 $84,346,480 $64,753,799 N avigation of the U nited S tates with different C ountries. Statistical View o f the Tonnage o f American and Foreign Vessels, arriving from, and departing to, each foreign country, from the 1st day o f October, 1842, to the 30th day ofJune, 1843. A merican T onnage. Countries. Russia,......................................... Prussia........................................ Sweden,..................................... Swedish West Indies,............... Denmark,................................... Danish West Indies,.................. Holland,..................................... Dutch East Indies..................... Dutch West Indies,................... Dutch Guiana,............................ Entered U. S. 816 721 24,248 16,512 701 7,801 Cleared U. S. 4,163 2,173 780 949 465 23,036 23,239 2,890 3,794 3,066 F oreign T onnage. Entered U. S. 271 4,781 Cl’d U. S. 271 1,905 488 418 3,660 1,477 1,714 358 2,660 124 "24 8 278 Commercial Statistics, N avigation of the U nited S tates Countries. Belgium,.......................................... Hanse Towns,................................. Hanover,......................................... England,............... ......................... Scotland,......................................... Ireland,............................................ Gibraltar,......................................... Malta,.............................................. British East Indies,........................ Australia,......................................... Cape of Good Hope,..................... British African ports,..................... British West Indies,....................... British Honduras,........................... British Guiana,................................ British American colonies,............ Other British colonies,.................. France on the Atlantic,................. France on the Mediterranean,....... Bourbon,......................................... French West Indies,..................... Miquelon, and French fisheries,... French African ports,.................... Hayti,.............................................. Spain on the Atlantic,................... Spain on the Mediterranean,......... Tenerifle, and other Canaries,.,... Manilla, and Philippine islands,.... Cuba,............................................... Other Spanish West Indies,.......... Portugal,.......................................... Madeira,.......................................... Fayal, and other Azores,............... Cape de Verd islands,.................... Italy,................................................ Sicily,.............................................. Sardinia,.......................................... Trieste,............................................ T urkey,........................................... Morocco, &c.,................................. Texas,............... ............................. Mexico,........................................... Central America,........................... Venezuela,...................................... Brazil,............................................. Cisplatine Republic,....................... Chili,................................................ Peru,................................................ South America, generally,............. China,.............................................. Europe, generally,......................... Asia, generally,.............................. Africa, generally,............................ West Indies, generally,................. South Seas,................... ................. Sandwich islands,.......................... Uncertain places,................... . Total, w ith different C ountries— Continued. A m erican T onnage . Ent. U. S. 11,580 7,090 Cl’d U. S. 20,708 13,937 273,622 10,041 221 1,942 378 5,661 299 329,935 12,764 982 6,941 214 5,415 590 406 125 75,962 7,425 6,145 202,607 93 110,171 18,167 562 24,006 737 1,329 284 16,606 2,298 479 486 1,401 136,338 18,361 2,557 1,657 742 1,302 3,350 565 1,951 8,679 1,533 415 51,879 3,156 2,290 209,808 363 95,566 11,322 13,874 1,173 216 16,468 10,636 6,636 300 4,615 117,847 33,245 6,240 493 1,257 335 3,143 10,588 1,705 5,239 2,853 1,022 16,927 23,826 1,896 9,991 1,096 32,466 6,836 2,755 3,186 277 13,460 16,185 22,727 1,802 8,030 1,245 32,066 2,144 6,858 5,378 446 755 13,532 823 4,613 142 5,543 32,396 1,220 4,513 3,960 15,038 3,897 26,549 593 ' 1,143,523 1,268,083 F oreign T onnage . Ent. U. S. 2,081 34,600 1,277 166,360 14,473 12,581 308 Cl’d U. S. 8,529 42,075 163,174 18,848 2,197 1,568 446 33,905 65 5,716 214,112 279 14,388 708 2,094 233,092 8,629 275 11,171 418 6,417 103 307 1,843 1,010 211 7,069 171 2,414 226 362 717 302 4,897 340 543 345 527 1,544 954 375 165 1,606 1,176 260 2,179 200 167 1,117 680 260 1,782 927 2,360 884 1,395 393 420 140 169 534,752 523,949 Statement o f the Commerce o f each State and Territory , commencing on the ls£ o f October , 1842, and ending on the 30 th o f June , 1843. VALUE OF EXPORTS. St a t e s and T e r r it o r ie s . DOM ESTIC PRODUCE. In American vessels. FOREIGN PRODUCE. Total. $656,855 43,061 141,834 4,128,830 105,292 306,950 11,093,244 8,033 1,948,644 94,362 2,152,593 183,451 1,810,915 168,535 5,034,953 2,791,968 7,022,248 123,301 4,128 667,621 101,312 143,595 2,564 2,719,199 1,730,433 4,135,212 $680,432 44,659 141,834 4,430,681 105,292 307,223 13,443,234 8,033 2,071,945 98,490 2,820,214 284,763 1,954,510 171,099 7,754,152 4,522,401 11,157,460 21,516,337 10,956 5,137,587 109,152 26,653,924 120,108 $23,577 1,598 301,851 273 2,349,990 ^262,994 625,764 In American vessels. $161 75 28,137 1,620,310 555 2,393,458 2,588 275,065 192 176,705 In foreign vessels. $2,298 40 354,216 925,972 Total. $2,459 115 28,137 1,974,526 555 2,637 18,637 185 18 3,319,430 2,586 283,003 192 195,342 185 2,655 2,249 4,408 6,657 443,511 292,989 736,500 7,938 262,994 134,571 760,335 174 179 353 Total o f domes In American tic and for’gn vessels. produce. In foreign vessels. Total. $682,891 44,774 169,971 6,405,207 105,847 307,223 16,762,664 10,621 2,354,948 98,682 3,015,556 284,948 1,957,165 171,099 7,760,809 4,522,401 11,157,460 $197,673 5,836 38,000 8,066,249 155,611 229,112 27,360,920 8,723,203 147 1,729 3,995,620 $250,260 8,289 38,000 16,789,452 155,758 230,841 31,356,540 2,630,521 1,752 2,179,119 62,075 155,681 108,739 1,084,653 146,316 239,068 130,109 2,933 300,013 33,367 31,381 2,237 210,056 61,116 121,587 2,760,630 4,685 2,479,132 95,442 187,062 110,976 1,294,70 207,439 360,652 27,390,424 120,108 7,156,961 9,454 8,145 1,013,054 1,320 8,170,015 10,774 8,145 262,994 76,175 195 76,370 760,688 59,815 98,817 158,632 $52,587 2,453 279 Total,............. $60,107,819 $17,685,964 $77,973,783 $4,945,8171 $1,606,880! $6,552,697 $84,346,480 $49,971,875 $14,781,924 $64,753,799 Commercial Statistics, Maine,.................... New Hampshire,... Vermont,................. Massachusetts,....... Rhode Island,........ Connecticut,........... New Y ork ,........ New Jersey,,...,,.. Pennsylvania,........ Delaware,.............. Maryland,.............. Dist of Columbia,... Virginia,................. North Carolina,__ South Carolina,.... Georgia,................. Alabama,............... Mississippi,....... . Louisiana,.............. Ohio,...................... Kentucky,.............. Tennessee,,............ Michigan,............... Missouri,................. Florida,.................. In foreign vessels. VALU E OF IMPORTS. 280 S tatement — Continued. TONNAGE ENTERED THE UNITED STATES. AM E R IC AN VESSELS. States and T erritories. Tons. No. Maine,.................... New Hampshire,.... New York,............. Pennsylvania,......... Dist. o f Columbia,.. North Carolina,.... South Carolina,...... Florida,................... Total,............. 27,197 2,093 15,538 150^309 11,726 15,956 418^524 1,093 76 450 7,517 65G 907 20,650 Tons. No. Boys. Men. 56 7 144 266 7 12 1,102 T O T A L AM E R IC AN AND FOREIGN VESSELS. Crews. 497 50 36,490 2,230 1,994 110 568 3 17 992 47,840 498 1,964 177,984 3,120 27 97 12,424 34 2 68 19 16 11 116 78 96 5,525 233 14,464 2,521 2,915 1,471 41,055 43,017 56>48 256 13 705 136 148 76 1,502 1,576 1,962 Tons. No. Boys. Men. 46 82 Boys. 646 58 99 1,253 58 87 2,800 63,687 4,323 15,538 198J49 12,224 17,926 596,508 3,087 186 450 10,637 683 1,004 33,074 102 7 144 266 7 12 1,184 255 4 255 43 91 167 288 141 234 47,944 454 51,598 7,080 19,186 2U 93 80,083 61,936 105^540 2,091 27 2,313 348 811 1,048 3,199 2,319 3 > 93 202 221 2 187 24 75 156 172 63 138 42,419 221 37,134 4^559 16,271 19>22 39,028 18,919 48^892 1,835 14 1,608 212 663 972 1,697 743 1,831 839 18 261,802 L 514 9,909 * 72 233 46 90,450 5j060 3,754 250 1,072 64 352,252 6,574 13,663 '322 2 63 5 21 1,892 75 23 1,955 80 101 11,636 774 22 2,495 230 51,684 2,889 534,752 28,455 4,872| 1,143,5231 147 2 14 73 1,830 55 Crews. Men. 6 262 451 123 14,131 1,004 7,761 1,678,275 80,139 8 14 335 2,281 Commercial Statistics, Massachusetts,....... Rhode Island,......... 149 8 99 685 55 70 1,808 FOREIGN VE SSELS. Crews. S tatement — Continued. VOL. XI.— NO. Ill, TONNAGE CLEARED FROM THE UNITED STATES. AM E R IC AN VESSELS. Sta te s and Tons. No. Maine,.................... New Hampshire,... New York,............. Pennsylvania,......... Dist. of Columbia,. North Carolina,__ South Carolina,...... Boys. 329 5 93 669 43 67 1,684 1 241 13 222 34 168 233 261 131 200 60,453 1,018 15,35£ 138^295 7,645 14, UJ 384,281 13C 41,573 1,949 4l'473 5'242 34,943 30^411 71,400 43,055 79J07 2,418 47 441 7,242 470 868 18,839 7 1,909 96 1,930 241 1,483 1,475 2,797 1,633 2^904 808 15 292,473 1,245 5 439 Boys. 35,974 2,256 1,963 111 566 49,253 3,192 19 961 2,743 174,374 12E 12,279 34 3 70 19 21 11 123 76 96 5,899 366 15,431 34)01 4,353 F292 43,191 42,033 55,900 268 19 745 156 219 73 1,577 1,462 L9S8 10,887 61 220 47 80,697 5^170 20 17 3,479 374 Total,............. 5,290' 1,268,083 56,142! 174 3 6 7 129 1,905 Crews. Men. 823 56 92 1,235 43 86 2,645 1 275 16 292 53 189 244 384 207 296 96,427 3,274 15,359 187,548 7,645 16,856 558^655 130 47,472 2,315 56,904 8^243 39,296 31^703 114,591 85,088 135^007 4,381 158 441 10,434 470 997 31,118 7 2,177 115 2,675 397 1,702 H548 4,374 3,095 4,892 3,317 258 1,028 62 373,170 61415 14,204 319 1,507 59 22 1,946 79 20 509 161 2,848 523,949 27,976 ..... 45 84 51 6 232 ....... ....... 418; 88 3,988 535 8,138 1,792,032. 84,118 Boys. 214 12 14496 7 52 1,190 225 3 12 7 361 2,323 281 Florida,................... 169 12 144 96 7 52 1,106 Tons. No. Men. 494 51 68 Tons. No. Men. T O T A L A M E R IC AN AND FOREIGN VE SSELS. Crews. Commercial Statistics. Massachusetts,....... Rhode Island,........ FOREION VESSELS. Crew. Commercial Statistics. 282 T onnage of the several D istricts of the U nited S tates. Statement exhibiting a Condensed View o f the Tonnage o f the several Districts o f the United States, on the 30th. o f June, 1843. Enrolled and Total ton Registered licensed ton nage of tonnage. nage. each dist. D is t r ic t s . Tons and 95ths, Maine,............... 2,589 80 5,287 75 Passamaquoddy, 7,877 60 2,406 79 12,318 59 14,725 43 Machias, 4 4 ........... 1,460 01 19,412 36 20,872 37 Frenchman’s Bay, tt 4,346 25 19,568 34 23,914 59 Penobscot, tt 10,787 62 23,035 31 33,823 01 Belfast, ti 15,481 27 Waldoborough, 34,953 38 50,434 65 it 4,803 23 8,654 20 Wiscasset, 13,457 43 ti 36,117 32 15,284 09 51,411 41 Bath, tt 40,161 38 16,011 35 56,172 73 Portland, te 1,435 75 3,690 88 2,255 13 Saco, tt 5,418 04 2,420 55 7,838 59 Kennebunk, a 2,071 91 2,071 91 York, 13,918 61 Portsmouth, New Hampshire,...... 8,790 75 22,709 41 Vermont,............. 2,762 86 Burlington, 2,762 8G Newburyport, Massachusetts,........ 14,362 04 19,686 33 5,324 29 44 ........... Ipswich, 2,378 22 2,378 22 K 3,254 14 Gloucester, 12,799 12 16,053 26 44 ........... 22,519 52 11,397 63 33,917 20 Salem, a 1,521 27 Marblehead, 7,343 50 8,864 77 a 165,482 69 Boston, 37,116 44 202,599 18 tt 8,086 05 Plymouth, 9,102 53 17,188 58 a Fall River, 3,393 76 6,526 54 9.920 35 tt 83,056 69 New Bedford, 17,024 74 100,081 48 tt Barnstable, 5,626 81 35,823 39 41,450 25 tt 7,200 82 Edgartown, 1,619 28 8,820 15 tt Nantucket, 27,840 15 6,502 62 34,342 77 Providence, Rhode Island,......... 13,646 86 19,434 19 5,787 28 tt Bristol, 10,746 16 3,029 36 13,775 52 tt Newport, 6,873 82 5,542 37 12,416 24 Connecticut,........ Middletown, 723 89 9,340 09 10,064 03 44 ........ New London, 25,118 60 10,272 64 35,391 29 a Stonington, 1,729 81 3,214 28 4,944 14 tt New Haven, 4,570 82 6,041 73 10,612 60 tt Fairfield, 9,265 94 9,265 94 Champlain, New York,........... 2,510 15 2,510 15 ti Sackett’s Harbor, 4,991 84 4,991 84 tt Oswego, 7,420 47 7,420 47 tt Niagara, 112 08 112 08 tt Genesee, 249 05 249 05 ft Oswegatchie, 987 01 987 01 tt Buffalo Creek, 17,939 80 17,939 80 ft Sag Harbor, 16,841 29 6,047 21 22,888 50 ft New York, 237,240 29 259,725 27 496,965 56 It Cape Vincent, 2,970 30 2,970 30 Perth Amboy, New Jersey,......... 18,969 70 18,969 70 tt Bridgetown, 372 65 10,020 77 10,393 47 ft Burlington, 3,951 92 3,951 92 ft Camden, 6,408 76 6,408 76 tt Newark, 266 04 9,009 76 8,743 72 tt Little Egg Harbor, 5,263 18 5,263 18 ft Great Egg Harbor, 9,382 04 9,382 04 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,........ 39,445 84 104,340 48 64,894 59 tt Presqu’isle, 2,766 55 2,766 55 ft Pittsburgh, 4,942 69 4,942 69 Wilmington, Delaware,........... 2,266 77 6,072 75 3,805 93 tt Newcastle, 4,248 53 4,248 53 Baltimore, Maryland,........... 41,245 41 74,825 61 33,580 20 293 Commercial Statistics. T onnage of the several D istricts of the U nited S tates— Continued. Statement exhibiting a Condensed View of the Tonnage o f the several Districts o f the United States, on the 30th o f June, 1843. Enrolled and Total tonRegistered licensed tonnage of tonnage. nage. each dist. D istricts . Tons and 95ths. 9,631 59 9,631 59 Maryland,........... Oxford, “ ................ 336 75 12,053 69 Vienna, 12,390 49 it 6,511 17 Snow Hill, 6,511 17 it 1,442 47 St. Marv’s, 1,442 47 It 1,539 57 Town Creek, 1,539 57 tt Annapolis, 2,678 21 2.678 21 2,988 11 6,521 67 Georgetown, District c f Columbia,. 8,809 78 “ ................ Alexandria, 7,267 36 3,450 21 10,717 57 10,345 87 7,581 04 17,926 91 Norfolk, Virginia,............ it 2,346 31 Petersburg, 1,072 14 3,418 45 H 4,326 35 Richmond, 2,920 51 7,246 86 it 2,906 51 York town, 2,906 51 it East River, 2,309 84 2,399 84 ft 501 93 Tappahannock, 4,445 81 4,947 79 “ ................ Folly Landing, 2,764 77 2,764 77 ft 3,091 69 Yeocomieo, 3,091 69 “ ................ Cherrystone, 1.377 67 1,377 67 tt Wheeling, 1,212 34 1,212 34 3,530 46 10,410 41 Wilmington, JNorth Carolina,..... 13,940 87 tt Newbern, 1,954 40 2,094 62 4,094 07 a 1,404 23 Washington, 2,387 01 3,791 24 tt Edenton, 158 03 618 74 776 77 a Camden, 1,257 71 7,856 17 9,113 88 tt Beaufort, 1,563 85 1,563 85 tt Plymouth, 948 41 808 34 1,756 75 tt Ocracoke, 914 60 1,282 19 2,196 79 South Carolina,...... 10,841 05 9,870 74 Charleston, 20,711 79 Georgetown, 320 94 543 89 “ ........ i.... 864 88 u Savannah, Georgia............ 2,728 80 6,715 85 15,444 73 (( it Brunswick, 835 94 779 61 1,615 60 tl St. Mary’s, Pensacola, St. Augustine, Apalachicola, St. Mark’s, St. John’s, Key West, Mobile, Pearl river, New Orleans, Teche, St. Louis, Nashville, Louisville, Cuyahoga, Sandusky, Cincinnati, Miami, Detroit, Michihmackinac > Total,.. “ . Florida,............... tt a 28 995 407 1,700 79 16 89 86 tt tt a Alabama,............. Mississippi,......... Louisiana,........... 1,794 27 6,646 58 49,957 60 tt Missouri,............ Tennessee,......... Kentucky,........... Ohio,................... tt It it Michigan,.......... (4 .............. . 1,009,305 01 310 751 212 3,183 92 197 710 9,447 20 69 46 60 20 00 38 85 339 1,746 620 4,884 92 197 2,504 16,094 04 85 40 51 20 00 65 48 99,452 657 13,589 4,813 5,093 13,679 2,656 11,675 1,446 12,259 430 06 09 38 08 18 58 73 13 57 59 60 149,409 657 13,589 4,813 5,093 13,679 2,656 11,675 1,446 12,259 430 66 09 38 08 18 58 73 13 57 59 60 1,149,297 92 2,158,602 93 284 Nautical Intelligence. V essels built in each S tate and T erritory of the U nited S tates, in 1843. Statement o f the number and class o f vessels built, and the tonnage thereof, in each State and Territory o f the United States, for the three quarters ending on the 30th June, 1843. Sips & Total T otal canal- Steam No. T onnage. States. Ships. Brigs. Schrs. boats. boats. built. Tons. 95ths. Maine,....................... 21 25 25 71 15,120 90 New Hampshire,...... 1 i 2 233 7G 20 Massachusetts,.......... 2 15 3 40 9,974 01 Rhode Island,........... 1 1 119 80 Connecticut,............. 1 1 6 4 12 1,063 80 5 2 New York................. 9 103 5 124 13,298 68 New Jersey,............. 9 2 19 8 1,480 01 Pennsylvania,........... 3 3 2 35 20 63 6,739 72 Delaware,.................. 1 1 1 3 245 63 Maryland,.................. 4 1 33 1 39 3,678 91 District of Columbia, ii 11 276 13 i Virginia,.................... 5 2 i 9 693 77 3 North Carolina,........ 18 21 2,000 19 South Carolina,......... i l 2 206 13 Georgia,.................... i 1 45 09 6 Ohio,.......................... 25 31 5,194 69 2 Tennessee,................ 2 322 27 Kentucky,................. 11 n 1,664 18 Missouri,................... Alabama,................... i 1 2 144 24 1 4 Michigan,.................. 5 304 89 6 1 Mississippi,............... i 8 288 05 Florida,...................... 5 5 522 42 Total,............... 58 34 138 173 79 482 63,617 77 NAUTICAL INTELLIGENCE. D R E W ’S PLAN FO R PREVENTING SHIPS FROM BECOMING HOGGED. A most ingenious model has fallen under our observation, (says the United Service Journal, London,) of which Captain Drew is the inventor, for strengthening ships of war, so as to make it all but impossible they shall become hogged. T o steam vessels of the larger class, the adoption of this simple and comparatively inexpensive machinery, will prove of most vital importance. The immense weight of the engines requisite for a steamship, render her more than ordinarily liable to break amidships. Captain Drew’s plan was, we are told, suggested by the ingenious and admirably effective operation, lately performed on the Penelope. The grand feature of his project is to relieve a steam vessel from the vast weight of machinery amidships, and to throw it upon two distant parts of the ship, much more capable of sustaining it ; and if there be any one vessel to which such an adjunct will be more especially necessary than another, it is the Penelope, whose machinery will be placed exactly in the space occupied by the sixty feet of timber which remains to be added to its length. Captain Drew’s plan consists of two longitudinal pieces of timber, firmly trussed together, constructed on something like the principle of the arch of a bridge, which will be capable of bearing an immense weight. These bearers are to be covered by a platform for the machinery, of four inch plank; so that the strongest part of the vessel will, in future, be that which has hitherto proved the weakest. It is well known that the unfortunate President was broken-backed before she left the British channel, on her last trip, from the immense weight of her machinery amidships; the un doubted cause of her melancholy catastrophe. The owners of the British Queen are, we Nautical Intelligence, 285 are told, about to cut her in two, for the purpose of avoiding a similar catastrophe ; and it is well known that the long steam vessels running in Canada seldom last more than five or six years, from the same cause. If, therefore, Captain Drew’s plan should realize the expectations we have formed of it, it cannot fail of proving of most vital importance to the navy at large, and to steamships in particular. W e had almost forgotten to notice another important advantage that will be gained by Captain Drew’s plan. The circum stance of the machinery being placed upon a platform that will be, to some extent, elastic, will obviate, in a great degree, that constant jar, which is so trying to the timbers of a steamship, and so inconvenient to its occupants. W e have the greater pleasure in speak ing of this invention as we think it deserves, inasmuch as we have understood that Cap tain Drew has no interested motive in placing it before the public. He seeks no patent, and desires no reward beyond the credit of being instrumental in preserving not only valu able property, but human life from destruction. W e need hardly add that this is precisely the sort of projector in whose opinions we are inclined to repose the greatest confidence. DESCRIPTION OF A SHOAL OFF ST. CROIX. The Rev. Wm. C. Woodbridge, the geographer, in viewing the astronomical observa tory of Major Lang, surveyor-general of the island of St Croix, learned that there wras a shoal off the east end of the island, not laid down in the charts, but on which the break ers wrere sometimes heard, as well as seen, from that elevated spot Finding, subsequent ly, that it was unknown to most American captains, and that the ship in which he had sailed found herself unexpectedly upon it, he requested an account of it from Major Lang, which we give below:— M ajor L ang’ s R emarks on the extensive B ank E. N. E. of the E astern extremity of S t . C roix. The eastern point of St. Croix is in lat. 17. 45. 30. N., Ion. 64. 34. W . The eastern point of Buck island, lat. 17. 47. 18. N., Ion. 64. 36. 40. W . A. Lang’s observatory, (ele vation 440 feet,) lat 17. 44. 32. N.y Ion. 64. 41. W. Full nine nautical miles N. E. by E., £ E., from the E. end of St. Croix, and about eleven nautical miles E. by N. from the E. point of Buck island, commences the eastern extremity of an extensive bank, or shoal, the northern limits of which round off thence to the N. W ., soon afterwards stretch westerly, inclining at last to the southward of a westerly direction, towards Buck island eastern shoals, with which it may be considered as connected. The northern edge of this shoal is a narrow coral ledge, of several miles in length, on which five and a half fathoms of water is the least depth yet found— the more common depth being six, six and a half, and seven fathoms. Along the whole line of the northern edge, and to the very eastern extremity of the bank, where there is not less than seven fathoms water, I have observed the sea to break in an awful manner, during severe gales of wind; and sometimes, also, in moderate wea ther, during the great northerly ground-swell, which occasionally sets in during the winter months. A line of direction drawn from my observatory, E. 24. 15. 39. N., passed through the shortest part of the northern edge of this coral ledge, through its whole length, until it ap proaches the eastern limits of the shoal, wThere it rounds off to the S. E. and S., as far as the bearing E. 15. 50. N. from my position. I consider its most eastern part to bear frommy observatory E. 17. 20. N., which will place it in lat. 17. 49. 25. N., Ion. 64. 24.40. W . from Greenwich, having there seven fathoms and a half; which, in coming from the east ward, you at once strike, from an ocean depth. At this spot, the E. end of St. Croix is distant nine and three-quarters nautical miles, and the E. end of Buck island about eleven and a half nautical miles. In approaching the northern edge of the shoal from the north ward, you at once get from an ocean depth upon its shoalest part; passing v Inch, and standing to the S., the water gradually deepens, on a clear sand bottom, during the short time taken in crossing the bank, when standing in this direction. The bearings from my position are given from the true meridian, taken from my astro nomical circle. The bank is the resort of many whales during spring and summer. 286 Mercantile Miscellanies. PRIVILEGE OF AM ERIC AN W H A LE SHIPS A T N E W ZEALAND. Information has been received at the department of state, at Washington, (July 25th, 1844,) from the United States Consulate at the Bay of Islands, New Zealand, that the governor of that colony has been pleased to permit, at its instance, American whale ships to land their cargoes of oil in the ports of New Zealand, for exportation either to England/ or the United States; thereby giving the ships an opportunity of refitting, without the delay or exposure of returning to the United States. A change has recently been made in the port dues of Sidney, N. S. W., which, as reg rds whale ships, is illustrated by two visits of the Tuscaloosa, of New Bedford— one previous, the other subsequent to the change. On the first, she paid £22 8s. 2d. ; on the second, =£10 19s. 2d. ; of which £ 6 might have been saved, had she not taken a pilot. A PRA CTICAL LIF E PRESERVER. A very simple instrument has just been introduced here, called the “ Liancourt Nau tilus.” For convenience and safety, it is as perfect as possible. It is a harmonicon, with out the musical part It consists of two oval tin plates, as large as a man’s hand, connected by a spiral wire, capable of being extended to the length of three feet This wire is cov ered by a water-proof bag, or sleeve, the ends of which are sealed to the plates. The whole affair, when compressed together, is about five inches long, by four thick. Through one of the tin plates is a hole, closed by a clapper on the inside. Take a plate in each hand, and draw them apart to the length of the bag, and the machine is inflated. The wire keeps the bag distended, so that the air would press out very slowly, even if a small 1 hole were to exist. It has been adopted already, by the admiralty service of both France and England. MERCANTILE MISCELLANIES. A LU CRATIVE COM M ERCIAL ENTERPRISE. It is stated in the Liverpool Journal, of June 22d, 1844, that in the most distressing pe riod of the cotton trade, 1841, and when the relations with China were anything but set tled, a Manchester merchant formed the resolution of speculating in 30,000 pieces of low shirtings, for which the purchaser paid 6s. 8d. per piece; the whole outlay being just £10,000. The entire of this large purchase, as to numbers of pieces, if not in amount, were shipped to Manilla, where the goods arrived most opportune. A quick sale took place; and the returns, after paying all costs and charges, netted rather over £20,000. Bills for such an amount were then out of the question, and the proceeds were invested in silk. The silk, too, proved an equally good spec ; the lucky owner having again dou bled his investment; i. e., sold the silk for more than £40,000. Perhaps a more fortunate speculation is not on record ; and all this, too, was accomplished, it is said, in less than twelve months. COM M ERCIAL VALUE OF OLD PAIN TINGS IN ENGLAND. A sale of rare pictures, by the great masters, took place recently, at Messrs. Christie’s rooms, King-street, St. James’s, London, (Eng.,) late the property of Mr. John Prentice, of Great Yarmouth; and, though the collection only numbered sixteen subjects, they were of the highest class, the total sum realized being nearly 19,000/. Rubens’s “ Judgment of Paris” produced 4,000 guineas, and “ Lot and his Daughters leaving Sodom,” 1,600 guineas; both purchased by Mr. Eastlake, curator of the National Gallery. Mercantile M iscellanies . 287 T H E GUANO TRADE. This new branch of commercial enterprise is attracting the attention of the British go vernment ; and it has been stated in Parliament that it had already been of signal benefit to the declining mercantile marine of England, more than six hundred vessels being now engaged in the trade. It will, we presume, awaken the commercial spirit of the northern states, as it will undoubtedly open to their citizens a profitable branch of trade, which they are never slow to embrace. The small island of Ichaboe, on the west coast of Africa, lat 26 deg. 18 min. S., long. 14 deg. 58 min. E., is said to be covered with this manure, to the depth of thirty feet. The island is small, being not above one mile in circumference. In the month of De cember last, there were twenty ships in the harbor, or road formed between the island and the main land, beside a dozen more in search of the island. The article itself cost not a farthing, and it is estimated in England to be worth £ 8 per ton, or about 18 10 cents per lb. Genuine guano, it is believed, has never been found except on places seemingly of volcanic origin, and almost always in situations where gannets, penguins, and seals, are in the habit o f resorting. The space on the west coast of Africa, from Orange river, in lat. 28 deg. 23 min. S., long. 16 deg. 22 min. E., to Hallam’s Bird island, in lat. 24 deg. 38 min. S., long. 14 deg. 22 min. E., lies between the British and Portuguese possessions in Southern Africa, and is claimed by no nation ; and, consequently, any adventurer may have guano for the taking. It is stated, in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, that the birds on the island of Ichaboe are a kind of penguin, and cannot fly to any distance, if at all, their wings being a kind of fin. It is believed that the captain of the vessel, (said to be Mr. Parr, of the Anne, of Bristol,) who brought the guano, was the first human being who set foot on the island, there being no harbor, and a heavy surf. On walking on it, he could scarcely set his foot without treading on the birds, and they took no notice whatever of him, ex cept pecking at his feet, he being barefoot; and, on a gun being fired, they merely flut tered a good deal, and made much noise. There is no fresh water, it is believed, for some hundreds of miles along the coast, and no rain. A writer in the last Nautical Magazine very facetiously says:—“ Some persons in Liverpool, it is said, allege that they have pos sessed the sovereignty of the Guano islands; but, as there are no human inhabitants upon them, and the natives of the adjacent continent (who are described as civil and harmless) have neither boat nor canoe, the ‘ soi disant’ sovereigns must have contracted with a King Penguin, had the contracts stamped by a Fur-Seal, and witnessed by the requisite num ber of Gannets.” That the trade is beginning to awaken the commercial spirit of the United States, is evident from the fact that the ship Orpheus arrived at Baltimore, in July last, with four hundred tons of guano; and Captain Wickham S. Havens, of the Thomas Dickinson, brought a quantity from one of the islands, on his return to Sag Harbor, Long Island. The Newbury port Herald says that the ship Shakspeare, of 747 tons, is now fitting out at Lewis’s wharf, Boston, for the coast of Africa, to load with guano. Several English vessels sailed from New York, last week, for the same destination. Guano is worth in England $60 to $80 per ton, and an immense trade has grown up there in the article, no less than 700 English vessels being engaged in the business at last dates. W e see, by an advertisement in the American Agriculturalist, that J. M. Thorbum &, Co., of New York, have received, by a late arrival from Liverpool, a few hundred weight of the Ichaboe guano, pure as imported from Africa, being taken direct from a ship that arrived at the Liverpool docks. Some idea of the value of the article may be gained from the fact that it is sold by Mr. Thorbum, in New York, at $ 6 per hundred pounds, or $1 per sixteen pounds, and from $60 to $80 per ton, in England. W e notice, in late English papers, an apparatus advertised, by which it is stated that 288 Mercantile Miscellanies . any one can, in five minutes, form a pretty accurate estimate of the value of guano. The immense increase of shipping now employed in England in this trade, seem to prove two things:— First, that the experiments there, this season, have convinced the most skeptical of the immense value of this manure ; and, secondly, that there is no doubt of vessels ob taining cargoes; for those who have so recently returned from the African coast would certainly not go back, if there was any chance of the quantity being exhausted; and the accounts of the crews, to this effect, would have deterred others; lessening, instead of in creasing the number of vessels—so that, if we do not now get plenty of guano, of the right kind, to supply our agriculture next year, it will be our own fault. It is stated in the city article of a late number of the London Times, that a new use has been discovered of the article guano, which was never anticipated. Hitherto, it has been merely looked upon as applicable to agricultural purposes, but now the rumor goes that it may be employed in the manufacture of a certain color. The Liverpool (Eng.) Times says:— “ The guano trade has already greatly relieved British shipping, and put an end to the ruinous competition for freights, which had then for some time existed ; but we had not, at that time, any idea of the number of vessels which have gone to the African coast in search of this new manure. W e have since learned that it is not less than 600, at the lowest estimate ; and that some persons even estimate it as high as 800, a great number of them being very large ships. It is, there fore, no wonder that the taking up so many vessels at good freights, and the withdrawing them from the usual trade, has had a good effect on freights, and on the demand for ship ping everywhere.” T H E FRESH FISH T R A D E OF BOSTON. It affords us pleasure to record, in the pages of the Merchants’ Magazine, the success ful commercial enterprises of the nation ; especially when the tendency of such operations is to diffuse the comforts and innocent luxuries of life, and place them within the means of all classes of society. The ice trade cf Boston, it is well known, has become not only an important branch of commerce, affording employment to many of that worthy class of men who earn their bread by the sweat of their brow, but has enriched the first adven turer in the trade, besides furnishing the inhabitants of tropical climates with one of the greatest luxuries nature yields. The following statement, derived from the Boston Morning Post, gives a pretty good idea of the progress of the fresh fish trade of Boston, and is worthy of record in the pages of a work designed to furnish a history of the various movements in commercial industry, and shadow forth the spirit and genius of an enterprising people. It also illus trates the commercial advantages of the railroad system, so successfully adopted by the citizens of Massachusetts:— “ The season in which fish are taken, for the purpose of being forwarded fresh to New York and Philadelphia, and the cities of the interior, generally extends from the 1st of December to the 1st of May. This year, however, it did not close until about the 1st of June. The fish caught are principally halibut, cod, and haddock. Messrs. Holbrook. Smith & Co., on Commercial street, (who were among the first, and are still the principal dealers,) have politely furnished us with an account of their sales for the past season, and estimates of the sales of others engaged in the business ; from which it appears that there w^ere brought to the city and sold, by the firm named, 934,000 pounds of hali but, and 386,000 pounds of cod and haddock; by others, 92,000 pounds of halibut, and 322,000 pounds of cod and haddock. Total, 1,734,000 pounds. O f this quantity, there was forwarded to Philadelphia, by Messrs. Holbrook, Smith & Co., of halibut, 8,874 pounds; to New York, of halibut and cod, mostly the first, 164,428 pounds; to Albany and Troy, 100,000 pounds. Forwarded by other dealers, to New York, 83,300 pounds; to Albany and Troy, 50,000 pounds. Total amount forwarded to four cities, 405,602 pounds. Mercantile M iscellanies . 289 The average number of vessels engaged in the halibut fishery has been about 30, and in the cod and haddock fishery the same number; making 60 in all. The average num ber of men employed has been about 400, and the amount of tonnage 3,000 tons. The city market boats, and the fish caught by them, it will be observed, are not included in this statement The vessels are owned principally on Cape Ann and Cape Cod, and a more active and temperate set of men than their crews can nowhere be found. The cold water principle is fully carried out among them. The length of their voyages varies from six days to a fortnight, and the vessels are so constructed as to admit of a constant flow of the sea water into a part of their holds, in which the fish are brought alive to the wharves. The importance to which the trade has attained is undoubtedly attributable, in a high degree, to this circumstance ; as it is the perfect freshness of the fish that gives them their greatest value. Every morning, upon the arrival of the vessels, the halibut are hauled upon deck, and killed. They are then immediately packed in boxes, with ice, and despatched to the several railroads, so that, on the evening of the same day, or the next morning, they may be smoking upon the tables of Albany or Troy, two hundred miles in the interior, as fresh and delicate as the fish eaten on the sea shore. One vessel will sometimes bring in 400 halibut, weighing from 50 to 200 pounds each, and the scene of slaughter which ensues is indescribable. Blood literally streams from her scuppers; and the fish are cut up and packed with such celerity, that their muscles continue to quiver after the last nail is driven into the box. In all other respects, the trade is conducted (es pecially by the principal house engaged in it) with remarkable prudence and energy; and we doubt not that it will continue to extend, as increased facilities are afforded, and ever go to illustrate the manner in which the iron roads bind our Union together, by making the people of the east and the west, the north and the south, necessary to each other.” L A F IT T E , T H E FRENCH B A N K E R ; OR, A FORTUNE MADE B Y PICKING UP A PIN. Important results often follow from the most trifling incidents. A remarkable case of this kind is related in an English paper, respecting Lafitte, the French banker, and which was the foundation of the immense fortune he afterwards accumulated. When he came to Paris, in 1788, the extent of his ambition was to find a situation in a banking-house ; and to attain this object, he called on M. Perregeaux, the rich Swiss banker, to whom he had a letter of introduction. This gentleman had just taken possession of the hotel of Mademoiselle Gurmard, which had been put up in a lottery by that lady, and won by the fortunate banker. It was to this charming habitation, which has since been demolished, that M. Lafitte paid his first visit in Paris; and, as it were, took his first step in the Pa risian world. The young provincial—poor and modest, timid and anxious— entered by that gateway which had witnessed so many gayeties in the last century. He was intro duced into the boudoir of the danseuse, then become the cabinet of the banker, and there modestly stated the object of his visit. “ It is impossible for me to admit you into my establishment, at least for the present,” replied the banker; “ all my offices have their full complement If I require any one at a future time, I will see what can be done ; but, in the meantime, I advise you to seek else where, for I do not expect to have a vacancy for some time.” With a disappointed heart, the young aspirant for employment left the office ; and while, with a downcast look, he traversed the courtyard, he stooped to pick up a pin which lay in his path, and which he carefully stuck in the lappel of his coat Little did he think that this trivial action was to decide his future fate; but so it was. From the window of his cabinet, M. Perregeaux had observed the action of the young man. The Swiss banker was one of those keen observers of human actions who estimate the value of circum stances apparently trifling in themselves, and which would pass unnoticed by the majority of mankind. He was delighted with the conduct of the young stranger. In this simple action, he saw the revelation of a character. It was a guarantee of a love of order and economy, a certain pledge of all the qualities which should be possessed by a good finan cier. A young man who would pick up a pin, could not fail to make a good clerk, merit 290 Mercantile Miscellanies . the confidence of his employer, and obtain a high degree of prosperity. In the evening of the same day, M. Lafitte received the following note from M. Perregeaux:— “ A place is made for you in my office, which you may take possession of to-morrow morning.” The anticipations of the banker were not deceived. The young Lafitte possessed every desirable quality, and even more than was at first expected. From simple clerk, he soon rose to be cashier, then partner, then head of the first banking-house in Paris ; and after wards, in rapid succession, a Deputy, and President of the Council of Ministers, the high est point to which a citizen can aspire. On what a trifle does the fortune of a man some times depend! But for the simple incident of the pin, M. Lafitte would, perhaps, never have entered the house of M. Perregeaux; another employer might not have opened to him so wide a field of action, and his talents and intelligence would not have led to such magnificent results. Little did M. Perregeaux think that the hand which would pick up a pin was that of a man generous to prodigality in doing good— a hand always open to succor honorable misfortune. Never were riches placed in better hands; never did banker or prince make a more noble use of them. SM ELTING COPPER ORE IN T H E UNITED STATES. To the Editor o f the Merchants’ M agazine:— D ear S ir— I was much pleased with a letter which appeared in the last number of your excellent periodical, from George Ditson, Esq., Vice-Consul of the United States at Neuvitas, on the subject of the copper mines of Cuba; suggesting, also, the great benefit which would accrue to the manufacturing, as well as the commercial interests of the coun try, by the establishment of smelting works in the neighborhood of New Y ork ; in which opinion, I perfectly agree with him. As New York is the great emporium of American commerce, it is consequently the port where most of the foreign, as well as American copper ores, are sent, to be shipped to England, for smelting. No better place, therefore, could be selected for the establish ment of copper works, than somewhere in this neighborhood; and, in my opinion, Red Hook Point, near the south end of the Atlantic dock, would be a most eligible location; as there is every facility there for discharging cargoes of copper ore, as well as coal for smelting it, and ample space for the erection of suitable buildings, not only for smelting the ore into cakes, but for drawing the copper into bars, and rolling it into sheets. The establishment of copper works would also give an impulse to copper mining operations throughout the Union, as there would then be a ready market for all the American copper ore raised, without sending it to England to be smelted; and, by amalgamating American ores with foreign, better copper, (as to the temper and malleability of it,) could be made, than from one kind of copper ore, only. Moreover, the copper made here could be sold cheaper than that which is imported ; as the freight and insurance on the ore sent to Eng land, as well as on the manufactured copper sent back again, would be saved—independ ent of the duty on the ore, (£ 4 10s. per ton,) and the other heavy charges upon the im portation of it into England. I think these are good and sufficient reasons for the esta blishment of copper works near New Y ork ; and coming, as they do, from one who was formerly engaged as a mineral broker in England, and is practically acquainted with the modus operandi of sampling, assaying, roasting, and smelting copper ores, they may be well worthy of the consideration of those wrho feel interested in the matter. The esta blishment of such works, independent of the great advantage they would be to the coun try in a national and commercial point of view, would also be a very profitable investment of capital, for those who might embark in the undertaking; and, hoping soon to see them in operation, I remain, dear sir, yours, respectfully, J. T. BAILEY. F reeman H unt, Esq., Editor o f the Merchants’ Magazine. Mercantile Miscellanies. 291 GIGANTIC COM M ERCIAL ENTERPRISE. A highly important hydraulic work has been projected, and is now in rapid progress of execution, as we learn from Murray’s Hand-Book for Travellers in France, that will vie with our far-famed and magnificent Croton works, that now supply the commercial em porium of our country with an abundance of pure water. It is under the able direction of Montricher. The canal that is to supply Marseilles, will derive its water from the Du rance, near to the suspension bridge at Pertuis; and this will be conducted by open cut ting and tunnelling, for a distance of fifty-one miles, through a most mountainous and difficult country, until it reaches the arid territory of Marseilles, where it will be employed for the supply of the city, as well as for irrigation, and giving activity to various branches of industry which require water-po^ver. The section and fall of this canal is calculated to pass eleven tons of water per second; and its levels are so disposed, that this quantity of water will arrive near to the city, at an elevation of four hundred feet above the level of the sea. Perhaps no work of this description has been attempted, either in ancient or modern times, more hardy in its conception, or more really useful in its effects. Three chains of limestone mountains are already pierced by the ten miles of tunnels which are required to conduct this stream; and an aqueduct, which is to convey it across the river Arc, (about five miles from Aix,) is now in construction. Its elevation above the river will be two hundred and sixtv-two feet. The design for this gigantic structure is in ex cellent taste ; and as a work of art, it will not suffer comparison from the famous Pont du Gard, which it will much surpass, both in altitude and size. The estimated cost of this canal is upwards of twenty millions of dollars, and this sum is raised by the city of Marseilles, without aid from government. The profit to the stockholders, arising from this work, will be principally from supplying water for irrigation ; as the value of land in such a climate is quadrupled, if water can be applied to it. AM ERIC AN FUR COM PANY’S STORES. The St. Louis Reveille furnishes the following brief sketch of the stores occupied by the American Fur Company, at St. Louis, which gives a slight idea of the extensive man ner of conducting the fur trade:— “ The present are two large, fire-proof structures, recently built, but with one door of connection, which, in case of fire, may be closed up with double iron shutters, fitting air tight in the wall; so that one building may bum, and the other remain cool as an icecellar. Spacious vaults and cellars, constructed of native rock, range beneath the front warehouse; and offices of convenience extend under the sidewalk of the street, having a subterranean let-off cut through the solid rock to the river. Through this, runs the super flux of rain from the roofs, after the cisterns are supplied; and thus a high state of clean liness is constantly preserved. Upon the first floor, ranging level with the street, are the director’s rooms, and clerk’s offices, together with an immense iron apartment, imbedded in brick, with vents in the wall for heat to escape, and sitting upon a solid foundation of stone. .Etna might belch lava upon it, and the books would be safe! Above that, is an extensive room, running the whole length o f the building, where huge bales of blankets, furs, boxes of hardware, and other necessaries of the trade, are stored. The floors above are divided into various wholesale and retail stores, some exclusively for traders, others for Indians. The large trader is led to one store, the poor trapper to another, and the In dian to another. There is no great subtlety and skill required in managing well the com plicated peculiarities of the trade. The rear warehouse presents the appearance of an immense factory. A great number of men are constantly in active employ, sorting and arranging skins; packing, pressing, and putting them away in bales— a machine being used, in the operation of pressing, similar in principle, though smaller, of course, than a New Orleans cotton press. 292 Mercantile Miscellanies . “ H E W IL L N EVER MAKE A MERCHANT.” The morality of a distinguished divine of the present day, that the making the best of one’s knowledge in buying and selling, or, in other words, the seller’s taking the advan tage of the purchaser’s ignorance, is quite questionable; or, more plainly, to use the lan guage of the Author of the only standard of morality in Christendom, it is not “ doing to others as we would they should do to us.” If, however, the ministers of Christianity in culcate such a standard, is it surprising that there are occasionally to be found persons engaged in trade who, like the dry-goods merchant mentioned in the following recital of an actual occurrence, boldly admit that an honest boy “ will never make a merchant?” A gentleman from the country placed his son with a merchant i n ------ street. For a time, all went on well. At length a lady came to the store to purchase a silk dress, and the young man waited on her. The price demanded was agreed to, and he proceeded to fold the goods. He discovered, before he had finished, a flaw in the silk; and, pointing it out to the lady, said, “ Madam, I deem it my duty to tell you there is a fracture in this silk.” O f course, she did not take it The merchant overheard the remark, and imme diately wrote to the father of the young man, to come and take him home ; “ for,” said he, “ he will never make a meichant.” The father, who had ever reposed confidence in his son, was much grieved, and hastened to the city, to be informed of his deficiencies. “ Why will he not make a merchant?” asked he. “ Because he has no tact,” was the answer. “ Only a day or two ago, he told a lady, voluntarily, who was buying silk of him, that the goods were damaged; and I lost the bargain. Purchasers must look out for themselves. If they cannot discover flaws, it would be foolishness of me to tell them of their existence.” “ And is that all his fault?” asked the parent. “ Yes,” answered the merchant; “ he is very well in other respects.” “ Then I love my son better than ever, and I thank you for telling me of the matter. I would not have him another day in your store for the world.” AN INSTANCE OF COM M ERCIAL IN TE G R ITY . Are the instances of merchants who fail in business, pay a per centage, and are released from their legal obligations, and who afterwards succeed, and voluntarily come forward, and cancel the moral obligation, of paying to the uttermost farthing of their indebtedness, so rare, that we see it occasionally announced as an exception to the general rule ? or is it want of future success, and inability to liquidate such obligations? W e have frequently had occasion to record, in the pages of this Magazine, examples of commercial integrity; and it affords us pleasure to add another to the list, which we copy from the New Bedford Bulletin. “ W e learn with much gratification,” says the Bulletin, “ that the late esteemed firm of George O. Crocker & Co., of this town, which suspended payment, and made an assignment about two years ago, having outstanding liabilities, announce that, by reason of subsequent success in business, and through the aid of their friends, they are now ready to meet the deficit of said firm, principal and interest, amounting to rising thirty thousand dollars; and that all demands against them are adjusted as fast as they are presented. Such instances of commercial honor and high-minded integrity are but too rare, and can not be too highly commended. W e envy these gentlemen the proud satisfaction which they must feel in thus being able to render justice to their creditors, and wish them what they eminently deserve— a career of increased prosperity in their future enterprises.” E rrata .—In the article on “ Labor—its Relations, in Europe and the United States, com pared,” commencing on page 217 of the present number, on page 218, fifteen lines from the top, for “ they have,” read “ it has same page, 23 lines from bottom, for “ courted,” read “ coveted.” On page 220, 1st line, for “ permission to enjoy” read “ assurance of enjoying.” Same page, 13th line from the top, for “ circumstantial,” read “ circumscribed.” On page 222, 4th line from top, for “ one” read “ our.” The Book Trade . 293 THE BOOK T R A D E . 1. — Curiosities o f Literature, and the Literary Character Illustrated. By I. C. D’lsraeli, Esq., D. C. L., F. S. A. With Curiosities of American Literature. By Rurus W. G riswold. New York: D. Appleton & Co. This book is a most valuable acquisition to our standard library literature, and both edi tor and publishers deserve credit for the manner in which they have respectively discharged their duties. W e have inadvertently omitted to notice the appearance of this work for some time; and we have now the pleasure of saying that its success since publication has been fully equal to what was anticipated. The sale has been good, and regularly increa sing ; and shows that the taste for valuable and costly works is steadily reviving. The first portion of this book— the “ Curiosities of Literature,” by D’lsraeli—has been, for a long time, popular with the public, both in Great Britain and the United States; and we assure our readers that the moiety added by Mr. Griswold is quite worthy of the place it occupies. American literature, although as yet scarcely emerged from its infancy, is shown, by the copious results of Mr. Griswold’s researches, to be rich in interesting inci dents, and piquant peculiarities. These are collated in a pleasing manner, and airest the attention of the reader equally, whether he is in search of amusement or instruc tion. Mr. Griswold goes back into the very earliest periods of our history as a people— far beyond the period when we first began to be a nation— for the materials of his work ; and the reader will be no less surprised than delighted to find how many of the literary traces of those times have been thus snatched from the grasp of oblivion. One thing, in perusing these “ Curiosities of American Literature,” has struck us with peculiar force. It is the habit of the very earliest English travellers who visited the United States, to mis represent and abuse both the land and its inhabitants— a disposition which, it must be con fessed, they have kept in active operation, even to the present day. “ Such are the lying propensities of the English nation who stay at home,” says one of the Puritans, “ that it requires much of our time and substance to refute their wicked calumnies.” Not only those who staid at home, but those who “ went abroad for their health,” (that is, as it ap pears in one instance, at least, to escape a stricture around the throat,) were quite as bitter in their commentaries upon this country, as the Halls, Trollopes, Marryatts, and Featherstonhaughs of the present day. The first of these gentry, of whom honorable mention is made, is one Mr. Cross, who “ had been convicted of forgery, and sentenced to be hang ed ; but who, after some time, obtained the favor of transportation.” He did us the honor to take up his residence in Pennsylvania; against the inhabitants of which peaceful pro vince he wrote a book, which “ contayned far more lyes than vcritys.” W e have never taken the trouble to examine the proportion of “ lyes and veritys” in the works of the more recent English libellers of America; but we make no doubt that they at least keep up the old Puritan estimate. 2. — The History o f Illinois, from its First Discovery and Settlement, to the Present Time. By H ejjry B rown, Counsellor at Law. New Y ork : J. Winchester. This is a large octavo, of nearly five hundred pages, and embraces a very full and com plete history of Illinois, from the earliest time, to the present year. It embraces the most thrilling scenes in its history—its early settlement by the French; the narratives of their first missionaries; the expedition of Colonel Clark to Kaskaskia; the massacre at Chi cago ; the Black Hawk war; the Mormon prophet; the history of the Illinois banks; its canal and internal improvements, its resources, & c.; and, in short, a great variety of facts bearing upon the history, not only of that state, but the whole western country. The chapter on banks and banking in Illinois, with a few trifling alterations, we have trans ferred to a former part of this Magazine. 294 The Book Trade, 3—Scenes, Incidents, and Adventures in the Pacific Ocean, or the Islands of the Aus tralasian Seas, during the Cruise of the Clipper Margaret Oakley, under Captain Ben jamin Morrell; clearing up the Mystery which has heretofore surrounded this famous Expedition, and containing a full account of the Exploration o f the Bidera, Papua, Banda, Mindora, Sooloo, and China Seas, the Manners and Customs o f the Inhabitants o f the Islands, and a Description o f Vast Regions never before visited by Civilized Man. By T homas J efferson J acobs. New Y ork: Harper & Brothers. The author has furnished an interesting statement of the incidents of the voyage, the scenes through which he was led in its course, and the character, situation, and resources of the numerous islands explored. It is written in an agreeable and familiar style, and contains a large amount of information which, up to the present moment, remains em phatically terra incognita. 4. — The Life of Christ; or, a Critical Examination o f his History. By Dr. D avid F rederick S trauss. Translated from the German, ancTreprinted from an English edi tion. New York: Republished by G. Vale. This is a reprint of an English edition of this remarkable work. Dr. Strauss does not agree either with the rational interpreters of the Gospel, nor with the orthodox; but con siders them in a light different from both. His idea is, that the whole is a mythology : or, in other words, he considers that the idea of Messiah, and all the attendant circum stances, existed in the minds of the Jewish people before Jesus was born ; and were, of course, attached to him immediately after he assumed that character. So that he considers the type of the Messiah to have existed previous to the advent of Jesus; and that the pe culiarities of his doctrine, and the particulars of his destiny, were combined with that type, and the whole was necessarily modified, till it became definitely fixed in the canoni cal Gospels. 5. — The Works o f Charlotte Elizabeth. With an Introduction. By Mrs. H. B. Stowe. Volume I. Containing Personal Recollections; Osric, (a poem;) the Porhite; the Siege of Derry; Letters from Ireland, and Miscellaneous Poems. New York: M. W. Dodd. O f the literary character of the writings of Charlotte Elizabeth, we have frequently had occasion to speak; as her works have, from time to time, in rapid succession, been republished in this country. Most of them have passed through several editions, and ob tained a circulation so extensive, as to warrant us in expressing the opinion that no female writer, in our day, has had a more numerous class of readers. Her “ Personal Recollec tions,” embracing an autobiography of her life and opinions, furnishes a key by which to understand and appreciate the woman, as she appears in her writings. The present edi tion embraces six of her works, and it is the intention of Mr. Dodd shortly to issue a second volume, or as many as will embrace all that have already been published, and all that may hereafter appear. This plan will enable her admirers to possess the cheapest and handsomest edition, in the most compact and desirable form for a family library. 6. — The Ladies’ Work-Table Book; containing Clear and Practical Instructions in Plain and Fancy Needlework, Embroidery, Knitting, Netting, and Crotchet. With numerous engravings, illustrative o f the various Stitches in those useful and fashiona ble employments. New Y ork: J. Winchester. The title-page expresses very clearly the object of this handsome little volume; and, as far as we are capable of judging, the design of the writer is accomplished in a manner that cannot fail o f meeting the approval of that portion of our fair countrywomen who would acquire accomplishments at once innocent and useful. 7. — Proceedings o f the Naval Court-Martial, in the case o f Alexander Slidell Macken zie, <J-e. To which is added, An Elaborate Review. By J ames F ennimore C ooper. New York: Henry G. Langley. The report of the proceedings of the court, in this melancholy and tragic affair, is full and complete ; and the review by Mr. Cooper, though searching, is, in our view, written with ability, coolness, and impartiality. * The Book Trade 295 8. —History o f the War in the Peninsula, and in the South o f France, from the year 1807 to the year 1814. By W. F. P. N apier, C. B. In 2 volumes. New Y ork : J. S. Redfield. When reading Napier’s History, and contrasting it with Alison’s narrative of the wars of the French Revolution, the mind is often puzzled to ascertain how it is that the effect produced upon the reader is so decidedly dissimilar. Alison, with all his sound morality, excites, in an American citizen, a species of revulsion. On the contrary, Napier imbues the mind with a sensation that he is perusing a writer congenial to himself. The solution is this:— The leaven of rank, servile toryism, which is commingled with the whole of Alison’s details, conflicts with our republican convictions ; while the spirit of freedom that glows in all Napier’s delineations, meets a counterpart in the powerful emotions of every philanthropist, who is animated by the true principles of an American citizen. Napier’s volume (for the two volumes are bound together, in a large octavo, of 812 pages,) is just adapted to encourage the love of genuine social liberty; to foster international amity, and to render war odious ; to excite commiseration for national ignorance and bondage, and to nourish the love of our democratic institutions. 9. —A System o f Geography for the Use of Schools, illustrated with more than fifty Cerographic Maps, and numerous Wood-cut Engravings. By S idney E. M orse, A. M. New York: Harper &, Brothers. The arrangement of this new geography is admirable. The map, questions on the map, and description of each country, are on the same page, (quarto,) or on pages directly op posite ; so that the pupil may readily refer from one to the other, without the inconve nience of two books, or even the necessity of turning the leaves. It is, altogether, the most attractive school geography that we have ever seen, and peculiarly well adapted to the improved method of acquiring a knowledge of the science, chiefly by the use of maps. 10. — The Horseman; containing Plain Practical Pules for Riding, and Hints to the Reader, on the Selection o f Horses. To which is added, A Sabre Exercise, for Mount ed and Dismounted Service. By H. R. H ershberger, at the U. S. Military Academy, West Point. New York: Henry G. Langley. The author of this little volume, after a connection of nearly nine years with the cav alry service, and a close observance of everything relating to horsemanship, is certainly competent to convey practical information on all equestrian exercises; which, as far as we are capable of judging, he has done by an easy and progressive method. The treatise is illustrated with cuts, representing the various kinds of bits, paces or gaits of the horse, and practices for the accomplished horseman. 11. —Apostolic Baptism. Facts and Evidences on the Subject and Mode o f Christian Baptism. By C. T aylor, Editor of Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible. New York: Saxton & Miles. The author of this volume maintains that baptism, from “ the day of Pentecost, was administered by the apostles and evangelists to infants, and not by submersion.” W e are rather inclined to the Quaker view of the subject, but consider “ baptism and the supper as still beautiful to many a soul— that speak blessed words of significance. Let them con tinue for such as need them. W e want real Christianity— the absolute religion— preach ed with faith, and applied to life— being good, and doing good.” 12. —Miscellaneous Essays on Christian Morals, Experimental and Practical. By J ohn F oster, author of the “ Essays on Decision of Character, and Popular Ignorance.” New York: D. Appleton & Co. These essays were originally delivered as lectures, in Bristol, England, to an auditory consisting of various religious denominations, most of whom had long known and appre ciated the author’s writings. They are free from all sectarian exclusiveness, and are ad dressed to the understanding and hearts of all good Christians; embracing a wide range of subjects, and varied with an elaborate style of illustration. C,5 - / 296 be The Book Trade. 13.— Domestic Tales and Allegories, illustrating Human Life. By H annah M ore. New y ork: D. Appleton & Co. f f A selection from the writings of IJannah More, forming a volume of Appleton’s “ Li brary for the People, and their Children.” The six tales comprised in the volume combine useful instruction, in the most familiar form ; and inculcate the purest morals and practi cal piety, in the exemplary portraitures of our constant associates. 14.— Notes, Critical and Practical, on the Book o f Judges. Designed as a General Help to Biblical Beading and Instruction. By G eorge B ush, Professor of Hebrew and Ori ental Literature, New York City University. New York: Saxton & Miles. Dr. Bush is undoubtedly one of the most erudite Biblical students of the day; and his contributions to sacred literature are received by the orthodox divines, in Europe and America, as standards of criticism. WORKS IN PAMPHLET PORM, RECEIVED SINCE OUR LAST. 1, — Mirror Library, No. 29. The Odes o f Anacreon and Alchepron. By T homas M oore. New Y ork: Morris & Willis. [One of a cheap and elegant series of the choicest gems of literature, worthy of a niche in every parlor library.] 2. — Saturday Emporium.. New Y ork: Ward & Co. [This new journal has reached its tenth weekly issue, and we are gratified to learn meets the encouragement it so emi nently deserves. It is handsomely printed, and conducted with a pure and correct taste and discriminating judgment. Mr. Greene, the editor, is a gentleman of a highly cultivated mind, and a ready and agreeable writer. * 3.— Faith and Knowledge. By J. H. M erle D ’A ubigne, D. D. Author of “ The Re formation in the 15th Century.” Translated from the French, by M. M. B ackus. New York : John S. Taylor. 4. — Geneva and Borne. Borne Papal, as portrayed by Prophecy and History. By S. R. L. G aussen, Professor of Divinity. With an Introduction by E. B ickersteth, A. M. New Y o rk : John S. Taylor. 5. — Electrotype Manipulation. Part 1. Being the Theory, and plain instructions in the Art o f working metals, by precipitating them from their solutions, through the agency o f Galvanic or Voltaic Electricity. Part 2. Containing the Theory, and In structions in the Arts o f Electro-Plating, Electro-Gilding, and Electro-Etching : with an account o f depositing metalic oxides, and o f several applications o f Electro type in the Arts. By C harles V. W alker, Recording Secretary of the London Elec trical Society. Illustrated by wood cuts. Philadelphia: Cary & Hart 6. —Library o f Select Novels, No. 39. The Grandfather. A Novel by the late Miss E llen P ickering, authoress of “ Nan Darrell,” “ The Fright,” “ The Grumbler,” &c. New Y o rk : Harper & Brothers. 7. —Library of Select Novels, No. 38. The H ---Family; Tralinnan, Axel, and Anna; and other Tales. By F rederika B remer. Translated by M ary H owitt. New Y ork: Harper & Brothers. 8. — The Spoon, No. 2 and 3. New York: Harper & Brothers. [A singular work, illustrating domestic manners, &c.] 9. — The Spirit o f the Nation; and other Select Political Songs. Parts 1 and 2. By the Writers of the Dublin Newspaper Press. First American, from the last correct Dublin edition, with additions. New Y ork: Casserly & Sons. [A noble collection of songs, elicited by the great moral movement of a brave, cheerful, witty, warm hearted, and hospitable race, for freedom from the oppressions of the British Govern ment.] 10. — Babbah Taken; or the Theological System o f Bev. Alexander Campbell, examined and refuted. By R obert W . S andis, Pastor of the Presbyterian Church, Bethleheim, New Jersey. New Y o rk : Mark H. Newman. 11. — The Wandering Jew. By E ugene Sue. Translated from the French Manuscript, by H enry W . H erbert, author of “ The Brothers,” &c. New York: J. Winchester. [Publishing in parts from the advance sheets received from Paris, and purchased by Mr. W. at an expense of 15,000 francs. Three numbers have appeared. It is a work of deep and powerful interest.] 12. — Library o f Select Novels, No. 40. Arrah N eil: or, Times of Old. A Bomance. By G. P. R. J ames, Esq., author of “ Richelieu,” &c. New York: Harper & Bro thers. [J. Winchester has also published an edition of the same novel.] 13. — Traditions and Fairy Legends of the South o f Ireland. By T. C rofton C roker. A new edition, with numerous illustrations and designs, by the Author and others. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard.
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