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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR L. B. Schwellenbach, Secretary B U R E A U OF L A B O R STATISTICS E w an Clague, Commissioner + Injuries and Accident Causes in the Pulpwood-Logging Industry, 1943 and 1944 Bulletin No. 924 For sale by the Superintendent o f Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price 10 cents Letter o f Transmittal U nited States D epartment of L abor, B ureau of L abor Statistics, Washington, Z>. (7., December 4, 1947. T he Secretary of L abor : I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the occurrence and causes of work injuries for 1943 and 1944 in the pulpwood-logging industry. This report, a portion of which appeared in the August 1947 Monthly Labor Review, was prepared in the Industrial Hazards Division by Frank S. McElroy and George R. McCormack as a part of the Bureau of Labor Statistics regular program of compiling work-injury information for use in accidentprevention work. E wan C lague, Commissioner. Hon. L. B. SCHWELLENBACH, Secretary of Labor. Contents Summary------------------------Injury record----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Frequency of injuries_____________________________________________________________________________________ Severity of inj uries________________________________________ - _____________________________________________ The industry__________________________________________________________________________________________________ Hazards of the industry_______________________________________________________________________________________ Principal operations and their hazards_____________________________________________________________________ Engineering__________________________________________________________________________________________ Felling and limbing___________________________________________________________________________________ Skidding or yarding__________________________________________________________________________________ Bucking, peeling, splitting_________________________________________________________________ Loading and unloading_______________________________________________________________________________ Transportation________________________________ 1_____________________________________________________ Injury analysis------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Kinds of injuries experienced---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Injuries and the age of workers___________________________ Accident analysis______________________________________________________________________________________________ Where accidents occurred_________________________________________________________________________________ Agencies involved in accidents____________________________________________________________________________ Accident causes____________ Unsafe working conditions________________________________________________________________________________ Unsafe conditions management can control____________________________________________________________ Unsafe conditions workers can control_________________________________________________________________ Unsafe acts_______________________________________________________________________________________________ Unsafe equipment used or equipment used unsafely___________________________________________________ Unsafe position or posture____________________________________________________________________________ Unsafe loading, placing, or planning____________ Appendix.— Statistical tables: Table 1. Industrial injury frequency rates in logging operations in 1944, classified by geographic area and kind of logging------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Table 2. Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1943 and 1944, classified by part of body injured and extent of disability__________________________________________________________________________________________ Table 3. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by part of body injured and region--------------------------Table 4. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by nature of injury and extent of disability--------------Table 5. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by nature of injury and region______________________ Table 6. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by part of body injured and nature of injury------------Table 7. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by age of injured and extent of disability-----------------Table 8. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by operation and extent of disability________________ Table 9. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by operation and region------------------------------------------Table 10. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by occupation of injured and extent of disability___ Table 11. Disabling injuries in 1943 and 1944, classified by part of body injured and by operation__________ Table 12. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by agency and extent of disability--------------------------Table 13. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by agency and region---------------------------------------------Table 14. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by accident type and region-----------------------------------Table 15. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by accident type and by operation-------------------------Table 16. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by unsafe working condition and region____________ Table 17. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by unsafe working condition and operation_________ Table 18. Disabling injuries in 1943 and 1944, classified by agency and unsafe working condition___________ Table 19. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by unsafe act and region___________________________ Table 20. Disabling injuries in1943 and 1944, classified by unsafe act and operation________________________ Page 1 2 2 2 3 5 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 16 18 18 19 19 20 20 21 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 24 25 25 26 26 Charts Chart Chart Chart Chart Chart 1. Part of 2. Major 3. Major 4. Major 5. Major body affected by disabling injuries in pulp wood-logging operations_____________________________ agencies involved in pulp wood-logging accidents-------------------------------------------------------------------types of accidents in pulpwood logging---------------------------------------------------------------------------------types of unsafe working conditions in pulpwood-logging operations----------------------------------------types of unsafe acts in pulpwood-logging operations--------------------------------------------------------------- III iv 10 11 12 15 CHART PART OF BODY AFFECTED BY D IS A B LIN G IN J U R IE S IN PULPWOOD LOGGING OPERATIONS 1943-1944 U N IT E O STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS W ork Injuries and Accident Causes in the Pulpwood-Logging Industry, 1943 and 1944 Summary to establish a representative cause pattern, the study of their experience was broadened to cover both 1943 and 1944. On this basis the analysis included 1,933 accident cases, each of which resulted in a disabling injury. A representative of the Bureau of Labor Statis tics visited each of these 43 operations and, insofar as the data were available, transcribed from their records the following items regarding each acci dent: Place where the accident occurred; the occu pation, age, experience, and sex of the injured worker; the nature of the injury and the part of the body injured; the type of accident; the object or substance (agency) which caused the injury; and the unsafe condition and the unsafe act which led to the accident. These data were then ana lyzed according to the American Recommended Practice for Compiling Industrial Accident Causes, as approved by the American Standards Associa tion. Because some of the case records were in complete in respect to particular details, all of the cases could not be used in every phase of the analysis. Each step of the analysis, however, was based upon the records of at least 34 logging opera tions. In compiling these averages, it was necessary to exclude all operations in the Pacific Coast States. In that area, the usual practice is to combine the cutting of pulp and sawlogs into a single operation and to cut pulpwood in regular sawmill lengths of 40 or more feet. Pulpwood logging, therefore, is no different from general logging in that region. As a result, this survey is based upon the so-called “ short stick” pulpwood logging of the North eastern, Great Lakes, and Southern areas. These data indicated that nearly half of all the disabling injuries were experienced by fellers and buckers, about 16 percent of the total were experienced by employees engaged in loading and unloading logs, and another 16 percent by workers engaged in transporting logs and equipment. Injuries to the legs, feet, and toes were most common with trunk injuries next in numerical importance. Cuts, L ogging operations are commonly recognized as being among the most hazardous of industrial activities. The general impression has been, however, that pulpwood logging is considerably less hazardous than general logging because of the smaller and lighter logs produced. In large measure the results of this survey directly con tradict that impression by indicating that injuries are no less common in pulpwood logging than in the production of sawlogs. In response to a written request from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 266 pulpwood-logging opera tors and 137 timber-logging operators submitted summary reports on the injury experience of their employees during 1944. Injury-frequency rates based upon these reports indicated no significant difference in the degree of hazard associated with the two types of logging. In the pulpwoodlogging group there were 75.5 disabling injuries for every million employee-hours worked, and in the timber-logging group the corresponding aver age was 76.6. Both of these rates, however, were substantially higher than the 1944 all-manufactur ing average of 18.4, and exceeded that of every other manufacturing industry. In addition to supplying the summary reports used in the evaluation of the magnitude and general aspects of the injury problem in pulpwoodlogging operations, 43 of the cooperating employers also made their original accident records available for detailed examination. This analysis was designed to determine how and why most pulpwood-logging accidents occurred. The 43 estab lishments were distributed among 14 States and, as a group, employed about 5,500 workers in 1944. Their combined injury-frequency rate for 1944 was 85.0, which was somewhat higher than the industry average, but did not indicate that their accident experiences were other than typical of the industry. Because of the fact that their records for the single year of 1944 contained data on fewer accidents than were considered necessary 1 lacerations, punctures, bruises, and contusions pre dominated, but strains, sprains, and fractures were also numerous. Logs, trees, hand tools, working surfaces, and vehicles were the leading injury-producing agen cies and the most common type of accident was that in which the injured worker was struck by a moving object. Outstanding among the unsafe working conditions which led to accidents were rough, slippery, or obstructed working surfaces and decayed or dead limbs and trees. Among the more common unsafe acts resulting in injuries were the unsafe use of equipment, particularly hand tools, inattention to footing, and unsafe planning of felling operations. logging in the Northeastern area was impossible because of a lack of sufficient reports from general logging operators in that region. The full significance of these injury-frequency rates as indicators of the high degree of hazard in pulpwood logging is somewhat obscured unless they are compared with similar rates for other types of industrial activity. For example, in the same period (1944) the average injury-frequency rate for all manufacturing activities was only 18.4.8 In other words, in an equivalent amount of working time, the workers in pulpwood logging experienced 4 times as many injuries as an average group of workers selected from manufacturing as a whole. More specifically, for every million hours worked, pulpwood loggers had 1.6 times as many disabling injuries as workers in the brewing industry; 1.8 times as many as foundry workers; 2.1 times as many as workers in slaughtering and meat packing; 5.2 times as many as workers in the automobile-manufacturing industry; and 14.2 times as many as workers in the explosives indus try. Perhaps even more illuminating is the fact that approximately 1 in every 7 pulpwood loggers experienced a disabling work injury in 1944. This compares with ratios of approximately 1 in 24 in manufacturing as a whole; 1 in 10 in the foundry and brewing industries; 1 in 12 in slaugh tering and meat packing; 1 in 28 in automobile manufacturing; and 1 in 81 in the explosives industry. Injury Record, 1944 Frequency' of Injuries: Comparison between the combined injury records of 266 pulpwood-logging operations and of 137 general logging operations, for the year 1944, showed very little difference in the frequency of injury in the two segments of the logging industry. The pulpwood-logging group averaged 75.5 disabling work injuries for every million employee-hours worked, which differed only slightly from the average of 76.6 for the general logging group.1 Reflecting substantial differences in operating methods and in the conditions under which opera tions must be conducted, the injury-frequency rates2* for pulpwood logging varied considerably in the three areas included in the study. The Northeastern region had the best record with an average frequency rate of 70.3. The rate for the Southern area was 76.8, and that for the Great Lakes area was 83.1. Lending further emphasis to the high incidence of injuries in pulpwood logging is the fact that in the Great Lakes area the average injury-frequency rate tor these opera tions was nearly 6 points higher than the average of 77.2 for general logging operations. In the Southern area this relationship was reversed, the rates being 76.8 for pulpwood logging and 81.8 for general logging. Similar comparison between the over-all injury records for the two types of The Severity of Injuries: Although comparison be tween pulpwood logging and general logging on the basis of injury frequencies showed only minor differences, the reports did indicate that the injuries which occurred in pulpwood operations were generally less serious than those which occurred in general logging. Approximately 3 percent of the disabling injuries to pulpwood loggers in 1944 resulted in death or permanent physical impairment as compared with nearly 6 percent in general logging. Similarly, the aver age recovery time for temporary disabilities ex perienced by pulpwood workers was 22 days, as against 24 days required by general loggers. The standard severity rate, which takes into account the economic time loss resulting from death and permanent impairment cases, was 1See appendix, table 1. 2 The injury-frequency rate is the average number of disabling injuries for each million employee-hours worked. A disabling injury is one which results in death or permanent impairment, or causes an inability to work extending beyond the day of injury. 3 See Work Injuries in the United States During 1944. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 849. 2 nearly twice as high in 1944 for general logging operations as for those of pulpwood logging— 15.4 days lost for each 1,000 employee-hours worked in general logging as against 8.2 in pulpwood logging. The contrast between the severity of injuries in pulpwood logging and other industries, however, presents a different picture. In manufacturing as a whole, 0.4 percent of all reported disabilities resulted in death and 4.5 percent in permanent im pairments, compared with 0.7 percent and 2.1 per cent, respectively, in pulpwood logging. In general, therefore, nearly twice as many injuries to pulp wood loggers resulted in death as was the case in manufacturing as a whole, but only half as many injuries developed into permanent impairments. In terms of the standard severity rate, the pulpwood-logging rate (8.2 days lost per 1,000 em ployee-hours worked) was nearly 6 times as high as the average for all manufacturing (1.4 days). farmer and his family commonly perform all of the work. As a rule, these operations are con ducted with a minimum of equipment and with relatively little provision for the safe and efficient handling of the felled trees and logs. Under these conditions the inherent hazards of logging are bound to be intensified. The casual nature of the operations and the fact that they are generally conducted by family workers, however, makes it impossible to collect accurate information con cerning the injuries which occur in these subsidiary activities of the industry. The probabilities are that, if the data were available, this segment of pulpwood logging would be found to be sub stantially more hazardous than the regular industrial type of operation. In the commercial operations, which account for the bulk of the country’s pulpwood production and which are commonly thought of as consti tuting the industry, variations in operating pro cedures are the rule rather than the exception. Much of the standing timber available for cutting as pulpwood is owned by paper companies which have acquired the timber lands to insure them selves against a shortage of raw materials for their mill operations. Other large tracts are owned by lumber companies, which consider pulpwood production as subsidiary to their lumbering activities, or by individuals who hold tracts of varying sizes as investment properties. In the regions east of the Rockies most of the pulpwood stands are second growth timber on lands which have already been logged for saw timber. In these areas, therefore, the production of pulpwood is usually an independent operation rather than a part of general logging operations. Largely as a result of the practice of reserving the larger trees for saw timber, the pulp mills of the three Eastern regions are not generally equipped to handle large logs and the pulpwood must be delivered to them in relatively short lengths. Customary procedure in the Northeastern region is to cut pulpwood into lengths of about 50 inches. In the Southern region the standard length of a pulpwood stick is about 63 inches, while operators in the Great Lakes region cut to a length of about 100 inches. On the West Coast, on the other hand, stands of second-growth timber are inadequate to meet the needs of the pulp mills and the mills have been equipped to take large logs of saw-timber size, The Industry Although some pulpwood is cut in practically every rural area of the United States, most of the production comes from four general regions. The Northeastern region production centers are in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachu setts, New York, and Pennsylvania. In the Great Lakes region production is heavy in Michi gan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, while Washington and Oregon lead in production on the West Coast. In the Southern region, the most extensive pulp wood operations are found in Virginia, West Vir ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkan sas, Louisiana, and Texas. Pulpwood logging is an industry characterized by extreme variations in operating methods and procedures. A substantial volume of pulpwood is produced by farmers who cut only on their own property. In many instances this production is merely incidental to clearing operations de signed to make additional land available for cultivation with no intention on the part of the farm operator to continue or to repeat his venture into the pulpwood industry. On the other hand, many farmers regularly set aside a portion of their land as forest and from time to time cut some of the trees into pulpwood which they sell directly to the local pulpmills or to agents of the mills. In small farm operations of this type the 3 actual logging over to contract operators who em ploy the workers and provide the necessary equip ment. Employment on the large company-owned projects is somewhat more regular than with the contract operators, and as a rule the large com pany operations are better organized. Safety programs are practically nonexistent except on the paper company tracts where some effort is made to extend the plant safety programs into the woods activities. Estimates as to the number of persons employed in pulpwood logging are highly conjectural. Much of the work is seasonal and many of the workers have regular occupations in other industries, working in pulpwood logging only when their other work is slack. Generally, pulpwood cutters are paid by the cord and other personnel are paid by the hour. Variations in climate and in the nature of the terrain largely account for the pronounced differ ences in the operating methods in the various re gions. As a rule, the woods areas are thinly popu lated and are frequently far removed from public highways and railroads. Transportation problems, therefore, play an important part in determining the pattern of operations. In the Northeastern region and in parts of the Great Lakes region where the timber lands are rough and irregular, the cost of constructing all-weather roads through the forests for the removal of the pulpwood is fre quently prohibitive. In the winter, however, the construction of snow roads over which the pulp wood can be removed on sleds is relatively simple. As a result the forest roads in those areas are fre quently almost impassable during the summer months when most of the cutting must be done. Travel between the operating areas and locations outside the forest is exceedingly difficult and time consuming. Under these conditions it is generally necessary for the employers to provide and oper ate camps where the woods workers can live near the area of operations. General operating pro cedure under these circumstances is to fell and buck the trees into pulpwood lengths, and to pile the pulpwood in clearings adjacent to the roads during the summer and to haul it out during the winter. Where streams are available, the logs may be floated to the mills. This method of moving pulpwood from the forest, however, is not common. In contrast, most of the logging operations in approximating 40 feet in length. In that area, therefore, pulpwood and saw logs are commonly produced under identical operating conditions— in some instances the actual use to which the logs will be put may not be determined until they have been removed from the forest. Because of this similarity in the two types of logging and the rather common practice of combining both into a single operation it was impossible to obtain specific information relating only to pulpwood logging on the West Coast. For this reason all of the operations in that area were omitted from this survey. Two distinct operating policies were found to prevail among the owners of pulpwood tracts in the three Eastern regions. In the Southern region the general practice is to treat pulpwood as a continuing crop. Under this method each area is logged every 5 or 6 years and the only trees cut are those which have reached the most desirable size for pulpwood. This results in a substantial uniformity in the size of the logs cut for pulp wood, which reduces the difficulties of handling the material and thereby contributes to the safety of the operations. The practice of reworking each area at relatively short intervals also helps to reduce the amount of auxiliary work necessary in these operations. Roads through the forest which were built and used for the removal of the pulpwood during one cutting period, frequently are found to need only minor repairs to be usable in a later period. Similarly, the clearing of under brush to facilitate operations is frequently mini mized because the same area had been cleared only a few years before in the course of an earlier operation. General practice in the Northeastern and Great Lakes regions is to cut over a tract only once in 20 or 30 years and to take all timber of usable size. As a result the size of the timber cut varies widely, the roads built during one cutting period are seldom usable at the time of the next cutting period, and the underbrush is usually very heavy. On the large tracts owned by the paper com panies, and to some extent on other large holdings, it is not uncommon for the owners to employ the woodsmen directly and to make pulpwood logging one of their regular activities. On the smaller tracts, however, it is seldom economical for the owners to undertake the management of logging operations and the general practice is to turn the 4 project, and in the larger companies it is commonly organized into an engineering department or division. The construction and maintenance of roads into the forest, the construction of camps, and the placement of heavy equipment, such as slasher saws, are generally the functions of these departments. Road construction involves surveying and lay ing out the routes, clearing the selected road area, and smoothing and compacting the surface. In some instances it is necessary to build bridges or to dig drainage ditches. Much of the work must be performed by hand labor although the use of bulldozers, tractors, scrapers, and even power shovels is not uncommon. In the course of clearing the route, trees must be felled under much the same conditions as prevail in the regular cutting operations. In addition, all stumps and underbrush must be removed from the roadway. The construction workers, therefore, face all of the hazards of felling operations plus the hazards peculiar to the use of earth-moving equipment and explosives. Camp construction usually consists primarily of rough carpenter work in which the chief hazards arise from the use of sharp tools or from over exertion. This work is frequently assigned to employees who have had little training or ex perience as carpenters and who may not be familiar with the safe methods of performing these operations. the Southern region are on comparatively level ground and road building is not such a problem. Frequently only minor clearing and filling is necessary to open a road over which ordinary trucks and passenger cars can drive to the cutting area. As transportation can readily be provided, the workers in this region generally live outside the forest. Similarly, the ease of transportation makes it possible for the Southern operators to remove the pulpwood in trucks as soon as it has been cut into the proper lengths. In fact, the prompt removal of the pulpwood from the forest is essential in these areas as the wood quickly decays if it is piled and held in the woods. Hazards of the Industry Many of the hazards encountered in pulpwood logging are directly associated with particular activities. There are, however, a wide variety of hazards to which all woods workers are exposed regardless of their specific assignments. Rough and slippery ground causes many falls. Rocks, shrubbery, and tree roots present tripping hazards for everyone who must move around in the woods. The injury possibilities in the case of falls result ing from these conditions are frequently intensified by the fact that the workers are likely to be carry ing sharp tools, such as axes, saws, pulphooks, or peavies. Cuts and punctures from contact with these tools are common in all woods occupations. Low hanging branches and shrubbery frequently present eye hazards to all workers as they move about, but their most serious threat is that of deflecting a swung ax or other sharp tool against the body of the person using the tool. Falling trees and falling limbs are primarily hazardous to the fellers, but also constitute a danger to all persons who may be near the felling operations. Similarly, rolling and sliding logs are a source of injury to many workers. The possibility of injury from overexertion is also present in practi cally all woods occupations. Felling and Limbing: In felling operations the most common procedure is to make the undercut with an ax and to complete the cut with a cross-cut saw or bucksaw, although the saw may also be used in making the undercut, particularly on trees of larger diameter. The undercut is simply a wedge-shaped cut an the side of the tree toward which it is desired to fall. The felling cut with the saw is horizontal and is started on the side opposite the undercut at a point slightly above the point of the undercut wedge. The use of power saws in the felling operation has become very common in some areas, par ticularly in the South where level ground and the absence of heavy underbrush make it possible to move this type of equipment around without much difficulty. The saws may be either chain saws or circular saws, the latter being the type most generally used. Power is furnished by a THE PRINCIPAL OPERATIONS AND THEIR HAZARDS Engineering: The nature and extent of the pre liminary work necessary in any woods operation varies widely with the size of the operation and the nature of the terrain in which the operation is to be located. In rugged country this work has all the characteristics of a major engineering 769794— 48------2 5 small gasoline motor and is transmitted to the blade by means of a belt, the entire mechanism being mounted on a two-wheeled, hand-drawn cart. The blade is usually mounted on a project ing arm and arranged so that it can be tilted to cut at different angles. As cutters usually are paid according to the amount of timber cut, many of the individual workers provide their own power saws in an effort to increase their production. Maintenance, therefore, is not a duty of the employer and may be very haphazard, with the result that the inherent hazards involved in using these power tools may be greatly increased by their not being kept in good condition. None of the power saws observed in operation during the survey had guards either at the blade or over the belts or power take-offs. After the tree has been felled the limbs and top are removed with an ax, usually by the same person who did the felling. The log is then ready for yarding or bucking which is commonly per formed by another worker. The felling operation involves a wide variety of hazards which the feller must overcome through his own knowledge and skill. Little supervision is provided and as each tree presents a different prob lem there can be little advance planning for the safety of specific operations. It is essential, there fore, that the fellers know how to recognize the hazards and how to take the necessary precautions to insure the greatest degree of safety in their work. It is probable that much could be accomplished in this respect if the employers were to furnish general training in safe felling procedures. The survey indicated, however, that it is not common in this industry for employers to provide such training. The most outstanding hazards faced by fellers include the possibility of cuts from the keen edges of axes or saws, and the possibility of being struck by falling trees or limbs. An effective swing of an ax by an experienced woodsman may seem simple and casual to an observer. Actually it is the cul mination of a series of closely coordinated actions each of which has some bearing on the safety of the feller. If the ax edge is dull or the angle of the stroke is incorrect, the ax may glance from the tree instead of cutting as intended, and be thrown against the feller. If low hanging branches inter fere with the swing of the ax, it may be deflected against his person. And if his footing is insecure or his stance incorrect, he may be thrown off bal ance and find the swinging ax completely out of control. In addition to the hazards inherent in the use of his sharp tools, the feller must also face the possibility that the ax blows may dislodge dead limbs overhead, which may fall upon him, or that the tree may break off unexpectedly and kick back against him, or that it may not fall freely as he anticipated. Accidents in which falling trees strike other trees and are deflected are common as are accidents in which workers are struck by sap lings which snap back when freed after having been bent down by falling trees. Similarly, many fellers are injured in trying to release felled trees which have lodged in other trees in falling. In limbing operations much of the danger arises from the necessity of using the ax in awkward positions and of swinging it among branches which may deflect the swing. Limbs on the under side of the trunk are often bent and under tension so that they will spring out when cut or will allow the log to drop or roll. Skidding or Yarding: After the tree has been felled and limbed, the common practice is to drag the stripped log to a cleared area, called a yard, where it is cut, or bucked, into pulpwood lengths. In some instances, however, the bucking may be done without moving the log. In the three regions east of the Rockies, the skidding or yarding of pulpwood logs is usually accomplished by using a horse or a tractor to pull the logs along the ground. In some instances a small two-wheeled cart, called an arch, is used to support the front end of logs which are to be pulled by a tractor. The major hazards of yarding operations con sist of the danger of being struck or crushed by the logs as they are dragged through the woods. This danger is greatest, of course, when the ground is rough or hilly, which may cause the logs to roll or swing unexpectedly. Getting the logs into position to be dragged away and placing the chains by which they are to be dragged sometimes involves strenuous physical effort and presents the possibility of injuries from overexertion. Bucking, Peeling, Splitting: Bucking, or cutting the logs into pulpwood lengths, is usually done with a hand saw, although portable power saws are extensively used for this purpose in the South. Slasher saws, which are large-powered saws with 6 faces of the logs and the more serious hazard of having insecurely placed logs roll from the load carrying him to the ground with them. Because of the generally larger size of the pulp wood sticks in the Great Lakes region, the use of mechanical loading equipment is more common in that area than in either the Northeastern or South ern regions. Portable conveyors and machines resembling warehouse stackers are sometimes used in these operations, but the more usual method is to utilize some type of crane or derrick to lift the logs onto the vehicle. In using some of this equip ment, the practice is to assemble a number of logs into a sling load and to hoist the bundle into place. Operators in the Great Lakes region, however, more commonly employ clamshell buckets to eliminate the handling necessary in building sling loads. These clamshell buckets, which are very similar to those used in moving earth, are lowered onto the piled pulpwood and in each bite pick up a number of sticks. Mechanical loading speeds the work and elimi nates the strenuous exertion involved in lifting the logs onto the vehicle by hand. It does, how ever, introduce other hazards. Workers on the ground are exposed to the danger of being struck by logs which may fall from unbalanced loads, and there is always the possibility of being struck by a swinging load which may crush the unwary worker if he happens to be caught between it and a fixed object. The top loaders, who must guide the loads into place, may easily be knocked to the ground by a swinging load or may be caught under the load as it is lowered into place. In addition there is the possibility that the logs may roll when the sling is relaxed or the clam shell opened. Pulpwood workers seldom have occasion to unload railroad cars, but the unloading of trucks and sleds is frequently a part of their work. As a rule unloading is a hand operation and may involve moving the logs into a railroad car or placing them on a conveyor at the mill. a rolling carriage on which the logs are moved up to the blade, are occasionally used in large-scale operations. When the logs are yarded, the bucking is generally done with the log resting on a sawhorse or sawladder. A sawladder is constructed by laying two logs, 18 to 30 feet long, side by side and nailing short pieces of lumber across them at 4- or 5-foot intervals. The crosspieces are notched in the center and the log to be bucked is moved into the notches so that it will not roll during the buck ing. In moving the log onto the sawhorse or sawladder, the bucker generally uses a cantdog or canthook. Most pulpwood is sent to the mill without being peeled or split. In some areas, however, the bark may be removed before the logs are taken from the forest. This is particularly true in respect to hardwood logs. Splitting is necessary only when the logs are of large diameter. Peeling is usually done after the felled tree has been limbed, but before it has been bucked into pulpwood lengths. Ordinary procedure in this opera tion is to loosen a short strip of bark with the ax and then to force a spud or drawknife under the bark which pulls it away from the wood. The chief hazards associated with bucking, peeling, and splitting lie in the handling of the heavy logs. Strains and sprains from overexertion and crushed hands and feet caused by rolling or dropped logs are common in these operations, par ticularly in the piling of the pulpwood after buck ing. Loading and Unloading: Loading the pulpwood onto trucks or sleds for removal from the forest and loading into railroad cars for delivery to the mill are commonly manual operations, although the use of mechanical loading equipment is on the increase in the larger operations. In hand loading the men work in groups, usually with two or three doing the lifting and one on top of the load doing the placing. Pulphooks and pickaroons are com monly used to handle the logs in this operation. Lifting and moving the logs into place is very strenuous work and often results in severe strains. In addition there is always the possibility of being struck by a dropped log, or that logs may roll from the load onto the workers on the ground. The top loader moves about on the load where he faces the possibility of falls on the irregular sur Transportation: In the Southern region motor trucks are commonly used to transport the pulp wood from the woods to the mill or railroad siding. In the Northeastern and Great Lakes regions horse or tractor drawn sleds are used for winter trans portation and trucks or trailers are used in the summer. Water transportation was found to be 7 unusual in the South and of only minor importance in the two northern areas. The chief hazards associated with hauling the pulpwood are that the loads may upset or spill due to rough and hilly terrain or unsafe driving methods. In many instances no seats are pro vided for the teamsters on sleds or wagons and they are forced either to ride the load or walk at the side. In either case the possibility of injury is great if the load should spill. Walking at the side also involves the danger of being struck by the sled if it skids, which frequently happens when it strikes an obstruction. Injuries and the Age of Workers: As pulpwood logging involves a considerable amount of stren uous physical activity, employment in the industry during normal times is predominately made up of comparatively young men. During the war years, however, many of the younger men left the industry to enter the military services, or to work in other industries, and the proportion of older men in the pulpwood industry rose substantially. However, none of the operators visited in the course of the survey maintained any records showing the ages of their employees. For this reason, the preparation of an age distribution covering all employees was impossible and no conclusion could be drawn as to whether or not there was any relationship between the age of workers and the frequency of injuries. However, practically all of the injury reports included both the age of the injured persons and the extent of the disability resulting from the injury. It was possible, therefore, to compare the patterns of the disabilities experienced by workers of different ages.5 It should be noted, however, that this com parison involves the assumption that the hazards faced by workers in the different age groups were similar. This could not be proved factually, but, on the other hand, there was no evidence that the age of the worker was considered in making work assignments. These data corroborate the findings of previous studies in other industries, that injuries to older persons are likely to result in more serious dis abilities than those experienced by younger per sons, the differences being due primarily to the greater recuperative ability of the younger per sons. The break-down of the reported injuries according to the age of the injured persons indi cated that these differences first become apparent at about the 40-year age level and are intensified at the 50-year level. Only 2.6 percent of the dis abling injuries experienced by pulpwood workers under 41 years of age resulted in death or perma nent impairment. In the age range of 41 to 50, however, 4.1 percent of the injuries resulted in death or permanent impairment and in the range of 51 to 60 years of agQ the proportion was 5.9 percent. Similarly, in respect to temporary dis abilities, the average recovery time for workers in the under 41 years of age group was 20 days. Injury Analysis Kinds of Injuries Experienced: Cuts, lacerations, and punctures were the most common injuries ex perienced by pulpwood workers. Approximately one in every three disabling injuries reported were of this general nature. Over half of these in juries affected the lower extremities and about one-third affected the upper extremities. Cuts on the leg were more common than cuts on the foot. Cuts on hands and fingers, however, out numbered arm cuts by about 4 to l.4 Bruises and contusions were the second most common variety of injury, comprising approxi mately 29 percent of the total volume. The lower extremities were most commonly injured but a substantial volume of the bruises and con tusions were reported as affecting the trunk, the upper extremities, and the head. The closely re lated group of injuries, designated as strains or sprains, which included about 20 percent of the disabling cases, were primarily injuries to the trunk although the lower extremities were in volved in a considerable number of cases. Back sprains predominated among the cases affecting the trunk. Fractures were found to be more common and of a more serious nature in pulpwood logging than in most other industries. Nearly 14 percent of all the reported disabilities were fractures. About one-third of these were cases of fractured ribs and somewhat more than one-third were fractured legs, feet, or toes. The more serious cases in cluded fractures of the skull, back, and pelvis. This group of injuries was responsible for 9 of the 12 fatalities reported in the survey. *See appendix, tables 2 to 6, and table 11. • See appendix, table 7. 8 For those in the 41 to 50 years of age group the average was 22 days and for those in the 51- to 60-year group it was nearly 29 days. stress the development of safe practices in felling and bucking. In a broad sense the transportation operations of the industry include all of the activities con nected with the movement of the logs from the point of felling to the point of delivery to the consumer. On this basis more than 40 percent of the injuries in the industry occurred in the course of transportation. For more detailed consider ation, however, the general group of transportation activities was broken down into several specific operations. Among these, the most prolific source of injuries— accounting for about 17 percent—was the operation of loading logs onto or unloading them from vehicles. Another 16 percent of the injuries occurred in the operation of the transport vehicles. In the Southern area this latter activity was a particularly important source of injuries which accounted for over 25 percent of the reported cases. Because pulpwood logging in the Southern area involves relatively little skidding and yarding, the injuries attributable to this operation in that region amounted to only 3 percent of the total. In the Great Lakes region, on the other hand, about 8 percent of the injuries occurred in skidding and yarding operations, and about 5 percent in the Northeastern region. Similarly, river driving operations, which are uncommon in the South, were charged with no injuries in the Southern region, but were responsible for nearly 4 percent of the injuries in the Northeastern area and about 1 percent in the Great Lakes area. Injuries to engineering and equipment maintenance workers also were relatively more important in the North eastern and Great Lakes regions than in the South. Accident Analysis Where Accidents Occurred: In setting up a safety program the customary procedure is to concentrate upon the particular operations or activities in which the hazards are known to be the greatest, or which are known to be the source of the greatest volume of injuries. In the pulpwood-logging industry, however, few employers maintain separ ate employment records for the various types of activities. As a result it was impossible to obtain accurate information regarding the number of persons engaged in specific activities. This de ficiency in the available information prevented the computation of comparative injury-frequency rates on a departmental or activity basis. It was possible, however, to determine for nearly all injury cases what the injured persons were doing at the time they were injured. Classification of the injury cases on the basis of this information indicates the activities which were most productive of injuries, but because it takes no account of the number of workers in each activity, it cannot be taken as indicating the relative degree of hazard prevailing in the various types of activities. As a basis on which to plan a safety program, however, it does indicate specifically the operating divisions in which safety work should be stressed in order to reduce the over-all injury record of the industry.6 Felling and bucking operations, including limb ing and peeling, were the source of nearly half (47 percent) of all the recorded injuries. In the separate regions the proportions were: 54 percent for the Great Lakes area; 46 percent for the' Southern region; and 42 percent for the North eastern region. About 3 percent of these cases resulted in death or permanent disability. For temporary disabilities in this group the average time loss was 22 days. In large measure this high concentration of injuries in felling and bucking operations merely reflects the relatively large pro portion of the workers in the industry who are engaged in these activities. Nevertheless, it is apparent that any successful accident prevention program in the pulpwood-logging industry must The Agencies Involved in Accidents: The determina tion of the particular physical objects which are most commonly involved in injuries constitutes a fundamental step in the development of a suc cessful safety program. When these objects are known, it becomes possible to determine how and why they contributed to the occurrence of injuries and then to take measures to overcome their accident-producing possibilities. To permit the precise determination of these items, which are commonly called “ agencies,” the American Rec ommended Practice for Compiling Industrial Accident Causes defines an agency as “ the object or substance which is most closely associated with • See appendix, tables 8 to 11. 9 MAJOR AGENCIES INVOLVED IN PULPWOOD LOGGING ACCIDENTS 1943-44 0 5 PERCENT OF ALL DISABLING INJURIES 10 15 20 25 HAND TOOLS LOGS WORKING SURFACES TREES VEHICLES OTHER UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS the injury, and which in general could have been properly guarded or corrected.” Analysis based upon this definition points di rectly to logs or trees, hand tools, working sur faces, and vehicles as the outstanding injury-pro ducing agencies in the pulpwood logging industry. Logs were the indicated agencies in 25 percent of the cases analyzed and trees were the agencies in another 11 percent.7 Accidents involving these agencies deserve particular attention because of the relatively large proportion which resulted in death or permanent disabilities. Hand tools, as a group, were involved in about one-fourth of the accidents. Among these the cases involving axes were most important both in numbers and in the proportion of injuries resulting in permanent impairments. Pulp-hook injuries were numerous, but none of those which were re ported were known to have resulted in either death or permanent impairment. Working surfaces were the designated agencies involved in about 14 percent of the accidents and vehicles were involved in over 7 percent. In the latter group the cases involving motor vehicles were most numerous and also most productive of serious injuries. In general, the patterns presented by the agency analyses for the three regions were very similar. In each area logs and trees, as a group, ranked first as injury producers and hand tools ranked second. Among the hand tools, axes were of first importance in all regions and pulp hooks ranked second. On a relative basis, however, pulp-hook accidents were more common in the Northeastern region than in either of the other areas. On the other hand, accidents involving canthooks or peavies were uncommon in the Northeastern and Southern regions, but were rather numerous in the Great Lakes area. 7See appendix, tables 12 and 13. 10 The most pronounced differences between the regions were in respect to accidents involving work ing surfaces and vehicles. In the Northeastern and Great Lakes regions the hazards connected with operations in rough and irregular country were emphasized by the considerable number of accidents associated with unsafe working surfaces, as compared with a much smaller number of motor-vehicle accidents. In the Southern region, on the other hand, the number of accidents in volving unsafe working surfaces was relatively small and was greatly exceeded by the volume of vehicle accidents. Also reflecting differences in operating methods, the vehicles which were indi cated as agencies in the Southern region were nearly all motortrucks while animal and tractordrawn vehicles were involved in about half of the vehicular accidents in the Great Lakes region and in about a third of those in the Northeastern region. CHART 3 MAJOR T Y P E S OF ACCIDENTS IN PULPWOOD LOGGING 1943-44 PERCENT OP ALL DISABLING INJURIES 0 10 20 30 i--------------- 1--------------- r 40 50 60 STRUCK BY OBJECTS FALLS O VEREXERTION CAUGHT IN, ON, OR BETWEEN OBJECTS STRIKING AGAINST OBJECTS SLIPS (NOT FALLS) OTHER U N IT E D S T A T E S D E P A R T M E N T OF LABO R BUREAU OF LABO R S T A T IS T IC S Accident Causes commission of an unsafe act, or to a combination of these accident-producing factors. In most instances the correction of unsafe working conditions is entirely within the powers of management. The avoidance of unsafe acts, on the other hand, requires cooperation and understanding by both management and workers. Management must take the lead, however, by providing safety-minded supervision and by mak Modern accident prevention is based upon two premises—first, that there is an identifiable cause for every accident; and second, that when the cause is determined, it is generally possible to eliminate or to counteract that particular cause as the probable source of future accidents. As a general rule, every accident may be traced to the existence of an unsafe working condition, to the II ing sure that all workers are acquainted with the hazards of their operations and are familiar with the means of overcoming them. the workplace, by the installation of guards, or by rearranging the work processes or procedures. In factory-type operations, in which the em ployer controls the materials and provides special premises, tools, and facilities for the work, and in which the work is performed under close super vision, this method of accident prevention is both practical and successful. In logging operations, however, the situation is UNSAFE WORKING CONDITIONS In most industries it is feasible for management to take direct action to eliminate practically all unsafe working conditions. Commonly this is accomplished by improving physical conditions at CHART 4 MAJOR TYPES OF UNSAFE WORKING CONDITIONS IN PULPWOOD LOGGING OPERATIO NS 1943-44 P E R C E N T O F A L L D IS A B L IN G C 10 15 20 1 1 1 1 SLIPPERY D E F E C T IV E ROUGH A G E N C IE S AGED, WORN, CRACKED OTHER H A ZA R D O U S A R R A NG EM EN T OR PROCEDURE LACK OF CLEAR WORKING SURFACES CONGESTION OF WORKING SPACES OTHER LACK OF L n v i> v r PROPER rn vrfcn S A FE TY EQUIPM ENT IM PROPERLY GUARDED A G ENCIES U N IT E D STATES DEPARTM ENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR S T A T IS T IC S IN J U R IE S 5 12 25 radically different. Here management can exer cise only limited control over the work areas and materials. Many of the tools used in the woods are provided by the workers themselves, and much of the work is performed by small crews (in some cases by individuals working alone) in widely scattered and rapidly changing locations. Under these circumstances close supervision is impracti cable. Furthermore, many of the most serious unsafe conditions encountered in the woods are due to weather, rough terrain, or other factors which management is powerless to control. As a result, the emphasis usually placed upon management’s obligation to eliminate unsafe working conditions must be modified in respect to this industry. This does not mean, however, that all unsafe conditions should be accepted as unavoidable in logging operations. On the contrary, many unsafe conditions which were found in pulpwood logging are entirely within the control of management. Furthermore, many such conditions which management cannot control directly could be minimized if greater attention were given to training the workers in safe prac tices and procedures. Unsaje Conditions Management Can Control: Among the more common accidents arising from unsafe conditions over which management can exercise direct control are those which involve defective roadways, defective tools and equipment supplied by management, improperly loaded vehicles, and the lack of proper lifting equipment.8 The inadequacy of many forest roadways over which the pulpwood must be transported was strikingly indicated by the number and variety of the accidents ascribed to road defects. In many instances loaded vehicles overturned or spilled their loads because they struck obstruc tions in the roadway. Drivers riding on seatless vehicles were thrown to the ground by bumps in the roads and were frequently struck by over hanging branches. Many vehicles skidded on slippery roads and crashed into trees or rocks, or overturned. Most of the accidents resulting from the use of defective tools or equipment can be ascribed to the lack of an adequate inspection, repair, and replacement program. Commonly reported de • See appendix, tables 16 to 18. 13 fects included tools with dull points or cutting edges, cracked or splintered handles, unguarded power tools, worn or stretched chains, and defec tive vehicles. In this last group, the more com monly reported defects were the lack of seats for drivers on horse-drawn vehicles, the absence of steps and handholds for use in getting on or off drays and trucks, and defects in motor trucks, such as defective brakes or steering mechanisms. All of these unsafe conditions are entirely within management’s control and could be eliminated. Similarly, the loading of vehicles is an operation for which management can provide supervision without difficulty. The responsibility for acci dents resulting from tipping or spilling the load because of improper loading of a vehicle must accordingly be placed upon management. Proper control of loading procedures through safetyminded supervision also could have prevented many accidents which resulted from lifting heavy materials without adequate assistance or from the hazardous use of mechanical loading equipment. In the latter category the reports indicated that it was not uncommon for clamshell buckets and sling loads to be swung over the heads of the workers— a procedure which is recognized as unsafe in the operation of hoisting equipment. Although the provision of adequate first-aid facilities is not an accident-prevention measure, the absence of such facilities definitely constitutes an unsafe condition when an accident occurs, par ticularly when medical attention is not readily available. In this respect pulpwood-logging operations were generally found to be very poorly equipped. On some of the smaller operations there was no first-aid equipment at all. Even on the large operations it was not uncommon to find serious shortages in the first-aid supplies because of failure to provide prompt replacements. Equally serious was the general lack of per sonnel trained in the emergency treatment of injuries or in the handling of injured persons. The severity of many woods injuries could ob viously be minimized through the provision of better first-aid facilities and by providing every operation with at least one person who has been given first-aid training. A further step in this direction would be for management to arrange the work assignments so as to avoid, insofar as pos sible, the necessity of individuals working so far apart as to be out of contact with each other. clear through the dead limb and either struck the worker or threw him off his feet. Unsafe Conditions Workers Can Control: In the group of unsafe conditions recognized as being less susceptible to direct management control, hazards found to be most productive of injuries were those associated with rough or slippery surfaces, dead trees or limbs, and the lack of clear work spaces. There appears to be little that either management or the workers can do to eliminate the possibility of accidents from some of these causes. It is equally apparent, however, that the workers them selves can and should eliminate many such unsafe conditions for themselves as a normal part of their work. Nevertheless, it is obvious from the record that such precautions are frequently not taken. The problem of management, therefore, is to increase the safety consciousness of the workers and to make sure that they know how to protect themselves. Ice, snow, mud, wet grass, loose stones, under brush, stumps, etc., were responsible for many slipping and tripping accidents in all divisions of the industry. For the person who is moving about in the forest, constant alertness and close atten tion to where he is walking constitute the only practicable defense against such hazards. How ever, when the workers are performing felling, limbing, peeling, splitting, piling, or other opera tions in which a firm footing is essential, it should be their first concern to make sure that there are no such hazards underfoot. Similarly, although it is impracticable to attempt to remove low-hang ing branches, vines, and the like in the vicinity of all operations, it is essential that this be done wherever it is necessary to swing an ax which might be caught and deflected. Various types of accidents involving dead limbs or trees were reported. In some instances these were blown down by the wind onto persons who were working or merely walking nearby. In other instances, workers were hit by dead trees which were accidentally knocked over by the felled trees. Other reports indicated that dead limbs from the trees which fellers were cutting became dislodged by the jarring from ax blows, and injured the workers. Dead limbs also were the cause of a number of accidents in limbing operations. In these cases the limber’s ax unexpectedly passed UNSAFE ACTS In the field of accident prevention an unsafe act is defined as “ a violation of a commonly accepted safe procedure.” 9 Literally this means that no personal action shall be designated as unsafe unless there is a less hazardous alternative method or procedure. In many instances it was apparent from the reports that the individual knew the safe procedure but consciously decided not to follow it; for example, a worker deliberately removed the guard from a saw and used it without the pro vided protection. In other cases, the available data indicate that the person who acted unsafely did so simply because he did not know the safe method. The first step toward the elimination of unsafe acts, therefore, requires that all workers are thoroughly instructed in the safe methods of per forming their duties and that they are familiar with the hazards connected with deviations from such safe procedures. Generally, the second es sential step is to exercise strict supervision to see that only safe methods are used. In pulpwood logging, however, direct supervision of all opera tions is impracticable. Proper instruction, there fore, becomes doubly important. Unfortunately, it became quite evident in the course of the survey that relatively few pulpwood operators made any provision for the proper training of their em ployees. In most instances, only perfunctory inquiries were made about the previous training and experience of new employees before assigning them to work in the woods. In most of the accident cases analyzed, the available facts indicated that the occurrence of the accident was directly related to the commission of an unsafe act in one of the following broad categories: Using unsafe equipment or using equipment unsafely; unsafe loading, placing,, or planning; and taking an unsafe position or posture.10 9 American Kecommended Practice for Compiling Industrial Accident Causes, approved by the American Standards Association, August 1, 1941, (New York, 1941). 10 See Appendix, Tables 19 and 20. 14 Unsafe Equipment Used or Equipment Used Un safely: The great majority of the unsafe acts in this group consisted of either the misuse of hand tools or the failure to grip objects securely in lifting. The tool most commonly misused was the ax, and the fault generally was a failure to control its swing. In many instances the ax was swung at an improper angle, so that it glanced off the tree or log and struck the axman. In other cases axes were used in spaces that were insufficient for a free swing and, when meeting with obstructions, were deflected against the workmen. Attempting a cut while holding the ax with only one hand resulted in a number of injuries, and standing in the line of the cut resulted in many more. The latter type of accident was most common in limb ing and splitting operations. A number of other accidents involving limbers CHART 5 MAJOR TYPES OF UNSAFE ACTS IN PULPWOOD LOGGING OPERATIONS 1943-44 PERCENT OF ALL DISABLING INJURIES 10 ------------------------------------------------------------------- 1-------------------------- — — USING UNSAFE USING HAND TOOLS IN AN UNSAFE MANNER EQUIPMENT OR EQUIPMENT UNSAFELY TAKING AN UNSAFE GRIPPING OBJECTS INSECURELY INATTENTION TO FOOTING POSITION OR POSTURE UNSAFE PLACING OR PLANNING OTHER U N IT E D STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 15 20i------------------------------------------------------------ --—30 - ■"»-------------— resulted from the practice of standing on the trunk of the tree while using an ax to trim off limbs. In this position it is frequently impossible to avoid a severe fall if the ax catches on an obstruction or if it unexpectedly passes through the limb being cut. Some of these accidents resulted in particularly severe injuries because the workers fell on the ax. Another group of limbing accidents resulted from applying the ax to the wrong side of limbs which were under tension. When trees fall they often bend sap lings or limbs to the ground and place them under tension. Safe practice dictates that these limbs or saplings should be cut with the ax from the under side of the curve. When they are struck on the top side the tension frequently will throw the ax back out of control. Although cases involving the misuse of axes were the most numerous, and generally resulted in the most severe injuries, many accidents were attributable to the misuse of other hand tools such as saws, pulphooks, and canthooks. Pulphook accidents were particularly common. Fre quently the pulphook glanced from the log, or even missed the log entirely, and struck either the worker using the hook or a nearby co worker. Generally the failure to properly control the tool in cases of this kind resulted from in attention or from improper grasp of the tool. In addition to the accidents resulting from misuse of tools in processes for which they were designed, many accidents were chargeable to the use of hand tools for purposes other than those for which they were intended. An outstanding ex ample of such misuse occurred when a feller used his ax to push over a tree which had been partly cut through. The ax slipped from the trunk and the worker fell on the blade. In lifting, piling, or moving heavy, rough, and awkward objects like pulp wood logs, accidents are inevitable unless the handling procedures are properly coordinated and executed. The most common fault in these operations was that of tak ing an insecure grip on the object being handled or in releasing the object before it was solidly placed in position. As a result many feet or toes were crushed by objects which slipped from the hands of workers, or their fingers were pinched by the materials which they were piling or placing. unsafe act in this general category was inattention to footing. Natural irregularities in the surface of the ground were involved in some of the acci dents in this group, but the majority were cases of tripping over logs, stumps, rocks, or other objects lying on the ground. Sometimes the workers tripped while stepping backwards to get out of the way of falling trees. In other instances, workers were injured when their feet slipped from the hub caps, tires, wheel spokes, fenders, or frames of vehicles on which they were climbing, or when they stepped from vehicles onto loose stones or into holes in the ground. Teamsters were frequently injured when they attempted to stand on the load and were thrown off by unex pected jolts. Lifting with a bent back or from an awkward position was a particularly common cause of injury, and numerous workers were injured be cause they unnecessarily placed themselves in the path of moving or falling objects. Accidents of the latter type frequently occurred in skidding and yarding operations when workers walked or stood close to or on the downhill side of logs which were being dragged. In some of these accidents the workers were caught between the moving logs and fixed objects such as trees, stumps, or boulders, resulting usually in serious injuries. Unsafe Loading, Placing, or Planning: Because woodsmen often work alone without supervision, they must assume a great deal of responsibility for their own safety and for the safety of others who may approach their operations. This is particularly true in felling operations. The felling of each tree presents a different combination of problems. The feller first must decide the direc tion in which he wishes the tree to fall. The line of its fall should be as clear as possible so that it will not strike other trees; and when it comes to rest it should be so located as to facilitate limbing and handling of the stripped trunk. Before the actual felling is started, safe practice dictates that the area at the base of the tree be checked to be sure that there is sufficient clear space for the work and for the feller to move away when the tree starts to fall. It is also essential for safety that the feller check the ground around the tree to make certain that he will have secure footing; and finally, that he inspect the tree for any dead Unsafe Position or Posture: The most common 16 lodged in other trees. Equally common were cases in which the butt of a falling tree kicked back and injured the feller when the top of the tree struck another tree. The accidents classified as arising from unsafe loading or placing of materials commonly occurred in the course of loading or piling pulpwood. Generally these were cases of failure to interlock or block the piles to prevent the logs from rolling down or becoming dislodged when the pile was walked upon. There were, however, a consider able number of accidents caused by the unsafe placing of tools and other equipment. In a typical case, a worker was injured when after cutting a bush, he laid his ax on the ground and then stepped on it as he pulled the bush aside. Another worker laid his ax on a pile of branches and, when he picked up the branches, the ax fell on his foot. Accidents of these types constitute strong evidence of the general lack of safety consciousness among pulpwood workers, and emphasize the need for a program based upon the “ Three E's of Safety” —Engineering, Education, and Enforce ment. limbs which might be dislodged by the blows of his ax and fall on him. The experienced feller makes these observations automatically and quickly formulates a plan for the operation. This may include the removal of some of the hazards revealed by his inspection or the adoption of special procedures which will offset the hazards. However, the tendency on the part of some experienced fellers to take chances to save time, or the inability of inexperienced workers to recognize existing hazards or to plan successfully for their elimination, frequently result in serious accidents in this operation. A case, typical of many reported in this cate gory, involved a felled tree which had lodged in a second tree. The feller then decided to cut down the latter in order to release the first tree. In the course of this operation the first tree became dis lodged and dropped onto the feller, who was working under it. In another instance the feller climbed up the trunk of the lodged tree to reach a point where he could cut it loose. His weight caused it to come free, throwing him to the ground. In other instances workers were injured when they tried to push trees loose after they had 17 Appendix: Statistical Tables T able 1.— Industrial injury frequency rates in logging operations in 1944, classified by geographic area and kind of logging1 Number of disabling injuries Geographic area and kind of logging Number of opera tions Number of em ployees Employeehours worked (thou sands) Injury rates2 Resulting inTotal Perma Tempo nentrary-total partial disability disability Death Total pulpwood logging.......... Total other logging3............... 266 137 9,772 4,372 19,327 8,044 1,459 616 Northeastern area: Pulpwood logging_______ Great Lakes area: Pulpwood logging............. Other logging.................... Southern area: Pulpwood logging............. Other logging.................... 40 4,189 9,870 142 85 3,636 2,352 6,136 4,459 84 39 1,947 1,623 3,321 3,154 Total days lost Frequency Severity 11 10 30 25 1,418 581 159,148 123,490 75.5 76.6 694 5 13 676 73,269 510 344 2 4 16 11 492 329 55,470 55,195 255 258 4 5 1 14 250 239 30,409 62,118 1 Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. 2 The frequency rate is the average number of disabling injuries for each Average days lost per tempo rary-total disability 8.2 15.4 22 24 70.3 7.4 22 83.1 77.2 9.0 12.4 21 30 76.8 81.8 9.2 19.7 24 16 million employee-hours worked. The severity rate is the average number of days lost for each thousand employee-hours worked. * Includes figures not shown separately because of insufficient data. T able 2.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1943 and 1944, classified by part of body injured and extent of disability1 Total Number of injuries resulting in— Part of body injured Number Percent 2 Permanentpartial dis ability Death Average days lost per Temporary- temporarytotal dis total dis ability ability Total............ ............................................................................................. 1,933 100.0 12 55 1,866 22 Eye(s)______________________________________________________ Brain or fit-nil_______________________________________________ Other.................................................................................................... 162 76 19 67 8.4 3.9 1.0 3.5 7 4 3 6 1 1 151 73 13 65 14 15 33 10 T r u n k .._______________________________________________________ Chest (lungs), ribs, etc_______________________________________ Back____ ____ ______________ ________________________ __ ____ Abdomen___________________________________________________ Hip(s) or pelvis______________________________________________ Shoulder ________________________________________________ Other_______________________________________________________ 559 232 192 38 24 55 18 29.1 12.1 10.0 2.0 1.2 2.9 .9 3 2 1 556 230 191 38 24 55 18 26 23 25 34 41 23 26 Upper extremities. . . . _________ _________________________________ Arm(s) . _________ _________________ - _______________ Hand(s) (including wrist)____________________________________ Finger (s) or thumb (s)______ __________________________________ 412 89 139 184 21.4 4.6 7.2 9.6 34 2 6 26 378 87 133 158 19 21 18 19 Lower extremities...................................................................................... Leg(s)............................. ..................................................................... Foot or feet (including ankle)_________________________________ Toe(s)__ _ ________________________________________________ 769 396 285 88 40.0 20.6 14.8 4.6 1 1 17 13 2 2 751 382 283 86 22 23 21 19 22 9 1.1 1 Unclassified; insufficient data_____________________________________ 21 9 28 20 i Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. * Percent based on classified cases only, 18 T able 3.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1948 and 1944) classijied by part of body injured and region Northeastern region Total injuries Great Lakes region 1 Southern region Part of body injured Number Number Percent2 Percent2 Number Percent2 Number Percent2 Total..................................................... ................. 1,933 100.0 896 100.0 705 100.0 332 100.0 Head....... ...................... ............ ........................... Eye(s).........................................................—Brain or skull.................................................. Other................................................................ 162 76 19 67 8.4 3.9 1.0 3.5 68 36 9 23 7.6 4.0 1.0 2.6 60 30 4 26 8.6 4.3 .6 3.7 34 10 6 18 10.3 3.0 1.8 5.5 Trunk'.......................... .................... .................... Chest (lungs), ribs, etc__............................... Back...................... ................. ........................ Abdomen................... ........................ .......... Hip(s) or pelvis........... .................................. Shoulder. ......................... .............................. Other............................................................... 569 232 192 38 24 55 18 29.1 12.1 10.0 2.0 1.2 2.9 .9 223 111 67 11 9 18 7 24.9 12.4 7.5 1.2 1.0 2.0 .8 247 97 87 20 12 23 8 35.3 13.9 12.4 2.9 1.7 3.3 1.1 89 24 38 7 3 14 3 27.1 7.3 11.6 2.1 .9 4.3 .9 Upper extremities.......................................... ........ Arm(s)............................................................. Hand(s) (including wrist)........................... Finger (s) or thumb (s)............ ........................ 412 89 139 184 21.4 4.6 7.2 9.6 195 46 68 81 21.8 5.1 7.6 9.1 148 27 52 69 21.1 3.9 7.4 9.8 69 16 19 34 21.0 4.9 5.8 10.3 Lower extremities......... ....................................... Leg(s).......................................................... — Foot or feet (including ankle)......................... T oe(s)._..................... ............... .................... 769 396 285 88 40.0 20.6 14.8 4.6 402 199 159 44 44.9 22.2 17.8 4.9 237 121 84 32 33.9 17.3 12.0 4.6 130 76 42 12 39.5 23.1 12.8 3.6 Body general_________________ ____ _______ _ Unclassified; insufficient data_________________ 22 9 1.1 7 1 .8 8 5 1.1 7 3 2.1 1 Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. * Percent based on classified cases only, T able 4.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1948 and 1944) classified by nature of injury and extent of disability 1 Total Number of injuries resulting in — Nature of injury Number Percent 2 Death Temporarytotal dis ability 55 48 7 1,744 122 17 1 42 15 14 17 30 32 Total........................... ........................ . . . ........... ..................................... Without infection________________ ___________________________ With infection. ________ _____ _______ ____ ______ ____________ 1,933 1,804 129 1C0.0 93.3 6.7 Amputations __ _______________________________________________ Bruises and contusions. — _______________________________________ Without infection____________________________________________ With infection_______________________________________________ Burns and scalds____ ___________________________________________ Without infection____________________________________________ W ith infection _______________________________ _____________ Cuts, lacerations, punctures................................................... ............ . Without infection.......................................................... ..................... With infection..____ _______________ ______________ _______ ___ Foreign bodies in eyes, n. e. c_______________ ______________________ Without infection____ _________ _____ __ ______ ______________ With infection................................................................................... 19 550 512 38 13 1.0 18 2.0 9 5 4 1 1 541 507 34 11 8 3 620 538 82 17 Fractures....... .................... ......................................... ........................... Industrial diseases____________ __________________________________ Strains and sprains____ ___________ ____ _________________________ Hernias_________ _____ ____ ________ _____________________ _______ Other........ ........................... ................. ................................................... Unclassified; insufficient data........................... ........... .............. ......... . 632 547 85 17 33.0 28.6 4.4 .9 12 .6 5 .3 13.7 11 .6 379 19.7 20 1.0 .8 15 13 1 1 9 19 1,866 12 11 1 2 22 22 9 12 5 14 14 16 14 g 29 14 241 57 2 377 20 21 11 20 2 Percent based on classified cases only, i Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. .7 .6 .1 264 12 12 28.6 26.6 12 1 Average days lost per tem porary-total disability Permanentpartial dis ability 13 13 53 12 28 T able 5.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1948 and 1944, classified by nature o f injury and region Northeastern region Total injuries Great Lakes region Southern region Nature of injury Number Percent2 Number Number Percent2 Percent2 Number Percent2 Total....... ...................................................... ........ 1.933 100.0 896 100.0 705 100.0 332 100.0 Amputations..______________________________ Bruises and contusions_______________________ Burns and scalds_____________________________ Cuts, lacerations, punctures.. ________________ Foreign bodies in eyes, not elsewhere classified__ Fractures____________________________________ Industrial diseases____________________________ Strains and sprains_____________________ _____ Hernias.-------------------------------------------------------Other_______________________________________ Unclassified; insufficient data_______ 19 550 13 632 17 264 11 379 20 15 13 1.0 28.6 .7 33.0 .9 13.7 .6 19.7 1.0 .8 4 241 4 331 10 145 5 144 5 6 1 .4 26.9 .4 37.0 1.1 16.2 .6 16.1 .6 .7 8 212 7 178 7 91 5 171 12 5 9 1.1 30.5 1.0 25.6 1.0 13.1 .7 24.6 1.7 .7 7 97 2 123 2.1 29.5 .6 37.4 28 1 64 3 4 3 8.5 .3 19.5 .9 1.2 i Figures not shown for Pacific area because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. 2 Percent based on classified cases only, T a b l e 6.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1943 a,nd 1944, classified by part of body injured and nature of injury 1 Nature of injury Part of body injured Total number Amputa Bruises Bums con and tions and tusions scalds 19 Cuts, lacera tions, punc tures Foreign bodies in eyes, n. e. c. Frac tures Indus trial diseases Strains and Hernias sprains Total......... ..............—.............................. . 1,933 550 13 632 17 264 11 379 Head______ ____________ ______ ________ Eye(s)__................................................. Brain or skull..................................... Other...................... ............ .................. 162 76 19 67 73 45 4 24 1 55 12 7 36 17 17 11 1 1 8 3 1 T ru n k ..____ __________________________ Chest (lungs), ribs, etc______________ Back________ ________ ____ _______ Abdomen__________________________ Hip(s) or pelvis__ _______ ___________ Shoulder__________ _______ _______ Other...................................................... 559 232 192 38 24 55 18 152 86 25 6 10 16 10 1 1 Upper extremities....................... ................ Arm(s)_____ _______ _______________ Hand(s) (including wrist)..................... Finger (s) or thumb (s)........................... 412 89 139 184 17 115 31 29 55 Lower extremities____ ________ _________ Leg(s)..................................................... Foot or feet (including ankle)________ Toe(s).................................................... 769 396 285 88 2 1 Body general__________________________ Unclassified; insufficient data— ................ 22 9 17 1 1 15 Unclas sified; insuffi cient data 13 3 2 1 1 12 2 2 109 85 7 2 1 5 7 8 2 261 55 158 13 4 30 1 7 2 3 2 201 40 77 84 44 8 16 20 26 8 14 4 1 1 1 1 204 88 89 27 3 2 1 362 215 121 26 98 40 28 30 1 1 91 46 44 1 4 4 3 1 6 1 2 8 1 2 * Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. 20 Other 20 20 2 2 20 2 1 1 1 3 5 6 T able 7.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1948 and 1944) classified by age o f injured and extent o f disability Total Number of injuries resulting in— Age of injured Number Permanentpartial dis ability Death Percent2 Total.................... .......... ....................... ....................................... 1,931 100.0 12 Under 18 y ears____________________________________________ 18-20 years ..................................................................... .............. 21-25 years _______________________________________________ 26-30 years ____________________________________________ 31-35 years....................... .................... .............. ............... .......... 36-40 years_________________________________________________ 64 147 179 183 193 192 3.6 8.3 10.1 10.3 10.9 10.8 1 1 1 2 41-45 years________________________________________________ 46-50 years________________________________________________ 51-55 years. ______________________________________________ 56-60 years_____ ____ __________ ___________________________ _______________________________________ 61 years and over Unclassified; insufficient d a ta ______________________________ 171 169 178 160 140 155 9.6 9.5 10.0 9.0 7.9 3 1 2 1 Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. 1 Temporary-total disability 1,864 22 5 3 5 63 144 174 176 190 186 14 21 18 20 20 24 4 6 9 9 3 5 164 162 167 151 137 150 23 21 29 28 23 19 55 2 4 1 Average days lost per temporarytotal disability 2 Percent based on classified cases only, T able 8.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1948 and 1944) classified by operation and extent o f disability 1 Total Number of injuries resulting in— Operation Number Percent2 Total...................................... . 1,933 100.0 Engineering. ........................... Felling and bucking________ Skidding and yarding_______ Loading and unloading-------Transportation................. — 96 903 109 318 302 5.0 47.0 5.7 16.6 15.8 River driving--------------- -----Equipment maintenance........ Camp maintenance.......... ... Other...................................... Unclassified; insufficient data 45 107 26 11 16 2.3 5.6 1.4 .6 1 Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. Death Average days lost per temporarytotal disability Permanentpartial disability Temporarytotal disability 55 1,866 22 4 23 3 9 7 92 875 106 307 292 20 22 29 20 22 2 6 1 41 101 25 11 16 12 23 19 25 19 12 5 2 3 2 2 Percent based on classified cases only, T able 9.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1948 and 1944t classified by operation and region 1 Total injuries Northeastern region Great Lakes region Southern region Operation Number Percent2 Number Percent2 Number Percent2 Number Percent2 Total..................................................................................... 1,933 100.0 896 100.0 705 100.0 332 100.0 Engineering....... ................................................................. Felling and bucking............................................................ Skidding and yarding.......................................................... Loading and unloading...................................................... Transportation. ........................... - ..................- .................. 96 903 109 318 302 5.0 47.0 5.7 16.6 15.8 54 374 46 162 130 6.1 41.8 5.2 18.2 14.6 32 377 52 87 87 4.6 54.4 7.5 12.6 12.6 10 152 11 69 85 3.0 45.8 3.3 20.8 25.6 Riyer driving _ _ _____ __ ____ ___ Equipment maintenance.................................................... Camp maintenance .. _______- __ Other ______________________________ Unclassified; insufficient d a ta -___ __________________ 45 107 26 11 16 2.3 5.6 1.4 .6 35 68 14 9 3.9 7.6 1.6 1.0 10 34 12 2 12 1.4 4.9 1.7 .3 5 1.5 4 1 Figures not shown for Pacific area because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. 2 Percent based on classified cases only, 21 T able 10.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1943 and 1944, classified by occupation of injured and extent of disability 1 Total Number of injuries resulting in— Occupation Number Death Percent2 Total............................................... - .................................... .......... 1,933 100.0 Blacksmiths . . ................................................................................ Camp personnel__ ____ ____________________________________ Foremen____ _____________________________________ ________ Laborers._______________ __________________________________ Loaders------------------ ------------ — ................................................ Machinists and helpers______________ ____ __________________ River drivers...................... - ................... .................................... . 17 41 23 66 307 25 45 .9 2.1 1.2 3.4 15.9 1.3 2.3 Skidders........................................................................................... Swampers_________________________________________________ Teamsters _ _____________________________________________ Tractor operators ________________________________________ Truck drivers and helpers................................................ .............. Woodcutters....... ...................................................... ...................... Others____________________________________________________ Unclassified; insufficient data___________________________ ____ 111 68 75 5.8 3.5 3.9 1.2 10.2 46.6 1.8 22 197 894 35 7 1 Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. Average days lost per tempo rary-total disability Permanent-par tial disability Temporary-total disability 55 1,866 22 17 40 21 65 298 21 41 16 24 29 22 20 18 12 4 107 67 71 3 23 3 191 866 32 29 21 34 13 19 12 1 2 1 7 2 4 2 2 4 1 3 5 22 22 15 23 7 2 percent based on classified cases only, T able 11.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1943 and 1944, classified by part o f body injured and by operation 1 Operation Part of body injured Total num ber of Felling Skidding Loading injuries Engineer and and and ing bucking yarding unloading Trans porta tion River driving Equip ment mainte nance Camp mainte nance Total............ ............................................. 1,933 96 903 109 318 302 45 107 26 Head____________ ____ _______________ Eye(s).................. .............................. Brain or s k u ll...... ......... ...... ........—Other................................................... 162 76 19 67 13 98 50 13 35 2 1 13 5 21 2 10 8 1 1 2 1 7 16 2 2 Trunk................................................ - ___ Chest (lungs), ribs, etc____________ Back......... .............. .......................... Abdomen......................... ................. Hip(s) or pelvis____ ____ __________ Shoulder_________________________ Other................................................... 559 232 192 38 24 55 18 20 6 227 92 83 14 5 24 9 33 16 9 109 41 45 9 3 119 55 31 9 5 3 31 14 Upper extremities..................................... Arm(s)................. ................... ........... Hand(s) (including wrist).................. Finger (s) or thumb (s)........................ 412 89 139 184 26 3 184 48 58 78 16 3 7 Lower extremities..................................... Leg(s)............ ..................................... Foot or feet (including ankle)............ Toe(s)______ _____ _____ __________ 769 396 285 37 17 16 4 383 56 35 19 Body general.............................. .............. Unclassified; insufficient data__________ 22 88 9 8 2 3 9 2 1 1 1 12 11 211 132 40 1 3 4 8 3 60 3 1 8 1 2 6 6 34 13 4 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 6 8 6 1 37 9 19 5 7 91 48 29 14 26 32 14 17 2 5 3 1 2 123 50 50 23 1 1 2 1 8 2 11 14 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. 22 1 5 3 3 16 2 1 12 12 21 Unclassi fied; in sufficient data 1 10 9 9 5 11 25 23 6 7 4 70 3 Other 7 2 3 4 1 2 T able 12.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1948 and 1944, classified by agency and extent o f disability Total Number of injuries resulting in— Average days lost per tempo rary-total disa bility Agency Number Percent1 2 Total________________ ___________________________ — .......... . 1,933 100.0 Yarding equipment_______ ______ ______ ______________ _____ Vehicles_______ ____ _______ ______ ______ ___________________ Motor_______________ _______ __________________________ Animal or tractor drawn________________________________ Other ______________________________________ 62 144 82 43 19 3.2 7.5 4.3 2.2 1.0 Animals and insects _____________________________________ Hand tools _ _ _ ___________ ___________________________ Ax or hatchet . __________ _ _______________________ Cant hook or peavey _ _________________•______________ Pulp hook _ ________________________________________ Saw „ . ___________ _ ____________________ Other______ ____ ______________________________________ 43 472 244 19 121 36 63 2.2 24.7 12.8 1.0 6.3 1.8 2.8 Chemicals and poisonous vegetation_________________________ Working surfaces _______ __________________________ Ground_______________________________________________ "Roads __ _ ______________________ Other _ _ __ _ _ _______________ 16 ■ 274 214 44 16 .8 14.3 11.2 2.3 .8 Logs8 (chips, limbs, etc.)___________________________________ Trees8 (chips, limbs, etc.)_____________ _____________________ Other. ____ _ __ ________________________________________ 482 209 216 16 25.2 10.9 11.2 Unclassified j insufficient data 1 Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. 2 Percent based on classified cases only. 1 Permanent-par tial disability Temporary-total disability 12 55 1,866 22 3 3 3 8 5 3 59 133 74 40 19 27 31 36 27 23 43 463 236 19 121 35 52 18 18 19 22 16 21 14 8 7 1 16 266 207 43 16 19 24 21 38 25 10 8 9 471 198 201 16 21 25 22 20 Death 9 8 1 1 3 5 8 Pulpwood is classified as a tree until it is felled; after felling, pulpwood is classified as a log. T able 13.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1948 and 1944, classified by agency and region 1 Agency Total injuries Number Northeastern region Great Lakes region Southern region Percent2 Number Percent2 Number Percent2 Number Percent2 100.0 Total.......... ...................... ............................... .............................. 1,933 100.0 896 100.0 705 100.0 332 Yarding equipment__________________________ ____ __________ Vehicles.................................................................. ........................ Motor------- ------------------------------------------------------------ -----Animal or tractor drawn---------------------- ------ -------------------Other. ........................... ........... .............. ................................. 62 144 82 43 19 3.2 7.5 4.3 2.2 1.0 24 65 28 18 9 2.7 6.2 3.2 2.0 1.0 26 47 17 24 « 6 3.7 6.8 2.4 3.5 .9 12 42 37 1 4 3.6 12.7 11.2 .3 1.2 Animals and insects.------ ----------------------- ------------ --------- -------Hand tools................................ ............................................ ........... Ax or hatchet...________ ____ _____________________ _____ Canthook or peavey................. ................................. .............. Pulp hook— ------- -------------------------------------------- --------- Saw................................................................... ........... ............ . Other..................... ........... ................................................... . 43 472 244 19 121 35 £3 2.2 24.7 12.8 1.0 6.3 1.8 2.8 18 234 119 4 82 11 18 2.0 26.3 13.5 .4 9.2 1.2 2.0 21 145 69 14 25 12 25 3.0 20.9 10.0 2.0 3.6 1.7 3.6 4 93 56 1 14 12 10 1.2 28.1 17.0 .3 4.2 3.6 3.0 Chemicals and poisonous vegetation....... .................................. . Working surfaces......... ................................................................... Ground-............. ........................................................................ Roads_________ ____ ____ ______ ___________ ________ ____ Other _______ ______________ _______________________ 16 274 214 44 16 .8 14.3 11.2 2.3 .8 7 118 93 18 7 .8 13.2 10.4 2.0 .8 8 141 107 25 9 1.2 20.3 15.4 3.6 1.3 1 15 14 1 .3 4.5 4.2 .3 L ogs8 (chips, limbs, etc.).......................... — ................................. Trees8 (chips, limbs, etc.)............ ........................................ ........ Other.................... ............................. .............. ............................. Unclassified; insufficient data________________________________ 482 209 215 16 25.2 10.9 11.2 213 102 120 5 23.9 11.4 13.5 168 69 70 10 24.1 9.9 10.1 101 38 25 1 30.5 11.5 7.6 1 Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. 2 Percent based on classified cases only. 8 Pulpwood is classified as a tree until it is felled; after felling, pulpwood is classified as a log. 23 T able 14.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1943 and 1944, classified by accident type and region Total injuries Northeastern region Great Lakes region Southern region Accident type Total.................................................................................................. Number Percent2 Number Percent2 Number Percent2 Number Percent2 1,933 100.0 896 100.0 705 100.0 332 100.0 10.0 56.6 6.7 6.7 3.4 3.3 3.0 .6 1. 5 13.7 1.2 Striking against........................................... .................................. Struck b y ............................................................................. ......... Caught in, on, or between................. ................. ............ .............. Falls. ........................................................................................ ........ On same level.............................................................................. To different level....... —............................ ................................. Slips (not falls)....................................... .......................................... 144 972 162 308 216 92 82 7.5 50.6 8.4 16.1 11.3 4.8 4.3 76 474 83 137 101 36 21 8.5 53.1 9.3 15.4 11.4 4.0 2.4 35 312 57 149 104 45 51 5.0 44.7 8.2 21.3 14.9 6.4 7.3 33 186 22 22 11 11 10 Contact with extreme temperature. ............................................... Inhalation, absorption, ingestion.......................... ........................ Overexertion__________________ _____ ____ _____ _____ ________ O th er.......................... .................................... .................... .......... Unclassified; insufficient data ______________________ ________ 13 21 198 19 14 .7 1.1 10.3 1.0 7 7 77 10 4 .8 .8 8.6 1.1 4 9 76 5 7 .6 1.3 10.9 .7 2 5 45 4 3 1 Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. 2 Percent based on classified cases only. T able 15.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1943 and 1944, classified by accident type and by operation 1 Operation Accident type Total number of injuries Engi neering Felling Skidding Loading Transpor River and and and driving bucking yarding unloading tation Equip ment mainte nance Camp mainte nance Unclas sified; insuffi cient data Other TotaL................................ ........................ 1,933 96 903 109 318 302 45 107 26 11 Striking against_______________________ Struck b y ........................................- ......... Caught in, on, or betw een____________ Falls.......................................................... On same level_____ _______ ________ To different level_________________ 144 972 162 308 216 92 7 63 2 15 13 2 64 518 48 130 111 19 7 50 23 13 11 2 19 147 41 39 24 15 19 120 27 70 32 38 6 10 7 9 8 1 14 46 13 17 6 11 5 11 4 6 4 2 5 3 2 Slips (not falls)....... .................................. Contact with extreme temperature_____ Inhalation, absorption, ingestion_______ Overexertion_________________________ Other _____________________________ Unclassified; insufficient data__________ 82 13 21 198 19 14 1 4 15 1 51 5 6 2 4 44 7 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 6 2 1 5 3 1 2 1 1 9 1 1 1 7 45 5 7 77 2 7• 2 16 3 3 1 4 4 1 1 2 1 * Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. T able 16.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1943 and 1944, classified by unsafe working condition and region 1 Northeastern region Total injuries Great Lakes region Southern region Unsafe working conditions Number Percent2 Number Percent2 Number Percent2 Number Percent2 1,845 100.0 888 100.0 646 100.0 311 100.0 Improperly guarded agencies--------- ----------------------- -----------Defects of agencies___________ ______ — ------ -----------------------Rough........................................... ........................................ Slippery..---------- ------------------------------------------ ----- --------- Aged, worn, cracked, etc______________________ ______ ____ Other........... ..................... ........................................................ 14 424 92 192 76 64 1.6 49.4 10.7 22.4 8.8 7.5 5 180 46 72 36 26 1.3 47.3 12.1 19.0 9.4 6.8 8 191 34 112 27 18 2.4 56.6 10.1 33.2 8.0 5.3 1 53 12 8 13 20 .7 37.6 8.5 5.7 9.2 14.2 Hazardous arrangement or procedure....... .................................. Unsafely stored or piled---------------- -------- - ........................... Congestion of working spaces........ ......................................... Working under adverse weather conditions------- ---------------Unsafe planning or layout, etc________________« __________ Lack of proper lifting equipment......... ................................... Lack of clear working surfaces____________________________ Exposure to poisonous vegetation.-----------------------------------Other_____________ _____________ ____ ____ _____________ 375 14 49 16 21 46 160 12 57 43.6 1.6 5.7 1.9 2.4 5.4 18.6 1.4 6.6 168 8 25 7 12 12 79 5 20 44.1 2.1 6.6 1.8 3.1 3.1 20.9 1.3 5.2 126 3 14 5 9 5 56 6 28 37.4 .9 4.2 1.5 2.7 1.5 16.5 1.8 8.3 81 3 10 4 57.4 2.1 7.1 2.8 29 25 1 9 20.6 17.7 .7 6.4 Lack of proper safety equipment______________________ ______ Unclassified; insufficient data __________________- ___________ 46 986 5.4 28 507 7.3 12 309 3.6 6 170 4.3 1 Figures not shown for Pacific area because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. 2 Percent based on classified cases only, 24 T able 1 7 .— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1948 and 1944) classified by unsafe working condition and operation 1 Operation Total number Felling Skidding Loading of injuries Engineer and buck and yard and un ing loading ing ing Unsafe working conditions Trans porta tion 91 859 102 304 287 21 6 6 7 2 2 207 50 94 47 16 21 5 11 4 52 14 30 4 4 1 75 10 27 9 29 27 2 1 68 2 140 3 10 63 4 11 16 21 46 160 12 57 1 12 1 1 5 6 7 94 6 9 3 3 16 46 986 6 47 37 473 54 Total........................................................... 1,845 Improperly guarded agencies__________ Defects of agencies.................................... Bough__________________ _____ ___ Slippery............................................... Aged, worn, cracked, etc_________ Other____________________________ 14 424 92 192 76 64 Hazardous arrangement or procedure___ Unsafely stored or piled.............. ...... Congestion of working spaces______ Working under adverse weather con ditions________ _________________ Unsafe planning or layout, etc______ Lack of proper lifting equipment___ Lack of clear working surfaces......... Exposure to poisonous vegetation___ Other___ _______ _________________ 375 14 49 Lack of proper safety equipment_______ Unclassified; insufficient data.................. 17 5 3 19 Equip ment mainte nance Camp mainte nance 45 105 25 11 16 8 2 6 7 26 3 10 6 7 5 1 2 1 1 5 1 3 1 3 1 25 2 4 2 2 8 1 1 3 10 1 23 2 3 4 13 15 2 3 22 4 1 14 1 179 2 Biver driving 3 13 3 2 13 148 14 Other Unclassi fied; in sufficient data 4 1 1 1 1 4 2 1 18 4 4 4 2 45 1 Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. T able 18.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1948 and 1944) classified by agency and unsafe working condition1 Unsafe working conditions Agency Total........................... Yarding equipment—. Vehicles __________ Motor. ___ ____ Animal or tractor drawn_________ Other. ................... Animals and insects. _ Hand tools___ „ _ _ Ax or hatchet____ C a n th o o k or peavey____ ;_ Pulp hook_______ Saw........................ Other................. Chemicals and poison ous vegetation_____ Working surfaces____ Ground................. Roads___________ Other___________ L ogs2 (chips, limbs, etc.)- .................... Trees2 (chips, limbs, etc.)______________ Other,........................ Unclassified; insuffi cient data _ Defects of agencies Total Im num ber of prop erly Un in Aged, juries guard Slip worn, Other Total safely ed Total Bough stored agen pery cracked, or etc. cies piled 1,845 14 424 92 60 138 77 2 5 59 24 2 1 42 19 42 446 235 25 10 1 14 3 9 2 19 112 28 52 1 1 1 1 9 5 16 270 211 44 15 1 2 192 64 375 14 19 6 9 4 3 30 14 13 27 19 2 1 1 7 6 2 3 15 1 5 1 5 3 10 41 10 4 2 22 1 6 15 41 25 15 1 1 5 7 5 2 2 60 56 4 153 126 21 6 1 3 10 4 3 3 447 36 22 9 3 2 82 202 209 54 29 4 3 2 9 47 4 1 13 47 99 9 4 15 1 Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. Con gestion of work ing spaces 76 227 186 29 12 2 Hazardous arrangement or procedure 49 1 1 Work ing under Unsafe plan ad verse ning or lay weath out, er condi etc. tions 16 i 1 6 31 7 21 Lock of proper lifting equip ment 46 6 6 1 Lack of clear work ing sur faces 160 Lack Expo of sure proper safety to poison Other equip ous ment vege tation 12 3 3 3 1 1 2 2 57 46 i 2 2 40 52 34 5 3 3 1 12 6 32 391 222 16 89 27 37 1 1 1 40 25 15 12 986 2 21 13 2 22 Un clas sified; insuf ficient data 1 1 1 2 6 38 18 6 13 316 13 1 1 2 5 39 54 3 19 21 12 80 60 15 2 Pulpwood is classified as a tree until it is felled; after felling, pulpw ood is classified as a log. 25 T able 19.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1948 and 1944, classified by unsafe act and region 1 Total injuries N ortheastem region Great Lakes region Southern region Unsafe act Number Percent2 Number Percent2 Number Percent2 Number Percent2 Total............................................................................................................ . 1,933 100.0 896 100.0 705 100.0 332 100.0 Operating without authority....................................................................... Operating or working at unsafe speeds........................................................ Using unsafe equipment, etc......................................................................... Unsafe use of equipment........................................................................ Gripping objects insecurely, etc..... ........................................................ Carrying tools in unsafe manner............................................................ Using hand tools in unsafe manner........................................................ O th er...................................................................................................... 26 29 684 17 179 16 462 10 1.7 1.9 45.1 1.1 11.8 1.1 30.4 .7 14 14 322 9 87 7 215 4 2.0 2.0 45.2 1.3 12.2 1.0 30.1 .6 9 6 232 5 64 6 153 4 1.6 1.1 41.7 .9 11.5 1.1 27.5 .7 3 9 130 3 28 3 94 2 1.2 3.6 52.2 1.2 11.2 1.2 37.8 .8 Unsafe loading, placing, planning, etc.......................................................... Arranging objects unsafely...................................................................... Improper planning of felling operation.................................................. Unloading objects unsafely..................................................................... Other........................................................................................................ 229 69 99 64 7 15.1 4.5 6.5 3.6 .5 128 38 57 30 3 18.0 5.3 8.1 4.2 .4 56 16 24 14 2 10.1 2.9 4.3 2.5 .4 45 15 18 10 2 18.1 6.0 7.3 4.0 .8 Taking unsafe position or posture............................................................. . Riding in unsafe position........................................................................ Exposure to falling or sliding objects...................................................... Inattention to footing.............................................................................. Lifting incorrectly................................................................................... Other........................................................................................................ Other. ............................................................................................................. 529 23 60 256 131 59 20 416 34.9 1.5 4.0 16.9 8.6 3.9 1.3 224 12 35 100 53 24 9 185 31.5 1.7 4.9 14.0 7.5 3.4 1.3 247 8 23 133 60 23 7 148 44.2 1.4 4.1 23.8 10.8 4.1 1.3 58 3 2 23 18 12 4 83 23.3 1.2 .8 9.3 7.2 4.8 1.6 Unclftssififtd; insufficient data___ ... ___ 1 Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. 2 Percent based on classified cases only, T able 20.— Disabling injuries in pulpwood logging in 1948 and 1944, classified by unsafe act and operation 1 Operation Unsafe act Total num ber of Engineer Felling Skidding Loading injuries and and and ing bucking yarding unloading Trans porta tion Total..................................... ..................... 1,933 96 903 109 318 302 Operating without authority ________ Operating or working at unsafe speed___ 26 29 2 1 11 6 6 3 1 3 3 14 Using unsafe equipment, etc.................... Tlnsafft usa of equipment Gripping objects insecurely, etc____ Carrying tnnls in unsafe manner Using hand tools in unsafe manner. _ other _ _ _ 684 17 179 16 462 10 44 7 1 35 1 386 8 51 11 313 3 19 3 10 2 4 101 2 55 1 43 Unsafe loading, placing, planning, etc__ Arranging objects unsafely_________ Improper planning of felling opera tions - - ............... Unloading objects unsafely__ ______ other - _____ ___ - 229 69 4 3 120 19 7 6 99 54 7 1 97 2 2 Taking unsafe position or posture........... Riding in unsafe position.............. . Exposure to falling or sliding objects. Inattention to footing......................... Lifting incorrectly, etc _ ____ Other____ __ ________________ 529 23 60 256 131 59 18 1 1 10 3 3 Other..................................................... . Unclassified; insufficient data................... 20 416 27 River driving Equip ment mainte nance Camp mainte nance 45 107 26 82 2 34 3 1 5 2 44 2 3 55 20 35 16 2 1 32 3 1 17 1 1 1 212 1 18 125 51 17 47 2 20 11 8 6 95 2 10 38 34 11 88 15 28 6 162 1 26 4 59 30 2 16 1 9 2 Unclassi fied; in sufficient data Other 11 16 4 1 3 1 1 i 12 4 8 2 1 4 4 i 4 1 3 31 29 13 26 1 2 15 1 7 8 9 15 3 1 7 1 2 1 2 2 78 3 7 3 40 1 4 i 3 * Figures for Pacific area not included because of difficulty in securing separate data for pulpwood logging. 26 U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1 9 4 8 10 Recent Bureau o f Labor Statistics Reports on Industrial Hazards and W orking Conditions* Injuries and accident causes in the longshore industry, 194$. Bulletin N o. 764. Price 10 cents. (Out o f print.) A detailed analysis o f the hazards involved in loading and unloading ships. Includes sample safety codes and accident prevention suggestions. Injuries and accident causes in the foundry industry, 194$* Bulletin N o. 805. Price 15 cents. An analysis o f foundry accidents and their causes, including accident prevention suggestions. Presents comparisons based upon plant size, geographic location, first-aid facilities, type o f product, and depart mental operations. Injuries and accident causes in the slaughtering and meat-packing industry, 194$* Bulletin N o. 855. Price 15 cents. A detailed analysis o f the hazards and o f the prevailing causes o f accidents in the meat industry, in cluding comparisons based upon departmental, regional, and plantnsize factors. Also includes descriptions o f typical accidents, accompanied by suggestions for the prevention o f similar occurrences. Injuries and accident causes in the brewing industry, 1944* Bulletin N o. 884. Price 15 cents. Presents a detailed account o f the accident record o f brewery workers during 1944, with frequency rate comparisons based upon the operating divisions o f the plants, the size o f the plants, and the geographic location o f the plants. Also includes an analysis o f the causes o f brewery accidents and suggestions for the prevention o f typical brewery accidents. Accident-record manual fo r industrial plants. Bulletin N o. 772. Price 10 cents. This manual contains an outline o f simple and useful methods o f accident recording and o f the use o f such data for accident prevention. It also explains how to com pute and use injury-frequency mid severity rates and how to determine the im portant causes o f accidents. Work injuries in the United States during 1946* Bulletin N o. 921. Price 10 cents. A collection of basic industrial injury data for each o f the m ajor industries in the United States. Presents national average injury-frequency and severity rates for each industry. Individual establishments may evaluate their own injury records b y comparison with these data. Impaired workers in industry. Bulletin N o. 857. Price 5 cents. Graphic comparisons of the performance o f impaired workers and o f their unimpaired fellow workers in terms o f output, efficiency, injury record, absenteeism, and stability on the job . Hours of Work and Output. Bulletin N o. 917. Price 35 cents. A study o f the changes in efficiency, total output, absenteeism, and accidents resulting from changes in the length o f the workday or workweek. W orkm ens Compensation and the Protection o f Seamen. Bulletin N o. 869. Price 20 cents. A report on the financial protection afforded merchant seamen who are disabled because o f injury or disease while in the service o f their vessels. Presents the status o f such seamen under both foreign and dom estic legislation and examines the probable results o f applying to seamen the recommendations o f an Interdepartmental Committee for a workmen’s compensation act fitted to the existing rights o f merchant seamen. ♦For sale b y Superintendent o f Documents at prices indicated. How to order publications: Address your order to the Superintendent o f Docum ents, Government Printing Office, W ashington 25, D . C ., with re m ittance in check or money order. Currency is sent at sender’s risk. Postage stamps not acceptable.
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