Full text of The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review : June 1842, Vol. VI, No. VI

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H U N T ’S

M E R C H A N T S ’ M A G A Z IN E .
JUNE,

1842.

A rt. I.—T H E COMMERCE OP SYRIA.
Syria, the central country of the old world, is the earliest on record
where manufactures and commerce flourished. The most ancient of his­
tories and historical poems, those of Moses and of Homer, can carry us
back to no time when Syria was not occupied by well-built, strong, indus­
trious manufacturing and trading towns, with civilized inhabitants, enjoy­
ing more or less of personal freedom, under petty kings, and cultivating a
greater or less portion of the territory in their immediate environs. The
obscure tradition of the Jews that the ark of Noah was built at Joppa, a
Syrian port, shows how early they supposed navigation to have flourished
in this land ; and we have no account of any sea-trade earlier than that of
Zidon, another Syrian port, called by Moses ‘ a haven of ships,’ and by
Homer, a city ‘ of many arts,’ and described as a trafficker with Greece,
not yet emerged from barbarism, in such small wares and trinkets as we
now send to the aborigines of our northwest coast, and the savages of
Africa.
The fact of its having been the earliest historical seat of art, of trade,
and of navigation, should interest a commercial people, like ourselves, in
the mercantile condition of Syria, as also the prospect that the India trade
with Europe, an object of the emulous contention of nations in all ages,
may resume its long-forsaken Syrian channels ; an event rendered prob­
able by the recent successful navigation of the Euphrates by steam. The
partial resuscitation, also, of the resources of Syria, under the energetic
administration of Mahomet Ali’s vicegerent, Ibrahim, has given immediate
interest to the subject; while Dr. John Bowring’s report on the commermercial statistics of the country, in 1839, has pointed out those resources
to occidental enterprise. From this report most of our statements are
derived.
The late reversion of Syria into the imbecile hands of the Porte, while
throwing it more entirely into the power of England, may also lull it again
into the sleep of ages, to be waked, as heretofore, only by war or outra­
geous tyranny, to the display of those fitful energies which but plunge it
deeper into the lethargy wherein the once vigorous and commanding East
has so long and so hopelessly been sunk. The purpose may be, by resetvol. vi.— no. vi.
50




I
490

.

The Commerce o f Syria.

tling the Jews in their ancient heritage, as a radiating nucleus of the high­
est order of civilization, to revive the agricultural, mechanical, and com­
mercial industry of the country, and thus, by restoring the glories of the
Solomonic age, cause Syria to hold once more, as it then did, the balance
of the old world—or, to accomplish the far paltrier purposes of a more
safe transit of despatches between Calcutta and London, and a temporary
outlet for the over-production of the starving looms of England, instead of
securing a permanent market among the teeming and thrifty population
of a grateful and powerful ally. But the nations cannot forget the former
baneful effects of British power in Syria, when, by checking the conquests
of Napoleon here, it retarded for many generations the civilization of
west Asia, so long and so ardently desired by the merchant, the philan­
thropist, and the Christian. Nor have recent events tended to increase the
confidence of mankind in the liberality, magnanimity, or even true and far­
sighted self-wisdom of the British foreign policy ; so that our hopes for
Syria from that quarter may well be small. Nevertheless, as will be
seen, American commerce has yet some interests worth looking after on
the Syrian coast.
THE LAND AND PEOPLE.

Including from mount Taurus to Stony Arabia, and from the Mediter­
ranean to the Euphrates, Syria has a singularly diversified territory, some­
what less than that of the state of Illinois. The best authorites, indeed,
give to Syria 50,000 square miles, though the uncertain boundary line,
along the edge of the Syrian desert, from the Euphrates to the southern
end of the Dead Sea, renders all estimates precarious. Some, too, include,
while others exclude, the important district of Adana, on the northwest
corner. This delightful country, which the worst misgovernment for so
many ages has not been able to destroy, has a soil, wherever it appears,
still fat and fertile. Once the garden of the earth, it sustained, as far
back as the time when the Hebrew king ruled over its whole extent, more
than nine millions of human beings; and it is even yet capable of sup­
porting twelve to fifteen millions, though bad government and war have
reduced its population to one tenth of this number, so that now the best
estimates make it to nourish but one and a half, or one and a quarter mil­
lion of inhabitants.
Mountains towering, in some instances, to the height of ten thousand
feet, temper and vary the climate, and with their terraced sides, and the
deep valleys and sultry plains at their foot, offer, within the compass of a
few miles, the productions of every clime ;—for Syria will produce the
sugar cane, cotton, banana, and palm-tree of the tropics, as well as the
vine, fig, olive, pomegranate, peach, apple, and cereal grains of its own
more temperate latitudes. But in consequence of the hard terms on which
government leases the open plains as its property, its arbitrary impress­
ment of laborers and soldiers, and the consequent want of cultivators and
operators, and the uncertainty, through wars and exactions, of reaping the
results of any improvements or investments, the acknowledged resources of
the country are undeveloped, new enterprises are unheard of, and a great
portion of the soil, even of the richest plains, lies untilled and unproduc­
tive. On the north, east, and south, are some of the finest grazing dis­
tricts in the world, and a population admirably calculated for pastoral
employments ; while the pleasant swelling hills support the vine and a




The Commerce o f Syria.

491

variety of fruit trees, and the plains of the interior produce abundant crops
of wheat, millet, sesamum, barley, tobacco, and a profusion of delicious
vegetables. This productive tongue of land, too, is admirably placed, as
it were, between two broad seas, the £watery waste’ of the Mediterranean
on the one hand, and the no less unproductive ocean of sand on the other;
and the shores, so to speak, of both have had, like all populous shores, and
still have, numerous rich seaports, wherein the traffic of the eastern and
western world has been, and still is in part, transacted.
Though a subject of oppressive despotism, the versatile Syrian is, as he
has been from time immemorial, an intelligent manufacturer, an enterprising merchant, fond of all kinds of trade, an ingenious artist, docile and
fertile in expedients, a ready sailor, and an eager lover of all the magnifi­
cence commerce encourages, and all the luxuries it brings in its train.
Could a stable and just government be assured to the country, it would
very soon accumulate an abundance of valuable products, as well as cap­
ital, to pay for large importations which it would seek with avidity from
abroad. The idea that indolence and shiftlessness are inseparable from
the Syrian climate, is incorrect; the contrary is evident both from the past
history of its Canaanitish, Jewish, Greek, Arab, and Christian population,
and from the fact that energy and activity now prevail wherever the reward
of exertion is assured, notwithstanding the habits engendered by long ages
of discouragement to enterprise in every direction. With all his burdens
on his back, the laborer even now is as comfortable, and of far better and
nobler personal appearance than the cramped and poisoned victims of the
loom and the furnace in “ merry England.” The peasantry are healthy,
well-formed, and good-looking, especially the women ; and the children
manifest an aptness, sprightliness, intelligence, tact, and versatility of the
highest promise, and beyond that of the same age in the darker and heavier
atmosphere of colder climates.
The Moslem and non-Christian population forms about three fourths of
the whole, but the Christian portion is the most intelligent and enterprising,
though its influence and progress is very much hindered by the inveterate
hatred of its warring sects—preventing cooperation and a healthy public
opinion, besides giving rise to antagonist manoeuvres which must necessari­
ly paralyze all parties. Since the perfect tolerance, and indiscriminating,
impartial treatment of all religions by the government of Ibrahim, the
Christian population has gained much influence; while the ignorant
pride of the Turk and the Moslem has received many wholesome lessons
as to European superiority, which his self-conceit had for ages refused to
acknowledge. European influence being now nearly paramount, Chris­
tian enterprise of all kinds will have a freer field than ever. Indeed,
about all the enterprise of the country is shared between the Christians,
Jews, and Armenians.
In consequence of the inexactness characteristic of the orientals,
especially of the Turks, most of their statistics are but more or less proba­
ble estimates, from data more or less distinct and accurate. The following
are the estimates of the amount and distribution of the Syrian population,
according to the British consul-general, Col. Campbell,—viz. Moslems
977 to 997,000; Ansairiyeh (Nusairiyeh Bedawin) 22,000; Metawileh
and Yrzidis, 17,000 ; Druzes, 48,000; Romanists and Maronites, 260,000 ;
Christians of the Greek rite, 345,000; Jews, 175,000; total, 1,864,000,
or 1,844,000. According to the American missionary, Rev. Mr. Thomp­




The Commerce o f Syria.

492

son, the Moslems, including the wandering tribes, are 565,000 ; the Anti­
och or Orthodox Greeks, 240,000 ; Maronite Papists, say 180,000—possi­
bly, 200,000 ; Druzes, 100,000 ; Jews, 30,000, [probably in Palestine,
alone;] Metawileh, 25,000; Ansairiyeh and Ismaeliyeh, 200,000; Ar­
menians and other sects, 20,000; total, excluding the Adana district,
1,400,000.
The condition of the laboring classes is supposed to be, compared with
those of England, easy and good. They feed on mutton (at 3 piastres per
oke, or about 5 | cents a pound) several times a week, bread daily, some­
times rice pillans, and always pillans of bulgur (i. e. wheat husked and
bruised, or half ground, after being moistened or dried ;) these pillans are
made either with butter, olive or sesam o il; leben, (yaghoort or ricotto or
sweet curds,) cheese, eggs, olives, various dried fruits, and an abundance
of vegetables, beet-roots, turnips, and radishes preserved in brine or vine­
gar, and cucumbers and capsicums in vinegar, for winter use. Their
clothing is not very coarse ; the fine climate permits them to wear light
cotton and other similar apparel, and in the short winter they are gener­
ally well covered. Their lodging is good; generally each family has a
separate house, or a set of rooms in the paternal house ; in the towns and
villages, a house. The prices of lodging vary according to locality ; lodg­
ing generally in Syria, for all classes, is cheap comparatively with most
other countries. The working classes rarely lay by enough to enable
them to pass the decline of life without laboring; and it is alien to the
ideas of the population generally, to trust to any thing beyond the aid of
Providence for the future. Field-labor is paid, near Beirut, 25 to 33 cents
(5 to 6 i piastres) per d a y ; artisans, masons, and carpenters get 14 to 15
piastres (70 to 75 cents.) The annual cost to a laborer for clothing is 15
to 20 dollars ; for food, 35 to 40 ; lodging, in town, 10 to 20 ; and in the
country, 5 to 10 dollars. The habitation generally consists of two rooms.
Laborers at Aleppo and Damascus get 25 to 35 cents a day ; a man ser­
vant, feeding himself, 3 to 5 dollars a month ; shoemakers, 45 to 50 cents,
per d a y ; blacksmiths and stonecutters, 50 to 60 ; carpenters 45 to 60 ;
masons, 40 to 60. The low degree of civilization the Syrian has attained
may be judged of by the fact that “ all productive labor, all usefully em­
ployed capital, is regarded as belonging to something mean and secondary.”
Mercantile probity is at rather a low ebb, as might be expected where
business fluctuations are so common, and where alternate rapacity and
imbecility have so long been the habits of government. The consequent
precarious tenure of property must give rise to a thousand tricks and sub­
terfuges. From the lack of credit, however, large gambling operations
are not common, but the frauds are mostly of the petty kind. Justice is
paid for, not as with us, by fees, but by bribes from both parties. Under
the rule of Ibrahim Pacha, however, a set of courts was engrafted upon
the Ottoman system, whose decisions were very satisfactory ; and as they
have been so beneficial, they may have been retained by the Porte since
it regained Syria, and still be the law of the land.
CURRENCY, ETC.---- REVENUE---- EXPENDITURE.

Accounts are kept in piastres, whose value Mahomet Ali fixes at 20 to the
dollar ; and their current value is the same, say five to the English shilling
sterling: he is also aiming to reduce all the other coins of the country,
which are numerous, to a permanent value based on their real weight and




493

The Commerce o f Syria.

quality. Bv this standard the gold coins are worth as follows :— Fundukli,
date of 1143 and 1171, 45 piastres; of 1187 and 1203, 37 p . ; of 1223,
36 p .;—j Fundukli, or Rubia, of 1223, 9 p .;— Stambouli, or Constantino­
ple, of date from 1143 to 1147 inclusive, 32 p .; of date from and after
1148, 28 p . ; from 1171 till 1194, 3 1 | p. ; from 1195 to 1203, 271 p. ;
of date 1223, 26-t p. :—Full Mahmoudia, up to 14th year of coinage, 65 p .;
and H a lf Mahmoudia 32i p. ; and Quarter Mahmoudia, 16i p .;—Adli, of
1223, from 1st to 17th year, 18 p . ; and from and after the 18th year,
16 p . ; — Old Gazi, 1st to 17th year, from 1223, 21f p . ; —New Gazi, or
Mamduchi, 20 p. ;— Cairini, all coined in Egypt, of 1143, 1st to 5th year,
32 p. ; 6th year and after, 28 p .; of 1171,26 p .; of 1187 to 1223, 24 p. ;
— Old and New Kairieh, also coined in Egypt, 9} p . ;—New money of
Egypt, size of an English sovereign, 20 carats fine, 1021 piastres.
By this standard the Silver Coins are actually worth as follows :—the
Real Sham, coined by Sultan Mustafa, l()i p. ; by Abdoolhamid, 1 0 | p. ;
the Juzluk, 1 2 | p. ; Ikilik, 10 p. ; Beslilik, 16 p . ; Abou Turrah and Mis
Bcshlik, and New Beshlik, 5 p. ; Nakishli, 3 piastres.
The value of moneys, according to Mahomet Ali’s firman, proclaimed
at Damascus, on the 18th of April, 1838, is—
P ia s tr e s . P a r a s .

Old Gahadi . . .
New Gahadi
Old Fundukli . .
Old Selimi Fundukli
New Fundukli of 4 Tubi
Selimi from Constantinople . . . .
Old Mahbub of Egypt
Mastafane . . 1
Egyptian Mahbub,
old Mahmoudi .
Old Adli
. . .
New Adli . . .

.
.
.
.
.

00
50
43
36
34

.

25

.

24

.

20

.
.

17
15

23
33
10
12
9

White Rubia Zarifa .
Red Rubia Zarifa . .
Old Gazi
. . . .
Mamduchi or New Gazi
Old Jussefi . . . .
NewJussefi . . . .
13 Old Beshlik . . . .
J u z l u k ......................
Beshlik, with crescent )
of 5 . . .
.
\
24
Altimishlik . . . .
16 I k l i k ............................
28

P ia s tr e s . P a r a s .

. 3
. 2
. 20
. 17
174
173
16
. 11

3
28
5
10
4
11
22
23

.

£

24

.

3

1
39

At these rates coins are ordered to be received and paid as legal
tenders.
Besides these, there are gold coins of different value :—three struck by
Mahmoud, Sultan, viz. the Old Double Gazi, 40 piastres ; H alf New
Gazi, 10 p . ; Quarter New Gazi, 5 p.—Four struck by Mahomet Ali, viz.
Egyptian gold coin, 20 p . ; half gold coin, 10 p. ; quarter gold coin, 5 p .;
small gold coin, Roubia, 4 p. ; small gold coin, Roubia, 3 piastres.
The commercial usages in Syria, as to the purchases and sales of
goods, are for the most part as in European commercial places. Purchaes and sales are effected between merchants, through brokers, either
for cash or on credit. The credits are usually of two, three, and four
months, but the accounts are never balanced before double the expiration
of the time granted; the debts are discharged by weekly protracted pay­
ments. The brokers are of two classes ; those authorized by government,
for public sales, and those who transact private business. Most purchases
for export are paid for in ready money. Nowhere is there a regular ex­
change open with Europe ; nearly the whole returns to England are in
specie. In questions between a European and a native on a matter of for50*




494

The Commerce o f Syria.

eign trade, the French Code de Commerce is usually referred to as the
best authority. In commercial transactions between nations, the decision
rests wholly with the Divan.
Weights and measures, fyc.—A miskal of gold, of 24 carats, is worth
13 shillings in England, and weighs H drams of 24 carats.— 100 drams
of silver pure, is worth, in England, £ 2 16s.— A kintal of England, of
112 lbs., weighs, in Syria, 41-)- okes.— 100 English yards are 130 pikes,
country measure.
The Oke— 400 d ram s= 2 f lbs. English, or 40 o k e s= l c w t.; and 800
o k e s = l ton.—640 okes=252 galls, liquid measure.—The Rottolo— 720
dram s= 5 lbs. English.— 100 Hahhies of Y afa=39 quarters.— ) £ Pikes
= 1 yard.— The Syrian Cantar is 180 okes of Constantinople=504 lbs.
English.
Exchange on London, in 1840, was 100 piastres to the pound sterling:
on France, 4 piastres to the franc.
Revenue, &c.—In 1839 the revenue was about 83,500,000 piastres,
say $4,175,000 ; while the expenditure exceeded this sum by 50,000,000
piastres, say $2,500,000 ; of which the army (14 regiments of infantry,
10 of cavalry, 48,000 regulars, 12,000 irregulars) cost $5,566,000, and
the civil list $372,650. Besides this there are very considerable expenses
of barracks, hospitals, fortifications, &c., which carry up the expenditure
to 130,000,000 piastres.
Taking the revenue at £696,000 in 1836, the Aleppo district paid
£152,000 ; that of Damascus, £210,000 ; of Tripoli, £78,000; ofYafa,
104,000; of Saida, 114,000; of Adana, 38,000; while Mt. Lebanon paid
in all 58,750, of which about 27,000 went to its own Emir Beshir.
MEANS OF COMMUNICATION, MARTS, ETC.

The commerce of Syria, internal, external, and of transit, would be
vastly benefited and increased could a good road connect the chief sea­
ports, Scanderoon and (Beirut, or) Beyroot, with the chief interior entre­
pots, Aleppo and Damascus, and both these latter with the Euphrates and
with each other. Army wagons and artillery were passed by Ibrahim
between Aleppo and Scanderoon by way of experiment. But the usual
conveyance is by camels, mules, and horses. The chief caravan routes
are from Egypt, through Gaza and Nabulus to Damascus ; from Damas­
cus south, through Hawran, east of the Jordan, and along the edge of the
desert and of the Red Sea to Mecca ; and from Damascus and Aleppo,
east, to Anna or Hit, on the Euphrates, and so to Bagdad.
The roads are bad, especially in the rainy season, and are seldom or
never repaired ; of course wheel-carriages cannot be employed. Mules or
camels are hired at 60 to 75 cents a day, and their ultimate cost is the
same, as the heavier load of the camel makes up for the quicker pace of
the mule. The English houses in Syria say, that if facilities were given
to communication, a very wide field would be opened to commercial en­
terprise.
From Damascus, carriage costs, per 500 lbs., to Beirut, four to five
Spanish dollars ; through Homs and Hamah, to Aleppo, 71 to 8 dollars;
to Bagdad, 17i to 20 dollars, and much less were the route secured against
the Bedawin.
The expense of carriage is enormous on heavy and cheap goods ; and
if the Euphrates steam navigation succeeds, the facility, security, and




The Commerce o f Syria.

495

economy of the trade with Mosul, Bagdad, and Persia, through these
places, would be much and speedily increased. The journey to and from
Scanderoon is by camels 7 to 8, and by mules 5 to 6, in winter; and 5
to 9 with camels, and 4 to 5 with mules, in summer ; the caravans, and
those to Latakia, vary from 10 to 100 mules or camels. There are mu­
leteers who are continually employed on these two roads, and always
abundance of opportunities of transport; but during Ibrahim’s government,
when, as often happened, mules, muleteers, camels, and camel-drivers
were impressed for government service, disastrous interruption of convey­
ance was experienced. The quarantines also, internal and external, were
a useless and enormous nuisance. Whether these two hindrances to trade
will be abated by the Porte, or succeeded by worse, now Syria has revert­
ed to the sultan, remains to be seen. The communication with Mosul,
Diarbekir, Bagdad, &e., is not so frequent, but is carried on in the same
manner, with this exception, that the caravans are generally accompanied
by the merchants who load them.
The communication of Aleppo with Europe is by posts sent to Beirut
to meet the steamer from England, once a month, and by Tartars to Con­
stantinople about once every six weeks ; but there is no regularity in their
time of starting. The post goes to Constantinople in 7 days in winter, and
in 5 days in summer ; the postage is about 4d. sterling for a single letter.
The Tartar goes to Constantinople in 12 days, in good weather, and in bad
weather he is frequently 20 days on his journey ; the postage by him for
a single letter is about 9d. He carries money at the rate of one half per
cent for gold, and one third for silver. There are two opportunities per
month, by horse post, for the conveyance of money to Beirut—one is in
the hands of the British merchants, and its rates of carriage are three
eighths per cent for gold, and one eighth for silver.
Imposts.— Goods from Aleppo to Mosul pay a transit duty of five dollars
per mule or camel load, at Bir, when they cross the Euphrates, and 2 i per
cent on the invoice, at Mosul; but copper, iron, lead, soap, pepper, and
pimento pay but two dollars and a half at Bir, and five dollars at Mosul,
per load. At Arfa, Merdin, and Diarbekir is an import duty of 5 per
cent on the value. Imports pay a duty at the port of landing of 3 per
cent, nominally, on a low valuation, making it in most cases, say l-J per
cent. The Porte and Ibrahim’s government laid duties on goods passing
between their countries, respectively, but since the Porte has recovered
Syria, these arrangements have probably been changed.
TRADE OF DAMASCUS.

Damascus, Dimeshk esh-Sham, or simply esh-Sham, i. e. the East, has
always been, and will always be, a seat of commerce. Here the patriarch
Abraham’s steward Eliezer was brought up to business; and here trade
is still conducted after the same manner probably as in the earliest times,
in khans or caravanserais, called “ inns” in Genesis, xlii. 27, and in
bazaars, which are covered “ streets,” with alcoves, mentioned as far back
as the times of Ahab, king of Israel, 2 Kings xx. 34. This primeval city,
from its white walls and green environs, is called by the orientals “ a
pearl surrounded by emeralds,” and nothing can be more beautiful than
its position, whether approached from the desert to the east, or by the
northern high road from Aleppo and Hamah. For many miles the city
is girdled by fertile fields or gardens, which being watered by rivers part­




496

The Commerce o f Syria.

ed into sparkling streams, give to the vegetation, consisting principally of
olive-trees, a remarkable freshness and beauty; beyond are circling
mountains, open on one side to the desert. Of all the cities of the east it is
probably the most completely oriental—the city which has undergone the
fewest changes. The European costume is scarcely ever seen ; and with
few exceptions, the Frank settlers have adopted the Syrian dress. The
exterior of the houses is mean and unattractive, but within many are orna­
mented in the most luxurious and costly style, supplied with fountains,
and filled with flowering shrubs. The decorations of the ceilings and walls
show a taste for the gorgeous, and the floors are frequently of marble,
very finely tesselated ; many of the materials are imported from Europe,
especially from Italy.
Some of the bazaars are very extensive, such as those of the shoemakers,
of the goldsmiths, druggists, garment sellers, hardware dealers, traders in
cotton stuffs, pipemakers, &e.— for each trade and business has ordinarily
its peculiar covered street, devoted entirely to it. They are generally
kept in good order, and abundantly supplied with goods. Long bargain­
ing seems universal, and an apparent indifference is exhibited both by
buyer and seller. A good many bazaars are kept by dervishes and
sheikhs having a reputation for sanctity; but they do not appear to be
either more or less visited than those of their neighbors, nor does anybody
seem disposed to pay an additional para for the article wanted, on account
of the religious reputation of the seller.
The European goods are mostly bought on credit from the importer ;
but the ordinary sales in the bazaars, to the consumer, are for ready
money. When the transactions are carried on, on a large scale, with the
caravan merchants, the payments are usually made on their return the
following year. There are a considerable number of merchants from
Persia, Mesopotamia, and the regions to the east, who find no difficulty in
obtaining credit to a large amount, and many of them are extremely regu­
lar in their payments. This trade appears to be on the increase, and
capable of much greater extension.
The wholesale sellers of goods have their counting-houses around the
khans, and deposit their merchandise in various parts of them. Many of
these khans are of great antiquity ; the great khan is a vast and superb
building, filled with various commodities, and frequented by merchants
from remote lands. Two Moslems, handsomely dressed, and who were
apparently transacting business on a large scale, were introduced to us,
says Mr. Bowring, as the leading merchants of Bagdad. In the khan we
observed large quantities of cotton twist, for which the sale appeared very
current. We learnt that, though the known buyers from the east easily
obtained credit till the arrival of the next caravans, yet the richest among
them paid ready money, and as these operations are large, they are of
course among the most welcome visiters. Some of the caravans from
Bagdad, indeed, have been known to consist of 5000 camels, every one
carrying a quarter of a ton of goods, at an average charge of 20 dollars
a kintal, so that the carriage alone of a caravan’s cargo costs from
$100,000 to $125,000. It is thought western goods may be more cheaply
conveyed by the Cape of Good Hope ; but the merchants of the east, who
themselves visit Damascus and Aleppo, have the advantage of accompany­
ing or receiving their own goods, and making their own purchases, which of
course, were it only for the benefits of assortment, is of much value to them.




The Commerce o f Syria.

497

The imports of Damascus in 1836 and ’37, were as follows:
1836.
1837.
Loaf and crushed sugar .
121,447
112,722 okes.
« •
Copperas
.
.
.
.
3,914
12,219
ti
Indigo .
.
.
.
.
10,205
4,728
ti
Pimento
.
.
.
.
3,118
3,534
t(
Pepper .
.
.
.
.
23,470
27,247
it
Tin (in bars) .
.
.
.
5,055
4,503
it
Cochineal
.
.
.
.
7,434
11,644
ft
Coffee, from Mocha and Europe
75,122
86,210
ti
Sal ammoniac
1,128
3,794
it
Corals .
.
.
.
.
45
'167
tl
Cotton twist .
.
.
.
115,622
137,510
Long-cloths .
.
.
.
25,952 pieces.
32,981
tt
Prints .
.
.
.
.
36,095
30,537
u
Woollen cloths
6,401
2,819
tt
Muslins .
.
.
.
.
29,088
25,409
Rice (baskets of 40 rottoli each) 13,500
12,500 baskets.
Silk, from Lyons
—
1,101 pieces.
Writing paper
19,299
10,540 reams.
«
Wrapping paper
5,940
2,436
Red skull-caps
15,142
11,291 doz.
Tin plates
.
.
.
.
106
169 boxes.
—
Iron
.
.
.
.
.
328
cantars.
Indigo, from Bagdad
7,339
1,071 okes.
ti
Tombag
.
.
.
.
302,000
117,210
ti
Tobacco
.
.
.
.
230,878
190,577
The city has 66 Mohammedan commercial establishments, which trade
with Europe, with a capital of 20 to 25 million piastres; eight have over
a million each ; two, (Abderachman Ashim and Mahomet Said Aga Bagdadi,) who trade with Bagdad, have one and a half to two millions; one
(Haji Hussein Chertifchi,) is supposed to have two to two and a half mil­
lions in trade. The larger houses generally trade with Europe and Bag­
dad, the smaller with Smyrna and Constantinople. About a dozen are in
the Eyptian trade with Cairo and Alexandria ; one or two with Mecca and
Medina, and a few with Jerusalem, Nabulus, and other parts of Palestine.
One of the principal houses trades with the East Indies. The average
capital of these foreign merchants is about £4,000.
There are 29 Christian merchants in foreign trade, with four and a half
to five and a half million piastres ; the wealthiest by far is Hanah Hanouri,
who has one and a half to two millions of capital, and trades with Eng­
land, France, and Italy, besides being a considerable manufacturer of
Damascus stuffs. Several others of the Hanouri family are in the foreign
trade, and are among the most opulent of the Christian merchants. A
great proportion of the Christian commercial houses have connections with
England, but are, as a body, less opulent than the Mohammedans or Jews,
most of them not having more capital than £250 to £1000.
As a class, the Jewish foreign merchants of Damascus are the most
wealthy; their 24 houses have 16 to 18 million piastres, and average
£6,000 to £7,000 each; nine have from one to one and a half million
piastres; two, the most opulent, (Mourad Farhi and Nassim Farhi,) have




498

The Commerce o f Syria.

more than one and a half million each. Most of them trade with Eng.
land.
There are 107 shopkeepers who retail British goods, with a capital of
1,6#0,000 to 2,100,000 piastres, averaging £150 to £180 each. Their
bazaars, like those of Aleppo, are kept up to a great extent on the capitals
of those who sell them goods on credit. Few possess £1000 capital, and
half of it is considered very respectable and would command a considera­
ble extent of credit. There are 15 retailers of woollen cloths, who are
proportionally the wealthiest of the shopkeepers, and have 650,000 to
800,000 piastres, averaging £400 to £500 each; the wealthiest double,
and the poorest £200 to £500. There are about 80 grocers and druggists,
averaging 10,000 piastres each.
Engaged in the stuff manufactures are 14 Mohammedans, with £200 to
£1,200 each, in all 600,000 to 750,000 piastres, averaging to each £400
to £500. The two most opulent are dervishes. The 45 Christian manu­
facturers have 1,100,000 to 1,500,000 piastres, averaging to each £220
to £335. The largest possess £1,000, the smallest £50 to £60.
The Tribunal o f Commerce, at Damascus, consists of 9 Moslems, 2
Christians, and 1 Jew ; a proportion not very fairly arranged in reference
to the numbers of the different religious bodies; but one of the principal
Christian merchants assured Mr. B. that, on the whole, they were tolera­
bly satisfied with its decisions, and the Moslem majority seldom showed
any disposition to act unfairly to Christians litigants.
TRADE OF ALEPPO.

Aleppo, or Haleb, the ancient Helbon, is situated midway between the
Euphrates, where it approaches nearest to the sea, and the Mediterranean,
being some 90 miles, by the road, from Suedia, at the mouth of the Orontes, as well as from Scanderoon; 110 from the port of Latakia, 47 geo­
graphical miles in a straight line from steam navigation on the Euphrates,
and 33 from the Orontes river. It is about 2,000 feet above the level of
the sea, surrounded by an undulating country, very stony and barren in
many places, and except in its immediate vicinity without wood, and thinly
populated. Gardens cover all the roofs of the city, and seen from above,
it is a succession of terraces, over which is spread a rank and luxuriant
vegetation, looking like an irregular plain, under which the multitudinous
inhabitants circulate—the streets being all of them covered in and lighted
only by gratings from above.
The local position of Aleppo is in many respects admirable for trade.
It has an abundance of warehouses, which are at a low rent, though the
repairs are heavy; it communicates, at the distance of a few hours, with
the Euphrates, and its khans and coffee-houses are crowded with travellers
from every part of the east. There are habits of luxury in the city itself
which create a considerable demand for articles of consumption; and it is
by far the most important of all the Syrian depots. Its habits and tradi­
tions are more commercial than those of any other part of Syria, and its
people are fond of talking of the mercantile greatness of their forefathers.
Here were formerly 40 Venetian houses, but its trade has completely
changed hands. In about 1832, English merchants began to establish
themselves here, and now there are several houses carrying on a large
business both with Aleppo and the surrounding district, as well as with
the ancient Mesopotamia, Persia, and the country bordering on the Eu­




The Commerce o f Syria.

499

phrates. Situated about midway between the desert and the Mediterranean,
and being a convenient place of centralization for the various caravans
from the. east, it is likely to grow in wealth and influence, if commerce be
allowed to establish its ramifications, and if security of person or proper­
ty give those feelings of confidence without which all enterprise is checked
or destroyed.
Aleppo is the emporium for the north of Syria, and is connected in ex­
tensive commercial transactions with Diarbekir, and the upper parts of
Anatolia, and with Merdin, Mosul, and Bagdad. This trade, however, is
affected by the new channels which are opened from the Euxine, through
Trebizond and Erzroom, supplying the north of Kurdistan and Mesopo­
tamia, and the trade, either from India or England, by the Persian Gulf,
supplying Bagdad and the south of Mesopotamia. There is also a trade
with Persia, through both of these channels, to the northern and southern
provinces; but such has been the revulsion in consequence of Persia’s
being supplied and overstocked, through both the Euxine and the gulf,
that the prices of British manufacture are frequently lower at Bagdad
than at Aleppo, which place has even received supplies from Persia. The
great drawback to the extension of the British trade of Aleppo, including
that of Mesopotamia and Babylonia, and of Damascus with the latter
country, is the want of articles of export; with the exception of one or
two, the whole of the returns to England being made partly in bills of ex­
change, but principally in specie. The distance and expense of land
carriage, and the duties of transit, and at the place of sale also, operate
against this Aleppo trade in competition with the other route ; but these
are in some degree balanced by the greater acceptability of the Syrian
ports.
With Orfa, the Aleppo trade is carried on by the natives ; and its 20
Turkish and Christian merchants do not trade direct to Europe. Their capi­
tal is some $40,000 or $50,000, but their trade greatly exceeds that
amount, and three fifths of it is for British manufactures, chiefly cotton
twist, calicoes, some prints, muslins, and nankeens ; the remainder is in
colonial produce and different articles of the country. Orfa supplies Alep­
po and the north of Syria with grain, chiefly wheat and barley; and the
communication is active by Bir.
The trade with Diarbekir is similar, and by 25 Turkish and Christian
merchants, with $75,000 to $80,000 of capital; $35,000 worth are taken
from Aleppo, of which $25,000 are for British manufactures, and $10,000
for colonials. The return is in galls and specie. These merchants, like
those of Orfa, often obtain, through the European Aleppo agents, goods
direct on their own account from England.
The Merdin trade requires about $10,000 worth of British manufac­
tures, and $5,000 of colonials, and is conducted by 4 or 5 merchants, with
$15,000 to $25,000. The returns and trade are like those of Orfa and
Diarbekir.
The trade to Mosul engages 25 Turkish and Christian merchants of Mo­
sul, the wealthiest of Mesopotamia, with a capital of $170,000 to $200,000,
and altogether they may be considered richer and of higher standing than
those at Orfa, Diarbekir, and Merdin. Mosul takes annually from Alep­
po $150,000 worth, mostly British manufactures, and the rest colonials;
but since the fines and severity of the sultan’s pacha, who has lately oc­
cupied it, the trade has decreased. Galls and some specie are the usual




500

The Commerce o f Syria.

returns. The inland duty to this place is heavy, but it gives a free passage
to other places.
There is a trade between Mosul, Merdin, Diarbekir, and Orfa, with
Erzroom, Ivarpout, and Trebizond, which cannot be specified or calcula­
ted ; but it consists in most of the articles received from Europe and in
articles of the country. It is susceptible of extension both in regard to
the produce of the country, in galls, sheep’s wool, Persian yellow berries
from Kaisserieh, goats’ wool, beef, calve, and other hides; and for the con­
sumption on that line of country, of cotton twist, calicoes, manufactures
generally, and colonials, which trade is carried on in the same way as the
trade between Mesopotamia and Aleppo.
The trade of Aleppo and Damascus with Bagdad, the former through
the desert across the Euphrates, at Anna or at Hit, and the latter across the
desert, by way of Tadmor, also traversing the Euphrates at Hit, is chiefly
carried on by Moslems and Christians; some few Europeans are engaged
in it, but hitherto British merchants have seldom adventured on it. There
is not often more than one caravan, of from 700 to 1000 camels, annually,
between Aleppo and Bagdad, and one of 1,000 to 1^200 or 1,500 between
Damascus and Bagdad. The goods sent thither from Aleppo and Damas­
cus are chiefly cotton twist, calicoes, shirtings, prints, imitation shawls,
woollen cloths, some dyes, and an assortment, varying in quality accord­
ing to the market, of paper of all kinds, pig lead, cloths, woollens, French
and Belgian, manufactured cotton of all sorts, imitation British shawls,
steel, coral, iron, cutlery from Germany, files, pins and needles, fire-arms,
tinsel from Germany, looking-glasses, cochineal, St. Martha wood, log­
wood, woollen caps, tin in bars, sulphur, tin plates, and gold and silver
thread. The chief articles received in return, besides the principal one
of specie, are Persian and Hussineeh tombag, galls, buffalo hides, East
India indigo, pearls, Cashmere shawls, some Mocha coffee, and an assort­
ment of Persian shawls, Fernambook (Brazil) wood, East India muslins,
called madapolans, East India muslins, embroidered, elephant tusks or
teeth, gum galbanum, gum ammoniac, cherry sticks for pipes, Persian
saffran, gum tragacanth, assafoetida, East India long-cloths, and dates.
The cost of carriage across the desert is enhanced chiefly because of the
insecurity from the roving Arab tribes, whom the merchants of Bagdad
are often obliged to compromise with, giving considerable sums and pres­
ents to the chiefs of the Shammah and Aneze (’Anazeh) tribes, at Bagdad,
who become responsible for the safety of the caravan from plunder by their
hordes in the desert. This transit duty varies according to the value of
the caravan. The Aghali Arabs also, who act as guards, and accompany
the caravan, receive presents, and are paid as a kind of military and pro­
tecting escort.
A portion of the transit trade of Syria indeed, is in the hands of the
Bedawin (wandering or nomade) Arabs, who traffic with the native dealers
for different articles of imported produce, and bring the produce of their
flocks in payment. They generally come from the skirts of the desert,
whence they communicate with the tribes stationed further east. Ibra­
him’s highly useful measures to settle these Bedawins in agricultural
pursuits on the borders of Syria, have been wise and eminently successful.
But under the less energetic Turkish rule, to which they have again be­
come nominally subject, they will probably return to their former roving
and predatory life.




The Commerce o f Syria.

501

There are at Aleppo about 30 Christian houses which trade with Eng­
land, France, Italy, and Germany, with a capital of $700,000 to $900,000;
the houses ranging from $5,000 to $50,000 and $200,000. There are
7 with a capital of over $50,000 each ; Fathalla Cubbe, the most opulent,
is thought to possess $150,000 to $200,000. Nearly 70 Mohammedam
merchants trade with Europe, having $325,000 to $375,000 capital; the
houses ranging from $5,000 to the highest capital, that of Agi Wosa
Muaket, which is $65,000 to $70,000; the average capital is £3,000 to
£4,000 sterling. Besides these there are 15 Turkish merchants who
trade in European commodities, but not with Europe direct. Their largest
capital is $15,000, and a few have not more than one sixth as much ; the
total capital of the 15 is about $100,000 to $125,000. There are 10
Jewish European traders, with $100,000 to $125,000 capital—the wealth­
iest of whom has $50,000. Independently of the above, who are all
Aleppo merchants, there are settled in Aleppo many opulent bankers,
whose capital cannot be easily estimated, and many merchants of Bagdad,
Mosul, Diarbekir, Orfa, Constantinople, and Smyrna.
There are more than 50 shopkeepers who sell the manufactures of
Aleppo, some with scarcely any capital—the richest with $4,000 to $5,000;
the whole being not more than $60,000 to $80,000. Twenty-one sell silk,
the wealthiest having $3,500 capital; the whole capital engaged in this
traffic is from $11,250 to $14,000. Nineteen shopkeepers sell cloths from
France and Belgium, none of whom possess more than $2,250; the
whole amount employed is $16,050 to $20,500. There are 70 who sell
British manufactures, with $37,500 to $44,000 ; many of them have but
about $150 to $500, but the average is $500 ; they therefore depend very
much on the accidents of sales, and hence the habit of collecting from
them their receipts from week to week. There are 35 druggists, the rich­
est of whom, called chief of the druggists, has a capital of $1,250 to
$1,500, and their united capital is $16,250 to $21,000 ; averaging from
$250 or $300 up to $1,250 to each dealer. Thus a very large propor­
tion of the trade of Aleppo is carried on by the general system of credit
established there, and almost all the shopkeepers depend for the payment of
their debts on the sales they are able to effect. It is, in fact, as if the
shops were lent to the merchants for the disposal of their goods in retail.
The merchants collect their receipts by a system of incessant dunning,
employing for that purpose a race of dragomans, who wear a peculiar
costume, and are for the most part native Christians.
The language of Aleppo is Arabic. Nearly all sales are made by
brokers, paid by the seller, at the rate of 1 per c e n t; the British house,s
charge for commissions, charges, &c. on sales, 131 per cent, in all.
Credits are for 4 months, but extended often to 2 years. Accounts are
kept in piastres and paras, but the currency is very various; hence, and for
the want of any proper facilities for transferring money, there is an
enormous consumption of time by the collecting and counting of moneys.
Sovereigns pass current for 103 piastres; German dollars for 20f p .;
Spanish dollars for 21f p . ; Dutch ducats for 47 p .; Venetian ducats for
47i p.—though the rates for these coins published by the government, are,
respectively, 97-1, 20, 21, 45f£, 46i§ piastres. The cantar of Aleppo is
1871 okes ; the rottolo is the 100th part of a cantar ; the Constantinople
oke, for cochineal, is about 24 lbs. avoirdupois—the Egyptian is 4 per
cent lighter: 1000 drams of silk are 7 lb s.; the pike is 27 inches.
VOL.

vi.—n o . vi.




51

502

The Commerce o f Syria.

There is an allowance on sugar of 2 per cent for tare; on coffee, of
the real tare; and 10 per cent trett on pepper, of the real tare; and 5
per cent trett on indigo and cochineal, of the real tare. In purchasing
galls the buyer pays the brokerage, and has an allowance of 5 per cent
trett in lieu of it. Silk is bought nett. Cotton and wool are bought nett,
or, if in hair bags, the bags are weighed as wool or cotton, and no charge
made. The exchange is calculated at 105 piastres per j£1 sterling ; and
all charges, tares and tretts on this side are taken off.
The manufactures of Aleppo are chiefly soap, stuffs, and gold and silver
thread. There are 30 soap factories at Aleppo, and nearly half as many
at Edlip, employing in all 1000 men, at 25 to 50 cents per day. The
soap is composed of 17 parts oil, 11 soda, and 6 lime. The quantity pro­
duced varies, according to the oil crop, from 500 to 1,500 tons annually.
In the years 1837-8, it was 1,500 tons—prime cost 18,700 piastres ($935 ;)
the selling prices are 2,000 and 1,900 piastres ($100 and $95) per cask.
The soapmakers of Aleppo supply not only all northern Syria, but also
Bagdad, Mosul, Merden, Diarbekir, Orfa, Marash, Aintab, and their
neighborhood.
The manufacture of stuffs, for which Aleppo is famous throughout the
east, is still carried on extensively. They consist of silk stuffs, with gold
and silver thread; silk and cotton flowered and striped, and striped cotton
only, called nankeens. Few modern improvements have been introduced
into the machinery employed ; but the fabrics are, many of them, grace­
ful and beautiful, and costly where silver and gold have been introduced.
A considerable number of children are employed to assist the spinners
and weavers ; they are most of them Christians ; and I have seldom seen,
says Bowring, a race so remarkable for graceful proportions of body, fine
features and expression of countenance. Their appearance was that of
robust and glowing health, with a most cheerful turn of mind, and spright­
liness of conversation. They earn tolerable wages, usually from 25 to
50 cents a day, particularly those engaged in making the richer stuffs, for
which there is some demand in Turkey, and in the provinces to the east
and northeast of Syria. Their best machinery is that for making gold and
silver thread. The instruments are well constructed, and worked with
much dexterity. The weavers are for the most part gathered into large
shops, in each of which two or more workmen are employed by a partic­
ular manufacture, and they are paid by the pike for their fabrics. There
are no very extensive manufacturers; the looms belong to the weavers,
but the raw materials are furnished by the masters. There are about 4,000
looms, and 6,000 operatives old and young, and they yearly produce
$1,275,000 worth of fabrics. The rich stuffs are used by brides and
women of wealth; all the other sorts are used for the every-day outer
garments of both men and women as extensively as broadcloth is in Eng­
land. The manufacturers have been for some years tending to decay, but
a revival has again taken place, principally in consequence of the impor­
tation of a portion of the half-worked material, such as twist and yarn,
from England. British manufactures have been gradually intruding on
those of Syria. They were much lower priced, but have been found less
durable, and many of the Aleppine stuffs are again making their way into
popular favor. Some of the intelligent manufacturers believe that the
cotton twist, woollen yarn, flax thread, and other similar articles which




The Commerce o f Syria.

503

are to a certain extent raw materials, would enable the Syrians to extend
their manufactures.
The art of dyeing seems well understood, and the colors are bright and
lasting. There are about 100 dyeing and printing shops in Aleppo, em­
ploying about 1,500 persons, who earn from 25 to 70 cents per day. The
dyeing is chiefly of the silk and cotton yarns used for the stuffs, and it is
all fast; false colors, however brilliant, are not at all esteemed here.
The printing is also fast, but it is in a very rude state compared with
the other manufactures h ere; the chief trade is printing their handker­
chiefs, used by women and lads to tie round the head, and also as veils
for the faces of the women when going abroad.
Of gold and silver thread there are 15 manufactories, employing about
60 persons, who earn from 25 cents to $1 per day. The bulk of this
produce is used for the richer stuffs of Aleppo, but some goes to Bagdad
and other places in the east.
The imports of Aleppo from Great Britain, in 1836-7, were:— Sugar,
358 sacks, 484 barrels, each sack weighing 25 rottoli, barrels weighing
each 50 rottoli; ruling prices 10 to 12 piastres per rottolo the barrels, and
10 to 10>- piastres per rottolo the sacks. The sugar in barrels is English
crushed refined, and that in sacks East Indian. Two thirds of the above
quantity is consumed at Aleppo, and one third is sent into the interior.—
Coffee, 792 bags, each weighing 30 rottoli=23,760 rottoli; ruling prices
16i to 171 piastres per rottolo ; one third is consumed at Aleppo, and the
other two thirds go to Mesopotamia and the interior.—Indigo, 170 cases,
weighing each 50 rottoli=8,500 rottoli; ruling prices 180 to 220 piastres
per rottolo ; two thirds are the consumption of Aleppo, and one third goes
away into the interior.— Cochineal, 84 barrels, each weighing 70 okes=
5,880 okes; ruling prices 130 to 150 piastres per rottolo; one half con­
sumed at Aleppo, and the other half for the interior.— Copperas, 121 cases,
each weighing 60 rottoli=7,260 rottoli; ruling prices 200 to 350 piastres ;
one half consumed at Aleppo, and the remainder for the interior.— Tin
Bars, 163 barrels, each 45 rottoli=7,335 rottoli; ruling prices 28 to 34
piastres; one third consumed at Aleppo, and two thirds for the interior.—
Tin Plates, 84 cases of 225 leaves; ruling prices 250 to 280 piastres per
case of 225; two thirds the consumption of Aleppo, and one third for the
interior.— Pepper, 701 bags of 15 rottoli each=10,515 rottoli; ruling
prices H i to 12 piastres per rottolo; one half consumed at Aleppo, and
one half for the interior.— Pimento, 40 bags of 30 rottoli each= l,200 rot­
toli ; the ruling prices from 12 to 1 2 | piastres per rottolo; the half is con­
sumed in Aleppo, the other half goes to Mesopotamia.— Salammoniac, 49
cases, 31 barrels, weighing each 50 rottoli=2,450 rottoli; ruling prices
at Aleppo from 24 to 26 piastres per rottolo ; one third consumed at Alep­
po, and two thirds go into the interior and to Mesopotamia.—Rice, 540
bags, each weighing 15 rottoli; ruling prices from 51 to 61 piastres, all
of which is consumed at Aleppo.— Cotton Water Twist, 3,877 bales, each
bale valued at from 2,000 to 2,200 piastres; one third is consumed at
Aleppo, and two thirds go to Mesopotamia, Armenia, and as far as Trebizond.—Mule Yam, 600 bales, each bale valued at 3,200 to 3,400 pias­
tres ; two thirds of this are consumed at Aleppo, and one third goes into
the interior.—Manufactures, 5,336 bales and 53 cases. It is impossible
to state the quantity in each bale, and what description of goods, which
consist of all sorts of British manufactures; each bale is generally valued




504

The Commerce o f Syria.

at from 3,000 to 5,000 piastres, and a small portion at from 6,000 to 8,000 ;
Aleppo consumes half, and the rest goes into Mesopotamia, Armenia, and
as far as Persia.
The imports of Aleppo from Germany, in 1836-7, w ere:— Cloth, 44
bales, which come from Trieste, each bale containing 12 pieces=528
pieces ; the value of each bale is estimated at from 8,000 to 10,000 pias­
tres, according to quality ; half the above quantity is consumed at Aleppo,
and the remainder goes into the interior.— Tarbonclies or red caps, 163
cases of 120 dozen each=19,560 dozen ; ruling prices from 35 to 40
piastres per dozen ; one third for the consumption of Aleppo, and two
thirds for the interior.—Divers manufactures, 94 bales ; little or none of
these are of British fabric, they are principally printed handkerchiefs from
Germany ; each bale is valued at from 5,000 to 8,000 piastres ; one third
is consumed at Aleppo, and the remainder is for the interior.— Glass ware,
50 cases, which are consumed at Aleppo, and being sold at retail to peo­
ple coming from the interior, a small portion is also sent to Bagdad.
The imports of Aleppo from Italy, in 1836-7, w ere:— Sugar, 73 cases
and 100 bags, one with another weighing 50 rottoli; the ruling prices at
Aleppo 12i to 13 piastres per rottolo; two thirds consumed at Aleppo, and
one third goes into Mesopotamia ; total weight imported 8,650 rottoli.—
Coffee, 321 bags, at 35 rottoli e a c h = ll,2 3 5 rottoli; ruling prices 17 to 181piastres ; one third consumed at Aleppo, and two thirds exported.- Tarbonclies,
or red skull-caps, 255 cases, generally of Tuscan manufacture; each case
of 70 dozen=17,850 dozen; ruling prices from 70 to 120 piastres per
dozen ; one third consumed at Aleppo, and two thirds for the interior.—
Pepper, 237 bags of 15 rottoli each=3,555 rottoli; ruling prices 11 to 12
piastres per rottolo; half the quantity for the consumption of Aleppo, and
the remainder for the interior.— Indigo, 11 cases, weighing 50 rottoli=
550 rottoli; ruling prices 180 to 220 piastres per rottolo ; two thirds for
the consumption of Aleppo, and one third for Mesopotamia.— Coral, 25 cases;
this article is of various qualities, there are cases valued at 10,000 pias­
tres, and others as high as 50,000 : about 8 cases to 10 are sold in Alep­
po to the Persians and Bedawin, and the remainder is sent to Bagdad and
Persia, say one third to Aleppo and two thirds sent out.— Cochineal, 82 cases,
weighing 70 okes each = 5 ,740 okes; the ruling prices at Aleppo are 130
to 150 piastres per oke ; half for Aleppo, and the remainder is drawn by
the interior.—Paper, 166 bales, each bale of 20 reams=3,320 reams ;
ruling prices 25 to 40 piastres per ream ; half consumed at Aleppo, and
the remainder goes into the interior.— Manufactures, 293 bales, of all
sorts, of which a considerable portion is British manufactures bought in
the Italian depots; each bale is estimated at 3,000 to 5,000 piastres;
about one third of which, in 97 bales, is consumed in Aleppo, and the re­
maining two thirds go into Mesopotamia.— Cloth : none comes from Italy,
or at most only a bale or two during the year.
The imports of Aleppo from France, in 1836-7, were:— Sugar, 114
barrels, 766 cases, weighing one with another 50 rottoli each; the ruling
prices at Aleppo, during these two years, were 124 to 13 piastres per rot­
tolo ; two thirds consumed at Aleppo, and one third goes into the interior
and to Mesopotamia; total weight 44,000 rottoli.— Coffee, 330 barrels,
725 bags, weighing one with another 35 rottoli each ; ruling prices 17 to
18 piastres per rottolo ; one third consumed at Aleppo, and two thirds go
o u t; total weight 36,750 rottoli.— Cochineal, 35 barrels, 68 cases, weigh-




505

The Commerce o f Syria.

ing 70 okes each, and the prices ruled from 130 to 150 piastres per oke;
half for the consumption of Aleppo, and the remaining half for the interior;
total weight 7,210 okes.— Tarbonclies, 64 cases, which came from France,
but are manufactured at T unis; each case contains 50 dozen ; ruling
prices 200 to 400 piastres per dozen : the total quantity is exported, half
of which is consumed at Aleppo, and the remainder for the interior.—
Pepper, 135 bags, each weighing 30 rottoli, total 4,050 rottoli; prices
ruling from 11 to 12 piastres per rottolo; half for the consumption of
Aleppo, and the other half for Mesopotamia.—Pimento, 129 bags, weigh­
ing 30 rottoli each, total weight 3,780 rottoli; ruling prices from 12 to
124 piastres per rottoli; half for the consumption of Aleppo, and half for
the interior.—Indigo, 4 cases, weighing 50 rottoli each, at 180 to 200
piastres per rottoli; two thirds for the consumption of this town, and one
third goes into the interior ; total weight 200 rottoli.— Manufactured Silks,
these come from Lyons; only ten cases were imported during the years
1836 and 1837 ; each case contains 10 pieces, each piece of 35 pikes ;
ruling prices 10 to 60 piastres per pike : it is not consumed at Aleppo
or Mesopotamia, but it is an article which the Persians generally pur­
chase.— Wrapping-paper, 280 bales, each bale 30 reams, at 10 to 12
piastres per ream ; half that quantity is consumed at Aleppo, and the re­
mainder goes into the interior.— Cloth: 398 bales imported during the two
last years ; each bale contains 12 pieces ; but the cloth from France is of
such different qualities that it is difficult to name a price ; each bale is
valued from 4,000 to 6,000 piastres, and as far as 8,000 ; half the quan­
tity for the consumption of Aleppo, and the remainder is sent and taken
out.—Manufactures: only 9 bales have come during the two years, con­
sisting principally of prints of Switzerland, and in very small quantities.
The ordinary mode of payment in Aleppo for manufactured goods is by
bonds or promissory notes, due at a given period, which serve to a certain
extent as bills of exchange. It is not usual to discharge them in full
when the time stipulated for payment arrives. A small part is paid, and
written on the back of the bond ; many months often pass before the whole
is paid. Collectors go round, either weekly or according to circumstances,
to gather in what they can on account of those bonds. They are used
often by the holders to make other payments with, but they are not en­
dorsed, and the risk of the bond is transferred to the party who consents to
receive it.
The annual consumption of Aleppo, and the places it supplies, was,
in 1 8 3 8 In Aleppo.

Twist . .
Gray cotton
White do
Shawls
Muslins
Printed cottons .
do handkerchiefs
Tin plates .
do in bars . .
Sugar, refined
Cochineal . . .
Indigo . . . ,




120,000i| lbs.
500,000 yards l-f inches
375,000
„
5.000 pieces
60,000 yards
1,500 pieces
3.000 dozen
100 boxes
90 cwt.
50 tons
114,560 lbs.
10,920 «
51*

In other places.

165,000i£ lbs.
500,000 yards f J inches
375,000 “
“
10.000 pieces
140,000 yards
3,000 pieces
27.000 dozen
360 cwt.
50 tons
14,560 lbs.
18,200 “

506

The Commerce o f Syria.
In Aleppo.

Pepper and Pimento
C o ffee......................
Broadcloth
. . .
Dye woods . . .
Copperas . . . .
Salammoniac .
Ironmongery . . .
Earthenware . . .
Window glass . .
Tarbonches . . .
French silks and velvets
Paper, writing . .
do packing . .

350 cwt.
500 «
600 pieces
10 tons
10

30
30
50
150
8,400
10,000
2,000
1,500

«

cwt.
bales
“ .
“
dozen
yards
reams
“

In other placer.

350 cwt.
1,000

«

1,200 pieces
40 tons
10 «
120 cwt.

8,400 dozen
2,000 reams
325 “

Prices current in 1838, and value in English money.
Pepper . . .
5 i piastres per oke
3fd. per lb.
66
66
Sugar, crushed
8
51s. 0
per cwt.
66
66
66 66
Brazil, white
40s. 9d.
66 per rottolo
66 66
Coffee do . .
19
60s. 0
66
66
66 66
Mocha . . .
25
80s. 6d.
Indigo, copper and
66
66
270
8s. lOd. per lb.
violet, fine
66
66
66 66
Good . . . .
230
7s. 6d.
66
66
66 66
Low . . . .
170
5s. 6d.
66
66 66
Cochineal, silver
1,143
per oke
8s. 6d.
66 per rottolo 133s.
Tin, in bars
36
per cwt.
66 per 10 lbs.
76
14s. Ofd. per lb.
66
“
80
15s. Ofd. 66 66
66
66
it
S.S.
84
16s. Old. 66 66
30 . . .
Domestics, 45 inches
36 yards, 114 lbs.
HOp. per p. 16s. 9d.
24
“ 63 «
“
33 “
62p. 66 10s.
Galls, in sorts .
1,200 piastres per cantar 55s.
per cwt,
66 66
“
“
“ black
. . 1,500
68s. 6d.
The population supplied by the Aleppo trade, in northern Syria, is in
Aleppo 60 to 70,000; its immediate neighborhood, 5,000 ; Antioch, 10,000 ;
Edlip, 2,500 ; Hamah,30,000 ; Latakia, 5,000 ; Tarsous, 7,000 ; Adana,
20,000 ; Killis, 2,000 ; Aintab, 3,500 ; smaller cities and rural districts,
36,250 ; total, 181,250 in Upper S y ria; these consume two thirds of its
importations. Aleppo also supplies the districts of Armenia, from Arabkir southwards, and partly the district of Amasia. To the direct north
it supplies Marash, and its neighborhood; to the east and southeast, Orfa,
Diarbekir, Merdin, Mosul, near by, and a considerable caravan is yearly
sent to Bagdad. One third of its total imports are taken off by these
channels. The imports are chiefly from England direct, Marseilles, Leg­
horn, and Trieste.
The price of labor is 12 piastres per day for a mason or carpenter;
shoemakers, tailors, printers, and dyers, have no fixed rate, but are asso­
ciated each among themselves, and divide the profits. A weaver has 5
to 10 piastres per pike, and can make 1 to 2 pikes a day ; a porter makes
8 or 10 piastres; a servant has 60 to 200 piastres per month. Bread is




The Commerce o f Syria.

507

dear, 60 paras per rottolo ; wheat, 75 piastres per shimbul; mutton, 4 pias­
tres per o k e; fowls, 3 piastres each ; eggs, 4 paras each ; and rice, 3
piastres per oke; oil, 8, soap, 6-J, butter 8 piastres per oke; milk, 30
paras per rottolo ; grapes 50, apples, apricots, &c. 40 to 60 paras per
rottolo ; shoes, 15 to 22 piastres per pair ; wine, 3 piastres per oke ; ar­
rack, 7 piastres per oke. Shops rent for 100 to 1,000 piastres per an­
num ; houses, 100 to 5,000 piastres.
Of the exports of Aleppo, there is no possibility of getting a correct ac­
count, because they are made on Aleppo account from Tarsous, Latakia,
and Scanderoon, and much of the produce never enters Aleppo. The trade
between Aleppo and these places is carried on by natives chiefly, who
purchase from importers, sell the goods to the producers against the com­
ing crops of silk, cotton, wool, &c. ; and, receiving payment in these arti­
cles, resell them to the importers, for shipment at the nearest port.
The products of Syria, and those brought into Syria from the interior,
exported on Aleppo account, are:— Cotton, grown on the plains of Tarsous
and Adana, and in Caramania, and from Edlip, in all 2,650,000 lbs., for
the three years 1835, 6, 7 : 1,400 cantars of this were shipped to Britain,
11,200 to Marseilles, and 3,000 to Greece. More is sent to France than
elsewhere, because it is there made use of for wicking, being too seedy and
short, for English use. Average price, 1,000 piastres per can tar; aver­
age export 27,000 cantars.— Silk, raised at Antioch, 9,000,000 drams,
three fourths of which goes to Marseilles and Leghorn, none to Britain, and
the rest is consumed in the country ; average price, 400 piastres per 1,000
drams, average exports 6,750,000 drams. Of Amasia silk, from Tocat,
there came in 1830 to 1837, respectively, 180, 165, 190, 60, 80, 12, 40,
60 bales, each containing 25,000 dram s: giving an annual importation of
2,487,500 drams, averaging 450 piastres per 1,000 drams; of this, one
third was shipped, and two thirds are retained for use in the city.— Wool,
from Tarsous and Adana, 1,500 cantars ; from Aleppo, and the Arabs, 850
cantars ; 200 cantars were shipped to England, and the rest, except 600
for home consumption, is sent to Marseilles and Leghorn; average price
(for 1835, 6, and 7) 600 piastres per cantar ; average export 1,750 can­
tars.— Galls, from Killis 150, Merdin and Diarbekir 500, Mosul and Bag­
dad 700, in all 1,350 cantars; average price for 1835, 6, 7, 1,700 pias­
tres per can tar; average exports, 1,050 cantars.
Not a fifteenth part of the imports from England are paid in exports:
but about 20,000,000 piastres per annum, in old Turkish coins, were ex­
ported in 1836 and ’37. Cotton is of too short staple, and too seedy, and
silk is reeled too long (8 feet in diameter) for English use ; but the quality
of the silk is 5 to 10 per cent better than the Persian : but sometimes a
considerable part of the exports to Leghorn and Marseilles are for account
of the importers of British goods. Wool is adapted to British manufac­
tures, but its price has been too high for shipment. Galls, alone, are sent
in any considerable quantity to Britain, and these not produced in Syria.
It is therefore highly important to foreign trade that the products of Syria
should be increased, as the supply of old coin is daily becoming shorter,
and must soon be exhausted. The country is capable of producing ten­
fold its present produce, but its increase requires better communications,
better security of property, in fine, a better government; and thus the
riches of the people being increased, the benefits would extend to all who
traded with them, as they would of course require more imports and pay




508

The Commerce o f Syria.

better for them : at present the Syrians are retrenching, leaving off their
ornaments, &c., and becoming discouraged in exertion.
Of the seaports of Syria, the chief are—Tarsous, with its port, Mersin, Scanderoon, or Alexandretta, Latakia, Tripoli, and Beyroot, or
Beirut.
Tarsus (Tersoos) is on a river navigable for small boats, and within 12
miles of the sea. Its port or roadstead is Mersin, about four hours to the
westward, where the anchorage is perfectly safe all the year round, ac­
cording to the testimony of intelligent captains, who declare it preferable
to Scanderoon. The produce of the country consists principally in cotton,
wool, grain of all kinds, sesam, beeswax, old copper, goats’ hair, goat
skins, ox and buffalo skins, and hair sacks. The consumption of European
exports is small at present, but might be made considerable by attracting
towards Tarsus the commerce of the interior, which would offer on this
market the following valuable articles in any quantities, and take in re­
turn various sorts of European produce and m anufacture: galls, mad­
der roots, yellow berries, valonia, scammony, gum tragacanth, jalap, hareskins, and fox-skins, which might be more easily brought here than to
Smyrna, and at a cheaper rate, from the distance overland being less.
Adana is situated to the northeast of Tarsus, about six hours further
inland, and has 20,000 inhabitants. Its means of maintaining an active
commerce are still greater than those of Tarsus, and its produce of the
same kind, but in greater abundance. This most flourishing portion of
the Ottoman empire, where the people are not so debased as in Syria, of­
fers a great promise of the finest opening for European trade, provided
sufficient encouragement be given to the inhabitants of the interior to bring
their goods to the Tarsus market, which port would soon rival Smyrna.
Adana offers, as it is, a great field for speculations of every kind.
Latakia is a very indifferent port, small, with a dangerous entrance, and
it contains about 10,000 inhabitants, and receives some thirty or forty
European vessels annually, in the following proportion: 8 or 10 French,
8 or 10 Sardinian, 5 or 6 Austrian, and 3 or 4 English. There are four
European establishments, chiefly acting as agents for the merchants of
Aleppo. It produces oil, grain, and much tobacco. Its port is unsafe
except in the summer months, and so incumbered with falling ruins that
not more than two or three vessels at a time can anchor in it.
The port of Tripoli is very small—in fact cannot be considered a har­
bor for vessels of a moderate tonnage. The anchorage is a roadstead
which can only be made use of in the summer, but which is very danger­
ous in the winter, and particularly at the equinoxes. Tripoli has 15,000
inhabitants. There arrived here in 1835, 6 and 7—British vessels, none ;
French, 27 ; Sardinian, 2 ; Tuscan, 5 ; Greek, 12 ; Arab, 53.
The bay of Akka, or St. Jean d’Acre is large, but much exposed. It
is frequented by French, Italian, and Austrian vessels. The British sel­
dom go there. There is anchorage under the southernmost point, which
affords a little protection. The harbors of Jaffa, (Joppa,) Tour, (Soor or
Tyre,) and Sayda, (Sidon,) which existed in ancient times, are now all
choked up, and offer no security to shipping. The destruction and aban­
donment of so many of the most distinguished ports of Syria is one of the
most melancholy examples of commercial vicissitudes. Not to speak of
Tyre and Sidon, whose ruins lie on an open and unprotected shore, where
scarcely a fisherman’s skiff can roll in safety, even such ports as Tripoli




t

The Commerce o f Syria.

509

and Latakia have ceased to be much frequented. Beirut and Scanderoon
are now the two principal harbors of export and import.
Beirut (the ancient Berytus, and perhaps Berothai of Scripture) is the
most flourishing port in Syria, and though in 1840 its fortifications and
much of the town were destroyed, it will soon recover. One obvious evi­
dence of prosperity was to be seen in the greatly increased value of houses
and warehouse room. In four years from 1835, rental had doubled. In
fact, of all the ports of Syria, it has received the most attention. It can­
not be considered a healthy position, as, like all the low district between
the range of Lebanon and the Mediterranean, it is much exposed to per­
nicious miasmatic influences; and fevers and agues are complaints to
which the inhabitants are much subjected. Yet it is far more healthy
than Scanderoon, and considered, indeed, the healthiest town on the coast;
its population was gradually increasing, and its neighborhood is rapidly
improving in cultivation and fertility. The port is much frequented, but
it is, more strictly speaking, a dangerous roadstead ; in the winter vessels
anchor at the mouth of the river Nahr el-Kelb, (the ancient Lycus.) Still
they are exposed, and frequently the northerly gales do much mischief to
the shipping. This port supplies Damascus, Lebanon, and Palestine ; it
has 12,000 inhabitants.
There arrived at Beirut, in 1835, 13 British vessels, 4 Maltese, 9
Ionian, 124 Egyptian, 26 French, 20 Austrian, 10 Russian, 31 Sardinian,
and 104 Greek. In 1836, respectively, 13, 6, 3, 134, 36, 19, 3, 34, 108,
of each of these nations. In 1837, 13, 2, 1, 340, 49, 9, 2, 8, 48, of each,
respectively. In all in 1835, 341 of 21,247 tons, with cargoes whose in­
voice value was, for the French, Sardinian, and Greek, 125,449 pounds
sterling; 210 left the port, with cargoes (of the Egyptian, Sardinian, and
Greek) worth £134,976. In 1836, 356 arrived, of 44,251 tons, and 342
departed ; in 1837, 472 arrived and departed. The commerce of Beirut
and Damascus chiefly depend on that of Bagdad, so that the free navigation
of the Euphrates by steam would greatly increase it. The British car­
goes were, in 1835, hales of cambric, 65 ; cotton twist, 967 ; calico, 151 ;
long-cloths, 229 ; imitation Italian shawls, 130 ; prints, 82 ; muslin, 230 ;
shirting, 45 ; madapolans, 327; handkerchiefs, 81 ; small shawls, 23;
cloth, 1 bale ; Indigo, 54 cases. The export cargoes were made up of
inferior silk, 20 bales ; cotton, 160 ; sheep’s wool, 10 ; sheep skins, 15 ;
goat skins, 2,230; hare skins, 1; hides, 862; carpets, 1 bale; madder
roots, 75 barrels; gum tragacanth, 4 5 ; gum caliline, 1; galls, 279;
oil, 4 ; tobacco, 8 ; sponges, 8 barrels ; soap, 37 cases ; fruit, 12 cases;
clay, 221 barrels.
In 1836, British vessels brought 675 bales of cotton twist, 429 of mada­
polans, 160 of muslin, 128 of cambric, 493 of calico, 121 of handkerchiefs,
240 of imitation shaws, 372 of prints, 11 of nankeens, 7 of cochineal, 3 of
cloth, 86 cases of indigo, 63 barrels of sugar, 447 bags of rice, 81 barrels
of earthenware. And they carried away 2 bales of inferior silk, 224 of
wool, 156 of madder roots, 5 of tobacco, 12 of saffron, 2 cases of gum, 40
of coloquintida, 35 of figs, 1 sack aniseed, 12,000 killows sesame, and 66
sacks of galls.
In 1837, British vessels brought goods conjectured to be of the invoice
value of 312,000 pounds sterling; viz. 32,752 bundles of cotton twist,
14,672 pieces of calico, 840 of cambric, 1,886 imitation shawls, 25,049
pieces of muslin, 40,416 handkerchiefs, 15,601 pieces of prints, 925 of




510

The Commerce o f Syria.

nankeen, 100 of cloth, 2,700 bundles of false pearls, 178 sacks of rice,
13 casks of salt, 14 cases of locks, 6 cases of hardware. These vessels
took away 38,460 pounds of aniseed, 55 cases of coloquintida, 32 sacks
of galls, and 15 cases of gum.
Of silk, there was exported from Beirut, in the four years, from 1833
to 1836, inclusive, to France, 1,968 bales, valued at 3,505,134 francs,
counting 4 piastres to the franc ; to Egypt, 2,112 bales, value 3,686,205
francs; to England, 47 bales, 93,220 francs ; to Greece, 2 bales, value
4,000 francs ; to Tuscany, 596 bales, value 1,054,352 francs; to Turkey,
41 bales, value 67,350 francs; to Austria, 45 bales, value 83,272 francs ;
total in four years, 4,811 bales, weighing from 195 to 210 pounds each.
None but a few bales of waste, has been sent to England since 1834.
About 1,650,000 pounds of silk are produced annually.
The fluctuations and clipping of the currency are much complained of,
also the abuse of consular protections to shield debtors.
Scanderoon is to become the chief port of Aleppo, and if the Euphrates
navigation succeeds, the chief port of transit for Syria. It has been thought
that the Orontes river (el-Aasy) might be used, but it is found that “ the
rapidity of the stream in many parts of its course, its sudden and numer­
ous wanderings, its frequent shallows, its various bridges, and the many
changes to which it is subjected in the vicissitudes of the seasons, appear
to be insuperable obstacles to any plan for making the river navigable, or
for using it to any considerable extent for trading purposes, and must alto­
gether thwart any project for employing it as a means of easier communi­
cation with the Euphrates. In fact, the Orontes is scarcely available at
all, even for small craft; and to reach Antioch in a steamer, though Anti­
och is at so short a distance from the Mediterranean, would be a work of
consummate difficulty, and when accomplished, by no means worthy of
the trouble and expense incurred.”
Scanderoon is the only port entitled to the nam e; it is an extensive
natural harbor, and safe for any number of vessels of any size, but it is
unimproved by a r t ; nothing has been done in the erection of wharves or
quays to aid in the landing or shipping of goods. The number of English
vessels that visit it is much increased of late. In 1837 they amounted to
eighteen ; ten or twelve French, and a few Sardinian and Austrian vessels
frequent it. The place produces but little grain, but its chief produce is
in firewood, and wood for building, monopolized by Ibrahim’s government,
who obtained yearly from 12,000 to 15,000 trees of first quality, thirty
feet long by two square, which were shipped off for the use of the Alex­
andria arsenal; there is an inexhaustible supply in the forests of the ad­
joining mountains of Arsus, the ancient Mons Rhossus.
The climate, which, from the miasmata of neighboring swamps, con­
fined to the neighborhood by close mountains, was very unhealthy, has
been much improved of late, by the drying up of the surrounding marshes,
effected by a canal being cut to the sea at the expense of the Egyptian
government. The plain is exceedingly fertile, and the soil, being free
from stones, is easily worked.
This port is the gate of all northern Syria, and eventually, perhaps, is
to be the point of communication between Europe and Asia. In 1837, it
imported from Britain alone, goods to the amount of 165,177 pounds ster­
ling. The great drawback, however, to its commerce, as to that of the
rest of the country, is the want of returns. Many of these might, too, be




The Iron Trade o f the United States.

511

more available, besides being vastly increased, if the communication to
Aleppo, the Euphrates, Bagdad, &c., could be improved ; but at present
the roads are, in unfavorable weather, in a deplorable state. The road
to Aleppo goes through the town and pass of Birlan. The carriage of
goods by camels may be estimated at three to four pounds for every 100
miles per ton English, each camel carrying about a quarter of a ton, at
the rate of about ten miles per day. Ten bags of galls weigh on an aver­
age a ton. The importations for the immediate consumption of Scanderoon and its neighborhood, are annually about 1,500 to 1,950 bushels of
wheat, and half as much barley ; 200 baskets (40,000 lbs.) of rice, 50 to
60 of which it consumes; 50 tons of s a lt; both rice and salt are from
Damietta. The only staple article of export of the district is dips, dibs, or
beshmet, made from grapes into a consistence resembling honey; its
mountains produce 350 to 400 cantars per annum, of which 200 to 250
are exported to Tarsus and Caramania. It is much eaten, and sells at
350 to 400 piastres for 504 pounds. Ibrahim felled some 40,000 trees
here in 1835 for ship-building; they are generally a mountain pine, very
tough and close grained, with a few oaks of rather an inferior quality, but
closer grained than the American, appearing fit for very good staves, ex­
cepting perhaps for oil casks. Eight to ten cantars of silk are yearly
produced.
There arrived at Scanderoon, of British vessels, in 1835, 11, in 1836,
14, in 1837, 13 ; of French, in these years respectively, 9, 2, 7 ; of Aus­
tria, 1, 0, 1 ; of Sardinian, 7, 0, 2 ; of Greek, 2 in 1835; of Tuscan, 1
in 1837. In the three ports of Scanderoon, Latakia, and Tripoli, there
arrived in 1835, 6, and 7, respectively, British, 14, 16, 13 ; French, 27,
28, 25 ; Austrian, 6, 5, 3 ; Sardinian, 17, 9, 6 ; Tuscan, 5, 9, 6 ; Greek,
12, 73, 5 ; Arab, 84, 162, 76 ; Egyptian, 0, 16, 10; divers, 0, 8, 0 ;
Ottoman, 0, 0, 3 ; in all in 1835, 165, of 17,593J tons ; in 1836, 324,
of 32,166 tons; in 1837, 147, of 17,604 tons.

•

Art. II.—T H E IRON TRADE OF T H E UNITED STATES.
T here is no substance of greater importance to the several branches of
human enterprise than that of iron. From its ductility and strength it is
used with great advantage in almost every department of agriculture,
manufactures, commerce, and the mechanic arts, and without it they could
not advance with any considerable degree of success. In agriculture, we
behold it in the axe clearing the forest, and in the plough turning over
the soil, through the successive steps of husbandry, down to the reaping
of the harvest and the bolting of the grain ; it forms the machinery of al­
most every branch of manufacture, and the implements of almost all the
trades; it comprises the nails, anchors, and chains of the rigged vessel,
and the engine of the steamship, the weapons of war and the instruments
of peace, the harpoon and the needle, the spear and the pruning-hook, the
water-pipe and the hair-spring of the watch, the sword and the harrow;
and indeed we can scarcely enter upon any department of modern mer­




512

The Iron Trade o f the United States.

cantile and mechanical effort, in which we do not find the material of iron
constituting one of its most valuable staples. From the intrinsic impor­
tance of the subject therefore, as well as the prominent position which its
production and manufacture sustain, as a national enterprise and the
source of national wealth, we propose to trace the progress of the iron
trade in our own country.
In sketching the advance of the American iron trade, it will be necessary
to go back to the condition of this enterprise in the nation while it constitu­
ted the colonies of England. It can scarcely be supposed that this metal
was yielded to any very great extent during our colonial dependence, for
the mines which are now known to prevail here so extensively, had not
been developed, nor could the labor of the people at that early period have
been employed with any great advantage upon this staple. But notwith­
standing those obvious facts, it appears that the crown of England regard­
ed the probable progress of this species of our enterprise with no little fear,
by the enactments that were from time to time passed in order to prevent
its production and export.
Going back to the earliest production of iron in our country, it appears
that this metal was first produced in the province of Virginia during the
year 1715, and the sister colonies of Maryland and Pennsylvania soon
emulated the energy of the ancient dominion, in directing their attention to
the production of the same metal. The development of this new source
of wealth was naturally regarded with considerable interest by the colonial
settlers, and the satisfaction with which its production was viewed abroad,
may be learned from a writer of that day, who declares “ that they have
iron-stone all along the continent, from the southernmost part of Carolina
to the northernmost part of New England, in great plenty, and no part of
the world abounds more with prodigious quantities of wood, nor with more
rivers and streams;”* and he adds, moreover— “ Had we a full supply of
it from our plantations, we might not only ballast our ships with it, but
export great quantities to those countries, and even to Africa and India.”
This view of the colonial trade in iron was, however, regarded in a very
different light by the proprietors of British iron w'orks, who viewed them
with jealousy, as the formidable rival of their own establishments, and
opposed all those measures that were calculated to favor the production
of iron in the colonies of America. Two years afterward, namely, in
1719, a bill was introduced into parliament, one of the most prominent
features of which was, that “ none of the plantations should manufacture
iron wares of any kinds out of any sows, pigs, or bars whatsoever,
under certain penalties ;”f and to this another clause was added by
the house of peers, establishing that “ no forge, going by water, or other
work whatsoever, should be erected in any of the plantations, for making
sows, pigs, or cast-iron into bar or rod iron.” The necessary consequence
of this iron 'policy must have been to drive away every forge from the
infant colonies of the country, and to blow out the fire and manacle the
hands of every smith, by prohibiting him from making a bolt, a spike, or
a nail. It is clearly ascertained that much controversy existed during the
period of 1737, upon the propriety of the exportation of iron from the
British American colonies to the parent country, and on that question
there sprang up two powerful and opposing parties.
* See Scrivenor’s History of the Iron Trade, page 69.




+ Ibid.

The Iron Trade o f the United States.

513

These parties were composed of the merchants on the one side, who
were, as a body, favorable to the importation of iron, as well as hemp, from
the colonies, upon the ground that they were two articles of very great
importance to the navy and mercantile shipping of the British empire; and
that class presented to parliament very urgent petitions for this object. The
opponents of the petitions of the merchants were, as might have been ex­
pected, the proprietors of the English iron works, and the owners of Eng­
lish woodlands, the two classes the most directly interested in the pro­
duction of iron in England. It was maintained by the merchants that,
inasmuch as the importation of iron into England was of great amount,
and introduced from Sweden and Russia, the principal part being paid for
in money, and since the iron of the British colonies was equal in quality
to the foreign iron, good policy should warrant the importation into Eng­
land of American iron, as the price could be paid in British manufactures
required in the colonies ; and, moreover, from the enhanced price of cord
wood, in consequence of the amount required in refining iron stone, the
importation of more pig-iron from America would enable them to make
more bar-iron in England. It was also maintained that the most direct
mode of preventing the manufactures of the American colonies from in­
terfering with those of England, was the granting to us encouragement
to produce rough materials like that of the coarser species of iron. It was
proposed that, in order to further the policy last named, an additional duty
should be laid on all foreign bar-iron imported, and to repeal those which
existed on the importation of iron from the American colonies. The policy
of the merchants at length prevailed, and in the year 1750, an act was
passed, a prominent clause of which was, “ that pig-iron made in the
British colonies in America, may be imported duty free, and bar-iron into
the port of London ; no bar-iron so imported to be carried coast-wise, or
to be landed at any other port, except for the use of his majesty’s dock­
yards, and not to be carried beyond ten miles from London.” A clause
was however inserted in the same bill, prohibiting the manufacture of
iron in the colonies. A long series of petitions and remonstrances soon
sprung from this legislation, on the part of the merchants, as also the
proprietors of the woodlands and the iron foundries ; the one side claim­
ing that the tendency of that measure would be a very great injury to the
interests of the producers of this article, and to that of the kingdom, and
the other advocating the probable existence of directly opposite conse­
quences. The result of these several petitions and remonstrances, was a
report to the house of commons, of a committee that was appointed to
prepare a bill, maintaining that the importation of bar-iron from the British
colonies in America, into the port of London, should be extended to all
the other ports of Great Britain, and that so much of that act as related
to this cause, should be repealed; which was done in a subsequent act of
1765, permitting the American colonies to export their iron also to Ire­
land. Such were the prominent features of the legislation of the British
government respecting the colonial iron trade. The occurrence of the
revolution, in 1775, severed our colonial dependence upon the mother
country, and forever terminated the legislation of the crown over the
colonial products.
The system of measures for the firm establishment of the domestic in­
terests of the country, springing from the organization of the government,
and the erection of a solid and architectural plan of national policy, at the
VOL. vi.— no. vi.




52

514

The Iron Trade o f the United States.

termination of the war of the revolution, was felt in its influence upon the
iron trade, as well as the other mercantile interests of the nation, and it
continued gradually to progress until the close of our last war (of 1812)
with Great Britain. While that war was pending, an extraordinary im­
pulse was given to the production of iron, as well as other branches of
domestic industry, cut off as we then were from the ocean, that had be­
fore been a most fruitful field of our enterprise, and a large amount of
capital which had been scattered upon other adventures, was directed to
this valuable staple ; workshops, mills, and machinery sprang up, and
foreign artisans were encouraged to settle in various parts of the country.
As early as 1809 indeed, the secretary of the treasury had, in an able
report, portrayed in a fitting manner the inexhaustible resources of the
nation; and during the following year, (1810,) in a report from the same
source, upon the subject of manufactures, that functionary specifies the
article of iron, and the manufactures of iron, as firmly established in all
the states, constituting an important portion of the consumption of the
United States. According to the returns of the marshals, the quantity of
bar-iron produced at that time, was twenty-four thousand four hundred
and seventy-one tons, which were then valued at two million six hundred
and forty thousand seven hundred and seventy-eight dollars; of which
quantity, ten thousand nine hundred and sixty-nine tons were yielded in
the single state of Pennsylvania.* The ores of iron having been at that
period discovered in most of the states of the Union, and mines being then
worked in the states of New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecti­
cut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina.
The state of Massachusetts had at that time an extensive establishment
for the manufacture of arms, New Hampshire iron works sufficient for
the consumption of the state, and Vermont possessed forges, furnaces, and
slitting-mills which yielded many tons of bar-iron. In Rhode Island there
had been early established a slitting-mill, three anchor forges, and ma­
chines for cutting nails; while the state of New York possessed many
forges, furnaces, and bloomeries; Connecticut contributed its hollow iron
ware, nails, tinned plates, and iron wire, and its modicum of fire-arms;
and New Jersey its bar-iron and nail-rods, hollow ware and castings.
Pennsylvania also exhibited extensive manufactures of iron, slitting-mills
and foundries, and its manufacture of steam engines; and Delaware,
Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina,
and South Carolina had already begun to lay the foundation of extensive
iron manufactures.
On the third of July, 1815, a commercial treaty was entered into be­
tween Great Britain and the United States, establishing for both a recipro­
cal freedom of commerce for the period of four years. By this act no
higher duties were to be imposed upon articles exported and imported than
those demanded of other nations, and the same duties as well as bounties
were affixed to those vessels in which they were transported. An amend­
ment was however made in our own tariff during the year 1818, and sub­
sequently in 1824, and also in 1828 there was a still more important
alteration made, particularly affecting the importation of British iron.
Prior to the establishment of the tariff of 1828 however, a committee
was appointed by congress to examine and to exhibit the facts connected




* See Pitkin’s Statistics of the United States.

The Iron Trade o f the United States.

515

with our domestic manufactures, and particular evidence was adduced
upon the subject of iron. From the testimony of the respectable individ­
uals who were interrogated upon the condition of the iron manufacture in
the state of Pennsylvania, it appears that according to their estimate, there
were at that time manufactured in that state twenty-one thousand and eight
hundred tons of bar-iron, and forty-seven thousand and seventy-five tons
of cast metal, of which thirty-seven thousand and two hundred tons were
used in making bar-iron, and fourteen thousand three hundred and sixtyfive tons of castings,—one hundred tons of iron being converted into nails.
It was also stated, that at that time there were three thousand tons of bariron manufactured in the neighborhood of Lake Champlain. It was
moreover alleged from the same sources, that in the state of New York
there were, within a circle of thirty miles in diameter, eighty-one forge
fires in use, each forge having two fires and one hammer ; that the capi­
tal invested in one hundred and ten forge fires in operation, was one mil­
lion two hundred and ten thousand dollars, each fire capable of producing
from twenty-five to thirty-five tons per annum, employing five thousand
seven hundred and twenty hands; and that in the counties of Morris,
Bergen, and Sussex, in New Jersey, there were manufactured two thousand
and fifty tons. Such was the substance of the evidence elicited by the
official investigation of 1828, and resulting in the augmentation of the
protective duties of the country.
Two years afterward, namely, in 1830, a report was made to the
House of Representatives against the expediency of altering the tariff;
and on the 8th of February, of the same year, Mr. Cambreleng, the chair­
man of the committee on commerce and navigation, submitted to the house
of representatives a very able and eloquent report, in which he advocated
a substantial modification of the existing tariff law, claiming that the
revenue system of the United States abounded in a tissue of absurdities,
and should be amended. Mr. Cambreleng, at that time the organ of the
most influential commercial emporium of the United States, followed up his
report by a bill to amend the navigation laws of the country, which
was twice read ; but the party of the tariff arrayed themselves against
the chamber of commerce, and the memorialists at length prevailed and
defeated the bill.
During the next session of congress, the attention of the national legis­
lature was called by the message of the president to the revenue system
of the country, and he declares in that document, “ objects of national
importance alone ought to be protected ; of these, the productions of our
soil, our mines, and our workshops, essential to national defence, occupy
the first rank. Whatever other species of domestic industry having the
importance to which I have referred, may be expected after temporary
protection to compete with foreign labor on equal terms, merit the same
attention in a subordinate degree.”* Although the two parties, which had
before been violently opposed upon the question of revising the tariff, still
existed, the report of the majority of the committee on manufactures op­
posed any modification of the existing revenue laws, upon the ground that
their consequences had not been fully tested, and the minority of the com­
mittee presented a counter report upon the same subject. About the same
time a petition of the iron manufacturers of Philadelphia was presented
* Message of President Jackson, December, 1830.




516

The Iron Trade o f the United States.

to the senate and house of representatives, praying—1st. That all the
existing duties on pig-iron, scraps, boiler plates, and all other iron in loops,
slabs, blooms, or any other state but manufactured and bar-iron, be abol­
ished or repealed, and the importation on the same be admitted free of
duty. 2d. That all bar-iron manufactured by hammering, be admitted
subject to the duty of April 27, 1816, on its importation, to wit, at the
rate of 45 cents per cwt. 3d. That all descriptions of iron manufactured
by rolling, including bar, bolt, rod, sheet, and hoop, of every size and
quality, be admitted subject to a duty not exceeding that now imposed on
the importation of hardware, namely, 25 per cent. 4th. That wire of
iron or steel, of all sizes and numbers, be admitted subject to the same
duty as the manufactures of wire now are on their importation, namely,
25 per cent. 5th. That the duty now imposed on railroad iron, when
purchased in the United States, be remitted, or a drawback of the existing
duty be allowed thereon, on all sums exceeding 50 dollars. And lastly,
that the existing duties on steel be abolished or repealed, and the importa­
tion of the same admitted free of duty.” Opposed to the advocates of a
change of the tariff, a delegation from several states of the Union, entitled
the friends of domestic industry, assembled in convention at New York,
maintaining in their address to the people of the country, the right of Con­
gress to impose duties for protection of domestic manufactures as well as
for revenue. A committee consisting moreover of members from Ver­
mont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, and Maryland, were appointed to draft a report upon the
production and manufacture of iron and steel in the United States, a docu­
ment which contained much valuable matter, collected with great care.
The subjoined tables exhibit the result of their investigations upon the
subject.

Pennsylvania...
New Jersey....
M aryland........
Virginia...........
Ohio..................
Delaware.........
Missouri..........

No. Tons. Tons.
44 24,822 3,693
11
1,733 6,264
5
483
2,247
2
50
400
—

—

1
—

63

450
—

—

350
—

29,652 10,840

No.
44
11
5
2

Tons. Tons.
27,425 4,564
1,941 5,998
1,715 1,065
702
72
—

—

1
—

63

450
—

—

350
—

32,233 12,049

No.
45
10
6

C astings.

P ig -iro n .

F urn a ces.

1830.
C a stin g s. \

F u rn a ces.

C astin g s.

P ig .ir o n .

| F urn a ces.

S tates.

P ig -iro n .

1829.

1828.

2

Tons. Tons.
31056 5,506
1671 5,615
3,163 1,259
538
43
5,400
250
450
350
590
250

73

42,868 13,273

2

7
1

“ One furnace, erected in Pennsylvania in 1830, will, in 1831, make 1,100
tons of pig-iron.
In addition to the seventy-three furnaces mentioned in the preceding
table, from which detailed returns had been received, the committee had
information of 129 furnaces, in the states of Pennsylvania, New York,
Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Tennessee, New Hampshire, Vir­
ginia, and Ohio, in actual operation, but from them had then received no
returns. Taking the production of the seventy-three furnaces, from which




517

The Iron Trade o f the United States.

returns have been received, as the rate for estimating the whole, and the
following would be the result:
Years.

Furnaces.

Fig-iron.

No.

Tons.

Castings.

Total.

Tons.

Tons.

192
90,368
33,036
123,404
98,234
192
1829
36,720
134,954
202
118,620
36,728
155,348
1830
But as the greater part of the furnaces, not included in the returns, are
situated in districts where but few castings are made, the committee have
not felt authorized to estimate the quantity of castings made at them at
more than about 5 per cent of their entire production, which would give
the following proportions and result:
1828

Years.

Furnaces.

Fig-iron.

Castings.

Total.

No.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

1828
192
108,564
14,840
123,404
192
118,404
16,549
1829
134,954
202
137,075
18,273
155,348
1830
From the best information the committee have been able to collect on this
subject, they estimate, that of the pig-iron made in these years, about
10,000 tons per annum have, upon an average, been converted in the
air furnaces and cupolas into castings, leaving to be manufactured into
bar-iron—
In 1828, of pig-iron, 98,564 tons, making of bars 70,403 tons.
1829
“
108,405
“
77,432 “
1830
“
127,075
“
90,768 “
And which quantities severally correspond with remarkable proportional
accuracy with the returns from 132 forges, which accompanied the returns
from the seventy-three furnaces first mentioned.
In East Jersey, in a part of Connecticut, in a large district of New
York, and in Vermont, bar-iron is extensively made by the process tech­
nically denominated “ blooming,” or by a single operation from the ore,
without the intervention of the blast-furnace.
The returns already received justify the committee in putting down
this description of bar-iron, for the year 1828, at 5,341 tons; 1829, 5,654
tons; 1830, 5,853 tons; of which 2,197 tons in East Jersey—making a
total of bar-iron for 1828, of 75,744 tons; 1829, 83,086 tons; 1830,
96,621 tons; and the entire quantity of iron, in its first stage, as shown
in the following table :
1829.
1828.
1830.
Description of iron.

Pig-iron
.
.
Castings from blast-fumaces .
Bloomed bar-iron, for the years
respectively, reduced to pigiron, at 28 cwt. to the ton of bars

Tons.

Tons.

108,564
14,840

Tons.

118,405
16,549

137,075
18,273

7,477

7,916

8,194

Total iron in pigs and castings, 130,881
142,870
163,542
Total increase of all kinds of iron in two years very nearly 25 per
cent.
For the purpose of determining the value of the above iron, the com­
mittee have taken the average prices of the principal sea-ports, and those
52*




518

The Iron Trade o f the United States.

of Pittsburgh and Cincinnati, and have estimated that two thirds of the
bar-iron made in the United States is sold in the western markets. The
proportion may be greater, which would increase the entire value.
In 1828 the average price of American hammered iron in the principal
cities east of the Susquehannah was 105 dollars, and at Pittsburgh and
Cincinnati 125 dollars; the average estimated as above would be 1181.
In 1829 the prices were 100 and 122—giving an average of 1 1 4 |; and
in 1830, 90 and 100 dollars—average 9 6 |. Castings from the blast
furnaces are valued at 60 dollars, although many sell higher; and from
the air furnace and cupola at 4 i cents per lb., which is certainly not above
the average rate.
At these prices the aggregate value of the iron made in—
1828 would be
.
.
.
.
$10,861,440
......................................
11,528,134
1829
“
1830
“
.......................................
11,444,410
Increase in market value in two years, less; than 5) per cent; decrease in
value from 1829 to 1830, nearly three fourths of one per cent.”
As the manufacture of steel is intimately connected with that of iron,
it may be important to state that the report on that subject, made at the
same time, exhibits the number of steel furnaces then existing in the Uni­
ted States, to have been fourteen, and established in the following places,
namely, two at Pittsburgh, one in Baltimore, in Philadelphia three, in
New York three, in York county, Pennsylvania, one, in Troy one, in
New Jersey two, and in Boston one, all capable of producing annually
sixteen hundred tons. The committee in their report go on to say : But
it should be observed, that steel, for common agricultural purposes, is not
the best, although it is most used, and that American is quite equal to
English steel, used for such purposes in England. American competition
has excluded the British common blister-steel altogether. The price of
blister-steel is less than it was before 1828, and probably as low as it ever
will be—certainly as low as it ought to be, having a just consideration for
the manufacturer and his customer. The only steel now imported from
Great Britain is of a different and better quality than that just mentioned.
It has been the laudable pride of American legislation to advance with the
increasing enterprise of the people, and to encourage discoveries of those
mineral treasures, towards which that enterprise might be profitably di­
rected. The committee having shown the result of such countenance
from government, in the instance of common blister-steel, may be allowed
to anticipate the effects of its continuance, and that protection will be here­
after acknowledged as the parent of perfection.
Steel imported here, from all parts of the world, except England, (al­
though the German steel is freely employed in some branches of manu­
factures,) amounts to so considerable a quantity, that the competition for
ascendancy in our own market must rest between that nation and this.
We already supply ourselves, to her exclusion, with common steel; and,
to give some idea how extensively it affects our manufactories, the com­
mittee will state two or three striking facts. The iron of this country,
when properly made, has been found equal in quality to Russian and
Swedish iron used in England for conversion into steel, and, being so
converted, is employed in making large and rough implements of manu­
facture and agriculture. It is used in the fabrication of ploughshares, it
is worked up by shovel-makers, among whom one in Philadelphia uses




The Iron Trade o f the United Slates.

519

more than fifty tons a year. Scythe-makers are among the best customers
of a steel furnace, and cross-cut and mill saw-makers use more than any
other manufacturers. One factory of this kind, in Philadelphia, requires
a ton and a half of steel per diem, for every working day of the year.
These isolated instances may give some idea of the vast comsumption of
steel in the numerous factories of the United States, and for this purpose
alone they are stated.
The English, however, continue to supply us with the superior qualities.
These are—
1. Blister-steel, from iron of the Danamora mines, in Sweden.
2. Sheer-steel, of the same origin.
3. Cast-steel.
As to the first, being the best quality of blister-steel, a house in Hull
monopolizes all the iron made from Danamora ore, under a contract, by
which the parties in Sweden are to forfeit £10,000 sterling if they sell to
anybody else, so that no other European country can furnish a good file,
without resorting to England for the steel that is made of Danamora iron,
this excelling all others in Europe for files, and many other instruments.
The British manufacturers, aware of the advantages of their monopoly,
continue to exact the same price for their steel delivered in America that
they did before the duty on the Swedish iron was reduced in England,
from 28.88 to 6.66 dollars per ton—thus proving that an article whose
low duty approaches nearest to no duty, (almost “ free trade,” ) is charged
to this country at a rate no less than before the reduction of duty took place
in England.
It is, however, a cause for congratulation here, that iron of similar or
equal quality to that which has thrown all the advantages of manufactur­
ing the best articles of cutlery, into British hands, has been made recently,
by improved processes, from the ore of Juniata, and both sides of the line
between New York and Connecticut—the latter denominated the Ancrum,
the Livingston, and the Salisbury ore. Steel is now made at Pittsburgh,
and may be made in New York and Connecticut, bearing a fair compari­
son with the best hoop L (^iT) or Danamora steel that comes from Eng­
land. No difference is observed where trials have been made, without
disclosing to the judges the origin of either. Two establishments, one in
New York and another in Pittsburgh, have justified this statement, and
encouraged -a hope that the products of our own mines, smelted by means
of modern improvements in the construction of furnaces and application
of the blast, and elaborated by machinery lately introduced, will rival the
best quality of steel that England can furnish.
The second kind of first quality British steel is called “ sheer-steel.”
This is nothing more than blister-steel, drawn under a tilt-hammer into
bars of the various sizes used in the fabrication of some articles of cutlery,
and the finer kinds of edge tools. England has hitherto monopolized this
branch also, from being in possession of the only European steel that
would bear the expense of preparation, and from the perfection of her
machinery. She has now the honor of transferring a portion of her ex­
perience and skill to the United States. Her workmen in steel, wanting
employment or adequate recompense for labor at home, continually seek
these among us ; and it is believed that these may be afforded to such an
extent as to yield them support commensurate with their industry, and that




520

The Iron Trade o f the United States.

ingenious men, who, under other circumstances, might have been com­
pelled to pursuits not congenial with their education, or to be dependents
upon public bounty, will become useful citizens, instead of idlers and beg­
gars in the land.”
The third kind of steel (best quality) is called “ cast-steel,” and this is
made from the best blister-steel only. There is none made in the United
States. Several attempts to make it with profit have proved unfor­
tunate.
The causes of failure were—
1. The want of best quality blister-steel (of which only it can be made)
at a reasonable price.
2. The want, or expense, of crucibles of proper quality, wherein the
blister-steel is to be melted and smelted.
The first difficulty may be surmounted by the discovery that iron, well
made, from the ores of Juniata, New York, and Connecticut, may be con­
verted to the best blister-steel; and the second difficulty is believed to be
at an end, since the explorations of the present year have disclosed the
existence of clay analogous to that of Stourbridge, which is considered the
best in the world for crucibles. Centre, Clearfield, and Lycoming coun­
ties (Pennsylvania) have yielded large specimens of clay that satisfy
geologists, mineralogists, and chemists, of the identity of its properties with
those of Stourbridge. Clay, in the vicinity of Baltimore, has been suc­
cessfully employed in the manufacture of fire-brick, and may probably be
used for the manufacture of crucibles for cast-steel, if properly prepared.
The great impediment to the making of cast-steel has not arisen from any
mystery in the art, but the want of strength in the crucibles. Black lead,
and a variety of clays, have been tried, but the weakness of these materials
have hitherto caused a loss to the manufacturer, because the crucibles
made of them would not bear moving when the melted metal was in them
(generally about 28 lbs.) The Stourbridge was the only kind of clay that
possessed the requisite qualities of preserving its shape and soundness when
exposed to the greatest heat, and its strength and tenacity when moved for
the purpose of discharging the melted metal. Capital, enterprise and per­
severance will be engaged to bring this desirable material, so indispensa­
ble to the finer arts of cutlery and machinery into market, if protection
be continued to the efforts which our citizens are willing to make.
If these views are correct, we have steel for agricultural purposes in
the greatest abundance; we have steel (sheer-steel) for nicer purposes,
and we may have cast-steel for the most refined articles of manufacture
among ourselves. But this is not all; we may export our steel to Russia,
Prussia, and France, in competition with England herself; and thus justify
the further importation of foreign commodities which we can have the
means of paying for. The subject of steel becomes more interesting as
our investigation of it advances ; but it is believed that the facts and in­
ferences now set forth, will suffice to continue the protection already
granted, and to procure time for more extensive practical development,
which, if realized, will add to the means of domestic employment and
beneficial intercourse with foreign nations.
It is estimated that the average annual quantity of hammered iron that
was imported into the United States, from the year 1821 to 1830, was
about twenty-six thousand two hundred tons, besides five thousand six
hundred tons of rolled iron—in all thirty-one thousand eight hundred tons,




The Iron Trade o f the United States.

521

which were valued at one million seven hundred and sixty-two thousand
dollars. The total amount of hammered and rolled iron consumed in the
United States during the latter year, having been estimated at about one
hundred and forty-four thousand six hundred and sixty-six tons, the greater
part being our own domestic manufacture.
It was moreover estimated that the annual value of the foreign manu­
factures of iron consumed in our own country, from 1821 to 1830, was,
on an average, about four millions of dollars; and the total value of for­
eign iron and its manufactures, about five million seven hundred and sixtytwo thousand dollars—we receiving about one half of the hardware and
cutlery exported from Great Britain. The total amount of iron produced
in our own county, in 1830, and the connection of this species of industry
with agriculture, as well as the value of the several articles manufactured
from iron and steel, imported during the same year, exhibiting the pro­
portion of our production of iron to the imports from abroad, will appear
from the following tables, gathered from the report to which allusion has
been made.
GENERAL RECAPITULATION.

B y th e re p o r t.

Bar-iron made in the United States, tons...
Pig-iron, the whole quantity made being
computed as such......................................
Value...........................
dollars
Men employed................................ number
Persons subsisted............................ ........
Annual wages................................... dollars
Paid for food furnished by farmers ------

S u p p le m e n ta r y
R e tu r n s .

T o ta l.

96,621

16,245

112,866

163,543

27,994

191,536
13,329,760
29,254
146,273
8,776,420
4,000,490

24,979
124,895
7,493,700
3,415,850

The following statement may be useful in making comparisons, and is
therefore added:
The importation of manufactures of iron and steel in 1830, were:
Side-arms and fire-arms, other than muskets and rifles, Drs. 179,153
Drawing knives, axes, adzes, and socket chisels .
.
29,207
Bridle bits of every description
.
.
.
.
62,271
Steelyards, scale beams, and vices .
.
.
.
30,899
Cutting knives, sickles, scythes, reaping hooks, spades
and shovels
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
95,004
Screws, weighing 24 lbs. or upwards
. . .
17
Wood screws
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
66,817
Other articles not specified
.
.
.
.
.
2,908,978
M u s k e t s ................................................ No. 8,341
25,142
85
Rifles
.
.
.
.
.
.
8
59,485
Iron and steel wire
.
.
.
lbs. 592,733
2,799
Tacks, brads, and sprigs .
40,906
Nails
613,704
1,391
Spikes
37,873
25,885
Cables and chains,andparts thereof .
540,628
200
Mill cranks and milliron, wrought .
2,781
12,252
Mill s a w s .....................................
4,395
1,121
A n c h o r s .....................................
22,672




522

The Iron Trade o f the United States.

Anvils
lbs. 677,246 Drs. 31,249
Hammers and sledges
75,616
3,096
Castings
1,157,256
38,686
Braziers’ rods
218,428
5,945
Nails and spike rods
32,848
784
2,326,796
Sheets and hoop
59,822
Slit or rolled for band, scroll or casement rods .
2,845
81
In pigs
.
.
.
cwt. 22,499
25,644
Bar and bolt, rolled
138,981
226,336
Hammered
. lbs. 68,753,943
1,730,375
Steel
cwt. 24,472
291,957
Nearly all the iron, with its manufactures imported, was received from
England, except the hammered bar and bolt iron, of which 21,912,702
lbs. were from Russia, 45,206,082 lbs. from Norway and Sweden,
984,399 lbs. from England, leaving less than a million of pounds for all
other places.
The tariff regulating the import of iron remained in the same condition
until 1832, when the act was passed on the 14th of July of that year, pro­
viding a more fixed policy upon the subject, an act which brings us down
to the present period, and we now design to exhibit in a compendious form
the present condition of the iron production and trade in the United States.
The recent extraordinary extension of agriculture, manufactures, com­
merce, and the mechanic arts throughout the country, all demanding large
quantities of iron in their various forms, the multiplication of railroads,
requiring iron for their tracks, as well as that of steamboats, and manu­
facturing establishments of various sorts, working only by iron muscles,
the increased demand for this staple both for carriages of different kinds and
houses, agriculture and the trades, have all tended to augment vastly the
production and consumption of iron. Of the amount of this production
we are furnished as accurate information as could probably be obtained
by the last census for 1840, taken by act of congress. By this document
it appears that there were during that year, in the United States, eight
hundred and four furnaces, producing two hundred and eighty-six thou­
sand nine hundred and three tons of cast-iron, one quarter of which was
made into hollow ware, stove plates, plough castings, machinery, and such
forms, which, when so made, was worth eighty dollars per ton ; the val­
ue of the whole being
$5,738,080 00
The remaining 215,177 tons of pig-iron is converted into
wrought iron, and is merged in the 197,233 tons men­
tioned below.
According to the same authority, there are 795 bloomeries, forges, and rolling mills, which produce 197,233
tons of bar, rod, hoop, sheet, and other wrought iron,
which is worth in market $85 per ton,
16,764,805 00
According to the report of the secretary of the treasury
for 1840, there were 5,515 tons of pig-iron imported in
that year which was converted into forms at an aver­
age expense of $50 per ton, .
.
.
.
275,750 00
The whole value of iron made in the U. States, in 1840, $22,778,635 00




The Iron Trade o f the United States.

523

The labor bestowed on the manufacture of a ton of pigiron varies in different locations. It depends on the
convenience of contiguity to each other of the various
materials required. It will average, including mining,
coaling, hauling, transportation, and all other charges,
$20 per ton, which on 71,726 tons, as above men­
tioned, which are used for casting forms, .
$1,434,520 00
Labor bestowed in converting 71,726 tons of pig-iron
made in the United States, as per foregoing statement,
into cast forms, such as hollow ware, machinery, stove
plates, plough castings, and other articles of use made
of cast-iron, including labor in mining, and procuring
fuel and all other things necessary, will average at
2,151,780 00
least $30 per ton, .
.
.
.
.
.
.
Labor bestowed in converting 5,515 tons of pig-iron im­
ported in the United States, calculated as in the last
165,450 00
foregoing article, at $30 per ton,
.
.
.
.
Labor bestowed in making wrought iron, in procuring
the materials and consolidating them, varies even
more than in pig-iron, because the materials are more
numerous anti are liable to be further asunder, and
the description of iron is more diverse. If, however,
the mineral coal used is the product of the United
States, all the labor, including smelting, mining, coal­
ing, hauling, transportation, and all other incidental
and necessary charges for labor, will average at least
$60 per ton, which, on 197,233 tons, as set forth in
the census, amount to .
.
.
.
.
11,833,980 00
Whole expense of labor bestowed annually in making
iron in the United States
.
.
.
.
.
$15,585,730 00
According to the census, the number of men employed in
producing the above iron, including miners of iron, is
30,497. To this number may be added miners of coal
and limestone, wood choppers, and charcoal colliers,
carriers and carters, builders and millwrights, and
other incidental workmen, which will probably in­
crease it to 42,701; and, at this number, each work­
man will receive one dollar per day, which is believed
not far from the truth. It will be remembered that all
the rvork in manufacturing iron, and incidental there­
to, is heavy, and requires the strength and physical
power of m en; consequently women and children are
excluded from this employment, and most of the men
have large families. It may be assumed, without ex­
travagance, that, as an average, each man has a wo­
man and three children depending upon him for sup­
port. It is true that some have no families, but others
have a dozen children, enough to verify the above sup­
position. Allowing^jthis supposition, the whole num­
ber of persons sustained by the labor on and incidental
to the manufacture of iron, including men, women,




524

The Iron Trade o f the United States.

and children, is 213,505. Allowing each of these per­
sons to consume each day 1 2 | cents worth of agricul­
tural products, and the whole amount consumed in
365 days, is .
.
.
.
.
.
.
$9,741,166 00
According to the census, the capital employed in manu­
facturing the above iron is a little less than the amount
of the product, which is what might be inferred by
every man of practical experience, to wit
20,432,131 00
It is believed, from facts and data ascertained and admit­
ted, that there are in the United States about 450 blast
furnaces, and that the average yield of each is 772 tons
per annum, (this is the ascertained average of 73 fur­
naces,) making an aggregate of 347,400 tons, worth
in market $30 per ton .
.
.
.
.
.
10,422,000 00
It is believed that one fourth of this quantity (to wit,
86,850 tons) is converted into forms, such as hollow
ware, machinery, plough castings, stove plates, and
other articles of use made of cast-iron, and, when so
converted, is worth, on an average, in addition to the
worth of the pig-iron, $50 per ton .
.
.
.
4,342,500 00
In addition to the 86,850 tons above mentioned, there
was imported into the United States, according to the
report of the secretary of the treasury, for 1840, 5,515
tons of pig-iron, which was also converted into forms,
and was worth, when so converted, $50 per ton more
than pig-iron
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
275,750 00
There are 795 bloomeries, forges, and rolling mills, in
the United States.
The remaining three fourths of the 347,400 tons of pigiron made in the United States, as shown above, that
is not remelted and cast into forms, to wit, 260,550
tons,) is converted (allowing 20 per cent for waste)
into 208,440 tons of bar, rod, hoop, sheet, and other
wrought iron, by puddling and refining, which is
worth in market $85 per ton .
.
$17,717,400
From which deduct for 260,550 tons pigiron, reckoned in first item above at $30
per t o n .......................................
7,816,500
9,900,900 00
To the wrought iron mentioned in the foregoing article
may be added 11,774 tons of bloomed iron, worth in
market $70 per ton
.
.
.
.
.
.
824,180 00
Whole value of wrought and cast-iron in market, made
in the United States in 1840 .
.
.
.
.
$25,765,330 00
The labor bestowed on the manufacture of a ton of pigiron varies in different locations. It depends on the
convenience and contiguity to each other of the various
materials required. It will average, including ruling,
coaling, hauling, transportation to market, ana all
other charges, $20 per ton, which, on 347,400 tons,




The Iron Trade o f the United States.

525

$6,948,000 00
assumed as the manufacture of the United States, is
Labor bestowed in converting 86,850 tons of pig-iron,
made in the United States, as shown in foregoing state­
ment, into cast forms, such as hollow ware, machinery,
stove plates, plough castings, and other articles of use
made of cast-iron, including labor in mining and pro­
curing fuel, and all other things necessary, will aver­
age at least $30 per ton
.
.
.
.
.
2,605,500 00
Labor bestowed in converting 5,515 tons of pig-iron, im­
ported into the United States, calculated, as in the last
foregoing article, at $30 per ton
.
.
.
.
165,450 00
Labor bestowed in converting pig into wrought iron, in
procuring the materials and consolidating them, varies
even more than in making pig-iron, because the ma­
terials are liable to be further asunder, and the descrip­
tions of iron are more diverse. If, however, the min­
eral coal used is the product of the United States, all
the labor, including mining and procuring fuel, haul­
ing, transportation, and all other incidental and neces­
sary charges for labor, will average at least $40 per
ton, which, on 208,440 tons, as set forth above, amounts
to
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
8,337,600 00
Labor bestowed in blooming 11,774 tons of wrought iron,
including coaling, hauling, transporting to market,
and all the incidental and necessary charges, as set
forth in the foregoing article, will average $60 per ton
706,440 00
Whole amount paid for labor, annually, for the manufac­
ture of iron in the United States
.
.
.
.
$18,762,990 00
It is believed that the number of men employed in manu­
facturing the above iron, including miners of iron, of
coal, and of limestone, wood-choppers and charcoal
colliers, carriers and carters, builders and millwrights,
and other incidental workmen, is 51,405 ; this number
will each receive $365 per year. It will be remem­
bered that all the work in manufacturing iron, and in­
cidental thereto, is heavy, and requires the strength
and physical power of men ; consequently, women and
children are excluded from this employment, and most
of the men have large families. It may be assumed,
without extravagance, that, as an average, each man
has a woman and three children depending on him for
support. It is true that some have no families; but
others have a dozen children—enough to verify the
above assumption. Allowing this supposition, the
whole number of persons sustained by the labor on,
and incidental to, the manufacture of iron, including
men, women, and children, is 257,025. Allowing each
of these persons fo consume, each day, the worth of
12i cents of agricultural products, and the whole
VOL.

vi.—no. vi.




53

526

The Iron Trade o f the United States.

amount consumed in 365 days is .
.
.
. #11,726,766 00
This falls a little short of the facts actually ascertained
at several establishments, owing principally to grain
and forage fed to horses and cattle employed in the
business.
It is ascertained that the capital employed in the manu­
facture of iron at several establishments is a little less
than the amount of the annual product of those estab­
lishments ; and it is believed that this rule will hold
true throughout the country, if we exclude the value
of the large quantities of woodland held in connection
of many of the furnaces and bloomeries. The capital
employed will therefore amount, according to this rule,
to about
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
#22,500,000 00
The prices of iron, and its manufacture, for 1841 and 1842, are a sub­
ject of considerable interest to those who are engaged in the iron trade,
and we have an authentic statement upon this subject from Mr. Henry
Brevoort, who prepared it for a public purpose.
The report in which it is found has appended a large massof very valu­
able information at the present time, regarding the various manufactures
of the country, collected from the last census, from judicious calculations
based upon ascertained facts, and from experienced men, all having an
important bearing upon the subject of the tariff. Notwithstanding the
great amount of loose and idle thought which has been long afloat upon
the matter, it would seem that no sound and judicious legislation can be
established, but upon a thorough understanding of the character of the
different sorts of our productive industry, their relations to each other, and
their value, as they appear to be affected by the importations of the same
species of articles from abroad, and the direct consequences flowing from
any given policy respecting them, upon the labor and prosperity of the
country. The imagination of poetry may paint the most beautiful results
as springing from free trade or a protective tariff, but all considerate and
reflecting men will choose to look at a subject of legislation like this in the
clear light of sober fact and common sense. The vision of the enthusiast
which sees upon the evening clouds, tinged by the setting sun, the gor­
geous outline of heaven-lit palaces, and the drapery of another world
lighted up with radiant and golden hues, soon finds himself gazing upon
a dim, dark waste. There is doubtless a bright and splendid prospect
spread out for the labor of the country by the fixed and permanent estab­
lishment of our tariff policy, and there can be no doubt that the report will
contribute to that end. It is a subject, however, which would seem to
require investigation and reasoning from details, rather than in the abstract,
and it now appears to be passing through a judicious discussion that is cal­
culated to settle it upon a solid foundation. It would, after all, seem not
so important to the labor of the country that any precise measure of duty
should be affixed to the iron interest, like the other prominent subjects of
protection, as that the policy respecting it should be so arranged that our
own industry in its production and manufacture should seek out and flow
in a uniform channel. But we return to the subject of the prices of iron.




Q .— A t what prices were sales made in large quantities in Jan. and July o f 1840 and 1841 respectively, and in Jan. o f 1842 ?
A r tic le s .

Ja n u a ry,

1840.

J u ly ,

1840.

J a n u a ry ,

1841.

J u ly ,

1841.




J a n u a ry ,

6 a 11
$50 a
$75 a
$774
$80 a

1842

cts.
$55
$774
$824

$60
$45 a $55
4 £ a 54 cts.
$91 a $135
$18 a $22
6 a 11 cts.
10 a 11 cts.
5 a 5 | cts.
$90 a $1224
$87 a $113
$27 a $35
$94 a $120
4 a 5 cts.
5 cts.
14 a 20 cts.
18 a 30 cts.
$ 7 a $18
$ 6 a $11
$83 a $116
$83 a $116
6 a 7 cts.
6 a 9 cts.
10 a 20 cts.
6 a 20 cts.
64 a 94 cts.
10 a 254 cts.

MR. HENRY BREVOORT’S STA TEM EN T.

Iron Anvils,...............................................................................
7 a 12 cts
6 a 11 cts.
7 a 12 cts.
7 a 12 cts.
Bars, common English, rolled,..............................................
$75 a $ 77J $65 a $674 $70 a $724 $624 a $65
Bars, refined, English, rolled,................................................
$90 a $974 $874 a $90 $85 a $90
$80 a $824
Bars, American refined,...........................................................
$90
$85
$80
$874
Bars, Swedes, hammered,.......................................................
$90 a $924 $80 a $824 $85 a $874 $80 a $824
Bars, Old Sable, do..............................................................
About 15 dols. per ton more than Swedes iron.
Bars, bloomed, American, rolled,..........................................
$80
$65
$70
$60
Blooms,......................................................................................
$55 a $65
$50 or $60 $474 a $574 $45 a $55
Boiler Plates, without holes for rivets,.................................
5 a 6 4 cts.
5 4 a 7 cts.
5 a 6 4 cts.
4 | a 54 cts.
Hoops, from 4 to 3 inches wide,............................................
$116 a $167 $107 a $153 $91 a $135 $91 a $135
Kentledge,.................................................................................
$20 a $25
$20 a $25
$20 a 25
$18 a $22
Mill Cranks,.............................................................................
8 a 12 cts.
7 a 12 cts.
7 a 12 cts.
7 a 11 cts.
Nails, wrought,.........................................................................
11 a 12 cts.
11 a 12 cts.
11 a 12 cts.
11 a 12 cts.
Nails, cut,.................................................................................
5 a 5 4 cts.
5 a 53 cts.
5 a 54 cts.
5 a 54 cts.
Nail Rods, slit,.........................................................................
$105 a $125 $100 a $ 1 2 2 4 $100 a $ 1 2 2 4 $95 a $1224
Spike Rods, rolled, 4 and 4 inch,..........................................
$107 a $139 $98 a $128 $87 a $113 $87 a $113
Pigs, according to the relative proportion of each quality in market, per ton $33 a 374
$31 a $35
$30 a $35
$26 a $374
Round or Braziers’ Rods, of 3-16 to 8-16, inclusive,........
$114 a $148 $106 a $136 $94 a $120 $94 a $120
Sad or Flat,...............................................................................
4 £ a 54 cts.
4 a 5 cts.
44 a 54 cts. 4 a 5 cts.
5 | cts.
5 i cts.
5f cts.
Sheets, average thickness,......................................................
54 cts.
17 a 25 cts. 16 a 20 cts. 15 a 20 cts.
Screws, weighing 25 pounds and upwards,........................
18 a 25 cts.
Screws, not exceeding 25 pounds, not called wood screws ....... per pound 18 a 30 cts. 18 a 30 cts. 18 a 30 cts. 18 a 30 cts.
Scythes, .....................................................................................
$ 8 a $18
$ 8 a $18
$ 7 a $18
$ 7 a $18
Shovels, .....................................................................................
$ 8 a $12
$ 8 a $ 12
$7 a $12
$ 6 a $11
Slit, for scroll, & c....................................................................
$100 a $125 $94 a $120 $83 a $110 $83 a $110
Rolled, for band or scroll, from § X £ to 4 X 4 ..................
$100 a $144 $94 a $133 $83 a $116 $83 a $116
Spikes,.......................................................................................
6 a 7 £ cts.
7£ a 8 4 cts.
6 a 7 cts.
7 a 8 4 cts.
Tacks, 24 to 16 oz. to the M ................................................
6 a 9 cts.
6 a 9 cts.
6 a 9 cts.
6 a 9 cts.
Do. exceeding 16 oz. to the M ...........................................
10 a 20 cts.
10 a 20 cts. 10 a 20 cts.
10 a 20 cts.
Brads, from £ to 2 inch, per M...............................................
6 a 20 cts.
6 a 20 cts.
6 a 20 cts.
6 a 20 cts.
64 a 9 cts.
Wire, not exceeding N o. 14,................................................
6 4 a 9 cts.
6 4 a 9 cts.
b | a 94 cts.
Do. exceeding N o. 14,........................................................
104 a 264 cts. 1 0 4 a 26 cts. 104 a 26 cts. 1 0 4 a 26 cts.

528

The Iron Trade o f the United States.

As a subject necessarily springing from the production of iron, we
would allude to the already very great amount of machinery, hardware of
different kinds, and fire-arms, manufactured in our own country, iron
being the staple of which they are mainly composed. By the census of
1840, it appears that there were thirteen thousand and one men employed
in machinery, the total value of which is ten million nine hundred and
eighty thousand five hundred and eighty-one ; five thousand four hundred
and ninety-two men engaged in the manufacture of cutlery, which is pro­
duced to the value of six millions four hundred and fifty-one thousand
nine hundred and sixty-seven dollars; and that there are one thousand
seven hundred and forty-four men employed in the making of small-arms,
which are produced to the number of eighty-eight thousand and seventythree. There is no doubt that a considerable proportion of the iron, and
especially steel, of which these several articles are composed, are intro­
duced from abroad; but it is also true that the amount produced with us,
and used for those purposes, has been gradually increasing with the growth
of the country.
The period having arrived in which it has been found necessary to
remodel the tariff law, it was made an important object with the commit­
tee on manufactures, the chairman of which was Mr. Saltonstall, to col­
lect all the most important facts bearing upon this interest from intelligent
and practical iron manufacturers, and from their investigation a large
body of evidence was brought together upon that topic. From the amount
of iron, raw and manufactured, imported into this country, it seemed im­
portant to know what would be the consequence upon the iron interest if
the minimum duty of 20 per cent ad valorem, should go into effect on the
first of June, 1842 ; and whether, under such circumstances, the iron
manufacture of this country could be sustained ? If it could not, and the
manufacture of iron is abandoned, whether the country would be benefit­
ed 1 If the manufacture of iron were abandoned, whether the people of
the country would obtain their supplies of iron as cheap as in 1839 ?
Lastly, the reason why iron could not be manufactured as cheap with us
as in England, or the other nations of Europe ? These were the four
prominent points involved in the investigation, and the answers of the iron
manufacturers were clear and direct.
It was replied by a respectable iron manufacturer of the state of Mary­
land, that if the compromise act should go into effect, there would not be
in operation, in the year 1843, a blast furnace using charcoal in Vermont,
Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Mary­
land, Pennsylvania, or Virginia, east of' the mountains. To the second
question it was answered, that as it required a long period to organize an
iron establishment, and to fill it with competent workmen, and longer still
to put it into successful operation, suppose we were involved in a war
with any of the nations of Europe, we should obtain our supplies from
England, the nation with which we were most likely to be involved in
war at any time ; and under such circumstances we should be thrown into
a state of dependence upon another nation for that staple of which is
wrought almost every offensive and defensive weapon, with but few
exceptions, unless we should go back to the old wooden spade or
plough. It was replied to the third question, that if the compromise act
should go into operation on the first of June, the American markets would
be glutted with the present surplus stocks of England. Their forges? one




The Iron Trade o f the United States.

529

fourth of which now lie idle, would be again put in operation, and the
prices would be kept low until all our works should be abandoned, when
they would advance them at pleasure. If we should arrive at a point in
which we could make iron at a moderate profit, the iron workers of Eng­
land would send their own iron across the water at so cheap a rate as to
control all our supplies ; while on the other hand, if an adequate protec­
tion was furnished to the iron trade of the United States for ten years
more, the consumption of the article would cost the country millions of
dollars less every year.
From the evidence adduced upon this subject at the period to which we
have referred, it would seem that the causes of our inability to manufac­
ture iron as cheaply as in England, as well as other nations of Europe,
are various. The first is the value of money. While in England, and
upon the continent of Europe, money commands an interest of from 2 i to
4 per cent, it is difficult to be obtained here even at 7, frequently com­
manding a much higher rate. Besides, the iron works of Europe, having
been long established, and grown to that perfection in manufacture and
economy in arrangement gained only by experience, are able to produce
with the same measure of expense a greater amount of the staple. But
the more important fact which causes the difference in the price of the
manufacture of foreign and domestic iron, is the difference in the price of
labor. It is true, indeed, that in the abundance and variety of our ores
we exceed any portion of Great Britain or the continent, but in the greater
price of our labor we endure a proportionate disadvantage, so far as the
expense of production is concerned. By the report of the board of ord­
nance officers, sent to Europe in 1840, by Mr. Poinsett, the late secretary
of war, it appears that the common laborers employed about the Aker fur­
nace, in Sweden, receive only from twenty to thirty cents per day, and
mechanics employed in boring and finishing cannon or skilful machinists
from thirty to forty-two cents, and a team of two horses, wagon and driver,
is obtained at forty-two cents per day. In France, the wages paid to
workmen at the Ruelle Cannon Foundry vary from one to three francs ;
more than half receiving less than two francs, while the total amount of
the wages paid to all the forty workmen is only seventy-five francs, aver­
aging for each thirty-seven and a half cents. It has been alleged from
an authentic source, that the value of wages in our own country exceeds
that of England by fifty per cent, while it is alleged that it is from two
and a half to three times greater with us than in Scotland ; which, to­
gether with the other facts to which we have alluded, account for the dif­
ference in the value of the production of iron in our own country and
Europe.
The market of New York is now largely supplied with Russia, Swedish,
and English bar-iron, but it appears that the latter comes into the most
direct competition with u s ; it being inferior in quality is manufactured in
large quantities and is sold cheap. The best quality is Banks’ English
refined iron, which is equal to ours, and now competes with our own in
market at a duty of $30 per ton, while the best foreign iron is that of Rus­
sia and the Swedish, competing but little with ours, it being principally
used for the making of steel springs, and the tools of the trades, besides
other articles of a similar character. While the value of our own domes­
tic iron is so much greater than that of the low-priced English, so also is
the cost of its production. The Swedish and Russian iron is, we learn,
53*




530

The Iron Trade o f the United Slates.

hammered, while the low-priced English to which we have referred, is
either rolled, or puddled and rolled. It is to be hoped that the legislation
of the present congress will establish the policy that is to regulate this im­
portant interest upon a fixed and permanent basis.
We have endeavored in this paper, compiled from various sources, to
group the most prominent points connected with the iron trade of the
United States, and to trace the policy that has borne upon it from our ear­
liest colonial existence to the present time. In order rightly to appreciate
its importance as a mercantile interest, we need only to look abroad at the
part which it bears, not only in the agriculture, but the commerce, the
manufactures, and the mechanic arts of the nation. The hills and valleys,
the plains and mountains of our wide-spread territory abound in inex­
haustible resources of coal and iron, which geological investigations are
continually bringing to light. From Cincinnati and Pittsburgh, that
through their forges and other establishments for the manufacture of iron
send up their clouds of smoke like the rock-bound cavern of antiquity
to the shores of the Atlantic, there are scattered already a vast number of
iron works, that are pouring forth their products, from the large and pon­
derous machinery of steam-engines and manufactures down to the most
minute implements of domestic use and the trades ; and the amount is
constantly increasing with the expanding resources and enterprise of the
country. With the increase of our commerce must be the augmented de­
mand for the products of our iron works. The staple is moreover gradu­
ally extending itself into a much wider circle of use, according to the im­
provements of the age, and every year we find it moulded into more nu­
merous and beautiful forms. W hat a very large proportion do the various
products of iron bear to the actual trade of our large commercial towns f
This question is answered in our numerous warehouses, not only for the
sale of the raw material, but in the hardware stores scattered through the
large cities and the interior. It now supplies not only the enclosures of
our principal public grounds and parks, but the permanent fixtures and
railings of our most costly edifices, and indeed we can scarcely pass the
streets without meeting some of its numerous manufactures upon every
side. It forms the material of the sharpest needle and the strongest bar,
the mechanism of the musical snuff-box, the delicate and glittering wheels
and spindles that play within the most exquisite watch, and the crash­
ing machinery of the steamship, that drives the hugest fabric through the
ocean storm. It provides for war its most formidable weapons, for peace
its most valuable implements, and may be considered a fruitful source of
domestic comfort and political strength, the grand Archimedian lever of
nations. With the augmenting enterprise of the people we doubt not that
its production and manufacture are destined to be an increasing source of
wealth, and as such, that this grand staple will receive the attention which
its importance clearly demands.




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A r t .

531

I ll— COMMERCIAL VOYAGES AND DISCOVERIES.

CHAPTER HI.
VOYAGE OF VASCO DE GAMA.
T
successful issue of the voyage of Columbus, in 1492, filled the
minds of the Portuguese with both admiration and alarm, and determined
them to renewed attempts to reach India round the southern point of Africa.
This point had been reached in 1486 by Bartholomew Diaz, who had been
despatched with three ships, with orders to look out for the kingdom of the
famous Prester John. Diaz gave the name of Tormentosa, or stormy, to
the promontory; but upon his return, the king, in indication of the hope it
held out of the long-sought passage, changed it to Cabo de buena esperanza,
or Cape of Good Hope. The idea of doubling this cape met the same ob­
stacles, and encountered the same prejudices that had attended each step
of discovery around the other prominent African capes. It was argued
that the storms encountered by Diaz were perpetual, and placed as a bar­
rier to further advance, and that it was an impious tempting of Providence
to attempt to proceed any further. King Emanuel had, however, fortu­
nately inherited his predecessor’s desire to find out a new route to the
riches of the east, and he “ determined to proceed so long as the men of
penetration and integrity were on his side.” He knew that nothing more
was necessary to attain success than to employ persons of resolution and
judgment to execute his designs ; and with this view he selected Vasco de
Gama, “ a gentleman of quality, ability, and courage,” to command the
expedition which he had resolved upon.
This voyage of De Gama is to be found in a number of works, as De
Barros, Ramusio Maffi, Sousa, and Castanneda. From this last, as con­
densed by the editor of Astley’s Collection, we abridge the following ac­
count. Castanneda is considered good authority, and he had ample op­
portunities of acquiring information, as he went to India, according to
Faria y Sousa, “ only to examine into the truth of what he wrote; and
though neither his style or his geography are very commendable, he hath
many curious remarks.”
Furnished with letters for the princes of the east, and among the rest to
Prester John, and the king of Ivalecut, De Gama sailed from Belem, a
few miles from Lisbon, on Saturday, the eighth of July, 1497, with three
small ships and one hundred and sixty men. The names of the ships
were the St. Gabriel, the St. Raphael, and Berrio; the captains, Paul
de Gama, brother to Vasco, and Nicolas Nunnez. Arrived in sight of the
Canaries, a violent storm separated the admiral from the rest of his squad­
ron, and he did not effect a junction with them until eight days after, at
Cape Verde, from whence they went the day after to St. Jago, where they
repaired the damages they had suffered from the storm, and took in a sup­
ply of water. On the third of August they proceeded on their way, and
encountered much tempestuous weather, until the fourth of November, when
land was descried, and passing along it on the seventh day they came to a
great bay, to which, according to custom, they gave the name of Angra de
Santa Elena, it being that saint’s day on which it was first seen.
h e




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Commercial Voyages and Discoveries.

The people of this island* were blacks, small of stature, and ill-favored.
When they spoke, it seemed as if they sighed. They were clothed in the
skins of wild beasts, and lived upon roots, sea-wolves, (seals,) and whales,
of which there were great numbers, although it is not explained how they
were caught.
Next day the admiral, with his captains, landed, in hopes of finding how
far it was to the Cape of Good Hope. The chief pilqt, Pedro de Alanquez, who had accompanied Diaz in his voyage, conjectured that it could
not be more than thirty leagues at most. The admiral, in his walks, took
a man gathering honey at the foot of a bush, and carried him on board,
thinking that he had got an interpreter, but none of the ship’s crew under­
stood him. Next day they set him on shore well apparelled, which so
pleased his countrymen, that the day following fifteen of them came down
towards the ships, at sight of whom the admiral went again on shore, car­
rying with him spice, gold, and pear], but the natives were evidently igno­
rant of their value, and evinced much more pleasure at presents of bells
and little tin rings. But though ignorant, they were not so very innocent,
for they laid an ambush for the Portuguese, and furiously attacked them
with darts and spears. The admiral, who had brought no arms with him,
was compelled to hasten with his men to the boats. Four Portuguese
were wounded, and the admiral received an injury in his leg.
The sixteenth of November, in the forenoon, they departed with a south­
west wind, and the eighteenth, in the evening, came in sight of the Cape
of Good Hope, which bearing southeast and the wind being contrary, they
stood out to sea, but at night again tacked towards shore, and thus sailed
until the twentieth, when they doubled the cape, shouting and sounding
their trumpets, and making other demonstrations of their joy at the happy
event.
On the twenty-fourth they came to San Bias, which is sixty leagues be­
yond the cape. On a rock in this harbor they saw at one time as many
as three thousand sea-wolves. Here the provisions were all taken out of
a bark which had accompanied them as a store-ship, and the vessel
destroyed.
A few days after their arrival there appeared about ninety of the in­
habitants, some on the sands and others on the mountains, whereupon the
admiral landed with his men well armed, and made out to strike up a
trade in a small way, exchanging brass bells and red night-caps for ivory
bracelets. A fews days after there came down several hundred negroes,
with twelve oxen, which were observed to abound and to be used as beasts
of burden, and four sheep. As the Portuguese came on shore the natives
commenced playing upon flutes and singing, and their visiters returned the
compliment by sounding the trumpets and joining in the dance, and the
day passed in feasting and mirth. Not long after more negroes came down
with cattle. The Portuguese, having purchased an ox, perceived some
young negroes behind the bushes with the weapons of the old ones, and the
* The mistake has been made of supposing that this place was the island of St. Hele.
na. But the island well known by that name was not discovered until 1502, and it is
twelve hundred miles from the African coast, so that it would be impossible to reach the
Cape of Good Hope, as it is stated that De Gama did. The place is the bay of St.
Helena, about thirty miles north of Saldahena bay.




Commercial Voyages and Discoveries.

533

admiral, suspecting some treachery, ordered his men to retire to some
more secure place. The negroes made demonstrations of attack, but De
Gama, unlike many commanders, was as humane as he was prudent and
courageous, and unwilling to do them any harm, he withdrew in his boats
without offering any violence, merely directing two pieces of ordnance to
be fired over their heads, whereat they were not a little surprised, and fled,
leaving their weapons behind.
They departed on the eighth of December, and again encountered a
violent storm. The sixteenth they saw some small rocks, about sixty
leagues beyond the harbor of San Bias. The country here was very
pleasant, and it was observed that the further they advanced the larger
and more luxuriant became the trees. They had now fairly rounded the
southern extremity of Africa, and began to steer a more northerly course.
On Christmas day, 1498, they saw land, to which, on account of the day,
they gave the name of Tierra de Natal. After this they came to a river,
which, as it was the day of Epiphany, they named de los Reyes. Here
De Gama left two men, part of a company of condemned criminals, which
he took with him for the purpose, with directions to inform themselves of
every thing they possibly could in relation to the country. Here he suc­
ceeded in trading for ivory and provisions.
The eleventh of January, while coasting along in boats, they saw a
large company of very tall men and women, and landing, they were well
received. The admiral made the negro prince a present of a red jacket,
stockings, and cap, which highly pleased his sable majesty, and excited
the enthusiastic admiration of his subjects. He invited Martin Alonzo,
who spoke several negro languages, to accompany him into the country,
where he treated him with great civility.
Departing on the fifteenth from this “ land of good people,” as De Gama
called it, they sailed along a low coast, covered with tall trees, as far as
Cabo Corientes, or the Cape of Currents. Rounding this cape they pro­
ceeded on fifty leagues, passing without seeing it the famous town of Sofala,
(supposed by some to be the Ophir of Solomon,) and on the twenty-fourth
they came to the mouth of a large river. They had now fairly entered
the Mozambique channel, which separates the Island of Madagascar from
the continent, and began to encounter the signs of their approach to the
regions in the track of Arabic commerce. The people understood some­
thing of the Arabic language, were more civilized in their dress, and less
astonished at the sight of the strangers.
Leaving the river of “ good signs,” they came on the fourth of March
to four small islands, two near the shore. From one of these several
small boats came off, and, as soon as the ships had come to an anchor, the
crews came on board. The people in them were tall, somewhat black,
clothed with colored calicoes, and wearing linen turbans, wrought with
silk and gold. They were armed with swords and daggers, and spoke the
Arabic. Being asked what town that was, they replied that the island
was called Mozambique ; that the town was full of merchants, who traded
with the Moors of India for silks, spices, and precious stones. They of­
fered to conduct the ships into the harbor, and Coello having the smallest
ship was sent to sound the bar, which, after touching, he passed and
anchored his ship within a quarter of a mile from the town. The Portu­
guese found the harbor good, and the provisions plenty. The inhabitants
traded to Sofala, the Red Sea and India, in ships without decks, and built




534

Commercial Voyages and Discoveries.

without nails, the timbers being sewed together with ropes made of the
cocoanut husks, and their sails made of palm leaves. They had also the
knowledge of charts and the compass. Here De Gama learned that he
was on the right route to the renowned city of Kalecut in India, which was
represented to be distant about nine hundred leagues. For some time an
appearance of friendship was kept up, but the sheikh and his subjects find­
ing out that the Portuguese, whom they at first mistook for Moors, were
Christians, laid several plans for their capture. But the prudence of De
Gama was more than a match for the treachery of the Moors. At last
they were compelled to enter the harbor and procure water by force—the
natives being kept at a distance by fear of the ordnance. The twentyfourth of march, a Moor insulting the fleet from the shore, De Gama, to
revenge that and other injuries, manned his boats, and after driving a
body of Moors from the shore, who came to oppose his landing, and taking
a few, and among the rest a pilot who understood the route to Kalecut, he
set fire to their town, the houses of which were constructed of hurdles, and
compelled the inhabitants to flee into the country.
On the twenty-seventh day they departed, and worked up along the
coast, but unfortunately fell to leeward of Quiloa, which they were unable
to regain, and were compelled to stand on to Mombassa, seventy leagues
further north. Here they found a flourishing town built of stone, inhabited
by Moors, and abounding in fruits of all kinds, fowls, cattle, and sheep
without tails. The inhabitants were richly dressed in silks, gold, &c.,
and the king sent samples of spices, corn, &c., and promised to supply
De Gama with gold, silver, amber, and other commodities, at a less price
than he could get them anywhere else, which offer De Gama resolved to
accept upon his return, if he should not find the market at Kalecut favor­
able.
In endeavoring to enter the harbor De Gama’s ship touched bottom, and
he was compelled to come to an anchor. His two Moorish pilots took ad­
vantage of the accident to jump overboard and swim to shore. This ex­
cited the admiral’s suspicion, and to ascertain the true state of the matter
he took two of the Moors, whom he had brought from Mozambique, and
by dropping hot fat upon their flesh, compelled them to confess that a plot
had been laid for the destruction of the ships, and that the pilots had es­
caped, thinking it had been detected. In the night the Moors came off in
great numbers to attack the ships, but were easily frightened away.
On the thirteenth De Gama left Mombassa, and on the way to Melinda
he overtook and captured two small Mohammedan vessels, with a good
store of gold and silver. Arrived off Melinda the Portuguese were sur­
prised to find a large and flourishing town, with regular streets, and houses
several stories high. The city was inhabited by a great many Arab mer­
chants, who carried on an extensive trade with the countries of the Red
Sea and India. At first no notice was taken of their arrival, but De
Gama having put on shore an old Moor upon a ledge over against the
town, a boat was soon sent for him from the city, and he was taken before
the king, to whom he explained De Gama’s wish to communicate with him.
A polite answer, with a present of sheep and fruits, was returned, and
the next day the ships were moored nearer in towards the city, and an­
chored alongside of four India ships manned by Christians. These Chris­
tians, by permission of the king, visited the Portuguese ships. They were
brown-complexioned, well-proportioned men. They wore large beards




Commercial Voyages and Discoveries.

535

and long hair, and represented themselves to be natives of India. In order
to test their religious principles, De Gama ordered them to be shown a
picture of the Virgin, and some of the Apostles. Without hesitation they
fell down and worshipped it, giving thus incontestable evidence of an ortho­
dox faith.
The next day the king of Melinda came to visit the admiral in great
state. He was accompanied by a number of Moors, richly dressed, and
several musicians. The admiral, with his principal officers, went to meet
him in his boat, and at the king’s request took his seat in the royal barge.
The king asked many questions as to the part of the world he came from,
the object of his coming, (fee., and promised that he would send him a
pilot for Kalecut. The king was as good as his word, and although De
Gama refused to comply with his pressing invitations to land, he sent him
an experienced pilot named Kanaea, or according to De Faria, Melemo
Kana. “ This man was so experienced in his profession, that being shown
an astrolabe, he hardly thought it worthy of notice, as being used to more
considerable instruments.” And indeed the Portuguese found the com­
pass, charts, and quadrant in use with the Moors about this coast.
Having made all preparations, De Gama left Melinda on Tuesday, the
twenty-second of April, and stretched off into that immense, and to him
unknown tract of ocean, which lay between him and the grand and crown­
ing object of his voyage. Hitherto he had been simply coasting along the
shores of Africa, never long out of sight of land, and the tedium of the
way relieved by continued novelty and adventure. Now he was to quit
the shores which had served him as a shelter and a guide, and dare the
dangers of the trackless ocean which filled the space of more than two
thousand miles between Melinda and Kalecut. It needed in the leader of
such an expedition a sound head and a strong heart. De Gama had both.
The voyage was exceedingly pleasant. On the twenty-eighth they saw
the north star for the first time in many months, and on Friday, the seven­
teenth of May, they descried land, steering southeast; on the twentieth they
came within sight of the high hills near Kalecut, and anchored in the open
road, about two leagues from the city. Soon several boats came off and
conducted the vessels to an anchorage nearer the town.
The first operation of De Gama was to send on shore one of his corps
of criminals that he had brought with him from Portugal, with directions
to find out what kind of reception was likely to be accorded to them. As
soon as this man landed the crowd collected around him, but as he was
unable to speak Arabic, they conducted him to the house of a Moor,
named Monzayde, who could speak Spanish, and who saluted him at once
with the polite excl amation, “ The devil take you, what have you come for ?”
After some further questions, the Moor said that he was acquainted with
the Portuguese at Tunis, and liked them very well, but he could not con­
ceive how they had reached India by sea. He accompanied the man back
to the ships, and at his first approach he accosted De Gama in Spanish,
“ Good luck! good luck ! many rubies, many emeralds. Thou art bound
to give God thanks, for he has brought you where there are all sorts of
spices and precious stones, with all the riches of the world.” The admi­
ral and his friends wept for joy at being addressed, after so long a voyage
and in such a distant country, in a Christian tongue. Monzayde promised
to do all the service to the new-comers in his power, and informed them
that the king, who at that moment was away from the city, would un­




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Commercial Voyages and Discoveries.

doubtedly be glad to receive him, especially if he had come in reference to
trade, as his revenues arose almost wholly from duties upon merchandise.
As soon as he heard of this arrival, the king of Kalecut, whose proper
title was “ Samorin,” sent to invite the admiral on shore, an invitation
which De Gama resolved to accept, although he was strongly opposed by
his brother and other officers, who represented that the safety of the expe­
dition depended upon him, and that there would be great danger, if not
from the Samorin and his subjects, at least from the numerous Moorish
merchants who resided in the place, and whose jealousy would be fully
aroused. De Gama, however, trusting to the representations of Monzayde
that it was for the interest of the Samorin to extend the trade of his city,
resolved to go in person ; and on the twenty-eighth of May, he landed with
a suit of twelve persons. The kutwal or governor of the town was ready
on the beach with an escort and litters to receive him. On their way to
the city they were shown a large temple, which the Portuguese concluded,
from several figures that they saw and ceremonies that were practised, to
be Christian. In a niche in the wall there was a figure, which, when their
attendants saw it, they exclaimed Mary, and the Portuguese, who could
not see it distinctly in the gloom, taking it to be an image of the Virgin,
fell upon their knees and worshipped. One of them, Juan de Sala, had
some doubts upon the subject, and excited a laugh by exclaiming, “ If this
be the devil, I worship God.” As they proceeded on their way, the crowds
collected in great numbers, and it was only by the strenuous exertions of
the nobles and troops that a way could be made for them. Arrived at the
palace, they were received by the Samorin in great state and with every
mark of respect. He was reclining in a large room, the walls and the
floor covered with rich velvet and silks, upon a sofa of white silk and
gold. He was clothed in fine linen wrought with gold and covered with
pearls, his headdress was filled with precious stones, and his fingers and
toes loaded with diamond rings. The attendants all held their left hands
before their mouths, so that their breath should not reach the roy'hl lungs,
and to prevent any violation of etiquette by spitting or sneezing.
De Gama advanced, making three polite bows, to which the Samorin
replied by a slight nod. When all were seated, fruits were brought in,
and then water in a vessel having a golden spout. Being informed that it
was indecent to touch the spout with their lips, they were compelled to
follow the custom of the country, and hold the vessel at some distance,
while pouring the water into their mouths ; but being unpractised in this
novel mode they made many mistakes, and frequently spilled the water
over them, much to the diversion of the court. At length the business of
the meeting commenced. The Samorin listened to De Gama’s represen­
tations, made many inquiries as to the power of the king of Portugal and
the distance of his dominions, and promised to send him an ambassador,
and to give De Gama all necessary assistance and protection. But now
commenced the machinations of the Moors, who had for a long time the
monopoly of the trade by way of the Red Sea and Alexandria, and who
were justly suspicious that the competition of the Portuguese would
lessen their gains. The kutwal and other nobles were bribed, and it was
represented that De Gama was no ambassador or merchant, but a pirate
who had committed great outrages upon the towns of Mozambique, Mombassa, and Melinda, on the coast of Africa. The Samorin’s feelings were
much changed by these reports, and when the next day De Gama went to




Commercial Voyages and Discoveries.

537

him, he kept him waiting three hours. It had been represented to him
that the present that De Gama was, according to custom, about to make
to him, was unworthy of his rank. De Gama apologized for its meanness,
stating that the king, his master, had not expected to find so powerful a
monarch, and that therefore he had not prepared a proper present, but
that next time it should be made. He also replied in such a convincing
way to the falsehoods of the Moors, and so strongly insisted upon the de­
sire of the king of Portugal to cultivate the most amicable commercial re­
lations, that the Samorin was for the time appeased. But this good under­
standing did not last long. The Samorin seems to have been completely
under the influence of the kutwal and other nobles, who had all been gained
by the Moors. De Gama and his companions were confined, and various
attempts were made to force from them presents, and an order to the cap­
tains of the ships to send their goods. At last he was compelled to direct
Paul de Gama to send part of the goods. When they had been landed,
the kutwal suffered'De Gama to go on board his ships, but was greatly
disappointed to find that the admiral was not disposed to trust himself
ashore any more, or to send any more goods. In the mean time he ac­
quainted the Samorin, by means of his factor whom he had left on shore,
of the treatment he had received. Tile Samorin pretended to be much
incensed, and promised to punish the offenders, and to send some merchants
to purchase the goods. The promise, however, amounted to nothing. The
merchants came, but they were all in the interest of the Moors, and
bought nothing ; continued negotiations were going on, the object of which
turned out to be to amuse the admiral until a fleet could be fitted out to
capture him. But De Gama was not so easily deceived. He waited un­
til he had an opportunity to seize upon a boat-load of principal natives,
whom he held 'as hostages for the safety of his factor, who had been im­
prisoned. An exchange was soon effected, and De Gama, disgusted with
the opposition and treachery of the Moors and the Samorin’s officers, re­
solved to set out on his return voyage, bearing a letter, which the Samorin
wrote by Diaz, the factor, to the king of Portugal, expressing his earnest
wish for the commencement of a regular trade.
Two days after leaving Kalicut. the Portuguese, during a calm, were
attacked by sixty large boats, full of soldiers, but a wind luckily spring­
ing up, they escaped. Had it been any other season of the year, De
Gama’s vessels would probably have been destroyed by the Samorin’s
fleet, which fortunately was hauled up on shore, in winter-quarters. For
four months the squadron encountered bad weather and head winds. The
scurvy began to show itself among them in its worst form, and both officers
and crews began to give themselves up to despair, notwithstanding the
exhortations of De Gama, who vainly labored to disabuse them of the
notion they had taken up, that storms always prevailed in that part of the
ocean. At length a fair wind came to his assistance, and in sixteen days
the sight of the African coast dispelled the fears of his people. On the morning
of the third of February, 1499, they found themselves close to the city of Magadoxo ; standing in down the coast, and anchoring every night, they were
attacked by several boat-loads of Moors, at a short distance above Melin­
da, but easily drove them off with their guns. Having arrived at Melin­
da, they were well received. An ambassador to the king of Portugal was
sent on board, and after a rest of four days they got under weigh. Our
space will not suffer us to particularize all their movements and advenvol. vi.— no. vi.
54




538

Canadian Commerce.

tu re s; suffice it to say, that on the twentieth of March they doubled
the Cape of Good Hope, and entered the Atlantic. Touching at St. Jago,
one of the Cape de Yerds, De Gama was compelled to abandon his ship,
as unseaworthy, and hire a caravel; and his brother, Paul de Gama, who
had been suffering with consumption, was forced to put in at Terceira,
where he died. Yasco reached the Tagus in September, 1499, having
been absent two years and two months.
Thus ended this most brilliant and important voyage—a voyage which
was fraught with more important consequences than any other that was
ever made, unless we except that of Columbus. From it may be dated
the downfall of the maritime states of Italy, of Egypt, Turkey, Arabia,
and all those countries from the Red Sea to the Caspian, which throve by
the several routes of the overland trade between Europe and India; and
from it may be dated the rise of that great modern commercial colossus,
the British empire. The Portuguese were of course overjoyed at its suc­
cessful termination, and it is particularly recorded that none were more
loud in their demonstrations of joy than those who had all along scouted
and opposed the attempt as impracticable. Thanksgivings were ordered
throughout the kingdom for the success of the expedition, and all honors
were heaped upon its gallant commander.

Art. IV.—CANADIAN COMMERCE.
Canada, the most important portion of British America, lies nearly all
between the Hudson’s Bay territories and the United States, and within the
basin of the river St. Lawrence, from about 42 to 52 degrees north lati­
tude. It was colonized by the French in 1608, and conquered by the
British in 1759. There are two provinces, separated by the Ottawa river:
Lower Canada, adjoining the estaary of the St. Law rence; area, 250,000
square miles ; population (1836) 664,631, chiefly of French origin ; capi­
tal, Quebec—population 30,000. Hyper Canada, contiguous to the great
lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior; area, 105,000 square miles;
population 371,332, chiefly of British origin : capital, Toronto—popula­
tion 9,765. Each province had formerly a governor, executive and legisla­
tive councils, and a house of representatives—the governor of the lower
province being likewise captain-general of all British America; but, by
the act 3 and 4 Viet. c. 35 (1840, July 23) of the imperial parliament, the
two provinces have been united.
Quebec is a strongly fortified city on t her north bank of the St. Lawrence,
in 46 deg. 49 min. north, and 71 deg. 16 min. west. It is divided into
two parts : the Lower Town, where are all the commercial establishments,
is situated immediately under Cape Diamond, nearly on a level with the
water ; the Upper Town is on a rock 200 feet above ; and the communi­
cation with the lower town is maintained by a .winding street, at the top
of which is a fortified gate. The basin of Quebec is very spacious, being
sufficient to contain 100 sail of the line. In 1836, 1,146 ships entered this
port, having a tonnage of 344,206; of which Great Britain, 880 ships,
291,235 tons; British colonies, 174 ships, 22,393 tons ; United States, 50
ships, 19,619 tons; foreign states, 42 ships, 10,959 tons.




Canadian Commerce.

539

Montreal, in 45 deg. 30 min. north, 73 deg. 30 min. west, lies about
180 miles above Quebec, on the south side of the island of Montreal, which
is formed by the confluence of the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa; popula­
tion 35,000. Vessels of 600 tons come up to it. The harbor is not large,
but is always secure ; the greatest disadvantage is the rapid of St. Mary,
about a mile below the town. Montreal is the commercial capital of
Canada, being favorably situated for the lumber trade, and for intercourse
with the upper province and the United States. Most of the business,
even in Quebec, is carried on by branches from its mercantile houses.
In 1836, there entered this port 98 ships, 22,289 tons; of which Great
Britain, 73 ships, 19,410 tons; British colonies, 23 ships, 2,392 tons;
foreign states, 2 ships, 487 tons.
Canada, though in some parts hilly, is upon the whole a level and wellwatered country. The located portions are mostly confined to the banks
of the St. Lawrence, the lower part of the Ottawa, the north margin of
the lakes Ontario and Erie, and the southeast banks of lakes Huron and
St. Clair, which are generally fertile. Beyond these districts, the coun­
try, more especially towards the north and west, is very imperfectly known.
The climate is salubrious, and heat and cold, though felt in their extremes,
are not oppressive, owing to the purity of the atmosphere. In the lower
province, the medium of cold in winter is about 15 deg. Fahr., its maxi­
mum about 20; and the medium summer heat is from 75 to 80 deg., its
maximum 103. Early in December the St. Lawrence is closed by ice,
which seldom totally disappears before the first week in May. The five
months from May to September, inclusive, comprise the spring, summer,
and autumn of the Lower Canadian year. At Montreal, and in the upper
province, the spring commences from six weeks to two months earlier,
according to its latitude, and the climate is in every respect milder; in­
deed, in the west part of Upper Canada, the duration of frost and snow is
not more than half, or even one third, as long as in Quebec. The severity
of the Canadian winter is much less unfavorable to the operations of agri­
culture than might at first appear. The snow effectually prevents the
frost from penetrating deeply into the earth, and the rapid progress of the
spring thaws, followed by frosty nights, pulverizes the soil, and helps to
prepare it for seed. Against the severity of the winter, must also be set
down the steady weather which prevails during summer in both provinces,
and which renders the progress of vegetation so rapid, that the Canadian
harvest is early, and almost always secured before bad weather com­
mences. Hence the climate of Canada, severe though it is, presents no
obstacle to the unlimited extension of almost every description of produce,
except such as is peculiar to a tropical climate.
The Canadians are scattered over a vast extent of country, some parts
of which are 800 or 900 miles distant from the port of Quebec, and 600
or 700 from that of Montreal. But owing to the facility of communica­
tion by means of lakes and rivers, the expense of transport is comparative­
ly sm all; and, from the improvements which are taking place in railroads
and canals, this expense will soon be greatly reduced. The St. Lawrence
is navigable for large ships to Montreal, about 600 miles, and to Quebec,
420 miles, for ships of the line ; above Montreal, its current is broken by
rapids. The Ottawa and Saguenay, the principal tributaries of the St.
Lawrence, are only partially navigable, having their course likewise in­
terrupted by falls and rapids. The principal canals are the Grenville




540

Canadian Commerce.

and Rideau canals, which, in connection with the river Ottawa and the
La Chine canal, form a vast chain of internal navigation, reaching by a
circuitous line from Montreal to Kingston. The Welland canal, a most
important work, connects lakes Ontario and Erie, avoiding the falls of
Niagara. Besides these there are various smaller canals and railroads,
both in the upper and lower provinces.
The culture of the soil is the principal occupation of the people ; a cir­
cumstance which almost necessarily follows from the abundance of rich
land and the total absence of taxes; for these advantages more than com­
pensate the high price of labor. The chief agricultural product is wheat,
the crop of which is estimated at 11,000,000 bushels. The average ex­
port of wheat and flour by sea, in the four years 1832-1835, was equiv­
alent to 780,000 bushels, besides which, a considerable quantity from the
upper province found its way to the United States; but in 1836 it was
much smaller, amounting only to 18,125 barrels flour, and 9,716 bushels
wheat. The quantity of other articles of agricultural produce has been
hitherto inconsiderable; the most important are flax, tobacco, and salted
provisions.
The staple exports of the colony, however, are timber and ashes. The
former is the principal; but as a portion of the trade is the result of a
legislative monopoly arising out of the high duties in the united kingdom
on foreign European timber, with low duties on Canadian, that portion can
last only as long as the monopoly is maintained. The chief articles of
timber exported to the united kingdom and the colonies in 1836, were—
oak, 22,805 tons; elm, 18,733 tons; pine, 315,967 tons; 6,707,278 staves,
chiefly puncheon and standard pieces; deals, deal-ends, battens, boards,
and planks, 2,785,520 pieces; besides ash and birch timber, hoops, hand­
spikes, and smaller articles : the whole amounting in value to £703,165.
Besides the timber carried by sea to the united kingdom and West Indies,
there is a considerable quantity of boards, scantling, and other sawn tim­
ber, prepared for the United States and for home consumption. The
timber trade of Canada with the West Indies and the United States, as it
exists without protection, cannot be affected by any change of the duties.
On the other hand, the advantage which the colony now enjoys with the
mother country may be destroyed by the removal of those restrictions by
which it was originally created, and which is at present contemplated.
It would exceed the limits of the present article to describe the effects which
are likely to result from this change. The prevailing opinion is, that
Canada has other means of employing her labor and capital independent
of the timber trade, and that the change will be beneficial, not only to the
mother country, but to the colony. The clearing of the land from wood
to fit it for cultivation, gives rise to the production of pot and pearl ashes.
The usual course is to burn the timber on the ground, and if the price be
remunerating, the wood-ashes are converted into the ashes of commerce.
If, however, the rate be discouraging, they are harrowed in for the im­
provement of the soil. The quantity shipped is annually about 36,000
barrels, consisting of about two thirds pot and one third pearl ashes. Of
late years this trade has been on the decline.
The fisheries of Canada form a subordinate branch of industry; but
still the gulf and lower portion of the St. Lawrence furnish a considerable
quantity of fish and oil for home consumption, and leave a small surplus
for export. The produce of the fisheries in the county of Gaspe and




Canadian Commerce.

541

the Magdalen Islands in 1836, consisted of—cod, 100,542 cw t.; cod oil,
37,162 gallons; whale oil, 25,120 gallons, besides salmon and other fish,
the whole amounting in value to £86,624.
Montreal was formerly the emporium of a very considerable portion
of the fur trade, which was carried on by two rival companies—the Hud­
son’s Bay and the North West. After the failure of the latter association,
most of the skins were carried direct to the residents at Hudson’s Bay,
who have an establishment also at La Chine, near Montreal. But although
not a single bale of furs was shipped from that city, we should be justi­
fied in ranking the fur trade among the resources of Canada, because a
large importation of British goods takes place through Montreal, and wages
are paid to the hunters by drafts on the company in London. There is,
however, a small though not an increasing exportation of this article from
Montreal, consisting chiefly of skins of the muskrat, martin, beaver, and
otter.
Of manufactures, the principal is that of ashes, already noticed. The
others are as follows : Cloth, a kind of gray homespun or ttoffe du pays,
worn by the habitant or farmer of Lower Canada ; coarse cotton, but only
in small quantities; coarse linens; carpets and mats formed of threads
obtained from old m aterials; straw hats; worsted stockings and socks;
caps ; leather mittens; iron wares at St. Maurice ; nails ; maple sugar;
bricks; white soap, candles, leather, linseed oil and cake are manufac­
tured to an extent sufficient to furnish a surplus for exportation. Whiskey
is largely produced in both the Canadas. Starch, blue, cider, cordage,
paper, and a few other articles are also made, but in very small quantities.
It is to be observed that these manufactures, with the exception of whiskey,
exist almost wholly without protection. But the domestic manufactures
are supported more by the habits of the people than by cheapness; in fact
the itoffe du pays is imitated in Britain at a much lower price than the
Canadian cloth usually sells at in the native market.
Ship-building is an important employment in all the North American
colonies. The average number of vessels built annually in Canada, dur­
ing the eleven years ending 1835, was 26, and their tonnage 8,249.
These ships are built of oak, and are of much .fieger workmanship than
those of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, which for the most part are
constructed of pine.
The imports chiefly consist of British manufactures, principally cottons
and woollens ; in 1836 the former amounted in value to £472,892 sterling,
the latter to £303,166. The woollens are mostly of the coarser and
warmer sorts, such as blankets, flushings, flannels, and the coarse cloths
produced in the manufacturing towns of Yorkshire. The cottons are
chiefly power loom shirtings, striped and checked cloths, printed calicoes,
ginghams, muslins, cambrics, and also fustains, velveteens, and similar
fabrics. The other articles of British produce and manufacture imported
in 1836, were as follows: Hardware, value £74,249; wrought iron,
£56,298; unwrought iron, £35,345 ; linens, £61,082 ; silks, £59,488 ;
British refined sugar, £49,628; glass, £84,069; haberdashery, £71,646;
earthenware, £15,606 ; apparel and slops, £33,975; painters’ colors,
£17,426 ; besides coals, leather, books, candles, soap, stationery, salt, lead,
cordage, hats, and a variety of other goods.
The other imports are principally composed of the following articles :
54*




542

Canadian Commerce.

tea, about 680,000 lbs., brought chiefly from Britain; raw sugar, about
3,000,000 lbs. (maple sugar being extensively grown in the colony ;) rum,
330,000 galls.; brandy and gin, 220,000 g alls.; wine, nearly 3,500 pipes,
namely, port, 500 ; Madeira, 200 ; sherry, 200; Teneriffe and other low
white wines, 700 ; Spanish and other low red wines, 1,600 ; French and
German, 300. London enjoys the chief part of this trade to Canada, as
there is a discriminating duty of £ 7 7s. per ton of 252 galls, on wines
“ direct from the place of growth.” A considerable quantity of low white
and red wines is also brought from the Mediterranean, after having been
landed at Gibraltar ; an expedient by which the high duty is evaded.
The West India produce is for the most part imported direct from the place
of growth, and chiefly from Grenada, Jamaica, and Demerara. Halifax,
in Nova Scotia, has recently become an entrepot for exchanging the pro­
ductions of Canada and the West Indies; the former paying for her
purchases in flour and other provisions. St. Johns, in Newfoundland, also
enjoys a small inter-colonial trade.
The inland trade with the United States is considerable. A portion of
the ashes, flour and other provisions consumed in Canada, are derived
from thence. In early spring, teas, coffee, fruits, tobacco, and various
groceries are imported from New York by the way of Lake Champlain.
The exports at St. Johns, on that lake, the chief seat of this trade, amount­
ed, in 1832, to £8,197; the imports to £146,807. In 1833, the former
were £20,500, the latter £104,500. Of the imports fully two thirds con­
sisted of agricultural produce, all, it is said, required for Canadian con­
sumption. An intercourse with the United States is also carried on from
different points in Upper Canada, the duties on which amounted, in 1835,
to above £10,000. Of this there were paid at Toronto, £3,750 ; King­
ston, £1,517; Burlington, £1,438; Port Stanley, £ 8 35; Brockville,
£549. When commodities are exported on American account, the trans­
mission of a bill of exchange on New York easily closes the transaction.
Shipments are also made to the West Indies from that city, as well as from
some of the more southern towns, by order of Canadian houses. These
are usually paid for by drafts on London.
The following statement of the commerce and navigation of the princi­
pal ports of the Upper and Lower Provinces, derived from the Montreal
Courier, exhibits as full, recent, and accurate information of the present
condition and amount of Canadian commerce as can be obtained.
IMPORTS

IN

1841.

ARRIVALS IN QUEBEC AND MONTREAL.

From Great Britain, with cargoes
In ballast
.
.
.
.
.

From Ireland, with cargoes
In ballast
.
.
.
.




.

Vessels.

Tons.

298
571

100,400
223,882

4,065
8,502

869

324,282

12,567

17
183

8,173
58,742

294
2,348

200

66,915

2,642

Men.

Canadian Commerce.

543
V e sse ls.

T o n s.

M en.

2

540

19

18
67

4,423
17,801

163
634

85

22,224

797

2

498

22

102
62

10,708
17,745

546
707

164

28,453

1,253

3

829

39

15
28

4,145
13,489

167
484

43

17,634

651

9
3

1,417
686

71
29

12

2,103

100

1,380

463,468

18,090

From Gibraltar, in ballast
From Foreign Europe, with cargoes
In ballast
.

From Africa, in ballast

.

From B. N. A. Colonies, with cargoes
In ballast
.

.

From B. W . Indies, in ballast
From the United States, with cargoes
In ballast
.

Foreign W . Indies, with cargoes
In ballast
.

Grand total

.

.

IMPORTS A T QUEBEC IN 1841.
FROM GREAT BRITAIN.

Wines—Madeira, galls. 2,678
Spirits— Whiskey, galls.
154
7,197
Molasses .
Port . . . .
22,084
Sherry . . . 19,632
Sugar, refined, ,
lbs. 674,015
Teneriffe . . 10,843
Bastard .
. .
733,064
Spanish . . . 17,404
Muscovado . .
13,124
French . . .
860
Refined, Foreign,
10,961
Rhenish . . .
151
Muscovado, do
40,269
Canary . . .
115
Coffee, British P.
678
Spirits—Brandy . . . 43,108
do Foreign
2,072
Geneva . . . 24,827
Teas . .
Salts,
. .
Rum, E. I. . . 20,688
minots 199,666
2,232
Playing Cards, pks. . . 16,488
do B. P. . .
Value of merchandise paying 24 per cent .
£394,761 14 9
do of free goods .
6,260
5 4
•
£401,022

0

1

FROM IRELAND.

Wines—Port . . galls. 488
5
Champagne . .
Spirits— Whiskey . . .
13
. . 1,040
Brandy




Spirits—Rum, . . . galls. 71
Sugar, Muscovado lbs. 163,916
Salt, . . .
minots 4 16,522

544

Canadian Commerce.

Value of merchandise paying 2 | per cent
do of free goods .
.
.
.
.

.

.
.

£13,460
14

17
11

0
3

£13,475

8

3

FROM FRANCE.

Wines—Claret . . galls. 1,333
Champagne . .
60

Spirits—Brandy . galls. 4,216
Cordials
.......................
166

Value of merchandise paying 2 i per cent

.

.

£2,175

15

9

FROM SPAIN AND SICILY.

Salt, . . . .
minots 23,642
Wine . . . .
galls. 1,972
Value of merchandise
.
.

Salt,
.

.

. . . .
.

minots 10,312

.

£ 3 6 8

FROM PORTUGAL AND HAMBURGH.

Wines . . . .
galls.
276
Salt, . . . .
minots 12,342
Value of merchandise .
.
.

Sugar, refined,
.

.

.

.

. lbs. 11,332
£1,586

17

0

FROM BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES.

30,613
Molasses, foreign, galls.
Sugar, muscovado, for­
eign, . . . lbs. 1,754,488
16,449
Sugar, muscovado B. P.
42,205
Coffee, foreign, . . .
153
do B. P.
15,730
Teas . . . .
lbs.
224
C i g a r s ......................
14,587
Salt, . . . minots
£5,073 10 6
Value of merchandise paying 24 per cent
0 8
13,518
do of free goods
•

Wines—Madeira . galls.
2
808
Port . . . .
Spanish
. . 1,619
. .
152
Malaga
Fayal . . . . 1,216
744
Spirits—Rum, foreign
Brandy
. .
244
Treacle
. . . . 1,900

£18,591

11

2

£596

14

4

FROM THE BRITISH W EST INDIES.

Value of merchandise paying 2 j per cent

•

FROM THE UNITED STATES.

lbs. 66,524
Coffee . .
1,647
. minots
Salt, . .
. lbs. 41,446
Tobacco, leaf,
137,780
do
manufac.
32
Snuff
691
Cigars
.
£3,549 16 7
Value of merchandise paying 2J- per cent
12,755
4 5
do of free goods
•
•

Wines—Port . . galls.
2
Champagne . .
46
French . . . 3,827
Spirits— Rum . . . . 34,436
Cordials
. . . .
218




£16,305

1

0

545

Canadian Commerce.
FROM CUBA.

Sugar
Coffee

Rum
. . . galls. 7,578
“
4,715
Molasses
. .
Value of merchandise
IMPORTS

.

.

.

.

AT

lbs. 1,159,777
U
224
£100 10 0

MONTREAL.

TOTAL FROM ALL PLACES.

9,865
Coffee
lbs. 104,122
Wines— Madeira galls.
. 134,481
2,288
All other
Tobacco, manufact’d
. 160,297
Snuff
.'
8
Spirits—Foreign .
.
Rum, E.I.&B.P. 74,450
23,202
Teas—Hyson
.
11,888
2,918
Bohea
British .
12,082
. 825,202
Other
Molasses .
lbs. 2,165,566
Salt,
minots 43,980
Sugar, refined,
Playing cards,
. 5,642,288
pks. 31,584
Muscovado do
N. B.—Three per cent has been deducted from all the above articles,
except the playing cards.
Value of merchandise paying 24 per cent .
.
£1,534,767 0 2
87,077 1 9
do of free goods
•
£1,621,844
IMPORTS

AT

31 Vessels— 2,770
galls. 2,198
Spirits—Rum
Brandy & Gin,
1,310
314
Wine
4
Cordials
. 8,134
Molasses
. lbs. 13,433
Sugar, refined,
895
Tea
. 3,050
Tobacco
779
Coffee
boxes
21
Raisins .
i do
100
do
boxes
4
Figs
tierces
2
Rice
boxes
1
Drugs .
bags
1
Seeds
bar’ls. 1,109
Flour
do
40
Biscuit .
.
Value of merchandise
IMPORTS

Spirits—Brandy
Gin
Rum .

AT

GASPE.

tons—222 men.
Biscuit .
Pork
Lard
do
Butter .
do
Cheese .
Salt
T ar
Pitch
Peas
Peppermint
Potatoes
Meal
Chocolate
Bricks .

NEW

bags
645
176
bar’ls.
casks
8
kegs
15
bar’ls.
9
kegs
15
packages
2
tons
216
36
bar’ls.
do
64
do
50
galls.
108
bar’ls.
14
do
3
13
boxes
loose
2,000
£5,948

5

5

CARLISLE.

47 Vessels—6,649 tons—358 men.
galls. 1,417
Wine
305
Coffee
5,158
Tea




1 11

galls.
lbs.
.

405
2 ,1 6 9
1,356

546

Canadian Commerce.

Sugar, refined,
lbs.
.
Muscovado
.
Tobacco .
.
Snuff
Chocolate
boxes
do
lbs.
Molasses .
galls.
Raisins
cwts.
Pork
bar’ls
Beef
Biscuit
Flour
Corn
Rosin
Meal
Pitch
Value of merchandise .

3,410
24,744
1,944
52
3
172
3,882
2
94
307
12
268
12
1
75
62
.

Turpentine
Apples
Onions
Salt
Soap
Vinegar .
Tar
Bricks
Codfish
Cod sounds
Fish oil .
Juniper knees
do
logs
do
tons
Rice
.

.

.

bar’ls.

3
6
16
tons
685
cwts.
10
hhds.
10
bar’ls.
12
16,500
cwts. 2,833
kegs
9
galls. 1,006
pcs.
585
181
15
packages 15
£2,066

12

3

EXPORTS IN 1841.
POETS OF QUEBEC AND MONTREAL.
T o G r e a t B r ita in .

Cleared 1,050 vessels—389,865 tons— 14,917 men : of which 32 built this
year, containing 19,611 tons.
Apples
bar’ls.
422
Flaxseed
bags
123
Ash timber
1,836
do
minots
tons
1,191
Ashes, pot,
Flour
bar’ls.
14,066
bar’ls. 338,278
Ashes, pearl,
do
7,287
do
£ do
318
Balsam
packgs.
52
packages
90
Furs
Barkwork
do
Gunstocks
120
20
pieces
Barley
16,147
minots
4,504
Handspikes
do
Basswood
27
tons
Hickory timber tons
9
Battens
91
pieces
77,566
Honey
packages
Beef
6
tierces
do
48
Horns
do
19,250
69
bar’ls.
pieces
Horns (ox)
Birch timber
1,610
do
231
tons
Knees
137
Boards
pieces
Lard
puns.
21,291
853
Bones
tons
do
casks
50
7,428
do
hhds.
10
do
lbs.
3,374
Butter
cords
kegs
1,090
Lathwood
10
do
pounds
Linseed
casks
14,560
55
Butternut timber tons
tons
19
Maple timber
Canoes
6
Masts and bow­
1,399
Castorum
lbs.
1
sprits
pieces
2
Cheese
do
8,950
Moose deer
31,384
Com, (Indian) minots
Oak timber
160
tons
45
Cranberries
packages
16
bar’ls.
Onions
48,123
Deals
pieces 1,569,496
pieces
Oars
88
Deals, spruce
do
bar’ls.
156,023
Oats
4,541
Deal ends
do
Oatmeal
do
111,808
13,163
Elm timber
casks
31,213
tons
Oil cake
15
minots 126,558
Essence (spruce)packages
Peas




Canadian Commerce.

Pine timber(red) tons
94,588
do
white
222,255
Plants
packages
42
Pork
bar’ls.
65
Salmon
tierces
11
do
bar’ls.
14
Seeds (grass)
do
20
Shooks (pun.)
packs
181
Spars
pieces
2,598
Specimens,
packages
15
Spokes
pieces
1,896
Staves (standard) do 1,292,311
do (pun.)
do 3,783,039
do (pipe)
do
396,509

547

Staves, (barrel) pieces 243,579
Tamarac timber tons
318
Tobacco
hhds.
61
Treenails
pieces
4,000
Wheat
minots 450,594
Imported Articles.
Pitch pine
tons
239
do
pieces
95
Porks
bar’ls.
20
Returned goods packages
374
Wine
pipes
1
do
casks
2
do
cases
14
t

TO IRELAND.

Cleared, 237 vessels—78,740 tons—31,117 men : nine of which
year, 3,201 tons.
28
Apples, bbls.
Knees, pieces
502
Ash timber, tons
Lathwood, cords
586
Maple timber, tons
Ashes, pot, bbls.
“ pearl, “
42
Masts, pieces
1
Balsam, packages
Oak timber, tons
Basswood, tons
4
Oars, pieces
Battens, pieces
10,989
Pine timber, tons
94
Birch timber, tons
Pine, white
4,138
Boards, pieces
Shooks, packs
Butternut, tons
6
Spars, pieces
641,014
Deals, pieces
Staves, (standard,) pieces
198,781
Deals, spruce, pieces
“ (puncheon,) “
18,542
Deal ends
“
(pipe,)
“
Elm timber, tons
2,461
“
(barrel,)
“
Essence, spruce, packages
3
Wheat, minots
Handspikes, pieces
1,696

built this
31
674
12
22
3,110
1,346
18,493
38,465
824
729
267,992
267,992
193,737
564,502
111,203

TO THE BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES.

Cleared, 146 vessels— 12,663 tons—700 men: of which built this year,
one vessel, 77 tons.
Ale, gallons
60
Buffalo robes, cases
18
370
Apples, barrels,
“
loose
24
2
Butter, kegs
Ash timber, tons
179
31
Ashes, pot, bbls.
“
pounds
99,797
2
Axes, packages
Calf-skins, doz.
5
Bacon, cwts.
4
Candles, boxes
262
48
Barley, bbls.
“
pounds
5,826
34
“ minots
Casks, empty
129
Beans, “
90
Carriages
3
1,753
Chairs, dozens
Beef, bbls.
4
1,850
Biscuit, cwts.
Cheese, packages
8
200
“
cwts.
Boards, pieces
22




548

Canadian Commerce.

Cheese, pounds
Cigars, cases
Codfish, cwts.
Flour, bbls.
Glass, boxes
“ half boxes
Herrings, bbls.
Iron, bars
“ packages
Lard, kegs
Meal, bbls.
Merchandise, packages
Fish, pickled, cwts.
“
boxes
Flour, bbls.
Furs, packages
Hams, casks
“ tierces
Harness, sets
Hats, packages
Herrings, bbls.
Hoops, pieces
Lard, kegs
“ pounds
Leather, packages
Meal, Indian, bbls.
Meal, oat, bbls.
Merchandise, packages,
Moccasins,
“
Nails,
“
Oak, pieces
Oil, linseed, casks
Oil, fish, galls.
Onions, bbls.
Peas, minots
Peppermint, galls.
Molasses, puncheons,
Paint, packages
Pork, bbls.

3,635
4
303
13,494
626
421
310
199
9
35
50 .
256
205
399
11,389
12
40
16
18
4
84
6,000
442
171,628
90
70
175
12
22
74
510
1
50
159
2,016
24
3
231
2,985

Raisins, boxes
152
“ half do.
20
Rum, galls.
237
Salt, minots
5,380
Shrub, galls.
25
Soap, pounds
6,934
Stoves, number
75
Pork, bbls.
18,313
Shingles, bundles
15
Shoes, packages
3
Shoe packs, “
2
Shooks, puncheon, packs
1,778
“
hhds.
“
550
“
tierce
“
146
“
barrel
“
5,000
Skins, seal, puncheons
9
“
hhds.
1
“
loose
3,100
Soap, boxes
301
“ pounds
75,217
Spars, pieces
12
Staves “
127,539
Stoves “
83
Stove-pipes, lengths
926
Wheat, minots
1,065
Whiskey, galls.
529
Imported articles.
Beef, tierces
40
“ bbls.
418
Butter, pounds,
1,374
Candles, “
240
Cordage, “
28
Sugar, bbls.
4
Tea, pounds
2,023
Tobacco, “
2,685
“
kegs
179
Vinegar, galls.
272
Wine, casks
1
“ cases
1
“ galls.
159

TO THE BRITISH WEST INDIES.

Cleared, 16 vessels—2,407 tons— 137 men: of which built this year, one
vessel, 125 tons.
Alewives, bbls.
Butter, lbs.
20
2,400
Ale, hhds.
12
Codfish, casks
75
“ galls.
“
cwts.
1,207
3,480
88
Beef, tierces
1
“
boxes
725
Flour, bbls.
3,879
“ bbls.
106
“ half do.
206
Herrings, “
Biscuit, cwts.
10
40
“
half bbls.
62
Butter, kegs
310
“
boxes




Canadian Commerce.

Hoops, pieces
Lard, pounds
Mackerel, bbls.
“ half do.
“ kegs
Oats, minots
Oatmeal, bbls.
Oil, fish, galls.
Onions, bbls.
Pine timber, tons
Pork, bbls.
“ half do.
Potatoes, bbls.
Salmon, casks
“
tierces • •
“
bbls.
Shooks, puncheons,

4,000
6,900
79
22
38
512
26
2,967
81
100
11,233
313
64
6
202
62
841

549

Soap, boxes
118
Staves, pieces
79,700
Stoves, No.
1
Tallow, kegs
10
Tongues, half bbls.
20
“
kegs
56
Imported Articles.
Beef, half bbls.
50
Brandy, hhds.
7
Flour, bbls.
70
Merchandise, packages
150
Pork, bbls.
400
Raisins, boxes,
52
Salt, minots
75
2
Whiskey, puncheons
“
galls.
780
Wine, hhds.
1

TO THE UNITED STATES.

Cleared, one vessel, 178 tons.
Deals, boards, and scantling,
Scantling, birch, pieces
pieces
4,020
Boards and planks, “
Scrap iron, casks
Deals, spruce, pieces
60
2,127
Spars, pieces
Staves, puncheon

443
360
39
53

TO FRANCE.

Cleared, 8 vessels—-3,657 tons—145 men.
Masts and bowsprits, pieces 495
Spars, pieces
Ash timber, tons
54
Staves, standard, pieces
116
“
puncheon, “
Elm “
“
66
Oak “
“
Furs, packages
822
Bark work, “
Pine “
“
7,773
Segars, boxes
Deals, pieces
Oars
“
2,988

127
21,417
18,149
2
3
36

TO NEW SOUTH WALES.

Herrings, bbls.
Salmon, tierces
“
bbls.
Mackerel, “
Codfish, casks
“
boxes
Potk, bbls.
“ half do.
Beef, tierces
“ bbls.
Flour “
Vinegar, bbls.
Coloring, kegs
Pails, doz.
VOL. v i . — NO. VI,




Cleared, 1 vessel, 254 tons.
20
Iron, bars
26
Nails, casks
1
Handspikes, pieces
4
Oars,
“
59
Deals,
“
40
Boards, feet
355
“
pieces
20
Blue, boxes
143
Brooms, doz.
33
Cider, hhds.
395
Crackers, bbls.
16
Snuff, cases
1
Whiskey, puncheons
5
Wine, cases
“ baskets
55

1,010
22
136
144
812
498,400
50
25
50
6
31
7
5
10
20

550

Canadian Commerce.
TO BIO DE LA PLATA.

Cleared, 2 vessels, 531 tons.
Ash staves, pieces
Pine scantling, pieces,
600
93
1,765
Boards
“
6
Pipe “
“
W . I. “
“
777
Coach-wheel spokes, pieces 8,107
Birch scantling, pieces
237
Spars,
“
79
Oak
“
“
59
Masts,
“
25
Ash
“
“
88

EXPORTS AT GASPE.
Vessels 22.—-Tons 2,073.—Number of men 135.
Deals, pieces
Deal ends, “
Battens,
“
Staves,
“
Boards,
“
Spars,
“
Lathwood, cords
Timber, pieces

11,989
1,077
978
2,950
440
5
14
469

Treenails, pieces
Oars,
“
Merchandise, packages
Codfish, bbls.
“
cwts.
Salmon, bbls.
Mackerel, “
Fish-oil, galls.
Herrings, bbls.

2,600
50
35
26
23,257
29
75
630
182

EXPORTS AT NEW CARLISLE.
Vessels 44.—-Tons 7,012.—Number of men 354.
1,506
Pitch, bbls.
Deals, pieces
141
Lathwood, “
Rice, tierce
117
Oars,
“
Rum, galls.
Sugar, lbs.
Spars,
“
4
Timber, tons
5,970
Salt, tons
Codfish, bbls.
Boards, feet
11,370
972,500
Shingles, pieces
“
cwts.
Treenails, “
21,250
“
boxes
29
Blubber, galls.
Barley, bbls.
Butter, cwts.
40
Fish-oil, “
Salmon, bbls.
Coffee, lbs.
40
Flour, bbls.
165
Herrings, “
Glass, boxes
8
Beef,
“
22
Pork,
“
Peas, bbls.
Potatoes, “
73
Lobsters, kegs

12
1
120
336
129
80
22,583
82
559
11,913
95
50
304
50
30

MEASURES,, WEIGHTS, MONEY, DUTIES, ETC.

Measures and Weights are those of Great Britain, but with the old
English measures of capacity. The minot, sometimes used in Lower
Canada, is an old French measure, 90 of which arc commonly estimated
at 100 English or Winchester bushels, although the true proportion is 90
to 98.
Money and Exchanges. — Accounts are kept, and sales and purchases
are made in pounds, shillings, and pence, Halifax currency, which is
about 20 per cent inferior to British, though the denominations and pro­
portions are the same. The pound currency is four Spanish dollars, each
dollar being called 5s. But the average value of the dollar in the London
market is only 4s. 2d.; hence 4s. 2d. sterling=5s. currency; or 16s.




Canadian Commerce.

551

8d. ste rlin g = £ l currency; or £100 sterling=£120 currency. The
comparison of exchange is, however, complicated, by the assumption of a
par departing widely from the value of the currency. This erroneous
par is 4s. 6d. taken as the value of the dollar, or £90 sterling equal to
£100 currency ; the rule being, add one ninth to sterling to obtain cur­
rency. To make up the difference between the erroneous par and the aver­
age value of the currency—say the approximate par—it is necessary to
make use of a nominal premium of exchange. Thus, when exchange is
really wholly undisturbed, or, in other words, at par, (£100 sterling sell­
ing for £120 currency,) it is said to be at 8 per cent premium. For ex­
ample, bill on London, sterling £100 ; add premium 8 per cent £8, makes
£108 ; adding also one ninth, £12, we have £120 currency=£100 ster­
ling. The better way would be to quote the dollar, or the pound, or the
£100, at what each is respectively worth. Government exchange is thus
quoted, so are sovereigns. The commissary-general of Canada quotes his
drafts at 4s. 2d. or 4s. If d. per dollar, as the case may be ; that is, on be­
ing paid so many times 5s. currency, he will deliver a bill on the treasury
of as many times 4s. 2d. or 4s. lfd . sterling. Sovereigns are quoted in
the Canadian price-lists at 24s. currency (more or less.) Thus, 4s. 2d.
sterling per dollar; 24s. currency per sovereign; exchange at 8 per cent
premium; and £100 sterling=£120 currency, all mean the same state
of the exchange. Fluctuations in the rate of exchange of course revolve
round the nominal premium of 8 per cent as around a pivot, so that 6 per
cent premium is in fact 2 discount, and 10 per cent only 2 premium. The
circulating medium is chiefly composed of British and American coins,
and of notes circulated by the various banks. No paper is issued by the
government or on the credit of the colony.
The following are the provisions of an act recently passed, regulating
the currency of the United Province :
“ From and after the passing of this act, the acts 48 Geo. 3, L.C. 59
Geo. 3, L. C., 1st Sec. 10 and 11 Geo. 4, L. C., 2 Yict. L. C., 36 Geo.
3, U. C., 49 Geo. 3, U. C., 7 Geo. 4, U. C., 11 Geo. 4, U. C., 6 Will. 4,
U. C., 3 Victoria, U. C., and all other acts relating to the currency, and
in anywise contrary to this act, are repealed.
“ II. That the pound currency shall be such that the pound sterling, as
represented by the British sovereign of the weight and fineness now fixed
by the laws of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, shall be
equal to, and any such British sovereign shall be a legal tender for, one
pound four shillings and four pence currency.
“ That nothing in this act shall affect the meaning to be fixed to the
words ‘ Sterling,’ 1Sterling money of Great Britain,’ or other words of like
import in any law in force in this Province, or any part thereof, when this
act shall come into force, or in any contract or any agreement then made
therein, but any such law, contract, or agreement, shall be construed ac­
cording to the intention of the legislature, or of the parties who made the
same ; but in any law, contract, or agreement made in this Province after
this act shall be in force, the pound sterling shall be understood to have
the value in currency hereby assigned to the British sovereign of the law
ful weight and fineness aforesaid.
“ IV. That the eagle of the United States of America, coined before
the first day of July, one thousand eight hundred and thirty-four, and
weighing eleven pennyweights six grains troy, shall pass and be a legal




552

Canadian Commerce.

tender for two pounds thirteen shillings and four-pence currency ; and the
eagle of the United States aforesaid, coined after the day last-mentioned,
and before the commencement of the year one thousand eight hundred and
forty-one, and weighing ten pennyweights eighteen grains troy, shall pass
and be a legal tender for two pounds ten shillings currency.
“ V. That the gold coins of Great Britain and Ireland, or of the United
States, coined before the day last aforesaid, being multiples or divisions
of those hereinbefore mentioned, and of proportionate weight, shall for
proportionate sums pass current, and be a legal tender to any amount by
tale, so long as such coins shall not want more than two grains of the
weight hereby assigned to them respectively, deducting one half-penny
currency for each quarter of a grain any such coin shall want of such
weight: Provided always, that in any one payment above the sum of fifty
pounds, the payer may pay, or the receiver may insist on receiving, the
said 'British gold coins, or gold coins of the United States aforesaid, coined
before the first day of July, one thousand eight hundred and thirty-four,
by weight, at the rate of ninety-four shillings and ten pence currency per
ounce tro y ; and in like manner any sums tendered or to be received in
the gold coin of the United States of America, coined since the day last
aforesaid, may be weighed in bulk as aforesaid, and shall be a legal ten­
der at the-rate of ninety-three shillings currency per ounce troy, when
offered in sums not less than fifty pounds currency.
“ VI. That the gold coin of France of forty francs, and its multiples
or divisions, coined before the passing of this act, may be weighed in bulk
as aforesaid, and shall be a legal tender at the rate of ninety-three shillings
and one penny currency per ounce troy, when offered in sums of not less
than fifty pounds currency.
“ That the old doubloon of Spain or quadruple pistole, and the Mexican
and Chilian doubloon, and the parts thereof respectively, coined before
the passing of this act, may be weighed in bulk as aforesaid, and shall be
a legal tender at the rate of eighty-nine shillings and seven pence cur­
rency per ounce troy, when offered in sums of not less than fifty pounds
currency.
“ That the gold coins of La Plata and of Colombia, coined before the
passing of this act, may be weighed in bulk as aforesaid, and shall be a
legal tender, at the rate of eighty-nine shillings and five pence currency
per ounce troy, when offered in sums of not less than fifty pounds cur­
rency.
“ That the gold coins of Portugal and of Brazil, coined before the pass­
ing of this act, may be weighed in bulk as aforesaid, and shall be a
legal tender at the rate of ninety-four shillings and six pence currency
per ounce troy, when offered in sums of not less than fifty pounds cur­
rency.
“ VII. That the milled dollar of Spain, the dollar of the United States
of America, and of the several states of Peru, Chili, Central America, and
the states of South America, and of Mexico, coined respectively before the
year one thousand eight hundred and forty-one, and not weighing less than
seventeen pennyweights four grains troy, shall pass for five shillings and
one penny currency each, and the half-dollar of any of the same nations,
states, or governments, and date hereinbefore mentioned, and of the pro­
portionate weight, shall pass for two shillings six pence and a half-penny
currency, each, and such dollar or half-dollar shall be a legal tender by




Canadian Commerce.

553

tale to any amount, but the other silver coins of the same nations and date,
being subdivisions of such dollars, for proportionate sums and of propor­
tionate weight, shall pass at the rates hereinafter mentioned, to wit, the
quarter for one shilling and three pence currency, the eighth for seven
pence and one half-penny currency, and the sixteenth for three pence
half-penny currency, each, and not otherwise; except that the subdivisions
of such dollars, being less than halves thereof, shall be a legal tender by
tale to the amount of two pounds ten shillings currency, and no more at
any one time, until they shall have lost one twenty-fifth part of such
weight respectively, after which they shall not be lawful money.
“ VIII. That the five franc silver piece of France, coined before the
passing of this act, and weighing not less than sixteen pennyweights, shall
be a legal tender in tale to any amount at four shillings and eight pence
currency.
“ IX. Provided always, that the governor, lieutenant governor, or person
administering the government for the time being, may, by proclamation,
extend all the provisions of the three sections immediately preceding this
section, to any gold or silver coins of the nations, weights, and denomina­
tions therein mentioned or referred to, but of later date, which having
been assayed at the royal mint shall have been found equal in fineness to
those therein mentioned or referred to respectively.
“ X. That all silver coins of the united kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland, while lawfully current therein, shall pass in this province at the
rates following, that is to say : the British crown at six shillings and one
penny currency; which said British crown, and all other divisions of the
silver coin of the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, lawfully
current therein, of proportionate weight, shall for proportionate sums pass
current, and be a legal tender to the amount of two pounds ten shillings
currency, and no more. Provided always, that the holder of the notes of
any person or body corporate to the amount of more than two pounds ten
shillings, shall not be bound to receive more than that amount in payment
of such notes, if presented at one time, although each or any of such notes
be for a less sum.
“ XI. That the copper penny of the united kingdom aforesaid, or any
other which her majesty may cause to be coined, if not less than fivesixths of the weight of such copper penny, shall pass for one penny cur­
rency, and the halves and quarters thereof for proportionate sums; and
such copper coin shall be a legal tender to the amount of one shilling
currency at any one time, and no more.
“ A penalty on persons counterfeiting coin, or attempting to pass coun­
terfeit coin, or importing the same.”
The banks in the lower province consist of the Montreal Bank, with a
capital of £250,000; the (Montreal) City Bank, capital £200,000; the
People’s Bank, capital paid up £75,000; and Quebec Bank, capital
£75,000. Those in the upper province were four in number : The Bank
of Upper Canada, with a. capital of £200,000, that of Kingston, or the
Midland district, with a capital of £100,000, together with the Agricul­
tural and People’s Banks, the paid up capital of which was probably
£100,000 more. The Bank of British America, established in London in
the year 1836, has also branches in various places. Most of the provincial
banks are instituted on the American principle of limited liability.
Tariff.—The duties on imported goods levied in Canada are imposed
55*




554

Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

partly by the authority of the British government, and partly by that of
the colonial legislature. The former are called crovm duties, and the
latter provincial duties; the first being in sterling money, the latter in
currency. In charging the duties, the dollar is received at 4s. 4d., which
is 2d. less than the old par, but 2d. more than its real value. The pro­
vincial duties have no object besides the increase of revenue, not discrimi­
nating in any way between the sources of supply. The crown duties, on
the other hand, seem to be framed rather for the purpose of forcing the
trade into particular channels, than for simple revenue ; and the royal
receipts are certainly trifling compared with what they would be were the
imports equalized. The provincial duties are, on spirits, 6d. per gallon ;
Madeira wine, 9d. per gall.; other wines, 6d. per gall.; molasses, 5d.
per gall.; coffee, 2d. per lb.; sugar, raw, id ., refined, Id. per lb.; teas,
hyson, 6d., bohea, 2d., all others 4d. per lb.; tobacco, manufactured, 3d.,
leaf, 2d. per lb.; snuff, 4d. per lb .; salt, 4d. per rninot, which is drawn
back if reshipped for fisheries ; goods, wares, and merchandise not speci­
fied, (including nearly all British manufactures,) 21 cer cent, ad valorem.
The crown duties are not levied on British produce and manufactures.
On foreign wine (except French wine) the crown duty is 10s. per tun in
wood from the united kingdom, Malta, and Gibraltar, and £ 7 per tun, from
place of growth ; on British plantation rum 6d., and foreign spirits Is. per
g a ll.; tea and British plantation sugar and coffee are free. On most other
articles the 3d and 4th Wm. IV. c. 59, imposes duties of 7i, 15, 20, and
30 per cent; but, as in general they amount to a prohibition, they are sel­
dom levied. The duty of 7 i per cent is occasionally paid, but the excess
only is levied ; so that when the goods are liable to the provincial duty
of 21 per cent, 5 per cent only is payable to the crown.

MONTHLY

COMMERCIAL

CHRONICLE.

[ brought down to m at 15.]

oar last number we gave a brief summary of the leading events of the past year
bearing upon commercial affairs. It remains for us now to pursue our original intention
of bringing up the events of the current month, with the aspect of affairs, down to the
period of our publication. At the date of our last a great degree of gloom hung over the
markets generally, arising as well from the state of the foreign relations of the country
as from the financial discredit which surrounded the federal and most of the state govern,
ments. The receipt of later advices from England, seemed, however, to change the face
of affairs, and impart some degree of buoyancy to the markets. The news was of two
descriptions, viz:—political and commercial. The important feature of the first was, the
intelligence that an English army had been literally destroyed in the east, giving the
whole fabric of British power in India so rude a shock as to involve the necessity on the
part of the British government of putting forth its whole energies to retrieve Its standing.
The British government of India is almost entirely based upon opinion or of servile be­
lief, on the part of the millions of poor Indians, in the superiority of the English, and the
invincibility of British arms. A defeat, therefore, is of the gravest consequences. The
spread of disaffection resulting from it was perceptible simultaneously with the reception
of the news by the Indian government. The “ Bengal Hurkaru” of Feb. 17, 1842, re­
marks as follows :—“ W e have rather unpleasant accounts, in our Secunderabad letters,
of serious anticipations entertained there of something more than disaffection amang the
In




Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

555

sepoys, in consequence of the deprivation of batta.” A movement of troops on the 6th
had also been delayed in consequence of apprehended disturbances. These facts are
indicative of the great weight attached to the state of affairs in India by the home gov­
ernment, which is also manifest in the prompt embarkation of troops for the scene of ac­
tion. This state of things induced that sudden change in the disposition manifest by Great
Britain towards the United States that served promptly to remove all fears of an imme­
diate rupture between the two countries, and relieved our commercial horizon from one
of the most threatening clouds that lowered on it. The buoyancy caused by the removal
of fears upon that head, was stimulated by the nature of the commercial news, which was,
in effect, that the whole policy of the British empire in relation to the restrictive system had
undergone a change, and that henceforth the tendency would be to reduce instead of
enhancing the imposts upon foreign merchandise. The new tariff proposed large reduc­
tions in the duties on all articles of American agricultural produce. This fact was re­
ceived here as an earnest of a largely increased export trade in those articles; and, added
to the improved state of money affairs in London, imparted a stimulus to our stock mar­
ket which caused prices to undergo a general improvement. The following is a table of
rates at different dates.
PRICES OF LEADING ST A T E STOCKS IN TH E N EW YORK MARKET.
S to c k .

United States,.......
M

t(

New Y ork,...........
U

It

U

((

Ohio,.......................
Kentucky,...............
Indiana,..................
Illinois,...................
Michigan,...............

R a te
1841.
R edeem .
o f In .
a b le.
te re s t.
A u g u s t s 0. M a r c h

1842.
1. A p r i l 15.

100 a 1001 96 a 97
97 a 99
100 a 1001 79 a 80
9 1 a 92 71 a 73
86 a 87 68 a 72
44 a 48
1856-60 94 a 95 67 a 68
1860
84 a 85 67 a 68
1865
59 a 63 35 a 45
1861
55 a 551 19 a 20
1870
55 a 55J 18 a 19
1844
1844
I860
1861
1855

54

G
6
54
5
5*
6
6
5
6*
5*
6*
6*
6*

1860

65 a 70

90 a 95
95 a 97
82 a 84
77 a 80
75 a 77
31 a 33
50 a 55
63 a 70
a 30
15 a 17
15a 16
15 a 30

M ay

1.

93 a 97
90 a 93
83 a 85
82 a 83
48 a 50
70 a 71
81 a 82
a 50
19 a 21
18 a 20
40 a 50
40 a 50

M ay

15.

94 a 96
98 a 99
90 a 91
83 a 84
81 a 821
71 a 72
78 a 79
40 a 50
25 a 27
19 a 20
17 a 171
43 a 45
15 a 20

* The states marked thus have failed.
Notwithstanding this marked improvement in the price of stocks actually upon the
market, the new loans of the federal government, and of the state of Ohio, of which we
gave the amounts in our last, have been offered upon the market without success. The
loan of the state of New York for $1,000,000, at seven per cent, was advertised some
weeks without success, but was finally taken by different capitalists, and a portion by
brokers on foreign account. The city seven per cent was also taken by a great number of
individuals. Towards the close the demand for the stock seemed to increase, and it is
now supposed that the state government will get the remainder at six per cent. The city
seven per cent stock is at one per cent premium in the market, and three per cent pre­
mium is demanded for that of the state. For the Ohio loan no bids were made. When
the United States loan was put upon the market, rumors were industriously circulated
that foreign agents were here, prepared to give par for i t ; these were put afloat, no
doubt, to induce confidence and promote offers, but without success. When the time
elapsed for the receipt of proposals, it did not appear that any bids had been received. In
point of profit and undoubted security, the seven per cent stock of the state of New York




556

Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

unquestionably offered an investment every way superior to the six per cent stock of the
federal government. Viewed therefore as a simple matter of dollars and cents, it is not
surprising that the latter remained untouched while the former was to be had. Why that
was so tardily taken is, however, not so readily explained. It grows out of the fact that
little or no foreign capital comes now to this country for investment, and principally for
the reason that abroad the credit of each and all the state governments stands nearly upon
the same footing. Foreigners do not readily make those nice distinctions between dif­
ferent members of the same confederacy which are so easily determined on this side.
Hence it is that when confidence is so far acquired on their part as to make investments
at all, they make them in those stocks which, being the lowest, offer the best chance of
profit in the event of ultimate payment. In this view it was that numerous orders were
received by the packet of April 4, by large houses in Wall-street, to purchase, on foreign
account, those stocks which stood the lowest—as Illinois, Ohio, and Pennsylvania.
- These purchases it was that caused the rise in prices manifest in the above table. They
were made on account of parties who could not be brought to believe that the doctrine
of repudiation could ever be seriously entertained, and who supposed that the agitation
of the subject grew out of panic caused by repeated failures, and, more particularly, war
apprehensions. They therefore argued that as soon as the latter wTere removed, a reac­
tion would take place. If it could be ascertained to a certainty that the dividends of the
delinquent states would be resumed, say ten years hence, the stock would be worth much
more than their present rates. For instance, the Indiana five per cent stock, redeemable
in 1861, are selling at 20 ; if it were certain that the interest would recommence at the
end of ten years, and then continue to the redemption of the principal, it would be the
same as an annuity in reversion at ten years, which would be worth about twenty-two
per cent, with a bonus at the end of nineteen years equal to an annuity of two and a
half per cent, making the present value of the bond, under these considerations, 32.726
per cent. There was another operating cause upon the market, both to create
speculation in the cheap stocks and to prevent investments in the new stocks. It was
the knowledge that many members of eminent foreign houses, large holders of the
delinquent bonds, had come to this country to carry out a plan which was commenced
at the extra session last year, viz :—to procure an assumption of the state debts on the
part of the federal government, or some guaranty for their ultimate payment, based upon
the public land revenues. There seemed to be a determination to countenance the ne­
gotiation of no new loans until the old ones were provided for. The necessities of the
federal government would be, it was supposed, a strong inducement for it to accede to
these proposals. Hence the indisposition of the foreign houses or any of their corres­
pondents on this side, to make bids for the loan, pending this negotiation. In our own
market the surplus capital is exceedingly small. There probably has been in the aggre­
gate rather a loss than an accumulation of capital during the past few years. A very
large proportion of the capital that formerly existed, and was invested in stocks, (bank,
state, and corporate,) has been annihilated. The accumulations from dividends have
been severely curtailed, and all property is so depressed, that it would be difficult to
realize for the purpose of changing the investment. As a solitary instance, we may
mention $10,000,000 of the stock of the late national bank, held in this country. This
sum was the accumulation of the industry and hard savings of 3,133 individuals in dif­
ferent parts of the United States. If that bank was now in good credit, these persons
might change the investment for that of state stock ; but that large sum has ceased to
exist, and with it has gone at least $100,000,000 of other capital. The ability to realize
from real estate and other property is very small, and the amount of actual cash in the
hands of capitalists, available for investments in stocks, must be exceedingly circum­




557

Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

scribed. These, we think, are some of the practical causes that have operated to create a
rise in existing stocks, and at the same time to prevent the negotiation of the new ones.
The movement in the treasury notes issued by the federal government indicates how
small the demand for government six per cent securities is at present. The following is
a table of the amount outstanding at the date of the last return, as compared with for­
mer returns:—
UNITED STATES TREASURY NOTES OUTSTANDING.

March 1.
May 1.
J a n . 1.
Total outstanding old issues,................. .... 1,319,663 .... . 703,695.... .. 543,852
.
7,527.062
....
..
7,527,062
Issues under act of February 15, 1841,.... .... 6,298,256 ....
Redeemed of that issue,....................... .... 777,197 .... . 2,038,519 .... .. 4,451,601

Issues of January, 1842,.......................
Redeemed of that issue,...................... .

5,521,059

. 2,377,118 .... .. 5,641,737
. 30,211 .... .. 1,826,322

G rand T otal outstanding,...............6,840,723 ....... 8,539,115 ...... 7,434,729
In the sixty days commencing March 1, and ending May 1,1842, it appears there were
received for government dues and redeemed, $4,369,006 treasury notes; and in the

same time $3,264,619 new notes were issued by the department, making a decrease of
$1,104,387 in the amount outstanding. One feature is, however, remarkable in the
table. It is the rapidity with which the notes issued return upon the treasury, although
bearing six per cent interest. As, for instance, on the 1st of March, there had been but
$2,377,118 of the new notes issued, and but $30,000 of them redeemed. In the succeed­
ing 60 days, $3,300,000 were issued, and $2,000,000 came immediately back, remaining
out nearly 30 days, on an average. This fact indicates that there is no demand whatever
for a government six per cent security, although not only the customs are pledged for re­
demption, but they are receivable for all public dues. It would appear that they are
paid out to contractors, and by them sold to the government debtors, who immediately
pay them into the treasury. The inference is, that were it not for the demand created
for this purpose, the discount would be very heavy upon these securities. This fact, we
think, more than any thing, tests the ability of the public generally to hold stock that
there is any chance of disposing of at or near the par value.
The rates of domestic bills (see next page) evidence the fact that a strict regard to
prompt payments is the true regulator of exchanges. In foreign bills a brisk business
has been done for the last two packets, and rates of sterling bills have improved. The
rates follow:—
PRICES OF FOREIGN BILLS IN N E W YORK,
AT DIFFERENT PERIODS IN THE YEAR 1842.
P la c e s .

F eb ru a ry.

M arch.

London,.......
8 a 84
73 a 84
France,........ 5 27J a 5 28J 5 274 a 5 281 5
Amsterdam,. 391 a 40
39J a 40
Hamburg,.... 35g a 3 5 |
35g a 35|
Bremen,.......
7 6 | a 77
7 6 | a 77

A p r il.

M ay

1.

M ay

15.

5 £ a 7}
8 a 8}
6 a 74
3 7 | a 5 40 5 35 a 5 37 5 32 a 5 33
39 a 39J
38 a 39
394 a 39J
35 a 354
35 a 35£
3 4 | a 35
753 a 76
76 a 76f
754 a 754

The importations of goods into the port of New York have been exceedingly small
this spring. The packets have but very small freights. This is a very favorable circum­
stance in many points of view. It prevents apprehension of any undue demand for
coin from abroad, and gives opportunity for the large stock on hand to work off to
advantage. For the government, however, it is untoward, inasmuch as it adds to its
difficulties, already great, arising from a diminished revenue. The receipts consist almost




558

Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

altogether of treasury notes, which being at a depreciation of | a f , form a good medium
of payment.
The progress of resumption on the part of the suspended banks of the south and west
has been quite as rapid as we intimated in our last. The banks of Maryland, and those
of North Carolina, have resumed in full; and preparations are on foot in New Orleans
to follow. Kentucky and Indiana will probably resume in June ; and the Bank of Illinois
at Shawneetown, (the only one now in that state,) will return to specie payments at the
same time. Virginia, Tennessee, Alabama, Arkansas, and Florida will then remain
alone in their profligate suspension—disgracing themselves—oppressing the people—and
injuring the commercial reputation of the whole country. The improvement in internal
exchanges has kept pace with the progress of specie payments. The following are the
rates of exchange at different dates :—
RA TES OF DOMESTIC BILLS A T N EW YORK,
AT DIFFERENT PERIODS IN THE YEAR 1842.
P la c e s .

Boston,.....................
Philadelphia,...........
Baltimore,................
Richmond,...............
North Carolina,.......
Savannah,................
Charleston,...............
Mobile,.....................
New Orleans,...........
Louisville,.................
Nashville,.................
St. Louis,..................
Cincinnati,...............
Indiana,....................

F eb ru a ry.

ja
1
7 a 8|
2 a 3
9 a 12J
54 a 54
24 a 3
1 4 a ij
124 a 13
64 a 7
94 a 10
14 a 144
13 a 14
15 a 16
16 a 17
17 a 18

M a rch .

A p r il.

la
|
a 4
4a f
8 4 a 8}
44 a 5
2 a 21
14 a I f
28 a 30
6 a 64
74 a 8
17 a 18
18 a 20
11 a 12
12 a 13
28 a 31

la
§
p a ra f
“ a 4
a 84
54 a 5 |
21a 24
14a 2
23 a 24
6f a 7
a 5
20 a 22
23 a 25
6 a 7
a 12
a 31

M ay

1.

la
f
par a 4 dis
fa
1
71 a 74
54 a 51
2 1 a 24
1 4 a 1}
19 a 20
61 a 7
5 a 6
17 a 18
6 a
8 a 10
a 10

M ay

15.

la
|
par a J
fa
1
71 a 74
3 a 31
a 2
1 4 a 1}
15 a 16
a 64
4 a 5
17 a 18
6 a
8 a 9
a 16
a 31

The banks of this city have been easy in their operations. Good business paper, as
usual, is in request with them ; but the desire to invest creates no disposition to depart
from the strict line of commercial banking in the present prospect of affairs. The pressure
among certain classes of dealers is very severe, and a vast number of firms have compromised their debts with their creditors. The number of dealers from the country who
are in the city is much smaller than usual at this season of the year, and the amount of
their purchases bears but a small proportion to those of former years. The country banks
discount but little, and the Lewis County Bank, (safety fund,) capital $100,000, has
failed. Produce, however, the great basis of our national prosperity, is very abundant,
and comes forward freely, as is manifest by the returns of freights on all our great national
thoroughfares. The elements of a large future business are visibly on the increase ; but
it would be injudicious to expect a very rapid growth in commercial enterprise. The
state of affairs in Europe is by no means such as to warrant the belief that a demand for
American produce can speedily be engendered to an extept that will raise prices in any
great degree. This is more particularly true in regard to the article of cotton, which
forms, in amount, two thirds of our exports. The new British tariff, it is true, is calcu­
lated hereafter to improve the commercial intercourse between the two countries; but
we apprehend much difficulty from its immediate effects, which must be similar to those
which have attended the breaking down of the paper system in this country. The gen­




Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

559

eral principle of Sir Robert Peel’s measure seems to be to effect a transition from high
to low money prices. It is undoubtedly true that the immense burden of the national
debt of England has been sustained the more easily by the operation of high money
prices for commodities. When a certain sum of money represents a small quantity of
produce or other commodities, it is more easily paid to the government than when it re­
presents a large quantity. Now, under the operation of high duties, the former has been
the case. In the progress of events, however, the growth of manufactures on the con­
tinent has been such that it has been found impossible longer to maintain a grade of prices
higher than those of the continent, and still compete with the manufacturers of Belgium
and Saxony in the markets of the world. Hence the distress of the manufacturers of Eng­
land, and the determination of the minister, by removing the artificial props to prices,
to reduce them to the level of those of the continent. This reduction of prices would evi­
dently increase the burden of the debt, because the £30,000,000 which represents the an­
nual interest in money, will, when prices are low, command a much larger quantity of the
products of industry than when prices are high. This fact has rendered necessary the tax
upon the receivers of that interest. Sir Robert Peel in the course of his remarks estimated
the probable reduction, in the value of property, attendant upon the operation of his bill
at twenty per cent, which is probably not far from the truth. Now it is not reasonable to
suppose, while this reduction is going on, that any improvement in the prices of American
produce can be effected, or that any extensive demand will spring up. The great markets
for English manufactures throughout the world evince as yet no symptoms of returning
animation, and although the prospective low prices of food are favorable to the increased
home consumption, yet there is but little probability of an improved demand for labor.
In this view, although we may look forward to a regular increase of internal trade at
home, we do not apprehend any auxiliary movement from an improvement in foreign
trade for the present. The currency of this country has undoubtedly undergone an im­
mense reduction, yet the corresponding low prices of goods and produce render a much
less amount of currency necessary. There is nothing in our political horizon at present
to warrant the mercantile man in a belief that a speedy return to the national bank policy
can be brought about, and therefore that our large internal commerce, growing out of the
transmission, sale, and distribution of the immense agricultural products, will turn for
many years to come on a strict specie basis, on the principles of short credits, quick re­
turns, and low prices. The business which grows up on this broad foundation must ne­
cessarily be safe, and little liable to revulsion; but it offers no prospect of alleviation to
those who have suffered by the transition from high paper values to those which stand
the severe test of a metallic currency.
The prospect of any immediate improvement in trade, growing out of the intercourse
between this country and Great Britain, is at this moment not very promising. The im­
mediate effect of the alteration in the tariff is to cause inactivity in commercial transac­
tions until the operation and influence of the reduction in duties, particularly that on
corn, is more clearly known. The last two monthly announcements of the Bank of
England reduced the rate of interest from five per cent to four per cent. The object of
that measure was undoubtedly to increase the discounts of the bank, which have of late
become so small as to threaten a still further reduction in the dividends, more especially
as, under the new income-tax, the bank will have to pay a large sum to the government.
The reduction of interest did not appear in the April return of the bank to have had the
effect of increasing the circulation; on the contrary, it underwent a still further reduction
of 1.6 per cent of the aggregate bank circulation of the kingdom, which is now lower than
it has been for many years. The following is a table of the currency of Great Britain
down to the latest dates:—




560

Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

BANK CURRENCY OF ENGLAND, FROM JANUARY, 1841, AND TH A T OF
________ G REAT BRITAIN, FROM AUGUST, 1841, TO MAY, 1842.

Periods.

Bank of
England .

Private
Banks.

Joint Stock Scotch and
Banks. Irish B'nks.

Total.

Bullion in
Bank.

Feb., >41, £16,220,000 £6,575,838 £3,798,155
£3,816,000
April,..... 16.587.000 6,322,579 3,666,258
4.638.000
16.632.000 6,444,395 3,807,055
5.098.000
S ept....... 17.069.000 5,768,136 3,311,941 £8,900,380 £35,049,457 4.803.000
October,.. 17.340.000 6,253,964 3,519,384 8,449,858 35,563,199 4.290.000
Novemb.. 17.065.000 6,288,723 3,421,135 9,227,725 36,102,583 4.218.000
Decemb.. 16.292.000 5,718,211 3,217,812 9,333,648 34,561,671 5.031.000
Jan., ’42, 16.293.000 5,478,189 3,042,197 8,791,627 33,605,013 5.629.000
Febr’ary,. 17.402.000 5,532,324 3,068,901 8,735,996 34,779,421 5.602.000
March,... 16.894.000 5,299,455 2,990,986 8,407,484 33,591,925 6.281.000
April,.....
16.674.000 5,289,050 3,047,656 8,003,971 33,014,000 7,006,000
This table presents the fact that the circulation of the Bank of England is nearly at
the same point now as in June last, while that of the provincial banks is much less than
it has been throughout the y e ar; giving a strong indication of the great depression of
business in the manufacturing districts. The currency of England is of such a nature
that a small contraction on the part of the Bank of England, whose bills are a legal tender, and therefore form the basis of the issues of the other banks, is felt in a much
greater degree than the mere figures indicate. Of the .£17,000,000 of those bills in cir­
culation, about £12,000,000 are in the vaults of banks and the tills of bankers. The
great business of the country is done through the medium of commercial bills, of which
the amount outstanding is estimated by the number of stamps issued at any one time at
£125,000,000. These are represented by the bank paper; therefore, if the Bank of
England contracts one per cent, or $170,000, the same ratio will run through the whole
circulation, and the actual reduction will be £1,800,000. The contraction of the circu­
lation of the bank since October, 1841, according to the above table, is £866,000; of
the country banks, £1,400,000; and of the whole kingdom, £3,088,000, or nearly ten
per cent. A corresponding reduction in the commercial bills would be £12,500,000,
making the gross reduction in the circulating medium £15,588,000 in the short space
of six months. The prospect ahead is rather that of further reduction, in consequence
of the approaching period for the imports of com to take place, than of expansion. We
apprehend, therefore, that any improvement in business must grow out of the low prices
of goods rather than an increase in the paper currency; more especially as this reduction
in the currency of the United States has been fearful in extent, and of a nature rather to
create apprehensions of further disasters than any immediate recovery. During the pe­
riod when the above reduction of £2,000,000 in the currency of England has taken
place through the voluntary operation of the issuing banks, the bank paper currency of
the United States has been reduced nearly $25,000,000 by the failure of banks whose
aggregate capital amounts to, in round numbers, $70,000,000. This is a fearful
amount, and the causes are yet in action, operating upon the remaining suspended
banks ; and it must be remembered that there is no prospect of forming new banks to
fill the chasm thus created; and there seems to be no alternative but for commerce to
conform to the new state of things.




561

Statistics o f Population.

STATISTICS

OF

POPULATION,

POPULATION OF TH E N E W ENGLAND STATES.
SIXTH DECENNIAL CENSUS.A

Statement showing the aggregate amount of each description of persons in the several
states of New England , by counties.
M AINE.
COUNTIES.

FREE WHITE
PERSON9.

Males.
Y ork,..................

T otal ,...

FREE COLORED
PERSONS.

Females. Males.

SLAVES.
TOTAL.

Females. Males. Females.

26,137
33,144
19,400
32,019
27|924
23^749
2L335
14^628
14’559
17'388
6^850
10^568
5^288

27,835
34^973
18^944
3R263
27’700
2l|826
20*122
13*953
13*708
16^501
6*287
10^215
4^122

33
266
5
130
111
76
29
]2
31
16
1
9
1

29
275
2
105
88
54
23
12
29
7
9
0

54,034
68,658
38,351
63,517
55,823
45,705
41,509
28,605
28,327
33,912
13,138
20j801
9^413

252,989

247,449

720

635

501,793

N E W HA M PSHIRE. —As above.
COUNTIES.

Rockingham,....
Strafford,...........
Merrimack,.......
Hillsborough,....
Cheshire,...........
Sullivan,............
Grafton,..............

22,098
29,454
17,698
20,055
13,116
10,135
21,446
5,002

T otal ,...

139,004

23,474
31,641
18,449
22,343
13,273
10,174
20,834
4,844

79
10
60
44
25
16
12
2

120
22
46
51
15
15
19
1

145,032

248

289

1

1

45,771
61,127
36,253
42,494
26,429
20,340
42,311
9,849
284,574

M ASSACHUSETTS. —As above.
COUNTIES.

Nantucket,........
Dukes,...............
Barnstable,........
Bristol,................
Plymouth,..........
Norfolk,..............
Berkshire,..........
Franklin,...........
Hampshire,........
W orcester,........
Middlesex,.........
Essex,.................
Hampden,..........
Suffolk,...............

4,362
1,925
15,905
28,898
23,182
25,991
20,464
14,203
15,326
46,699
50,121
46,217
18,348
49,038

4,071
2,013
16,206
30,036
23,838
26,989
20,003
14,521
15,370
48,041
55,997
48,263
18,706
44,297

423
13
218
626
161
63
654
52
106
261
285
233
152
1,407

156
7
219
604
192
97
624
36
95
312
208
274
160
1,031

9,013
3,958
32,548
60,164
47,373
53,140
41,745
28,813
30,897
95,313
106,611
94,987
37,366
95,773

T otal ,...

360,679

368,351

4,654

4,015

737,699

VOL. V I.----NO. VI,




56

562

Statistics o f Population.
POPULATION OF T H E N E W ENGLAND ST A T E S.— Continued.
VERMONT.

COUNTIES.

FREE WHITE
PERSONS.
M a le s .

Caledonia,.........
Grand Isle,........

Orange,..............

Rutland,.............

T otal ,...

F e m a le s .

11,557
12,420
10j941
1,959
6,871
l l ’742
2,121
13,882
13,713
5'351
8^503
15,414
2 0 '108
11/796

11,338
12,053
10>36
1,924
6^752
11/743
2,097
13^970
13,695
5,121
8£68
15,155
20,112
1U 676

146,378

144,840

FREE COLORED
PERSONS.
M a le s .

F e m a le s .

SLAVES.
TOTAL.
M a le s .

F e m a le s .

39

43

22,977

31

27

3

11

2 4 ’531
2 lj9 8 1
3,883
13^634
2 3 ’506
4,226

5

6

11

10
2
11

6
10

16

27,442
10,475
16^872
3 0 ’699
40,356
23^583

366

2 9 1 ,9 4 8

55
61
73
54
364

RHODE ISLAN D .—

27373

18
3
46
69
63
57

A s above.

counties .

K ent,..................
T otal ,...

912

1

353

2

27,389
7^969
6,766
6,084
3,154

29,090
8^324
7j047
6^687
3,077

681
226
244
147
115

267
163
130

1

1

51,362

54,225

1,413

1,825

1

4

CONNECTICUT. — A s

58,073
16,874
14,324
13j083
6,476
108,830

above.

COUNTIES.

New Haven,.....
Fairfield,.............
W indham,.........

T otal ,...

26,560
23/162
21,389
23,7 8 8
13,412
19,593
11*941

584
674
815
666
293
521
203
135

698
765
925
669
301
516
236
104

6

2

1
1

1
4

8 ,5 5 5

27,787
2 4 '0 7 3
21 ,3 3 4
24,792
14,069
19,817
12^498
9H 8 6

148,300

153,556

3,881

4 ,2 1 4

8

1
1

9

55,629
48^582
44,463
49^917
28,080
40,448
24/379
17,980
309,978

AGGREGATE OF WHITE MALES AND FEMALES.

Maine, total number of males,... ...2 5 2 ,9 8 9
u
u
females,... ...2 4 7 ,4 4 9
...1 3 9 ,0 0 4
New Hampshire,..
44
(4
females,... ...1 4 5 .0 3 2
Massachusetts,......
...3 6 0 ,6 7 9
44
44
females,... ...4 6 8 ,3 5 1

Vermont, tot. number of males,... ...1 4 6 ,3 7 8
44
44
females,... ...1 4 4 ,8 4 0
Rhode Island,.......
. .. 51,362
44
44
females,... . .. 54,225
Connecticut,...........
...1 4 8 ,3 0 0
44
females,... ...1 5 3 ,5 5 6

RECAPITULATION OF THE AGGREGATE POPULATION OF THE NEW ENGLAND STATES.
. 291,948
501,793 Vermont,.......
. 108,830
284,574 Rhode Island,
. 309,978
737,699 Connecticut,..
.27231,822
T otal A ggregate of the New England states,

M aine,................
New Hampshire,.
Massachusetts,...,




563

Commercial Statistics.

COMMERCI AL STATISTICS.
COMMERCE OF BENGAL.
The review of the commerce of Bengal for the last official year is a document of very
great importance. The sea duties at Calcutta on imports and exports, amounted to
nearly 50 lacks rupees—2£ millions dollars—being an increase of 10 lacks on those of
last year. Of the gross sum, 16^ lacks arose from the duty on foreign salt imported into
India: and should the plan of bonding this article, which is now under consideration
there, be carried out, it is stated that the receipts from this source would increase year
by year. The abolition of the transit duties* is shown to have worked w ell; for the
equivalent, (which was a slight duty on articles imported from England that had been
previously admitted duty free, or at a very low rate of duty,) had produced an enormous
increase in the duties, the amount for the year just closed having been 32£ lacks rupees.
And this increase has not been at the expense of commerce, for in the last year of the
old system, the imports had amounted to 33,582,436 rs., while for the present period
they had amounted to 58,677,671 rs. The entire cessation of the commercial transac­
tions of the East India Company is shown not to have proved injurious to the trade of
the presidency. Compare the years 1840-41 with 1835-36 in the following particulars:

Statement of the Imports of Merchandise and Treasure into the presidency of Bengal,
for six years; each Company rupee being equal to fifty cents.
IMPORTS.

EXPORTS.

Rupees.
1835-36....... 33,582,436
1836-37... ...37,265,602
1837 38... ...40,699,504
1838-39... ...41,405,790
1839 40... ...50,659,181
1840-41... ...58,677,671

Dollars.
equal to

u
it
tt

a

Dollars.

16,791,218........... ........... 30,558,978
18,632,801........... ..........33,538,704
20,349,752........... ........... 32,522,979
20,702,895........... ........... 32,400,402
25,329,590........... ........... 35,203,059
29,338,835........... ........... 41,846,649

Among the articles imported from England, it is found that the two articles of yam
and cotton cloths are the most prominent; the increase in the former has been 50 per
cent, and in the latter nearly 100 per cent as compared with the years 1836-37. Trade
with China, as was most naturally expected, had increased; and to arrive at a correct
result, it has been found necessary to combine the returns for China and Singapore, as it
was to the latter place that the chief consignments to China were made. From these it
appeared that whereas in 1835-36 their value was 239 lacs (nearly 15 millions dollars,)
it had fallen in 1840-41 to 139 lacs. Of this deficiency by far the largest item was
that of opium, of which the export in the last year was 72 lacs less than in the former.
Notwithstanding this there was was, however, a general increase of exports between
1830-41 of 225 lacs. With Pegu commercial relations continued to acquire a gradual,
but steady increase ; the exports in 1840-41 having risen to nearly 24 lacs. The great
increase has been in cotton piece goods. In imports there was a steady increase of su­
perior wines, ales and spirits, an increase in coffee, earthenware, ironmongery, and ma­
chinery ; but a decrease in books and pamphlets. In exports there was a large decrease
in native cotton piece goods. Of silk piece goods the amount was about 44 lacs.
In the exports of sugar there is a progressive and large increase, the quantity for the
* Bell, in his “ Review of the Commerce of Bengal for 1834-35,” has the following
remarks on those unjust restrictions, now abolished with those of the town duties, simi­
lar to the Octrois of France. “ When the transit duties shall have been abolished, an
impulse will be given to every sinew of commerce, which will cause us only to wonder
how such an execrable system should have been permitted to exist for a day.”




564

Commercial Statistics.

last year being 1,784,000 maunds, or about 66,000 tons, while in 1835-36 it was only
368,000 maunds. And this manufacture has grown to its present strength in the short
space of six years. Cotton had fallen off largely in this presidency, in consequence of the
interrupted trade with China. For the last year the export was 160 maunds, but in
1835-36 it was 440,000 maunds. The export of rum has kept pace with that of sugar ;
for the last year it was 1,306,700 gallons, while in 1835-36 it was only 49,000 gallons I
The amount of tonnage (which is always a fair index to the prosperity of a trading
place) employed in the trade of the port of Calcutta, stood as follows :—

Tons.
1835-36,......................................... 150,499
1836- 37,......................................... 197,165

Tons.
1839-40,......................................... 198,834
1840-41,......................................... 234,316

COMMERCE AND NA VIGA TION OF HAVANA.

Comparative Statement of the Commerce and Navigation of Havana, during the years
1840 and 1841; compiled from the Havana Weekly Reporter, of Jan. 22, 1842.
1840.
Imports.
1841.
269,107 qtls.
... 307,912 qtls.
Do.........................................United States.. 2,616 bbls.
1,202 bbls.
B utter,........................................... United States.. 818 qtls.
1,069 qtls.
1,173 do.
Do...................Holland and Belgium..
1,956 do.
Tallow Candles,............................ UnitedStates.. 8,920 do.
8,548 do.
Sperm
do.................................UnitedStates.. 1,309 do.
1,100 do.
4,861 do.
Cheese,......................................Holland..
6,414 do.
Codfish,.......................................... UnitedStates..28,217 do.
.... 21,766 do.
55,048 1bbls.
.... 37,447 bbls.
81,778 do.
Do.................................................Spain..
.... 120,014 do.
H am s,.............................................UnitedStates.. 2,113 iqtls.
5,396 qtls.
3,275 do.
Do................................. Hanse Towns..
1,490 do.
Lard,.............................................. UnitedStates..36,194 do.
.... 44,907 do.
7,955 do.
Sperm and Whale Oil,...United States..
.... 13,456 do.
Olive Oil,.......................................Spain..
74,307 arrobas
.... 112,273 arrobas
1,060 .loz. bott. ...
Do.......................................... France..
2,025 doz. bot.
721,830 1bunches
Onions,.......................................... UnitedStates..
.... 425,671 bunches
Pork,...............................................UnitedStates.. 821 bbls.
802 bbls.
Do. clear...................................... UnitedStates.. 2,843 iqtls.
4,510 qtls.
Potatoes,........................................ UnitedStates..19,666 1bbls.
.... 21,352 bbls.
113,808 iqtls.
Rice,...............................................UnitedStates..
.... 105,180 qtls.
Soap,.............................................. UnitedStates.. 613 do.
392 do.
1,879 do.
Do.............................................. France..
....
1,517 do.
28,256 do.
Do.................................................Spain..
.... 11,106 do.
2,348 -casks
W ine,.......................................... France..
2,677 casks
27,348 pipes
Do.................................................Spain..
.... 30,174 pipes
Nails,............................................. UnitedStates.. 9,792 iqtls.
8,758 qtls.
3,434 do.
Do............................................ England..
6,113 do.
1,879 do.
5,165 do.
Lumber,.....
22,436 M. feet
.United States..
.... 21,020 M. feet
Shooks,.....
65,978 :hhds.
.... 57,724 hhds.
Do...........
93,182 boxes
.... 149,256 boxes
Arabias,....
5,504 pieces
5,716 pieces
Britannias,..
5,652 do.
5,850 do.
Canvass,....
1,519 do.
1,636 do.
9,241 do.
6,834 do.
[,389,159 vs.
....1,511,921 vs»
31,058 pieces
.... 28,324 pieces
Hessians, .
4,506 do.
2,156 do.
27,820 do.
.... 23,974 do.
833,191 vs.
.... 916,773 vs.
86,243 pieces
.... 90,040 pieces
Rouans,.....
1,200 do.
2,227 do.
Sheetings,..
18,370 do.
.... 16,737 do.
Stockings,..
40,123 doz.
... 36,689 doz.




565

Commercial Statistics.
ARRIVAL OF VESSELS AT HAVANA.

1840.

Countries.

American,..
..
British,......
Spanish,......
...
Dutch,.......
Belgian,..... ........................................
French,........
Hamburg,...
Bremen,...... .........................................
Danish,.........
Others,......... ..........................
T otal ,...................... ..

1841.

Vessels.

884
87
539

.
.
.

.

15
29
21
31
17
16

.
.
.
.
.
.

.

1,653

.
.

.

Tonnage.

Vessels.

782
101
569
17
19
26
23
31
18
26

...... 106,512
...... 19,604
.........
77,655
...... 3,025
...... 4,449
.........
5,790
.........
5,470
.........
6,927
.........
2,545
.........
5,093

278,432

1,618

277,102

164,880......
15,520......
70,123.........
2,082......
3,204......
6,080.........
4,400........
5,637.........
3,035.........
3,411........

Tonnage.

EXPORTS OF SUGAR ANI) COFFEE FROM THE WHOLE ISLAND OF CUBA.

Ports.

Sugar.

1840.

1841.

Sugar.

C offee.

Havana,....... . 446,959 boxes...... .1,278,4134 arr...... 440,144 boxes....
Matanzas,.... 265,584J “ .... . 320,125| u ...... 272,768 tt
Trinidad,.... 59,772 “ .... . 16,820 (( ...... 70,999 (4
St. Jago,....
32,175 “ ..... . 572,312 u ..... 28,218 («
T otal ,— .

804,0904 “

.......

.2,197,771

<< ........

812,192

U

Coffee.

.
.
.

739,158 arr.
111,9084“
9,722 “
400,132 “

.1,260,9204“

COTTON GOODS EXPORTED FROM T H E UN ITED ST A T E S TO BRAZIL
FOR F IF T E E N YEARS.

Statement of the Value of Cotton Goods exported for the empire of Brazil; sent to the
government by L. H. Ferreira d'Aguia, Consul-General of that Empire in the United
States ; and politely furnished by that gentleman for publication in the Merchants’
Magazine.
Year.
Dollars. Year.
Dollars.
1836,
.....................................
1837,
.....................................
1838,
.....................................
1839,
.....................................
1830................................................
1831,...............................................
1833,................................................
1833................................................

343,888
72,496
114,794
193,898
81,333
66,119
184,884
361,640

T otal , in

1834................................................
1835,
.....................................
1836,
.....................................
1837,
.....................................
1838................................................
1839,
.....................................
1840,
.....................................

334,731
366,916
300,994
304,102
536,416
393,932
509.857

years,.................................... $3,563,989

EXPORTS OF BRITISH GUIANA.
The official report of produce during the year 1840 exported from this colony exhibits
an increase of more than live per cent, or 2,199 hogsheads, on sugar; thirty-two p(T
cent, or 3,865 casks, on molasses; and one hundred and twelve per cent, or 1,772,000
pounds, on coffee, as compared with 1839 ; concurrent with an apparent diminution in
the quantity of rum, of five per cent, arising from the concentration of the spirit, for want
of a sufficient supply of casks, and an actual deficiency of seventy-five per cent on the
small quantity of cotton grown in this province. The comparative exports of timber do
not appear in the official table. The growth, therefore, of this valuable and rapidly in­
creasing branch of commerce cannot be ascertained. The value of the surplus quantity
of produce shipped last year, making a full allowance for the apparent diminution in the
quantity of rum, and the real deficiency in cotton, is estimated at £138,936. The nett
revenue of the planters in 1840, from data furnished by themselves, amounted to £415,936,
or more than ten per cent, after allowing 6 per cent for interest of invested capital, and ten
per cent for wear and tear of machinery and dilapidation of buildings. The gross revenue
of the planters during the year 1840 considerably exceeded £2,000,000 sterling.




566

Commercial Statistics.
COMMERCE OF KINGSTON, JAMAICA.
'

IMPORTS FOR 1841 COMPARED WITH THOSE FOR 1840.

Statement of Imports in each year, from the 1st of Jan. to the 31st December, inclusive.

1841.
1840.
Butter,.........firkins 17,242.. 14,060
Lard,.......... firkins 10,033..
7,622
Candles,....... boxes 13,507.. 17,215
Soap,........... boxes 41,949.. 43,164
Pork,............. bbls. 20,920.. 11,429
Pork,....... half bbls.
1,488..
2,406
Brandy,.........pipes
3..
52
Brandy,.........hhds.
554..
531
Tobacco,....... hhds.
45..
101
Lumber, P. P....feet 2,081,000.. 882,000
Lumber, W. P...feet 4,953,000.. 2,427,000
Slaves, R. O.......... 229,000.. 669,000
Staves, W . O........... 110,000.. 79,000
Wood Hoops,........
68,000.. 138,000
Shingles, Cedar,.... 5,546,000.. 2,972,000
Shingles, Cypress,... 2,741,000.. 1,764,000
Statement of the Imports from the Is/ to the 5 t h of January, 1842.
Flour,........
500 Lard,.........................
Rice,.........
410 Butter,......................
Rice,.......
210 Pork,.......................... ................. bbls. 218
Rice,......
73 Pork,....................
Codfish,...
375 Brandy,.....................
Mackerel,..
365 Shingles, Cedar,......
...20,000
Alewives,..
138 Shingles, Cypress,...
... 56,000
Flour,...... .....bbls.
Flour,.... half bbls.
Corn Meal ...punch.
Corn Meal,......bbls.
Rice,......
Rice,.......
Rice,......
Codfish...
Codfish,....
Codfish,...,
Haddock,..
Mackerel,
Alewives,.
Herrings,..
Bread,......
Bread,.... half bbls.

1841.
1840.
93,778... 107,264
2,041... 2,544
310...
102
16,895... 20,653
868...
2,118
118...
222
22,291... 28,119
7,691... 8,709
3,795...
4,143
6,491...
9,756
204...
223
10,578...
7,101
4,569...
3,473
7,485
6,394...
7,678... 14,844
360...
215

335
L u m b e r, P

Staves, R.
Candles,...

p ..............
O................

Soap,........

. . . Qfi.Ofifi

Bread,........................ ............ bbls.
19,000 Bread,................... ......half bbls.
500 Tobacco,...................
102

470
130

EXPORTS OF MILAN, OHIO.

Statement of the Exports of Milan, Ohio, for the year 1841.
Articles.
Articles.
Value.

Value.

W heat,...........bush. 216,780 $216,780 00 Ashes,..............bbls.
448 $8,960 00
Cora and Rye, “
15,242
7,621 00 Pork,................bbls.
4,113
28,791 00
Oats,................ “
1,528
534 80 Flour,.............. bbls.
4,774
23,870 06
Timothy Seed, “
1,268
2,219 00 H. Wines, &c. bbls.
1,057
9,413 00
Flaxseed,......... “
1,003
1,348 75 Staves, pipe &, hhd. 1,217,034
24,340 00
Beans,............. “
317
30,000
237 75 Staves, butt,...........
1,800 00
Clover Seed,... “
1,400
7,000 00 Lumber, Wool, & c.................
2,294 00
Lard, bbls. & kegs
245
2,450 00
Butter, firk. &, bbls.
551
4,132 50
T otal , ........ $341,791 80
The arrivals and departures during the year were 152 vessels—agg. tonnage, 18,240 tons.
TRADE OF ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI.
W e are indebted to Charles C. Whittlesey, Esq., of St. Louis, for the report of the
harbor-master of St. Louis, showing the arrivals of steamboats, with their tonnage ; and
the receipts of wood, lumber, shingles, and staves, during the year 1841:—
Number of arrivals of steamboats.....................................................
1,928
T onnage,............................................................................................. 262,681
Average tonnage, about.....................................................................
136
Cords of w'ood received at wood landing,....................................... 24,596
“
“
“
below the creek........................................
2,000
Feet of Lumber,................................................................................. 9,550,328
Shingles,...............................................................................................8,512,710
Staves,................................................................................................. 382,150




Commercial Statistics .

567

U. S. EXPORTS OF COTTON, TOBACCO, AND RICE.
The following table, derived from Mr. Calhoun’s speech of March 16, 1842, exhibits
the value of the three great southern staples, cotton, tobacco, and rice, exported in each
year from 1820 to 1840, a period of twenty-one years.

Yrs.

Cotton.
Dollars.

1820 22,308,667
1821 20,157,484
1822 24,035,058
1823 20,445,520
1824 21,947,401
1825 36,846,649
1826 25,025,214
1827 29,359,545
1828 22,487,229
1829 26,575,311
1830 29,674,883

Tobacco.
Dollars.
7,968,600
5,648,962
6,222,838
6,282,672
4,855,566
6,115,623
5,347,208
6,816,146
5,840,707
5,185,370
5,833,112

•

Rice.
Dollars.

Yrs.

1,714,923
1,494,307
1,563,482
1,820,985
1,882,982
1,925,245
1,917,445
2,343,908
2,620,696
2,514,370
1,986,824

1831 25,289,492 4,892,388
1832 31,724,682 5,999,769
1833 36,191,105 5,755,968
1834 49,448,402 6,595,305
1835 64,661,302 8,250,577
1836 71,284,925 10,058,640
1837 63,240,102 5,795,647
1838 61,556,811 7,392,029
1839 61,238,982 9,832,943
1840 63,870,307 9,883,957

T otal , .......

Cotton.
Dollars.

Tobacco.
Dollars.

Rice.
Dollars.
2,016,267
2,152,361
2,774,418
2,122,292
2,210,331
2,548,750
2,309,279
1,721,819
2,460,198
1,942,076

807,373,071 141,214,027 44,042,958

DOMESTIC EXPORTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA, FROM 1819 TO 1841.

1820,........... ..................... $8,690,539
1821,........... ..................... 6,867,515
1822,........... ..................... 7,136,366
1823,........... ..................... 6,671,998
1824............ ..................... 7,833,713
1825............ ..................... 10,876,475
1826,........... ..................... 7,468,966
1827............ ..................... 8,189,496
1828,...........
1829,........... ..................... 8,134,676
1830
... 7,580,821
T otal , ................

1831,......
1832,......
1833,......
1834,......
1835,......
1836,......
1837,......
1838,......
1839,......
1840.......

.........$6,528,605
......... 7,685,833
......... 8,337,512
......... 11,119,565
......... 11,224,298
......... 13,482,757
......... 11,138,992
......... 11,017,391
......... 10,318,822
......... 10,036,769
.......$186,849,679

STA TISTIC A L VIEW OF TH E COURSE OF TH E FOREIGN TRADE OF
TH E UNITED STATES.
A correspondent of the Boston Morning Post has prepared some interesting statistical
views of the course of our foreign trade. It is very generally supposed that our imports from
Great Britain and her possessions exceed our exports to them by several millions of dollars
annually. Such was the supposition of the writer of the article in the Post until recently ;
when, in comparing the exports to England alone with the imports from thence for the
year 1840, he found the excess of exports was about twenty-four millions of dollars.
“ In order to show the course of trade for 1840, I have prepared table A, from which
it appears—1st, that the principal countries from which we imported more than we ex­
ported to them, were Spain, Cuba, and other Spanish possessions, China, and Brazil;
2d, that the principal countries to which we exported more than we imported from them,
were Great Britain and her colonies, Netherlands, Belgium, Texas, and Chili. To this
table is added a column showing the value of free articles imported, and another column
showing the principal articles, with the amount thereof in round numbers, imported from
each country free of duty. It will be seen that one half of the excess of imports from
Cuba and other Spanish colonies consisted of coffee, which was duty free ; that three
quarters of the excess of imports from Spain consisted of fruits, more than half of them
raisins, which will sell in no other market, and the duty on which, if imposed here, must
come out of the Spanish grower. Nearly all the excess from China consisted of tea,
while from Brazil we imported coffee to an amount nearly double the excess of our im­
ports from that country.
“ In order to ascertain whether this was the usual course of our trade, I prepared two
other tables, B and C, to show the state of our trade for the three last years of which we
have official accounts from the treasury. From these it appears that (taking the aggre-




568

Commercial Statistics .

gate of the years 1838, ’39, and ’40,) France, in addition to Spain, Cuba, China, and
Brazil, has sent us more than we export. It also appears that Great Britain and her
colonies, Netherlands, Belgium, Texas, and Chili, taking the aggregate of the same
three years, have taken more of our exports than we have imported from them. In fact,
the average excess of our exports to Great Britain and colonies over our imports from
thence, for three years, is $13,500,000 g r annum; to Netherlands and Belgium, over
$2,500,000 per annum ; to Texas, over $1,009,000; and to Chili, $750,000 per annum.
“ After completing these tables, it occurred to me that the fairest test of the course
of trade was, to take all the years from 1833 to 1840 inclusive, as in those years the
tariff of ’32 operated, and the enormous imports of speculating years would be included.
I then prepared table D, showing the course of trade from 30th September, 1832, to 30th
September, 1840, inclusive—a period of eight years—giving the course of our trade
during the whole period when the “ compromise act” was in operation so far as we have
official accounts, and until our trade began to be affected by the prospect of a change of
administration and a change of tariff. From this table, it will be seen that, notwith­
standing the enormous imports of ’35, ’36, and ’37, the same countries, viz. Great Britain
and colonies, Netherlands, Belgium, and Chili, have taken, during the eight years end­
ing 30ih September, 1840, of our e x p o r t s more in amount than we have imported from
them, while the excess of i m p o r t s has arisen from our trade with China, Cuba, Spain,
and the colonies belonging to Spain, other than Cuba, France, Brazil, Russia, Sweden,
Italy, and Hayti, beside that from Mexico and other countries (in South America) from
which we get our specie, metals, raw hides and skins, dyewoods and mahogany.
“ Now it is plain that the amount of coffee, tea, silks and fruit which are imported is
vast. If it should be found, on an impartial investigation, that o u r m a r k e t i s a h i g h l y
i m p o r t a n t o n e for those articles, in consequence of our being large consumers in p r o p o r ­
ti o n to o th e r nations, would it not be perfectly safe to calculate that any duty on those
articles would be in fact paid, (not by consumers, but) by p r o d u c e r s , who would lower
the prices to keep our market, provided such duty was not so high as to divert the capi­
tal, thus employed in producing these articles, to other employments ? There cannot be
a doubt that this would prove to be the fact.
“ Fruit and silks were taxed at the extra session. But the amount of tea and coffee im­
ported is as great as that of silks, silk and worsted goods, worsted stuff goods, and fruit
put together, if the imports of 1840 are any criterion. During that year the total im­
ports amounted to a trifle over $107,000,000, of which $50,000,000 only were subject
to duty, and the balance was free of duty, consisting of the following articles, viz:—
Specie and Bullion,.......................
Copper,.............................................
T in ,..................................................
Coffee,..............................................
T e a ,.................................................
Linens, bleached and unbleached,.
Silk goods, free,...............................
Worsted stuff,..................................
Silk and Worsted Goods,..............
Fruits,...............................................
Raw Hides and Skins,...................
W ool,...............................................
Spices,..............................................
Sundries,..........................................

.....................$8,882,813
.................... 1,582,636
.................... 1,079,293
$8,546,222
5,417,589
--------------- 13,963,811
.................... 4,179,120
$8,288,958
2,387,338
1,729,792
1,404,889
---------------- 13,810,977
2,756,214
675,009
558,937
9,707,394

T otal value of free articles imported in 1840,.............$57,196,204
“ Mr. Woodbury is in favor of taxing tea and coffee, whenever it shall be necessary to
raise the duty to over twenty per cent on the articles subject to that percentage under
the compromise act. It would seem that, unless we tax g o l d (to protect the mines at
the south) upon the same principle that we tax ir o n , we have nothing of importance to
add to our taxable imports but hides and skins in the raw state.
“ I should hope that congress would inquire how heavy a tax coffee, silks, tea, and
fruit would bear without its coming out of the consumer’s pocket. This is an important in­
quiry as regards regulating o u r f o r e i g n c o m m e r c e , a n d s u p p l y i n g a s u f f ic ie n t revenue .
“ The first column o f the following table shows the excess o f our imports from several
countries over our exports to those countries, and the excess of exports to other countries




Commercial Statistics.

569

over our imports from the same, during the year 1840; the second column shows the
value of all the articles admitted from each country fre e of buty , during 1840 ; and the
third column shows the principal free articles imported from each in 1840 :—
TABLE A.

Excess of Value of
Imports Free Articles
in 1840.
in 1840.
Spain,................$1,322,372 $1,206,798 ')
Cuba,................. 3,524,962 3,557,967
Spanish colon’s, 1,554,966
411,543
China,................

5,630,863

5,570,131

Brazil,................

2,420,722

4,646,185

Mexico,.............

1,659,660

4,148,379

Russia,...............

1,402,946

559,080

Sweden,.............

667,687

2,482

Dutch colonies,..

525,601

864,830

Peru,..................

438,495

433,427

Cisplatine Rep...

344,672

475,853

Colombia,..........

653,425

1,241,866

Hayti,................

225,610

1,194,008

Portugal & cols.

271,638

53,750

Excess of Imp. $20,643,619

Excess of
Exports
in 1840.
& cM onS

\

$31,242,773 14,282,027

Netherlands,.... 2,781,556
Belgium,......... 2,045,788

511,672
81,553

France,........... 4,268,678 11,594,376

Hanse Towns,.. 1,676,966

924,493

Chili,.............. 1,111,970 1,605,391
Texas,............ . 915,424




75,338

Principal Articles imported Free of Duty,
in 1840 ; in round numbers.
Specie from Cuba, &c.................. $607,000
Coffee “
“
....................2,512,000
Raisins from Spain....................... 780,000
Figs, &c......................................... 122,000
Teas,............................................... 5,414,500
S Coffee,............................................4,006,000
) H ides,............................................. 360,000
i Specie,............................................ 3,459,000
H ides,............................................. 198,000
l Dyewoods,...................................... 197,000
Linens, bleached and unbleached, 248,500
Sheetings........................................ 106,000

S

( Coffee,............................................
< Hides,.............................................
l Pepper,...........................................
S Specie,............................................
} Coffee,............................................
H ides,.............................................
C Specie,............................................
{ Coffee,............................................
l H ides,.............................................
1 Coffee,............................................
2 Mahogany,.....................................
( Dyewoods,.....................................
Hides...............................................

251,700
201,800
128,000
146,500
209,000
289,000
155,500
649,000
320,600
848,000
168,000
113,600
21,700

570

Commercial Statistics.
TABLE A.— Continued.

Value of
Excess of
Exports Free Articles
in 1840.
in 1840.
Mediterranean,... 703,709

1,480,047

Italy,.................... 316,985

828,070

Other countries,.. 524,197

1,446,938

Principal Articles imported Free of Duty,
in 1840; in round numbers.
C W ool,.............................................
< Rags,...............................................
( Fruit,...............................................
$ Rags,.................
\ Silk Goods,....................................
Specie,............................................
Hides andSkins,............................
Spices,............................................

434,500
303,600
154,000
236,000
106,500
420,000
370,000
84,000

Excess of Exp. $45,588,046 $57,196,204
“ The following tables show the balance of trade between the United States and foreign
countries for the years 1838, ’39, and 1840.
TABLE D.
T A B L E B.
“ T h e e x p o r t s f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s to
“ Aggregate excess of imports from, over
exports to, the following countries, from
t h e f o ll o w i n g c o u n t r i e s e x c e e d t h e im p o r t s
1833 to 1840, inclusive :—
fr o m th o s e c o u n tr ie s b y th e a m o u n t s e t
a g a i n s t t h e m , v iz :—
E x . o f E x p o r ts .
China,............... $42,597,265
G r e a t B r i t a i n , ......................................$ 2 8 , 8 5 8 , 2 1 9
Cuba,................ 41,602,194
9,209,772
Spain,...............
B r i ti s h c o l o n i e s , ............................... 1 0 , 7 4 8 ,4 0 7
Span, colonies, 20,721,914
N e t h e r l a n d s , .......................................
4 , 3 7 8 ,1 7 8
France,........... 33,545,871
B e l g i u m , ................................................
3 , 5 6 2 ,9 2 0
3 ,2 1 6 ,6 5 2
Brazil,.............. 20,428,284
T e x a s , .....................................................
C h i l i , ........................................................
2 , 1 4 8 ,0 5 1
Russia,............. 12,928,315
C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , ...........................
1 4 0 ,7 2 8
Mexico,...........
7,990,893
Swed. & Norw. 6,335,670
M e d i t e r r a n e a n , .................................
4 3 1 ,8 3 0
Colombia, &c..
6,318,445
3 2 3 ,6 1 1
F r e n c h c o l o n i e s , ..............................
On the Mediter.
5,124,099
D e n m a r k , .............................................
2 3 4 ,5 6 7
Peru,................
4,396,776
P r u s s i a , ..................................................
1 0 7 ,8 8 0
Repub.
3,555,004
S w e d i s h W e s t I n d i e s , ............................................... 1 6 8Argent.
,1 3 1
Hayti,...............
3,284,006
S o u t h A m e r i c a , g e n e r a l l y , .......
1 4 8 ,3 9 8
A s i a , g e n e r a l l y , ................................
4 8 9 ,3 4 5
Dutch colonies,
604,177
All oth. places,
5,246,876
A f r i c a , g e n e r a l l y , ...........................
9 9 4 ,5 1 3
W e s t I n d i e s , g e n e r a l l y , .............
7 6 0 ,8 9 2
Tot. agg. excess of imports i
S o u t h S e a s , ..........................................
7 5 ,7 2 5
from the above, for the 8 > $223,889,561
T o t. A g g . o f E x c e s s a s a b o v e , $ 5 6 ,7 8 8 ,0 4 7
yrs. ending Sept. 30,1840 j
T A B L E C.
Agg. excess of exports from £
“ T h e im p o r t s i n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f r o m
the following, in same time (
t h e f o ll o w i n g c o u n t r i e s e x c e e d t h e e x p o r t s
Gt. Brit. & cols.$14,129,819
t o th o se c o u n tr ie s b y th e
a m o u n ts se t
Netherlands,... 11,838,141
a g a i n s t t h e m , v i z :—
E x . o f Im p o rts.
Belgium,..........
8,473,850
S p a i n , ..................................................... $ 3 , 3 1 9 , 6 2 3
Chili,................
3,425,659
C u b a , ......................................................
1 5 , 5 2 7 ,4 2 8
Hanse Towns,
220,681
S p a n i s h c o l o n i e s , ...........................
7 ,4 8 5 ,2 0 3
Texas (’37 to ’40) 4,200,096
F r a n c e , ..................................................
1 2 , 1 2 9 ,9 7 5
Tot. agg. excess of exports i
C h i n a , .....................................................
1 1 , 0 2 5 ,7 0 5
from the above places—8 > $42,288,246
B r a z i l a n d M e x i c o , .......................
9 ,6 4 6 ,2 8 9
years—’33 to *40,........... j
R u s s i a , ....................................................
3 ,4 0 7 ,6 3 1
Excess of imports (paid for'
C o l o m b i a , ................................
2 ,5 7 7 ,3 6 6
by remittances of state
S w e d e n , ....................................
1 ,9 3 8 ,1 5 1
stocks, earnings of freight,
D u t c h c o l o n i e s ,. .. ...........................
1 , 1 0 6 ,2 3 6
and by bankruptcies of in- $181,601,315
P o r t u g a l a n d c o l o n i e s , ................
1,701,534
dividuals and of the U. S.
C i s p l a t i n e R e p u b l i c , ......................
1,019,086
Bank) over exports, from
A r g e n tin e R e p u b lic a n d P e r u ,
2,058,927
1833 to 1840,...................
I t a l y , ........................................................
911,515
H a y t i , .......................................................
846,547 Tot. imports, ’33 to ’40,....$1,105,455,692
H a n s e T o w n s , .................................
715,410 Tot. exports, ’33 to ’40,....
923,854,377
D a n i s h W e s t I n d i e s , ....................
458,605 Excess of Imports, as above, $181,601,315
U n c e r t a i n , ............................................
107,870 Average annual excess of (
7An . a .
Tot. Agg. of Excess as above, $75,983,101
imports from 1833 to ’40 {




571

Commercial Statistics.

COTTON GROWN IN THE UNITED STATES, FROM 1819 TO 1840.
Statement showing the Quantity, Price, and Value of the Cotton grown in the United
States, from 1819 to 1 8 4 0 . _________________
Years.

Millions of Pounds. Price per Pound.
17 cents.
tt
16
16J “
“
11
it
15
tt
21
11
“

Value.

Increase.

1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826

160
180
210
185
215
255
350

$27,200,000
28,800,000
34,650,000
20,350,000
32,250,000
53,550,000
38,500,000

T otal, 7 yrs.
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833

1,555
270
325
365
350
385
390
445

Av. 15£ cents.
94 “
104 tt
“
10
“
10
tt
94
tt
10
tt
11

$234,675,000
27.700.000
40.625.000
36,500,000
35,000,000
35,612,500
39,000,000
48,950,000

T otal, 7 yrs.
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840

2,530
460
416
445
485
525
566
880

Av. 10 cents
tt
13
I64 tt
154 tt
154 tt
104 tt
tt
14
94 tt

$263,387,500
59,800,000
68,640,000
67,862,500
73,962,500
53,812,500
79,240,000
83,600,000

$28,712,500

T otal, 7 yrs.

3,777

Av. 134 cents.

$487,117,500

*223,730,000

COMPARATIVE VARIATIONS IN PRICES OF COTTON AT LIVERPOOL,
FOR 1840 AND 1841.
U p la n d s . 1841.
1840.
January 8,.............. 5 | a 7 ... ..54 a 74
“
15............... .6 a 74... ..5 | a do.
“
22,.............. .6 a 74...
tt
29,.............. .do. a do....
February 5,.............. .do. a do....
tt
12............... .64 a 74... ...5§ a do.
“
19,.............. .do. a do....
“
26,.............. .6 a 74...
March
5,.............. .do. a do....
tt
12,.............. •64 a 7 4 ...
tt
19,.............. .do. a do....
tt
26............... .6^ a do....
April
2,.............. .6 ado....
tt
9,.............. .6 a 7§...
tt
16.............. .do. a do....
tt
tt

May
tt

“
tt

June
tt

“
tt

July

July
tt
tt
tt

U p la n d s . 1841.
1840.
9,. .............. 5 | a 74... ...4J a 6}
16,
23,
30,

August 6, .............. 5 ado....
“
13,
“
20, .............. 54 a do...
“
27,
September 3, .............. a do....
tt
16, .............. 5 a 74... ...4 | a 6 |
“ O',
...do. a do.
tt
24, .............. do. a 7 ..
October 1,.
“
...do. a do.
8,
“
15,.
tt
99,
2 3 , ...................
3 0 , ................. .5 | a do....
29,
Nove’ber 5, .............. 4 | a 6J..
7,............ .do. a do,...
“
...do. a do.
14,............ .do. a do.... ...5 ado.
12,
tt
19,
21,.............. .54 a 74... ...4 h ado.
tt
2 8 , ................. .5£ a do.... ...44 a 6J
2 6 , .............. 4J a 7 ... ...do. a do.
4,............ .5 | ado...
Dece’ber 3, .............. 4 | a 6J...
tt
10,
1 1 , ................. .54 a do...
tt
...do. a do.
17, .............. a do...
18,............ .54 a do...
“
25,............
24, .............. do. a do... ...54 a 64
tt
31,
2,.............. .5§ ado...




572

Commercial Statistics.

TRADE OF SANDUSKY, OHIO.
The following statement of the principal articles shipped at Sandusky, the northern
termination of the Mad River & Lake Erie Railroad, drawn from the books of the ship­
ping merchants of that place, is furnished for publication in the Merchants’ Magazine
by James D. Whitney, Esq., of Sandusky. It may, therefore, be relied on as correct,
and exhibits a most flattering condition of the business of that town, as well as of the
increase of western commerce :—
STATEMENT OF SHIPMENTS OF PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF PRODUCE FROM SANDUSKY,

463,766 bushels Wheat, value... .$462,766
30,019 “ Corn,............. . 12,007
22,457 barrels Flour,............ . 112,285
10,485 “ Pork,............. . 73,395
3,249 “ Beef,............. . 19,494
2,223 “ Whiskey, &.C.. . 17,784
657 “ Lard,.............
6,227
734 kegs Lard,..... .........
2,569
785 casks Ashes,............. . 20,000
4,512 casks and barrels Seed, . 47,376
1,200
509 barrels Beans,............
Total value,...

201 barrels Tallow,..........
183 “ Dried Fruit,....
3,879 kegs Butter,...............
164 packs Furs,...............
14,835 pounds Wool,.............
8,454 “ Feathers,.........
146,886 “ Hides..............
17,735 “ Paper Rags,....
105,559 “ Hams,............
911 barrels Plaster, ground,.

1841.
3,758
740
26,375
23,120
4,450
3,381
8,753
709
5,277
1,366

.$853,032

Besides these shipments, there were 132£ tons of sundries, of which no valuation was
computed. Of imports, there were, in gross, 3,812 tons merchandise taken in store, in­
tended for the traders of Sandusky, and for a wide extent of country interior. Also,
19,337 barrels of salt, for consumption in the packing establishments in the town, and for
the supply of the country; besides lumber to a large amount, the quantity not known.
This statement relates only to the business proper of Sandusky. There are upon San­
dusky Bay and its tributaries three other points of business importance, to w it: Venice,
situated three miles above Sandusky, at which the manufacturing of flour is largely car­
ried on ; Portage, situated twelve miles up the bay, near extensive beds of gypsum, which
is manufactured by steam power, and annually shipped to the extent of several thousand
barrels; and Lower Sandusky, situated at the head of navigation on the Sandusky river,
thirty-six miles from the mouth of the bay. This latter town is the seat of justice of
Sandusky county, enjoying a considerable hydraulic power, and trading with an extensive
and growing portion of the country.
COMMERCE AN D NAVIGATION OF HONOLULU.
Our intercourse with the Hawaiian Islands, principally through our whale ships, will
render the annexed statistics, from late Sandwich Islands papers, interesting to a portion
of our commercial readers. They seem to have been prepared with considerable care
and apparent accuracy, and afford a very good idea of the resources, trade, and condition
of Oahu.
I m p o r ts in to th e P o r t o f H o n o lu lu , fr o m A u g u s t 18, 1840, to A u g u s t 17, 1841.
United States—Blue, bleached and unbleached Cotton Cloths, Prints, Handker­
chiefs, Crockery and Glassware, Hardware, Paints and Oil,
Sheathing Copper, Cordage, Canvass, Flour, Bread, Wines and
Spirits, Iron, Sugar-Mills, Lumber, &c. &c................................ $193,000
England—Same as above,.......................................................................................... 92,000
Chili—Same as above,...............................................................................................
39,000
New South Wales—Same as above,........................................................................
10,000
Society Islands—Pearl Shells and English Goods,.................................................
6,500
California—Hides, Tallow, Sea-Otter Skins, Soap, Cedar Lumber, &c............
42,700
Mexico—Specie,......................................................................................................... 20,000
Columbia River—Lumber, Spars,and Salmon,......................................................
12,000
C h i n a —Teas, Silks, Nankeens, Blue Cottons, Camphor, Trunks, Nankeen
Clothing; also, Coffee, Rice, and Cigars, from Manilla,........................ 40,000
T otal ,imports,.............................................. $455,200




573

Commercial Statistics.

Remarks—In the imports is included such merchandise only as has been actually
landed. No account has been made of that which has been brought to Honolulu destined
for other markets, and of course not landed in that place. The amount of imports this
year greatly exceeds that of any former year. Less goods however have exchanged
hands, owing to the prohibition of the coasting trade of California by foreign vessels;
and the foreign trade to Norfolk Sound having ceased in consequence of the Russians
obtaining their supplies direct from Europe.
EXPORTS FROM THE PORT OF HONOLULU, FROM AUGUST 18, 1840, TO AUGUST 17, 1841.

Produce of the Sandwich Islands.
Value.
Bullock Hides, 15,000 at $ 2 each,.......................................................................... $30,000
4,140
Goat Skins, 18,000 at 23 cents e ac h ,......................................................................
3,320
Arrow Root, 83,000 pounds at 4 cents,...................................................................
3,000
Brown Sugar, 60,000 pounds at 5 cents,..................................................................
1,380
Molasses and Syrup, 6000 gallons at 23 cents,.....................................................
2,250
Salt, 1800 barrels at $1 25........................................................................................
9,900
Sperm Oil, vessels fitted from Honolulu, 440 barrels at $22,..............................
Sundries, viz: Pulu Hapuu, (a moss,) Mustard Seed, Leaf Tobacco, Candle2,090
nut Oil, &c...............................................................................................................
Salt and Fresh Provisions, Vegetables, &c., sold to men-of-war, whaling, and
69,200
merchant vessels,.....................................................................................................
$125,060

T otal , exports,.

Remarks—The crop of sugar and molasses for the year 1841 had not yet been exported.
The quantity produced far exceeded that of 1840, and will continue to increase yearly.
Owing to the “ kapu” on killing wild bullock, laid by the king for five years, from 1840,
to enable the number to increase, the amount of hides exported this year is small, and
will be still less while the “ kapu” remains in force. Heretofore, from 3000 to 9000
hides have been exported annually. Notwithstanding the facts above stated, it will be
seen that the amount of exports exceeds that of any former year. The visit of the
United States Exploring Squadron to the islands was very beneficial to so small a trading
community ; a large amount of money was put into circulation, giving the natives an
opportunity to sell a large amoiyit of provisions, &c., and the merchants the means of
making profitable remittances to other countries.
SHIPPING OWNED AT HONOLULU.

Tons.

Value.

260
144
100
212
37
20

$10,000
8,500
6,500
5,000
2,200
1,200

T otal , American,....... 773
By English subjects—Bark Honolulu,........................................................... 160
Brig Clementine,......................................................... 100

$33,400
9,000
4,000

By citizens of the United States—Bark Don Quixote,................................
Brig Lam a,.............................................
“ Maryland,.......................................
“ Bolivar,...........................................
Schooner Hawaii,.................................
“
Pilot,......................................

T otal , ......................... 1,033 $46;400
Seven small schooners owned by natives.
ARRIVALS OF FOREIGN VESSELS, IN 1841.

Nation.

Whaling.

Merchant.

50
3
0
0

14
13
2
1

T otal , arrivals,.......... 53

30

United States,....................................
England,............................................
France,...............................................
Mexico,..............................................
VOL. V I.— NO. V I.




57

Commercial Statistics.

574

U. S. DUTIES, BY T H E SEVERAL ACTS OF 1816, 1894, 1828, AND 1832.
A C o m p a ra tiv e S ta te m e n t o f th e m o s t im p o r ta n t A r tic le s h e a r in g S p e c ific D u tie s , a s im p o s e d h y th e a c ts o f 1816, 1824, 1828, a n d 1832, a n d b y th e b ill p r o p o se d b y the
C o m m itte e on M a n u f a c t u r e s ; f r o m M r . S a lto n s ta ll's r e p o r t o f s a id c o m m itte e ,
M a r c h 31, 1842.
A r tic le s .

Flannels, book’gs, and baizes, sq. yd.
Carpeting, Brussels, &c.........
“
Carpeting, Venetian, &c.......
4<
Carpeting, floor-cloth, patent,
“
Oil-cloth furniture,..................
“
Cotton bagging,.......................
“
Vinegar,.................................... gallon
Beer in casks,... .....................
“
6 eer in bottles,........................
“
Oil, fish, &c.............................
44
Oil. olive,..................................
“
Oil, castor,................................
“
Oil, linseed,.............................
44
Oil, rapeseed,..........................
44
Sugar, brown,......................... pound
Sugar, white clayed,............... 44
Sugar, loaf,............................... 44
Sugar, candy,.......................... 44
Sugar, lump and oth. refined, “
Sugar, syrup,........................... 44
Chocolate,................................ 44
Cheese,................................... 44
Tallow candles,...................... 44
L ard,......................................... “
Beef and Pork,........................ 44
Bacon,...................................... 44
Butter,....................................... 44
Saltpetre, refined,.................... 44
Oil of Vitriol,........................... 44
Dry O chre,.............................. 44
Ochre in Oil,............................ 44
Red and White Lead,........... 44
W hiting,.................................. 44
Litharge,.................................. 44
Sugar of Lead,........................ 44
Lead, pig, &e.......................... “
Lead Pipes,............................. 44
Lead, old scrap,..................... 44
Cordage, tarred,...................... 44
Cordage, untarred,.................. 44
Twine, packthread, &c......... 44
Corks,....................................... 44
Copper Rods and Bolts,........ 44
Copper Nails and Spikes,..... “
Wire, cap or bonnet,.............. 44
Wire, ir. or st., not ab. No. 14, 44
Wire, ir. or st., above No. 14, 44
Iron Nails,............................... “
Iron Spikes,............................. “
Iron Cables and Chains, &c.. 44
Iron Anchors,..................per 112 lbs.
Iron Anvils,............................. pound
Iron, smiths’ hammers, & c... 44
Iron Castings, Vessels, & c... 44
Iron, all other,........................ 44




1816.
25 p .
25 p.
25 p.
30 p.
15 p .
2 0 p.
15 p.

c.
c.
c.
c.
c.
c.
c.

1828.

1824.
25 p . c .
50
25
30 p. c.
30 p . c.
3J
8

14
50
30
35

124

10

34

8

8

3
5

15

15

20

__
25
40
25
25
3
4

20

12
12
10

12
12
10

12
12
10

15 p. c.
4
9
5
3

15 p. c.
4
9
5
3

3
5
3
3
1
14
4
1
15 p.
15 p.
2
25 p .
15 p.
4
5
5
12
4
4
30 p.
—
__
5
4
3
2
2
24
14
l

bill.

16
63
35
43

15
__
25
15
'
15
15
3
4

2

P roposed

14
70
40
50
25
5

10

15 p. c.
3
9
3
15 p. c.
15 p. c.
15 p. c.
15 p . c.
74 P- c.
74
1
14
3
1
15 p. c .
15 p. c.
1
20 p. c.
15 p. c.
3
4
4
1 5 p. c.
4
4
30 p. c .
—
—
3
2
20 p. c.
150
20 p. c.
20 p. c.
20 p. c.
20 p. c.

1832.

__
25
40
25
25
3
4

2

15 \
20 \

30 p. c.

—
25
40
25
25

20
20
374
20
20
2
24
6
6
6
2

24
34
12
12
10
24

4
9
5
3
2

3
3
5
5
3
3
3
3
1
1
.
14
14
5
5
1
1
5
c.
5
5
5
c.
3
3
5
c. 5
2
c. 15 p. c.
4
4
5
5
5
5
12
12
4
4
4
4
30
p.
c.
12
c.
6
5
9
10
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
24
24
■ 14
14
1
1

4
7
4
2
2
3
5
2
2
1
14
3
1
3
3
24
3
14
4
5

30 p. c.
9
4
4
20
34

6
4
3
2
2
2
2
H
1

575

Commercial Statistics.
U n ite s S tates D u t ie s , E tc .— Continued.
A r tic le s.

1816.

Iron, r.&b. rods, 3-16 a 8-16 di. pound
Iron, nail or spike rods,.......... ((
Iron, sheet or hoop,...............112 lbs.
Iron, band, & c........................ pound
Iron in pigs,...............................
it
Iron, old scrap,........................
44
Iron, bar, rolled,.......................
((
Iron, bar, hammered,..............
(4
Hem p,.......................................
44
Alum,.......................................
44
Copperas,...................................
44
Wheat Flour,...........................
Salt,........................................... bushel
Coal,.......................................... 44
W heat,...................................... 44
Oats,.......................................... 44

20 p. c.
20 p. c.
250
20 p. c.
50

44

Paper, folio and quarto post,.. pound
Paper, foolscap, &c................. 44
Paper, print’g, cop’rplate, &c. “
Paper, sheathing, &c.............. 44
Paper, all other,......................
Books, prior to 1775,.............
Books, other than English,.... .. “
Books, Greek and Latin, b’nd. pound
Books, do.
do. unb’nd. 44
Books, all other, bound,........ 44
Books, all other, unbound,.... “
Apothecaries’ vials, under 6 oz. gross
Apothecaries’ vials, 6 to 16 oz. “
Demijohns,............................... .. No.
Glass Bottles, to 1 quart,......
44
Glass Bottles, over 1 quart,.....
Playing Curds,.........................
Win. Glass, not over 8x10, per hund.
Win. Glass, over 8x10, & not over )
10x12,................per 100 sq. feet \
“
Win. Glass, over 10 X 12, “
Fish, dried or smoked,............. quintal
Fish, salmon,............................ __ bbl.
44
Fish, mackerel,........................
44
Fish, all other,.........................
Shoes and slippers, silk,.........
44
Shoes, prunella,.......................
44
Shoes, leather, &c..................
“
Shoes, children’s, ......................................
44
Boots and bootees,..................................

—

150
45
150
100
100
15 p. c.
20
5

15 p.
15 p.
15 p.
30 p.
30 p.
30 p.
30 p.
30 p.
—
__
__
__

c.
c.
c.
c.
c.
c.
c.
c.

_

__
20 p.
20 p.
20 p.
144
20 p.
30
250

c.
c.
c.
c.

275

275
100
200
150
100
30
25
25
15
150
Wool, over 8 cents,.......................... poundj Over 10
Under 10
Woollen Y arn, ............................................. 44
25

Merino Shawls,.......................................... per ct. 25
Cloths and Cassimeres,..........
25
44
Other woollen manufactures,.
25
44
Clothes, ready made,..............
30
Glass, cut,.....................
pound 20 p. c.
Glass, plain and other,...........




44

—

1824.
3
3
3
3
62}
—
150
90
175
200
200
50
20
6
25
10
10
20
17
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3
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4
4

1828.
3}
3}
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50
62}
185
112
300
250
200
50
20
6
25
10
10
20
17

10

1832.
3
3
3
3
50
62}
150
90
200
250
200
50
10
6
25
10
10

20
17
10

3

3

15

15

4
4

4
4

Proposed.
bill.

2}
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2
40
42}
125
85
200
200
130
50
8 .
01 60 ton
25

10
10
15
12}
12}
3

12}
4 to 1800

4

15
15
13
13
30
30
26
26
\ various, from S I
S to S I 75 per gro.
25
25
200
200
250
250
30
30
300
300

15
13
30
26
S 175
) 225
25
200
225
30
300

15
13
30
26
120
170
50
160
200
10
240

350

350

237

350

256
4 to 500 400
100
100
100
200
200
200
150
150
150
100
100
100
30
25
30
20
25
25
25
20
25
12
15
15
150
125
150
J 50 p. c. 40 p. c. 23 p. c.
^ & 4 cts & 4 cts & 4 cts
50 p. c. 30 p. c.
33}
—
& 4 cts & 4 cts
40
} 33£ and 45 p. c. C 50
40
> on various min- 4 50
40
j ima.
l 50
50
30
50
50
J 30 p. c. 30 p. c. 30 p. c.
&
3
cts
^ & 3 cts & 3 cts
S 20 p. c.
—
—
^ & 2 cts

4 to 500
100
200
150
100
30
25
25
15
150
30 p. c.
15 p. c.

Nautical Intelligence.

576

NAUTICAL

INTELLIGENCE.

PO INT CHAUVEAU LIGHT,
O n

the

S outh -E astern E xtrem ity of the I le de R e .

H y d r o g r a p h ic O ffice, A d m i r a l t y , M a r c h 18, 1842.—Navigators are hereby informed
that on the 1st of March, 1842, a fixed light was established on Point Chauveau, the
south-eastern extremity of Re Island, in lat. 46 deg. 8 min. 2 sec. north, and long. 1 deg
16 min. 17 sec. west of Greenwich. The light is 72 feet above high water of equinoc
tial springs, and may be seen at the distance of four leagues, and therefore from the en
trance of the Pertuis d’Antioche. As this new light must always be in sight whenever
the harbor-light of La Rochelle can be seen from seaward, they will be readily distin­
guished from each other by their appearance and bearings. The mariner is reminded
that the harbor-light of La Rochelle is so placed that the Chauveau Rocks and the Lavardin Reef will be avoided by keeping the light open to the southward of the Lanterne
Tower, which stands 23 yards to the westward of it. A white stone beacon, 33 feet
above high water, has been erected on the Lavardin Reef.— C o m m u n ic a te d b y th e F r e n c h
g o v e r n m e n t.

MEROPE SHOAL.—MINDORO STRAIT.
The following is an extract of a letter from Capt. George Blaxland, dated the 5th of
May, 1841, received by the Mumford
“ As a piece of nautical news or information,
which Capt. Ross and his coadjutors in the survey of the China Sea will hardly credit,
W .N.W . from the island off the outer edge of Appoo Shoal, ten or twelve miles, lies a
rocky patch, with quarter less three fathoms on the shoalest part, with a line of sound­
ings of ten fathoms for some distance, the whole length about one mile ; the boats of the
Merope and two London whalers have been on it several times. How it has never
been seen by the numerous ships passing up and down is extraordinary, it lying in the
fairway outside Appoo Shoal.—N e w Z e a la n d G a z e tte .
The foregoing extract from the Shipping Gazette is a most important information for
seamen using the Strait of Mindoro. Captain Ross’s surveys had nothing to do with it
whatever, nor had any ships passing up and down the China Sea.—E d . L o n d . N a u t . M a g .
CAPE GRINEZ LIGHT.
18, 1842.—The fixed light established on
Cape Grinez in November, 1837, in lat. 50 deg. 52 min. 10 sec. north, and long. 1 deg.
35 min. 9 sec. east, will, on the 1st of July, 1842, be converted into a revolving light,
which will re-appear every half minute. The additional flashing light, established in
1838, near the above fixed light, will then discontinue. The new revolving light will
be visible eight leagues, and will be distinguished from that of Calais by the difference
of their respective intervals, that of Calais being 90 seconds, and that of Grinez only 30
seconds; and further, the bright glares of Calais light are separated by perfect darkness,
while in the intervals between those of Grinez, a faint light will be visible to vessels
within the distance of four leagues.— C o m m u n ic a te d b y th e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t.
H y d r o g r a p h ic O ffice, A d m i r a l t y , M a r c h

LIG H T ON PO INT D’ALPRECK.
On the 1st of July, 1842, the fixed light on Point Alpreck, in lat. 50 deg. 41 min.
37 sec. north, and long. 1 deg. 33 min. 54 sec. east, will every two minutes change into
flashes of red light, which are to continue for three seconds. This light will not be
visible more than four leagues.— C o m m u n ic a te d b y th e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t.




Nautical Intelligence.

577

SHOALS IN TH E STRA ITS OF MADURA.
The commission for correcting and improving the sea charts of Netherlands India has
published the following observations for the guidance of m ariners:—
1. Lieutenant Fschauzier, of the Royal Navy, has discovered a shoal (droogde) in the
Straits of Madura, of which the northwesterly point, a white sand hill, is nearly three
to four feet above the water, and may perhaps always be visible. The whole shoal he
supposes to be about three cables’ length in circumference, covered with stones, and
quite flat, and so perpendicular that near it no soundings could be taken. The invisible
part is situated in lat. 7 deg. 25 min. 30 sec. south, long. 113 deg. 8 min. 34 sec. east of
Greenwich; distance about 2£ leagues southwest of Bucks Island (Bokken Eyland.)
2. By the master of the barque Eendragt, Deuling, on the 7th Oct., 1841, several
blind rocks were discovered W.b.N. of the Swans Flat (Zwaantjis Droogte,) distance
about half a league N.£E. from Bucks Island (Bokken Eyland,) on which not quite four
fathoms water was found. Near another cluster of rocks, where there appeared to be
no more than two or three fathoms water, after sounding he could find no bottom at
sixteen and seventeen fathoms water, but trying a heavier lead he ascertained that near
those rocks the depth of water was twenty-three feet.
3. By several correct observations it has been proved that the fortress on the east side
of Kalemaas, near Sourabaya, is situated in 112 deg. 48 min. 10 sec. east long, of Green­
wich, supposing the tide ball at Batavia to be at 116 deg. 52 min. long, of Greenwich.—
L o n d o n S h ip p in g L i s t .

KNOBEN LIGHT, OFF ANHOLT.—CATTEGAT.
26, 1842.—The General Board of Customs and Trade at Copenhagen
have issued an order under date of the 22d instant, according to which the light-vessel
hitherto stationed in the “ Grounds” off Dragoe, will in the course of the spring be re­
moved to the reef extending in an eastern direction from the island of Anholt and called
the Knoben, while the floating-light thus withdrawn from the Grounds will be tempo­
rarily replaced on and after the 1st March, 1842, by a common galliot-rigged vessel,
without painted sides, which will show a red flag on the top of her foremast whenever
the light is not burning. The Danish government, besides, have it in contemplation to
change the Anholt light from a fixed to a rotary one.
E ls in o r e , F e b .

BUOY OF T H E BIANCO SHOAL.
14,1842.—Sir—Referring to your letter of the 15th of January
last, I am directed by Lord Stanley to acquaint you, for the information of the lords
commissioners of the admiralty, that a report has been received from her majesty’s lord
high commissioner at Corfu, stating that the black buoy which had disappeared from the
Cape Bianco Shoal, off the south end of Corfu, was replaced in its berth by persons in
the employment of the Ionian sanitory authorities, so far back as the 30th November,
1841. I am, &c., G. W . H ope .— E x t r a c t f r o m a le tte r to S ir J . B a r r o w , etc.
D o w n in g -s tr e e t, M a r c h

K EN TISH KNOCK LIGHT-VESSEL.
3,1842.—Notice is hereby given that on or about the
20th April, 1842, the ordinary ball upon the mast of the light-vessel at the Kentish Knock
was surmounted by a second ball, of smaller size, whereby the light-vessel may with cer­
tainty be distinguished under all circumstances during the daytime.—J. H erb e r t , S e c .
T r in ity H o u se, L o n d o n , M a rch

DISCONTINUANCE OF A SEA MARK.—COAST OF HOLLAND.
March 1,1842.—The director-general of marine has given notice that the
grain-mill of Ballum, on the Island Ameland, which at times used to serve as a landmark,
has been recently broken down, and therefore this mark is no more to be depended upon.
A m s te r d a m ,




57*

Nautical Intelligence.

578

LIGHTHOUSE A T GIBRALTAR.
6th A p r i l , 1841.—The lighthouse which for some time past
has been in course of erection at Gibraltar, being now nearly completed, notice is here­
by given, that the light therein will be exhibited for the first time on the evening of the
1st of August next, and thenceforth continued every night from sunset to sunrise.
Mariners are to observe, that this lighthouse is situate upon Europa Point, and that a
powerful fixed light will be exhibited therein, and will burn at an elevation of 150 feet,
or thereabouts, above the level of the sea. By order, J. H erbert , S e c r e ta r y .
T r in ity - H o u s e , L o n d o n ,

ESPY ’S P A T E N T CONICAL VENTILATOR.

We are happy to learn that this important invention has at last attracted the attention
of our government, and is gaining popular favor throughout the community. The in­
ventor, James P. Espy, Esq., well known in this country and in Europe, as the discov­
erer of the “ law of storms,” it appears is reaping a lichly-deserved harvest for his genius
and persevering enterprise. His apparatus has already been employed for ventilating
several of our ships of war, as well as the public buildings at Washington, and answers
every desired expectation. It is well adapted to the purpose of ventilating public build­
ings, ships, kitchens, cellars, cisterns, vats, mines, stables, &c. Also for producing a
strong draft in chimneys (and thereby prevent their smoking,) flues to steamboats, loco­
motives, and a multiplicity of other purposes. It may be described as follows; refer­
ence being had to the letters in the above diagram, which represents a vertical section,
and a full view of the ventilator attached to a chimney :—
A, denotes a chimney.
B, a sheet-iron pipe, secured upon the top of the chimney.
C, a sheet-iron collar, fitting loosely over the pipe B.
D, a hollow cone, made also of sheet iron, into which the collar C enters.
E, a vane, to keep the cone pointed to the wind.
F, a spindle, on which the apparatus revolves.
The arrows a a , bb, cc, and e , indicate the direction of the currents of air. Suppose the
wind to blow in the direction of the arrows aa , it will pass along the surface of the cone,
from its apex to its base, where it will converge as represented by the arrows bb and cc,
and produce a partial vacuum at 0 at the mouth of the cone, and consequently a strong
current of air will rush up the chimney A, in the direction of the arrow e.




The Book Trade.

THE
1.

BOOK

579

TRADE.

— A T reatise on the L a w a n d P ra ctice o f B a n k r u p tc y , w ith reference to the G eneral B a n k ­
r u p t A c t ; supported and illustrated by the English and American authorities, and by the

principles of Law and Equity, as applicable thereto, with an appendix containing the
Rules of Court, a Table of Fees, the forms of proceedings, the Act of Congress, and a
Digested Index. By S amuel O w en , Counsellor at Law. 8vo. New York: JohnS .
Yoorhies. 1840.
There are few legal subjects so important for the lawyer thoroughly to understand as the
one this work is intended to illustrate and explain. The immense amount of cases contin­
ually springing up under the bankrupt act, and the numerous questions that must necessa­
rily arise in the judicial construction of its various provisions, render a treatise of the kind
before us very valuable at this time. It must be confessed, however, that there are numer­
ous difficulties in the way of the author who boldly attempts the construction of any new
law so comprehensive as this. He enters almost wholly upon new ground, without pre­
cedent or guide, and it would be remarkable indeed, if, under such circumstances, he did
not occasionally present a different view or opinion from that entertained by courts when
they come to pass judicially upon the same points. The work before us, however, is writ­
ten with much care, and the author has been cautious in expressing any decided opinions
of his own. Indeed, its chief value consists in its containing a large number of abridged
English cases, decided under the bankrupt act of that country, which, in many of its fea­
tures, resembles our own. It is true that some of its main provisions are essentially different,
and yet its construction depends materially upon the same principles. Such being the case, a
collection of these cases, well selected, is of the utmost value to the lawyer, and in classing
them together, Mr. Owen has evinced considerable research. In addition to these, the
work contains the entire bankrupt act, with a clear and comprehensive analysis, together
with the rules and forms in bankruptcy adopted by the circuit and district courts of the
United States, for the southern district of New York, all of which combine to render it
exceedingly useful, and indeed almost indispensable to the practitioner.
2. —A n th o n 's iM tin G ra m m a r. P a r t 2d . An introduction to Latin Prose Composition,
with a complete course of exercises, illustrative of all the important principles of Latin
Syntax, pp. 327.
3. —A n th o n 's G reek L esso n s. P a r t 2d. An introduction to Greek Prose Composition,
with copious explanatory exercises, in which all the important principles of Greek Syn­
tax are fully elucidated. By C harles A nthon , L. L. I). 12mo. pp. 270. New York :
Harper & Brothers.
The above works have been laid upon our table, and we gladly renew our acquaintance
with the author. Indeed, we never see one of his classical school-books without wishing
that the professor had written when we were school-boys, or that some enterprising men
as the Messrs. Harper had presented our books in a guise so attractive. The object of
the editor has been “ to make the student more fully acquainted, than could be done in an
ordinary grammar, with all the principles of the Greek and Latin Syntax.” He has pur­
sued, in our opinion, the best, if not the only method, calculated to effect his object, by
separating the theory from the practice, by first stating the rules and then following them
up with explanatory examples, thus impressing the principle in a clear and distinct man­
ner on the mind of the pupil. We know of no author who has carried out this principle
as fully as Professor Anthon. In selecting the exercises the author has “ made free use of
all the materials within his reach,” and has succeeded in combining the “ utile cum dulce,”
in a happy m anner; every passage not only admits of conversion into pure classic language,
but contains maxims of sound morality, practical wisdom, or some fact connected with
Greek or Roman history.
In editing these works Professor Anthon has added to the many obligations already con­
ferred ; and has presented to the instructor a convenient help “ to teach the young idea
how to shoot,” and to the scholar an introduction to Greek and Latin composition which
he will find pleasant to cultivate.




580

The Book Trade.

4. — R u d im e n ts o f A m e r ic a n L a w a n d P r a c tic e, on the p la n o f B la cksto n e ; p rep a red f o r the
use o f S tu d e n ts a t L a w , a n d a dapted to Schools a n d Colleges. By T homas W. C lark ,

Counsellor at Law. 8vo. pp. 40S. New York : Gould, Banks, & Co. 1842.
The volume before us furnishes, within a moderate compass, and in clear and succinct
language, the first principles of legal science, in a manner adapted to the comprehension of
every citizen not willing to remain in utter ignorance of the laws and institutions of his
country. Mr. Clark has taken Blackstone’s Commentaries, both as the ground-work and
model of these rudiments; probably the best method, by reason of its analytical character
and logical arrangement, in which elementary knowledge can be conveyed. In addition to
Blackstone, Mr C. has drawn upon or consulted WOoddeson’s Lectures, Kent’s Commen­
taries, Guise’s Digest, Stephens’ Pleadings, Gould’s Pleadings, the Legal Outlines of Mr.
Hoffman of Baltimore, Jones on Bailment, Graham’s Practice, and Hilliard’s Digest. The
work is mainly composed of the materials of a course of lectures delivered by the author
in 1840 and 1841, to members of the New York Law School. It is well calculated to give
citizens a clear insight into the first principles and general scope of an interesting science,
and must, therefore, be found acceptable, not merely to students in law, but also to the
merchant and general reader.
5. —C obb's N e w S p ellin g B o o k , in S i x P a r ts . New Y ork: Caleb Bartlett. 1842.
This work, in nearly all its characteristic or leading features, differs not only from Mr.
Cobb’s former Spelling Book, but from all other spelling books. The great object of the
compiler of this work seems to have been to class the words in such a manner that the dif­
ficulties and perplexities in learning the orthography of our language would be greatly les­
sened, if not entirely remedied.
Without intentional disparagement, we must, in candor, say that we do not find in this
work the striking difliculties and hindrances which meet the scholar at almost every step
in his progress through the other spelling books with which we are acquainted. In them
we find various diphthongs, having the same sound; as ee in deed, ea in p lea d ; ie in c h ie f ;
a u in la u d , and a w in b a w l; a i in f a i l , and a y in p la y , <fec.—different terminations sounding
alike, as fa r c e and p a r se ; m o i'ta r, enter, n a d ir , tu to r , m a r t y r ; table and s h o ve l; risen and
p riso n , &c.—single and double consonants, as atom and bottom , lim it and su m m it, ripple and
triple, ha b it and rabbit, &c.—different consonants or combinations of consonants sounding
alike, as single/in m ischief', f f in ta r iff, gh in enough , and p h in p a r a g ra p h , all ending with the
sound o f / ; c in cider and s in silent, both beginning with the sound of s i ; cion in coercion ,
sion in p ension, tio n in m otion, all ending with the sound of sh u n , &c. &c.—these, and a
great variety of other equally perplexing anomalies, are promiscuously intermingled; while
in the work before us they are all separately and minutely classed, by which the great obsta­
cles in the way of learning to spell are entirely removed, or, at least, greatly lessened.

6. —Uncle

S a m 's R ecom m endation o f P h re n o lo g y to his m illions o f fr ie n d s in the United

S ta tes. In a series of not very dull letters. 18mo. pp. 801. New York: Harper &
Brothers. 1842.
These letters, without place, date, and address at the top, or signature at the bottom, are
certainly “ not very dull,” but rather amusing and instructive withal, and will amply re­
pay the perusal. The volume is divided into forty-four letters, each treating of different
subjects, in harmony with the author’s design ; with such titles as “ The Why and Where­
fore of writing,” “ How Phrenology gets along,” “ A File of Fine Fellows,” “ The
Greatest of the Graces,” “ Reasons why Phrenology is likely to be true,” “ Our Great
Men,” “ Advantages of Phrenology,” etc.

—Serm o n s, a n d Sketches o f Serm ons. By the Rev. J ohn S um m erfield , A. M., late a
*preacher in connection with the Methodist Episcopal Church ; with an Introduction by
the Rev. T homas E. B ond, M. D. 8vo. pp. 437. New Y ork: Harper and Brothers.
Few preachers have been more successful or popular than Summerfield ; for a brief space
he enchained immense audiences by the more than magic influence of an eloquence, as
peculiar in its character as it was universal in its control over the minds of men. There is
a simplicity of style in these sermons and sketches which cannot fail of making its way to
the heart, as certainly as pompous diction and parade of language and learning shuts up
every avenue to the feelings

7.




The Book Trade.

581

8.— A n

E x p o s itio n o f the Creed. By J ohn P earson , D. D., late Lord Bishop of Chester.
With an Appendix, containing the principal Greek and Latin Creeds. Revised by the
Rev. W. S. D oeson, A. M. 8vo. pp. 616. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1842.

The friends of the Episcopal Church in the United States are deeply indebted to the en­
terprising publishers of this volume for the various contributions they have made to our
theological literature. Of this edition of Pearson on the Creed, embodied in one beautiful
octavo volume, the following are stated by the reverend editor as the peculiar advantages.
“ First—Great care has been taken to correct the numerous errors in the references to the
texts of Scripture, which had crept in by reason of the repeated editions through which
this admirable work has passed ; and many references, as will be seen on turning to the
index of texts, have been added.—Secondly ; The quotations in the notes have been almost
universally identified and the references to them adjoined.—Lastly ; The principal Symbola,
or Creeds, of which the particular articles have been cited by the author, have been an­
nexed ; and wherever the original writers have given the Symbola in a scattered and dis­
jointed manner, the detached parts have been brought into a successive and connected
point of view. These have been added in chronological order in the form of an appendix.”
9.

— A g e o f the W o r ld , as fo u n d e d on the S a c re d R e c o rd s , historic a n d p r o p h e tic : a n d the
“ S ig n s o f the T im e s ” vieioed in the aspect o f prem onitions o f the speedy establishm ent on
the earth o f the M illen ia l S ta te , by the second, personcd, pre-m illenial a d ven t o f C h r is t: vyith
an in tro d u cto ry essay, v in d ic a tin g the claim s o f S a c re d C hronology a g a in s t the cavils o f the
a theist , a n tiq u a ria n , a n d infidel. By the Rev. R. C. S him eall , o f the Protestant Episco­

pal Church, author of Scriptural and Ecclesiastical Charts, etc. 12mo. pp. 364. New
York: Swords, Stanford & Co., and the Author, 47 Amos-street.
These pages originally formed three lectures, which were delivered by the author at the
Apollo Rooms, in New York, on the Sunday evenings of December 25th, 1841, and Jan­
uary 2d and 23d, 1842. Mr. Shimeall is learned in sacred lore, and particularly in chro­
nology ; and the volume before us evinces great ingenuity and research ; but it is not our
province or design to discuss the merits of the peculiar opinions which he entertains, but
merely to call the attention of all who take any interest in the subject to the work; and we
would at the same time, from a personal knowledge of the author, express our entire confi­
dence in the purity of his motives and the honesty of his views, which are here disclosed
with so much force and eloquence.
10. —T he

M is s io n a r y ’s D a u g h te r ,

or M e m o ir o f L u c y G oodale T h u r sto n , o f the S a n d w ich
18mo. pp. 231. New York: Dayton & Newman.
The subject of this memoir was the child of one of our oldest missionaries in the far oft'
isles of the seas. It is stated in the narrative that she was among the first of the children
of the missionaries who have been retained at a missionary station to so mature an age ;
and notwithstanding all the disadvantages of her isolated situation, attained a high degree
of mental cultivation ; and gave living and dying evidence of the purity of her life, and the
sincerity of her piety. At the age of seventeen she landed upon the shores of her fatherland, with the expectation of enjoying for a season the refinements of civilization, and
institutions of the Christian religion; but within three weeks after her arrival she found a
place in our sepulchres. Besides the memoir, the volume contains a variety of information
connected with the discovery, manners, habits, etc., of tne Sandwich Islands.
Islands.

11-— K a b a o sa

By Mrs. A nna L.
New Y ork: Printed for the Publisher by D. Adee. 1842.
The scenes of this narrative are laid in the country bordering on Lakes Michigan, Erie,
and St. Clair. While the novelists of the present day are directing the attention of the
curious to the past history of the eastern states, our fair countrywoman is of opinion, “ that
the many romantic and wonderful incidents abounding in the far and fertile west, scarcely
arouse the curiosity of the many enlightened minds who exhaust their talents in recording
events familiar to every well-read person.” Impressed with this fact, Mrs. S. has taken
up her pen, and wielded it with considerable effect in her delineations of western scenery,
the Indian character, habits, pursuits, etc. Inasmuch as we desire to foster a national lite­
rature, we trust that every effort directed to that object may meet with an appropriate con­
sideration from a patriotic people.
; o r the W a r r io r s o f the W e s t : A T ale o f the L a s t W a r .

S nelling .




582

The Book Trade.

12. —Ita ly a n d the Ita lia n Islands, f r o m the earliest A g e s to the p resen t T im e. By W illiam
S palding , E sq., Professor of Rhetoric in the University of Edinburgh—with engravings

and illustrative notes and maps. Yols. 151-153, Harpers’ Family Library
This work is republished from the Edinburgh Cabinet Library, and the appearance ot a
book in that connection is, of itself, no small recommendation. Its plan is similar to that
of the other historical works in this very able series—embracing so much of the history of
the country as will afford a clear and comprehensive view of the most remarkable events,
together with a particular description of its physical features, antiquities, &c., and an
account of its civil and religious institutions, of the character and customs of the peo­
ple, the condition of society, &c. &c. In this manner a very complete picture of the coun­
try and of its inhabitants is given. Italy has been illustrious in every period of her history
—whether anciently, as the conqueror of the world; in the middle ages, as nobly asserting
the principles of civil liberty; or in more modern times, as the nursery of literature and the
arts. No country, therefore, has greater claims upon our attention, and the instruction af­
forded by these excellent volumes will amply reward the reader.

13. —P a th o lo g y, fo u n d e d on the N a tu r a l Sy ste m o f A n a to m y a n d P h y sio lo g y ; A P hilosophi­
cal Sketch, in w hich the n a tu ra l classification o f diseases, a n d the d istin ctio n s between m orbid
a n d cu ra tive sym ptom s, a ffo rd ed by p a in o r its absence, are pointed o u t, etc. By A lex a n d er
W a l k e r , author of ‘ Intermarriage,’ ‘ Woman,’ ‘ Beauty,’ &c. New York : J. H. & G.

Langley. 1842.
Mr. Walker is well known to the reading and medical public, by several works he has
written, and within a few years put forth. The present is one that will add to his reputation as
a brilliant, if not a profound, medical philosopher. It has been argued against him that his
induction is not sufficiently copious to warrant the conclusions that he draws from his facts;
but no one, we think, can deny him the credit of great ingenuity, as well as honesty. His
division of symptoms into morbid and curative is not, in the opinion of some medical critics,
as original as the doctor supposes. It is asserted that the same distinction has been already
made in the writings of Galen. Although decidedly opposed to the doctrines of Hannemann, he meets them with considerable fairness and candor. We would recommend our
medical polemics generally to imitate his example, and depend more upon argument and
less upon simple unsustained assertion.
—A D ic tio n a r y o f Science, L ite r a tu r e , a n d A r t . Comprising the History, Description,
and Scientific Principles of every branch of Human Knowledge with derivations and
definitions of all the terms in general use. Illustrated with engravings on wood. Edited
by W. T. B rande , F. R. S. L. & E. of Her Majesty’s mint, etc., assisted by J oseph
Cauvin, E sq. 8 vo. New York: Wiley and Putnam. 1842.
The first number of this new dictionary is before u s; and is to be continued in monthly
numbers of fifty-six royal octavo pages. The great condensation of space obtained by the
type employed, which, although small, is sufficiently clear for a book of reference, gives to
each number reading matter equal in quantity to an ordinary sized novel of two volumes.
The work will be comprised in 1,500 pages, which, with larger type and the usual octavo
page, might be spread over twenty octavo volumes.
15. —G o d frey M a h e m , o r the L if e o f the A u th o r . By T homas M ill er , author of £Gideon
Giles,’ ‘ Rural Sketches,’ ‘ A Day in the Woods,’ etc. New York: W. A. Le Blanc.
W e have received the first number Of this new tale of Miller, the Basket-maker, which is to
be completed in fifteen monthly parts, with two illustrations in each. We agree with the
editor of the London Times, that as a minute and tasteful painter of scenery, both in refer­
ence to the quietude of sylvan nature and the portraiture of humanity in its various positions,
Miller cannot be surpassed at the present day ; he has, in fact, most carefully looked to
nature in all her variety, and he is happily gifted with a power of perception not often pos­
sessed. He feels strongly, and writes forcibly.
16. —C ontH butions to A c a d e m ic L ite r a tu r e . Bv C harles H. L yon, A. M., one of the prin­
cipals o f Irving Institute. 12mo. pp. 144. New York: H. & S. Raynor. 1S42.
The pieces in this little volume are generally well suited to the purposes of declamation;
and they have at least one merit over the compiled selections in general use, however ex­
cellent in other respects—that of freshness. The subjects are generally well chosen, and
as specimens of literary effort are highly creditable to the genius and scholarship of the
author.
14.




The Book Trade.

17. —The A m e r ic a n
d u r in g the years

583

in E g y p t, a n d R am bles th ro u g h A r a b ia P etreea , a n d the H o ly L a n d ;

1839-40. By J. E . C ooley.

We have looked over the proof-sheets of a work with the above title, which is shortly to
issue from the press of D. Appleton Co. It is rich in incidents of travel, and embraces a
vast fund of information touching the countries through which the author passed, the man­
ners, customs, and present condition of the people. Mr. Cooley is an acute observer and
graphic limner, and possesses a most remarkable knowledge of human nature, its springs
and motives ; and judging from long personal acquaintance, and the portions of the work
we have read, we are willing to risk our reputation on the opinion, that it will command
a popularity and sale equal at least to Stephens* Travels in Central America. It is written
in a clear, chaste, natural, and unaffected style, and illustrated with a great number of fine
engravings. The typography of the work surpasses any thing we have yet seen from the
American press.
18. —L ectures to Y o u n g People. By D orus C larke , Pastor of the Congregational Church,
Chickopee Factory Village. With an Introduction by the Rev. A mos B lanchard . New
York: Saxton & Miles. 1842.
These lectures were prepared with the desire to promote the intellectual, moral, and re­
ligious improvement of the young people of the author’s pastoral charge ; and at the solici­
tation of the young men before whom they were delivered, they were given to the public.
The volume contains eight lectures, devoted to the following subjects:—Importance of the
period of Youth—Intellectual cultivation—Established and correct religious principles—
Dangers of young people—Origin, obligation, and proper observance of the Sabbath—Mo­
rality necessary, but insufficient to Salvation—Personal piety—Life of active usefulness.
The author is a moderate Calvinist, and the lectures of course partake of his views.
19. —G azetteer o f the S ta te o f N e w Y o r k : Comprising its Topography, Geology, Mineralogical Resources, Civil Divisions, Canals,Railroads, and Public Institutions; together with
general statistics: the whole alphabetically arranged. Also statistical tables, including
the Census of 1840, and tables of distances, with a new map of the State, etc. 12mo.
pp. 480. J. Disturneli. 1842.
In the collection and compilation of the information embraced in the pages of this Gazet­
teer, Mr. Disturneli “ not only resorted to the most authentic resources, referring to similar
works which have been published, of a like character, but also availed himself of the assist­
ance of several competent persons of acknowledged talent and judgment.” It has several
advantages over Goddard’s voluminous Gazetteer of this State, published in 1835; it is
more comprehensive, the statistics more recent, and the price some filly or sixty per cent
less.
20. —A T re a tise on the E d u c a tio n o f D a u g h te rs . Translated from the French of Fenelon.
New Y ork: Saxton & Miles. 1842.
This admirable treatise of the good Archbishop of Cambray, furnishes no slight evidence of
his exalted genius and rational piety ; who, though a prelate of the Catholic Church in the
seventeenth century, has left in his numerous writings so few sentiments in the least degree
uncongenial to the taste and judgment of the liberal and enlightened Christian of the pres­
ent age. We thank the enterprising publishers for furnishing the public with sojieat and
cheap an edition of a work so excellent in itself and so universally popular.
21. —T he B o o k o f P s a lm s : being the authorized version of that part of the Sacred volume,
metrically arranged by J ames N urse . New York: Saxton & Miles. 1842.
It will be pleasing to every careful reader of the *Psalms of David,’ to find them metrically
arranged, and printed in the form of the original. It is a very neat and cheap edition.
22. —L e tte rs to Vie Y o u n g . By M aria J ane J ewseury . Saxton & Miles. 1842.
This is a third American edition of a very popular series of letters on religious subjects.
They comprise a real, and not fictitious correspondence, and although designed for indi­
vidual characters and cases, they admit of a less restricted application.




^84

Orange County Institute .

23.— A

C om m entary on the B a n k r u p t L a w o f 1841, sh o w in g its opera tio n a n d effect. By
G eorge B ickjjell , J r ., member of the Bar of New York. 8vo. pp. 100. Gould. Banka
& Co, 1842.
This pamphlet treats of bankruptcy in general—bankrupts voluntary and involuntary—of
the proceedings prior to the decree of bankruptcy—of the consequences of the decree—of
proceedings subsequent to the decree—of the bankrupt’s discharge—of partnership bank­
ruptcy, etc. Appended to the treatise is an authentic copy of the bankrupt act, with an
appendix of persons and a table of fees. It appears to be a very clear and succinct treatise
on the subject, and will, we should think, prove useful, not only to the legal profession, but
to merchants and all interested in the operation of the bankrupt law.
•

______________________ '

________________________________________________ t

ORANGE COUNTY IN ST IT U T E .
W e have some personal knowledge of the worthy principal referred to in the following
communication, and we heartily concur in the views of the writer :—
“ M r . E d i t o r —Among the many excellent institutions for the education of youth in
our land, each contending with generous emulation for the favor and approbation of the
public, there is none which has stood the ordeal of time with greater credit to itself than
the Orange County Institution. This seminary is located upon the banks of the Hudson,
near the flourishing village of Newburgh, enjoying the retirement of the country and the
convenience of a large and populous town. It is in one of the most healthful and de­
lightful districts in the United States, and its facility of access, being only four hours’ sail
frpm the city of New York, makes it a most desirable location. Its indefatigable and
zealous principal, the Rev. Samuel Phinney, devotes himself most industriously and con­
scientiously to the reponsible duties of his station.
“ I speak from personal knowledge, having had for years past several pupils under my
guardianship committed to his care. I have attended many of the examinations of this
school, and have always been delighted with the apparent success with which the teacher
insists upon the principle that what the pupil learns he should learn well.
“ It has doubtless been an important advantage in the successful progres^f^ this
school, that its principal was once an assistant to the celebrated Dr. Allen*
Hyde
Park, one of the most useful and successful teachers of our country. No^ie it the.
smallest commendation of this school, that the pupils, in leaving the parental roof, here
find what is not always to be met with in boarding-schools,' a mother’s tender"care ajid
supervision. Having enjoyed abundant opportunity t6 observe the attention paid to the
formation of the mind and manners of the pupils, their advancement in learning and
good principles, I feel that I am only discharging my duty in commending it to the fa­
vorable notice of my fellow citizens as one of the excellent institutions of the land.”
,

0 3 T he present number closes the sixth half-yearly volume of this work. The first
six volumes, handsomely bound, proving a valuable library of reference, can be had at
the subscription price, by applying at the office of the Merchants’ Magazine, 142 Fulton
street, New York. Subscribers can have their numbers neatly bound at fifty cents per
volume, by sending them to this office.
O ffice o f th e M e r c h a n ts ' M a g a z in e ,
J u n e , 1842.




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