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H U N T ’S MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE. M ARCH, 1847. Art. I.— HISTORICAL SKETCH OP NAVIGATION AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. NUMBER V .— NEW SERIES. A m ilit a r y m a r in e is th e o n ly a rm b y w h ic h th e p o w e r o f t h is c o n f e d e r a c y c a n be esti never m a te d , o r fe lt , b y f o r e ig n n a t io n s , a n d th e o n ly s t a n d in g m ilit a r y f o r c e w h ic h c a n be d a n g e r o u s to o u r lib e r t ie s a t h o m e .— J o h n Q u in c y A d am s. C o l o n e l B e a u f o y made frequent representations, to those in authority, o f the importance o f following up the investigation o f “ the resistance which water opposed to solids, in passing through it,” by further experi ments, at the expense o f the governm ent; but his suggestions w ere un heeded, and no attention was paid to the subject, after his decease, until researches were commenced, in 1841, by J. Scott Russell, under the di rection o f the “ British Association for the Promotion o f Science and the Arts.” H e has made two reports to the Association, the first in 1842, and the second at the meeting held at Cork, in 1 8 4 3 ; but, thus far, he seems to have confined his operations to ascertain the effect o f the surface o f solids in diminishing the resistance, in passing through water, without regard to dimensions, or any other elem en t; and, to prove its influence, four boats w ere made, all having the same length, breadth, and depth— the same area o f form o f midship section, and all loaded to the same weight, displacement, and draft o f w ater; the only difference being in the character o f the “ water lines,” as he rather indefinitely terms them— that is, the mere contour. T h e result was favorable to what he calls the “ wave line,” w hich had been hypothetically assumed, as the most appro priate. This synthetic mode o f proceeding, in researches for truth, is not to be depended upon in such physical inquiries ; for it is beginning at the wrong end in the establishment o f principles, and has long been repudiated by the schools o f philosophy, as not merely fallacious, but so utterly inef fectual, as not to be tolerated in any o f the scientific societies and acade 228 H istorical Sketch o f Navigation and Naval Architecture. mies o f the present age. It was the great resource o f metaphysical and scholastic controversialists in olden time, and still is, where bewilderment and deception are the objects desired, rather than elucidation ; but those who enter the career o f intelligence, in search o f the unknown, with such a guide, will never find it : for their direction is inverted. T h ey have taken the back track, and are rushing from the goal towards the starting point, instead o f proceeding from effects to causes, and evolving therefrom principles. Still, Mr. Russell may be prosecuting other experiments analytically, and it is to be hoped such is the case ; for the object to be attained is most worthy the attention o f the scientific association, which has so liberally furnished the means for its accomplishment. It is but just to infer that what has been published does not include all that has been done in the progress o f investigation, or that facts, causes and principles will not be ultimately ascertained, in sufficient numbers, to establish a more perfect system o f naval architecture. T h e system at present used by the Swedish naval engineers, in the con struction o f ships o f war, was the result o f the laborious researches o f Chapman. It is called the parabolic method, and is explained in a work entitled, “ Forsak till en Theoretisk Afhoudling att gifnaat Dinie Shepderas ratta Storlek och Form Likaledes for Fregetten och windere Bevavade Fartyg o f F. H . o f Chapman.” Having attempted to give a brief account o f the past and present con dition o f naval architecture, and the various modes in which efforts have been made to increase and combine the velocity o f ships with capacity, stability, strength and safety in their construction, I shall now present the results which have been obtained, by the investigations that have been instituted, in relation to the movement o f solids through fluids, and such o f the facts and principles which have been established in hydraulics and m echanical science as are applicable to ship-building, with suggestions o f the expediency o f their being made the basis o f experiments, which, it is confidently believed, can then be conducted in a manner so much more simple, direct, and expeditious, than any which have hitherto been under taken, as to render more certain the solution o f the problem which has so long claimed attention, and is so important for facilitating the intercommu nication between all nations, and the various portions o f each, by improve ments in vessels o f every denomination, which are either employed in navigating the ocean and our extensive bays, sounds, rivers, and lakes, for the transportation o f merchandise and passengers, or are destined for the fleets o f war. Colonel Barclay ascertained the following facts :— 1. A cone will move through the water with less resistance having its apex foremost. 2. T h e bottom o f a floating solid should be triangular, it being the form that is least resisted when moving in the direction o f its longest axis. 3. The greatest breadth should be at the distance o f two-fifths o f the length from the forward end. ESTABLISHED PRINCIPLES IN HYDRAULICS. 1. T h e ch ief resistance to be overcom e in moving a solid through a liquid, is that o f the prism o f water, the area o f whose cross-section is equal to that o f the body moved. H istorical Sketch o f Navigation and Naval Architecture. 229 2 . The resistance to a solid moving in a liquid increases as the squares o f the velocity. 3. The stability o f a solid, in a fluid, is in direct proportion to the length, and increases as the cubes o f the breadth ; so that adding a quarter to the width doubles the stability. 4. There is a lateral retardation to the movement o f a solid through a liquid ; and for the following explanation o f which, as well as the amount o f resistance, as compared with that occasioned by the area o f the crosssection, I am indebted to Professor Treadwell, who may justly be consid ered as the American Archimedes in mechanical science.* W hen a solid body is moved in a liquid, as water, there is no motion between the surface o f the solid and that o f the liquid, and consequently no friction, for the reason that the film o f water in immediate contact with the solid adheres to it, by a peculiar form o f attraction. Instead, there fore, o f the surface o f the solid sliding upon the liquid in contact with it, a film o f the liquid must move with the solid, sliding upon the particles o f liquid situated upon the outside o f it. These particles, however, cannot remain stationary ; for, being attracted by the particles constituting the film upon the solid, as much as by those situated farther from the solid, they will be carried along by the former with a celerity less than that o f the solid, being retarded by their inertia and adhesion to the particles situ ated still further from the solid. In this way, w e may conceive o f the water, upon the outside o f the solid surface, as divided, for a considerable distance, into definite films, infinitely thin, each sliding upon the other. Under these conditions, therefore, the friction is that o f a liquid sliding upon a liquid. T h e resistance thus pro duced is exceedingly small, i f sufficient to be made sensible, as is evident from the great motion produced in the waters o f the ocean by the small disturbing force from the action o f the moon’s attraction, which produces the tides. The resistance thus offered to the sides o f a solid, moving in a liquid, whatever it may be in amount, is not to be attributed to friction, but to the viscidity o f the liquid, and to the little eminences upon the sides o f the solid, which constitute its roughness, and displace the liquid in opposition to its inertia, like so many separate solids. Colonel Beaufoy ascertained that this combined lateral resistance, on a smooth-pointed surface o f seventy feet, was equal to that formed by re moving the water in the passage o f a body having a cross-section o f one foot area ; the prow and stern o f this body terminating at acute angles. So that every square foot o f the cross-section o f a ship should be connect ed with about seventy feet surface on the sides and bottom, to give the least resistance ; which requires that a vessel ten feet wide, and two feet deep, below the surface o f the water, should be at least one hundred feet long. 5. A vessel requires a greater power to move it, in a narrow and shal low channel o f water, than in a broad and deep one. This fact was first noticed by Dr. Franklin, when passing through a * Rumford, Professor o f Science applied to the Arts, in Harvard University, and the inventor o f the steam printing-press, the machinery for spinning hemp and making cordage in the U. S. navy-yard in Charlestown, and o f the method o f making wrought-iron cannon, in such a perfect manner as to give them a decided superiority over those of cast-iron and bronze. 230 Historical Sketch o f Navigation and Naval Architecture. canal in Holland, in 1761. Perceiving, in the course o f a day’ s excur sion, that the “ trockschuit,” in one o f the sections o f the canal, seemed to move slower than usual, he asked the boatman what was the reason ; who answ'ered that the season had been dry, and the water was conse quently low, which rendered it more difficult for the horses to draw the boat. After returning to England, he inquired o f the Tham es watermen whether they were sensible o f any difference in rowing in shallow or deep w a ter; and they all agreed that there was a great difference, but differed as to the amount; varying in their estimates from one mile in six to one in three. Not having seen this subject mentioned in any philosophical work, he determined to make an experiment to verify the fact. Having formed a trough to contain water, fourteen feet long, six inches wide, and six deep, and placed therein a little boat, which was moved by the means o f a silk thread, pulley, and weight, he found that the difference o f time, in seconds, between its passing through the water, when only one inch and a h alf deep and four inches deep, was as 101 to 79, or nearly one-fifth.* This principle has been adopted in the construction o f can als; and the great depth and breadth proposed by General Bernard, for the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, was for the purpose o f equalizing the time, in passing through it, with that on the Erie Canal, in the State o f N ew York, by giving such an increased velocity to the boats as would counterbalance the delay occasioned by the extra lockage, in passing the Alleghany mountains. Professor Treadwell thus illustrates the principle :— A boat six feet wide, three feet deep, and twenty feet long, being placed in a canal eight feet wide and four feet deep, and moved through the wrater twenty feet, a quantity o f water, equal in volume to the boat, (namely, 360 cubic feet,) must pass by its sides and bottom, in a direction opposite to that o f the boat, to occupy the space which was before occupied by the boat. T h e area o f the channel, through which the water passes, is four teen fe e t; and if the velocity o f the boat be five feet a second, the time o f the passage being four seconds, the water must move with a velocity o f about six and a half feet a second, over the bottom o f the canal. I f the same boat is placed in a canal ten feet wide and five feet deep, and moved as before, the same quantity o f water must pass the sides and bottom, but the area is now thirty-two fe e t; consequently, the velocity o f the water will be but 2 v8<r feet per second. Then, i f the velocity o f the boat, measured from the side o f the canal, be five feet a second, its velocity over the water, which is moving in the opposite direction, will be, in the first case, 6 j - f - 5 = l l i ; and in the second case, 2 .8 -f 5 = 7 .8 fe e t; and the resistance to the boat will be as the squares o f these numbers, v iz : 132 and 61. W ith these established principles as,the basis o f inquiry, and the pro blem to be solved being how the form o f any vessel o f the usual dimen sions, employed in the merchant, packet, or naval service, may be so changed without a diminution o f capacity, or an increase o f the propulsive power, as to insure greater velocity, it is evident that it must be chiefly accomplished by a reduction o f the area o f the cross-section, whereby the resistance, occasioned by the prism o f water, opposed to the movement o f the vessel, is lessened ; and this can only be done by a reduction o f the Sparks’s W orks o f Franklin, Vol. VI., p. 283. H istorical Sketch oj Navigation and Naval Architecture. 231 dimensions o f breadth and depth, while the space thus lost must be regained by an increase o f the length. But if mere capacity is required to be augmented, with the retention o f the speed obtainable, by the vessels as sumed as the models to be altered, and without any increase o f the motive power, it can be effected by adding length, while the breadth and depth are retained ; for the cross-section will be the same, although the capacity o f the vessel may have been doubled, by the extension o f the longitudinal dimension. The requisite increase o f the length o f a vessel, as compared with its breadth and depth, to obtain the greatest velocity, with a given motive power, must be determined, without regard to that form o f the sides, bot tom, bows and stern, which may be deemed the most favorable for pass ing through the water. For this purpose an experiment should be made, to ascertain how far the length can be increased, with a fixed depth and breadth, before the lateral retardation, which has been explained in the hydro-principle, N o. 3, operates adverse thereto. This may be done with an apparatus like that employed by D octor Franklin, to determine whether a vessel was moved with less power in deep than in shoal w a ter. This having been accomplished, it is then to be considered how great a portion o f the length can be retained, in the construction o f steam and other ships, and at the same time render them sufficiently stable, strong, and safe, in navigating the ocean. T h e next most important object, is the ascertainment o f such a contour, for the hull, as shall best combine the qualities for affording celerity o f movement through the water, with stability, capacity, manageableness, and security in all kinds o f weather. As primary elements in this investigation, these two facts, which w ere established by Colonel Beaufoy, must be duly considered : first, that “ the bottom o f a floating solid should be triangular, it being the form that is least resisted when moving in the line ofits axis and second, that “ the greatest breadth should be at the distance o f two-fifths o f the length from the forward end.” T h e first being the perfect type o f the cross-section, it should be only so far deviated from, as may be found indispensably necessary, for giving sufficient capacity and stability. It is very desirable that there should be some perfect scientific system devised, by which the best possible form can be certainly given by the naval constructor, to the sides, bottom, bows and stern o f vessels o f every denomination; and as, in all other arts, principles have been established for regulating the manner o f proceeding in each mechanical operation, it is probable that there may be devised equally definite and uniform laws or rules, for the projection o f the form o f ships. Is it not, then, worthy the at tention o f the scientific, to inquire whether the most perfect profile, for all the horizontal, longitudinal, and cross-sections, may not be that o f a hyper bola, parabola, or an ellipse, as they are capable o f infinite variation, but in conformity to known geometrical principles. T h ey w ere adopted by the Greeks for producing that graceful form to all the carved mouldings o f their superb orders o f architecture, and to those precious antique vases, w hich have been so universally admired, but which w ere inexplicable, until science recently revealed the fact that they were derived from the section o f a cone. T h e paths o f some o f the most remarkable comets which have been observed, while passing their periheiions, w ere hyper 232 H istorical Sketch o f Navigation and Naval Architecture. bolas. The parabola is the line described in the movement o f all projec tiles, from that o f a pebble, hurled by the hand o f a child, to the massive shell, thrown from the ramparts o f a castle ; and all the planets and most o f the comets perform their periodical revolutions, in elliptical orbits. It has been ascertained that in constructing the most powerful metallic mirror, for collecting parallel rays o f light in a single point, a curved sur face, which is generated by the revolution o f a parabola about its axis, is the best that can be employed, as it w ill reflect all the rays incident upon it, to the focus o f the generating parabola, which no other form o f curve will accomplish. By adopting the hyperbola, parabola, or ellipse, for the horizontal and vertical lines o f the contour, from stem to stern, and from the keel to the rail, all the parts o f the hull may be projected on strictly scientific princi ples, and a form thus obtained, which may be easily transferred to vessels o f all sizes, and for any kind o f service. As the hyperbola and parabola approach the nearest to a triangle, which is the central vertical section o f a cone, and may be so varied in their curves, and the manner o f adaptation for producing convex or concave surfaces, that the triangular configuration o f the bottom, which has been ascertained to be the best, will be the least deviated from, and yet afford any required capacity and stability. These remarks, however, are to be considered, rather as intimations than established elements, from which the desired results may be attained ; and have only been presented for the purpose o f inducing experiments, to establish some uniform mode, by which the most perfect form can cer tainly be derived, in the construction o f ships, without the possibility o f those unavoidable deviations, which arise from the adoption o f the arbi trary and inadequate rules that are generally relied upon. But after all, it is by length that velocity and capacity are mainly to be gained, rather than by any peculiar configuration o f the hull, below the water-line ; and although other advantages may be acquired, the latter are worthy o f the most serious consideration, as accessaries in the attainment o f the former, as well as for stability and manageableness. It is very remarkable, that among all savage and semi-barbarous na tions, there has either been perpetuated by tradition, the principle, which may have been established in a very remote age o f ancestral civilization, or it has been ascertained as a fact, during centuries o f practical expe rience, that length is the ch ief element in the construction o f a vessel, in which speed is desirable. The birch canoes o f the northern tribes o f In dians in this country, the batteaux o f the voyageurs and hunters o f Canada, and the boats o f all the natives in the islands o f the Pacific ocean, are dis tinguished for their length and celerity o f movement, whether propelled by paddles or sails. Commodore Bainbridge stated, that when he was at Constantinople in 1800, as commander o f the frigate G eorge Washington, he was very much astonished at the rapid motion o f the innumerable boats which w ere con stantly employed in the spacious harbor o f that city. T h ey were g en e rally propelled with only two oars, but with such a velocity as he had never seen given to any boat, for they passed his six-oared gig like an ar row. W hen asked what was the peculiar form that gave such extraordi nary speed, he replied that it was derived from their great length, as com H istorical Sketch o f Navigation and Naval Architecture. 233 pared with the dimensions o f breadth and depth; for, in all other respects, the form was o f the simplest kind. As savages are almost entirely dependent upon hunting and fishing for their daily food, and having no other artificial means o f transportation than that afforded by a boat, it is o f the first consequence that they should be so constructed, as to be moved with the greatest facility, by mere manual p o w e r ; and therefore it. was to have been expected that the only mechanical invention, besides weapons o f war, and instruments for killing gam e and taking fish, should ultimately be so formed, as to fulfil all the conditions required. The native Asiatic and American navigators o f the torrid and temper ate zones, have all evinced great ingenuity, in the construction o f boats which are remarkable for velocity, and the mode in which they are ren dered secure against the disasters o f tempestuous weather. It is stated in the account o f the expedition o f Lew is and Clark to the mouth o f the Columbia River, that the Indians exhibited great skill in the construction o f their canoes. Indeed, so much o f the intercourse between the different tribes was carried on by water, that their ingenuity was nat urally directed to the improvement o f their boats. Four kinds w ere used below the cataract. That most commonly employed was from thirty to thirty-five feet long. It was very light, for although it would contain ten or twelve persons, four could carry it with great ease. T h e largest va riety is only used near the mouth o f the river. It is fifty feet long, and is formed o f the single trunk o f a white cedar or fir-tree. The upper edge o f the gunwale is about five-eighths o f an inch thick, and four or five in breadth, and folds outward, so as to form a kind o f rim, which prevents the water from beating into the canoe. T h ey carry from twenty to thirty men, and ride, with perfect safety, the highest waves. T h e Japanese vessels are generally 120 feet long and only twenty wide, and the bottom, below the water-line, instead o f being convex, is triangular. The most singular and celebrated variety o f the vessels which are em ployed by the natives in the Indian Ocean, is the Flying Proa. The sim plicity o f its contrivance, and the extraordinary velocity with which it passes through the water, are equally worthy o f admiration, and merit the highest place among the mechanical productions o f civilized man. In construction, the proa is directly opposite to every principle o f m a rine architecture which has been adopted by the most scientific nations. T h e head and stern are both sharp, as this boat never puts about, but sails either end foremost ; yet in such a manner, that only one and the same side is constantly exposed to the wind. T h e lee-side is perpendicu lar, and the form is like that o f half o f a batteau, divided vertically length w ise. From the extreme length, shape, and narrowness o f the vessel, it would immediately capsize, but for a contrivance as extraordinary and cu rious, as it is effectual in preventing an accident o f that fatal character. A frame, or out-rigger, is attached to the convex or weather-side, which extends horizontally ten or twelve feet over the water, to the extremity o f which is fastened a log o f wood, fashioned into the form o f a boat. The weight o f the frame balances the proa, and prevents it from falling over to lee-ward under a pressure o f sail, as well as secures it against all risk ■of capsizing. The hull is formed o f two pieces o f wood joined edge-wise. T h e bot 234 H istorical Sketch o f Navigation and Naval Architecture. tom, or part next to the keel, is about two inches thick, and gradually di minishes to the gunwales, where it is reduced to an inch. The length is thirty-seven feet and a half, the breadth only three feet. The canoes o f N ew Zealand, as described by Captain Cook, were long and narrow, with a triangular bottom, and sharp at both ends. Th ey carried from forty to one hundred and twenty men. H e measured one which was sixty-eight and a half feet long, five broad, and three and a half deep. The Ivahohs, a kind o f boat used by the inhabitants o f Otaheite, is fifty-one feet long, three feet xvide, and three and a third deep. Thus it appears that the length o f the swift boats, o f those various bar barous nations, is from ten to seventeen times their breadth, and, except the proa, are beautiful in form, and all o f them remarkable for their safety even in rough seas. T h e length o f the Egyptian ships, built by Philopater, was more than seven times their breadth. Sir Joseph Dudley, who was appointed an admiral by H enry V III., and made Duke o f Northumberland by Edward V I., first suggested length, for the purpose o f obtaining velocity and capacity ; and in conformity to that principle recommended an entirely new model for ships o f war, which he divided into seven classes. The length o f the Galleon, or first class, was four times the breadth, and that o f the others was gradually increased, un til in the seventh class, called the Passa Volante, which was chiefly in tended for speed, it was ten times the breadth. But this early enuncia tion o f a great truth was utterly disregarded, until by its partial adoption in France, during the administration o f Colbert, when the war-ships o f that nation becam e celebrated for their superiority over those o f all the other maritime powers o f Europe, not only for their efficiency to meet the tre mendous shocks o f tempest and battle, but for their velocity. Notwithstanding the obvious demand for the direct application o f one o f the first and most clearly established principles in hydraulics, and the facts by which it had been illustrated, in its practical adoption by savage nations, for centuries ; still the only mode in which it was attempied, for a long period, to obtain increased velocity, was by variations o f the lines o f the sides, bottom, bows, and stern, on the erroneous supposition that the lateral retardation, or “ friction,” as it was termed, was the ch ief obstacle to be considered and overcome. There has been a too general apprehension that greater length than was commonly adopted— which did not often exceed three times the breadth, in all classes o f vessels— could not be given without so much di minishing their strength as to endanger their safety in navigating the ocean. So universal and confident has been the belief in the correctness o f that assumption, that it has been acted upon with the same implicit confidence as if its validity had been fully verified by repeated experim ents; for there did not appear any nautical Archimedes, who had the temerity to doubt and test its reality, in defiance o f the credence and custom o f mari time nations, until very recently. At last experiments have been made to a considerable extent, in merchant vessels, steamers, and ships o f war, and their length has been rapidly increased, within a few years, in Europe and this country, and may be still farther extended, without rendering them less safe as sea-going vessels, by adopting Sir Robert Stepping’ s diagonal and triangular system o f ship-building, and doweling the sides and ends o f the timbers o f the frame, as well as filling up the spaces between them, and , 235 The Coal M ines and Coal Trade o f Belgium etc. caulking and paying them over, so as to make the whole fabric not only stronger, but more secure against leakage, as is now done in the national ship-yards. As a further security, in vessels o f great length, w hy could not a trussframe be introduced, from the stem to the stern-post, in all kinds o f ves sels, and at least as high as the beams o f the lower gun-deck, in ships o f war, on the plan o f either T ow n ’ s, Hassard’ s, or H ow ’ s bridges 1 Such a structure would prevent hogging and settling amidships, besides giving vastly greater strength to the whole hull. nearcu u s. N o t e . — The end o f this series o f Letters, but the subject may be here after resumed, and continued to the period in which w e live. Art. II.— THE COAL MIKES AND COAL TRADE OF BELGIUM: HISTORICAL, STATISTICAL, AND COMMERCIAL. DISCOVERY OF COAL AND PROGRESS OF MINING.---- AREA OF COAL TERN OR HAINACLT FIELDS IN BELGIUM.---- WES DIVISION.---- EASTERN DIVISION.----COAL BASINS.---- COAL STATISTICS OF BELGIUM.— PRICES OF BELGIUM COALS AT THE PIT’ s MOUTH AND CANALS.— EXPORTATION OF COAL FROM BELGIUM TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES.— BELGIAN IMPORTATION OF COAL.---- COALS AND CINDERS.— IMPORT DUTIES.— EXPORT DUTY.— STATISTICAL TABLE OF THE PRODUCTION, EXPORTS, IMPORTS, AND CONSUMPTION OF COAL IN THE KINGDOM OF BELGIUM.---- THE FAT COAL.---- ANTHRACITE COAL.---- PROVINCE IN BELGIUM.---- CONDITION AND OF NAMUR.---- SMALL AND PROSPECTS OF THE BELGIAN DETACHED COAL COAL BASINS MINES.---- THE ROYAL RENTS.---- CONCESSIONS.---- PREPARED FUEL.---- PEATS.---- CANALS AND RAILROADS OF BELGIUM.---STEAM-ENGINES. T h e discovery o f bituminous coal in Belgium,* as is stated by the local historians, was first made, in the country o f L iege, by a blacksmith, named H allos de Plennevaux. This occurred, A. D. 1198 or 1200, and hence is said to have originated the now common name o f the mineral carbon, Houille. It is only a few years ago, that, opposite to the entrance o f the collegiate church o f St. Martin, they yet showed the place where the first opening on the coal was made. T h e coal mines o f Belgium, like those o f France, have, from a very early period, been subjected to the inspection o f government officers. This system, notwithstanding its seeming interference with the exercise o f private rights, and with the management o f individual property, has much to recommend i t ; and in fact, has been strongly urged to be put in practice in Great Britain, whose coal mines, so vital to her strength and prosperity, it seems surprising, should so long have been left entirely to the unassisted efforts o f individuals, without organization or even the supervision o f the State. So early as the fifteenth century— A . D. 1487— the prince bishop o f Liege issued a commission on m in es; which commission found that there * K i n g d o m o f B e l g i u m .— Entire area ofland, 2,942,574 hectares 7,27l,100Eng.acres. 5,485,620 Area under cultivation.......................................... 2,220,000 Ascertained area o f coal land in 1838. °f 331,392 134,113 the whole, o r ...................................................... Amount o f fixed and provisional concessions, 305,820 123,765 for working coal................................................. 164,649 411,787 Area o f do., in 1843, y -j,..................................... 124,096 50,221 1838, for working iron. Population, about two persons to each hectare, 4,242,000. 230 The Coal M ines and Coal Trade o f B elgiu m : had been established, from the most remote times, a court or jury o f four persons, afterwards increased to seven, called “ La Cour des voir Juris du Charbonnage,” for the investigation and direction o f the affairs o f mines ; and that two o f its members were obliged to descend, periodically, (every fifteen days,) to examine them. K ing Philip, in 1635, passed an ordinance touching the coal mines o f Namur, and Charles o f Spain, as duke o f Limbourg, in 1694, issued an edict o f fifty-six articles on the coal mines o f that duchy. During our own times, France, the Netherlands, and Belgium, have distinguished themselves by issuing laws for the regulation o f the working o f their res pective m in es; leaving England the very last in the field to establish a system o f such important, humane, and necessary judicial interference.* In Spain, where the business o f coal mining is as yet in its infancy, the importance o f carrying on the colliery workings agreeably to the m i ning laws that are already in force as regards other minerals, has recently becom e the subject o f application to the government, from the coal pro prietors o f Asturias. Th ey complain that, “ at present, the peasants, without any subjection to the rules o f arts, or to the payment o f dues, raise up the coals by means o f pits, sixty or more Spanish yards d e e p ; and, as they have nothing to disburse for scientific direction, and incur none o f the other expenses which fall upon the regular companies, they prevent the proper development o f this new source o f industry. All we want, there fore, is the strict observance o f the laws, and special protection from the governm ent.” ! A r e a o r C o a l F ie l d s i n B e l g i u m .— This country is traversed in a direction from nearly W . S. W . to E. N. E ., by a large zone o f bitumi nous coal formation. T h e statistical divisions o f this band have not been uniformly adopted or described by local topographers, and some confusion has occasionally taken place among authors from this circumstance. W e shall, therefore, as far as practicable, adhere, in the following notes, to the arrangement ordinarily observed in the official reports made to the Belgian governm ent; at the same time, w e shall avail ourselves, whereever it may be desirable, o f the statistical details which have occasionally been furnished by cotemporary authorities. T h e entire region has been customarily described under two principal divisions, as follows :— if T h e W e s t e r n on H a i n a u l t D i v i s i o n comprises— I. A . The two basins known as the Levant and the Couchant o f Mons. B. That o f Charleroi. II. That o f Namur. The latter lies within the province o f N a m u r; while the two former are within the province o f Hainault, stretching into the Department du Nord in France, where its traces are lost, a little below Douay. T h e E a s t e r n o r L i e g e D i v i s i o n , commencing in the province o f Namur, and embracing a small portion thereof, traverses the province o f Liege, directing itself towards Rhenish Prussia, where it communicates with the coal basins o f Eschw eiler and Rolduc, and with the duchy o f Limbourg, in the low countries. T h e point o f division between this and the preceding, is said to be the deep and narrow gorge, through which the * Articles on the causes and means o f prevention o f accidents in coal mines, in the Mining Journal o f London, March 4th and August 5th, 1843. t Address o f the Espada Colliery Company o f Oviedo, to the Central Mining Junta o f Carthagena. t Bulletin de la Commission Centrale de Statistique de Belgique, 1844. 237 H istorical, Statistical, and Commercial. Sampson River flows, in the province o f Namur. The whole belt is about a hundred miles in length ; or, including its prolongation into France, one hundred and fifty miles. The subdivision o f this great Belgian coal zone is as follows :— ACCORDING TO GEOLOGICAL AREAS. ^ i 00 Oi 1 Length in Square Eng. miles, miles. Hectares. f I. In the province o f Hainault, 75,725 hect’s, 187,116 ac’s, 39 | Western or Hainault 325 90,051 II. In that o f Namur, 14,326 f ” . hectares, 35,400 acres,...... i s j 'I I . In the province o f Namur, 2,317 hect’s, 5,725 acres,... 6 1 Eastern or L iege.. l 39 160 44,062 III. In that o f Liege, 44,745 33 j 1 Total, according to the official report, in 1842*.. .. 96 134,113 English acres. 225,516 108,876 331,392 As the government returns are made, not according to any supposed geological divisions, but with reference to the provincial areas, the latter w ill be represented as below :— ACCORDING TO PROVINCES. L en gth A r e a in in m ites. sq. m iles. I. In the province o f Hainault................ ......... II. “ “ Namur............................ III. “ “ Liege..................... 39 24 33 96 Being the gV part o f the superficial area o f Belgium. 274 594 1514 485 H e cta res . E n g . acres. 75,725 16,643 41,745 187,116 41,125 103,151 134,113 331,392 There appears to be a discrepancy between these estimated areas, and the official aggregate o f “ concessions,” or grants to w ork the coal beds within the Belgian region. The difference is explainable, on the one hand, on the probable ground that the concessions frequently occupy more area than strictly belongs to the coal formation ; and on the other that the entire mineral areas are not yet conceded. W e annex the returns o f those grants o f mining lands :— ACCORDING TO CONCESSIONS TRIOR TO I. II. III. 1842. Hectares. Hectares. Hectares. In theprovince o f Hainault, | c^hTrk^iSt‘ ‘*Ct'3 o'6 8 6 j 83,293 205,817 “ 11,887 28,585 29,372 70,631 123,765 305,820 “ “ “ Namur,.................................... ’. ......... L iege,................................................... It w ill be necessary to bear in mind, with reference to these areas, that one series represents the superficies o f the geological basins, while the other is that o f the lands conceded, and provisionally granted. T h e coal field o f Belgium is said to be superior to any on the continent o f Europe, and is estimated to be more valuable than the silver mines o f Peru, or the gold o f Brazil. T h e basin o f Mons contains above one hun dred and thirty coal seams, disposed one above the oth er; all workable and all wrought. T h e four principal collieries o f Mons, Marimont, Liege, and Charleroi, yielded, in 1838, 3,260,271 English tons, and 4,500,000 tons in 1844. One o f the richest deposits o f coal that is known, forms the nearly co n * Rapport presente au R oi. Statistique de la Belgique, 1842— the latest official return. 238 The Coal Mines and Coal Trade o f Belgium r tinuous series o f coal basins, placed along a belt 150 miles long, and from six to ten miles broad, which, passing through Belgium, crosses the north o f France, and contains the collieries o f Valenciennes, Condc, Mens, & c. At Liege, the measures are said to comprise eighty-three beds, and at Mons there are no less than one hundred and fifty coal seams. These coal basins produce, at the present time, an annual amount o f four and a half millions, or more, o f tons o f c o a l; worth tifty millions o f francs, and employ more than forty thousand colliers. T h e Belgian coal formation is o f the same geological horizon with the great coal fields o f England. It is remarkable for the undulating charac ter o f the beds o f coal. Through a great part o f its southeastern boun dary, it is inverted, so as apparently to dip under the older formations ; but on a portion o f its northern margin, the earlier formations emerge in their regular order.* In one respect, the southern coal fields o f Belgium differ from those o f other countries, especially o f Scotland and W ales. This is in the com parative absence o f seams o f iron ore. A contributor to the London M ining Journal asserts that coals and iron are nowhere to be found to gether in Belgium. W e proceed to notice the principal coal statistics o f this country. In Belgium, the coal business has felt the influence o f political changes. From 1802 to 1832, instead o f increasing, it experienced some small dimi nution in the annual amount o f production. Latterly, this was no doubt ow ing to the loss o f the exclusive supply o f Holland, with which this coun try had been previously united. From 1832, it considerably increased, being now probably about double the production o f that year ; ow ing to the vast amount o f additional capital brought by new companies into the trade. W e will briefly trace the progress o f Belgian mining industry. In 1826, there w ere above 240 mines in w o r k ; all very rich, and giv ing employment to several thousand persons. In 1830, 314 coal pits w ere in activity. In 1838, there were in full operation, 307 concessions; comprising 652 pits or places o f extraction; employing 37,171 miners and 384 steam-engines, o f the aggregate pow er o f 15,061 horses. These forces raised 3,260,271 tons o f coal, whose value at the pit’ s mouth, was returned at £ 1 ,7 2 8 ,7 8 4 sterling, or $8,278,181, United States currency, or 42,818,180 francs. T h e total number o f steam-engines in the region was 1,171, with a force o f 32,109 horses.f In 1842, the three principal coal districts, comprising 307 concessions, employed 38,502 workmen, and, including their families, supported 135,000 persons. In 1843, the three coal districts comprised 411,787 acres o f coal land, held under concession from the crow n, by different companies, and the mining operations were greatly extended ; producing, it is stated, nearly 4,000.000 o f tons. It was officially announced in this year that the capi tal embarked by different associations, in coal and iron establishments, w as 40,540,000 francs, or £ 1 ,6 3 7 ,3 1 8 sterling, $7,836,400. In 1844, there were 307 coal concessions in Belgium ; 224 o f these w ere the property o f companies, and 83 belonged to anonymous associa tions. Their annual production was estimated at about 4,500,000 tons o f coal, being more than 500,000 tons greater than that o f France, and oneseventh part o f that raised in Great Britain. She exported, this year, * Sedgewick and Murchison in Geal. Trans., 1840. t Bulletin de la Commission Statistique, 1843. 239 H istorical, Statistical, and Commercial. 1,300,000 tons. T h e value o f the coal produced this year, was estimated at 41,000,000 o f francs.* The production during the year 1845, has been announced by the engi neer o f mines, at 4,960,077 tons ; exceeding the indigenous production o f France, by 1,177,388 tons. This is greater than was ever before known. The increase in the province o f Liege was 25 per cent, and in Hainault, 10 per cent over 1844. T h e result o f a geological survey o f the mineral resources o f the Sambre and the Meuse, by Mr. Sopwith, in 1846, shows that the coal mines in that part o f Belgium, are capable o f producing a quantity equal to onetenth o f all the coal raised in Great Britain. In order to combine in one view, the various statistical details o f the Belgium coal trade, o f which w e have given the foregoing outlines, we ar ranged the whole in the following tabular statement, showing the number o f concessions, collieries, and pits in operation ; their annual production in English tons, o f 10,146 metrical quintals each ; the average prices o f coal at the pit’ s mouth, the number o f miners employed, and the value o f the produce at the mines, rendered in Belgian, French, American, and English currencies, in the provinces o f Hainault, Namur, and L ie g e :— Conces- Pits in Years. sions. work. 1802.... 1 8 3 0 ... .. 224 314 1832.... .. 224 1 8 3 4 ... .. 307 341 1836.... .. 307 471 1838 ... .. 307 531 1 8 4 0 ... .. 307 660 1844.. .. ..307 1845.. .. Miners. 29,253 ....... 28,606 29,144 37,171 38,502 Price Production per ton, in tons. ir. cts. 2,635,000 10.00 2,533,761 10.23 2,249,000 7.54 2,443,568 7.82 3,056,464 10.95 3,260,271 13.93 4,000,000 23.85 4,500,000 4,960,077 v a l u e of p r o d u c t io n a t t h e m in e s . Belgian and French francs. American Dollars. 25,920,000 5,011,200 16,957,500 3,278,445 19,108,700 3,694,276 30,533,922 5,801,447 42,818,180 8,278,181 55,400,000 10,692,200 30,990,772 5,991,550 Pounds Sterling. 1,047,600 684,659 772,280 1,221,300 1,728,784 2,209,132 1,229,792 In point o f rank, as a coal producing country, Belgium stands the second in Europe, and probably in the world ; Great Britain being the first. France and the United States are about equal producers at the present moment, and Prussia is the fifth. T h e following table shows the periodical prices o f Belgian coals at the pit’s mouth and the canals, per English ton o f 10,146 metrical quintals, in Belgian, Am erican, and English cu rren cies:— I. MONS DISTRICT.— A. AKD B. Years. 1829................ 1836................ 1837................ 1838................ 6 yrs. to 1841. Quality. Best C oal... << n Francs. Dollars. S. d. 15.00 17.00 19.00 3.00 3.28 3.66 3.86 2.75 12 0 2 0 .0 0 Average...... 13.00 13 15 16 10 Description. Flenu Coals at 8 [ the Pit. 4 1 At the Canals. 6 Pit’s mouth. I. CHARLEROI DISTRICT.— C. 1829................ 1836................ 1837................ 1838................ Best C oal... •« <( 1843 ............... 1844................ 18.00 2 2 .0 0 23.00 23.00 7.00 1 0 .0 0 Various......... 13.00 19.00 34 7 4.24 4.43 4.43 1.35 1.93 2.50 3.67 14 17 19 19 5 8 6 9 10 6 4 15 Pit’s mouth. 0 0 At the Canals. 6 0 Pit’s m ou th . * The value o f the coal production o f France, the same year, was 30,000,000 o f francs. That o f England, at the pit’s mouth, about 225,000,000. 240 The Coal M ines and Coal Trade o f B elgiu m : II. CENTRE DISTRICT. Years. 1838............. . Quality. Large Coala. 1829............. 1836............. Aver, o f best. I( 1838............. K Francs. in. 1830............. . 1832............. 1834.............. 1836.............. 1838.............. Average....... U «( M it Dollars. 4.52 8. 18 d. 8 DescriptionA t the Canals LIEGE DISTRICT. 20.00 22.00 t 25.00 ) 28.05 10.23 17.54 7.82 10.95 13.95 3.86 4.24 4.82 5.50 1.97 1.45 1.51 2.12 2.70 16 1 17 9 - A t the Canals. 20 0 23 0. 8 3 6 1 6 4 1 A t the Pit. 8 10 11 3J T h e following synoptical table o f the principal coal districts o f Belgium, exhibits the number and areas o f concessions; the number o f mines, o f steam-engines, o f horse-power, o f workmen employed ; the production o f coal in tons, the mean amount raised annually by each miner, and the value o f the coal at the pit’s mouth in each division. Chiefly prepared from the “ Rapport au R oi,” published in 1842, by the minister o f public works :— Details. Number o f concessions in operation and dormant......................... Area o f concessions, fixed and con ditional, in hectares o f 2,471 Years. 1844 1838 Hainault or Mons, Toumay and Namur and Charleroi. Luxemburg. 154 38 82,293 11,887 Liege. 115 28,565 11843 Number o f pits in work, sinking, and in construction. “ Sidges d’ Exploitation,” ........................... St’ m-engines, raising coal &. water, “ deep’ing & sik’g pits Horse-power working the mines.. “ sinking the pits........ Number o f workmen employed... Production o f coal in tons............. Mean quantity o f coal annually raised by each miner, in Belgium....................................... tons Mean quantity raised in France... Value o f the coal at the pits__ fr. Value o f the coal raised in the kingdom o f France......... francs 75,725 16,643 45 274 183 46 290 69 360 73 441 90 203 13 78 9,160 170 1,051 19,593 750 20,880 889 23,011 1,043 25,241 1,282 25,635 1,865 1,761,118 50,000 1,913,677 2,349,374 79,174 2,469,604 92,473 2,415.909 103,954 2,812.256 3,671,023 161,873 112.51 89.05 107.32 88.66 95.71 81.08 fl8 2 9 1834 1836 1837 1838 1838 1838 1838 1838 f 1829 1836 - 1837 1838 1841 1828 1830 1836 1837 1838 1839 1845 t 1836 } 1837 1838 1840 1838 31,718,260 784,833 1838 1844 41,745 103 lli 121 121 90 4,480 Sum Total. 307 123,765 144,160 134jl 13 422 .... 470 554 652 374 ..... 15,861 9,350 7,375 9,349 10,648 11,002 570,084 590,084 627,916 666,729 740,400 29,693 29,144 33,403 37,171 38,502 2,331,202 2,553,761 3,056,464 3,228,806 3,260,271 1,127,181 85.14 71.59 69.53 4,960,077 104.87 96.76 87.71 115.36 10,315,082 42,818,180 29,078,083 35,497,000 E x p o r t a t i o n o f C o a l f r o m B e l g i u m t o F o r e i g n C o u n t r i e s . — The principal foreign markets for the coal o f Belgium are, at present, France and Holland. H er government has made great efforts o f late, to establish 241 H istorical, Statistical, and Commercial. new channels for the sale and consumption o f her mineral combustibles. T h e exportation to France has a little diminished, between 1837 and 1840, and has subsequently much increased, while that towards Holland has steadily augmented. O f the respective “ debouches,” or outlets for the transportation o f this coal, we shall speak when detailing the separate statistics o f the three principal mining districts. T h e following table shows the total exportation o f coal from Belgium, chiefly to France, from the official records, in Belgian kilogrammes, 1,014J to each ton, and English tons :— Years. 1829 1830 1831 1833 1834 1835 1836 Kilogrammes. Tons. 867,840 621,560 465,100 575,450 650,900 692,500 772,100 471,614,528 583,523,091 660,013,705 702,203,891 782,904,021 Years. 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1844 Kilogrammes. 800,649,729 786,974,866 756,438,612 788,748,505 1,022,955,500 Tons. 789,600 776,100 746,000 777,850 1,008,220 1,014,715 1,300,000 T h e following detailed table o f the Belgian exportations o f coal, shows the principal foreign countries to which this coal was exported, according to the published official documents, in relation to special com m erce. T h e official returns o f France appear generally to exceed in amount those o f the B elg ia n ; but w e have not thought it necessary to quote them both in this place. Years. 1787 1789 1802 1811 1816 1820 1830 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1844 TO FRANCE. Kilogrammes. 50,730,000 88,097^710 202,920,000 691,653,190 770,433,285 790,369,264 774,784,089 734,051,986 723,732,681 916,127,600 915,889,566 1,115,794,900 Tons. 49,280 50’000 86^830 93,630 200,000 224^100 503*750 489*480 580J17 61l'610 682*100 759,750 779,450 764,050 723,900 713,750 902,944 902,710 1,096,057 TO HOLLAND. Kilogrammes. Tons. 5,172,831 7,288,101 6,685,400 7,248,686 17,551,106 60,757,444 5,100 7,190 6,590 7,150 17,300 59,910 95,650 102,697 102,G97,000 TO ALL OTHER COUNTRIES. Kilogrammes. Tons. 5,377,870 5,182,635 3,595,065 4,942,091 4,835,520 4,258,380 5,330 5,160 3,570 4,910 4,800 4,190 3,416 9,308 * B e l g i a n I m p o r t a t i o n s o p C o a l , C o k e , a n d C i n d e r s .— Although a largely exporting country, Belgium receives on her frontier, and from occasional sources, a small supply o f foreign coal. W e derive the follow ing details from the government returns. In regard to the imports from France, w e quote the Belgian documents. Those o f France generally represent the Belgian exports as greater, and the imports as less, than the Belgian returns. W e annex to this table a statement o f the amount o f foreign coals annually forwarded through Belgium to various countries. * Tableau general du Commerce de la Belgique, avec les pays etrangers. V O L. X V I .---- NO. I I I . 16 242 The Coal M ines and Coal Trade o f B elgiu m : im p o r t a t io n s . Years. Kilogrammes. 1831..................................................... jg3 3 ......... 1835 .. ’. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! " ! " ! 15 ^ 8*3^25 Tons. 770 7 Q73 i s ’, 350 1836 ..................... 22,447,807 22,230 1837 ..................... 28,416,835 28,020 34,705,271 34,220 1838 ..................... 1839 ...................... 28,364,548 28,000 1840 ..................... 30,424,435 30,000 1841 ..................... 36,980,600 36,440 1844......................................................................... From France. Tons. .......... 14,936 21,450 26,070 28,910 22,150 26,100 28,936 12,576 COMMERCE OF TRANSIT. Kilogrammes. Tons. 2,100,000 3,731,000 6,617,100 9,292,505 11,566,126 11,440,321 2,070 3,680 6,085 9,164 11,406 11,282 B y the Belgian law o f the 26th o f August, 1822, the transit o f coal ar riving from one part o f a neighboring state, and destined for another part o f the same state, is only subjected to a duty o f 40 centimes per 1,000 kilogrammes. This is after the rate o f 0.39d. or 0.78 cent, per ton. T h e quantity o f coal which descended the Rhine, from the German pro vinces, into the Netherlands at Lobith, was as follows :— In the y eaf 1841, 136,925 tons ; in 1842, 101,610 tons.* IMPORT DUTIES PAID ON ENGLISH COAL, PER TON. In 1778, 1814, 1840, 1842, 8. d. the import duty on British coal into the Netherlands, was.............. 10 0 and continuing until 1834.................................................................... 2 9 to 1st April, 1842, 14 francs and 84 cents per 1,000kilogrammes. 11 8 30th June, removed altogether. $2.42 0.66 2.76 IMPORT DUTY PAID B Y FRANCE. In 1840, 3 francs, 30 cents per 1,000 kilogrammes........................................ 2 6 0.60 Being a producer o f coal on an enormous scale, the import o f that combustible into Belgium, is o f small amount. Until lately, the tariff o f import duty on coals was greatly in favor o f France. T here are no export duties on coal in Belgium, except a small one to Holland, f Mons coal has risen in price since 1838, and the Belgian government has consequently acceded to the wishes o f the home consumers, and o f the British producers, to receive, from 1839, coals free o f duty. By France a similar mutual boon has been granted; and the Belgian and French manufacturers are overjoyed at the concession.^; E x p o r t D u t y o n C o a l s p a s s in g f r o m B e l g iu m , b y C a n a l s a n d R i v e r s .— T h e law o f the 30th June, 1842, was extended. By this law, Belgian coals passing to Holland, either by sea or by internal communi cation, were reduced 75 per cent on the duty then paid.§ T h e treaty between Belgium and the German Zollverein, 16th October, 1844, does not appear to affect the transit o f coal. The reduced duty paid by Belgian coals, on entering France, is about 2s. 6d. per ton. Respecting the following comprehensive general statistical table o f the production, exports, imports, and consumption o f coal within the kingdom o f Belgium, which w e have prepared from official documents and from some other sources, we have to premise that most o f the details in the third and fourth columns, representing the importations and ex portations, are those which commonly appear in the English statistical tables. In the preceding tables w ill be found the exact Belgian returns, * Documens sur le Commerce exterieur. Janvier, 1844. t Ibid. Paris, May, 1843. t “ Arts and Artisans at Home and Abroad.” — Jellinger Symons. § Belgique Legislation Commerciale. Janvier, 1844. H istorical, Statistical, and Commercial. 243 accurately rendered into English tons from French kilogrammes o f 1,014.65 to the ton. The second column, representing the production, is reduced from metrical quintals o f 10.146 to one English ton. The fifth column is that of the consumption on the spot, estimated at one-tenth, and not in cluded in the second column. Years. 1830, 1831, 1832......... 1833, 1834, 1835,........ 1836,........ 1837,....... 1838,........ 1839......... 1 8 4 0 ....... 1841,....... 1842,........ 1843,....... 1844,....... 1845,........ Production at the mines. .................... 2,533,761 .................... 2,270,000 2,249,000 .................... 2,708,000 .................... 2,747,000 2,902,000 3,056,464 3,230,806 3,260,271 2,812,256 3,170,000 Imported. 770 5,790 7,979 10,915 8,840 12,830 16,675 22,034 28,678 40,930 36,440 Exported. 621,560 468,000 1,287,000 576,000 654,000 685,000 761,000 789,083 775,000 746,000 777,850 1,015,194 1,014,715 Consumption on the spot. 250,000 227,000 224,000 270,800 274,000 290,000 314,000 323,000 326,000 281,000 300,000 4,000,000 4,500,000 4,960,077 Tot.consump. in Belgium. 2,162,000 2,029,000 1,191,790 2,404,000 2,378,000 2,516,000 2.622,294 2,784,398 2,838,332 2,840,934 2,670,080 2,874,453 3,290,728 Notwithstanding that Great Britain has the advantage of all other coun tries in the world, in having her coal, for the greater part, close to her sea-ports ; yet her greatest European rival, in supplying the continental markets, is Belgium. The latter also has a competitor in Prussia, whose Rhenish provinces furnish extensive supplies to Germany and France. In both cases, the expenses o f mining, or bringing the coal to bank, is fully as cheap as in England. But if, as appears more than probable, from the report o f M. Briavionne, the engineer-in-chief o f the Belgian coal mines, all the coal which it is practicable to mine to advantage, in western Belgium, will be exhausted before twenty years, it is obvious that it cannot be the policy of that coun try to continue an exporting one, at least after a few years from this time. W e proceed to give a brief sketch o f the separate coal districts which have been previously enumerated. B a s i n o p t h e S a m b h e o r H a i n a u l t — in the western division, and in the provinces o f Hainault and Namur. Within these provinces, and forming the western coal division of Belgium, are comprised three import ant coal basins, which are occasionally classed under the general denomi nation of the basin o f the Sambre. These are :— A . T h e basin o f the Levant o f Mons, i Arrondissements District I. “ Couchant “ Mons & Tournay. Prov. Hainault. B. “ Charleroi, arrondissem’ tofC harleroi. T h e coal basin o f Hainault extends in that province 13 leagues in length, by a mean breadth o f 2)- leagues, occupying 31 f square leagues. It is covered by 106 commu tes, and 154 concessions, occupying a surface o f 83,293 hectares, (205,817 English acres,) the population o f which, in 1806, was 133,963 souls, and on the 1st o f January, 1841, was 211,717 persons, being an increase o f 58 per cent. This is a population o f 6,829 persons to every square league, and therefore is remarkable for its density.* In Namur, this coal district covers 16,643 hectares more. * Rapport eur la situatiwi du Hainault, 1842, p. 30. 244 The Coal M ines and Coal Trade o f B elgiu m : In the province o f Hainault, we meet with all varieties o f coal, from the most meagre, called by some authors anthracite , to the fattest coals, proper for the fabrication o f coke ; including the flaming species, locally called Flenu, approaching to that o f Newcastle in England, and sought after for its evaporative purposes.* The annual amount o f coal extracted from the basins o f Hainault and Namur alone, exceeds the whole production o f France. W e have shown the annual returns from the Hainault district, compri sing the Mons and Charleroi basins, in a previous table. These show the progressive increase in the quantity o f coals raised, from 2,345,374 tons in 1836, to 3,671,023 tons in 1845. The number o f pits in activity and construction, increased from 274 in 1829, to 441 in 1838, employing 281 steam-engines, o f an aggregate power o f 11,211 horses, and 25,241 work ing miners. Coal raised in 1829,1,761,118 tons ; in 1845, 3,671,023 tons. I. M ons D i s t r i c t . — [A .]— Basins or sub-basins o f the Levant, and Couchant o f Mons, in the province o f Hainault, arrondissements o f” Mons and Tournay. In 1840, these comprised 69 concessions, underlying 52,607 hectares, or 129,931 English acres. The local statistics o f the mine are as follows :— Number o f coal pits in activity and in construction, 87 in 1834, increasing annually, to 178 in 1838. Average depth o f pits in 1838, 690 feet. Number o f working miners, 16,896. Quantity o f coal raised, in 1829, 1,361,965 tons, in 1839, 1,691,550 tons. T h e coals from the Mons District go to Brussels by the Charleroi canal. In 1843, 7,363 boats w ere loaded on the Canal de Conde, with 1,120,184 English tons ; in 1844, 7,898 boats, viz., 5,172 boats, despatched for Paris and in termediate ports, 734,014 tons ; 2,726 to Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant, & c., 503,916 tons, with 1,237,930 ton s.f In this district are 114 coal beds, among which the group Flenu, containing fifty-two seams, is the richest. In point both o f quality and quan tity, the most remarkable deposit o f coal is almost entirely situated in the “ Couchant de M o n s which here forms a band 6| miles deep. The varieties o f the coal o f the Mons District, are sufficiently numer ous and important to require classification, which is generally done under three distinct heads. These are :— 1st. The coal called Flenu Coal, from the locality in w hich it was first mined. This species burns rapidly, with much flame and smoke ; does not produce a very intense heat, during combustion, and gives out, com monly, a disagreeable odor in burning. T h e coke produced from it is too friable to be advantageously employed in the foundries. Fracture fibrous, rhom boidal; sonorous almost as charcoal. Fifty-six seams o f this coal occur near Mons. Mr. Dunn says that the quality o f the Flenu coal is unlike anything in England, but is very similar to that o f Swansea, in South W ales ; viz., a species o f conglomerate, without hardness, or with out those facings which characterise the coking coal o f England. 2d. The Fat Coal— Divides readily in small cubes ; is more friable than the Flenu, gives less o f flame and smoke, but produces a more in tense heat. It is eminently proper for the forge, for the fabrication o f coke, for the foundries, and for heating rooms, because it gives little or no smell, and burns slowly, swelling in the burning. This quality com * Rapport au Roi. Mines, Usines, Mineralurgiques, machines a vapeur, 1842. t Commerce exterieur de la Belgique. Developement du Commerce Belgique. H istorical, Statistical, and Commercial. 245 prises two series o f seam s; the-highest, called “ glassy coal,” contain twelve b e d s; the lower, comprising twenty-nine beds, called “ large coals.” 3d. The Meagre, Lean, or D ry coal, and Anthracite— has the same frac ture as the fat c o a l; is still more friable, and does not coke in the fire, because it contains not sufficient bitumen, for which reason it will not make a good coke, and cannot be employed, except for gas-lighting. It is chiefly fit for the burning o f bricks and lime. Not possessing any cement ing quality, it does not obstruct the currents o f air in the brick-kilns or lime-kilns, but burns very slowly, and gives out a regular equal heat. Thirty-four seams o f this quality occur to the westward o f Mons. These three varieties o f coal do not abruptly pass from one to the o th e r ; but merge insensibly into those gradations. The beds which are the type o f the quality called Flenu coal, are the first in the order o f su perposition. T h ey acquire the quality o f fa t coal as they approach the low er part o f the basin ; in the same degree as the fat coals pass to the quality o f thin or dry coals, o f which the type is in the last beds o f the bottom. It is on record that in the basin o f Mons there are no less than one hundred and fourteen seams o f coal, all workable. A transverse section o f this vast series, occurring in the mines o f the neighborhood o f Grand Hornu, was republished by Mr. Dunn, in 1844. An authority o f a yet later date announces a still more discriminating arrangement than the foregoing. In the following statement is specified the several beds and qualities o f coal in the Mons basin, in the order in which they successively occur, from the exterior to the centre o f the basin. 13 beds of’ D ry coal, good for burning bricks and lime. 23 beds or seams o f “ Charhon de fine fo rg e,” quality not pyritous ; yielding 65 to 68 per cent o f good coke. These seams are not all w ork able, and, in quality, are considered inferior, for forge purposes, to the coal o f Saint-Etienne in France. 29 beds o f 11Hard c o a l bituminous, caking, giving a fine c o k e ; used in foundries and high furnaces, and contains very little pyrites. 49 seams o f “ Flenu coal.” — This has given a high reputation to the basin o f Mons, and forms the greater part o f its “ exploitations.” It is a brilliant coal, not readily reduced to powder, eminently easy o f ignition, burning with a long and bright flame. In a word, it is the coal, o f all others, for steam-boilers. 114 beds in a l l ; which, in general, vary from 18 inches, to 2 feet 9 inches in thickness ; but some o f them are upwards o f 6 feet in thick ness, and o f much regularity. T h e workings are carried on, in this basin, at a very great depth. Mr. Dunn examined some o f them, in the Mons District, 180 fathoms, 1,080 feet, in depth, where they were working the Upper or Flenu beds ; and, as these collieries were known to be situated very near to the top o f the basin, it was computed that a sinking o f 900 fathoms, 5,400 feet, would be required to command the lowest coal. Various modes and experiments have been adopted in the Belgian coal fields, for the purposes o f lighting and ventilation. These important objects form the subject o f numerous memoirs, which have been, from time to time, addressed to the government by men o f skill and science. Air pumps have been employed in some o f the deep mines for extract 246 The Coal M ines and Coal Trade o f B elgiu m : ing the impure air. The first air pump was erected in 1830, in the coal district o f Mons. At the mine, “ Sacre Madame,” a pair o f air pumps are worked by a ten horse power engine, each cylinder being six feet nine inches in diam eter, exhausting 5,120 cubic feet per minute. The most powerful air pump is that o f L ’Esperance, near to Seraing, which extracts 282 cubic feet o f air per second, = 16,920 feet per minute.* Mr. Dunn, an excellent modern authority, states, that in the neighbor hood o f Jemappe, the pits are worked at 347 metres, or 1,140 feet in depth. The Grand Hornu colliery, in the Mons district, which has been illustrated by the published section o f its immense system o f coal beds, is 990 feet deep .f In the Produit mine, the twenty-nine upper seams are worked by one company, and the twenty-two seams below the first group belong to and are worked by another company. Sixty-nine other coal beds yet lie be neath the latter series, but have not yet been reached. T o work the low est o f these, would, it is computed by M. Von D echen, require a sinking to the depth o f five thousand fo u r hundred f e e t , at least, or, by the esti mate o f the Belgian engineers, to six thousand f e e t below the surface. This portion o f the coal field possesses great geological interest. It is covered by the chalk formation, o f from fifteen to sixty yards in thickness. In one o f the shafts o f the colliery o f Grand Hornu, they have pene trated through 219 feet o f overlying chalk, the low er twenty feet o f which contain layers o f flints. Between these and the ordinary coal measures, there appears to be only a bed o f four or five feet o f blue shale or clay. In many cases, this overlying chalk has been proved o f the thickness o f 400 feet, particularly in the French portion o f the coal basin. By direction o f the government, the descent to and ascent from the coal mines is effected by separate shafts, in which ladders, often quite perpen dicular, are placed for the use o f every person employed in the workings. T h e fatigue and waste o f human strength, in this laborious process, can scarcely be appreciated except by those who are practically conversant with the matter. T h e workmen are forbidden to descend in the cvffats or tubs which are used for the conveyance o f the coals to the surface. Some improvements for the convenience and safety o f the Belgian mi ners have been latterly introduced. In 1845, a committee o f French mining engineers visited Belgium for the purpose o f examining a new machine for ascending and descending coal pits. In 1844, according to the report of M. Briavionne, the coal mines o f this district had been worked out to the mean depth of 810 feet. B a s i n o f C h a r l e r o i .— W estern or Hainault D istrict, I . [7 1 .] — Prop erly speaking, this coal district is a prolongation o f that o f Mons, just de scribed, which here attains its greatest breadth ; being, at Charleroi, ten miles and a half from north to south, and twelve miles and a quarter in length. The population o f Charleroi is chiefly occupied in working the coal mines o f the district, and in the iron foundries and glass works. In 1840, there were o f fixed and provisional concessions 85, comprising 30,686 hectares, or 75,886 English acres. * Dunn’s View o f the Coal Trade, 1844, p. 179. t This part o f the coal field is interrupted by an extraordinary series o f doublings and zig-zags, which pervade all the seams, and which Mr. Dunn likens to the course of lightning. H istorical, Statistical, and Commercial. 247 T h e number o f pits, in operation and in construction, w ere 96 in 1834, and 263 in 1838; their average depth, in 1838, was 300 feet. Number o f working miners, 8,345. Quantity o f coal raised in 1829, 399,153 tons ; in 1838, 724,360 tons ; in 1 8 39 ,8 38 ,5 51 ton s; in 1845, 1,453,946 tons. Three-sixths o f this coal was o f good quality, two-sixths middling, and the remaining sixth part inferior, called “ houille maigre.” T h e facilities furnished by the coal o f this district to manufactures, have given, latterly, a great impulse to that description o f industry. At Charleroi, 4,000 mechanics, in 1836, and 6,000, in 1842, w ere employed in the manufacture o f nails alone, besides several thousand workmen en gaged in making the iron. T h e coals from the Charleroi mines supply the great centres o f indus try— the blast-furnaces, the glass-houses, the refineries, & c ., and a great portion o f them go into Brabant, and down the Sambre and the Meuse. T h ere is now, also, a railroad, for the conveyance o f the coal from Char leroi to Brussels. T h e Charleroi coal obtains a higher price at the pit’ s mouth, than that o f Mons, as shown in the following statem ent:— HONS COAL. Years. 1836, ............................................... 1837, ............................................... 1838, .......................................best, Price per ton. 7 to 8f. $1.50 12 14 2.50 .............. 4.50 or from 16s. 4d. to 19 10 CHARLEROI COAL. Years. Price per ton. 1836, ............................................... 13 to 14f. $2.47 to 2.66 1837, ............................................... 18 19 3.50 3.75 1838, ...................................... best, ............... 4.06 4.96 or from 16s. 9d. to 20 1844,.......................................... do..................... 2.50 3.67 10 6 15 6 4 W e have not quoted the prices o f the middling and inferior qualities, but they are, in general, only from two-thirds down to one-third o f the above prices. It is impossible to be exact, as great discrepancies appear in the returns, and, moreover, great attention is required in designating the peculiar quality o f coal quoted, from among such a variety o f grada tions. It was in consequence o f the great advance in the price, and the con stantly increasing demand for coal in manufactures, that the Belgian gov ernment, acceding to the wishes o f the people, admitted the English coal free o f duty. W e see that a precisely similar series o f circumstances led, almost simultaneously, both the Belgian and the French governments to countenance the introduction o f English coal, to the great advantage o f the manufacturers o f the first named countries. Since 1826, fifty-eight large high furnaces, employing coke alone, have been constructed in Belgium. T heir average production is about 3,000 tons per annum o f cast iron, each. According to M. Drouot, the average cost o f constructing each o f these high furnaces, as well as the establish ment o f the kilns for the necessary fabrication o f the coke, was 500,000 francs, = £ 1 9 ,3 1 2 sterling, or $93,470.* * M. Drouot, on the construction o f the high coke furnaces at Maubeuge. des Mines, T om e iv., p. 283. 1844. Annales 248 The Coal M ines and Coal Trade o f Belgium : The principal employment o f the coal o f the Charleroi district is in the state o f coke, in these high furnaces. At Charleroi, the different qualities o f coal are distinguished by the three following names or divisions :— I. Fat Coal— Gras. II. Medium Coal— Demi-gras. III. Lean Coal— Maigre. Each o f these qualities is sub-divided into classes, viz :— Gros— Pieces selected at the mine ; picked large coal. Tmite-venant— T h e remainder, after selection o f the gros. Gaillette— A size smaller than the gros, but which must not be less than six inches square. Gailletterie— T h e coal which remains after deducting the gaillette and the menu, passing through a sifter o f an inch and a quarter openings. Menu— T h e coal which is passed through a crible, or sieve, whose meshes are an inch and a quarter wide. T here are as many prices in the market, as correspond with these fifteen sub-divisions o f quality. II. P r o v i n c e o f N a m u r .— In this province, between the communes o f T h on and Samson, is the point o f division between the two great coal ba sins o f Belgium. The eastern basin, or division, as has been previously indicated, is prolonged into the province o f Liege, and even into Prussia. T h e western basin, after having traversed the province o f Namur, follow ing the valley o f the Sambre, continues across the arrondissements o f Charleroi and Mons, and passes into France, as before described. T h e province o f Namur contains portions o f each o f these two basins. That part which is within the limits o f the eastern basin, is only about two leagues in length ; and its area, up to the boundary o f the province o f Liege, is estimated to contain about 2,317 hectares, or 5,725 English acres. T h e area which falls within the western basin, in this province, is about six leagues in length, with a superficial extent o f 14,326 hectares, or 35,400 English acres. These two coal areas, therefore, w hich lie within the province o f Namur, comprise, together, 16,643 hectares, or 41,125 acres. NUMBER OF CONCESSIONS, FIXED AND CONDITIONAL. Years. 1822,.................................... 1828,..................................... 1836...................................... 1838,.................................... 1840,..................................... 1845,.................................... Concessions. 4 37 37 37 38 Pits in Pits in activity. construct’n. Hectares. 62 56 46 57 23 33 Production in tons. ....... 10,516 11,887 79,174 103,954 161,873 1828. 1818. 344 984 35 32 U 98 147 It is observable that, whilst the production o f these mines has, during twenty years, been regularly increasing, the number o f the shafts, serving for extraction, has diminished. This apparent anomaly is explained, by the progress o f the arts o f mining ; which, while reducing the number o f the pits, yet enables a greater quantity o f the combustible to be raised.* T h e coals mined in this province are consumed, almost entirely, by the inhabitants. A small portion is exported to France by the Meuse. Maximum depth o f the working pits,.......... Minimum depth,..................... Mean o f all the pits,............. . Rapport au Roi. H 1842. H istorical, Statistical, and Commercial. 249 Through the facilities afforded by a ready supply o f coal at Namur, the manufacturing o f cutlery there, gives constant employment to 5,000 w ork men. Namur has been styled the Sheffield o f Belgium. III. P r o v i n c e o f L i e g e . — The Eastern Division, or B asin o f the M euse.— This coal field extends through this province thirty-three miles ; its maximum breadth is opposite to Liege, where it is nine miles wide. Before the treaty o f peace, in 1831, Belgium possessed several mines o f coal upon the right bank o f the Meuse, in the province o f Lim burg ; but these collieries formed part o f the territory ceded. 1838. Left bank of Right bank of Total. the Meuse. the Meuse. 115 Mines, or concessions, definite and provisional,......... 60 55 Definitely conceded,........................................................ 33 35 ) 115 20 ( Provisionally appropriated,.............................................. 27 115 Pits in activity and in construction,............................. 64 57 10,646 W orking miners,............................................................. 6,273 4,275 28,885 ........ A rea o f concessions,........................................... hectares 70,631 “ " acres ........ 740,408 Coal extracted, 1838,.................................................. tons ........ 10,315,082 Value o f the coal,....................................................francs ........ 1,127,181 Coal extracted in 1845,............................................. tons ........ 41,745 Geological area o f the coal basin,....................hectares ........ (t “ ........................acres ........ 103,151 STATISTICS OF THE EASTERN COAL FIELD, IN T h e coal seams are exceedingly numerous, although less so than pt(im parts o f the Belgian coal fields. Sixty-one beds occur on the mountain o f Saint Giles. On the subject o f quality, it has been remarked that, al though there is no position in this remarkable series where the best coal prevails, yet, in relation to individual coal seams, as in almost all mines, it is seen that the middle part, and the bottom o f the veins, are always the places o f the best coal, and that the upper part o f the beds is almost con stantly the poorest. T h e number o f pits at work in this district, in 1828, was 100 ; in 1835, 87 ; in 1838, 115 ; and in 1841, 138 ; at the present time they are yet m ore numerous. T h e mines, just without the gate o f the city o f Liege, towards Brussels, are about 720 feet deep. T h e deepest coal pit, that o f L ’ Esperance, at Seraing, in this province, is 1,476 feet deep. There is a generally received opinion respecting the quality o f the B e l gian coal, that the deeper it is pursued the more bituminous it becom es. M . Gennete states, that the greater or less thickness o f stony or slaty strata, interposing between the coal seams, has no influence upon the coal itself. T h ere is no relation or affinity with the different depths, in the series from w hence they are taken. Thus, in the lowest veins, as w ell as in those in the middle, and those nearest the surface, are found the equal gradations o f very good, o f middling, and o f bad coals. One o f the heaviest charges on coal, in Belgium, is the scarcity, and consequent high price o f the timber required to support the mine w ork ings. Notwithstanding the abundance o f coal in this field, it is expen sive, as the cost o f raising it has been as high as ten francs per ton. T h e produce o f the L ieg e coal field is mostly consumed in the district. T h e surplus is conveyed to France and Holland— hitherto, almost entirely b y the navigation o f the Meuse ; but since 1836, railroads have been in troduced, and are connected with several collieries. B y the official reports, it is shown, that the interior consumption, ow ing ■ 250 The Coal M ines and Coal Trade o f Belgium : to the great activity given to industry, particularly that o f the metallurgic arts, nearly doubled itself between 1828 and 1838. T h e production o f coal in this province, in 1845, was 25 per cent more than that o f 1844. In 1842, upwards o f 20,000 workmen w ere employed in L iege and the neighborhood, in the iron works. In fact, Liege may be regarded as the Birmingham, as Namur has been styled the Sheffield, o f the European continent. A s an instance o f the amount o f one department o f manufac turing in L iege, it may be mentioned that, in the four years previous to 1839, there w ere manufactured here, fowling-pieces, 5 5 1 ,6 0 9 ; pistols, 276,795 ; muskets, 2 0 2 ,2 0 1 ; total, 1,030,605. T h e value o f these arti cles, in one only o f the four years, was estimated at 7,000,000 francs. S m a l l D e t a c h e d C o a l B a s in s i n B e l g i u m .— Province o f Namur.— Besides the coal fields, already described, this province contains two small accessory basins, where the existence o f coal has been recognized, al though it has not been developed to an amount sufficient to establish a colliery. Province o f Limburg.— H ere are three little isolated coal ba sin s; that o f Modane, o f Theux, and o f Bende et Ocquier. The last, only comprises two concessions or mines. The small basin o f Theux has only received some unsatisfactory reconnoissances.* P r e s e n t C o n d i t i o n a n d P r o s p e c t s o f t h e B e l g i a n C o a l M in e s .— Mr. Dunn’ s recent investigations in this field, have led to some conclusions o f an unexpected nature ; and as the opinions o f a practical authority are entitled to consideration, in an article like this, w e cannot close this sec tion without citing them. It appears that this writer is somewhat unfa vorably impressed with the system generally adopted for the extraction o f the coal within this deep basin. “ Notwithstanding the great and laudable pains taken by the govern ment in the education o f mining engineers, and the literary and scientific acquirements exhibited by many o f them, in the publication o f the differ ent essays on the prevention o f accidents in the mines, I am free to con fess, that the result o f my observation is, that a great deficiency exists in respect to safe and econom ical measures for carrying on these coal mines, especially in the deep mines w hich I saw .” T h e reasons w hich have led to this conclusion, are stated at some length. H e adds :— “ I have been induced to go more into detail upon these matters, since I perused an extract from a report, lately made by the engineer-in-chief o f the mines o f the Borinage and o f the basin o f Charleroi, M . Briavionne, in which he predicts that, at the end o f twenty years, the coal mines o f W estern Belgium w ill have arrived at the last stage o f profitable work ing. H e says, ‘ that the mean deepening o f the pits has, o f late years, progressed at the rate o f 15 metres ( — 49 feet) per annum ; and, at the present moment, the works have attained a mean depth o f 247 metres ( = 134 fathoms, or 810 feet) in the district west o f Mons, and 147 metres ( = 80 fathoms, or 482 feet) in those o f the centre and o f Charleroi. Supposing that these workings be so equalized, as to reach altogether to the depth which they would seem not destined to exceed, that is, 500 m e tres, ( = 268 fathoms, or 1,608 feet,) they would, before twenty years, Rapport, Statistique de la Belgique. 1842. H istorical, Statistical, and Commercial. 251 have arrived at this stage everywhere ; and the coal, (assuming it to be in abundance beyond this limit,) would be so costly and difficult o f extrac tion, and so expensive, as to take it out o f the reach o f the common uses o f this day.’ “ This announcement,” remarks Mr. Dunn, “ comes with appalling force upon the numerous joint stock companies which w ere established in 1836, ’ 37, when people thought themselves fortunate i f they could only obtain a share in these concerns at ever so exorbitant a rate. “ According to the above quoted report o f M. Briavionne, Belgium is travelling towards a momentous crisis ; and I am much inclined to con firm the writer’ s opinion, that, according to the present plan o f carrying on the collieries, notwithstanding the high price received for the coals, yet that coal will not be found workable to profit, below the depth o f 250, or 260 fathoms ; inasmuch as the deeper they go, the more destructive and unmanageable will be the effects o f the pressure.” * At the present period, there appears to be no relaxation in the coal business o f this country. Even in 1846, a new impetus was given to the working o f the Belgian coal fields. T h e discovery o f several very con siderable coal seams, o f excellent quality, was then announced, and some new concessions for the working o f them w ere granted. ■ Belgium has but just recovered from the effects o f excessive specula tion, over-production, and the sudden establishment, a few years since, o f a vast number o f companies for working coal mines, before adequate markets could be established. A crowd o f new men, adventurers, and speculators, without restraint, suddenly appeared, and exposed the honest producers to ruin by the rashness o f these ignorant undertakers. For merly, each worked with his own capital: all this is changed. Agents, having but little personal interest, managed the affairs o f societies, justly nam#d anonymous. E conom y did not preside in the formation o f a great proportion o f those companies. T h ey constructed superb palaces— they founded speculations upon exorbitant and transitory prices ; and, on the day o f awakening, they found that they had squandered immense capital— had created the means o f considerable production for an end which it was difficult to attain. During the years 1835 to 1838, nominal capitals, to the amount o f 800,000,000 francs, (£ 3 2 .0 0 0 ,0 0 0 sterling, or $155,200,000,) were employed in establishing companies, either anonymous or in partnership ; and o f which capital, not less than 15,000,000 francs w ere actually ex pended in these objects. Between 1830 and 1839, nearly £4 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 sterling formed the capital o f new associations, which established themselves in Belgium for the pur pose o f working the coal m in es.f The faults that England committed in 1824 and 1825,j; were, ten years later, renewed here. These errors have led their traces— a financial and commercial crisis yet presses upon Belgium .§ O f the 307 coal establishments which Belgium possesses, (1 8 4 3 ,) 83 *§ * View o f the Coal Trade, by Mathias Dunn. 1844. P. 195. t M. Briavionne, “ Sur l’industrie de la Belgique.” 1839. t In 1824, and the first months o f 1825, the Parliament o f England authorized the formation o f 276 companies, whose aggregate nominal capital was £174,114,060 ster ling, or 4,352,850,950 francs, = $842,712,000. § Bulletin de la Commission centrale de Statistique. 1843. 252 The Coal M ines and Coal Trade o f B elgiu m : have been acquired since about ten years, by anonymous societies. T h e relative position o f the old and the new establishments, in 1834, was as follows :— T he 83 new companies produced in 1834, 899,871 tons o f coal from 92 working pits. T he 224 old establishments “ 1,543,697 “ “ 249 “ Total in the kingdom,................ 2,443,568 The 83 new companies produced in 1838, 1,285,427 tons o f coal from 271 working pits. T he 224 old societies “ 1,974,844 “ “ 389 “ Total in the kingdom,................ 3,260,271 660 The increase in the number o f mines, or sites o f extraction, during these last years, or from 1834 to 1838, is much more perceptible among the new series than in the old establishments. W hile the latter have in creased at the rate o f 56 per cent, the former advanced their points o f production at the rate o f 194 per cent. T h e influence o f capital is also seen in regard to production. W hile the old associations increased at the rate o f 24 per cent, the anony mous societies advanced their production, in the same term o f years, 42 per cent.* W e have no means o f pursuing the parallel to a later period. M. Desmaisieres, minister o f public works, the author o f the Report from which w e have so freely quoted, thus concludes this branch o f his su bject: “ Since 1838, to a state o f fictitious prosperity has succeeded a crisis but too real. T h e nation has expended in vain, in beh alf o f mineral and metallurgic industry, resources which might have been better em ployed ; but whatever evils may have befallen the adventurers, they have had the effect o f benefiting the consumers. “ In order to form an accurate judgment respecting the operations * f the past years, w e must await the results o f an ulterior experience. W e have desired only to prove and exhibit a great characteristic fact, and to deduce from it the approaching consequences. “ Belgium w ill always find in the industrious and persevering spirit o f her population ; in her habits o f econom y ; in the riches o f her s o il; in the improvement o f her means o f communication, already so numerous, the elements o f success and prosperity. The confidence which we have in the future, must not make us conceal the imprudences which have been previously committed. The situation o f things, as revealed by the details o f this report, can only be that o f a people advanced in industry. W e are n ow enabled to develop our forces and our resources : the future is for the w orkers.” M . A . Visschers, writing at a later period, expresses corresponding opinions, and considers that it is not so much the facilities o f production that are necessary to Belgium, as outlets for her coal and iron. For those who, in preceding years, had favored the false movement o f accele rated production without an adequate market, it seems as i f they had en tertained but one care— that o f realizing the finest industrial schemes : they troubled themselves very little about the future. “ An industriel o f this epoque naively communicated to us his projects. W h en w e asked what he would do in the event o f his obtaining no sale for his coal, ‘ W e w ill construct,’ said he, ‘ high furnaces.’ 1But if you * Rapport du Roi. Statistique de la Belgique, X L V II. H istorical, Statistical, and Commercial. could not sell your pig iron V workshops for construction.’ 253 ‘ W e will fabricate the iron ; we will erect “ It was the skilful mechanicians who held this language ; not the true economists. The greatest, the most ingenious o f these, M r. J. Coekerill, is an example. There was no enterprise originated in which he did not conceive him self competent to bear a part. In the last years o f his life, he showed us the list o f the industrial establishments with which he was connected. This list numbered seventy-two undertakings, all created upon the grandest scale. This man, to whose memory his workmen de sire to erect a statue, has perished, like all men o f genius, by the abuse o f his principle.” T o the sounder views o f the present producers Mr. Visschers renders due homage. “ T h ey have placed, at length, the question o f production upon iG true basis ; they endeavor to lower their costs ; they limit them selves to solicit, from the government, improvements in the interior chan nels o f communication, and its assistance in negotiating treaties o f com merce with neighboring people. Th ese are the certain pledges o f suc cess for the future. T h e market, now-a-days, belongs to those w ho work the best and the cheapest; outlets (debouches) increase by the creation o f new avenues for transportation, particularly the railroads ; international relations are am eliorated; barriers are lowered before the reciprocity o f interests. “ With the resources which the soil o f Belgium presents, we ought not to despair of making up for the losses of the past. W e have drawn, from the history o f preceding years, a confirmation o f this principle in political economy— that labor is the sole source o f wealth. T o the efforts o f the intelligent, then, we look for repairing the evils which imprudence has oc casioned.” * T h e spirit o f mining enterprise is again in great and successful activity in Belgium, arising from the great demand for coal and iron, from the neighboring countries. Am ong others, a French company, called the “ Societe des Charbonnages B eiges,” headed by Baron Rothschild, in 1846 obtained a royal ordinance, creating it a Soci£U: anonyme. T h e o b jects o f the company are, the acquisition o f coal pits, mines, railroads, and iron-furnaces in B elgiu m ; the charter to exist for ninety-nine years, with a capital o f fifteen millions o f francs. It is calculated that it w ill exercise great influence on the coal trade, by increasing its supplies, and finding it new markets,— particularly in France, through the means o f the Great Northern Railroad, which is in the hands o f the same parties.f C o n c e s s io n s , fixed and provisionary— “ Attribute provisoirement.” — T h e ancient custom in Belgium, as explained in the “ Statistical B ulletin” o f 1843, was to limit the number o f coal seams (to be worked) in the leases. Different lettings took place within the same a r e a ; each com pany, in turn, being empowered to sink through the others’ concessions, in order to reach its own. This state o f things has always occasioned great inconvenience and confusion. T h e government desires to remedy this e v il; but it cannot do so effectually, so long as the existing leases are in force and unexpired. * De l’etat actuel de l’exploitation minerale et de l’industrie metallurgique en Bel gique. t Paris correspondent o f the Mining Journal, May 23, 1846. 254 The Coal M ines and Coal Trade o f B elgiu m : R o y a l t y R e n t s .— The law o f the 24th o f April, 1810, fixed the prin ciple as follows :— 1st. A fixed , or sleeping rent, in proportion to the ex tent o f coal leased, or promised to be leased, and is regulated accordingly, from time to time. 2nd. A proportional rent (redevance) is fixed an nually by government, which rent is levied, not exceeding 5 per cent, upon the nett produce o f the mine. The mode o f taking such amount is regulated by an imperial decree o f the 6th o f May, 1811. Subsequently to the year 1823, the tonnage rent has been fixed at 2£ per cent, upon the nett produce o f the mines. Since 1834, there has been comprised in this amount, the sum which is annually paid by the Society o f the Vielle Montague, amounting to 7,500 francs.* T h e following is a condensed statement o f the periodical amount o f these rents :— Years. 1823.......................................... 1830.......................................... 1835.......................................... 1838.......................................... 1840.......................................... Fixed Rents. 14,244 francs. 17,986 “ 16,701 “ 15,761 “ 15,910 “ Proportional Rents. 99,919 francs. 96,148 “ 51,678 “ 170,571 “ 141,040 “ Previously to this epoch, the laws, enacted in 1816 and 1819, had es tablished an excise impost (droit d’ accise) upon coal. The suppression o f this tax was regarded as a benefit by the explorers o f mines. P rf. p a r e d F u e l . - - I n Flanders, and in several parts o f Germany, par ticularly in the Duchies o f Juliers and Bergens, where coals are in use as fuel, they are commonly prepared by pounding the pieces to powder, and mixing them up with an equal quantity o f clay. The mass is kneaded to gether into cakes, which, after being well dried, are kept dry for use. Precisely the same process is now adopted in South W ales, where it has been in use from time immemorial, as it also has been similarly employed in China. It has been found by long experience, that the expense attending this preparation is amply repaid by the improvement o f the fuel. T h e pulver ized coals, thus mixed with clay, not only burn longer, but give much more heat, than when they are burned in their crude state. It w ill doubtless appear extraordinary to those who have not considered the subject with some attention, that the quantity o f heat, produced in the combustion o f any given quantity o f coal, should be increased by mixing those coals with clay, mud, or ooze, which are obviously incombustible bodies, but the fact is certain.")P e a t .— This vegetable substance is o f great value as a cheap fuel for the poorer classes, and abounds throughout the country, particularly in those parts o f it which are most remote from coal. However, in this in stance, Belgium, which is so productive in the mineral combustible, is less bountifully supplied with peat, its substitute, than is her neighbor, Holland, which possesses no coal mines. Thus have the gifts o f nature been im partially distributed ; for it is a fortunate provision o f Providence that those northern and temperate regions to which coal has, in many instances, been denied, seem best fitted for the production o f those aquatic plants which * Rapport au Roi. Mines, Usines mineralurgiques, machines a vapeur, 1842— p. 431-3. t Gray’s Operative Chemist H istorical, Statistical, and Commercial. 255 contribute to form turf or p ea t; and as fuel in those regions is indispensa ble to man— is one o f the first necessaries o f his life— the absence o f mi neral coal is, in a great measure, compensated for, by the abundant and reproductive supply o f a vegetable fuel whose useful and multifarious pro perties are every day becom ing more apparent. W e may be permitted to add here, that animal remains, possessing con siderable interest, are occasionally extracted from the Turbaries o f B el gium. A ja w o f a dog was found not long ago, at the depth o f ten feet, which M. Fuel, to whom this relic was committed for examination, recog nized as belonging to the variety known as the Esquimaux dog.* C a n a l s o f B e l g i u m . — The total length o f navigation, by the twentytwo finished canals, is 286 English miles ; and other lines are in progress. All these are, for the most part, supported by the transportation o f coal and iron. T h e tolls upon them are reason ab le; the works are carefully maintained, and, consequently, they yield great service to the country. N a v i g a b l e R i v e r s , in 1846— 598 miles. H ence there is a total ex tent o f inland navigation o f 884 English miles. R a i l r o a d s .— Nothing has had so beneficial an effect on the Belgian coal trade as the establishment o f railroads, during the last ten years. In fact, “ Belgium is the first State in Europe in which a general system of railways has been planned and executed by the government, at the public cost; and, certainly, it is an honorable distinction to have given the first example o f such a national and systematic provision o f the means of rapid communication.” f The number o f railroads now in progress and projected, added to those already in operation, is really extraordinary. No country in the world, in proportion to its extent, will possess so many miles o f railway as Belgium. All this result is owing to the prevalence of those vast depositories o f coal and iron within her boundaries. In 1842, there were in operation, in this kingdom, 282 miles o f railw a y; the average cost o f constructing which was £ 1 2 ,1 2 0 sterling, or $58,660 per mile ; which is less than half the average cost o f railways in England, and more than double the cost per mile o f the completed railroads o f the United States. On the 1st o f January, 1846, there had been constructed, in this country, seven railways, whose aggregate length was 3861 E n g lish miles, at a cost o f £5 ,7 8 9 ,8 7 2 sterling, or $2 8 ,0 2 2 ,9 8 0 ^ a v era g in g £ 1 6 ,6 0 0 , or $8 0,34 4 per mile. In Great Britain, the average cost o f 1,900 miles o f railroad, up to 1846, was £ 3 4 ,7 1 0 , or $168,000, while the 4,865 miles completed in the United States, (many o f them single tracks only,) cost £ 5 ,5 6 4 , or $26,932 per mile. S t e a m - E n g i n e s . — The first pump, worked by means of fire, was es tablished at Liege, about the year 1723. In the arrondissement o f Char leroi this system was introduced in 1725— an epoch distinguished by the establishment, at Lodelinsart, o f the first steam-engine, by a Liegeois, named Matheu Misonne. In the district of'M onsthe first steam-engine was erected about the year 1734. T h e first machine, for the double purpose o f drainage and the extraction o f coal, was erected in the province o f L iege, in 1810, at the colliery o f * Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France. t McCulloch’s Belgium. Tom e X ., p. 118-126. 256 L egislative P olicy o f M aine : Plomterie ; but in the province o f Hainault, engines o f this description have been in activity since 1807.* In France, the first steam-engine, employed for draining a coal mine, was erected in 1749, at L itry ; and it was in the same mine, in the year 1810, that they employed, for the first time, steam-power to raise the coal. T h e number o f steam-engines employed in the Belgian collieries, in .1839, w as— In extraction or raising the coal,.......................................... In draining and pumping the mines,............................... In the purposes o f ventilation............................................. Engines. 266 102 8 of “ “ Horse Power. 6,846 8,636 122 376 T he total number o f steam-engines, in all Belgium, en gaged in mining, manufacturing, and navigation,......... 1,049 Or, including the 122 locomotives o f 6,053 horse power, on the State Railroad,......................................................... 1,171 15,604 26,056J 32,109$ Since this return, the numbers have greatly increased. Art. III.— LEGISLATIVE POLICY OF MAUVE : W IT H R EFEREN CE TO T H E SUBJECT OF CORPORATIONS. I t is a prominent characteristic o f a republican people, to be distrust ful o f associated power, where it wears any feature o f exclusiveness. Experience proves, that this is not the result o f the promptings o f patriotic principle in the abstract— teaching that “ power is always stealing from the many to the few ,” — but is nearer akin to the natural selfishness and cupidity o f the human heart all over the world ; for few men, indeed, de cline the opportunity o f concentrating in their own hands, the pow er o f both privilege and wealth, notwithstanding their extreme jealousy o f it in the hands o f others.* T h e difference between meum and tuum, is the most ancient o f discoveries ; and always has been, since the origin o f lan guage among men, and always w ill be, until the millennium shall dawn, held good between nations, communities, and even individuals o f the same domestic circle. It is not wisdom to attempt a suppression o f this distinc * Bulletin de Commission Statistique. Royaume de Belgique, 1843. t Bourrienne, in his Memoirs o f Napoleon, furnishes a notable illustration o f this truth. He says o f Bonaparte:— “ His great actions— his brilliant enterprises, always crowned with success— his devotion to France— the justness o f his conceptions— all concurred to point him out as the man most capable o f making the country o f his adoption great and happy, and o f establishing public liberty. Bonaparte was deficient neither in devoted views, in knowledge, nor in the necessary acquirements ; but the will alone was wanting. For who, in fact, could have supposed that, having obtained the supreme power, he would have availed himself o f it to trample under foot all the principles he had so long professed, and to which he owed his elevation ? W h o could have believed, that he would have superseded, by the most abso lute despotism, that constitutional liberty, for which France had so long sighed, and for the peaceable enjoyment o f which she had made so many sacrifices ? But so it is : when his ambition had been gratified— when he had sacrificed every thing to gain his point— we see him re-establishing the principles which he had combated, and defending them with equal energy." W ith Reference to the Subject o f Corporations. 257 tion— to blot out the ambitious impulses to which it givgs birth ; simply, because, however universal might be the repose o f human passions that would follow, if accomplished, the thing is utopian in conception and ut terly impracticable. As a theory to gaze at, through the mind’s eye, for amusement, as boys delight in the illusions o f the magic lantern, it may not be without its usefulness. But sterner admonitions summon the mas ter spirits o f the business world to a different study— to contemplate men, things, and- the thousand relations o f life as they really are, and not as they might be presumptuously preferred by visionary enthusiasts ; and, with a clear vision, to regulate, detect, and combine them, so as to pro mote the greatest amount o f individual and personal happiness, wealth, and power, consistently with the common welfare and common rights and privileges o f the entire associated community. It is folly to teach men to do this labor with a view o f making the general welfare the first, and their individual interests the second point, in the series o f their ambitious efforts. The man who pretends it, stands accused or falsehood in his ow n nature ; and i f any sincerely believe, themselves, in such pretensions, they are victims o f a credulity that exposes them to the impositions o f the crafty, and the pity o f all sensible observers. A ll republican governments are founded in this selfishness o f the indi vidual, as contrasted with a preference for the mass. It is an error that supposes republics proceed from the liberality o f mankind. Exactly the reverse is true. T h ey are the offsprings o f individual selfishness, acting upon a large scale, and risen to strength equal to its own protection against the same principle exerted by a few. It is the highest virtue o f republi can governments, in fact, their esteemed superiority over all other forms, that they exact so little sacrifice— so small surrender o f individual liberty, rights, and privileges, to the welfare and protection o f the people. The converse o f this, is the measure o f advantage secured thereby to each in dividual— to the many. It is the amount o f protection yielded to the prin ciple o f selfishness, that is inherent to man. Under all other forms o f government, the paramount characteristic is, the sacrifice o f the rights and privileges o f the many to the advantage o f the few, and is seen, also, in the great disparity o f the loss and gain which the many thereby suffer and enjoy from their government. T h e perfect popular government, therefore, only touches to direct, or regulate, the fewest possible number o f individ ual interests, but it leaves all others to the control o f individuals them selves. Y et individuals, severally, being too weak in means to accom plish large enterprises, need to invoke the creation, by the government o f the people, o f what are called corporate laws, by which many persons, and the means o f many, are associated as one individual, and made a corpo ration. It is through this device, that a government may encourage the grandest results o f art, science, and industry, without entrenching at all upon the common stock o f reserved liberty, working out thereby the inci dental advancement o f the whole people, and without involving its own means or accountability to any extent, or exacting any contribution o f means from any citizen who does not elect to make it, and is not induced to make it with special reference to his own personal benefit, viewed as paramount to that o f all others, the “ dear public,” included. N or is it liberal in any government to withhold these privileges o f association, wherever it is not clear that a direct advantage is to result therefrom to the government, or to grant them only on the condition o f receiving to itV O L. XVI. ---- NO. III. 17 258 Legislative P olicy o f M a in e: self some such direct advantage. Such a condition involves the injustice o f taking private industry for public uses, without an equivalent taken from the public. A grant that takes nothing from the public stock— that involves no monopoly, or exclusive privileges, should not have a price set upon it at the expense o f those who furnish the needful enterprise to im prove it. But, wherever a case establishes, as the resulting consequences o f an act o f incorporation granted to individuals, the probable advancement o f those individuals in wealth and happiness, and in incidental usefulness to the community where their scene o f action is chosen, there it is but the part o f wisdom, o f sound policy, and productive liberality, in the govern ment, to grant the act. And it is now a matter o f history, that just in the ratio o f an observance o f this course, by any State government o f the Union, towards individual enterprise and means exerted through corporate powers conferred for the purpose, the whole people o f that government have prospered, and advanced in wealth, strength, and influence. W itness what the old Bay State government has accomplished, in this way, for her citizens. Perhaps, in the wide world, there is not another people among whom is so generally diffused education and wealth, or the elements o f profitable industry and comfortable subsistence, within every man’ s easy attainment. And it is there, where legally incorporated means have been more largely resorted to, because more liberally encouraged, than in any other State. And what a contrast— a mortifying contrast to many, in this respect— does the history o f her offspring, Maine, exhibit, from the day o f the latter’ s majority, or recognition as an independent State, until very re cently ! And who can calculate the amount o f retardation, which popula tion, enterprise, wealth, and the resulting influences o f all these elements, have suffered in the meantime, in Maine, from this short-sighted jealousy o f incorporated means and privileges 1 W ith three hundred miles, indented at all points by convenient, safe, and accessible harbors— with rivers and streams everywhere inviting im provement, and furnishing exhaustless motive powers, o f every magnitude, for mechanical and manufacturing purposes— with quarries o f granite and marble, or limestone, for both useful and ornamental architecture o f every conceivable order, and in quantities to defy the uses o f the entire conti nent— with forests o f timber trees o f every necessary kind, or useful pur pose, in no less abundance— with mines o f various ores, and soil, fertile for both grazing and tillage as rational industry need covet, and a climate healthy as any on earth— what, but the want o f a liberal and fostering policy on the part o f the State government, during the last twenty years, has kept energies so mighty from being improved, multiplied, and extend ed 1 T h e State has been drugged with narcotics, until its sensibilities becam e hardened against the poisonous influence, and roused itself under the promptings o f self-condemnation and shame. Even now, her progress is slow, but quickening, and will not, it is fondly hoped, again be stayed. T h e contrast between her past and present policy, towards the associated enterprise o f her citizens, is cheering and creditable. W hile the encour aging aspect o f some industrial pursuits o f her citizens, at this time, re flects the highest praise upon her more liberalized State policy towards them, it casts backward the sternest rebuke upon what that policy has been in other years, and what it still is, in respect to some. F or example, on the subject o f taxing manufacturing interests during their infancy, her policy has been unsteady and jealous. The first decided act o f encourage- W ith Reference to the Subject o f Corporations. 259 ment held out to manufacturers o f cotton, wool, iron, and steel, in the State, was in the provisions o f a law, passed February 7, 1825, w hich w ere to exempt from taxation the shares, property, or stock, real and personal, o f such manufacturers as should thereafter be incorporated, for a period o f six years from the date o f their charters ; and exempting all such previous ly incorporated property— that is, for the manufacturing o f wool, cotton, iron, and steel, for a term o f five years from the date o f this exemption act. Y et a condition was annexed, that not less than $30,000 should be so employed, by the company seeking the exemption. But in 1831, this legislative encouragement was withdrawn so far, as to subject the real estate o f all such corporations as should thereafter be created, to taxation, at the appraised value o f it at the time o f its purchase, and not higher, for a period o f six years from and after the date o f the act o f incorporation. In 1834, the legislature relaxed, by special act, the policy o f the act o f 1831, so far as to exempt one particular company, the “ Portland Manufacturing Company,” from taxation, for a term o f three years, and extend ed to it the provisions o f the act o f 1825. In 1836, however, the anti-corporation spirit had obtained such a new vigor and ascendancy, in the politics o f the State, as to effect an absolute repeal o f the entire act o f 1825, in respect to all subsequent corporations. In 1840, on a general revision o f the laws o f the State, under the same dominant party influence, the provisions o f the act o f 1831 were also re pealed, and no corresponding re-enactment substituted. N or has its like been subsequently renewed. Y et one would hardly suppose the State to be beyond the desire o f multiplying these sources o f industry and wealth within her borders, or that a sound policy could fail to add largely to their encouragement. It is, however, true, that in the tax act o f the State, “ the machinery in cotton and woollen manufactures,” except “ carding machines, used for the purpose o f carding rolls from sheeps’ w ool,” have been usually exempted from taxation. Upon the question o f rendering individual stockholders liable for the debts o f their corporations, the legislative policy o f the State has been equally vacillating and discouraging. Y et now, the popular inclination is believed to have reached a more just and liberal comprehension on the subject. B y the act o f the first legislature o f the State, March 15, 1821, i f an execution, recovered against any manufacturing corporation, were not paid, after demand made upon the president, treasurer, or clerk, before the re turn-day o f the execution, or sufficient personal estate shown, belonging to the corporation, to satisfy the debt, the body, and the real and personal property o f each member o f the corporation was subject to be levied upon, to satisfy the new execution, ( capias satisfaciendum,) as also that o f each person who was a member at the time the debt was contracted. This was a transcript o f the provisions o f the old law o f Massachusetts, in 1809. T h e stringency o f such a law being obviously injurious upon the inter ests o f the State, by discouraging individuals from becom ing stockholders in such corporations, the legislature, in 1823, exempted corporators from this individual liability after August o f that year, provided their corpora tion published yearly a statement o f the assessments voted and paid in, and made no divisions o f their capital stock, or any part o f it, or o f any other property or debts belonging to it, except nett profits, until all the debts o f 260 Legislative P olicy o f Maine : the corporation had been paid ; and provided, also, that the agent or di rector o f the corporation should deliver to any officer having an execution against it, a schedule o f all the property o f the corporation, including debts ; and for want o f other property, should transfer to the creditor enough o f such debts to satisfy the execution. But, in case these provisions w ere not strictly complied with, the personal responsibility created by the act o f 1821, continued. This was one step towards a judicious modification o f the general policy o f the State. Another was taken in the act o f February 12, 1828, which 'repealed the above proviso, so far as it provided “ that the members o f such corporation shall in any event be personally liable for the debts o f such corporation.” T h e last named act also imposed a penalty o f “ not exceeding two thousand dollars, or imprisonment for a term not exceeding twelve months,” on any director, or other officer, or member o f such cor poration, who should “ be convicted o f voting or aiding” in dividing “ the capital stock, or any part thereof, or any other property, or debts belong ing to such corporation, until all the debts due therefrom shall have been p a id ; saving, however, the right to make dividends o f the nett profits arising from the capital stock.” And all sums received ffiy any member, from such a division, w ere made liable to be recovered back by any credi tor o f the corporation. But the anti-corporation policy o f 1836, which, as we have already seen, revived the system o f unrestrained taxation against infant manufactories, also struck at their increase, by reviving the liability o f the individual pro perty o f members for corporation debts, thus :— “ In all corporations hereafter created by the legislature, except bank ing corporations, unless otherwise specially provided for in the act o f in corporation, the shares o f individual stockholders shall be liable for. the debts o f the corporation.” T h e same act also provided, that in case o f a deficiency o f attachable corporate property, the individual property o f the corporators is made lia ble for all debts o f the corporation, contracted prior to the corporator’ s transfer o f his stock ; and also for a period o f one year after the “ record o f the transfer in the books o f the corporation, and for the term o f six months after judgment recovered against the corporation in any suit com menced within the year aforesaid, and the same may be taken in execu tion on said judgment, in the same manner as i f ” it w ere against him in dividually ; but the amount o f this liability o f the individual stockholder was not to exceed the amount o f his stock. The corporator could avoid this liability only by showing corporate property sufficient to satisfy the debt. The body o f the corporator, however, was not exposed anew, as it had been under the law o f 1821, to arrest and imprisonment for corpora tion debts. T h e legislature o f 1839, (act o f M arch 21, 1839,) took another stride in the same direction, and subjected to the provisions o f the act o f 1836, the members o f all corporations, (excepting for banking, literary and bene volent purposes,) that had been created since March 17, 1831, as it re gards debts thereafter contracted. T h e act o f 1836, it will be observed, was limited to corporations created only after its date. On a general revision ofthe Statutes o f the State in 1840, the provisions o f 1836 and 1839 w ere adopted, only so far modified as to further limit the W ith Reference to the Subject o f Corporations. 261 stockholder’ s liability, in his private property, to such corporation debts as should be “ contracted during his ownership o f such stock.” But on the following year, (act o f April 16, 1841,) the legislature again repealed this individual liability for corporate debts, on condition that the treasurer o f the corporation published a statement under oath annually, o f the capital paid in, and debts due from the company, and pro vided the corporate debts do not exceed 50 per cent o f the capital paid in. It was a W h ig legislature that now had the ascendancy. But in 1843, (act o f March, 22, 1843,) the act o f 1841 was absolutely repealed; and this repeal o f the repealing statute operated to revive, and brin g again into • force, the individual liability provisions o f the act o f 1840.* In 1844, yet another turn was given to this unsteady policy o f the State. The act o f March 21, 1844, provides that the treasurer o f every manufac turing corporation shall publish, semi-annually, in January and July, a statement, under oath, o f the amount— 1st. O f all assessments voted by the company, and actually paid in. 2d. The nett amount o f the then existing capital stock. 3d. T h e amount o f all debts due from the company. 4th. The amount o f capital stock invested in real estate, buildings, ma chinery, and other fixtures. 5th. T h e last estimated value affixed to the real estate o f such corpora tion, by the assessors o f the city or town in which the same is located, and the aggregate value fixed to all the taxable property o f such corpora tion, by such assessors. It further prohibits the corporation from contracting debts, exceeding at any time the amount o f the capital invested in real estate, & c., or exceed ing one-half o f the amount o f capital paid in, and remaining undivided. B y complying with these, among other, requirements, the corporators are relieved from all individual liability for the debts o f the corporation; but in case the debts o f the corporation exceed the limitations specified, the stockholders at once becom e liable for all the debts o f their respective companies. For the two succeeding years the laws o f the State have reposed in statu quo, on this subject. But, under a general provision o f the act o f 1821, all manufacturing corporations were subject to such alterations, or to an entire repeal, as the legislature might determine. And, by the le gislature o f 1831, all acts o f incorporation granted thereafter by the State, w ere made “ liable to be amended, 'altered, or repealed, at the pleasure o f the legislature, in the same manner as i f an express provision to that effect w ere therein contained, unless there shall have been inserted in such act o f incorporation, an express limitation or provision to the con trary.” And sucb still continues to be the law o f the State. This review o f the vacillating legislation o f the State, by which alter nate encouragements and discouragements have been held out to corpo rate bodies, w ill account largely for the immense disparity that still exists in the State, between the facilities for the multiplication and prosperity o f manufacturing interests, and the actual improvement o f them. Foreign capitalists are virtually repudiated by an illiberal policy. N o capitalist feels safe in embarking his fortunes upon a coast where the bottom is as * The simple repeal o f a repealing statute revives the original statute. wealth vs. Churchill, 2 Mete. 118, Com. vs. Mott, 21, Pick. 492, 502. Common 262 Legislative P olicy o f Maine, etc. unstable and shifting as the waves that roll over i t ; and where no pilot can calculate or know the soundings for a day in advance. And no more safe is it for him to trust his interests to the protective grants o f a State? which are liable yearly to be utterly changed, or exposed to regulations that are alike disreputable to the integrity o f his enterprise and vexatious to the even tenor o f its ways. In respect to works o f internal improvement, and especially towards railroad corporations, the policy o f the State is becoming judiciously libe ral. The liberality o f the State towards the Cumberland and Oxford C a nal Corporation especially, some years since, and towards some few kin dred enterprises, has been worthy ofall imitation and praise. But it de tracts largely from this disposition to commend, to reflect that the few in stances o f State liberality o f this character, that have occurred, compared with the wide field and grand results attainable, that have been open and have invited State encouragement, wear more the aspect o f accident, or legislative ruses, than o f a settled, enlarged, progressive State policy. There has, however, within a short time been accomplished in this direc tion, an advance, that promises to become an invincible pioneer in waken ing up the people o f Maine to a consciousness o f their aggregated strength, in works o f great resulting benefits to the public. The reader w ill under stand this allusion to be, to the charter that has been granted to the Atlan-. tic and St. Lawrence Railroad Company. Here the State Legislature has been brought to grant a perpetual charter— a right to hold property o f an unlimited amount, both within and without the State, (consistently, in respect to the latter, with the lex loci, o f course)— to exact tolls o f passen gers and freight, according to its own discretion, and without legislative re straint— to be exempt from connecting with any other railroad at any point whatever, on the entire westerly side o f its length, without its own consent thereto— to exempt its real estate from all other taxation, by the several towns or cities where situated, than that to which private persons’ real estate is subjected, and then to be valued only as “ other real estate o f the same quality in such town, city or plantation,” is valued— to be for ever exempted from all other taxation, than a division with the State o f the nett income o f the road, after it shall exceed 10 per centum per annum— and an exemption o f the charter from being ever “ revoked, annulled, al tered, limited or restrained without the consent o f the corporation, except by due process o f law.” It has also fifteen years within which to com plete the construction o f the road. Taken all in all, since the days o f Charles II., a charter o f broader privileges, and o f more valuable exemptions, has not been granted by any government, touching any interest within the boundary o f any old or new State o f this Union. One bright, encouraging example o f this character, tends immensely to liberalize the whole public mind and feeling. It holds out to a hitherto pent-up legislation and people, richer promises o f advance ment in works o f improvement and public grandeur, and o f the countless advantages that accrue therefrom to an industrious population, than a do zen revolutions back and forth in the party politics o f the State, by which personal ambition alone is exalted or debased, producing results which, with the persons themselves, are forgotten in a few short years at most. This charter, moreover, in the history o f its inception and progress, bears conclusive illustration o f the prefatory sentiments o f this article, in respect to the difference o f meum and tuum, in the exercise o f power or privileges. E ffects o f Internal Improvements on Commercial Cities, etc. 263 F or, many o f the ablest, as well as earliest and steadfast friends o f the char ter, with all its latitudinarian powers, once w ere reckoned among the astutest guardians and advocates o f legislative restrictions upon corporations, and among the most formidable antagonists o f the whole doctrine o f vested rights in corporations. But poor indeed would be the worth o f our expe rience and observation, i f w e were divested o f the privilege o f bettering our judgments and growing wiser in the practical offices o f life— o f abandoning the errors o f previous short-sightedness, and correcting the illiberality o f our prejudiced opinions. Let Maine, and her citizens, rising above the confined policy o f mere partizan legislation, exult in bearing aloft to the vision and imitation o f her sister States, in works o f substantial public gran deur and individual wealth, her proud motto— “ D i k i g o . ” And to do this, let it not be forgotten how potent to serve or destroy such efforts, is the in fluence o f legislation, according as it be liberal and steady, or illiberal, vexatious and vacillating. Art, IV.— EFFECTS OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS ON COMMERCIAL CITIES: W ITH REFEREN CE TO TH E PENN SYLVAN IA C EN TRAL R A IL R O A D . TO THE EDITOR OF THE MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE AND COMMERCIAL REVIEW. I n the present paper I have endeavored to collect some few facts and arguments in relation to the Pennsylvania Railroad, and its supposed influence on the trade and commerce o f Philadelphia. T o facilitate the formation o f a correct opinion on the propriety o f building this road, it seems proper that a concise view o f the general effects o f internal im provements on com m ercial cities should be first considered. T h e eluci dation o f this point is necessarily the ground-work o f the whole. Within the past ten years this subject has been most thoroughly examined, and I need not enter upon an enlarged argument. It will be sufficient to notice several prominent facts. History is replete with the rise, progress, and fall o f c itie s; changes o f government, wisdom or imbecility o f rulers, invasion by barbarians, and many items, constitute the causes. In later days w e mark the rise o f V e n ic e ; w e see the lagoons, the fishers’ islands start into a great city, commanding the com m erce o f the world. Genoa and Portugal rise as V en ice falls, and the latter rules supreme. But her unwise policy soon yields to British influence, and for the paltry market for her mines she abandons her manufactures, and soon her commerce and greatness are numbered as things that w ere. But we need not follow the history o f an other continent for proofs ; our own country, though young, is marked strongly with the same style. T h e town o f Gloucester, in N ew Jersey, was located prior to Philadelphia, and carried on considerable trade for the times. Salem, Massachusetts, once a port to which N ew Y ork was indebted for a large share o f her India goods, now mourns her rotting wharves and silent streets, once busy with the hum o f foreign trade. But the proof o f the position is not confined to the actual fall o f any town. But the fact that mutations have been and are taking place, demonstrates the point. Up to the close o f the last war, Philadelphia was without a peer. H er com m erce was in every s e a ; but peace, though w elcom ed by all, cast its blight upon the trade o f this city, and thenceafter she had the competition o f the bottoms o f every nation. 264 E ffects o f Internal Improvements on Commercial Cities : T h e rapid settlement o f the country then attracted the attention o f w ise men, and though Philadelphia (the first in all great works o f improvement, whether for relieving the distressed, or extending the benefits o f progressive mind) possessed a system o f turnpikes, reaching every prominent point in the State, enriching her with the products o f the State, and, as the tide o f emigration moved west, securing the accruing trade, yet the construction o f canals proved a successful rival to the heavy and lumbering Conestoga. W e mark then the period o f her declension by the year 1825, the opening o f the N ew Y ork and Erie C a n a l; and by the same year w e mark the life, the manhood o f N ew York. T h e rapid improvement o f the counties bor dering this canal, soon poured immense floods o f produce into the city o f N ew Y ork ; and as the western country has been improved, so their productions have turned to the lakes and to the empire city. T h row away the W est, and no city on the coast could becom e the “ empire.” The many noble rivers by which the country east o f the Alleghanies is drained, afford so many means o f communicating with the seaboard, that in place o f a few great cities, there would have been many smaller ones, each one at the debouchure o f every river. But the vast W est, with the Mississippi on the south and west, and the lakes on the north, is attainable by com paratively few routes, widely different in their character and merits. The Hudson river, breaking the Apalachian range, affords the best conn ection ; and the mind o f D e W itt Clinton was not long in foreseeing the advantages that would result from a connection o f the lake and the Hudson river. Years prior to this, the legislature or assembly o f Pennsylvania authorized a survey for a canal to connect the Delaware river with the lakes and the Ohio r iv e r ; and in 1769 the surveys w ere successfully accomplished. M any years after this, Washington, Jefferson, and other noble Virginians, desired the connection o f the James river and the Ohio river. But it was left for N ew York, under the wise counsels o f Clinton, to put into execution the fancies o f others, and thus secure to N ew York the rich trade o f the W est. In the history o f Boston, during these passing years, but little can be noted. T h e changes in the policy o f the country a few years after, induced the people o f N ew England to turn their attention to manufacturing. Their barren lands, incompetent to sustain a large population, forced into their mills a full supply o f labor, and N ew England ingenuity was thus permanently turned in that direction. The increasing com m erce o f N ew Y ork furnished them a market for their goods, in turn consuming the pro duce o f the W est. T h e introduction o f railroads was soon rendered subsi diary to the interests o f Boston, and w e soon see seven railroads entering that city, diverging with their branches to every attainable point o f the compass. Prior to 1841 the citizens o f Boston perceived the influence o f the canals o f N ew York. T h ey could see day by day the drayage o f large amounts o f goods and produce across their city, leaving but little profit; and were impressed with the conviction, that could they secure a conn ec tion with the W est, the produce might be brought direct to their city, and return merchandise sold. Acting upon this conviction, and with a sub scription o f one million o f dollars, they commenced the W estern R a ilroad; the grand scheme o f the d a y ; a scheme that but few thought little less than folly ; a scheme at which N ew York laughed and derided. But mark the change. From the day the W estern Railroad was opened, new life W ith Reference to the Pennsylvania Central Railroad. 265 was imparted to Boston, while a heavy and lasting injury was inflicted upon the city o f N ew Y ork, and one consequence has been the declination in the real and personal estate o f the city o f N ew York, o f over l j per cent per year for four years, or a total reversion in the scale o f advancement o f 1 0 i per cent per annum. T h e influence o f the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad over the prosperity o f Baltimore, and o f the railroads from Charleston, South Carolina, extending through South Carolina and G eorgia, upon that city, might be appropri ately referred to statistics to establish ; but I think the above must be sufficient to prove the immense influence o f internal improvements, con necting with the W est, on the prosperity o f every commercial city. The fact o f the successful rivalry o f Boston over N ew York, proves that the best connections w ill not suffice to retain trade ; and develops the in teresting fact, that the convenient access to the manufacturing interest is the item turning the balance. W ere the same amount o f factories estab lished around N ew Y ork that are convenient to Boston, the W estern R ail road would have been a dear whistle, a senseless project. T h e city o f Boston, in place o f being a mart, would have retained her position as an inferior town, interesting only from historical incidents. Boston has expended about twenty millions o f dollars in perfecting the various lines extending from her limits, and this is to reach every factory, every stream, every village within r e a c h ; and thus to concentrate the pow er or command the trade, and in effect to compensate for her limited sp a ce ; and, as time is computed, to make the neighboring factories as near as they would be in a large and scattered city. There is great w is dom in this, but I think the lapse o f a few years w ill prove that it will not answer. T h e introduction o f steam-power must effect a revolution in the manufacturing interest. The capital .invested in manufacturing is mostly held by residents o f the cities, who are deeply interested in the prosperity o f those cities ; and inasmuch as they may be extended by an increase o f the laboring class, the owners o f property are benefited. T h e tendency o f manufacturing is gregarious : it is so in England, and w e see the ten dency here. The advantages overbalance the disadvantages ; and in this country the points o f aggregation w ill be on the coast, where they can be protected in case o f war. T h e use o f water as a motive has hitherto prevented any striking instance o f this fact, but where there is a large amount of water-power, w e see it is all u sed ; and Low ell, Nashua, Nashville, Pawtucket, are examples o f this very tendency. T h e use o f steam w ill obviate the previous difficulty, and full sway w ill now be given to this natural and reasonable course. The low waters o f last fall have shaken the confidence o f manufacturers, and many factories in the interior have been and are adding engines as an assistant power. There are many advantages connected with the use o f steam, and I cannot do better than to refer to the able address o f Mr. James, o f Newburyport, delivered at Portsmouth, N . H ., in the year 1845, on this subject. Am ong the disadvantages connected with the use o f water-power may be enumerated— 1st. T h e first cost o f erection. 2d. The expense o f transportation to market. 3d. The liability to the want o f water. 4th. T h e necessity o f investing a large amount o f money in lands, erecting houses, making streets ; thus diverting a large amount o f capital 266 Effects o f Internal Improvements on Commercial C ities: from its proper object, and requiring twice the amount o f capital necessary to conduct the same amount o f business. 5th. Econom y in the use o f steam. The converse o f these disadvantages constitutes some o f the advantages proposed by the use o f steam-power. T h e increasing number o f factories in Providence, Newport, Bristol, and Newburyport, sustain the above position. From the above statements w e now deduce three conclusions— 1st. T h e immense influence o f internal improvements, connecting with the W est, on com m ercial cities. 2d. The 'power o f a large and conveniently located manufacturing population to control the relative benefit o f the above improvements on the prosperity o f commercial cities. 3d. The superiority o f steam as a motive power, and the decided ten dency o f the manufacturing interest to locate on the seaboard. Having established these points, let us examine their bearing upon the city and county o f Philadelphia, and ascertain her prospects to re-enter the field o f commercial chivalry, and her chances o f success. First, then, her location in reference to a connection with the W est. T h e State o f Pennsylvania is indeed the Keystone ofthe Union ; the body o f Am erica. W hile one arm rests on the Atlantic, she lays the other on the Ohio, and her hand plays with the waters o f the lake. Within her hills is stored the fuel o f ages, and iron, the world’ s civilizer, to bind the continent, and insure the stability o f this great government. Erie, her outlet on the lake ; Pittsburg, the head o f the great eastern branch o f the mighty v a lle y ; and Philadelphia, not only the beautifid city o f the plain, but destined to be the leading city o f the North, a city worthy so great a State. In the present competition her rivals are east. T h e mass o f pro ductions o f the forest, agriculture, and the mines, are derived from Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, M ichigan, and the ascending trade o f the Mississippi valley. H er chances may be calculated by her location relative to these States, N ew Y ork and Boston being the rival cities. Taking the map and improvements as made, and the routes to be considered are— 1st. From Boston to Albany, thence by canal to Buffalo, and by Lake Erie and the western improvements to the prominent points in the above named States. 2d. From N ew Y ork to Albany, thence as by first route. 3d. From N ew Y ork to Piermont, from Piermont to Dunkirk, thence by lake, & c., as above. 4th. From Philadelphia to the same points west. T o tabulate these routes w ill give the following synopsis :— R a il r o a d board routes from th e sea TO THE INTERIOR. From Philadelphia, via Pennsyl vania Railroad, to Pittsburg, thence by the Pittsburg and Cleaveland Railroad, and by the other railroads finished or pro jected............................................ N ew Y ork, via Hudson river, to Piermont, and the N ew York and Erie Railroad to Dunkirk, 476 miles, thence by Lake Erie to ports on said lake, thence by the railroads o f Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, above named......... |( 2' J 2), 6. 7. 8 9 45 336 466 512 552 655 788 719 960 66 .... 646 694 735 906 971 961 1,202 With Reference to the Pennsylvania Central Railroad. 1. 2. N ew York, via N ew York and Albany Railroad, to Albany, thence by railroad to Buffalo, 468 miles, thence as above........ Boston, by Massachusetts and N ew Y ork railroads, via Alba ny, to Buffalo, 521 miles, thence as above...................................... 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 267 8. 9. 993 1,234 80 — 678 726 767 938 1,003 85 .... 731 779 820 991 1,056 1,046 1,287 N ote .— Column 1 denotes the maximum grade in feet per m ile; 2, miles to Pitts burg, P a .; 3, miles to Cleaveland, O .; 4, miles to Sandusky, O .; 5, miles to Toledo, O .; 6, miles to Cincinnati, O .; 7, miles to Chicago, 111.; 8, miles to Lafayette, In d .; 9, miles to S t Louis, M o. This table proves the advantageous position o f this city with reference to the western trade, and with reference to Boston and N ew York, but which I w ill refer to more particularly hereafter. The consideration o f the second conclusion need be but hasty. T h e point is, can manufacturing be profitably followed in or near this city ? T h e large amount o f money already invested is sufficient p roof; but the full benefits o f the position have not been fully realized. Until within a few years, the superiority o f steam-power was unknown, though fuel was so plenty and so cheap ; our manufacturers seeking water as a power. T h e advantages o f this city are many, and may be considered as mainly consisting in— 1st. The low cost o f material. Our connections with the South furnish cotton at a low rate, and increasing trade w ill tend to reduce the freight. From the W est, a great supply o f w ool can be most readily obtained, and thus the raw material can be procured at a lower rate than at any other point. 2d. The cost o f machinery must be less. T h e rapid improvements being made in the construction o f machinery, cause large amounts o f iron to be used; and when located here, machinists could o f course purchase lower, with a better market to select from, and thus secure greater econ omy to the consumer. 3d. The cost o f subsistence would be less. T h e vicinity o f Philadel phia abounds in very rich lands, and her markets are justly celebrated for their variety and quality. In addition to this, her avenues with the W est w ill enable her merchants to make better returns o f sales to the producers, at the same time affording the article at a lower price. 4th. These superior avenues w ill enable her to secure the custom o f the W est, thus insuring a market for her goods and wares, while we con sume their produce. This is an important point, and may be looked at more critically. T h e third conclusion will cause a great increase o f power in and around this city, for here the cost o f pow er must be the least. I f the manufacturers o f N ew England can afford to pay freight on coal from here to their factories, and then prove that steam-power is as cheap as water-power, and preferable for other reasons, much more can steam be successfully used here ; and then the tendency to the seaboard w ill have the full development. W e have ample room, fine climate, and every in ducement to the fulfilment o f this natural tendency. Again, here will be the mart, and there w ill be a saving o f transhipment. W e are forced to expend no money to bring manufactured goods to this city. W e have no Low ells, Nashuas, Merrimacks to build, and some twenty millions o f dol- 268 E ffects o f Internal Improvements on Commercial Cities : *ars to expend : but every inducement is offered here at the great m art; and this money may be turned in its proper direction, aiding in the busi ness o f the city. I might still enlarge on these interesting points, and produce a calculation o f the actual comparative expenses o f building and conducting a factory here and in N ew England, and prove that an estab lishment here can make 6 per cent, while one o f the same calibre in N ew England could but balance accounts. But I think my proofs o f the capability o f Philadelphia to fulfil the three requisitions which w ill secure the commercial ascendancy o f every eastern city, are ample. Philadelphia is situated in precisely the same circumstances with Boston prior to build ing the W estern Railroad. H er canals will not answer the purposes in tended, and w e see, year by year, her trade and commerce falling off. Goods manufactured here find their ch ief market in N ew Y ork ; through N ew Y ork our importations are mainly made, and, with the exception o f a trifling spring business, our trade is confined to Pennsylvania. Like Boston we have aroused from our slumbers, shaken off our torpor, and are determined to make one great effort and replace ourselves among the great cities o f the western hemisphere. In the tc.ble above given, you observe, “ Philadelphia, via the P e n n s y l v a n ia R a il r o a d , to Pittsburg, 336 miles.” 108 miles o f railroad are built, extending from this city to Harrisburg, and the remaining 228 miles constitute the W estern Railroad o f Pennsylvania. This road w ill unlock to this city the treasures o f the W est, and bring into use every ad vantage above described. As early as 1838 the Pennsylvania legislature authorized a survey to ascertain the practicability o f crossing the mountains between Harrisburg and Pittsburg by railway, with no grade exceeding forty-five feet per mile. These surveys were continued during the years 1838, ’ 39, ’ 40, and ’ 41, and resulted in the discovery o f three main lines ; but the route, seemingly the most practicable, is designated the middle route, and extends from Harrisburg, crossing the Susquehanna river about four miles above that town, thence by the Juniata river to Petersburg by the little Juniata river and contiguous streams, crossing the summit within two miles o f the Por tage road, and thence in the vicinity o f the present road, crossing the Conemaugh river near Blairsville, and across the country to the M onongahela at the mouth o f Turtle creek, and thence by the river to Pittsburg. T h e total elevation to be overcome is 2,380 feet, and the estimated cost for a road-way, graded for a double track and single track laid, and com plete outfit, $8,845,240. T h e first 120 miles, extending from Harrisburg, has no grade exceeding twenty-five feet per mile, and is o f easy construc tion. In the passage o f the mountain the heavy work is encountered. This peculiarity w ill be o f great service in the conduction o f the road, and w ill enable it to be more properly managed. It is proposed, and may be the proper course at this time, to connect with the Portage Railroad, and complete the work over the mountain as the company may be able. After its completion it w ill be to the interest o f the State to use the road over the mountain, the difficulty o f the navigation being from Holidaysburg to Petersburg. This, then, is the road Philadelphia is about building; and having considered the grounds o f the prosperity o f eastern cities and their peculiar adaptation to this city, I w ill endeavor to make a more extended application. In the first place, the western connections o f this road. W ith this road completed to Pittsburg, you find a road (w hich w ill be W ith R eference to the Pennsylvania Central Railroad. 269 built by the citizens o f Pittsburg in time) to connect with the Pennsylvania railway, extending from that city to W ellsville, at Beaver meeting the Erie canal, extending to the town o f E rie on the lake o f that name ; the Pennsylvania Canal and the Cross-cut C a n a l; from W ellsville to Cleaveland a railroad is about starting; from a point on this road a short line w ill be built to W ooster, intersecting the Cincinnati, Columbus, and Cleaveland Railroad, and at Columbus and Massillon meeting the Portsmouth and Ohio Canal. The main line from W ooster to Springfield, Illinois, follow ing the highland o f Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, meets the Mansfield and Sandusky Railroad at the former to w n ; and, from Sandusky tapping the Michigan road from Detroit to St. Joseph, at Jackson, Michigan, crossing the Sandusky Railroad, extending from Cincinnati to Sandusky, at K enton ; the Cincinnati and Sandusky Canal, near p e lin a ; intersecting at L a Fayette the W abash and Erie Canal, the La Fayette and Madison R a il road, and the L a Fayette, Pontiac, Peru, and Galena Railroad ; at Springfield meeting the road to St. Louis, to Peru and Quincy on the Mississippi r iv e r; and from some point on the Mississippi river in this vicinity b e coming the road to Oregon, a road that must and will be built ere many years transpire. This is a general outline o f these canal and railway connections. Already movements are taking place in the W est to secure these lines, and the citizens o f St. Louis have authorized surveys from that city to Indianapolis. B y reviewing this sketch, you w ill observe that we tap the lakes at Erie, Cleaveland, Sandusky, Toledo, Detroit, and Chicago ; the Ohio river at Pittsburg, W ellsville, Cincinnati, Madison, and E vansville; and the M is sissippi river at St. Louis, Quincy, Davenport, and Galena. A reference to the table o f distances inserted above, w ill prove, that in relation to each point named, this city is more favorably located than N ew Y ork or Boston. 2dly. The relative cost o f transportation on the different routes. In the Railw ad Journal o f Novem ber 7th, I made a calculation o f the cost o f transportation on the routes above named, and from that article would extract the following :— “ I regret being unable to give as full an account o f the charges b e tween the different points as is desirable, but the items as given are suf ficiently accurate to form a reliable basis o f estimation. For the charges on the railroads, the rates o f freight on the W estern Railroad from Boston to Albany, 200 miles, have been adopted. For the canal charges, I am indebted to an extensive forwarding house in Albany, and the rates as given are the low summer and merely living rates. T h e charges fluctu ate greatly on the canal and lakes, but the only safe basis is the rate at which the business will secure responsible shippers. Per 100 lbs. Per Ton. From Boston to Cleaveland, (via W es. R ’d, Erie Canal, and Lake Erie,) 94cts. From N ew Y ork to Cleaveland, (via canal and lakes,)......................... 66 “ “ “ (via N ew Y ork and Erie Railroad 81 and lake,).................... .............................................................................. From Philadelphia to Cleaveland, (via railroad,)..................................... 64 “ Boston to Toledo.............................................. 97 “ N ew York “ (canal and lake,)......................................... 69 “ “ “ (railroad and lake,).............................................. 81 “ Philadelphia to Toledo, (railroad,)................................................... 76 “ Boston to Cincinnati, (via T oledo,)................................................ 1 63 “ N ew Y ork « “ ................................................ I 35 “ “ “ (via railroad and T oledo,)........................... 1 41 “ Philadelphia “ (via Pittsburg and river,)............................. 76 $ 1 8 80 13 20 16 20 12 80 19 40 13 80 16 20 15 20 32 60 27 00 28 20 15 20 270 Effects o f Internal Improvements on Commercial Cities : H ere there is a comparison made on the most favorable side for the eastern roads and canals, and without allowing the full merits o f the line from this city. Though these merits are not susceptible o f accurate es timation, yet every reader w ill confess their great importance. I w ill note some o f the preferences due to this line o f road, and leave the val uation to be made by the reader. 1st. The grades. A s above stated, the calculation for the cost o f transportation is made on the basis o f the charges o f the W estern R ail road. This road passes over two heavy summits, having an aggregate rise o f about 5,000 feet, and with grades as high as eighty-five feet per mile, located through a difficult country, and exposed to interruption by snow. Y et this road, built at a cost o f nearly eight millions o f dollars, yields for 1846 an interest o f 7^ per cent. Their tariff o f freight must o f course be profitable. T h e N ew Y ork and Erie Railroad passing the ridges and mountains at right angles, necessarily causes several summits, the depression o f the Delaware, Susquehanna, and Alleghany rivers being very great. Th eir total amount o f elevation cannot differ much from that o f the W estern road, and with grades o f sixty-six feet per mile. T h e Pennsylvania road w ill have no grade exceeding forty-five feet per mile, and the country west is known to be favorable for railroads, and requires no grade exceeding this. Is there not a decided advantage thus given to this line ? E v eiy one, the least familiar with the working o f roads, can appreciate this great superiority. 2dly. In transhipment. On the Boston route there must be two tran shipments to lake ports, and three to any other poin t: on the canal route from N ew Y ork, one transhipment; and on the railroad route from N ew York, two, and in many cases three. W ith the Pennsylvania route there need be no change. T h e car destined for Cincinnati, Cleaveland, Toledo, or any other point, may be loaded in Philadelphia and left untoq^hed until its arrival at the destined point. Every person engaged in western trade, and eveiy western merchant, can appreciate this advantage, not only saving an additional expense, but also great damage to produce and mer chandise. 3dly. The saving o f time. T h e increasing valuation o f time is exem plified in the very construction o f railroads. W e can no longer spend days and weeks in journeying to and fro. Even daylight is considered so precious that the travelling o f the business community is principally per formed during the night. T h e effect o f this line o f road will be to expedite travellers. A few hours w ill suffice to carry the traveller from the east to the west, and he be subject to no interruption from storms or want o f conveyance. It will also be a saving o f time in the transportation o f pro duce and merchandise. T h e slow movement o f the barge, and the various causes o f detention on the canals and lakes, w ill be avoided. A few days will transport to our most western country any merchandise, and bring back their produce ; and the certainty o f receiving at a fixed time the produce or merchandise, enhances the value o f this line. 4thly. The insurance on the lakes. This item cannot be estimated in a table, for the simple reason o f the variable nature o f merchandise : but it is an important item. T h e usual insurance on the lakes is J per cent. In many cases this will equal the freight. The high rate o f insurance proves the danger. Storms on Lake Erie are said to exceed those on the Atlantic, and the urgent calls on Congress to provide good harbors on W ith Reference to the Pennsylvania Central Railroad. 271 Lake E rie is additional proof. H ow strong the inducement to western merchants to use the line that will afford them superior advantages and save this risk. A great inconvenience connected with the dangers on the lakes is the uncertainty felt by the merchant. H is purchases east are made with care and taste to suit his own market, and the receipt o f this merchandise as purchased is o f consequence to him. W ill he not avail himself o f that line free from risk, and affording the certainty o f receiving his merchandise as purchased ? 5th. Availibility o f the line at all seasons. Herein is a great desidera tum. It is against the policy o f Americans to remain lockea up by ice one-half o f the year. W e have rendered time tributary to our benefit; w e have made the electric fluid subsidiary to our wants, and can w e stop our whole machinery from natural causes 1 Not so. There must be a continual communication throughout the United States. This desideratum is afforded in the proposed line o f railroads. T h e present course o f com merce runs thus:— the collection o f large amounts o f produce at the dif ferent shipping ports in the W est during five months. On the opening o f navigation in the spring, and prior to the closing in the fall, there is a rush, forcing every nerve and using every means to forward produce, each one being anxious to secure the first chance o f the market, and to pour as much produce as possible into the market during the fa ll; the effect being to depress the markets below the actual value, and thus injuring the producer. Any rise in the markets east during the winter is not available to the western people, and the consequence is, an unhealthy rise in the eastern market, elevating the prices east and west when the canals open ; a de pression follows, and loss and ruin often ensues. What a revolution in this ill-formed trade w ill the opening o f a continu ous railroad produce ! It w ill be a governor to the commerce o f the country, enabling the producers to forward their produce as prepared, to take every advantage o f the market, prevent any great fluctuations, and make their purchases as they require, thus making all trade more regular in its movements. In a financial view, it will be o f great ben efit; an inference from the foregoing remarks. The system o f making advances to western millers and merchants, so extensively pursued in N ew York and other cities, is a very bad one ; and the reverses o f last spring furnish a profitable lesson. This w ill be reduced to proper bounds, and i f the factor advances to the miller to purchase wheat, he can have the flour in market in a few days, and thus at no time be much in advance. And the feet that merchandise w ill not be purchased in such large amounts at one time, w ill tend to re lieve the purchasers W est and the merchants in eastern cities. T h e whole influence will thus be salutary. T h e aid o f the telegraph will be brought into requisition, and large amounts o f flour and produce be sold through its medium. Sales of flour may be made in the W est to-day, and promises o f delivery in three or four days, thus bringing the western millers on nearly equal ground with those located near the seaboard. 6thly. In the present movements o f western trade, the cities on the lakes becom e the depots, and to secure the trade this must be the cou rse; but by observing the locations o f the routes above indicated, this course o f trade w ill be altered; and to obtain the trade, w e are not forced to go to Cleaveland, Sandusky, or any lake city, but every depot along the net-work 272 Effects o f Internal Improvements on Commercial Cities, etc. o f railroads and canals become the points at which w e aim. This line is the great Mississippi, and w ill have its branches reaching every point in the W est. W e then obtain our trade in the heart o f the producing country, and thus save to the western people the expense o f sending their produce to the shipping city, and receiving their merchandise therefrom, which amount o f freight serves to lessen our rates and to add to the expenses o f other lines. It is certain, then, that this line w ill secure the entire trade o f the W est for the fall, winter, and spring months, at least during the time the lakes and canals are locked up with ice. T h e balance o f the year w e would mfcre than have equal chances. These are some o f the advan tages connected with this line. T h e winter trade o f the W est now seeks N ew Orleans as a market, b e ing completely debarred from the North. Take away the cotton and sugar trade o f that city, and the balance is entirely derived from the up-country, and mostly received during the winter. There are so many changes incident to this trade, and so many draw backs to its successful prosecution, that produce w ill not be shipped there when other avenues are open. H ere, then, w e open the avenue, and secure, at the least calculation, a trade worth twenty millions o f dollars. It is unnecessary to make any remarks in reference to passengers. T h e ad vantages in this case are so decided that there is no doubt that two-thirds o f the whole travel will be secured to this line. In writing o f the effects o f these lines o f trade, I am led on almost against my own judgment in speaking o f rival lines. T o look ahead at the progress o f the western country, conceive its population doubled in fifteen years, its vast resources constantly developing, the great increase o f trade consequent, and it seems idle to write o f rival lines. There is enough for all, and many more such lines. True, some peculiar locations w ill command certain trade, and with that impression have I written, to show the trade that w ill inevitably be secured to this city. That it will be a greater amount than any other point, I cannot doubt, but that other cities w ill in consequence be ruined cannot be believed. I f all my premises are correct, the conclusion is unassailable. And how strong the arguments thus adduced to the people o f Philadelphia to enter at once upon the construction o f a road offering so great induce ments ; the effect being to elevate the city, and thus enable her to enter the field a bold and successful competitor for commercial ascendancy. Philadelphia is destined to be the coal and iron depot o f our continent; the centre o f the manufacturing system, and a vast warehouse for western trade. Capital w ill flow in from every quarter, and improvements extend to every portion o f the State; and Pennsylvania, free from debt, w ill in truth be the Keystone o f the Union, and be pointed to as an honor to the government, an honor to man, an honor to the world. j. a . w . The Sea Resources o f the Coast, etc. 273 Art. V.— THE SEA RESOURCES OF THE COAST: AND T H E W H ALE AND SHORE FISHERIES OF NEW LONDON. as the rocky coast o f Connecticut may be, in comparison with the fertile valleys o f the W est, and scanty as m a yb e the product gathered from the rugged surface o f its soil, Connecticut contributes her full quota to the national coffers, and furnishes her full share o f material for the na tional defences. It has becom e so fashionable to disparage her stony shores, and to ridi cule the meagre amount o f her agricultural resources, that her people have really seemed disposed to let judgment go against them by default, and to submit in silence to all the flippancy that has been let o ff upon them, and upon the honest old pilgrim soil which gave them birth. T h ey have en tered no counter-plea, and manifested no desire to do so. Content with their own lot, they heed very little the estimate that may be put upon it by others ; and being somewhat thick-skinned towards de tractors, she has been quiet under their calumnies, and even ridicule has scarcely found itself effective in disturbing their sensibilities. Conscious, themselves, o f a tolerable degree o f comfort in the world, they have cared very little for what other people have had to say about it. Finding no great difficulty in maintaining their families, educating their children, and keeping their accounts square with their neighbors, it brings no special trouble to their minds that the land from w hich they gather the means o f doing all this, w ill rarely yield them more than thirty bushels o f corn to the acre, while their Indiana and Illinois friends can obtain two or three times as much from theirs, with perhaps one-half the labor. So long as they can keep their crops and their creditors upon tolerable terms with each other, it is matter o f very little regret to them, that the former are not large enough to flatter them into factitious flourish, nor the latter nu merous enough and exacting enough to tempt the debtor into repudiation. T h e Connecticut producer has less “ chivalry,” or, at any rate, it is rather less obtrusive, and abundantly less noisy, than that on the banks o f the Santee and the M ississippi; but perhaps, after all, it is nearly as nice in its honor, and quite as convenient in its “ high-mindedness for it con sists, mainly, in a rigid adherence to principle— the principle o f perform ing what it promises. His land may not be so rich as that o f his W estern and Southern brethren— it certainly is not— and he may not himself be as individually rich as the great planters and farmers o f Carolina and Pennsylvania, and he certainly is not, so far as the possession o f great apparent wealth is concerned ; but it will be our business to see whether the riches, as well as the personal comforts and individual independence o f this people, are not fully equal in the aggregate. T h e Yankee land is cold, bleak, and r o c k y ; at least, large portions o f it are so, and not more than half as good as that o f Ohio, or western N ew York, for grow ing w h ea t; compared with that, it will rarely yield more than half a crop o f potatoes, but it is good for something, nevertheless. It is no great thing for hemp or flax, but first-rate for building wharves upon ;— not particularly productive in corn, but capital for cod-fishing from, and excellent for shelter to whale ships. The soil is rich enough, at any S t e r il e V O L. xvi.— no. in. 18 274 The Sea Resources o f the Coast : rate, for raising raw material for ships, and the hardiest sailors that ever floated upon salt water, for navigating them. It so chanced, a short time since, that we w ere thrown among some statistics touching the business and resources o f a small section o f C on necticut, and that, too, the very poorest portion o f the State, so far as soil is concerned. T h e Collection District o f N ew London, embraces only that portion o f the Sound coast which lies between the mouth o f the C on necticut River and the W estern shore o f the Mystic, a distance o f less than twenty miles, and though the land lying immediately on the water is for the most part tolerably good, the productive soil does not reach more than a mile from the Sound, on an average ; and back o f that, for some distance into the interior, it is as poor and as unproductive as any part o f N ew England— a considerable part o f it too poor even to be cultivated— worth nothing but for wood, and for a scanty pasturage for sheep. N ow , let us see what this seemingly unpromising portion o f poor old Connecticut really is worth to the owners and to the country. W ithin that circumscribed district, there are owned, manned, and fitted out, 57 ships, 16 barks, 1 brig, 5 schooners, 1 sloop— total 80.* These eighty vessels are engaged in the whale fishery, and cruise in every accessible quarter o f the globe, and in some quarters which have proved inaccessible to all others ; for, in the language o f Burke, their sails whiten every water, “ from the tropics to each extremity o f polar cold,” and it has not unfrequently occurred, that the bold and unflinching navi gators o f these ships have been found floundering among the mountain icebergs o f the North and o f the South, amidst xvhich, even the daring enterprise o f explorers, expressly fitted out for new discoveries, had b e com e dismayed and turned back. Th ese vessels are manned by crew s mostly made up o f the hardy sons o f the soil, and number, at present, a body o f 2,295 men, many o f them shareholders in the ships they sail in, and all o f them interested in the voyages they make. E ach man receives a pro rata proportion o f the oil and bone taken on the cruise, and consequently has a direct incentive to the ample exercise o f all his energies. The men engaged in a N ew L on * The Collection District o f Stonington, lying directly east o f N ew London, and be tween that port and the State o f Rhode Island, belonged, until within a few years, to N ew London. The length o f coast, embraced in the new district, is less than nine m iles; and the following statistics exhibit the flourishing state o f the foreign and home fisheries -with in it :— W haling ships at Stonington proper, 2 0 ; barks, 7 ; whaling ships at Mystic, 10 ; barks, 2 ; total, 39. The number o f the crews manning these vessels, is 1,150. T he smacks over 20 tons, are, schooners, 4 ; sloops, 23 ; under 20 tons, 2 1 ; total, 48. One o f these smacks is o f 89.27 tons burden, another is 86 tons, another over 75, and there are several from 40 to 56 tons. These vessels, like those o f their class in the district o f N ew London, are mostly man aged on shares; the crew taking three-fifths o f the whole “ catchings,” and the owners, the remaining two-fifths for the u9e o f the smack. It may as well be stated in this note, as in the body o f the article, in which we over looked the fact, that some o f these small vessels, in both districts, generally go into south ern latitudes during the winter, and return, in the spring, for the N ew England coast fish ery. Some o f them have even doubled Cape Horn, and cruised on the Chilian and Peru vian coasts, carrying their fish into Callao, and other South American ports for market. They have not, however, been very successful heretofore, in these enterprises. It is not at all uncommon to see a N ew London or Stonington smack, unloading her finny cargo, at R io Janeiro, or Buenos Ayres. A nd the W hale and Shore Fisheries o f New London. 275 don whaler, work hard and get rich slowly— but they get rich and bring riches into the country; and, what can be said o f scarcely any other branch o f nautical business, there is, in their case, a fair division o f avails. T h e officers share in proportion to the responsibilities o f their grades, from master down to boat-steerer, and the men, proportionate to individual claim upon the common profits o f the voyage— a claim, grounded upon the skill, experience, and bodily activity o f each. Nothing could be more equitable than this apportionment, and nothing better calculated to secure the certainty o f a profitable return to labor, so far as human exertion is capable o f securing such a certainty. T h e total return o f these ships, in the different kinds o f oil, and in the bone obtained from the whale, amounts to about $32,000, upon each voy age, as nearly as the average can be made out from the data in our pos session. These returns are made, in one, two, or three years, according to the quarter o f the world in which they cruise, and to the success met with in finding and capturing the oleaginous monsters in whose pursuit the whaleman goes. T h e vessels employed in the whaling business, from this port, are gen erally from 250 to 350 tons, though a portion o f them are much la rg er; and there are at this time several ships in the “ fleet,” which w ere built for European packets, and engaged for a number o f years in the N ew York, London, and Liverpool lines. The average tonnage, however, is about the same as that from Nantucket, N ew Bedford, and the other w ha ling ports o f N ew E n g lan d ; but N ew London has cruising, at this time, the largest and the smallest whalemen in the world— the ship Atlantic, being 699 tons burden, while the schooner Garland is only 49 tons. The latter little craft, mere cockle-shell as she is, is breasting the billows off Derotation Island, in the Indian Ocean, as a tender to the ship Charles C a rroll; her sturdy crew as confident in the staunchness o f their vessel, and as little dreaming o f danger, as if they were cruising in a line-of-battle-ship within sight o f their own shore. This very general view o f the whaling statistics o f the district, is suffi cient to rescue the twenty miles o f sterile coast from the charge o f utter worthlessness, and to enable the people inhabiting it, to hold up their heads with some confidence among their countrymen, amidst the jeers, with which some o f those countrymen so much delight in disparaging them. But, Their resources reach beyond their whaling operations, or, to speak more accurately, their riches are not confined to the wealth acquired in dis tant seas, and remote quarters o f far-off oceans. T h ey find a mine o f wealth, as it were, at their own doors, and are actually educating hundreds o f hardy seamen for the country’ s service, within sight o f the rocky pro montories, whose shingly shores and shallow soil are deemed so valueless b y the lords o f prairie-land, and the notables o f the “ Ohio bottoms.” N or is this noble school for furnishing the commerce o f the country with its best sailors, without its present profits while in operation. It is making comfortable, and even securing competency, i f not actually making rich, the families o f its pupils, at the same time that those pupils are hardening themselves into a body o f men, so invaluable to their country, not only for its maritime prosperity in peace, but for its defence and its security in war. It is unnecessary to say, that w e refer to the coast fishery, and to the im mense comparative amount o f interest connected with it. 276 The Sea Resources o f the Coast : T h e little city o f N ew London, w hich forms the nucleus o f the branch o f the national industry and enterprise embraced within the narrow limits with which w e have to do in this article, contains but about 8,000 inhab itants, and is looked upon as but a moderate sized village seaport, not very attractive in its aspect, and by no means likely to lead a stranger into any very high estimate o f its wealth, but is, nevertheless, quietly and unobtrusively contributing to its own comfort and to the resources o f the coun try, in a degree little known, and consequently little appreciated by the public. T h e number o f vessels now employed in the various kinds o f fishery on the coast, from the Grand Banks, in the East, to Cape May, in the South, is no less than as follows :— * Schooner-smacks, over 20 tons,.................................................................... Sloop-smacks, “ Sloop-smacks, under 20 ton s,........................................................................ T otal,............................................. 9 46 30 85 Many o f these smacks are o f sixty and seventy tons burden— some, w e believe, reaching ninety. A beautiful schooner, just rigged, and now ly ing at the wharf, nearly ready for a cruise, is o f about seventy tons— as beautiful in model, as sound and faithful in construction, and appointments o f all sorts, and as firm in substantial finish, as any craft that ever encoun tered salt water. Th ey are unquestionably the best and safest sea-boats in the world, and nothing that carries canvass can compete with them in going to w indw ard; nor w ill they ever find competitors, till some seaphilosopher contrives a craft that can make her w ay with sails, alone, di rectly into the wind. So perfect is the working o f these vessels, and such the daring and undaunted skill with which they are managed, that they are rarely ever lost— perilous as is the employment in which they are con stantly engaged, and terrible as are the winter storms they are continually encountering. Indeed, the hardy and bold men who own and navigate them, are so confident o f their qualities, and o f their own capacity for con ducting them with safety through every trial that may await their adven turous career, that, w e believe, they generally act as their own insurers without calling upon incorporated offices to run any risk on their own ac count. T h ey look, under Providence, to their own courage, and the strength o f their own practised right hand, for all indemnity against danger. These eighty-five vessels average something more than four hands each— some o f the largest carrying seven or eight— making an aggregate o f at least 400 men and boys, actually in constant employment on b oa rd ; while it is estimating very moderately, to say, that the number connected with them on shore, and directly interested in the success o f their labors, cannot be less than 1,500. This, o f course, is exclusive o f the numbers indirectly benefited by their business, more or less immediately. T h e ship-carpenters, the rope-makers, the riggers, and mechanics o f almost * It is proper to say, that this list does not include a ship and a schooner, which recent ly fitted from New London, but which are known to have been lost; and that.it does in clude two ships, which, though fitted out lately as whalemen, are at present employed in the freighting business to Europe. And the W h ale and Shore Fisheries o f New London. 277 every class, the farmers, and, indeed, nearly every member o f the com munity around them, are, in some measure, connected with their prosper ity ; and pitiless would be the condition o f the great cities, but for the un tiring enterprise and fearless self-devotion o f the smackmen. H ow would it sit upon the stomachs o f their fellow-citizens o f Baltimore, Philadelphia, and N ew York, to go into market some morning, and be informed that the smackmen had given over their business, and that the haddock and the halibut, the lobsters, the blaekfish, the paugies, the Hannah Hills, and every other sea luxury to which they had been accustomed, were to be looked for elsewhere ? Such an announcement would probably open their eyes, in some small degree— open them far enough, at least, to smooth down some o f the wrinkles which so frequently disfigure their faces in endeavoring to look contempt upon the rough visages and coarsely-clad bodies o f the Yankee skippers. Humble as may seem the calling o f these rugged, and some times ragged, denizens o f the reef and the rock, they constitute a class o f men, more respectable among themselves, more useful to those around them, and more important to the community to which they belong, than forty times the number o f showier popinjays w ho love to laugh at th em ! Such are some o f the men who make up the population o f old Con necticut. Such is some o f the material o f national greatness, so looked down upon by the politicians and political economists o f the country. Such are some o f the products o f the barren sea-beach, so often undervalued, so flippantly derided, and so rarely understood. It is impossible, from the nature o f the business, to arrive at any strict accuracy, or, perhaps, any very close approximation to it, in estimating the amount o f clear profits annually earned by these N ew London smackmen. It probably reaches nearly $100,000 ; and such a sum, added to the amount brought on shore by those engaged in fishing on a larger scale in the Atlantic, the Indian, and the Pacific Oceans, strikes us as placing this much despised section upon a footing o f very tolerable equality, with the vaunted productiveness o f regions enjoying a more favored fertility o f soil. N or have w e deemed it necessary te take at all into view, another branch o f maritime industry, in which the people o f this district are engaged, though it is o f itself o f no inconsiderable value and importance. The coasting business, proper, is o f very considerable extent, and the source o f a very handsome profit. W e have taken no pains to reach the amount o f this business with anything like statistical exactitude, it being simply our purpose to look more particularly into the foreign and coast fisheries o f the place ; but still, the coasting trade between N ew London, and N ew York, and Albany, from the former to Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, N ew Orleans, Texas, and even the ports on the G ulf o f M exico, is o f no very contracted consequence, though certainly secondary to the greater and more engrossing interests on w hich w e have principally dwelt. That the rocky region round about her, is worth something to N ew London, besides for affording shelter to her ’long-shore fishermen, and furnishing ground enough for lying alongside of, in fitting out whalemen for the coasts o f Ja pan and Madagascar, it were not out o f place, perhaps, to say, that sev eral o f her vessels have, within a few years, been employed in transport ing some thousands o f tons o f her surplus granite to Vera Cruz, which now presents the best portion o f masonry in the castle o f San Juan d’Ulloa, while others have carried cargoes to Ali Pasha, for the construction o f for 278 The Union o f the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. tifications at Alexandria and Grand Cairo. These latter specimens o f traffic may possibly be considered more profitable than patriotic, and so w e once took occasion to say to the proprietor o f the quarry; but he seemed to look upon his patriotism as perfectly intact in the transaction. W ith regard to M exico, he was quite sure that he was doing good service to his country; for he was making Santa Anna pay— and pretty roundly, too— for N ew London county rocks, which Uncle Sam’s ships would go out some day and knock all to pieces, and thus render good for nothing to the Mexicans, when the yellow-faced rascals would be obliged to buy more o f him ; and thus, while the navy w ere battering their forts about their ears, he (the stone merchant) was draining them o f their money. Upon some similar principle, he justified his dickering with the despot o f Egypt. However, N ew Loudon derives her main importance from the wealth which she draws from the deep. W hat enriches her citizens impoverishes no one else. H er riches may properly enough be called an invention. The fisherman finds them amidst the sea, where no claimant can inter, pose a prior ownership, and all he brings ashore is original virgin gold, before unknown and unowned. T h e little city is fast assuming an unmistakable aspect in this respect. She is becom ing a new creation. F or nearly two centuries she remained what she was when the pilgrims planted their staves upon her barren bor ders— a mere hamlet o f humble dwellings, upon a bleak and rocky hill side. For fifty years, she continued stationary, as a “ county town o f 3,000 inhabitants” — varying, for all that time, as little in her census as she did in her habits; no more dreaming o f the day when her noble harbor would shelter eighty o f her own ships, than she did o f rivalling her E n g lish namesake in the number o f her churches and the splendor o f her palaces. She even seemed to deem it undesirable to improve. She was perfectly satisfied with what she was, and looked askance upon every fresh attempt to make her either any bigger or any better. But a great change has come over the spirit o f her dreams. She has shaken o ff the lethargic slumber that was upon her, and if a few o f her aboriginal incubi do not refuse to let go their hold, and some o f her mod ern doctors do not insist on administering too much opium, she w ill remain awake till she takes her place among the proudest o f her sister communi ties. N o port upon the coast o f the North American continent furnishes su perior advantages to that o f N ew London for foreign and domestic navi gation ; and poor as may be the soil immediately surrounding the town, (and poor enough it certainly is,) there are few localites in the country offering greater facilities for a flourishing and prosperous business, and the building up o f a first-class town. c. f. d. Art. VI.— THE UNION OF THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS. I n order fully to avail ourselves o f all the sources o f trade which have been thrown open to us by our conquests on the western coast o f America, it is indispensable that a canal or railroad should be constructed across the Isthmus o f Darien. So much has been written upon the subject since Baron Humboldt first The Union o f the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 27f) drew public attention to its feasibility, and the advantages that would re sult from its accomplishment, that w e are astonished at the delay o f se lecting the route, and putting into execution a project o f such vast conse quence. In the settlement o f California alone, the advantages o f such communi cation cannot be over-estimated. Our rapidly increasing com m ercial re lations with the East Indies, China, Australia, the Fejee and Polynesian Islands, and South Am erica, call loudly for its com m encem ent; to say n o thing o f our immense whaling interest in the Pacific. W e have reason to fear that one o f the two great European States which have so long had the work in contemplation, will subject us to the mortification o f receiving at its hands, the facilities which are so necessary for the advancement o f our political as well as commercial interests. Boasting, as well we may, o f a canal such as the world never saw, com menced and completed by a single State, can vve doubt the ability o f the United States to accomplish a work o f far less magnitude, although o f much greater importance 1 W ill not the attention o f Congress be attract ed to it, and measures at once adopted for the furtherance o f this great object ? For the following information w e are partly indebted to a highly dis tinguished functionary o f a foreign power, long a resident o f Central Am erica, whose anxiety is, that when the enterprise shall be taken in hand— and it certainly must be, at no distant day,— its success may be se cured by a judicious selection o f locality. H e considers that a line from the bight o f the Mandingo Bay, (in the country o f the San Bias Indians,) to the Pacific coast, near Panama, is the best route. The isthmus here is much narrower than at any other points, being only eight leagues across. Besides, the mountains o f the central range, which elsewhere offer a serious barrier, have here gradually dwin dled, so as to give striking evidence to those who view them from the bay, that this is the right point for the transition to be made. It is common for the Indians to transport their canoes from one ocean to the other, by taking them up the River Mandingo, (that has a long course from the southward,) hauling them over a narrow neck o f land, and then descending the course o f another stream, into the Pacific, not far to the eastward ofPanam a. This locality possesses the advantage over all other, o f a salubrious cli mate ; and while Chagres and Porto Bello are, from miasma and con stant rains, rendered the most deadly ports to w hich a foreigner can resort, the climate around the Mandingo is perfectly healthy at all seasons. This spacious bay, with its deep channels, among innumerable islands, pos sesses unrivalled accommodations for the navies o f the whole world, in an chorage or in mooring to the islands. Even Porto Bello, whose name in dicates the character o f its haven, must yield the palm to Mandingo. T h e coast o f San Bias is said to be more dry and salubrious than even the shores o f the Musquitia, which have been considered healthy to a pro verb ; and its soil, even under the wretched cultivation o f a demi-savage population, teems with more produce than the Indians can consume. The surplus, beyond what is required for the shipping, is used for fattening swine and poultry, which are reserved for supplying the trading vessels— it being considered, by the Indians, disgraceful for them to consume these domestic animals, while the forests yield so abundantly o f wild ones, and the bays and rivers an ample supply o f fish and turtle. 280 The Union o f the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. O f the other contemplated routes, that between the river Guasacualer, which flows into the G ulf o f M exico, and the Bay o f Tehuautepic, in the Pacific, is the least likely to be adopted. Another is that ascending the river and lake o f St. John de Nicaragua on the Mosquitian shore, and de scending from the latter by the course o f a small stream, into the G u lf o f Papagayo ; and a third route, b y connecting the source o f the river Atrato, which flows into the G u lf o f Darien, with the river St. John, that flows in to the Pacific. This connection was effected the latter part o f the last century, and the use o f it forbidden on pain o f death, through jealous fears o f the Spanish government O f late these lines have been abandoned in favor o f a fourth, viz. : that o f Porto Bello to Panama. The soil or rather climate o f Porto Bello is so unpropitious to agriculture, that the scanty and squalid population find it difficult to procure the means o f subsistence. Upon examining two Spanish maps, published at Madrid in 1809 and 1817, one gives the distance across the isthmus, from Mandingo Bay, as about five leagues, and the other e ig h t; while the distance at Porto B ello is given as upwards o f fourteen. It is in comparison with this route from Porto Bello particularly that w e would draw the attention o f the public to that o f the M andingo; the tes timony o f all the traders along the coast, o f many years experience, has been given in favor o f the latter. The superiority o f this locality admitted, and there remains nothing to prevent its being put in competition with the others, but the well-founded report that the San Bias Indians w ill not per mit such an enterprise to be commenced in their territory— a territory w hich the Spanish monarch and his republican successors have claimed as theirs, prescribing vexatious restrictious on the trade o f the coast. A s for the acquiescence o f the Republic o f N ew Grenada, which claims sove reignty over the San Bias country on a plea o f heritage, though they never had possession, there is little doubt it could be obtained by purchase. T h e San Bias Indians are naturally jealous o f what is likely to endan ger their independence— a guarantee o f which must be given before any route for trade, through their country, will be permitted. I f the business is rightly set about, there is no doubt that the repugnance o f these Indians can be overcome, and the use o f their country permitted for the construc tion o f a work which cannot fail greatly to enhance its value. T h e British government has long extended its protection over the M osquitia Indians, in whose territory they have a C onsul-G eneral; and as the character o f those o f San Bias is quite as proverbial for industry, courage, and integrity, a like attention from our government might secure to us com mercial advantages o f great value. Th eir only trade at present is with Ja maica, and such is the patriarchal character o f their government, that it has preserved them hitherto from the effects o f that contact which has ruined most o f the North Am erican tribes. A course o f trade through their country might introduce intemperance among them, therefore it would be necessary for us to establish such regulations as have been long in use on our Indian frontier, to preserve the red man from the demoraliza tion which has too often ensued from his contact with the white. Our enterprising countryman, W illiam Wheehvright, Esq., (w ho has been many years engaged in establishing steam-packet routes about the Pacific,) in a paper, read before the R oyal Geographical Society o f Great Britain, states that Chagres is the only river o f any magnitude, to be found between the G ulf o f Darien and the rivei' San Juan de Nicaragua, Law o f Debtor and Creditor in Louisiana. 281 which, after receiving several confluent streams, discharges its waters in to the Atlantic ocean ; while the rivers Chavera and Grande, immediately opposite, and falling into the Pacific, have their sources interlocked with those o f the Chagres and its tributaries. Th ese leading features seem to afford almost conclusive evidence that the level here is most complete, and that the natural advantages for connecting the two oceans, are much greater than at any other part o f the isthmus. Mr. L loyd’ s report and maps are the only scientific evidences w e can obtain in relation to this matter. It does not appear that he traversed the line he laid down, but he doubtless observed it from the elevations which he ascended. H is levels w ere undertaken with the view o f ascertaining the comparative height o f the two oceans. H is statements, containing his observations and calcula tions, are deposited among the archives o f the R oyal Society. In tracing the route between the rivers Chagres and Panama or Chavera, it is necessary that w e com m ence by examining the bar o f Chagres and the adjacent coast. Mr. Lloyd proposed that a canal should connect this river and Lem on Bay, and thus avoid the bar. It is certainly capa ble o f being made an excellent outlet. A nearly level line exists in this part o f the isthmus, and there is no height o f consequence to be overcome, in effecting a communication here, between the two oceans, either by a railroad or canal. Before so vast an undertaking as the opening o f a great ship-canal can be commenced, it is necessary that a road be made a s near the level line as possible, both with a view to ulterior labors, w hich such a road would greatly facilitate, and for the immediate estab lishment o f an intercourse between the two oceans. The canal must be sufficiently wide for ships o f the largest size to pass each other freely in its channel. It must not be cramped with questions o f expense, but laid out on a scale commensurate with its importance, and the age in which it is effected. I f we are not deceived, the level is so complete that it would only be necessary to have locks at either end, while its total length would not ex c e e d thirty miles. T h e Chagres could be made its feeder, but the eleva tion o f the Pacific (13 i feet) above the Atlantic, would probably render the canal independent o f any tributary streams. N o really scientific research has as yet been made towards the realiza tion o f the object in view — an object which, when attained, w ill produce some o f the most extraordinary results that the combined intelligence, wisdom, science, and energy o f man are capable o f effecting. Art. VII,— LAW OF DEBTOR AND CREDITOR IN LOUISIANA. LO U ISIA N A LA W ON T H E SUBJECT OF “ R E S P IT E .” articles in your valuable Magazine upon the “ L aw o f Debtor and Creditor in Louisiana” have failed to call the attention o f your readers to a great and important peculiarity o f the civil code affecting the enforce ment o f civil obligations, as vitally important to the interests o f the com mercial public as those which have been already considered ; I allude to the subject o f R e s p i t e , a branch o f Louisiana law intimately affecting many o f the mercantile relations between this city and N ew York, and one which is probably quite unknown to the greater part o f your readers. T he 282 Law o f Debtor and Creditor in Louisiana. Respite is defined by the Louisiana Code, art. 3,051, to be “ an act ; by w hich a debtor, w ho is unable to satisfy his debts at the moment, transacts with his creditors, and obtains from them time or delay for the payment of the sums which he owes to them.” There is a further definition o f voluntary and forced respite. It is vol untary, when all the creditors consent to the proposal which the debtor makes to pay in a limited time the w hole or a part o f his debt. It is for. ced, when a part o f the creditors refuse to accept the debtor’ s proposal, and when the debtor is obliged to compel them by judicial authority to consent to what the others have determined in the cases directed by law. T h e voluntary respite needs no comment whatsoever. The stipulations which all the creditors choose to make with their debtor, can o f course do m ischief to no one ; they may act together and unanimously in this or any other like contract as to them may seem good, but it is when the acts o f two creditors may control the interests and rights o f a third creditor, that the subject becom es one o f serious importance, and the forced respite is a, proceeding touching not only the parties who agree but those also who do not agree to its terms. “ It takes place,” says the code, “ when the cred itors do not all agree, for then the opinion o f a majority in number and in amount prevails, and the judge shall approve such opinion, and it shall be binding on the other creditors who did not agree to it.” Thus, for in stance, i f a merchant in N ew Y ork entrusts to a merchant in N ew Orleans goods to the amount o f one thousand dollars, taking a note payable at the latter place, say in one year, and the N ew Orleans merchant has two other creditors in this city, to each o f whom he owes five hundred and one dollars, these two creditors, forming a majority in number and amount, may elect, under certain forms hereafter to be mentioned, to allow to the debtor three years to pay the two thousand and two dollars which he ow es ; and the N ew Y ork creditor, although he may wholly dissent from such a disposition o f his debt, must quietly submit. W e w ill pursue the rules o f this law, as laid down in the code, and afterwards make some general remarks as to the extent to which they have been carried b y adjudicated cases. In order that the respite may take place, it is necessary— x 1. That the debtor should deposit in the office o f the clerk o f the court o f his domicil, to whom he presents his petition for calling his creditors, a true and exact schedule, sworn to by him, o f all his movable and immova ble property, as well as o f his debts. 2. That a meeting o f the creditors o f such debtor, domiciliated in the State, shall be called on a certain day at the office o f a notary public, by order o f the judge ; at which meeting the creditors shall be summoned to attend by process issued from the court, i f the creditors live within the parish where the meeting shall take place, or by letters addressed to them by the notary, i f they are not residing in the parish. 3. That the creditors be ordered to attend in ten days, if they are all living in the parish o f the judge w ho gives the ord er; and in thirty days, if there are some o f them residing out o f the parish. 4. That this meeting, as w ell as its object, be advertised in English and in French, by papers posted up in the usual p la ce s; and also by three publications in English and French in the newspapers, i f any be printed within the extent o f the jurisdiction o f the judge w ho grants the order. 5- That the creditors explain exactly the amount o f the sums which Law o f D ebtor and Creditor in Louisiana. 283 they claim, and make oath before the notary holding the meeting, that they are justly and lawfully due. T h e creditors who do not make this oath, shall not have the right o f voting, and their credits shall not be counted among those by w hich it is to be determined whether the respite is granted or not. Absent creditors, and who are not domiciliated in the State, are not, in any case, summoned to the meeting. T h ey are to be represented by an attorney, whom it is the duty o f the judge to appoint for them. The duties o f that attorney are confined to establishing, as far as pos sible, the debts o f the absentees, and to seeing that the proceedings are conducted leg a lly ; he cannot grant anything in the name o f the persons whom he represents. Thus it is seen that the first notice which a N ew Y ork creditor may receive o f the fact that his debtor in N ew Orleans is moving for an ex tension o f time for the payment o f his debts, is from a notary’ s letter ; and such notice makes him, whether he w ill or no, a party to the proceedings. The property o f the debtor is not hypothecated, by reason o f the respite, for the payment o f the mass o f the debts, unless the respite has been granted on the express condition that this hypothecation shall exist. But the creditors who are obliged to abide by the w ill o f the majority, may require that the debtor shall furnish security, that the property o f which he is left in possession shall not be alienated; or, in case it is, that the money arising from the sale shall be employed in paying the debts existing at the time o f the respite. The following classes o f persons cannot be compelled to enter into any contract o f respite :— Privileged creditors, o f what nature soever their privileges may be, and creditors who have a special mortgage by public act. Minors, for the balance o f account o f their tutorship or curatorship. W ives for their dotal rights, or for that o f reclaiming their property. Therefore, the privileged creditors, and those w ho have a special mort gage as aforesaid, cannot be deprived by any respite, though agreed to by three-fourths o f the creditors in number and in amount, o f the right o f seizing the property on which they have a privilege; but if such property do not prove sufficient to satisfy their debt, they shall be restrained Horn acting for the surplus, either against the person o f the debtor, or against those o f his effects on which they have no privilege, except after the ex piration o f the term granted by the respite. But creditors having a general mortgage are bound by the respite, in the same manner as ordinary creditors. T h e time allowed to a debtor in a forced respite, cannot exceed three y e a rs; and i f the creditors o f the three-fourths in number and in amount, have granted to him more time, the creditors who are opposed to the respite, may cause this delay to be reduced to the legal time, saving to the debtor the right, when it shall be expired, to call again these creditors in order to obtain a new delay, which, in this last case, shall be granted only if all these creditors unanimously consent to it. A ny one who has claimed the benefit o f the cession o f goods, cannot afterwards pray for a mere respite. W hen the creditors refuse a respite, the cession o f property ensues ; and the proceedings continue, as i f the cession had been offered in the first instance. 284 Law o f D ebtor and Creditor in Louisiana. Until the year 1843, it was the law in Louisiana that no respite could be granted, unless three-fourths o f the creditors in number and amount agreed to it. In that year a statute was passed reviving the State insol vent laws, w hich had been in force prior to the national bankrupt act, and at the end o f this statute there is a clause providing that the article 3,053 o f the civil code be so amended as to read, “ majority instead o f threefourths.” This is the article (3,05 3) regulating respite ; no reference is made to the subject matter in the statute o f 1843, and it might not be hazardous to declare that some o f the members o f the legislature w ere not at the time aware o f the important alterations they were making. But, says the N ew Y ork lawyer, is not this, your law o f respite, virtually an insolvent law ? H ow can it affect the N ew Y ork creditor, w ho, re fusing to be bound by its rules, seeks to enforce a judgment in the Circuit Court o f the United States ? W ould not that court decide respite to be unconstitutional, as impairing obligations, and as having no weight or binding effect upon those out o f the State ? These questions have been touched upon by the United States’ Supreme Court in 10 Peters, 283, M. B . Haydell, plaintiff in error, vs. Francois Girod ; and in 7 Peters, 413, Breedlove and Robeson vs. Nicolet and S ig g ; but they have not been de cided. The points w ere made, but the court found it easy to decide the cases upon other grounds. Our State courts have examined these ques tions, and given their construction, that the laws relative to respite are not insolvent laws.— 3 Robinson’s Reports, 407, Anthony Rasch vs. His cred itors. T h e debt sued for in this case was payable in Louisiana, but con tracted in Mississippi, and the opponent was a resident o f the last named State. T h e petitioner resided in N ew Orleans. The court in its judg ment refers to the opinion o f Pothier upon the definition o f respite, who says it is to be considered as “ a question o f equity, as it is not just that the rigor o f some creditors should prejudice the interest o f all.” “ H ere,” continues the court, “ the petitioner seeks no discharge from his obliga tions, nor does he wish to impair their validity. H e only says, I cannot pay you now without ruin to m yself and injury to you and my other cred itors, but give me time and all will be paid. W e do not see that the granting so reasonable a demand is unconstitutional.” T h e Supreme Court o f the United States would probably construe the laws o f this State as our Supreme Court has construed them, though the door is a wide one to immense frauds. T h e one creditor may be com pelled to wait three years, without interest, at the w ill o f two creditors in collusion with the debtor. If the creditor objects to the law and seeks to set it aside, he is told that the rule is o f the form only, and touches not the construction o f his con tra ct; or touches only to retard its payment, not to impair its obligation. It was the rule when he took the obligation, and, in matters regarding the enforcement o f it, he is to abide by the terms o f such rule. It may be, that the debtor in N ew Orleans ow es ten thousand dollars to the N ew Y ork merchant who has sold him merchandise, and owes ten thousand and one dollars to his father and b roth er; they, mem bers o f his family, o f course agree to the respite, and the N ew Y ork mer chant has only to regret that he had not read something o f Louisiana law before he entrusted his means to such unfortunate dispositions. In some cases doubtless the operation o f the law would be just and ex cellent. T h e crops o f the planter, at the moment o f harvest-home, are swept by the ouragon or the crevasse, and he finds him self on the instant, 285 M ercantile Law Cases. though abundantly solvent, deprived o f the power o f meeting his present engagements. H e calls his creditors together, lays the situation o f his business affairs all open, a majority agree to grant a respite, and he is saved from the ruin which an immediate judgment and execution would bring upon him. The merchant, too, finds his present means crippled by the loss o f his richest ship, and the refusal o f an insurance office to pay without a suit: he may bless the equity o f that law which prevents the rigorous creditor from driving him into bankruptcy. MERCANTILE LAW CASES. [W e are indebted to C. Bryan, Esq., o f Akron, Ohio, for the<following decisions in the Courts o f that State, on points important to mercantile men.] L E T T E R OF C R E D IT . When a letter of credit is addressed to a particular firm, no one else can rely on it as a guaranty. The vender of a bill of goods, upon the faith of a letter of eredit, must give no tice at once to the guarantor, or he will not be liable.* BILLS OP E XC H AN G E. The holder of a bill of exchange, drawn by a person living in one State, upon a citizen of another State, is relieved by the statute of Ohio from the necessity of procuring a notarial protest, except for the purpose of recovering the statutory damages.f Such bills are so far foreign bills under our statute, that the notarial protest is received as evidence of the facts stated in it. The holder may treat them as for eign, by having them regularly protested,— which entitles him to 6 per cent dam ages, over and above principal and interest; or as inland, and make his proof of demand and notice.j A promissory note, payable to a person or bearer, is negotiable by delivery, without endorsement. But a sealed bill or note in the same form, is negotiable only by endorsement.^ The mere endorsement upon a note, of a stranger’s name in blank, is prima facie evidence of guaranty.|| To charge such a person as maker, there must be proof that his endorsement was made at the time of execution by the other party ; or, if afterwards, that it was in pursuance of an agreement or intention that he should become responsible from the date of the execution. Such agreement or intention may be proved by parol, and the rule is the same whether the instrument be negotiable or not. COMMON CAR R IER S. Proprietors of stage coaches are common carriers, and their liabilities cannot be limited by actual notice to a traveller that his baggage is at his own risk. A watch is part of a traveller’s baggage, and his trunk is a proper place to carry it in. Whatever forms the necessary appendages of a traveller, may be legiti mately considered as baggage, and placed in his trunk for conveyance. How ever valuable an article of baggage may be, the owner is not bound to disclose such peculiar value to the carrier, unless inquiry be mqde.1T * Taylor et al. vs. Wetmores, 10 Ohio, 490. t 10 Ohio, 496. 1 10 Ohio, 180, Case us. Heffner. § 14 Ohio,542. || 13 Ohio,239. 11 10 Ohio, 145, Jones vs. Voorhees. 286 Mercantile Law Cases. COMMERCIAL COU RT, MEM PHIS, T E N N .---- COMM ERCIAL GU ARAN TEES. A case of some interest to the mercantile community, was recently (December. 1846,) tried in the Commercial Court, at Memphis, Tennessee. The questions raised were upon the doctrines of commercial guarantees. A house at New Or leans shipped to this place goods for a merchant formerly in business here. The goods upon their arrival were detained by order of the sellers, until the purchaser should obtain a friend to guarantee payment of them. The guaranty was pro cured in writing. Its terms were substantially— “ W e understand Mr. H. J. pro poses to do some business with you in the way of groceries, &c. W e will be re sponsible with him for any contract he may make with you of this kind” — and it was addressed to the sellers. Testimony was given unnecessary here to detail. The questions chiefly discussed were, whether notice of the acceptance of the guaranty was given to the guarantor— whether such notice was necessary to fix his liability— and whether it was necessary before seeing the guarantor, to give him notice of the default of the principal debtor to pay. For the plaintiff it was insisted— that this was an absolute guarantee, not a mere proposal or overture to become guarantor— that notice of acceptance is only necessary in the case of a proposal or overture, not in the case of an absolute un dertaking— that where the proposition or requisition of guaranty proceeds from the creditor to the guarantor, and thereupon the guaranty is given, notice of its acceptance is not necessary— that the omission of the creditor to give the guar antor notice of the default of the principal debtor to pay, is material only where such omission works an injury to the guarantor, and is not a pre-requisite to the right of action by the creditor against the guarantor. To sustain these positions of the plaintiff, were cited numerous British authorities and several recent deci sions in the State of New York. For the defendant it was argued—that there was no proof of notice given to the guarantor, either of the acceptance of the guaranty or of the default of the principal debtor to pay— that in regard to the necessity of notice, the distinction taken for the plaintiff between absolute guarantees and overtures, was unsound — that in all cases of guarantees of debts to be subsequently contracted, notice of the acceptance of the guaranty must be given to the guarantor in reasonable time, otherwise he will not be fixed with liability— and that notice of the princi pal debtor’s default to pay, must be given to the guarantor, as a pre-requisite to a right of action against him. Several cases in the Supreme Court of the Union were cited on the part of the defendant, and it seemed to be agreed, that these cases hold in regard to guaran tees of debts to be subsequently created, that notice to the guarantor of the ac ceptance of his guaranty, is indispensable to fix his liability. Verdict went for the plaintiff, and mainly, it seemed, upon the ground that where the proposition for the guaranty proceeds from the creditor to the guaranty, there fore he gives the guaranty ; notice of its acceptance from the creditor to the guar antor is unnecessary. Certainly it is prudent in the creditor, in all cases of guar anty, to give notice in reasonable time to the guarantor of its acceptance and of the extent to which it is acted on, and of the default of the principal debtor to pay. H. G. Smith for the plaintiffs, Blume and Trezevant for the defendant. FR E IG H T -----D E L IV E R Y OF M ERCHAN DISE. In the Fourth District Court, (New Orleans,) Judge Strawbridge recently de cided, (January, 1847,) in the case of Andrews & Dewey vs. Troisgros & Lampre, which was an action brought by the plaintiffs for the recovery of freight upon cer tain goods shipped from Havre, and consigned to the defendants— that a delivery of goods upon the levee, with notice to the consignee, was a sufficient delivery ; and from the time of such discharge by the ship, the goods were at the risk of the consignee. Judgment accordingly.— Counsel for plaintiffs, Samuel C. Reed, Jr., Esq.; W . S. Upton, Esq., for the defence. Commercial Chronicle and Review . 287 COMMERCIAL CHRONICLE AND REVIEW. FEATURES OF COMMERCIAL AFFAIRS SINCE OUR LAST NUMBER— INFLUENCE OF RAILROAD SPECU LATIONS IN ENGLAND— CONSUMPTION OF FOOD— BANK OF ENGLAND— BANK OF FRANCE— CONDITION OF IRELAND---- FOOD IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND FOR LAST THREE YEARS---- EXPORTS OF BRITISH MANUFACTURES FOR LAST THREE YEARS— STATE OF COTTON TRADE OF GREAT BRITAIN FOR FITE YEARS— BRITISH EXPORT OF CALICOES, PRINTS, AND YARN, FOR FIVE YEARS— THE COTTON CROP— BULLION IN THE BANK OF ENGLAND---- COMMERCIAL PROSPERITY OF THE UNITED STATES— INFLUENCE OF THE W A R ON FINANCIAL AFFAIRS— AFFAIRS OF THE UNITED STATES TREASURY---- LOANS— IMPORT OF SPECIE— POPULARITY OF THE WAREHOUSING SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES— FORMS ADOPTED, ETC., ETC. F in a n c ia l and commercial affairs, since the date of onrlast, have evinced, in a more marked degree, the features which had been prominent for some previous months. Events in Europe are approaching a crisis, fraught with the most im portant consequences. In former numbers we have alluded to the great influence which the railroad mania of past years has exercised upon the condition of the people, and the results that influence has produced in extending employment, and enhancing the means of those whose share of the comforts and necessaries of life has hitherto been small. The modification of the English taxes, in 1842, and sub sequently, was designed, according to the avowal of the government, to throw the burden of taxation upon property, and to relieve labor, by cheapening the prices of the articles it consumes, as food and other necessaries. This object has apparently been effected in England, as the large imports of foreign articles of food, besides grain, would show. Coming in aid of this, has been the large railroad expendi tures, not only in Great Britain, but throughout Europe. The railroads, by their facility of intercourse, as well as through the direct payments made on their ac count, by governments and capitalists, to the laborers, have greatly improved the condition of the lower classes, and powerfully stimulated the consumption of food. In ordinary times, the effect of these measures would naturally be displayed in an increased demand for, and an advance in the prices of, food. It so happens, how ever, that simultaneous with this increased consumption, the crops of some of the coarser grains of the western states of Europe have been deficient, and in Ireland, a most awful visitation has overtaken the people, through the failure of the potato crop, on which millions of the wretched inhabitants depend alone for subsistence. The general effect of these circumstances has been, to compel very large pur chases of food from eastern Europe and from America, and consequently, as is al ways the case in an unusual business, to disturb that financial repose which for so many years has been manifest, by causing important currents of the precious metals to set out of the customary channels for their employment. These events naturally would cause disquiet, but are aided by the enormous speculation in rail road shares. In the early fall a revulsion took place, which caused a great de mand for money, and a rise in the rate of interest, in the cities of the north of Eu rope. In our January number we quoted the rates of interest on the continent, remarking that discrepancies so great could not continue long. As, for instance, when money is worth 5 to 6 per cent in Amsterdam and Antwerp, the Bank of France could not continue to discount at 4 per cent, without losing its specie; be 288 Commercial Chronicle and Review . cause it afforded a profit of 1 to 1J per cent to German bankers to borrow money in Paris and reloan it in those cities ; nevertheless the Bank continued to discount at that rate, until the low state of its bullion admonished it to raise the rate to 5 per cent— which was done in January. This would check the demand for re-discounts, but would not affect the export of silver for corn, the extent of which it is difficult to determine. The Count Darne estimated that the wants of France would be 44 days consumption, or 10,000,000 hectolitres, equal to 28,000,000 bushels, and worth $45,000,000. Of this, one-half was supposed to have been purchased, and consequently the remaining demand for corn would be at least $20,000,000. In this state of affairs, the whole of the bullion in the Bank of France would be absorbed. The amount held by it had fallen from 200,000,000 francs, in October, to 60,000,000 in January, when it obtained 20,000,000, in sil ver, from the Bank of England. If the estimates of the wants of France are correct, this whole sum will by no means suffice for the purchase of corn. Ne vertheless the king, in his speech, stated that the public works would be con tinued by the government, an announcement that in some degree reassured the markets. In England, great fears o f a revulsion were entertained, because of the difficulties in Ireland, and because of the wants of the continent, and attempts were made to run a parallel between the state of affairs now and that of the com mencement of 1839. Independent of Ireland, the state of English affairs was never more sound. Its large imports of the necessaries of life grow out of the prosperity of the people, and do not arise from their distress, as in 1839. In January, 1839, the price of wheat in England was 79s. The highest point it has touched this year is 66s. 10d., or 17 per cent lower than in 1839. The con sumption of foreign breadstufis, in 1846, has not been greater than that of other necessaries. The quantity of food imported for eleven months, ending Dec. 5, has been as follows : FOOD IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND, FOR CONSUMPTION, IN ELEVEN MONTHS. 1844. Live animals,............. .......... No. B acon,........................ Beef, salt,................... Butter,........................ Cheese,....................... Hams,......................... Pork, salt,.................... R ice,............................ Raisins,....................... Sugar,......................... Molasses,.................... 7,773 29 101,238 169,096 194,560 3,461 25,755 314,466 173,356 3,871,081 569,359 1845. 28,685 49 73,249 225,903 241,130 2,926 34.807 289,767 181,701 4,637,441 587,899 1846. 122,458 1,691 161,759 230,623 288,623 7,857 46,934 309,622 215,819 4,887,527 542,010 Total,......... 5,442,701 6,274,822 6,692,465 C ocoa,........................ Coffee......................... Pepper,....................... T ea,............................. T obacco,.................... 2,438,373 28,964,277 2,807,639 38,291,073 22,427,140 2,401,587 31,769,128 2,972,416 40,956,448 23,877,127 2,735,565 33,680,812 3,001,945 43,408,729 24,502,321 Total lbs.... 94,928,502 101,896,706 107,329,372 18,792,448 387,115 8,842,736 327,546 31,075,888 1,899,667 .£14,828,416 £13,325,886 £14,951,550 Grain,.......................... .. .bushels. Flour,......................... Bullion in bank, end o f each year, 289 Commercial Chronicle and Review. This is an extraordinary result. The consumption of all these articles has in creased prodigiously, and with that increase the amount of bullion in the Bank, large as it was, continued to swell in volume. It is observable that those articles which are luxuries were consumed in a greater degree than even necessary food. The exports of manufactures, in the same period, have been as follows, according to the declared value at the place of export:— 1844. Cotton goods,............................... “ yarn,................................. Hardware,..................................... Iron and Steel,............................ Linen goods................................ W oollen........................................ Other,............................................ Total............................ £17,450,264 6,680,329 1,996,031 3,031,080 2,790,274 7,687,160 7,647,205 £47,312,343 1845. 1846. £17.673,469 6,614,854 1,978,014 3,248,415 2,741,065 7,099,676 10,095,532 £49,451,025 £16,285,652 7,512,257 2,003,597 3,936,207 2,561,234 5,851,253 8,481,888 £47,632,088 * These are the export values, and with this diminished export and enhanced im port, exchanges were maintained to the close of the year, so as not to affect the export of coin. There is nothing in this state of affairs to lead to any great ap prehensions for the coming year. The situation of Ireland is indeed awful, but if its inhabitants get food to eat, it must be at the expense of the British government, and purchased of the United States. The state of the exchanges between the United States and England is, and has been, such as to make the payment of large sums of specie necessary to the purchase of food. This is favorable to every in terest of the United States, except cotton, which, in usual years, is found to be unfavorably influenced by the rise in food. The past six months is, however, an exception, inasmuch as that cotton has improved in common with food. It ap pears, nevertheless, that the consumption of cotton in England has declined. The following is a condensed statement of the cotton trade of Great Britain, for several years:— 1842. 1841. 1844. 1845. 1846. W ’ tofyarn, spun, lbs. 345,751,444 437,589,441 445,577,480 484,766,487 495,033,109 “ “ exported.. 268,352,474 322,841,410 323,362,810 336,866,327 354,291,740 Consumed in G. Br’n, 77,398,970 114,748,031 122,214,670 157,900,160 140,741,360 These returns, which are from “ Burns’ Glance,” indicate that the consumption, though less last year than in 1845, was double that of 1842 ! The particulars of the exports were as follows :— 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846. Plain calicoes, y’d s ... 366,040,519 520,941,635 569,677,792 613,138,645 618,830,181 Prints............................ 236,012,641 257,287,304 313,111,445 310,850,697 267,084,797 Y arn,....................lbs. 136,537,162 149,214,437 133,901,913 131,937,935 157,130,025 The consumption of cotton last year was near 500,000 bales in excess of the receipts, reducing the stock to that extent. Should the same degree of consump tion take place this year, with a United States crop of 2,000,000 bales, the stock will be entirely exhausted before its close. Hence, to preserve the present stock, which is as small as is safe, a diminution of consumption, to the extent of 500,000 bales, must take place. How is this to bo effected ? At the close of the year 1838, the stocks of cotton in the ports had considerably increased, and, alarmed by the cry of short crops, spinners had laid in stocks ahead. One spinner laid in V OL. X V I.— x o . I I I . 19 290 Commercial Chronicle and Review . a three year’s stock, at the rate of 10,000 bales per annum; being enabled to doso by the large crop of 1838. Notwithstanding that, and an average price of 72s, for wheat, throughout 1839,— accompanied by a great financial revulsion,— the reduction of the Bank of England to the point of bankruptcy, and the final ruin of the United States Bank, the consumption of cotton in England was reduced only 150.000 bales. The highest point which wheat has yet touched this year is 67s., and all the people of England who consume cottons, are well employed by rail roads and other means. Ireland consumes but little cotton. The cost of cotton cloth does not advance in the same proportion as the price of the raw material. How high, therefore, must the price of cotton rise to diminish consumption 30 per cent 1 It is evident that a short supply must take place, even if the crop reaches 2.100.000 bales. The falling offin the crop, this year, is in the heavy bales of the Mississippi. According to the proportion received, and the weights of last year, the weight of cotton will be as follows:— 1845-6 crop,.......................bales 2,055,713 ............... lbs. 905,880,739 1846-7 ............... .................. 2,000,000 ................... 859,756,000 Hence, 2,110,000 bales would but equal the weight of last year. Under all these considerations, to which we have but alluded, it follows that Great Britain must buy largely, and pay well for what she buys, as well farm produce as cotton ; and as exchanges are largely in our favor, considerable sums of specie, in addition to the $3,000,000 already received, must arrive. All that England loses will probably come here, and a collapse in English credits is now comparatively of small importance on this side of the Atlantic. It will, indeed, affect speculative prices to some extent; but in former years, more particularly 1837 and 1839, a large portion of the business done here depended on credits cen tering in London, and was the first portion thrown off by the bank; out of the broken credits of those years has grown present security. The business of the United States, with England, is now on a cash basis. A great institution, like the late National Bank, is not now dependent upon the favors of foreign banks, not only for its ability to meet its present payments, but for its very existence. W e have large and surplus products, which England must have, and which she must pay for. When her currency is full, prices may rule somewhat higher than when money is scarce ; but when the demand is urgent and effective, a raising of the rate of interest and security will not affect prices. A singular instance of this was apparent in 1838, ’39. In November, 1838, the bullion in the Bank of England was £10,000,000, and the price of wheat, 69s. It fluctuated from 69s. to 78s. throughout the year, during which the bullion diminished to £2,250,000, and the rate of interest rose from 3 to 6 per cent. All the efforts of the bank could not diminish the price, or check the import of grain, until the supply was enhanced at home. Such a position is now occupied by all American produce. T o whatever extent Great Britain must have produce, she must pay, and pay lib erally. The vast capital that she has garnered up from all quarters of the world, through centuries of prosperity, she must expend for food, because she has mis governed a nation until starvation for the many seems imminent. The external commerce of the country being thus prosperous, with high prices for all descriptions of the products of industry, the shipping never before so ac tively nor so profitably employed, and money pouring in from abroad, the future is indeed bright, as far as commercial and industrial interests are concerned. Commercial Chronicle and Review. 291 The continuance of the war, manifests its adverse influence in financial aflaira only, through the means adopted by the government to obtain extraordinary sup plies for the Treasury.' W e have, in a previous number, referred to the loan bill; but as it has since become effective, we may rematk upon the nature of its opera tion. The law allows the issue of $23,000,000 of notes, to bear not more than 6 per cent interest, to be redeemed at the Treasury, after one or two years, or to be funded, at any time presented by the holder, in a 6 per cent stock, semi-annual interest, redeemable in 1867, and transferable at the Treasury; the interest on the notes to cease at sixty days notice. The $5,000,000 notes outstanding, under the act of July, 1846, are put on the same footing. The notes may be paid out at par, to creditors, at their option. They may also be pledged for money, at par. When returned to the Treasury, others may be issued in their place. Instead of issuing these notes, the Secretary is authorized to issue the 6 per cent stock re deemable in 1867. The power to issue notes, is to cease in six months from the date of a treaty of peace with Mexico. The proceeds of the public lands are appropriated, after 1847, to the payment of the interest on the debt thus created; and if there is any excess of avails, it is to be applied to the purchase of the notes, or stock, at par. Under this law, the department borrowed money at par, on $5,000,000 of notes, payable in specie, either in New Orleans or New York; and, on the 9th of Feb ruary, advertised for the remaining $18,000,000 on Treasury notes, at 6 per cent interest, payable semi-annually. The effect of this movement was adverse to the market value of the old stock. It had been supposed that the notes would be issued at a low rate of interest, and of small denominations, depending upon the custom-house demand to support their value. In this view, they were regarded as a currency, the effect of which would be rather to enhance the abundance of money than otherwise. The high rate of interest at which they were put out, however, changed their character to that of a means of drawing money from those reservoirs where it usually accumulates, for purposes of discount. This would naturally be the case where they can be had at par; inasmuch as that those sums of money that lie usually in bank, on deposit, applicable to the pay ment of duties, would rather be applied to the purchase of notes, drawing 6 per cent interest, and available for the same purpose. The arrival of a large sum, near £400,000, ($2,000,000,) by the Hibernia, caused some increased abundance of money, which, however, again became more difficult to be obtained, unless for the best security. The imports have by no means been so large as was anticipated under the new tariff. The Secretary of the Treasury, in a reply to certain resolutions of the Senate, in relation to such articles as would yield a larger revenue at higher duties, gave a table of the du ties received at five cities for the first fifty-five days of the new tariff. The re sult was, receipts of $3,730,117, against $3,029,457, last year, an excess of $700,669. It is probable, however, that a portion of this increase was owing to the warehousing of large quantities of goods under the old tariff, to be taken out under the new. The warehousing process is rapidly growing in popularity, and will afford the greatest facilities to merchants of small capital. The extensive buildings erected in Broadway by the government, and supposed to be extensive enough to hold all the bonded goods, are proved to be very insufficient for that purpose. 292 Commercial Chronicle and Review. There is a warehouse bureau in the custom-house, under the direction of D. P. Barhydt, Esq. In this bureau are kept ten large ledgers, in which are recorded all the particulars of each package of merchandise in warehouse. These pack ages require an endless variety of descriptive particulars, all of which require to be entered alphabetically; and from these, are made up the quarterly statistical report, required by law. When goods are entered for warehouse, an entry certificate is made out, as follows:— C ustom H o u se , N e w Y ork, Collector’s Office, September 6 ,1 8 4 6 . WAREHOUSE ENTRY. Entry o f merchandise imported on the 2d day of September, 1846, by William Wilson, in the ship Roscoe, Delano master, from Liverpool. Packages and contents. 20 per c’t. 25 per c’ t. 30 per c’ t. 100 per c’t Dutiable val each package. Total. S cask brandy....................90 gil’s. ! •• case linens, 50 pieces. . . . 1,250 yds £62 10 case cloths, 2 pieces.... 35 yards. case merinoes................ 21 p’ces case cambric dimity . . . . 300 p’s., 60 case printed muslins-... 50 p’ ccs 37 10 case Gros de Naples, 20 p. 600 p*s. crate earthenware......... per inv’> trunk clothing...... ........ per inv’i (B) £90 62 17 42 60 £90 £17 6 42... 37 60 £60 10 50 10 160 1 *6 Commissions 21 per cent.. : 161 4 |o o Inland trans’ n &ship’g ch’s 60 6 'k 165 6 8 119 6 l| 2 100 1 60 6 120 8 101 2 io *6 1 10 2 3 0 2 6i da o 123 8 o 103 10 6 451 ' W illia m W ilson . If a part of this invoice is to be withdrawn, an entry is made, as follows:— C ustom -H ouse, N e w Y ork , Sept. 26, 1846. E ntry o f merchandise intended to he withdrawn from warehouse by Henry Thomas, fo r transportation to St. Louis, which was imported into this district on the 2 d Sept., 1846, by William Wilson, in the ship Roscoe, whereof Delano was master, from Liverpool. Marks. Nos. Packages and contents. (B) 5 One case cambric dimity.............. Charges......................... Commissions................ 300 pieces £60 0 1 12 10 62 2 £ 6 2 2s., equal to $301 ; at 20 per cent, $ 6 0 20. Amount o f duties, $ 6 0 20. H enky T homas. These are called “ entry” and “ withdrawal certificates,” and duplicates are al ways made out. A new feature has been added, which is, to make three copies of these certificates, and on presenting one of each to Mr. Barhydt, the Register, from them he makes out, and delivers to the importer, a certificate, specifying the goods and packages accurately, the names of the importer and owner, and the dutiable value of the goods. This certificate is transferable by endorsement, and Commercial Chronicle and Review. 2S3 its presentation is necessary to the release of the described package. It is mani fest at once to the business man, that this certificate is of incalculable importance. He, in fact, for all purposes of sale and transfer, carries his givoice of goods in his waistcoat pocket. It is the best possible security for all descriptions of loans, payments, or insurance. The certificate may pass frcm hand to hand, from im porter to jobber, and from one jobber to another, and finally to a country merchant, who may take the case from the custom-house. For one invoice, as many cer tificates may be issued as there are packages. An importer may divide up, and sell an invoice by certificates, and jobbers may transfer them again to their cus tomers, who may ultimately take out the package— he who buys pays the duty on it. As a matter of security, these certificates must become the most valuable, both to banks and capitalists. They are as secure and as available as mint cer tificates. W e look upon this practical operation of the warehousing system as a new era in the commerce of the country, more particularly that the prosperity of the export trade must be followed by large returns; and the greater the conve nience given to the realization of those returns, the greater will be the welfare of all concerned. THE COST OF RAISIN® WHEAT. In relation to the interesting subject of the cost of raising wheat in this coun try, we have received the following letter from an intelligent farmer of the western part of this State, commenting upon a paragraph in the Merchants’ Magazine for October, 1846. It will be observed that the writer mistakes the point of our re marks. But we will let our correspondent speak for himself, and then proceed to show the irrelevancy of his statements. F reeman H unt , E sq .— S ir : In your Commercial Chronicle and Review, for October last, the following passage occurs:— “ The highest authority o f the W est states that wheat can be delivered in sacks, on the borders o f the great lakes, at 16 cents per bushel, free on board, which would make a price o f 40 cents in N ew York, or, allowing a large margin, 50 cents per bushel, free on board, which would be equal to 19 shillings sterling per quar ter, and this in quantities which can scarcely be limited.” I do not know to what authority you refer in this passage, but to any one practically acquainted with the cost o f raising wheat the statement is certainly incredible. A s this is a subject o f some interest to the commercial public, and also to our foreign customers, who may be more or less dependent upon us for bread, and as I have had considerable practical acquaintance with the cost o f raising wheat on one o f the best wheat-growing farms in the best wheat-growing town o f this State, I have thought it might not be uninteresting to the readers o f your journal to state about the cost o f raising a bushel o f wheat in the most fa vored region o f western N ew York. Since noticing that statement I have visited some o f the best and most favored localities o f the W est, during which I have' had pretty extensive opportunities, both from personal observation and intercourse with practical men in the States o f Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, to get information on this subject; and I have no hesitation in saying, that wheat cannot be raised in any considerable quantities, nor in any quantities at all, for 16 cents' per bushel. It cannot be raised for less than 35 to 45 cents per bushel. And I think it is very doubtful whether it can be raised to as good a profit in any o f these States as in the most favored sections o f our own N ew York. It appeare from the census o f this State, that there are but two towns in the State that exceed an average o f twenty bushels per acre, and for the State it is considerably less than that; but assuming that amount as an average in the mest favored localities, and I am satisfied that there is no section o f any considerable extent that will, for a term o f years, exceed that amount, either in this or the western States, I propose to state the expense o f raising a bushel o f wheat, nearly, in N ew York, from my own experience, and from obser vation and information derived from practical men o f the West. The first item is the in terest o f the price o f the land, which say for N ew Y ork $ 5 0 per acre, $ 3 5 0 ; next ploughing, say twice, at $ 1 25 per acre, $ 2 5 0 ; then harrowing three times, 25 cents per 294 Commercial Chronicle and Review. acre, 75 cents; seed one and a half bushels per acre, at 88 cents per bushel, $ 1 3 1 ; sowing', 6 cents per acre; harvesting, about $ 1 5 0 ; threshing, one-tenth at twenty bushels per acre at 88 cents per bushel, would be .$1 7 5 ; then there is drawing to market, which varies very m a te r ia l according to the distance it has to be carted— my own costs me about 75 cents per hundred bushels, which would be about 15 cents per acre ; then there is the wear and tear o f teams and utensils o f husbandry, which say 25 cents per acre; and I think most practical farmers will sustain me in having put the cost o f the different items o f expenditure low enough, and we shall have for the aggregate expenditure §11 77, in round numbers § 1 2 , which, on an average o f twenty bushels per acre, would be 60 cents per bushel nett cost. At the West, the chief difference in the expense will be found to consist in the difference on the interest o f the land, and the less price o f wheat for seed ; as the ploughing, harrow ing, sowing, harvesting, etc., will cost about the same ; and then the facilities for marketing are not generally so good in the Western States as they are here— indeed it is not uncom mon to find men, even in the State o f Ohio, who have to draw their wheat from thirty to fifty miles to market. Where this is the case, so far from being able to put their wheat free on board at 16 cents per bushel, it will cost them more than a moiety of that sum to per form the single item o f drawing it to market. One observation may I think be made which experience will justify:— that with a low price for wheat, say from 40 to 50 cents, in the principal markets, the supply will always be limited; this arises from the supplies which lie at a distance from markets not coming forward, as they never can in any great quantities at such low prices, because the cost o f transportation bears so great a ratio to the price received; but when the price rules higher, say from 6 to 7 shillings, the supplies will be abundant, as these prices will enable the holders at distant points to bring forward their whole supplies. The state of facts in last year was an exemplification o f these remarks: in the early part o f the season prices ruled low and the supplies were limited, but after the advance o f prices in September, in conse quence o f the advices from England, they continued to flow with such an increasing volume, that prices o f flour were depressed in New York to a lower point, and for a greater length o f time, than were ever before known. W . S. Wheatland, Monroe County, N . Y. Our correspondent assumes that the wheat culture, in the State of New York, is a criterion for that in the localities to which we alluded, as being able to raise it at 17 cents. The fact of the ability of the lake shores to raise wheat at fifteen cents, was established before the American Institute last year. In our article, we said 17 cents, to make a small allowance. The first item in the calculation of our correspondent, of $3.50, for interest, is one to which western culture is not exposed; on the other hand, that amount will buy the land in fee sim ple, and fence it. The breaking up of prairie land costs $1.75 per acre, and the land is then ready for “ sod grain,” of which it will produce 20 bushels. The smooth lands of the western lake shores afford facilities for machine labor, that saves great expense in the items of harvesting and threshing, re ducing them to half what our correspondent allows, and the item of seed is erro neous, inasmuch as that the quantity of seed corn should be deducted from the product, and the cost averaged upon the balance. Thus, the sum of his items is $11.77; deduct seed corn, $1.31— leaves $10.42, which, on 18J bushels, is 56 cents, instead of 60. In Wheatland, Monroe county, the residence of our corres pondent, the average product, according to the census of 1845, is 22 bushels to the acre, (which would make the cost 51 cents, instead of 60, as he has it,) and yet the population of that town decreased 5 per cent, in 1840 to 1845; and the pro duction of wheat in that town was only 109,000 bushels in 1845, against 106,000, in 1840. It is to be observed that the items of buying land, fencing, and breaking up, arfe incident to western farming only the first year, when the product is 20 bushels, and will cover the expense. After that, the light-ploughing, harrowing, threshing, harvesting, carting, drawing, wear and tear, &c., will, at the outside, reach $4.50 per acre— but we will say $5.00— and 30 bushels will be -raised, 295 Commercial Chronicle and Review. from which deduct 2 bushels for seed, and 28 bushels will cost 17 cents each. This is the case with western farming, although our correspondent may be nearly right as to New York wheat. Again, in relation to the cost of wheaton the river counties of Illinois, an intelligent farmer, of large experience, stated to a member of the American Institute,* (in reply to a question as to the cost of producing a bushel of wheat in that region,) as follows “ To hire the land and all the culture, with every expense, it would not exceed, on an average, 30 cents per bushel.” Now, it will be supposed that these facts would produce results. Unfortunately for the State of New York, they have done so. Take the State census for 1840, and point off the eight largest wheat counties, and compare their product and population in 1840, with 1845, as follows :— Cayuga............................... ■Genesee.............................. Livingston.......................... Monroe............................... Ontario............................... Orleans............................... Wayne................................ Yates.................................. 1 81 0 . 601,824 911,596 823,050 1,074,320 770,235 680,202 571,083 705,628 1815. 652,896 1,025,218 821,762 1,338,585 918,616 692,127 587,817 403,069 1810. 50,362 59,605 35,710 44,718 43,501 25,015 42,160 20,442 IS IS . 49,663 57,294 33,193 45,634 42,592 25,845 42,515 20,777 6,137,838 6,441,090 303,252 321,538 317,613 3 <*35 The population for Monroe, excludes the city of Rochester, and Genesee embraces Wyoming. Here is an actual decrease in the population the great wheat-growing counties of New York. Let us now look at the large wheatgrowing counties of Michigan:— WHEAT. POPULATION. Calhoun................................. Cass....................................... Jackson ................................. Kalamazoo............................. Lenawee................................ Oakland................................. St. Joseph............................... Washtenaw............................ 1810. 176,630 95,101 180,649 161,168 167,891 264,965 131,451 216,597 1810. 10,599 5,710 13,130 7,380 17,889 23,646 7,068 23,571 1816. 15,749 8,078 16,853 10,192 23,011 30,288 10,097 26,979 1,394,452 109,183 141,247 There is no report of the wheat product of Michigani, with the census of 1845, but we may compare the exports of Detroit, St. Joseph’s., and Monroe, as follows:— St. Joseph’s....................... Flour. 180,000 9,302 68,600 Total.................. 257,962 Detroit............... ................. Monroe............................. 1841. 1 81 6 . Wheat. Flour. Wheat. 51,000 23,015 90,612 464,092 155,108 129,333 114,397 372,847 235,645 164,627 748,533 722,889 * See N ew Y ork Farmer and Mechanic, Vol. IV., p. 138— 1846. 296 Mercantile Miscellanies. Now it is to be observed that the exports in bushels of wheat from those cities were 1,354,137 bushels, nearly equal to the product of the eight counties in 1841. If the exports in 1846 bear the same proportion to their products, the wheat crop of those counties must have increased 2,800,000 bushels, or 200 per cent, in the same time that the product of the New York counties has increased by 5 per cent, and the population decreased. These are the legitimate results of the figures we have pointed out in relation to the cost of wheat at the West. It will be observed that the argument of our correspondent, that low prices failed to call out wheat, holds true of New Y ork ; but the prices which did not remunerate the New York farmer, stimulated western production in the manner we have seen, and New York farmers moved West to avail themselves of the difference. The western ports nearly all show similar results. In 1844, Chicago exported, in flour and wheat, 935,000 bushels; and in 1846,1,458,672 bushels. This large increase has been without internal means of communication, and mostly in seasons of low prices. Last June flour in New York was under $4. Next spring the Illinois and Indiana canals will throw open vast tracts of land, capable of cultivation at the low figures we have named. MERCANTILE MISCELLANIES. M E R C A N T IL E L IB R A R Y A S S O C IA T IO N OF M O N T R E A L . have received, with “ the compliments o f the Board o f Directors,” the sixth annual report o f this flourishing institution, from which we learn that it is entirely free from debt. W e The library contains 4,209 volumes, and the number o f books issued during the year 1846 was 3,900, exclusive o f periodicals to the extent o f about 500. O f the 446 members com posing the association, 340 constantly avail themselves o f the library. The increase of these numbers, compared with those o f former years, especially in regard to the books issued, is matter o f just gratification to the Directors, as furnishing strong evidence o f the growing usefulness o f the institution. O f the fourteen monthly journals, with which the rooms are supplied, the “ Merchants’ Magazine” is the only one from the United States. A course o f lectures was commenced on the 10th o f December. A t the previous annual meeting a prize was offered for an essay on “ Commerce, its Objects and History.” But one essay, only, was submitted; and the prize was awarded to Mr. Alexander M om s. The following gentlemen constitute the Board o f Directors, for 1847 :•— J. H. W inn, President ; G. H. Frothingham, Vice-President; S. Lester Taylor, Corresponding Secretary; Robert Lindsay, Recording Secretary ; Charles Freeland, Treasurer; Alexander Morris, John M ’Gill, David Lindsay, S. R. Evans, John Murray, J. W . M’Glashan, A . M ’Donald, D . Busteed, David Muir, A . D. Macdougall, Directors; John Young, Esq., H. E. Montgo merie, Esq., W . C. Evans, Esq., Donald Fraser, Esq., Honorary Directors. L A W OF “ R E S P I T E ” IN LO U ISIA N A . W e invite the notice o f our readers to the article in the present number, upon Louisi ana Law, on the subject o f “ R espite” W e were not before aware, and we doubt if many o f our merchants are at all informed, o f the existence o f such a peculiarity in the jurispru dence o f one o f our sister States— a peculiarity so deeply affecting their rights and interests, in their creditor relations to the merchants o f that State. N ew Orleans correspondent. W e hope often to hear from ou r Mercantile Miscellanies. 297 M E R C A N T IL E L IB R A R Y A S S O C IA T IO N OF N E W Y O R K . The twenty-sixth annual report o f this excellent institution has been published, and, as usual, exhibits the affairs o f the association in a sound and healthy condition. The num ber o f members at the close o f the year 1845, as stated in the last annual report, was 2,129. The withdrawals for the year 1846, were 295. New members added the past year, (1846) 609. The whole number o f members on the 1st o f January, 1847, 2,443 ; exhibiting a nett gain o f 314 during the year 1846. From the Treasurer’s report, it ap pears that the balance on hand 31st o f December, 1845, was §60 3 16, and that the receipts from all sources in 1846, amounted to §5,060 61— making a total of §5,663 77. The expenditures for the same period, were §4,889 46— leaving a balance on hand 31st o f December, 1846, o f § 7 7 4 31. • A comparison with the statement o f the Treasurer in the last annual report, shows the present condition to be more favorable than even the improvement manifested at that time, and sustains the opinion expressed in the report, that the darker days of the institution have passed away, and that the future opens brighter prospects. It will appear, on com paring the two reports, that the receipts for initiation fees, and quarterly dues, are § 2 0 8 greater, while the expenses, salaries, light and insurance, are §22 9 less, than the previous year; thus enabling a larger expenditure for books and periodicals ; the amount laid out for which is § 4 4 4 more in the last year, than in the preceding ; and there has also been §1 1 4 greater amount paid for binding and printing, than for the corresponding period. The association, we are happy to state, remains entirely free from debt. Nearly two thousand volumes have been added to the Library during the year 1846, making the total number at the present time, 24,623. The following statement has been carefully compiled from the reports made by the several Boards o f Direction, commencing January, 1836, and exhibits for each year the initiation fees and quarterly dues received, the expenditures for books and periodicals, and the number o f volumes added, to the pres ent tim e:— Volumes Cost of Books added. and periodicals. Fees. Dues. 1,522 1835.................... $ 2 ,126 32 $3,169 06 1,845 1836.................... 2,286 74 3,861 50 867 2,547 1837.................... 2,806 47 4,770 00 1838.................... 2,471 3,115 72 5,788 50 1,003 3,583 1839.................... 4,278 23 6,482 00 1,097 390 1840.................... 1.995 19 501 6,183 00 1,136 1841.................... 1,495 12 627 6,029 50 1,252 1842.................... 2,179 79 308 4.998 75 465 1843.................... 797 90 4,002 75 745 1844.................... 3,461 00 708 35 387 1,428 1845.................... 1,628 60 582 4,024 50 1,883 1846.................... 609 2,072 59 4,206 00 Every merchant, and every merchant’ s clerk, should belong to an institution so eminent ly adapted to advance their own personal progress, as well as that o f society. C U S T O M -H O U S E A N D E X C H A N G E A T V A L P A R A IS O . The custom-house at Valparaiso is a beautiful and spacious building, and from its situa tion on the Muele (Mole) is an object which attracts the attention o f all who arrive at Val paraiso. In the neighborhood o f the custom-house is the exchange. It' is a plain building, and contains a large and elegant reading-room, in which may always be found the princi pal European newspapers. In this reading-room there is also an excellent telescope by Dollond, which is a source o f amusement, by affording a view of the comical scenes some times enacted on board the ships in the port. 298 Mercantile Miscellanies. W A S H IN G T O N , A S A M E R C H A N T ! By every variety o f commentary, has almost every fibre o f the character o f this extra ordinary man been illustrated. His military talent has, in all its phases, been brought to the notice o f the world— weighed, analyzed, reviewed— until it has come out of its fierce ordeal, established, as o f the very first order o f judgment, energy, bravery. His reputation as a statesman has been blazoned abroad with a vigor, derived alike from the truth and its forcible use. Men have honored themselves by giving the power o f their intellect to the histoiy o f his devotion to his country. A ll his movements in war— all his acts in the cab inet, are on record; and he is one of*the veiy few men that ever trod the earth, o f whose reputation it is safe, that the knowledge o f it should be thorough. But George Washington was a great man, in other departments o f life than those blend ed with the army and the state ; and it is to a feature in his character, less prominently be fore the world, but one o f the most valuable, o f which we would speak in this article. It is the order, regularity, method, punctuality, and, above all, the rectitude— the unsullied and unchangeable devotion to his engagements, which distinguished him, and which, com bined, are the very qualities that make up the merchant. In all these, the example of Washington may fittingly be urged upon the consideration o f the merchants o f the Union. The old merchants o f the colonies were the very men who perilled the most in arraying themselves on the side o f a separation from England. Theirs was no cheap patriotism— no offering o f w ords; but the severing o f a profitable mercantile connection— the riving asunder o f relations that involved sacrifices alike keen and costly. From among those merchants, some o f the most valued and useful o f the officers and soldiers o f the revolution were taken, and they proved themselves as active in the trade o f war, as they had ever been vigilant in the war o f trade. The education o f Washington was purely a practical one. All that he added to this was the result o f efforts in maturer life, generally made, as events demonstrated the particular necessity o f the study. This was a business foundation, early laid ; and though at a time o f life when boyhood is usually in its recklessness, the various parts o f a business education were thoroughly built up in his character. A t the age o f thirteen, he studied the intricate forms o f business with an ardor which showed what was in him— with a method which demonstrated how that was to be devel oped. He copied out bills o f exchange, notes o f hand, bills o f sale, receipts, and all the varieties o f the class, which he denominated “ Forms o f Writing,” and these are remarka ble for the precision and the elegance with^which they are copied. His manuscripts, even then, were o f the utmost neatness and uniformity ; the diagrams always beautiful; the col umns and tables o f figures exact, and in unstained and unblotted order. Old Tim Linkinwater would have looked most approvingly over his work, and admitted “ G eorge” to the awful books o f “ Cheeryble, Brothers.” His excellent historian, Mr. Sparks, who has given us that rarest o f all books, a reliable biography, remarks, that these excellent habits of method and order, thus early formed, continued throughout life. His business papers, ledgers, day-books, in which none wrote but himself, were models of exactness. The de scription o f them might apply to those o f the most careful book-keeper in our metropolis. Every fact had its place, and was recorded in a plain, clear handwriting, and there was neither interlineation, blot, or blemish ! Frank Osbaldistone’s father could have asked no more. Is it any wonder that with such ideas o f what the methods o f a business man should be, we should find as one o f his “ Rules o f Behavior,” — a code o f laws drawn up for his own government, when at the immature age to which we have already referred, and won derful in their fitness— the following:— “ 12th. Let your discourse with men o f business be short and comprehensive.” In the 46th. “ Undertake not what you cannot perform, but be carefid to keep your promise.” Mercantile Miscellanies . 299 These rules— this manifestation o f a “ business talent,” — were not merely the develop ment o f some temporary purpose, but firmly fastened rules o f life, which were made to mould his life, and their value to him soon became manifest. He left school at the age of sixteen : and such was his reputation for probity and habits o f business— for diligence and habits o f despatch— that several eminent Virginia gentlemen wrere anxious to secure his services; and he soon became busied in laborious duties, the cares o f which found an agree able relief by the society o f his cherished brother Lawrence, at Mount Vernon, a name, whose associations were thereafter to be rendered so glorious. W ith that brother, in 1751, he left the soil o f his country for the first and last time, and made a visit of four months to the West Indies. Throughout all this tour, the traits o f character, o f which this article is particularly designed to speak, were constantly manifesting themselves. the log-book, noted every thing, looked at every thing, and was never idle. He daily copied W hen at Bar- badoes, the commerce o f the island was one o f the subjects, concerning which, he made investigation, and about which, he made appropriate records in his journal. The time soon came for him to be the actor in the greater scenes of life, and were it wuthin the design o f this article to follow his steady advance from one station o f usefulness and honor to another, it would only be to point to the same unchanging rectitude, and fidel ity to every engagement— the same precise order— the same undeviating exactness. The boy, who had with such care collated and prepared the details o f an exercise at school, brought into like order the statistics necessary to be studied before a campaign could be wisely commenced. Every' thing that could illustrate the duty of the soldier— the province o f the commander— the plan o f attack or defence— the topography o f the field o f battle— was, by his indomitable industry, his steadfast method, brought into a condensed form, that it might be easily grasped by the mind— that “ the business” o f the war might be well done. Nor was it in war alone, that the man o f order developed himself. W e quote, in fall, what Mr. Sparks says upon the subject o f his conduct in this respect, when President o f the United States:— “ During the presidency, it was likewise his custom to subject the treasury reports and accompanying documents to the process o f tutular condensation, with a vast expenditure of labor and patience ; but it enabled him to grasp, and retain in their order, a series o f iso lated facts, and the results o f a complicated mass o f figures, which could never have been mastered so effectually by any other mode o f approaching them.” From 1759 to 1764, Washington was, in some measure, an acting merchant; for, in that calmest period o f his life— after the brief, but brilliant episode o f the Braddock campaign, most honorable to himself, however disastrous to one whose name wTas more prominent, and before the great drama o f the revolution— he regularly exported to London the product o f his large estate on the Potomac. T he shipments were made in his own name, and to his correspondents in Bristol and Liverpool, to which places his tobacco was consigned. Are there none o f those precious bills o f lading yet in existence? They would be valued by many o f us, on this side o f the water, at least, as evidences of the attention which he gave to all his business. In return for the articles exported, it was his custom, twice in each year, to import, at that period, from London, the goods which he desired to use; and Mr. Sparks thus de lineates how accurately he fulfilled his duties as an importer:— “ He required his agent to send him, in addition to a general bill o f the whole, the origi nal vouchers o f the shop-keepers and mechanics, from whom purchases had been made. “ So particular was he in these concerns, that he recorded with his own hand, in books prepared for the purpose, all the long lists o f orders, and copies o f the multifarious receipts from the different merchants and tradesmen who had supplied the goods. In this way, he kept a perfect oversight o f the business; ascertained the prices; could detect any imposi tion, mismanagement, or carelessness, and tell when any advantage was taken of h im ; of which, if he discovered any, he did not fail to remind his correspondents.” 300 Mercantile Miscellanies. And all this, we must remember, was while he had the charge o f the vast estate of Mount Vernon, and while he was dispensing a large and generous hospitality. W hen the French war had ended, it became his duty to attend to the settlement o f the complicated military accounts o f the colony o f Virginia, a task, arduous enough, but, like all the other duties o f his life, faithfully performed. The war o f the revolution left him no leisure for personal attendance on his private busi ness, but yet it was never neglected. He could not be personally present; but while the noises o f the camp, the preparations for battle, the deliberations o f councils, were all shared in to the utmost, his correspondence about his home affairs, were as thorough and minute, as though he had been an absentee o f leisure. His accounts, while engaged in the service o f his country, were so accurately kept, that to this hour they are an example held up before the nation. His habits o f business enabled him, amidst the tumult o f the revolution— its fierce contests— its sufferings and disorders, to so methodize and record all the business incidents o f each day, that the end o f the war found him prepared to lay before Congress an exact statement o f his expenditures. There was about him' a pervading principle o f order, not o f a lifeless, sluggish cast, but life-like and energetic ; so that, while every thing was well done, it was done in time and in earnest Let any one read his will, and they will rise up from the perusal, with the conviction, that a more thorough man o f business never lived. There have been many documents o f a similar land, drawn up with wonderful care and labor, and at vast remuneration, by gen tlemen learned in the law, but none where every incident is so carefully attended to— not in the spirit o f fearfulness o f flaws and evasions, and all the thousand munitions o f attack to wh’ch they resort who “ break” wills— but in the orderly, sound, business-like manner, in which a Gresham might have written his projection o f an exchange. But we need point to no isolated instance. His whole life establishes the fact, that a more perfect man o f business never lived than was George Washington. Valueless, indeed, in the comparison, had they stood alone, would all this method, and order, and industry be. A merchant may have all these, and yet be but sagacious and— unprincipled; but o f this man, a nobler record is left to us. I quote only what Thomas Jefferson has said, and he spoke certainly with no improper bias:— “ his in te gr ity w a s most pure .” T o the merchant o f the United States, the example o f P ater Patrice has not been, and will not be lost. So prompt to do— so exact in doing—so wise to know what was to be done— so prudent as to what should not be done— such unsullied honesty— such pure in tegrity. These are the qualities that, combined, make up the good and great merchant; and as they were eminent in George Washington, may he not be claimed as well by the merchants, as by the soldiers, or farmers, or statesmen ? W . H. B. PUBLIC L O T T E R IE S OF L IM A , PERU. In Lima, there is a public lottery, which the government farms to a private individual, for a considerable sum. The tickets are drawn weekly. The price of a ticket is one real. The largest prize is $1,000 ; the smaller prizes, $500, $250, or $100. A lottery on a larger scale is drawn every three months. The highest prize in this lottery is $4,000, and the price o f the ticket is four reals. T o every ticket is affixed a motto, usually con sisting o f an invocation to a saint, and a prayer for good luck, and at the drawing o f the lottery, this motto is read aloud, when the number o f the ticket is announced. Few o f the inhabitants o f Lima fail to buy at least one ticket in the weekly lottery. The negroes are particularly fond o f trying their luck in this way, and in many instances fortune has been singularly kind to them.* * Tschudi’s Travels in Peru, in 1842; published by W iley & Putnam. Mercantile Miscellanies• 301 T H E P R A Y IN G P A R S E E M E R C H A N T . The following is an extract o f a letter from the Rev. Mr. Hume, missionary at Bombay, to the editor Of the “ Dayspring.” Mr. Plume says there are about twenty-five thousand Parsees, or followers o f Zoroaster, resident in Bombay, and that they constitute the most intelligent, enterprising and wealthy class o f the native population. Our own favored Christendom, (we say it reverently,) is not without its praying merchants, who know how to drive a good bargain:— “ A fewr days since, I had occasion to go into the shop o f a Parsee, wfith whom I am con siderably acquainted. It was in the afternoon, and I found him standing on the steps o f his shop, with his face toward the setting sun, busily engaged in repeating his prayers. Many people were passing along the street just before him ; but this seemed to cause him no concern, unless when he had occasion to bow to some acquaintance. W hen I turned to enter his shop, he gave me a very cordial salutation, bowing and waving his hand for me to enter, but all the time repeating his prayers as rapidly as ever. Perceiving that no one was present in the shop to attend to me, he clapped his hands several times, making a loud noise, the object o f which seemed to be well understood by the family, as his son, a young man c f about twenty years o f age, came running into the shop. “ I asked him the price o f the article which I had ccme to purchase ; when he, being in doubt, went and inquired o f his father, who, with the fore-finger of the right hand, wrote upon the palm o f the other the price to be charged. The young man then came back and told what his father had said ; but the price being extravagant, I objected to it, and told him what I would give. The young man, not fueling at liberty to act on his own respon sibility, went and reported my offer to his father, who shook his head, and again wrote on his hand, as before, a sum considerably less than the first mentioned. The young man again came and stated the price now asked ; which being still very unreasonable, I was about to leave, but said I w’ould give him the sum offered at first if he chose to take it. The young man again hastened to his father with my offer, and, as he shook his head at this, I passed out at another door, leaving him repeating his prayers as busily as ever. While I remained, he appeared much interested in what was passing in the shop ; and al though praying with his face in an opposite direction, he every moment turned so far about as to catch a glance o f us, and observe what we w'ere doing. “ The person here mentioned is an intelligent, shrewd businessman ; but, alas, how blind in regard to spiritual matters ! He readily acknowledged that we are indebted to God for every thing ; but I have often seen him , early in the morning, bowing reverently in suc cession to the different articles in his shop, muttering over something at the same time. This is done from a superstitious belief that it may secure him good prices and prosperous business.” N O V E L C O M M E R C IA L S P E C U L A T IO N . W e cut from the “ Polynesian,” published at Honolulu, the official organ o f the Hawaiian Government, conducted by James Jackson Jarvis, an American, the following statement, which illustrates the genius and enterprise o f the American character:— “ A n enterprising Yankee at Canton has recently built a Chinese junk o f about 300 tons, fitted and rigged entirely after the Chinese mode, which he intends taking to New York, loading her with every species o f China knicknacs, curiosities, etc., to be sold on board after arrival off that city. He takes also a Chinese crew, a theatrical and juggling company, males and females, and every thing curious, illustrative o f the manners and cus toms o f the Celestials. The junk will have canvass-sails, and a Christian rudder, to make her suitable for the long voyage, but upon arrival at the Narrows, every thing foreign will be replaced by Chinese articles, mat sails, clumsy rudder and all, and the junk anchor oft' the city in her entire oriental costume and build, where she will remain as a show-shop, sale-room and mountebank exhibition. It is expected she will make the passage in five months. The cost o f the whole affair will be about $30,000, and the ‘ cute’ proprietor will undoubtedly realize a large fortune. After having exhausted the United States, he has been offered $20,000 to deliver his junk in England. The Manhattar.ese will stare as broadly at the strange sight o f a cruiser from the flowery land sailing up their noble river, as did the aborigines when old Hendrick Hudson astonished their unsophisticated senses by a display o f his Dutch canvass in their bay. The junks are said to be good sea-boats, and nothing worse than delay is feared in the voyage. W e only wonder some one never thought o f it before.” Mercantile Miscellanies. 302 T H E M E R C H A N T S A T V A L P A R A IS O , In Valparaiso, as in all seaports, there is a heterogeneous mixture of different countries, nations, languages, and maimers, amidst which, the national character o f the country is entirely lost. The trade in European goods is very extensive, but almost exclusively in the hands o f a few great North American and English houses, who supply the whole coun try with the articles they import. A t times, such is the overstock o f importations, that goods are sold at lower prices in Valparaiso, than in Europe. The warehouses are so filled with some sorts o f merchandise, that without any fresh supplies, there would be suffi cient for some years to come. Among the clerks in the mercantile houses, Dr. Von Tschudi, the German traveller, in 1842, met with a great number o f Gennans, who all maintain an intimate association with each other. They have formed themselves into a union, and they have a very commodious place in which they hold their meetings. Following their example, the English have united together, and established several clubs. T he French have not gained any considerable footing in this part o f South America, in which there are scarcely two French mercantile houses o f any consequence. On the other hand, there is abundance o f French hairdressers, tailors, shoemakers, jewellers, confectioners, and chevaliers d'industrie. Neither is there any want o f modistes Parisiennes et Bordelaises. C O M M E R C IA L P R O S PE C T S OF SIN G A PO R E . Mr. G. Davidson, in his recently published work, “ Trade and Travel in the East,” thus speaks o f the commercial prospects o f Singapore:— “ A s to the commercial prospects o f this island, I have some misgivings. The recent es tablishment by her majesty’s government, o f the British colony o f Hong Kong, and the opening o f the northern ports on the coast o f China, will, I fear, give its commerce a check: indeed, it seems inevitable that it should suffer from these causes. When we consider the vast importance o f the Chinese junk trade to Singapore, and take into account the cheaper rate we can supply them, now their ports are open, at their own doors, with every commo dity they require from the Malay islands, the risk, trouble, and expense they will save by supplying their wants or disposing o f their superfluities, in the harbors o f Shang Hae, Ningpo, Foo Chow, or Am oy, instead o f undertaking the long voyage to the straits of Malacca for that purpose,— one is at a loss to conceive on what grounds the sanguine expectation can rest, that the opening o f China will do Singapore no harm. Some o f its merchants evi dently share in my anticipation, as they have completed arrangements for forming establish ments at Hong Kong, in order to avail themselves o f the change they expect to take place in the course o f the trade. It will not be this year, nor, probably, the next, that this change will take place; but, that it must ultimately come to pass, I can see no room to doubt. “ In other branches of its trade, Singapore will, probably, not suffer so much from the late arrangements with China ; but it will suffer more or less. It is extremely likely, that a large portion o f the rice o f Bally and Lombok, the pepper o f Borneo, and the beche-demer o f Celebes, will be carried direct to China in European vessels, instead of passing, as hitherto, through the hands o f the Singapore merchants. Whenever a new mart is opened, there is no want o f men, money, or ships to take advantage o f it ; and we can place pep per from Borneo, and rice from Bally, in any port on the coast o f China, for less money, by carrying them there direct from the place o f growth, than the Chinese can by carrying them from Singapore in their junks. These vessels only make one voyage in the year, whereas a square-rigged vessel can make three with ease ; and it is on account o f the greater ser vice performed by the latter, that she can carry goods to market cheaper than a junk. I repeat, therefore, that I think the trade o f Singapore has reached its maximum; and that the town has attained to its highest point o f importance and prosperity. Indeed, it is at this moment rather over-built.” C O N S U M P T IO N OF T E A IN T H E W O R L D . T he Giornale del Lloyd Austriaco gives the following statistics relative to the demand for te a :— It appears that from the 1st o f July, 1845, to the 30th o f June, 1846, there was a demand for 797,818,733 lbs. o f tea, o f which 705,732,024 lbs. were used in China itself, and the following quantities exported— viz., 57,584,561 lbs. to Great Britain and Ireland ; 18,502,148 lbs. to the United States of North America ; 2,000,000 lbs. to Holland ; 5,000,000 lbs. to Russia, (by land) ; 3,000,000 lbs. to Hamburg, Bremen, Denmark and Sweden ; 4,000,000 lbs. to Sydney and South Australia ; and 2,000,000 lbs. to Spain and France. Journal o f Banking , Currency , and Finance, 303 JOURNAL OF BANKING, CURRENCY AND FINANCE. B E L G IA N S Y S T E M OF W E IG H T S , M E A SU R E S, A N D C U R R E N C Y . B elgium has adopted the weights and measures o f the French metrical system; the fundamental principle o f which is the measure o f length. Its unity, the metre, is the ten millionth part o f a quadrant o f the meridional circle o f the earth. The length o f the metre is nearly an inch less than an English yard and half a quarter ; that is 3.28 feet. The unit o f superficial measure, the are, is a square, o f which the side is ten metres. The unit o f the measure o f capacity, the litre, is a cube, o f which the side is the tenth part o f a metre, 61.028 cubic inches. The stere is a cubic metre, 35.317 cubic feet. The unit of the measure o f weight is a centimetre cube o f distilled water; that is, a cube o f which the side is a hundredth part o f a metre. The itinerary measures are the decametre, 10 metres; the kilometre, 1,000 metres; and the myriametre, 10,000 metres. Land is measured by the hectare, containing 10,000 square metres ; the decare o f 1,000 square metres, or 1,196 square miles; the are, containing 100 square miles, and the centiare, which is one square mile. For solid measure are used the stere, and decistere ; that is, a cubic metre and its tenth part. For the measure o f weight are used the gramme, the decagramme, or 10 grammes; the kilogramme, or 1,000 grammes, and the quintal, or 100 kilogrammes.* TABLE OF CORRESPONDING MEASURES, ENGLISH AND BELGIAN OR FRENCH. M etre..............3.28 feet, or 39.37 inches. Millimetre..... 0.039 inch. Centimetre...... 0.393 inch. Decimetre...... 3.937 inches. Myriametre... 6.213 miles, 10,936 yards. Metre Are.... Decare ctare. Litre.... Decalitre., Hectalitre, Gramme... 2.471 acres, 11,960 sq. yards. 1.760 pints, 61.03 cubic in. 2.201 gallons, 610.28 cub. in. 22.009 galls., 2.84 W . bush. 15.434 grains Troy. The Belgian kintal is equal to 103 lbs. English, or 47 kilometres. 21 Belgian kintals and 75 lbs., 1 English ton o f 2,240 lbs. 10.1465 metrical quintals, 1 English ton. ( 0 5 uuuiu icei, ui imperial gallons. 11.26 hectolitres, 1 English ton. 1,014.65 kilogrammes, 1 ton,— in ordinary calculations, 1,000 kilogrammes are held as one ton. 1 hectare of land, 2.471 English acres. 1 Vierkantebunder, 119.6 English yards square, or 1 French acre. 1 metrical mile, 1,093 English yards, or 1 French kilometre. 1 mudde, 6,102 cubic inches English, or 2.837 bushels, or 100 French litres. C urrency .— The franc is the monetary unit of Belgium, and its divisions are made ac cording to the decimal system:— 1 franc, 9.69d. English, or 19£ cents United States currency. 20 francs, 1 Napoleon, 1 new Louis, 16s. 2d. English, or $3.86 U. S. currency. 1 English sovereign in Belgian money, 25 francs, 20 centimes. 1 English shilling, ] franc, 16 centimes. * Chiefly derived from McCulloch’s Gazetteer, and Loudon’s Tables. 304 Journal o f Banking , Currency , and Finance . C H A R T E R E D A N D F R E E B A N K S OF N E W Y O R K . The following is a summary o f the resources and liabilities Of all the banks in this State, on the 1st days o f November, 1845 and 1846:— RESOURCES. 1845. 148 banks, 2 branches. Loans and discounts............................ Real estate............................................ Bonds and mortgages.......................... Stocks and promissory notes............... Bank fund............................................. Loss and expense account................... Specie................................................. Bills of solvent banks......................... Bills of suspended banks..................... Due from banks and bankers............. ............... 9,534,166 §120,401,997 1846. 150 banks, 2 branches. §72,301,980 3,642,711 2,784,012 11,226,767 169,234 279,920 151,640 8,048,384 7,786,699 • 2,421,069 10,005 9,318,635 §118,141,056 L IA B IL IT IE S . 1845. 148 banks, 2 branches. C ap ita l .................................................. Profits................................................... Circulation............................................ Due Treasurer of the State............... ............... Due canal fund.................................... ................ Due depositors on demand.................. Due individuals..................................... .............. Due Treasurer of the United States.. .............. Amount not included in above items.. 631,063 1,581.330 12,829,854 3,0021649 §120,401,997 1 84 6 . 150 banks, 2 branches. §43,024,658 5,498,222 22,268,522 669,829 581,737 30,629,196 801,392 12,978,464 1,098,330 590,706 ,§118,141,056 C ON DITION OF TH E C H A R T E R E D BANKS OF NEW Y O R K . The following table shows the principal items o f the bank statements o f all the chartered banks o f the State for the last five years, derived from the annual report o f the comptroller o f the State o f N ew Y o rk :— LIABILITIES. Jan. 1, 1843. 85 banks. Nov. 1. 1843. Nov. 1, 1844. Nov. 1, 1845. Nov. 1, 1846. 85bks.2 brchs. 83bks. 2brchs. 81 bks. 2 brchs. 80 bks. 2 brchs. Capital...........................§32,901.280 §32,391,460 §31,391,460 §30,491,460 §30,241,460 Circulation................. 9,734,465 13,350,334 15,114,686 15,831,058 16,033,125 Canal fund.................. 1,464,496 1,111,357 1,214,790 1,244,524 398,080 Deposits....................... 15,109,164 22,407,761 21,979,071 23,104,678 21,678,988 Due Banks................. 10,736,602 12,203,614 11,210,760 10,048,355 9,885,308 KESOCKCES. Jan. 1, 1843. 85 banks. Nov. 1, 1843. Nov. 1, 1844. Nov. 1. 1845. Nov. 1, 1846. 85 bks. 2 brchs. 83 bks. 2 brchs. 81 bks. 2 brchs. 80 bks. 2 brchs. Loans and discounts. §44,276,546 §51,711,666 §57,285,160 §57,734,989 §54,938,836 Stocks......................... 4,843,320 6,055,938 4.170,935 4,227,191 3,727,186 S p e cie ......................... 6,738,389 9,953,270 6,978,055 6,856,718 6,340,513 Banknotes.................. 3,890,677 3,537,600 1,971,208 1,897,991 1,891,514 Cash items.................. 2,248,202 2,526,158 4,511,316 4,469,853 5,640,583 Due from banks......... 3,726,370 8,477,399 7,173,523 7,927,610 7,419,629 Journal o f Banking , Currency , and Finance. 305 INCORPORATED BANKS OF NEW Y O R K . W e give below an aggregate statement o f 80 incorporated banks and 2 branches, on the 1st November, 1846:— LIABILITIES. RESOURCES. Loans and discounts....... ......... $54,933,836 3,123,468 Real estate................ Bonds and mortgages............. 873,508 Stocks and promissory notes... 3,727,186 169,234 Bank fund....... ................ L os3 and expense account...... 170,848 Overdrafts......................... 112,893 Specie............... 6,340,513 Cash items....... ................ 5,640,583 Bills of solvent banks............. 1,891,514 Bills of suspended banks......... 7,948 Due bunks................. .............. 7,419,629 Capital......................................... $30,241,460 Profits................ 4,129,357 Circulation................................. 16,033,125 Due treasurer o f the State.... 502,814 Due canal fund......................... 398,080 Due depositors on demand..... 21,678,988 Due individuals......................... 433,838 Due banks................. 9,885,308 Due treasurer o f United States 756,777 Amount not included in above 356,413 $84,416,160 $84,416,160 FREE BANKS OF NEW Y O R K . The following is an aggregate statement o f 70 free banks on the 1st November, 1846:— LIABILITIES. RESOURCES. Loans and discounts................. $17,363,144 Capital......................................... $12,783,198 Real estate................. 519,243 Profits......................... 1,368,865 6,235,397 Bonds and mortgages.............. 1,910,504 Circulation.................................. 167,015 Stocks and promissory notes.. 7,499,581 Due treasurer o f the S tate.... 183,657 109,072 Due canal fund......................... Loss and expense account...... Due depositors on dem and.... 8,950,208 Overdrafts................................... 38,747 Specie......................... 1,707,871 Due individuals......................... 367,554 Cash items....... .................. 2,146,116 Due banks....... ......................... 3,093,156 Due treasurer of United States 341,553 Bills o f solvent banks......................................529,555 Bills o f suspended banks.................................2,057 Amount not included in above 234,293 Due banks................ 1,899,006 $33,724,896 $33,724,896 D E B T OF T H E S T A T E OF N E W Y O R K . 1837 TO 1846. The following statement, derived from the annual report o f A. C. Flagg, Esq., the comp troller o f the State o f N ew York, shows the character, condition, and progress o f the State CONDITION AND PROGRESS OF THE STATE DEBT, FROM debt for the last ten years. The first column shows the amount of State stock issued and loaned to railroad and canal corporations. The second column, the sum borrowed for the ordinary support o f the govermnent, including the stock issued to John Jacob Astor. T he third column shows the amount o f unredeemed stock issued on account o f the several canals; and the fourth, the total o f the whole debt. The debts are given as they appea in the annual reports o f the 30th o f September o f each year Years. 1837........................ 1833....... ........ ........ 1839....... ........ ........ 1840........................ 1841................ 1842................ ....... 1843................ 1844........................ 1845....... ........ 184G................ ........ 1. Contingent debt. $ 810,000 1,497,700 1,847,700 2,845,700 4,235,700 1,720,000 1,720,000 1,720,000 1,713,000 V OL. X V I.---- NO. I I I . !. Gen. Fund debt. $978,032 1,148,032 1,392,217 1,412,961 1,418,878 5,559,805 5,423,415 5,634,507 5,885,549 5,992,840 20 l Canal debt. $6,166,082 9,308,120 10,785,820 14,126,647 16,396,374 19,574,392 20,392,324 20,713,905 19,690,020 17,028,240 4. Agg. State debt. $7,954,114 11,953,852 14,025,738 18,385,308 21,960,952 26,854,197 27,535,739 28,068,413 27,238,560 24,734,080 306 Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance. The preceding statement would seem to show that the contingent debt reached \Ut highest point on the 30th o f September, 1841; this, however, is not so. Between the 30th o f September o f that year, and the 7th o f February, 1842, stock was issued and loaned to the N ew York and Erie Railroad, to the amount o f $900,000, and to the Schenectady and Troy Railroad, $100,000, being a total o f one million, and making the aggregate amount o f the contingent debt, on the 7th o f February, 1842, $5,235,700. The last hundred thousand dollars o f stock was issued to the Erie Railroad Company, on the 29th o f January, 1842, an.d on the 12th o f March following, the president of the com pany informed Gov. Seward that the company had made no provision for the payment of the April interest on any o f the State stock issued to said company, then amounting to $ 3 ,000,000. This letter was communicated to the Legislature by Gov. Seward. By this failure of the Eric Railroad Company, and the previous failures o f the Ithaca and Oswego, and the Catskill and Canajoharie companies, the sum o f $3,515,700 was transferred from the column o f contingent liabilities, to a direct debt chargeable on the treasury. This ex planation accounts for the great changes in the general fund and contingent debts, from 1841 to 1842. The canal debt, in the preceding statement, appears to have reached its highest point at the close o f the fiscal year in 1844, when it stood at $20,713,905. The canal debt, on the 7th o f February, 1842, was given at $18,656,011.72, which embraced $600,000 to pay arrearages to contractors. Subsequent payments show that the sum then estimated for arrearages was greatly underrated. Instead o f $600,000, there has actually been paid, from the 7th o f February, 1842, to the 13th o f June, 1846, the following sums:— For arrearages to contractors, engineers, & c......................... $2,649,487.35 For land damages....................................................................... 473,520.74 $3,175,008.09 T H E D E B T A N D F IN A N C E S OF T H E S T A T E OF M A R Y L A N D . The State realized from taxation and other sources, last year, $898,619 in addition to cash on hand at the commencement o f the y e a r; while the whole annual interest upon her debt is $651,821, and the ordinary expenses o f the State less than $200,000. The receipts o f the State from direct taxes, stamps, and other sources, are largely increasing, and it is difficult to imagine any well-grounded objection to the process o f resumption du ring the present year. PUBLIC DEBT OF MARYLAND, DECEMBER For For For For For For For For For For For 1, 1846. construction o f State Tobacco Warehouses in Baltimore......................... the construction o f the Maryland Penitentiary.......................................... the Washington Monument, Baltimore....................................................... account o f the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company............................ account o f Baltimore and Washington Railroad Company...................... account o f the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company............................. construction o f the Baltimore and Susquehanna Railroad......................... construction o f the Annapolis and Elkridge Railroad............................... construction o f the Susquehanna and Tide-W ater Canals...................... construction o f the Eastern Shore Railroad............................................... Medical Department o f Baltimore University............................................ $85,000 97,947 3,000 3,697,000 500,000 7,194,666 2,232,045 219,724 1,000,000 152,401 30,000 00 30 00 00 00 67 29 45 00 27 00 $15,211,784 98 RECAPITULATION. Currency,6 per cent bonds.............................................................. “ 5 “ “ Sterling, 5 “ “ Currency, 4$ 11 “ “ 3 “ “ Total........................................................... $3,932,306 1,831,811 8,857,666 100,000 500,000 44 87 67 00 00 $15,211,784 98 307 Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance. O this amount there is held by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company, and not negotiated, in 5 per cent sterling bonds, issued in 1838................ Held by the Treasurer of the Sinking Fund, (as per preceding statements)... Actual Funded Debt o f the State......................................................................... $3,200,000 1,496,473 10,515,311 Total.............................................................................................. $15,211,784 Official tables show that the entire funded debt o f the State is ...................... $15,211,784 O f which there is held by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company, not negotiated, and will probably never come $3,200,000 against the State........................................................................ A nd State bonds held by the Treasurer o f the State’s Sinking Fund............................................................................................. 1,496,473 ---------------4,696,473 Leaving an actual funded debt o f.................................................... $10,515,311 C O N D ITIO N OF T H E B A N K S OF M A SS A C H U S E T T S . W e are indebted to the Hon. John G. Palfrey o f Massachusetts, for the “ Abstract ex hibiting the condition o f the banks in Massachusetts, on the first Saturday in October, 1846, prepared from official returns, by John G. Palfrey, Secretary o f the Commonwealth.” It has just been published for the use o f the Legislature o f that State, and covers fifty-eight pages. W e give below the aggregate condition o f all the banks except four, from which returns had not been received at the time the report was made up. DUE FROM THE BANKS. 25 banks in Boston. 80 out o f Boston. Total—105. Capital stock paid in ............................... $18,180,000 00 $12,980,000 00 $31,160,000 00 Bills in circulation o f $ 5 and upwards. 5,677,668 00 6,651,717 00 12,329.385 00 Bills in circulation less than $ 5 ............. 696,018 00 1,566,511 50 2,262,529 50 1,474,694 72 Nett profits on hand................................. 1,029,441 45 2,504,136 17 5,072,005 48 Balances due to other Banks.................. 213,010 19 5,285,015 67 6,806,374 51 Cash deposited.......................................... 2,653,001 41 9,459,375 92 740,237 18 Cash deposited bearing interest............. 161,034 80 901,271 98 Total amount due from the Banks........ 38,646,997 89 25,254,716 35 63,901,714 24 RESOURCES OF THE BANKS. 25 banks in Boston. Gold, silver, and other coined metals... Real Estate....................................... ........ Bills o f other banks in this State.......... Bills o f other banks elsewhere.............. Balances due from other banks............. Amount o f all debts due......................... Total amount o f the resources.............. Rate, amount, and date o f dividends, since the last annual returns.............. Reserved profits at time o f last dividend. Debts due each bank, secured by stock. Debts due and unpaid, (doubtful)......... 80 out o f Boston. $2,437,072 719,582 2,394,802 176,236 3,104,657 29,814,646 38,646,997 39 87 78 00 23 62 89 $617,683 378,418 240,256 43,459 2,463,431 21,511,467 25,254,716 1,163,500 1,151,642 396,075 74,266 00 10 85 76 692,790 655,561 345,460 188,176 Total—105. 29 $3,054,755 68 10 1,098,000 97 38 2,635,059 1 6 55 219,695 55 59 5,568,088 82 44 51,326,114 06 35 63,901,714 24 00 65 69 39 1,856,290 1,807,203 741,536 262,443 00 75 54 15 AGGREGATE DIVIDENDS. for the year, a fraction less than 6.4 per n a in April, 3.25 u in October, over 3.15 tt “ out o f Boston for the year, less than 5.34 tt a « in April, over 3.21 it it it tt in October, 2.12 < ( tt A ll the Banks, for the year, 5.95 tt (i “ in April, 3.23 a tt a in October, 2.72 Banks in Boston. <( <t <( <( Some o f the banks did not return dividends in October, 1846, although they may have made them. 308 Journal o f Banking , Currency , and Finance. C O N D IT IO N OF T H E SA V IN G S B A N K S OF M A SS A C H U S E T T S. From the report o f the Secretary o f the Commonwealth o f Massachusetts, we derive the following statement o f the aggregate condition o f thirty-eight Savings Banks in Massachusetts, on the last Saturday o f October, 1846:— AGGREGATE OF THIRTY-EIGHT SAVINGS BANKS. Number o f depositors.......... 62,893 Amount o f deposits............. ,$10,680,933 . Public funds........................ 1,890,535 Loans on public funds......... 19,500 Bank stock........................... 1,909,620 Loans on bank stock......... . 149,256 Deposits in b’ ks bear’g int. 94,520 Railroad stock..................... 14,800 Loans on railroad sto ck .... 232,538 Invested in real estate......... 90,884 10 93 00 72 50 61 00 75 22 Loans on mortg. o f real est. $3,757,262 80 Loans to county or town... 818,041 96 Loans on personal security. 1,930,072 88 Cash on hand...................... 150,728 26 4| percent Rate and amount of divi dend for last year....... 345,443 10 Average annua! per cent of dividends o f last 5 years 5£ percent Annual expenses of the institutions............................ 29,306 69 T H E M IN T A T L IM A , IN PERU. The mint is situated in the vicinity o f the Plazuela de la Independencia. It was founded in Lima, in the year 1565; in 1572 transferred to Potosi, and in 1683 removed back to Lima. For the space o f seventy years this establishment was in the hands o f private in dividuals; but in the year 1753 the Spanish government took the management o f it, and erected the building in which it is still located. It is a large and handsome structure, but very defective in its internal arrangement. Until the year 1817, the machinery for casting was worked by mules, ninety-two o f those animals being employed daily. Subsequently, under the direction o f an Englishman, water-power was introduced, by which expense was diminished and time saved. A few years ago, a French merchant made an arrange ment with the government for the use o f a complex machine, which he proposed to bring from Europe. The machine arrived, but by an unlucky fatality it proved perfectly useless. For the space o f four years repeated attempts were made to work it, but in vain ; it fillfilled none o f the required conditions. Its faults are manifold, and it reflects but little credit on the person by whom it was contrived. It has cost no less than $250,000, and has never been o f the least use. In the mint o f Lima there are annually cast from two to two and a half millions o f dollars, which yield a profit o f from $140,000 to $180,000, out o f which are paid the salaries o f the persons employed. Under the Spanish government, these salaries amounted annually to $4 8,90 6; now they make, together with other customary outlays, the sum o f $85,105. The value o f a mark o f silver, in the mint, is 8 dollars 4 reales; that o f a mark o f gold is 144 dollars 4 reales. The standard worth o f the gold is 21 carats; that o f the silver 20 grains.* U N IT E D S T A T E S T R E A S U R Y CIR C U LA R . T reasury D epartment , Feb. 4, 1847. Under the provision o f the act o f the 6th ol August last, establishing the Constitutional Treasury, it is believed proper, and is hereby directed, that on or before the 1st o f April next, the balances remaining in any o f the banks should be transferred in specie or treasury notes, and deposited with the treasurer o f the United States, the nearest assistant treasurer, treasurer o f the mint, or branch mint, as the case may be. By the provisions o f the 19th section o f this law, no disbursement can be made after the 1st o f April next, except in specie or treasury notes; and it would seem proper that, after that period, the public moneys should no longer remain, in whole or in part, in any o f the banks. A s the balances still remaining in the banks have been reduced to an inconsiderable sum, no inconvenience R. J. W a l k e r , Secretary o f the Treasury. can be produced by this order. * Travels in Peru, during the years 1838-1842, by Dr. J. J. Von Tschudi. W iley & Putnam. N ew Y ork: 309 Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance. T H E O R IG IN OF T H E D O L L A R M A RK . T he origin o f ( $ ) this mark seems to be exciting considerable interest throughout the country, and there is o f course much diversity of opinion as to its origin. Beverly Tucker has written a letter to the editors o f the “ Southern Standard,” in which he gives the fol lowing as the most rational account that he has ever heard o f the $ mark:— “ The Straits of Gibraltar, called o f old ‘ the Pillars o f Hercules,’ were called the ne plus ultra o f the world. Spain pushed her discoveries to this continent, and when she earned home the wealth that rewarded her enterprise, she corned it into dollars, and stamped them with a triumphant allusion to her great achievement. The pillars they bear are the Pillars o f Hercules, and across them is twined a fillet marked with the beautiful words ‘ plus ultra’ — 1farther yet.’ The two straight lines are supposed to represent these pillars, and the line that waves across them stands for the fillet; and thus the mark $ is but a rude picture o f this part o f the impression.” This, says the Journal o f Commerce, sounds very well, but it is not correct. nal then proceeds to give the origin o f the sign, as follows:— The Jour “ The Spanish word for dollar is ‘ peso;’ in the plural,1pesos.’ In old Spanish accounts the word is written in full, and placed before the numerals. Then we find it abbreviated into P s. Afterwards we find the small p used, and the letter s placed on the lower part o f the p. Next, that the curved part o f the letter p is omitted, which gives the present dollar sign $ . The use o f two long strokes in the sign, is modem in its use. Thus the sign $ is an equivalent for the word ‘ pesos.’ ” The N ew York Express furnishes yet another solution o f the question. says:— The Express “ That the dollar mark is only applied, properly, to the United States coin or currency o f that name ; and originally, in order to distinguish it as such, it was written with the ‘ U. S.’ affixed, as 1U. S. 100 dollars;’ and in process o f time the whole became abbreviated to ‘ U. S. 100;’ and then by abbreviation to the two letters in one, the S crossing the U, out o f which has grown the ‘ $ .’ ” W e are unable to decide as to the correctness o f the several theories advanced, and must, therefore, remain in ignorance, unless some learned member o f the American Antiquarian Society sees fit to enlighten us on the subject. W e are, however, rather inclined to the decision o f Judge Tucker. R E V E N U E O F E N G L A N D S IN C E T H E C O N Q U E S T. A TABULAE STATEMENT OF THE REVENUE OF ENGLAND UNDER EACH REIGN OR ADMINISTRATION FROM 1066 TO 1826, A PERIOD OF 760 YEARS. A nno. W illiam the Conqueror.. . . W illiam Rufus.................... Henry I ............................... Stephen................................ Henry I I .............................. Richard I ............................ John..................................... Henry I I I ............................ Edward I ............................. Edward I I ........................... Edward I I I ......................... Richard I I ........................... Henry IV ............................. Henry V ............................... Henry V I ............................. Edward IV .......................... Edward V ............................ Richard III........................ . Henry V II......................... 1066 1087 1100 1135 1154 1189 1199 1216 1272 1307 1327 1377 1399 1413 1422 1460 1483 1483 1485 400,000; Henry VIII. 350,000;Edward VI... 300.000 .Mary.......... 250.000 Elizabeth..... 200,000]James I....... 150,000[Charles I..... 100.000 The Commonwealth. 80,000 Charles II. 150.000 James II...... 100.000 William II I .................... 154,140 Queen Anne (at Union) 130.000 George I.......................... 100.000 George I I ......................... 76,643 George III. (1778)......... 64,976 Anno. 1509 1547 1553 1558 1602 1625 £ 800,040 400,000 450,000 500,000 600,000 895,819 1648]i 1,517,247 i 1,800,000 1685 ' 2,001.855 1688 3,895,205 1706 5,691,803 1714 6,762,643 1727 8,522,540 1760 15,272,971 1800 36,728,000 1815* 71,153,142 100,000 1820 i >58,000,000 George IV. (averaging). ■ 1826! 400,000 * War, 310 Journal o f Banking , Currency, and Finance. U N IT E D S T A T E S B R A N C H M IN T O F N E W O R L E A N S . The following are statistics of the amount of moneys coined in the above establishmentforthe years 1845 and 1846:— 1845. 1 84 6 . Eagles,................ ................. 41,000 Half eagles,....... ................. Eagles,............... Half eagles,....... ..................... ...................... ..................... ................. ................. 2,094,000 230'COO 84,780 58,000 60,000 59,000 Half dollars,....... §680,000 Value of gold,...... ................. §1,272,800 “ silver,... 1,070.000 Value of gold,... .................... “ silver,.. ..................... ................ .. fti.7fin.nnfi ................. SS2.483.800 The above statement shows an increase of §733,800, during 1846, over the amount coined in 1845. T R E A S U R Y N O T E S C O N V E R T E D IN T O U N IT E D S T A T E S STO C K . The annexed, is the latest order from the Treasury Department, in relation to Treas ury notes:— T reasu ry D epartment ,. Feb. 15, 1847. Deposits o f Treasury notes for conversion into stock, bearing interest at 6 per cent per annum, and redeemable after the expiration o f twenty years, under 14th section o f the act o f Congress, approved January 28, 1847, may be made with the Treasurer, and the several assistant Treasurers o f the United States, the Treasurer o f the mint at Philadel phia, and o f the branch mint at N ew Orleans, and with the collector of the customs at Baltimore, Maryland. In receiving Treasury notes in deposit for such conversion, these officers wall give each depositor a certificate o f such deposit, stating the principal o f such notes, for w’hich stock will be issued. These certificates o f deposit will be forwarded to the Register o f the Treasury by the depositor, with an indication o f the denomination o f stock certificates he desires thereon. Interest will be borne on the stock, from the date o f such deposit. The interest due upon the Treasury notes, so deposited, will be settled by the account ing officers, and the amount remitted by draft, in the usual form, to the depositor. R. J. W alker , Secretary o f the Treasury. F IN A N C E S OF L O U IS IA N A . The annual report o f Gen. W alker, Treasurer o f Louisiana, exhibits, that on the 31st o f December, 1845, the balance in the treasuiy was $352,071 33 ; received subsequently to the 13th March, $197,927 77 expenditures during same time, $111,882 95 ; leav ing a balance on 14th March, 1846, o f $438,116 15. The receipts since that time, to the 31st ultimo, were $807,599 79 ; and the expenditures during the same time, $853,930 33 ; leaving a balance o f $391,785 61. mated at $79,220. The surplus o f the year 1847 is esti The debt “ proper” o f the State is set down at $1,846,884 13. This sum includes an amount o f nearly half a million o f the surplus revenue distributed b y the federal government, and upwards o f forty thousand dollars balance on appropria tions and current expenditures, not claimed. $2,364,622 08; The assets o f the State are set down at C L E V E L A N D ’S E X C H A N G E T A B L E S. These tables show the value, in dollars and cents, o f any sum o f exchange on London, from one penny to five thousand pounds sterling, commencing at par, and progressing by quarters to 12 per cent advance. A new edition, recently published by P. A . Mesier o f N ew York, contains several additional tables o f great value to merchants. 311 Commercial Regulations. COMMERCIAL REGULATIONS. T H E B R IT IS H C ORN L A W S . AN ACT TO AMEND THE LAWS RELATING TO THE IMPORTATION OF CORN. B y this Act it is declared that from and after the passing o f this Act, in lieu o f the duties now payable upon the entry for home consumption in the United Kingdom, and upon the importation into the Isle of Man, o f corn, grain, meal, and flour, there shall be levied and paid unto her majesty, her heirs, and successors, on all corn, grain, meal, and flour already or hereafter to be imported into the United Kingdom or the Isle o f Man from parts beyond the seas, and entered for home consumption, after the passing o f this Act, the duties set forth in the schedule to this A ct annexed, until February 1, 1849 ; and on, from and after the said February 1, 1849, the following duties, namely:— Upon all wheat, barley, bear or bigg, oats, rye, peas, and beans— for every quarter one shilling, and so in’ proportion for a less quantity. Upon all wheat-meal and flour, barley-meal, oat-meal, rye-meal and flour, pea-meal, and bean-meal— for every cwt. four-pence halfpenny; and so in proportion for a less quantity. By § 2 the Several duties hereby imposed, and leviable in the United Kingdom, are to be levied, collected, paid, and applied as under the previous acts, as are also (§ 3) the duties leviable in the Isle o f Man. The average prices, (§ 4,) both weekly and aggregate, of all British corn, shall continue to be made up, computed, and published, and the certificates o f the aggregate average prices continue to be transmitted, at the times, and in the manner required by the 5 and 6 Viet. c. 1 4 ; and the rate and amount o f the duties set forth in the schedule to this A ct shall be regulated and governed, according to the scale therein, by the aggregate average prices so to be made up, in the same manner as the rate and amount o f the duties imposed by the said Act are directed to be regulated and governed. But (§ 5) so much o f the said Act as prohibits the importation into the United Kingdom for con sumption there o f any corn ground, is repealed. DUTIES UNDER THE CORN IMPORTATION ACT. I f imported from any foreign country:— Wheat.— Whenever the average price o f wheat, made up and published in the man ner required by law, shall be for every quarter— 5. d. Under 48s. the duty shall be........ 10 0 I 51s. and under 5 2 .......................... 48s. and under 4 9 .......................... 9 0 | 52 “ 5 3 ........................... 49 “ 5 0 ............................ 8 0 I 53 and upwards........................ 50 “ 5 1 ............................ 7 0 I 5. 6 5 4 d. 0 0 0 Barley, B ig g or Bear.— W henever the average price of barley, made up and pub lished in the manner prescribed by law, shall be for every quarter— s. Under 26s. the duty shall be........ 26s. and under 2 7 ........................... 27 « 2 8 ............................ 28 “ 2 9 ............................ d. 5 0 I 29s. and under 3 0 ........................... “ 3 1 ........................... 4 6 | 30 4 0 I 31 and upwards.............................. 3 6 [ s. d. 3 2 2 0 6 0 Oats.— W henever the average price o f oats, made up and published in the manner required by law, shall be for every quarter— Under 18s. the duty shall be....... 18s. and under 1 9 .......................... 19 “ 2 0 ........................... s. d. 4 3 3 0 6 0 20s. and under 21, 21 “ 22 22 and. upwards... s. d. 2 2 6 0 1 6 R ye, P eas, and Beans.— For every quarter, a duty equal in amount to the duty paya ble on a quarter o f barley. Wheat-meal and Flour.— For every barrel, being 196 lbs., a duty equal in amount to the duty payable on 38£ gallons o f wheat. Barley-meal.— For every quantity o f 217$ lbs., a duty equal in amount to the duty payable on a quarter o f barley. 312 Commercial Regulations. Oat-meal and Greats.— For every quantity o f 181J lbs., a duty equal in amount to the duty payable on a quarter o f oats. Bye-meal and Flour.— For every barrel, being 196 lbs., a duty equal in amount to the duty payable upon 40 gallons o f rye. Pea-m eal and Bean-meal.— For every quantity o f 272 lbs., a duty equal in amount to the duty payable on a quarter o f peas or beans. I f the produce of, and imported from any British possession out of Europe :— Wheat, Barley, Bear or Bigg, Oats, Rye, Peas, and Beans, the duty shall be for every quarter, Is. Wheat-meal, Barley-meal, Oat-meal, Rye-meal, Pea-meal, and Bean-meal, the duty shall be for every cwt., 4 id . B R IT IS H C U STO M S’ D U T IE S ON T IM B E R , &c. AN ACT TO ALTER CERTAIN DUTIES OF CUSTOMS. The first clause repeals the previous act, and the second clause imposes, from and after the 5th o f April, 1847, the duties as given in the following schedule:— Upon timber and wood goods, not otherwise charged, v iz :— From and after From and after April 5,1847. April 5,1848. Timber or wood, not being deals, battens, boards, staves, hand spikes, oars, lathwood, or other timber or wood, sawn, split, or otherwise dressed, except hewn, and not being timber or wood, otherwise charged with duty, the load o f 50 cubic fe e t. £ 1 Deals, battens, boards, or other timber or wood, sawn or split, and not otherwise charged with duty, the load o f 50 cubic fe e t.... 1 Staves, if exceeding 72 inches in length, 7 inches in breadth, or 3J inches in thickness, the load o f 50 cubic feet......................... 1 Firewood, the fathom o f 216 cubic feet............................................ 0 Handspikes, not exceeding 7 feet in length, the 120...................... 0 1 Exceeding 7 feet in length, the 120, Knees, under 5 inches square......................... ................................... 0 5 inches ............................... and under 8 inches square, the ’ ■“ 120 1 1 Lathwood, the fathom o f 216 cubic feet.................... Oats, the 120........................................................................................... 6 Spars, or Poles, under 22 feet in length, and under 4 inches in diameter, the 12 0........<..................................................................... 0 22 feet in length and upwards, and under 4 inches in diam eter, the 120.................................... .............................................. 1 o f all lengths, 4 inches and under 6 inches in diameter, the 120 3 Spokes for wheels, not exceeding 2 feet in length, the 1,000...... 1 Exceeding 2 feet in length, the 1,000............................................ 3 0 6 0 £ 0 15 0 1 0 0 3 0 18 0 8 0 0 6 16 0 12 0 12 8 1 4 0 0 6 0 12 12 00 0 16 0 12 4 12 4 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 1 4 0 4 10 0 0 12 1 2 1 2 4 0 0 8 0 4 0 8 0 W ood, planed, or otherwise dressed or prepared for use, and not particularly enumerated, nor otherwise charged with duty, 6d. per foot o f cubic contents, and further for every £ 1 0 0 value, £ 1 0 , from and after April 5, 1847 ; and 4d. per foot o f cubic contents, and further for every £ 1 0 0 value, £ 1 0 , from and after April 5, 1848. Or, in lieu o f the duties imposed upon wood by the load, according to the cubic content, the importer may have the option, at the time o f passing the first entry, o f entering battens, batten ends, boards, deals, deal ends, and plank, by tale, if o f or from foreign countries, according to the following dimensions, from and after April 5, 1847, v iz :— Battens and batten ends, not above 7 inches in width, the 120— Not above 1J in. Above 14, not in thickness. above 24 in. ........... £1 4 8 N ot above 6 feet in length...... £2 9 3 1 16 11 A bove 6 and not above 9 feet long..................... ............ 3 13 10 “ ..................... ............ “ 12 2 9 3 4 18 6 “ 9 if .......... 3 1 7 “ 15 6 3 2 “ 12 it .......... 3 13 10 7 7 8 “ 15 “ 18 li .......... 4 6 2 “ 18 “ 21 8 12 4 313 Commercial Regulations. Boards, deals, deal ends, and plank, not above inches in width, the 120— Not above U in. in thickness. £ i 19 6 2 19 3 3 19 0 4 18 10 5 18 7 6 18 5 N ot above 6 feet long......................... Above 6 and not above 9 feet long. “ “ “ “ 9 12 15 18 tf (( ft 12 15 18 21 if (i tf ft Abovei l l not above 31 in. £ 3 19 0 5 18 6 7 18 0 9 17 8 11 17 2 13 16 8 A bove 9£ inches, and not above 11 £ in width, the 120— N ot above 6 feet long.. Above 6 “ “ “ “ 9 12 15 18 « «( If ft 12 15 18 21 “ « “ “ “ .............. .............. ................ ................ ................... ................... ................... ................... £2 10 3 8 £ 4 15 7 3 4 15 5 19 7 3 8 7 7 7 6 6 9 11 11 19 14 7 16 15 2 2 0 0 In lieu o f the duties o f customs now chargeable on the articles hereinafter next men tioned, imported into the United Kingdom, the following duties shall be charged from and after June 1, 1846, that is to say:— Seeds, per cwt., viz.— s. d. s. Canary.................................. 5 0 O f and from a British Possession 2 Caraway.............................. 5 0 “ “ 2 Carrot.................................... 5 0 “ “ “ 2 Clover................................... 5 0 “ “ “ 2 Leek..................................... 5 0 “ “ 2 Mustard.......................... 1 3 " “ “ 0 Onion................................... 5 0 “ “ “ 2 A ll other seeds not particularly enumerated or described, or otherwise charged with duty, for every £ 1 0 0 value.......................................................................£ 5 0 O f and from a British Possession, for every £ 1 0 0 value.................................. 2 10 d. 6 6 6 6 6 7£ 6 0 0 ARTICLES ADMITTED FREE OF DUTY. N o duties o f customs shall be chargeable upon the goods, wares, and merchandise hereinafter next mentioned, that is to say:— Animals, living, viz.— Asses, Goats, Kids, Oxen and Bulls, Cows, Calves, Horses, Mares, Geldings, Colts, Foals, Mules, Sheep, Lambs, Swine and Hogs, Pigs sucking. Bacon. Beef, fresh or slightly salted ; Beef, salted, not being corned Beef. Bottles, o f earth and stone, empty. Casts o f Busts, Statues, or Figures. Caviare. Cherry W ood, being furniture wood. Cranberries. Cotton Manufactures, not being articles wholly or in part made up, not otherwise charged with duty. Enamel. Gelatine. Glue. Hay. Hides, or pieces thereof, tawed, curried, varnished, japanned, enamelled ; Muscovy or Russia Hides, or pieces thereof, tanned, colored, shaved, or otherwise dressed, and Hides or pieces thereof in any way dressed, not otherwise enumerated. Ink for printers. Inkle, wrought. Lamp Black. Linen, viz., plain Linens and Diaper, whether chequered or striped with dye yarn or not, and manufactures o f Linen, or o f Linen mixed with cotton, or with wool, not particularly enumerated, or otherwise charged with duty, not being articles wholly or in part made up. Magna Graecia Ware. Manuscripts. Maps and Charts, or parts thereof, plain or col ored. Mattresses. Meat, salted or fresh, not otherwise described. Medals of any sort. Palmetto Thatch Manufactures. Parchment. Partridge W ood, being furniture wood. Pens. Plantains. Potatoes. Pork, fresh ; salted, not hams. Purple W ood, being fur niture wood. Silk, Thrown, dyed, viz., Singles and Tram, Organzine or Crape Silk. Telescopes. Thread not otherwise enumerated or described. W oollens, viz., Manufactures o f W ool, not being goat’s wool, or o f w ool mixed with cotton, not particularly enumerated or described, not otherwise charged with duty, not "being articles wholly or in part made up. Vegetables, all, not otherwise enumerated or described Vellum. 314 Commercial Regulations. ADDITIONAL ARTICLES FREE BY 9 AND 10 VICT., C. 102. Mill Stones, rough, shaped, or hewn. Burr Stones, rough, shaped, or hewn. Quern Stones, rough, shaped, or hewn. D og Stones, rough, shaped, or hewn. Raw Worsted Yarn, not dyed nor colored, and not being fit or proper for embroidering or other fancy purposes. Dunnage Mats, not being o f greater value than 10s. the 100. E A S T INDIES.— F R E E PO R TS. The Singapore Free Press o f October 7th, contains the proclamation o f the GovernorGeneral o f Netherlands India, declaring Macassar a free port. After a preamble, declar ing the desire o f the Governor to “ promote the trade and industry o f the manifold islands and possessions o f Netherlands India,'5 the Governor declares as follows:— 1st. That from and after the 1st o f January, 1847, the town o f Macassar shall be a free port, where goods o f every description whatsoever, and without reference to the flag, may be freely imported and exported without payment o f duties, either on the cargo, or o f ton nage, harbor, or anchorage dues on the ships, and without the traders being subject to any formalities on the score o f import or export duties. 2d. That, therefore, the regulations bearing on the importation, the sale, and possession o f fire-arms and gunpowder, fixed by the decree o f 8th August, 1828, No. 26, for the har bor and town o f Macassar, are abrogated, and consequently the free admission and expor tation o f munitions o f war at the place is granted by these presents. 3d. That the importation and exportation o f opium, at Macassar, will likewise be free, and subject to no restrictive regulations; with the understanding, however, that the traders in opium will have to confonn to the local regulations in reference to the opium farm. 4th. That o f the Chinese junks which are discharged at Macassar, the tax, imposed by article 20 o f the publication o f 28th August, 1818, and the resolution o f 4th October, 1819, No. 20, will be no longer claimed, nor that on behalf o f the Chinese hospital, prescribed by resolution o f 5th March, 1832, No. 1. 5th. That in the remaining places, situated in the government districts of Macassar, no import or export duties will be levied on goods, imported or exported by native craft, from or to Macassar, wrhile no square-rigged vessels will be admitted at those ports. 6th. That the Governor o f Macassar will be at liberty to admit foreigners, and to allow them to establish themselves temporarily at the said place for the purposes of trade ; and that no one should pretend ignorance on this score, the present will be published and pasted up wherever it be necessary. Ordain, &c. Given at Buitenzorg, 9th September, 1846. N E W R E G U L A T IO N S OF T H E F R E N C H W E S T IN D IA ISL A N D S. The following is an epitome o f the new regulations in the port o f Guadaloupe, and through the whole o f the French Islands:— Allows foreign vessels to come to anchor with in the harbor and lay 24 working hours, by paying 11 francs ($ 2 03.) The pilotage is due if the vessel take a pilot to come in or go out. The vessel must have her manifest ready so as to be delivered up to the customs when required. Under this new law, the wheat flour is 33c., colonial duty, 19c.— total, 52c. N E W C O M M E R C IA L R E G U L A T IO N S OF CUBA. A royal order has been issued in Havana, making Indian corn and corn-meal free of duty at the ports o f Havana, Matanzas, Cardenas and Mariel, for six months, commencing Jan. 16th, 1847. Vessels arriving or departing in ballast, will no longer have to pay mudmachine dues, or for health visits, or for Moro pass. The mud-machine dues for foreign vessels, are 1£ rials per ton ; health visits, ^ o f a rial per ton. 315 Nautical Intelligence. NAUTICAL INTELLIGENCE. L IG H T -T O W E R A T B R U S T E R O R T . F rom the 15th December, 1846, a light will be placed on the light-tower which has been erected at Bmsterort, instead o f the two beacons which have hitherto been lighted. The tower stands in 50° 57' 50" north latitude, and 19° 59' 3 0 " longitude = lhr. 19' 58" in time from Greenwich, and is built in octagon form o f rough brick. The base o f the tower is 107 feet, 2 inches, 8 lines above the medium height o f the Baltic; the axis o f the light 82 feet above the ground; consequently 189 feet 2 inches, 8 lines above the medium level o f the Baltic sea. The light is a Fresnel fire o f the second rank, to common view a fixed light, which however is interrupted from 4 to 4 minutes by a brighter glare, which is preceded and followed by a short obscuration. It illumines 5-6 o f the horizon from S. W . to S. S. E., and may be seen from on board a small vessel, at 10 feet elevation o f the ob server above the level o f the sea, 5 geographical m iles; at 30 feet elevation o f the observer, 5 f geographical m iles; from the masthead o f a large vessel, at 100 feet elevation o f the observer above the level o f the sea, 7 geographical miles. R oyal G overnment , S ection of the I nterior . Koenigsberg, 14th November, 1846. H A L IF A X .— L IG H T -H O U S E ON B E A V E R ISLAN D . A light-house has been recently erected and is now in operation on the south end o f the outer Beaver, or William’s, Island, to the eastward o f Halifax, and is a revolving light, visible 1$ minutes, and dark £ a minute ; the lantern is placed on a square building 70 feet above the level o f the sea, and is painted white, with two black balls painted on the seaward side to distinguish it in the day-time. The following bearings and distances have been taken by order o f Admiral Sir F. W . Austen, the naval commander-in-chief on this station, as follows:— Latitude 44° 47' 49" N ., by meridian altitude o f sun; longitude, by chronometer, 62° 25' 18" W ., or 1° 12' 30" E. o f the dock-yard, Halifax. Variation 19' 00" W . BEARINGS MAGNETIC. Sambro Light-house,............................................................. Canso Light-house,................................................................. W hite Islands, south point,................................................... Westernmost (dry) Bird Ledge,........................................... Harbor R o c k ,........................................................................... Goose Island Point and Sutherland Island Point, in one, S. N. N. S. N. N. 84 07 81 39 88 84 9 18 W . 54 miles. E . 70 “ E. 9* “ W. 5 “ W. 3 “ W. A reef extends from the east end o f Beaver Island a considerable distance, so that on entering the bay you should give the light-house a berth o f three-quarters o f a mile. This harbor is a good one. Inside Beaver Island the anchorage is not very good, but further up the bay there is a good anchorage, by giving the light a berth o f half or three-quarters o f a mile, and steering N . N . W . S. C unard , f Commissioners o f Tuos. M aynard , i Light-houses. J. P. M ille r , A F og Bell, worked by machinery, has been erected on the southwest light-house on St. Paul's island, o ff Cape North. L A N T E R N O N T H E L IG H T -T O W E R OF TH U N OE. The lantern on the light-tower o f Thunoe has been heightened one and a half feet, and replaced by an iron lantern, with large glass squares, which since Sept. 10, 1846, ha3 been kept burning during the same hours as all other Danish lights, and is being visible over the whole horizon at the distance o f three German miles. 316 Nautical Intelligence. A N T O N L IZ A R D O , SA C R IFIC O S, A N D G R E E N IS L A N D . ERROR IN CHARTS.— DIRECTIONS FOR ENTERING TIIE HARBORS. The annexed letter from the commander o f the United States ship Princeton, dated on board U. S. ship Princeton, Anton Lizardo, 5th January, 1847, contains important infor mation for navigators coming from the N orth:— S i r :— There are a number o f vessels coming from the North to this anchorage, and i f they run by the charts they must go on shore. The chart o f Sir John Philliman, o f 1824, calls Blanquilla, (forming the entrance to this, one o f the best harbors in the world,) a n island, when it is a shoal. Directions for entering Anton Lizardo, Sacrificos, and Green Island, cannot be mistaken. Therefore bring N. W . by N ., and steer S. E. by E., (compass bearing,) this will carry you in sight o f Blanquilla, a shoal which breaks. W hen you are two miles from Green Island you can see a blank on the hills on your larboard b o w ; there are a number o f patches, but this is the largest and most southerly— steer for it. A s you approach, you will observe the houses and lime-kiln on Anton Lizardo, steer for them, keeping them open on the larboard bow, until you near Blanquilla shoal; as you pass in, keep a cable’s length from the light green water, the shoal on your larboard hand. Y ou will be steering about S. E. by E., doubling to E. £ N., (you will now be one mile from the beach where there is a breaker thence extending from 300 to 400 yards towards Blanquilla,) here your eye and lead are your best guide ; do not go in less than 6 or 8 fathoms on the Blanquilla side o f the channel. I f you shoal your water, steer towards the shore, and you will deepen from 8 to 16 fathoms, and from 16 quick to 8 and 2 fathoms. The channel is half a mile wide at least. A s soon as you pass Blanquilla, or as soon as it is on with Salamidinilla, which is the southern and eastern island, you can haul up gradually to the eastward, steering where you please. Blanquilla bears W . £ N., and Salamidinilla N. £ N., from this ship ; we are in 6 fathoms water, good holding ground, about 1 mile from the island, where at present you will see coal, a small house, etc. Very respectfully yours, etc. F. E n g l e , Commander. F L O A T IN G L IG H T S ON T H E C O A S T OF IR E L A N D . The Corporation for preserving and improving the port o f Dublin have given notice, that on and after the 1st January, 1847, gongs will be substituted for the fog bells at present in use on board their light-ships, viz.:— The light-ship at the north end o f the Kish Bank. The light-ship near the south end o f the Arklow Bank. The light-sliip near the Coningbeg Rock (Saltees.) And after the period above mentioned, whenever the weather may be thick and foggy, so as to require such signal for the safety o f shipping, a gong will be sounded on board each of these light-ships, o f which masters o f vessels navigating the St. George’s Channel are requested to take notice. T H E SH IP P IN G OF F IV E A M E R IC A N S T A T E S . T he Salem Gazette gives the following comparative statistics o f the amount o f ton nage owned, and the amount built, by the four States that stand highest in the list, for the years 1845 and ’4 6 :— TONNAGE OWNED. ^3 OO N ew Y o rk ........... Massachusetts,... Tons. 625,875 524,994 1846. Tons. 655,695 1 Maine,.................. 541,520 | Louisiana,............ 1 84 5 . Tons. 320,059 170,525 . 1 84 6 . 358,123 181,258 TONNAGE BUILT. 1845. Maine,.................. N ew Y o rk ,......... Tons. 21,105 29,345 1 84 6 . Tons. 49,747 1 Massachusetts,.... 33,253 1 Pennsylvania,___ 1845. 1 84 6 . Tons. 25,961 25,819 Tons. 24,311 15,784 317 Commercial Statistics. COMMERCIAL STATISTICS. A D V A L O R E M A N D SPECIFIC D U TIE S IN 1844, 1845, A N D 184G. W e give below a statement exhibiting the value o f merchandise imported into the United States paying duty, the amount o f duty which accrued on the same, and also the rate per centum ad valorem o f the said duties on the respective values, during the years 1844, 1845, and 1846, derived from the Treasury Department, Register’s Office, Dec. 7,1846:— Period of importation. 1844. — Imported ad valorem goods... Imported specific articles.................. Value paying duty. Duties. $ 5 2 ,3 1 5 ,2 9 1 31,352,863 $ 1 4 ,4 4 9 ,3 4 8 03 14,531,208 77 Rote per ct. ad valorem. 27.62 46.34 27.04 41.64 1846. CD 34.64 $ 1 6 ,2 7 8 ,1 1 7 22 14,540,737 65 bo Oi ► e- $ 2 8 ,9 8 0 ,5 5 6 80 w $ 8 3 ,6 6 8 ,1 5 4 $ 6 0 ,1 9 1 ,8 6 2 34,914,862 bo Total ad valorem and specific.. 1845. — Imported ad valorem goods.............. Imported specific articles.................. $ 9 5 ,1 0 6 ,7 2 4 87 32.40 $ 6 0 ,6 6 0 ,4 5 3 36,263,605 $ 1 6 ,5 2 1 ,1 1 7 12 13,859,582 18 27.23 38.21 Total ad valorem and specific.. $ 9 6 ,9 2 4 ,0 5 8 $ 3 0 ,3 7 8 ,6 9 9 30 31.34 © Total ad valorem and specific.. — Imported ad valorem g oods... Imported specific articles. . *.............. 1844. — Excess o f specific duties over ad valorem...................................... 1845. 1846. — Excess o f ad valorem duties over specific....................................... $1,737,379 57 — Excess o f ad valorem duties over specific...................................... 2,663,534 94 Excess in 1845 and 1846...................................................................... Deduct excess o f specific duties in 1844........................................... $81,860 74 4,400,914 51 81,860 74 Excess in three years o f ad valorem duties over the specific.........$4,320,053 77 F O R E IG N A N D C O A S T W IS E E X P O R T S OF N E W O R L E A N S. The books o f the custom-house at New Orleans, furnish the following statement o f ex ports coastwise, and to foreign countries, from that port, in each month of 1846, as com pared with the same time in 1845:— VALUE OF EXPORTS, Coastwise. $2,753,227 4,093,433 4,257,781 3,312,544 2,391,860 1,298,421 1,119,458 904,416 454,206 603,798 1,058,071 2,438,601 54 51 00 13 67 17 40 20 00 67 55 00 1845. Foreign. $2,139,818 2,446,627 3,003,578 3,638,461 3,482,029 2,196,781 2,306,675 489,827 773,484 1,897,039 3,790,302 3,046,948 $19,149,741 84 $28,211,569 VALUE OF EXPORTS, 58 10 96 30 37 85 11 10 25 05 21 60 Foreign. $2,230,444 3,231,883 3,875,974 2,762,392 4,145,943 3,586,827 3,418,940 1,675,012 581,178 1,226,408 1,906,896 4,066,685 $24,790,825 08 $32,708,582 January,........... February,......... M arch,.............. A p ril,.............. M ay,................. June,................. July,.................. August,........... September,...... . October,........... November,........ D ecem ber,....... T ota l,....... . 1846. Coastwise. $1,813,290 3,989,422 2,588,658 2,778,268 1,456,033 928,418 767,220 527,130 505,665 811,002 1,615,976 1,368,647 Total amount o f exports in 1846, $57,499,407 0 8 ; in 1845, $47,361,,310 8 4 ; showing an increase, in 1846, o f $10,138,096 24. 318 Commercial Statistics. W H A L E F IS H E R Y OF T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S , IN 1846. W e publish below, as usual, the annual statement o f the whale fishery o f the United States, made up at N ew Bedford, and originally published in the Whaleman's Shipping List. The imports o f sperm and whale oils, and whalebone, into the United States, for 1846, made up from the gauger’s report o f the different cargoes, except 367 barrels sperm and 20 whale oil, which is put down as reported, and actual weight o f whalebone, except import per brigs Bull and Chenamus, and bark Alioth, have been as follows:— IMPORTS OF SPERM AND WHALE OIL, AND WHALEBONE, INTO THE UNITED STATES, IN 1846. Bbls. 200 SHIPS, BARKS, ETC., DURING THE YEAR Ports. N ew Bedford,............................... Do. in Merchantmen,............. Fairhaven,.................................... Mattapoisett,................................. S ip p ica n ,............................................ W areham,..................................... W estport,....................................... Dist. o f N ew Bedford,................ Holmes’ H ole,.............................. Edgartown,.................................... Nantucket,.................................... Do. in Merchantmen,............. Provincetown,.............................. Plymouth,...................................... Boston,........................................... Do. in Merchantmen,.............. Fall R iver,.................................... Som erset,...................................... Bristol,............................................ W arren ,........................................ Providence,.................................... N ewport,....................................... Stonington,................................... M ystic,........................................... N ew London,................................ Bridgeport,.................................... Sag Harbof,................................... Do. bro’ t on freight,.................. Greenport,..................................... Cold Spring,................................. N . Y ork in Merchantmen,......... T otal,................................ Ships and barks. 59 i 12 4 1 0 5 Brigs, sells. &c. 1 1 0 3 1 1 2 82 1 1 10 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 6 2 3 5 2 13 1 14 11 0 1 3 0 17 1 1 3 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 0 2 3 3 6 0 0 56,512 1,062 731 15,151 1,828 4,672 2,455 533 2,040 369 109 977 2 ,3 2 4 140 1,584 1,055 78 1,307 130 1,076 154 120 366 448 159 41 95,221 sperm oil. 38,330 300 12,049 1,809 374 672 2 ,918 Bbls. Lbs. whale oil. 80,812 215 15,475 1,517 1,515 whaleb’e. 456 ,90 0 256,025 101,449 24,000 6,600 71 844 ,97 4 9.400 19,000 14,000 99,605 1,020 2,010 1,731 282 8 60 40,000 24,266 4,070 18 3,601 6,633 5,096 230 9,169 4,130 27,441 2 ,5 0 0 29,2 95 14,600 20,200 34,000 1,200 71,900 40,4 00 183 ,45 0 7,500 138,832 66,186 30,5 74 36,457 680,000 3,106 7,125 363 2 07 ,49 3 AVERAGE VOYAGES MADE B Y SPERM AND RIGHT WHALERS, IN EACH YE AR, FROM 2,2 7 6,93 9 1842 TO 1846, INCLUSIVE, W ITH AVERAGE TIME ABSENT AND QUANTITY OF OILS BROUGHT HOME. In 1842, 55 sperm whalers arrived, average absence41months, 8 days, with average cargoes o f............................................................... In 1842, 74 two season right whalers arrived, average time absent 24J months, with average cargoes o f.................................................. In 1842, 18 one season right whalers arrived, average time absent 10J months, with average cargoes o f.................................................. In 1842, 65 Atlantic sperm whalers arrived, average time absent 13 months, 28 days, with average cargoes o f.......................................... a r r iv a l s 70 90 15 55 sperm whalers, average absence 41 m. 2 season rt. do. “ 25 1 “ “ 11 Atlantic sp. whalers “ 14 in Sperm. 1,793 Whale135 422 1,722 122 1,602 280 12 1,641 311 92 285 124 1,937 1,398 25 1843. 13 d., average cargo,........ 10 “ 28 “ 20 “ 319 Commercial Statistics. 1844. 00 d., average cargo,....... 09 44 14 “ 00 “ ARRIVALS IN 69 sperm whalers, average absence 43 m. 112 2 seas. rt. do. “ 25 7 1 “ “ 11 42 Atlantic sp. whalers “ 12 ARRIVALS IN 91 sperm whalers, average absence 101 2 seas. rt. do. “ 8 1 “ “ 43 Atlantic sp. whalers 44 48 24 12 13 41 30 12 14 06 02 02 07 293 2,050 1,176 38 1,291 196 55 238 387 2,180 796 76 1,350 225 .......................... 250 280 2,034 2,005 14 1845. 21 00 04 07 ARRIVALS IN 42 sperm whalers, average absence 94 2 season rt. do. 44 1 1 “ “ 48 Atlantic sp. whalers 44 1,419 248 69 248 “ ........ 44 “ “ ........ “ ........ * 1846. 44 “ 44 Total.— W hole number o f vessels employed in the whale fishery, Jan uary 1, 1847, 670 ships and barks, 31 brigs, 20 schrs., 1 sloop,.......... W hole number employed in the fishery, January 1,1846, 678 ships and barks, 35 brigs, 21 schrs., and 1 sloop,....................................................... Showing a diminution in the whaling fleet o f 8 ships, 4 brigs, and 1 schr., in 1846, amounting to...................................................................... 230,218 tons. 237,189 44 2,971 44 Oil and bone shipped home from outward bound, and wrecked and condemned wha lers, and brought home by whalers that had not completed their voyages, returned in con sequence o f some disaster, 4,953 bbls. sperm, and 1,705 bbls. whale oil, and 976,000 lbs. whalebone. IMPORTS OF SPERM AND WHALE OIL, From January ls£, 1838, to January ls£, 1844, and Oil and Bone, from January 14th, 1844, to January ls£, 1847. Sperm. Whale. Bone. Sperm. Whale. Bone. 1 8 3 8 .... 1 8 3 9 .... 1 8 4 0 .... 1 8 4 1 .. . 1 84 2 ...... .. .. 132,356 142,836 .. 157,791 .. .. 159,304 165,637 2 2 6 ,55 2 229,783 207 ,90 8 207 ,34 8 161,041 1 8 4 3 ...... 1844....... 1 84 5 ...... 1 8 4 6 ...... .. .. .. .. 166,985 139,594 157,917 95,217 206,727 262 ,04 7 2 7 2 ,73 0 207,463 2,5 3 2,53 7 3,1 6 7,14 2 2 ,276,939 1, 1847. Sperm. Whale. Bone. 191 ...................... N ew p ort............... Sag Harbor,......................... 125 ........ N ew Y o r k ,.................................................... STATEMENT OF SPERM AND WHALE OIL, AND WHALEBONE ON HAND, JANUARY N ew Bedford,.... ... Fairhaven,........... . . W estport,........... . . . Mattapoisett,...... Nantucket,......... W arren,.............. . . Sperm. Whale. Bone. 2 ,4 5 9 4,300 117.800 1,335 600 5 ,000 1,400 ........ 5 4 ........ Total,................ 14,614 7,775 122,800 1,675 2 ,050 T H E A M E R IC A N W H A L E F IS H E R Y . Henry P. Havens, Esq., o f New London, has furnished us with the following additional particulars to the article which appeared in. the Merchants’ Magazine for January, 1847. They were intended to accompany that article, but were received too late. The North Pacific Ocean, from coasts o f America and Kamtschatka, lat. 35° to 60°, called northwest coast, is the “ ground” where most o f the right whale oil taken by American ships is procured. The large size and abundance of whales in this region have attracted a large proportion o f the vessels engaged in this department o f the business; and it is esti mated that 315 ships from the United States have fished there during the present year. The whales are taken here during the warm months, say from 1st M ay to 1st October. It is believed that the North Pacific was first visited for right whales in 1839. The fal lowing table will show the success o f the vessels cruising on that ground since that tim e:— f 320 Commercial Statistics. 1839,....... 1840,........ 1841,....... 1S42,........ 1843,........ 1844,........ 1845,........ ' 2 ships, averag’g 1,400 barrels, is...... 3 587 “ 20 1,412 “ 29 1,627 “ 108 1,349 “ . 170 1,528 “ . 263 953 “ . 2,800 barrels. 1,760 it 28,200 “ 47,200 11 146,800 « 259,570 «( 250,600 It will be seen above that although the quantity o f oil taken last year (1845,) was nearly as large as any year previously, yet the average fell off from 1844, 37 per cent. There being a large number o f vessels fishing on the northwest the present year, a still smaller average is feared. Nantucket has probably undergone fewer changes, as far as the extent of its interest in the whale fishery is concerned, for the past twenty-five years, than any other place. In 1820, 72 ships were owned at Nantucket; 1829, 6 0 ; 1834, 7 1 ; 1839, 7 7 ; 1844, 7 7 ; 1846, 7 2 ; whereas, in New Bedford, there were in 1828, 67 ships ; 1846, 2 5 2 ; and in N ew London in 1820, 1 ship; 1846, 69. Notice has lately appeared in our newspapers, taken from English files, that the South Sea whale fishery was about to be revived in Great Britain. The Americans will probably have little to fear from the rivalry o f the English, as the southern fishery almost entirely run out in England with a prohibitory duty o f £ 2 6 10s. per tun on whale oil imported into Great Britain; and after 1st January, 1847, it will go in duty free. E X P O R T S OF T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S . A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE EXPORT TRADE OF THE NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. The following statement is copied from a correspondent o f the Journal o f Commerce:— “ From the statistics o f our export trade for the last few years, we perceive that it is as suming altogether a new aspect. Heretofore our principal exports have consisted of cotton, tobacco, and rice,— all the productions o f the Southern States. Within the last few years, the exports o f the manufactures and productions of the North have fast increased. It was not until I had compiled the annexed table, that I could credit the great increase. It ap pears that o f the exports o f domestic produce and manufactures for the year 1846, 43 per cent are from the Northern States; that the excess o f the exports of the South over the North, in 1845, was $>31,000,000; in 1846, only $14,000,000; that in 1845, the exports o f the South were 66 per cent o f the whole ; the North, 34 per cent; and in 1846, the South, 57 per ce n t; the North, 43 per cent. EXPORTS FOR THE YEARS 1845 1815. Productions. ... Forest,................ ............... Vegetable food ,................. North. $4,500,000 1,400,000 3.300.000 6.200.000 6,800,000 AND 1846, 1845. South. $1,800,000 3,200,000 8,000,000 51,700,000 9,300,000 340,000 CLASSIFIED. 1846. 1846. North. $3,400,000 2.300.000 3.400.000 7.800.000 15,400,000 South. $2,000,000 4,000,000 9,100,000 42,700,000 8,800,000 600,000 200,000 Not enumerated,............... 2,000,000 480,000 2,300,000 500,000 $33,940,000 $65,180,000 33,940,000 $44,200,000 $58,300,000 44,200,000 $31,240,000 $14,100,000 “ In the above table we have used round numbers, which is sufficiently accurate for all common purposes. The export o f Northern produce in 1846, is much greater than in 1845. I f the iucrease o f 1847 exceed that o f 1846, as that year exceeded 1845, in all pro bability the exports o f the Northern States will exceed those o f the Southern.” % 321 Commercial Statistics. C O M P A R A T IV E W E IG H T OF B A L E S OF C O T T O N , AT TIIE PORTS OF NEW ORLEANS, MOBILE, CHARLESTON AND SAVANNAH. James E. Saunders, Collector o f Customs at Mobile, having been requested by those interested in the cotton trade, to ascertain, with reasonable certainty, the quantity o f cot ton produced in the year 1845, in pounds—the average weights o f bales at each o f the ports where the article is received for shipment— and whether any increase or decrease is accruing in that respect this season, (under date, Mobile, January 20th, 1847) addressed a letter o f inquiry on these points to the collectors at New Orleans, Charleston and Savan nah. T o his inquiries, the collectors o f those ports made a prompt reply, which, together with records o f the office at Mobile, we publish below :— / The books in our custom-house show only the portion o f the crop shipped to foreign countries. Using this as a basis ot calculation, with the prices current in the hands of every merchant., the results which follow have been obtained : A t New Orleans the average weight o f the bales received last year, ending 31st August, 1846, was 450 pounds, and no information o f any change this season. A t Mobile it was 489 pounds last season ; and so far in this, 484 pounds. A t Charleston last season, and this, 360 pounds. A t Savannah it was 415 pounds last season, (including Upland and Sea Island) and 430 so far in this. The Upland has not increased beyond the average o f last season, which was 432 pounds ; but the result is due to the small quantity o f Sea Island received this season, which does not average much over 300 pounds to the bale. Table No. I. presents the number, average and aggregate weight o f bales received at the southern ports o f the United States, (exclusive o f Texas,) of the crop of 1845— whole quantity, 905,880,739 pounds. The average weight o f the bales in Florida, North Caro lina and Virginia, is conjectural. Table No. II. shows the receipts o f the crop o f 1846, up to the 8th January instant, an estimate o f the total receipts during the season at each port, provided the same proportion be maintained throughout, and the crop amounts to two millions oi bales. The quantity in such case would be in the aggregate, 859,880.739 pounds. Table No. III. shows the deficit from the crop o f 1845 in pounds, and in average bales o f 440 pounds, should the crop o f 1846 be respectively 2,000,000 ; or 1,900,000; or 1,800,000 bales. TABLE i. N e w O rleans....................... .................. M o b ile .................................. F lorid a ................................ .................. Rec’ts—Crop ’45. 1,1)40,012 139,880 G u lf Ports................ ................... 1,600,858 G eorgia...................................................... South C a rolin a ................... Virgi n ia ................................. ................... North C a rolin a ................... ................... 184,563 Av.Weight. 450 489 415 12.125 9,401 Atlantic P orts.......... G u lf Ports................ ................. 7 3 1 ,98 1 ,9 7 4 415 360 360 360 2,0 5 5,71 3 76,5 93 ,6 4 5 89,5 55 ,7 6 0 4 .3 6 5,00 0 3 ,384,360 173,898,765 7 31 ,981,974 1,600,858 A ll the Ports............. .................. Total Weight. 4 6 8 ,0 0 5 ,4 0 0 2 0 6 ,34 1 ,3 7 4 5 7,6 35 ,2 0 0 440 905 ,88 0 ,7 3 9 Average. 450 484 430 430 360 Total Weight. 390.26 2 ,5 0 0 1 37 ,456,000 2 4,5 10 ,0 0 0 135,987,500 165,060,000 1,890,000 4 ,590,000 TABLE II. N ew Orleans......................... M obile.................................... . Florida.................................... Savannah................................ C h a ile s to n ........................... N orth C arolin a ..................... V irgin ia .................................. Rec’ts to Jan. 8. Total Receipts. 324 ,00 0 867,250 102,625 284 ,00 0 2 1 .3 7 5 57,000 118,162 316,250 170,953 458,500 1,081 5,250 4 ,7 6 0 12,750 745,947 VOL. XVI.---- NO. III. 2 ,000,000 21 859,756,000 822 Commercial Statistics. TABLE III. If crop be Deficit in lbs. 46,124,739 89,112,539 132,100,339 2 , 000,000 1.900.000 1.800.000 In nv’ge finfes 100,128 202,528 300,228 PRICES OF W H E A T , FLOUR, HEM P, A N D L E A D , AT ST. LOUIS, FOB THE LAST THREE YEARS. The following tables, derived from the St. Louis Price Current, exhibit the comparative monthly prices o f four o f the leading products o f Missouri, in each month o f the year* 1844, 1845, and 1846 WHEAT. 1846. FLOUR. 1 84 5 . 1 84 4 . 1 84 6 . January,........... February,.......... M arch,............. A p ril,................ M ay................... June,.................. July................... August,............. September,...... October,............ November........ Decem ber,........ Cents. 70 a75 65 a68 63 a66 62$e65 63 a65 50 a52 38 a40 48 a50 50 a53 60 a63 57 a59 58 a60 Cents. 68 a70 60 a65 68 a70 65 a67 68 a70 68 a70 70 a73 50 a53 54 a56 62$*65 75 a80 85 a90 Cents. 65 a70 65 a70 75 a80 70 a75 70 a72 60 a62$ 50 a56 60 a65 65 a68 a6Q$ 70 a73 67 a70 January,............ February,......... March................ April,................. M ay,.................. June................... July,................... August,.............. September......... October,............ Novem ber,....... December.......... $ 65a68 58a60 58a60 52a55 48a50 48a50 46a48 48a50 44a46 46a48 48a50 56a60 $58a60 58a60 58a60 62a65 68a70 68a70 70a75 68a70 65a68 60a65 65a68 62a65 1 84 5 . Dollars. 4 37$a4 50 4 00 a4 12$ 3 87$ i4 00 3 50 a3 62$ 2 95 a3 00 3 05 a3 10 2 00 a2 25 2 50 s2 55 2 87$ .3 00 3 75 a3 80 3 80 a3 87$ 3 75 a3 80 1844. Dollars. 3 6Q$i3 70 3 60 a3 62$ 3 60 a3 62$ 3 45 a3 50 3 65 a3 70 3 65 a3 70 3 70 n3 75 3 45 a3 50 3 00 o3 06$ 3 12$ 3 25 3 70 ;>3 75 5 75 a6 00 HEMP. Dollars. 3 75 a4 00 3 75 a4 00 3 95 a4 12$ 3 70 a3 75 3 70 a3 75 3 50 a3 55 3 70 n3 75 3 75 a4 00 3 80 a3 90 3 87 $i4 00 3 56 a3 60 3 75 a4 00 LEAD. $70a75 $ 3 70a3 75 70a75 3 70a3 75 76a80 3 40a3 45 73a75 3 20a3 25 70a73 2 90a2 95 60a65 3 30a3 35 58a60 3 25a3 30 65a70 3 15a3 20 70a72 3 25a3 30 65a68 3 48a3 50 63a65 3 70a3 75 60a62 3 80a3 85 $ 3 25a3 30 3 32a3 35 3 10a3 12$ 3 08a3 10 3 00a3 03 2 95a3 00 3 32a3 35 3 25a3 30 3 45a3 47 3 68a3 70 3 80n3 85 4 00a3 03 $3 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 00a3 03* 00a3 03 85a2 87 76a2 78$ 85n2 87 00a3 02 90a2 92 9 3 :2 95 00a.3 05 1 0 13 12 45n3 50$ 25a3 37 C O M M E R C E OF D E T R O IT , M IC H IG A N . T he following is a table o f certain articles o f export o f the Port o f Detroit, for a series o f years, affording evidence o f the rapid growth o f that important c ity :— EXPORTS OF DETROIT. 1846. W heat............... Flour.................. F ish................... Pork................... A shes................ W oo l.................. Staves............... Total value...... 1845. 1844. 1841. 1842. 230,610 112,350 114,397 106,180 98.920 225,430 296,170 464,092 263,080 180,210 6,675 5,850 9,305 6,760 11,895 954 2,620 2,621 3,075 10,466 7,560 8,680 5,742 9,655 3,650 390,060 235,405 506,143 98,950 34,464 1,840 4,346 397 612 773 $2,495,333 $2,000,000 $1,747,000 $1,587,000 $1,108,000 T he movement in breadstuffs, owing to the failure o f the crop, fell off some 37,000 barrels in 1845, as compared with 1844, and was also 3,744 barrels lower than in 1843. 329 Commercial Statistics. W e append the equivalent o f flour, and wheat reduced to barrels flour, sent o ff from De troit in the above period:— 1842. 1841 1844. Bbls. Flour........................ 199,994 284,296 318,640 The total value o f the exports o f Michigan is as follow s:— 1 84 5 . 281,552 Exported from Detroit.................................................... “ M onroe................................................... 11 St. Joseph............................................... “ all others................................. ...... ......... $2,495,417 800,241 601,555 750,455 Total o f 1846.................................................. Total o f 1840.................................................. $4,647,668 1,305,860 1 84 6 . 486,969 Increase............................................................. $3,341,808 Flour, Wheat, Ashes and Lumber are the main staples. The whole amount exported was: Wheat............................................................................... bush. 750,888 Flour, equal to......................................................................... 3,442,666 T otal.................... ......................................... bush. 4,193,554 The crop o f last year is estimated at 9,000,000 bushels, being within 2,000,000 bushel* o f the quantity raised in the State o f New York, in 1840. Wanted for home consumption................................... bush. 2,000,000 Wanted for Seed, Feed, & c .................................................. 300,000 Already shipped....................................................................... 4,193,554 6.493,554 2,506,446 Leaving a surplus to come forward. 9,000,000 PR ICE S O F W H E A T IN E U R O P E A N M A R K E T S , AT OK NEAR THE CLOSE OF THE TEAK 1846. The following abstract o f a circular o f the Minister o f Agriculture o f France, address ed to all the Prefects, shows a comparative statement o f the price o f wheat in the prin cipal markets:— Markets. Periods. Price per hectolitre, Markets. Periods. Price per hectolitre. in fr’ cs & c’times. in fr’ cs &. c’ timea. 26 71 Corunna, November, Antwerp, October, 19 46 Murcia, 24 78 do. Amsterdam, do. 23 43 25 57 Malaga, October, do. Rotterdam, 19 68 22 53 Belbar, November, do. Dantzig, 18 34 24 16 Cadiz, October, Berlin, do. 24 26 23 73 Barcelona, do. Hamburg, do. 24 72 21 62 London, doLubeck, November, 26 68 22 64 Copenhagen, do. October, Stettin, 18 68 Christianio, do. 18 47 do. 22 44 Trieste, 27 50 do. Mayence, 1 a> YellowPolish, 14 to 16 fr’cs. November, 22 72 “ 13 to 15 “ Bremen, Odessa, < "o Red October, 21 53 Genoa, 1 o RedBessarabia.l 2 to 14 “ November, 21 37 L o Hard Wheat, 10 to 13 “ Nice, Riga, 16 78 October, November, Ancona, 18 18 St. Pet’sburgh, October, do. 19 38 Rome, 16 88 Alexandria, November, do. 19 71 Naples, 12 58 N ew York, October, 19 04 do. Leghorn, 12 09 290-100 hectolitres are equal to one English quarter, so that the above table gives tho following English prices per quarter— 62s. 9d. for Antwerp; 62s. Id. for London; 42s. 7d. for T rieste; 40s. 7d. for Copenhagen; 27s. 3d. for New Y o r k ; 36s. lid . for St. Petersburgh ; the exchange being calculated at the current October and November rates, viz : 25 francs 70 centimes per pound sterling. 324 Railroad and Canal Statistics. RAILROAD AND CANAL STATISTICS. C A N A L C O M M E R C E O F C L E V E L A N D , OHIO. T he following is a comparative statement o f some o f the principal articles of property that arrived at, or was cleared from Cleveland, by way o f the Ohio Canal, during the years 1843, ’44, ’45, and ’46 :— ARRIVED. 1841. Flour................................ P ork................................. B eef................................. . W hiskey........................... Linseed Oil...................... Pot and Pearl Ashes...... Butter............................... B acon.............................. . Lard.................................. Tallow.............................. Iron and N ails................ W ool................................. Mineral Coal............. — C orn ................................. Oat3.................................. W heat............................... T obacco........................... Staves and Heading....... Stone................................ W o o d ............................... 577,31)9 13,177 3,050 14,612 1,082,733 1,008,387 1,926,666 1,649.835 290,024 10,075,237 391,133 387,834 227,694 30,222 813,536 1,789 246,229 1,287 4,487 1814. 1845, 4 84 6 . 494,099 36,561 2,656 12,097 1,896 1,302,740 1,191,455 1,722,628 1,540,155 389,997 6,839,170 884,878 540,355 263,508 24,565 976,551 336 [ 641,444 3,795 4,863 378,732 19,984 4,019 18,612 1,217 1,060,973 1,087,184 863,914 782,734 315,398 9,122,822 961,982 889,880 164,967 48,041 205,581 705 714,084 15,055 5,862 368,355' 42,996 1,308 17,744 967 660,983 1,321,333 1,494,821 1,073,444 177,452 11,527,908 970,709 893,806 527,270 50,184 1,672,340 2,031 719,397 8,690 5,080 73,325 7,900 11,552,460 1,099,608 2,201,123 199,225 73,494 230,548 111,183 203,700 369,601 37,799 156,596 23,317 75,594 2,385,593 3,134,750 571,850 52,501 10,358 10,986,708 849,891 1,711,753 342,859 62,760 282,050 132,696 476,435 551,083 121,521 140,373 51,413 30,854 2,045,961 3,251,000 777,000 58,592 9,042 10,796,129 663,225 1,116,578 638,485 131,475 185,869 170,826 263,038 1,028,197 23,362 127,432 37.656 77,551 2,497.008 1,913,250 1,473,680 CLEARED. Salt.................................... ...... bbls. Lake F ish...................... .. Merchandise................... Furniture and Baggage. Gypsum............................ Castings............................ Machinery........................ Salasratus......................... Pot and Pearl Ashes...... Other Salts o f L ey.......... Marble.............................. Hides and Skins............. Clocks........................ . Grindstones...................... Cheese............................. . Lum ber............................ Shingles........................... Flat Hoops..................... 44,310 6,689 13,250,758 1,118,781 2.064,955 299,235 91,918 155,096 77,060 72,871 34,888 806,955 3,139,000 1,279,400 T H E M A SS A C H U S E T T S W E S T E R N R A IL R O A D . The twelfth annual report o f the directors o f the Western Railroad corporation has been published. The directors, in order to be prepared to make the dividends payable on or about the 1st day o f January or July in each year, and for the purpose of having more time to prepare their report for the Massachusetts Legislature, and likewise to have the financial year end at the same time with that o f the Boston and Worcester Railroad cor poration, have ordered the accounts to be made up to the 30th o f November, in each year, instead o f December 31st, as heretofore. In consequence o f this change, the report of 1846, before us, embraces only the business for eleven months, from January up to Novem- Railroad and Canal Statistics. W 30th, 1846. 325 The amount o f earnings for December, 1846, have been $76,000, which, added to the receipts for eleven months, will make the gross receipts of 1846, $954,417.89, and an increase over the year 1845, o f $140,937.89. The increase o f business for the eleven months o f 1846, as compared with the correspond ing period in 1845, has been nearly 21 per cent, and 13.7 per cent on passengers, making an average gain o f 17$ per cent, besides the amount which has been overcome by the re duction o f passenger fares. The following tables will give a comparative statement o f the business o f the road since the commencement; the number o f through and way passengers, and the number of bar rels o f dour transported, during the last five years; the number o f miles run during eleven months o f 1846:— COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF THE BUSINESS OF THE ROAD. Passengers. Merchandise. Mails, &c. 18 39*.... 1840....... 1841....... 1842t__ 1843....... 1844........ 1845........ 1 8 4 6 }.... $13,472 70,820 113,841 , 266,446 275,139 358,694 366,753 389,861 $4,136 38,359 64,467 226,674 275.696 371.131 420,717 459,365 $3,166 4,600 19,566 23,046 23.926 26,009 29,191 Total. Expenses. $17,609 112.347 182,308 512.688 573,882 753,752 813,480 878,417 $14,380 62,071 132.501 266,619 303,973 314.074 370.621 412,679 Bnl. rec’ts. $3,228 50,275 49,807 246.068 269,909 439,678 442,858 465,738 Miles run. 94,404 160,106 397,295 441,608 499,968 530,201 573,956 NUMBER OF W A Y AND THROUGH PASSENGERS. THROUGH PASSENGERS. 1st class. 1842 1843 1814 1845 1846 15,890 19,087 17,016J 13,4014 21,033 87,328 2d clnss. 2,6804 6,608 7,314 5.791 8,7994 31,193 WAY PASSENGERS. 1st class. 148,500 140,425 140,8684 144,723 165,196 2d clnss. 739,7124 242,723 23,366 33,9454 55,0584 59,7174 70,6354 TOTALS. 1st class. 164,390 160,412 157,885 158.1244 186,229 827,0404 2d class. Grand Total. 26,046* 40,5534 62,3724 65,5084 79,435 273,916 190,4364 200,9654 220,2574 223,633 265,664 1,100,9564 NUMBER OF BARRELS FLOUR TRANSPORTED FROM ALBANY AND TROY. To Boston. 85.986 123,366 154,413 181,7964 209.634 1842... 1843... 1844... 1845... 1846... To other stations. • 86,124 120,873 142,990 146,3864 151,711 NUMBER OF TONS TRANSPORTED IN ELEVEN MONTHS OF Total. 172,110 244,239 297,403 328,183 §361,345 1846. Through from Boston to Albany westward.................... A ll other tonnage. 8,358 40,251 Total going west Through from Albany to Boston, eastward..................... A ll other tonnage. 48,609 36,403 81,382 Total going east 117,785 Total number o f tons moved 166,394 15,748,223 100,950 Equivalent number o f tons carried over the whole road. * Three months. t First year o f opening through to Albany. t Eleven months. § In December, 1846, the number o f barrels transported to Boston, was... 23,286 Transported to other stations.................................................................................... 12,208 Total number o f barrels in December......................................... .................. 35,494 Making the whole number o f barrels transported in 1846.................................. 396,839 326 Railroad and Canal Statistics. The distance from Albany to Boston, over the Boston and Worcester, the Western, and the Albany and Stockbridge Railroads, is 200 miles. The Boston and Worcester Road, 44 miles, the Western, connecting with the Boston and Worcester, at Worcester, 118 miles, and the Albany and West Stockbridge, connecting with the Western at West Stockbridge, 38 miles— total, 200. This road is under very efficient management. Jame# Barnes, Esq., the superintendent, graduated at West Point, and is one of the most efficient line engineers in the United States. P H IL A D E L P H IA , W IL M IN G T O N , A N D B A L T IM O R E R A IL R O A D . W e have received the annual report o f this corporation. It, however, furnishes but little information o f importance, omitting to give any tabular account o f the number o f passengers, or the receipts from various sources. The only items o f any interest are stated in the brief report o f the new president, Mr. E. C. D ale , who takes the place o f Mr. M. B. B uckley , from which it appears that the total gross revenue o f the year, 1846, has been $568,553.27; while the total expenses amount to $287,704.72. How long will it take the directors o f this corporation to discover that a liberal policy and moderate fares are the surest means o f increasing the travel and income o f the road? W e hope that the new president and board o f directors will take counsel o f the experience o f the railroad corporations o f Massachusetts and New York. M E R C H A N D IS E ON T H E C O L U M B IA R A IL R O A D . T he following comparative statement o f the receipts o f the following articles at Phi ladelphia by this route, in 1844, ’45, and ’46, is derived from the “ Commercial List:” — 1846. F lou r,.............................. ............. bbls. W heat,............................. Corn, rye, and oats,...... B acon,.............................. Butter............................... Cheese,............................ Cotton,.............................. Feathers,......................... Hemp,.............................. Iron,...i............................ Leather,........................... T obacco,.......................... W o o l,.............................. W hiskey,........................ 332,370 40,130 350,197 2,370,150 1,163,400 168,200 1,124,000 341,300 1,025,900 1,242,200 584,500 3,245,300 2,985,300 500,011 1 8 4 s. 1844. 188.993 23,217 237,417 7,044,300 1,218,350 l 216 , 30 0 ; 929,100 584,300 576,200 1,572.550 586,100 3,305,700 3,317,400 527,925 194.541 30,680 255,138 5,806,991 346,159 332,714 608,724 7,969,747 554,475 3,483,487 2,552,874 548,565 SUCCESS OF T H E E N G L ISH R A IL R O A D S Y S T E M . The Edinburgh Review contains an interesting article on this subject, from which w© extract the following paragraph:— “ W e have stated that the first o f this series was the Liverpool and Manchester line— thirty miles in length— which was opened for traffic in 1830. In 1840 there were thirteen hundred miles o f railway in full operation in England, upon which, during that year, twelve millions o f persons had been conveyed. In 1841 fifteen hundred miles were worked, on which twenty millions o f passengers had been conveyed. In 1843 the length o f railway open was eighteen hundred miles, and the number o f passengers transported nearly twentyseven millions; and in 1844 the length was increased to nineteen hundred miles, and the passengers exceeded the incredible number o f thirty millions. Nearly sixty millions ster ling o f capital [$300,000,000] had been expended, in little more than ten years, on these enterprises. But all the principal lines paid large profits. Dividends o f 10 per cent were declared, and the shares rose to cent per cent premium.” Journal o f Mining and Manufactures. 327 JOURNAL OF MINING AND MANUFACTURES. “ TH E C O A L M IN E S A N D C O A L T R A D E OF B E LG IU M .” T he second article in the present number o f the “ Merchants’ Magazine and Commer cial Review,” with the above title, is from a work nearly ready for the press, and has been kindly furnished for publication in our Journal, by the author, R ichard C owing T a y l o r , Esq., Fellow o f the Geological Society o f London, Member of the American Philosophical Society, and o f various other institutions. The work will be put to press as soon as a suf ficient number o f names are obtained to insure the publisher from actual loss. The work, which we have had the pleasure o f examining in manuscript, covers the whole ground. It is, to quote the title, from the prospectus before us, Si The Geographical and Geological Distribution o f Mineral Combustibles or Fossil Fuel, embracing, from Official Reports o f the Coal Producing Countries, the Respective Amounts o f their Production, Con sumption, and Commercial Distribution, together with their Prices, Tariffs, Currency, Duties, and International Regulations.” In the three hundred tables o f coal statistics which it contains, Mr. Taylor has brought down the returns to the latest practicable period. In the thousand tables o f coal analysis, not a table is inserted without the sanction o f the highest scientific authority. The author is perfectly familiar with every section o f the coal region o f Pennsylvania. He has, more over, been several years employed in collecting materials for this work, which presents, in a concentrated form, the characteristic details o f one o f the most valuable departments of mineral statistics. “ It need not here be urged,” says the author, “ that the data, essential to such a design, are now distributed throughout a multitude o f documents, are printed in various languages, and emanate from numberless sources, more or less attainable.” The work is not confined to one set o f readers, but is calculated to benefit the commercial, the manufacturing, and the scientific, and with them, the producer, the operative, and the po litical economist. It will be comprised in a royal octavo volume, o f about seven hundred and fifty pages, illustrated with maps, printed in the best manner, on fine paper, and hand somely done up in embossed cloth. The subscription price is fixed at $ 4 . W e understand that about one hundred and fifty persons have become subscribers to the work. Fifty or sixty more will barely cover the expense o f printing, and secure its publication. W e shall be glad to receive the names o f all persons interested in the subject, and forward them to the worthy author in Philadelphia. C O A L M IN E S A N D T R A D E OF P E N N S Y L V A N IA . W e commenced in the “ Merchants’ Magazine ” for February, 1847, the publication of an article on the coal trade o f Pennsylvania, prepared by Col. C. G. C hilds, the editor of the Philadelphia “ Commercial List.” The subject has been concluded in a subsequent number o f that valuable journal; and with the permission o f Mr. Childs, who has secured the copy-right for the article, we re-publish the remainder:— In continuing our remarks on the Pennsylvania coal trade, we cannot forbear to quote the language o f some eminent British writers in reference to the connection between the possession o f coal mines and the prosperity o f a nation. The President o f the British Statistical Society, Mr. Porter, speaks o f the coal mines o f England as “ the source o f greater riches than ever issued from the mines o f Peru.” He adds :— “ But for our command o f fuel, the inventions o f Watt and Arkwright would have been o f small account; our iron mines must have long since ceased to be worked, and nearly every important branch o f manufactures which we now possess, must have been ren dered impracticable, or at least have been conducted upon a comparatively insignificant *eale.” 328 Journal o f Mining and Manufactures. The well-known Professor Buckland says:— “ The amount o f work done by steam in England, has been supposed to be equivalent to that o f three or four hundred millions o f men, by direct labor; and we are almost astonished at the influence of coal and iron and steam, upon the fate and fortunes o f the human race. It is 1,800 feet below the earth’s sur face. It rows, it pumps, it excavates, it carries, it draws, it lifts, it hammers, it spins, it weaves, it prints. W e need no further evidence to show that the presence o f coni is, in an especial degree, the foundation o f increasing population, riches and power, and o f improve ment in almost every art which administers to the necessities and comforts o f mankind.” A writer in a well-known English periodical, pronounces coal “ the chief source o f the national wealth and power, and the foundation o f our manufacturing industry. Without such a supply o f fuel, our iron, lead, tin and copper ores must have remained in their beds.” O f coal, and its proximity to iron ore, Professor Bakewell remarks:— “ The frequent oc currence o f these minerals together, both destined in future to give to man an extensive empire over the elements, and to contribute largely to his means of civilization and com fort, cannot fail to impress the reflecting mind with evidence o f prospective designing intelligence.” In a parliamentary document, Mr. Buddie, the eminent engineer, states, in a striking manner, his view o f this subject:— “ Should our coal mines ever be exhausted, the manu facturing interest would melt away at once. W e should lose many o f the advantages of our high civilization, and much o f our cultivated ground must be shaded with forests, to af ford fuel for the remnant o f our present population.” Mr. McCulloch, author o f the Commercial Dictionary, says:— “ Our coal mines are the principal sources and foundation o f our manufacturing and commercial prosperity. Since the invention o f the steam-engine, coal has become o f the highest importance as a moving pow er; and no nation, however favorably situated in other respects, not plentifully supplied with this material, need hope to rival those that are, in most branches o f manufacturing industry. The citizens o f Glasgow, Manchester, & c., are able, at a small expense com paratively, to put the most powerful and complicated machinery in motion, and to produce results quite beyond the reach o f those who have not the same command over coal, or (as it has been happily defined) hoarded wealth. Our coal mines have been sometimes called the Black Indies; and it is certain that they have conferred a thousand times more real advantage on us, than we have derived from the conquest o f the Mogul Empire, or than we should have reaped from the dominion o f Mexico or Peru.” Reflections on the vast coal resources o f Pennsylvania, and the great operations which will certainly result from the possession o f this fuel, are animating, and in many respects o f useful tendency. They expand the viewrs, and lead us to feel a more elevated and intel ligent interest in whatever concerns our commonwealth. W hen we remember that Pennsylvania is the only State which possesses anthracite coal, (in any amount worthy o f mention,) and when we notice the remarkable fact that she is the only State which has direct access by water at once to the ocean, the lakes and the Mississippi, we perceive that her position, as well as her internal resources, is such as to justify very high expectations in reference to her future wealth and influence. Estimates based on the United States census o f 1840, and other statistical returns, place the total value o f real estate in Pennsylvania, at $1,400,000,000, and the value o f personal property at $700,000,000, making an aggregate capital o f $2,100,000,000— more than three times that o f New Y o r k ! This result, striking as it is, becomes less astonishing, the more we contemplate the peculiar endowments o f Pennsylvania. The three anthracite coal fields o f Pennsylvania, are each about 65 miles in length, and five miles in width ; embracing an area o f 325 square miles, or 208,000 acres each. The aggregate is 975 square miles, or 624,000 acres. W e estimate the supply o f anthracite coal for 1847, at 2,800,000 tons. The value of this quantity at $ 4 per ton, which may be taken as the average price at tide-w’ater, is $11,200,000. The importance o f this trade to the city o f Philadelphia, w7hile it is great in other respects, is shown strongly in the fact that a large portion o f the coal lands are owned here, and the revenue therefore reverts to our citizens. The constantly increasing use o f this fuel in other parts o f the country, tends to keep the balance o f trade with other cities continually in our favor ; and this tendency must increase with the increasing demand for our coal. T he coal trade o f Great Britain has made the port of Newcastle, which would otherwise be an unimportant place, second only to London in the amount o f its shipping. A similar effect must our coal trade have upon the port o f Philadelphia, making it the great shipping port o f the Union. It is interesting and amusing to look back to the first attempts made to use the anthra cite coal, and to bring it to market. Our venerable friend, Hon. Charles Miner, o f W ilkesbarre, in his published account o f his first efforts, in connection with Mr. Cist and other 329 Journal o f Mining and Manufactures . associates, relates some pleasant anecdotes. On the 9th o f August, 1814, they started oft their first ark from Mauch Chunk. “ In less than eighty rods from the place o f starting, the ark struck on a ledge, and broke a hole in her bow. The lads stripped themselves nearly naked, to stop the rush o f water with their clothes.” In six days, however, the ark reached Philadelphia, with its twenty-four tons o f coal, which had by this time cost four teen dollars a ton. But, says Mr. Miner, “ we had the greater difficulty to overcome of inducing the public to use our coal, when brought to their doors. W e published handbills, in English and German, stating the mode o f burning the ccal, either in grates, in smith’s fires, or in stoves. Together we went to several houses in the city, and prevailed on the masters to allow us to kindle fires o f anthracite in their grates, erected to burn Liverpool coal. W e attended at blacksmith's shops, and persuaded some to alter the Too-iron, so that they might bum Lehigh c o a l; and we were sometimes obliged to bribe the journey men to tty the experiment fairly, so averse were they to learning the use of a new sort o f fuel.” How like a fable all this seems at the present d a y ! A s we sit before our coal fires, and think o f no other, how little do we lealize that thirty years ago Mr. Miner and Mr. Cist w’ere trying the experiment o f an anthracite fire at Wilkesbarre, and wondering whether they could not float an ark-load o f the coal to Philadelphia ! N ow we are reckoning the coal trade in millions o f tons ! In the Schuylkill region the effort was made a little earlier. In 1812, Col. George Shoemaker loaded nine wagons with coal at the place now known as the Centreville Mines, and proceeded to Philadelphia. “ Much time was spent by him in endeavoring to introduce it to notice, but all his efforts proved unavailing. Those who deigned to try it, declared Col. Shoemaker to be an impostor for attempting to impose stone on them for coal, and were clamorous against him. Not discouraged by the sneers cast upon him, he persisted in the undotaking, and at last succeeded in disposing of two loads, for the cost o f transportation, and the remaining seven he gave to persons who promised to try to use it, and lost all the coal and charges.” These early persevering efforts cannot but be regarded now with grateful interest. T o the enterprise o f those men we are indebted for the knowledge of the great resources which now baffle computation. Let any one look around at our coal-wharves and coal yards, and then look back a little more than thirty )7ears, and in imagination see Mr. Shoemaker or Mr. Miner going about our city to find some one who w ould consent to try the despised stone-coal in his shop or his fire-place, and denounced as enthusiasts, or even impostors! The following table show's the imports o f foreign coal into the United States, from 1821 to 1846, inclusive :— Foreign Ccal. 1821......... .... 1823......... ...... 1823......... ...... 1824......... ...... 182.5........ ...... 1826........ ...... 1827........ ...... 1828......... ...... 1829......... ...... 22,122 34,523 30,433 7,228 25,645 35,665 40,257 32,302 45,393 Foreign Coal. Foreign Coal. 1830.... 1831.... 1832.... 1833.... 1834.... 1835.... 1836.... 1837.... ......... 58,136 ......... 36,509 ......... 72,978 ......... 92.432 ......... 71,626 ......... 49,969 ......... 108,432 .;...... 153,450 1838... .......... 1839... .......... 1840... .......... 1841... ............ ...... 1842... 1843... .......... ............ 1844... 1845... ............ 129,083 181,551 162,867 155.394 141,526 41,163 87,073 85,771 Y ear ending June 30, 1846 __ Tons. Value. .............................. From England............ << British American C olonies... « A ll other places...... .......... .................... 57.903 95,330 3,620 $173,290 195,452 9,855 Total............ ...... ................ ............................... 156,853 $378,597 F R E N C H IRO N A N D C O A L M INES. Beds o f iron ore are known, to exist in France, extending from Luxembourg to the moun tains o f the Vosges, and within the year 1846, extensive w’orks have been opened from the village o f Moulins, along the valley o f Mance, on the banks of the Moselle. The ore is rich, and fit for the manufacture o f rails, and is giving employment to a large number of 330 Journal o f Mining and Manufactures. the people. The furnaces used in this department produce upwards o f twelve tons o f metal per day. Twenty-one furnaces will, in a short time, be in blast, which in five years will furnish at least 315,000 tons o f cast metal. The report o f the engineer, appointed by the administration o f roads and bridges in France, states that the country is in the third rank as regards the production o f coa l; England and Belgium being the first and second. The production o f England annually is 23,500,000; o f Belgium, 4,500,000; o f France, 3,783,000; and o f the 3,000,000 tons. ' Zollverein H A L L ’S H Y D R O S T A T IC IN K F O U N T A IN . This beautiful Ink Fountain, from the manufacture o f Thomas Wildes & Co., New York, is superior to anything o f the kind that has ever fallen under our notice. It is so con structed that the ink or fluid is retained in a metallic chamber, protected from the atmo sphere, thus preventing the evaporation or even wasting o f the ink, and rendering it always o f a uniform consistency and color. The ink is let on or withdrawn at will, so that the last drop in the fountain can be used. I f by accident it should be overturned, the fluid in the cup only will be lost, and even this can be prevented, by turning the screw, which forces the ink into, or withdraws it, from the cup within the fountain, and placed in any position with perfect safety, not a drop escaping. The cup is cleansed without discharging the ink from the fountain, thus presenting a pure fluid at all times for use. For neatness, utility, and simplicity o f construction, it surpasses any ink-stand or fountain, that we have ever seen. ness. It is admirably adapted for the counting-house o f the merchant and man of busi E X T E N T OF T H E C O T T O N M A N U F A C T U R E S OF E N G L A N D . The editor o f the Lowell Courier, who has been for some time past making the tour o f Great Britain, writes, under date o f Manchester, England, September 2d, 1846, as follow s:— “ I am now in the very heart o f the English manufactories. Since my arrival here, I have been into a number o f the mills, and collected a great many facts in regard to fac tory life here. I am amazed at the extent to which manufactures have reached in this place, and the region round about. I was in a mill, in Stockport, a place about six miles from this city, in which I saw thirteen hundred looms at work on one floor, and I am ex pecting to go into a mill, to-morrow, in which there are eighty thousand spindles. The wastes paid to the operative are not so low here as in Scotland. Indeed, there is a good deal o f poetry in the assertion that the Manchester mills are worked by paupers. The wages in cotton mills here, will average, probably, about one-third lower than in Lowell— not more, if so much. “ The amount o f capital invested in the production o f cotton goods and prints, in Low ell, is, I believe, less than ten millions o f dollars. In the whole o f Middlesex county, the amount o f capital invested in cotton manufactures, is not, probably, more than thirteen millions o f dollars. Middlesex county is, I believe, the most deeply interested in the manufacture o f cotton, o f any county in the United States. N ow , I learn by a printed statement, lying before me, that in this one county o f Lancashire, o f which Manchester is the centre, there are rising eighty millions o f pounds sterling engaged in cotton manu factures, being nearly four hundred millions o f dollars— giving employment to about a million and a half o f persons— nearly twice the amount o f the whole population o f Mas sachusetts ; and this is only one county.” The Book Trade. THE 1.— T h e 331 BOOK T R A D E . L i v e s o f L o r d C h a n c e llo r s a n d K e e p e r s o f th e G r e a t S ea l o f E n g la n d , f r o m th e E a r l i e s t T im e s t i l l th e R e i g n o f K i n g G e o r g e I V . B y J o h n L o r d C a m p b e l l , A . M , F. R . S. E. First Series, to the Revolution of 1688. In three volumes, 8vo., pp. 495, 496, and 499. From the Second London Edition. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard. There can be no doubt of the truth of the remark o f the learned author o f these volumes, that no office in the history of any nation has been filled with such a long succession o f distinguished and interesting men as the Lord Chancellor, or Lord Keeper o f the Great Seal o f England. It has existed from the foundation o f the British monarchy: and, although mediocrity has sometimes been the recommendation for it, generally speaking, the most eminent men o f the age, if not the most pure and virtuous, have been selected to adorn it. The history o f the holders o f the Great Seal is the history o f the British Constitution, as well as of her jurisprudence. There is a sort o f romance belonging to many of those whose lives are here delineated ; and the strange vicissitudes o f their career are not exceeded by the fictions o f novelists or dramatists. Indeed, we are informed that within a few weeks after the publication o f the first edition in England, “ It was on every table—almost on every toilette.” “ Though founded on historical records, and having solid instruction for its object, it has been as generally read as popular works o f fiction, aiming at nothing beyond amusement.” Introduc tory to the “ lives,” the author gives a very interesting account of the origin, functions, and jurisdiction of the office o f Lord Chancellor in England; and commences with Augmendus, who, it appears from Belden, was Chancellor to Ethelbert, the first Christian king among the Saxons, A. D. 605. The memoirs in the first series extend from that period, through a long line o f illustrious “ Keepers o f the Great Seal,” to the reign of King James II., and Lord Chancellor Jeffreys, in 1688. The American edition of the work is from the second London, which has been corrected by the author, and enriched with several interesting documents, among which we notice Richard the Third’s letter to Lord Chancellor John Russell, respecting the marriage of the Solicitor-General with Jane Shore. It appears from the author’s preface, that a third and fourth volume, which will bring down the Chancellors to the death o f Lord Thurlow, will soon be published : and that a supplemental volume, including Lord Loughborough, Lord Erskine, and Lord Eldon, will complete the series. The whole work covers a period o f more than one thousand years; and, in addition to a narrative o f the lives o f the Lord Chancellors, it presents a glimpse of the most important historical events, and o f the manners o f the age. Cherishing the great principles of civil and religious liberty, Lord Campbell, it would seem, fairly appreciated the acts and characters of those whose lives he has recorded, without being swayed by the consideration whether they were Roman Catholics or Protestants—Whigs or Tories. The work Is highly instructive, and withal a most valuable contribution to the literature o f the L aw ; and will, we apprehend, be read with interest, not only by statesmen and lawyers, but men o f education generally. 5 .— A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y : c o m p r i s i n g H i s t o r i c a l S k e tc h e s o f th e I n d ia n T r i b e s ; a D e s c r i p t i o n o f A m e r i c a n A n t i q u i t i e s . w ith a n I n q u ir y in t o t h e ir O r i g i n , a n d th e O r i g i n o f th e I n d ia n T r i b e s o f th e U n ite d S ta t e s , w ith A p p e n d ic e s , s h o w i n g i t s C o n n e ctio n w ith E u r o p e a n H i s t o r y ; H i s t o r y o f th e P r e sen t. B r i t i s h P r o v i n c e s ; H i s t o r y o f M e x i c o , a n d H i s t o r y o f T e x a s , b r o u g h t d o w n to th e T im e o f i t s A d m i s s i o n , i n t o th e A m e r i c a n U n io n . By M a r ciits W il s o n , author o f “ School History o f the United States,” “ Comprehensive Chart o f American History,” etc. 8vo., pp. 672. New York: Mark H. Newman & Co. The design of the present volume is to present the histories o f all those countries o f North America that are of sufficient political importance to demand the attention o f the scholar, and awaken the Interest of the general reader. As an appropriate introduction to such a work, Mr. Wilson has given the most important portions of the history of the aborigines of America, together with descriptive sketches o f those rude memorials of a former civilization that were once so numerous throughout our own territory, and others, magnificent even in their desolation, which now strew the plains, and crown the hill tops of Mexico, Yucatan, and Central America. Passing from the Indians and the antiquities, we have f a c s i m i l e s o f the public seals, or coats o f arms o f the several States o f the American Union. Next follows the history o f the United States, commencing with the discovery o f America by Colum bus, in 1492, and bringing it down to April, 1845. A minute marginal analysis has been carried throughout the entire work, each subject being opposite that portion o f the text to which it refers, thus admirably adapting it to the purposes of instruction. The work contains a good number o f geographi cal and historical notes, and maps at the bottom of the pages, which give the localities o f all important places mentioned, and furnish just that kind of geographical information respecting them, without which the history can be read with little interest or profit. The work seems to possess rare merits as a history—it is methodical and comprehensive ; and we can scarcely discover how, in these and other respects, the plan or the execution o f it could well be improved. 332 3. The Book Trade. — S i x L e c t u r e s o n th e U s e s o f th e L u n g s , a n d C a u s e . P r e v e n t io n , a n d C u r e o f P iilm tm a r y C m s n m p t i o n . A s t h m a , a n d D i s e a s e s o f th e H e a r t ; o n th e L a w s o f L o n g e v i t y a n d on. th e M >d<: o f P r e s e r v i n g M u l e a n d F em a le H e a lth to a n H u n d r e d Y e a r s . IV ith T w e n t y E i g h t I llu s t r a t io n s . By S amuel S iiklden F i t c h , A. M„ M. D. New York : H. Carlisle, 707 Broadway. The great number of persons that fall a prey to pulmonary complaints, in this country, and the al most universal feeling among the medical profession, that consumption is incurable, necessarily ren ders any announcement to the contrary, coming from whatever quarter, deeply interesting. So firm ly fixed is utter despondency in the mind, on this subject, that we are ready to denounce the author o f such a hope, a quick and a humbug. With Dr. Fitch, however, we are personally acquainted; and although we cannot say, from individual knowledge, that he has discovered the “ preventative and curative” o f the disease, we feel quite sure that he is very far from being a quack. For nearly a quarter of a century, with some interruptions, diseases o f the chest have been his study. In 1827, he informs us in his preface, whilst a student o f medicine in Philadelphia, he discovered the grand uses o f the lungs, and thereby laid the foundation o f a scientific, rational, and certain method, o f elu cidating and treating their diseases. T o notice the effects o f climate, as a curative or preventative agent, he visited nearly every State in the Union ; also, England, Scotland. Ireland, Holland, Belgium, France, Italy, the Northern shores of the Mediterranean, Switzerland, Sardinia, and Saxony, besides several watering places o f Germany, Prussia, the West India Islands, the Canadas, etc., seeking every where for knowledge and light on the diseases o f the lungs, making himself everywhere as fully ac quainted as possible with the peculiarities of each locality, both in the nature and prevalence o f con sumption, as well as the peculiar methods adopted for its prevention and cure, by the first professors and teachers o f Europe, and this country, as well as the untutored savage o f America, who are well known to treat many diseases, and especially those of the lungs, with great success. The volume before us. contains six lectures. In the first two, he treats o f the uses o f the lungs, causes, a:; 1 the prevention and cure o f consumption. The third is devoted to proofs of the cure o f consumption ; and in the fourth and fifth lectures, addressed to ladies, he discourses of the mode o f forming a fine chest, erect carriage and walk—the symmetry o f the internal organs o f the body and mind, as preventing pulmonary consumption, and insuring long life. There is no mysticism, or mystery, thrown around his theory, but all is clear, intelligible and philosophical; and there is, withal, a large measure o f common sense, that cannot fail o f attracting the notice of the sincere searcher after truth. In his treatment. Dr. Fitch uses very little medicine, repudiating mercury, opium, and emetics.etc., depend ing more upon mechanical means, such as the expansion o f the chest, and on diet, air, and exercise. W e have read his lectures with deep interest, and wo earnestly commend them to the attention o f the invalid, as well as those who desire to prolong life, and render it comfortable and happy. 4. —A T r e a t i s e o n th e P r a c t i c e o f th e S u p r e m e C o u r t o f t h e S ta te o f N e w Y o r k . By D a v id Graham , Counsellor at L a w . Third Edition. Revised, corrected, and enlarged. In two volumes. Vol. I., pp. 735. New York: Banks, Gould & Co., Law Booksellers, 144 Nassau-street. The first edition o f this work was published, we believe, in 1832, and the second in 133f>. The latter became so far exhausted in 1839-40, as to induce the author to set about the task o f preparing the present. In the preparation o f this edition, says Mr. Graham, it will be observed that the work has been much enlarged. When the second volume is completed, the whole will embrace an amount o f matter greatly exceeding that contained in the last edition. During the period embraced in the interval between the publication of that and the present, there have been published more than twenty volumes o f the reports o f the Supreme Court, besides ten volumes o f Statutes embracing a greater amount o f p r a c t i c a l law than is included in double that period during any portion o f the former history o f the practice in New York. These, with the late English cases which hear upon the practice as it exists in New York, though introduced in the present work in a condensed form, have contributed greatly to increase the size o f the volume. The changes in the practice, introduced by the new con stitution. form an important feature in the present edition. To the profession in the State o f New York, it would be a work of supererogation, on our part, to commend “ Graham’ s Practice.” The learning and ability o f the author are undoubted ; and the improvements, additions, &c., renders this edition a desideratum, which few in the practice o f the law can very easily be induced to dispense with. In point o f neatness and accuracy, the law books emanating from the publishers o f the present work are not surpassed. They have confined themselves to the printing and publishing Law, almost exclusively, for the last twenty years. 5. — T h e C o n t r i b u t i o n s o f Q. Q . to a P e r i o d ic a l W o r k : w it h s o m e P ie c e s n o t b e fo r e P u b lis h e d . By the late J a n e T a y l o r . 2 vols., 18mo., pp. 295 and 2G8. New York : Robert Carter. The miscellanies collected together in these volumes, with a few exceptions, originally appeared in the Youth’ s Magazine, published in London. They are doubtless familiar to most o f our readers. The pieces in the first volume are religious and didactic, and in the second o f a miscellaneous cha racter, blit all instructive ; and they have ever been considered among the happiest efiorts o f the author’ s pen. They form two volumes o f “ Carter’s Cabinet Library,” ^series o f works quite popular w ith that large class o f Christians denominated “ evangelical” or “ orthodox.” The Book Trade , 333 6. — T h e O c c u lt S c ie n c e s . T h e P h ilo s o p h y o f M a g i c , P r o d i g i e s , a n d A p p a r e n t M i r a c l e s . From the French LE i skbe Salver'ie . \\ uii Notes, illustrative, .Explanatory, and Critical. By A nthony T or.oTifOMP.soK. fit. D.. i . L. S., &c. In two volumes, pp. 332 and 315. Mew York: Harper & Brothers’ Mew Miscellany, XXU. and XX11L. Science, with severe investigation, is doing much to brush away the credulity o f the past. From the most ancient times, men of superior intellect, desirous of enthralling the human mind, have adduced miracles and prodigies as the certain proof of their missions, and as the inimitable works o f the divinities whom they revered. A considerable portion o f these volumes is occupied in tracing many o f the extraordinary upp..rent miracles o f antiquity to mechanical and scientific souices. Far froi^presenth g merely a collection of falsehoods and folly, the most marvellous or incredible pages o f history here o|»en to us the archives o f a earned and mysterious policy, which some wise men in every age have employed to govern the human race; to lead to misfortune or to happiness ; to greatness or to degradation; to slavery or freedom. The work is philosophical, without being infidel; and is, on the whole, one o f the must deeply Interesting and instructive books that have been published during the past year. 7. — The. F a r m e r s ' C o m p a n io n ; o r , E s s a y s o n th e P r in c ip le s a n d P r a c t i c e o f A m e r i c a n H u s b a n d r y . W ith a n A d d r e s s p n p a r e d to be d e liv e r e d b e fo r e th e A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d H o r t i c u l t u r a l S o c ie t ie s o f M e w H a v e n C o u n t y , C o n n e c t i c u t ; a n d a n A p p e n d ix , c o n t a in i n g 'F a bles, a n d o th e r m a t t e r s u s e f u l to th e F a r m e r . By the late H on . J e s s e B u e l , conductor o f “ The Cultivator.” Sixth edition, revised and enlarged. To w h ic h is prefixed a Eulogy on the Life and Character o f Judge Buei. B y A m o s Esq. l2mo., pp. 335. Mew Y o r k : Harper &. Brothers. Agriculture lies at the foundation of every other pursuit—Commerce and Manufactures are its handmaids. The latter prepares its products for use, and the former distributes them to consumers at home and abroad. Few men have done more than the author o f this volume to diffuse accurate information among the farmers of America. The system of agriculture, with which the name and reputation of Judge Buel is essentially identified, and which is unfolded in this excellent manual, consists in sustaining and strengthening the soil, while its productive qualities are put in requisition, and in rendering the farm every year more valuable, by annually increasing its products and its power o f producing. These principles Judge Buel tested by a practical application to his own farm—a cir cumstance that greatly enhances the value of his system of farming. D ean 8. — T h e L i v e s o f V a s c o N u n e z d e B a lb o a , th e D i s c o v e r e r o f th e P a c ific O c e a n ; H e r n a n d o C o r t e s , th e C o n q u e r o r o f M e x i c o , a n d F r a n c i s c o P i z a r r o , th e C o n q u e r o r o f P e r u , lb’mo., pp. 276. Mew York : Harper &. Brothers. We have, in this little volume, a comprehensive account o f the lives and exploits o f three o f the most remarkable navigators and adventurers who followed Columbus in his track to the New World. The reader who follows these bold voyagers, cannot fail to obtain some knowledge o f the geography o f South America, while the perusal of their adventures will make him acquainted with the charac ter o f the bold and enterprising men o f the Spanish nation at that interesting period. 9. — L e t t e r s o n A s t r o n o m y , a d d r e s s e d to a L a d y ; in w h ic h th e E l e m e n t s o f th e S c ie n c e a r e f a m i l i a r l y e x p la in e d in c o n n e c t io n w ith it s L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y With numerous engravings. By D e n iso n O l m s t e d . L L . D.. Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in Yale College. 12mo., pp. 414. New Y ork: Harper & Brothers. There is Hot, perhaps, in the whole range of human knowledge, a more interesting or ennobling study than that of Astronomy. What more emphatically ‘ ‘ declares the glory o f God” than the harmony which pervades the heavenly bodies, the suns and systems o f the universe. It is the design o f these familiar letters, which are divested, as far as possible, o f all that is technical, to inspire a taste for the study of the science. The epistolary style affords scope for that familiar illustration so needful in teaching astronomy, and permits the intioduction o f interesting historical and biographical sketches, which tend to enliven the subject, and to enrich the mind o f the learner with a variety o f pleasing and valuable information. 10. — T h e U s e f u l A r t s , c o n s id e r e d in c o n n e c t io n w ith th e A p p l ic a t io n s o f S c ie n c e : w it h n u m e r o u s e n g r a v in g s . By J a c o b Bi g e l o w , M. D., Professor o f Materia JWedica in Harvard University; author o f “ The Elements o f Technology,” etc. etc. 2 vols., 12mo. Mew York : Harper Brothers. These volumes were originally published under the sanction of the Massachusetts Board o f Edu cation. The work embraces an account o f the principles, processes, and nomenclatures o f the more conspicuous arts: particularly those which involve applications o f science, and which are considered useful, by promoting the benefit of society, together with the emoluments o f those who pursue them. The best and most recent authorities were consulted in the preparation of the work; and the author seems to have embodied, in a clear and comprehensive manner, a mass o f useful information on a great variety o f subjects connected with the arts, which is well adapted for the improvement o f the popular mind. 1 1 . — P o e m s . By T h o m a s B u c h a n a n R e a d . 12mo., pp. 124. Boston: William D. Ticknor & Co. This little volume of poems is not without merit. The versification is generally natural, and the author possesses several o f the requisites of a true poet. Some o f the poems are beautiful in con ception, and happy in execution ; while there arc others that scarcely rise above mediocrity. 334 The Book Trade. 12. — E n c y c lo p e d i a , o f E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e : a S e le c tio n o f th e C h o i c e s t P r o d u c t io n s o f E n g l i s h A u t h o r s , f r o m th e E a r l i e s t to th e P r e s e n t T im e , c o n n e c t e d b y a C r i t i c a l a n d B i o g r a p h ic a l H i s t o r y . Eieg.intly illustrated. Edited by R o b e r t C h a m b e r s , Editor o f the “ Edinburgh Journal,” “ Information fof the People,” etc. In two volumes. Vol. I.—Nos. 1, 2, and 3. Boston : Gould, Kendall & Lincoln. Three numbers of this excellent reprint have been published, covering two hundred and seveniy-six pages, and embracing “ a concentration,” (to quote the language of the prospectus,) ** o f the best productions of English intellect, from Anglo-Saxon to the present times, in various departments, set in a biographical and critical history of the literature itself.” The whole work is to be completed in sixteen semimonthly numbers, at twenty-five cents each; forming two large imperial octavo volumes o f seven hundred p iges each, double column letter-press. The fourteen hundred pages o f the work contain an amount of matter equal to twenty-five volumes of “ Harper’ s Family Library.” The work is embellished with more than three hundred wood engravings of the heads o f the principal authors, and o f interesting events connected with their history and writings. It will enable the reader to obtain, in a comparatively short period, a more accurate knowledge o f the history and progress of English literature than could be gathered, in an ordinary life time, from hundreds o f volumes. Its intrinsic value, and low price, should secure it a place in every family library; and we hope to sea it introduced into the te n t h o u s a n d District School Libraries of New York. 13. By S a m u e l B u t l e r . With Notes, and a Literary Memoir, by the Rev. T r e a d w a y D. D. 18mo., pp. 498. New York; D. Appleton &. Co. The high rank which this remarkable poem takes in Engiish literature is too well known to require a critical notice in this place, were we capable o f giving it. The present edition is, perhaps, the most correct and complete that has ever been published, as it certainly is the most beautiful that has been produced in this country. It is printed in a handsome, legible type, and on good paper; uniform with similar works from the same publishers. It is illustrated with the portraits o f several distingui -hed men who figured in the time o f the poet, and who are referred to in the poem. Difficulties in lan guage and customs, etc., prevalent at the time the work was written, are obviated or overcome by the copious annotations o f the learned editor. It is justly considered the scholar’s edition o f “ Hudibras.” — H u d ib r a s . R u ssell N a sh , 14. —M a r g a r e t P e r c i v a l . By the author o f “ Amy Herbert,” “ Gertrude,” “ Laneton Parsonage.” etc. Edited by the Rev. W il l ia m Ne w e l l , B. D., Fellow and Tutor o f Exeter College, Oxford, x: vols., 12mo., pp. 283 and 303. New York ; D. Appleton & Co. The author o f this story o f domestic life is understood to be a daughter o f the learned and scholarly editor. The previous productions o f her pen, most o f which have been reproduced in this country by the publishers o f these volumes, and form part of their “ Literary Miscellany,” (an admirable collection o f recent works of merit,) have been well received. The narrative is not deficient in interest; and the gentle and Christian tone it is designed to promote, will secure for it a favorable reception in a circle that discard the trashy and demoralizing fictions o f the day. 15. —E d u c a t i o n : i t s E l e m e n t a r y P r in c ip le s , fo u n d e d on th e M a t u r e o f M a n . By J. G. S p u r z i ik . m , M. D., late of the Universities of Vienna and Paris, and.Licentiate of the Royal College of Pn; -icians in London. With an Appendix, by S. R. W e l l s , containing a Description of the Temper a o.ents, and a Brief Analysis o f the Phrenological Faculties. Seventh American edition, improved y the author, from the third London edition. 12mo., pp. 334. New York : Fowler Weils. The system of education inculcated and enforced by the great and good Spuizheim, based it is upon the nature of man, must commend itself to every cultivated mind. The science o f phrenology is destined to produce an entire revolution in education, morals, and religion ; greater, if possum than the early apostle of the science saw from the prophetic mountain that opened his vision to man’ s destiny in the future. This treatise should be studied by every parent who has at heart the physical and moral well-being o f his offspring—the largest development of all the faculties bestowed <>>: them by the great Creator. “ Combs’ Constitution o f Man,” a work o f almost unrivalled popularity, it is said, was based on this excellent treatise. The appendix of Mr. W ells is a valuable addition to this work. By J ohn D. B r y a n t . 2 vols., 12mo., pp. 336 and 300 Baltimore: John Murphy. This is a Catholic novel, the “ dogmatical portions o f which,” says the author, “ refer to eternal truths.” Eclectic in our religion and our philosophy, if indeed we have “ any to speak f,” we endeavor to gather what we conceive to be good and true from all sects and all schools, and vve fre quently’ read the productions of minds as far apart as the East is from the West, with interest, and not, we hope, without instruction. So far are we Catholic, in what we conceive to he the highest acceptation of the term. The author o f the present work inculcates, under the form o f a narrative, what he honestly believes to be the highest truths o f revelation and the Church to which he belongs ; and our esteemed friend the publisher has sent it forth on its mission in two very handsomely printed volumes ; and we would commend it to Protestant Christians who are desirous o f ascertaining th# arguments in favor o f Catholicity, from an able and enlightened advocate. The narrative will iateres the reader, if the inferences do not obtain the assent of his understanding. 16 — P a u l i n e S e w a r d ; a T a l e o f R e a l L i f e . The Booh Trade. 385 — M e m o i r o f R o b e r t S w a in . 12mo., pp. 259. Boston : Janies Munro & Co. We are told, in the brief and simple preface to this little volume, that a limited number o f copies were originally printed, for the use of “ Robert’s friends, o n l y a n d that the interest felt in the sim ple and touching story of his life, and a wish for it to be allowed a more general circulation, have been so often and kindly expressed, that it is suffered to go forth freely on its mission o f encourage ment and instruction to the young. W e can scarcely lay our hands on a book so full o f moral truth and beauty ; and we would have every youth in our iand mark well these “ foot prints in the sands of time” —the apposite motto selected for the title page. — L i t e r a r y S tu d ie s : a C o lle c tio n o f M i s c e lla n e o u s E s s a y s . By W illiam A . J ones. T wo volumes in one. lbmo., pp. 135and J59. Isew York : Edward Walker. W e have in this country but few essayists. Our authors are all poets or novelists, or rather story tellers. The author of the present volume has made but little noise in the world, and seems to have devoted himself rather to “ studies,” in a quiet, unostentatious manner, than to gathering the laurels of fame from the high ways and by-ways o f literature. Although a confessed admirer o f the British essayists—Bacon, Temple, Goldsmith, Shenstone, Mackenzie, Lamb, Ilazlitt, and Leigh Hunt, we cannot discover that he copies the style of either. These essays are written in a clear and forcible style ; and his views, though leaning to conservatism, are marked for moderation and candor. It is, on the whole, the best book of essays that has been published by an American for a long time. 18. — S p e c im e n s o f th e P o e t s a n d P o e t r y o f G r e e c e a n d R o m e . B y V a r i o u s T r a n s l a t o r s . Edited by W il l ia m P e t e r , A. M., of Christ Church, Oxford. 8vo., pp. 53U. Philadelphia: Carey &. Hart. This splendid volume contains specimens o f more than one hundred and twenty Greek poets, whose names are given in the index, besides a large number from uncertain authors, and something like thirty Roman poets. The selections from the Greek poets commence with Homer, about nine hun dred and fifty years before Christ, and close with Democharis, a grammarian, and disciple o f Agathias, about five hundred and sixty years after Christ. The Roman poets commence two hundred and thirtynine years before the Christian era, and close w ith Arienus, who flourished three hundred and eighty years after Christ. The selections are made by a gentleman o f scholarly attainments and correct taste, who has added biographical notices of most o f the poets. There is scaicely a book in our possession that we value more highly. It should find a place in every choice and well-selected library. 19. 20. — T h e R u r a l C e m e te r ie s o f A m e r i c a ; i l l u s t r a t e d in a S e r i e s o f P i c t u r e s q u e a n d M o n u m e n t a l V i e w s t i n H i g h l y F in i s h e d F in e E n g r a v i n g , f r o m D r a w i n g s t a k e n o n t h e S p o t. By J a m e s S m i l l i e , Esq. Mew York : R. Martin. It will be perceived, by the title-page quoted above, that Mr. Martin has extended his original design o f giving only a series of views o f “ Greenwood,” and now proposes to embrace views taken from Mount Auburn, Boston ; Laurel Hill, Philadelphia; Green Mount, Baltimore; Mount Hope, Roches ter ; the Albany Rural Cemetery, &c. The present number is confined to Greenwood, and contains views of Lawn-Girt Hill, the Tour from Ocean Hill, and Sylvan Cliff, with appropriate letter press illustrations. The interest manifested of late years in picturesque'and beautiful resting-places for the dead, would seem to silence the oft repealed assertion that America is a land for the living, only. W e shall refer to this work again. 21. — T h e E s t r a y ; a C o lle c tio n o f P o e m s . By II. W . L o n g f e l l o w . 12mo., pp. 144. Boston : William D. Ticknor &. Co. This little volume contains some sixty poems, selected from the poets o f England and America, by our favorite Longfellow. With few exceptions, however, we think the genius o f the poet transcends his taste as a compiler ; and yet there is not an unworthy piece in the volume. Still, we prefer to select “ beauties” for ourselves. But there are many who will appreciate the labors o f the gifted compiler ;—to such, vve commend the volume. 22. — P h i lo s o p h y in S p o r t M a d e .S c ie n c e in E a r n e s t ; b e in g a n A t t e m p t to i l l u s t r a t e th e F i r s t P r i n c i p l e s o f N a t u r a l P h il o s o p h y b y th e a id o f th e P o p u l a r T o y s a n d S p o r t s o f Y o u th . From the Sixth (and greatly improved) London edition. I8mo., pp. 432. Philadelphia : Lea &, Blanchard. The object of the present work is to inculcate that early love o f science which can never be derived from the sterner productions. The work was originally composed by the author for the exclusive use o f his own children; and he would never, we are informed, have consigned it to press, but for the earnest solicitation of friends, on whose judgment he placed the utmost reliance. The illustrations are calculated to enlist the sympathies of the young, by the familiar and agreeable form in which they are exhibited. Great philosophic truths are rendered as attractive to the imagination and fancy o f the young as the plays and sports with which the author has so happily blended them. 23. — T h e E l d e r ' s H o u s e ; o r , th e T h r e e C o n v e r t s . I8mo., pp. 234. New York: Edward Dunigan. This is one of the very attractive volumes of “ Dunigan’s Home Library,” the design o f which is to inculcate, under the garb of the agreeable tale or narrative, the doctrines held and the duties en joined by the Catholic Church. The stories embraced in the series, generally, will afford amusement for the Protestant, and instruction for the Catholic. The volumes comprised in this “ Library,” are produced in a most beautiful style: the paper is fine, the type distinct, and the binding in the best taste* 336 The Book Trade, 24. — T h e S u p e r n a t u r a l i s m o f N e w E n g l a n d . By J. G. W h i t t i e r , author o f “The Stranger in Lowell.'* Wiley &l Putnam’s “ Library o f American BJoks,” No. XXVII. It is really very pleasing at times to turn aside a little from the stern, every-day, matter-of-fact occur rences of life, and with an unprejudiced, yet observing eye, note the strange events which are actually pass ing around us. W e are apt to look back to the days of our forefathers as the time when superstit ion had a deeper hold on the heart than it now has; when a belief in the supernatural was far more universal than ever since—failing to notice in every new sect that springs into existence, how ready we are to welcome whatever is unknown. This is a racily written book, and one hard to be cast aside, when once taken up; for, from the warm and atfectionate dedication to his sister, to the closing chapter, where he hopes the work will serve to while away some heavy hour—it is full o f sparkling incident, shifting the scenes, as be himself says, in “ sudden transitions from the grave to the gay; from the grotesque to the ludicrous.” 25. — T h e P o ta t o P l a n t ; it s U s e s a n d P r o p e r t i e s , t o g e t h e r w ith th e C a u s e o f th e P r e s e n t M a la d y , th e E x t e n s i o n o f th a t D i s e a s e to o t h e r P la n t s , th e Q u e s t io n o f F a m in e a r i s i n g t h e r e f r o m , a n d th e b e s t m e a n s o f a v e r t i n g th a t C a la m ity . By A l f r e d o m e e , F. K . ri., Surgeon to the Bank o f England, fitc. &c. Illustrated with ten lithographs. New York: Wiley & Putnam. I f there was ever a demand for a valuable work upon an important subject, there certainly is one now for a candid, able work upon the potato disease. There is no one that does not feel interested in this matter, which is now atfectingso vitally the happiness o f millions; from the humble laborer to whom the potato has long been the most economical source of food, through all ranks back to the farmer whose interests are more immediately affected. All are concerned ; and to each we would recommend a perusal o f the above work, emanating from a country where the disease exists to a vastly greater extent than with us; where, also, more time is devoted to momentous agricultural questions. The accompanying plates, numerous and well executed, render the work still more perfect, and combine to form an accurate, carefully prepared statement of all which pertains to, or results from, the present malady. 20—C h a u cer K ir k l a n d . D e s iil e r . and S pen ser. In T w o P a r ts. P a r t I .— S p e n s e r a n d th e F a e r y Q u e e n . By Mrs. C. M. P a r t I I . — S e le c t i o n s f r o m th e P o e t i c a l W o r k s o f O c o f f r y C h a u c e r . By C h a r l e s D. W iley & Putnam's Library o f American Books. Nos. XXV., X X V I. W e are glad to announce that these ancient masters of English song are at length given to us in such a form, that whereas it has hitherto been a task to peruse them, it will now be a two fold pleas ure—from the modernized spelling, on the one hand, and the beautiful type and clear paper made use of, on the other. Their beauties have been locked up from the mass o f readers, and only the poet and the scholar have been willing to delve them out. Some readers might, at first, be led to object to these works, as “ selections,” but we would advise all such to read Mrs. Kirkland’s remarks on this subject, in her preface, and we feel assured all will agree with her, that it is preferable to receive a portion rather than nothing. W e hope each will be induced to extend these volumes so as to include the complete works o f each o f these poets. 27. — E x c h a n g e T a b l e s , in v e n t e d f o r th e s o l e p u r p o s e o f p o i n t i n g o u t th e e x a c t a m o u n t to be d r a w n in B r i t i s h S t e r l i n g t o p a y a n y a m o u n t o f U n ite d S t a t e s C u r r e n c y , a t th e C u r r e n t R a t e o f E x c h a n g e o f th e T i m e . By F r e d e r i c k H e r m . New York: P. A. Mesier & Co. The author having been extensively engaged in the sale of British exchange for many years past, had frequent occasion to draw bills for the purpose (often on short notice) o f paying for money ad vanced here on shipments, or collected for account o f British correspondents, or for collections made on such accounts ; but not finding among the many publications any one to afford the desired aid in making the necessary calculations, has ii^ented and used these tables with great benefit and uniform success. They are simple in plan, and can be relied on for accuracy in the result, and will be found very useful to both sellers and buyers, besides saving a great deal of time, and guarding against errors in calculation. 28. — T h e A d o p t e d S o n ; a H i s t o r i c a l N o v e l . By J. V an L knnep, LL. D. Translated from the Dutch, by E. W . H o s k in . 2 vols., 8vo., pp. 239 and 219. New Yoik : Burgess, Stringer 6c Co. This novel, which is said to be the first ever translated from the Dutch, is dedicated by Mr. Hoskin to the Duke of Wellington. It has been done with the desire of attracting a more lively attention to the literature of a country very imperfectly known. W e have not, of course, found time to read i t ; but our knowledge o f the translator, a gentleman o f education and taste, inclines us to venture a favorable opinion, and to recommend it to novel-readers. 29. — S im m o n d s ' C o l o n i a l M a g a z i n e a n d F o r e i g n M i s c e lla n y . Edited by P. L. S im m o n d s , Esq., Fellow o f the Statistical Society of London, etc., etc. The January number o f this standard periodical is replete with articles o f value and interest. W e know o f no work in England that will compare with it on the score o f solid, useful information, touchiug the history, geography, commerce, and resources o f the British colonies in every part o f the world. The New York Historical Society, in electing Mr. Simmonds, its editor, as a corresponding member, conferred upon that gentleman a compliment as just as it was well merited, and we feel quite sifre that a more valuable member, or one of more general information on subjects connected with the objects o f the Society, could not well have been selected from the residents o f the “ Great Metropolis.”