Full text of Injuries and Accident Causes in the Longshore Industry, 1942 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 764

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U N IT E D S T A T E S D E P A R T M E N T OF L A B O R
Frances Perkins, Secretary
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
Isador Lubin, Commissioner (on leave)
A . F. H inrichs, A cting Commissioner

Injuries and Accident Causes in the
Longshore Industry, 1942
By
F R A N K S. M cE LR O Y
and
G E O RG E R . M cC O R M A C K
o f th e
IN D U S T R IA L H A Z A R D S D IV ISIO N

Bulletin 7s[o. 764
[Reprinted from the M onthly Labor R eview , January 1944, w ith additional data]

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: WASHINGTON : 1944
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office
Washington 25, D. C. - Price 10 cents




Letter of Transmittal
U n it ed S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t op L a b o r ,
B u r e a u op L a b o r S t a t is t ic s ,

Washington 25, D. C., January 10, 1944*

The S e c r e t a r y op L a b o r :
I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the occurrence and causes
of work injuries in the longshore industry during 1942. This report was prepared
by Frank S. McElroy and George R. McCormack in the Industrial Hazards Divi­
sion under the direction of Max D. Kossoris, chief.
A. F. H in r ic h s ,
Acting Commissioner.
Hon. F r a n c e s P e r k in s ,
Secretary o f Labor.

Contents
Page

The industry record, 1942.........................................................................................
Occupational differences..............................................................................
Geographic differences.................................................................................
The industry and its hazards:
The industry.......................................................................................................
Employment..................................................................................................
Hiring methods..............................................................................................
Unionization and employers’ associations................................................
Wages and hours...........................................................................................
Occupations....................................................................................................
General hazards of the industry.....................................................................
Safety codes........................................................................................................
Employers’ associations....................................................
Union safety activities.....................................................................................
Analysis of accident experience..............................................................
Injuries and the age of workers.......................................................................
Kinds of injuries experienced..........................................................................
Foot, toe, and leg injuries.......................................................................
Arm, hand, and finger injuries................................................................
Back injuries..............................................................................................
Chest, abdominal, and other trunk injuries..........................................
Head injuries..............................................................................................
Accident types and agencies involved............................................................
Struck by falling or moving objects.................................. : ..............
Slips (not falls) and overexertion............................................................
Falls......................................................................................
Caught in, on, or between objects..........................................................
Other types of accident............................................................................
Causes of accident....................................................................................................
Unsafe physical conditions...............................................................................
Hazardous arrangement or procedure....................................................
Defective agencies...................................................................................
Unsafe lifting.........................................................................................
Unsafe acts of persons:
Taking unsafe position or posture..........................................................
Using unsafe equipment, hands instead of equipment, or equip­
ment unsafely....................................................................................
Operating or working at unsafe speed...................................................
Failure to wear safe attire.......................................................................
Causes and prevention of typical longshore accidents........................................
Appendix A.— Statistical ta b les........................................................................
Appendix B.— Safety codes:
Maritime Safety Code (New Y ork )...............................................................
Pacific Coast Marine Safety C ode.................................................................
ii




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Bulletin 7s£o. 764 o f the
U nited States Bureau o f Labor Statistics
[Reprinted from the M onthly L abor R eview , January 1944, with additional data].

Injuries and Accident Causes in the
Longshore Industry, 1942

,

The Industry Record 1942

More than 138 longshoremen experienced disabling work injuries
in the course of every million employee-hours of longshore work
performed during the year 1942. No other industry for which
injury-frequency information is available had a record even approach­
ing this unfavorable figure.1 The highest injury-frequency rate
recorded for any other industry in 1942 occurred in the highly hazard­
ous operations of logging, where there were 89.6 disabling injuries for
every million employee-hours worked. In the iron and steel industry
the rate was 10.4 and in the construction industry it was 36.7.
Despite the fact that every one connected with the longshore
industry seems fully aware that this is one of the most hazardous of
all industries, there is little evidence of any serious attempts to carry
on a safety program. The personal contacts with longshore em­
ployers made during the Bureau’s survey indicated that, particularly
on the South Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, safety-code provisions are
seldom followed. Hardly any of the contract stevedores maintain any
accident records beyond those which are legally required for workmen’s
compensation purposes. In most instances, therefore, the employers
have only a partial knowledge about the accident experience of their
own operations and only vague ideas as to what are the predominant
causes of injuries to their employees. In spite of the fundamental
and seemingly obvious necessity for maintaining first-aid facilities
where injuries are known to occur, it was frequently found that not
even a first-aid kit was provided. In only a very few instances was
there a first-aid room with a trained attendant in charge.
The use of personal protective equipment is almost unknown.
Goggles and respirators are used only when the work is such that it
would be physically impossible to carry on without them. Hard
hats and safety shoes are conspicuous by their absence. In a number
of instances the persons interviewed stated that some effort had been
made to promote the use of safety clothing, but that the workers and
the unions were strongly opposed to making the use of such equip­
ment compulsory.
Throughout the industry the attitude toward safetv appears to be
that safety in the abstract is desirable; in practice only a few individ­
uals are willing to spend the time and effort to do anything about it.
The result appears in the strikingly high disablement rate.*
* See the Bureau’s Bulletin No. 768 (Industrial Injuries in the United States during 1942), based upon
the annual survey covering industrial injuries in 147 industries.




1

2

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

The average injury-frequency rate noted above— 138 disabling in­
juries per million employee-hours worked—is based upon injury sum­
maries for the year 1942 furnished voluntarily to the Bureau of Labor
Statistics by 258 employers of longshoremen. In the aggregate these
employers reported that, in 42,650,000 employee-hours worked, 43
of their longshoremen were either killed or so disabled that they will
never again be able to work in any normal occupation, 497 experienced
permanent disabilities which will impair their physical ability for
the rest of their lives, and 5,361 were temporarily rendered unable
to work for an average of 34 days each. Just what this volume of
injuries represents in respect to the entire longshore industry cannot
be accurately determiAed because of the lack of definite figures rearding the actual size of the industry or the average time worked
y individual longshoremen during the year. However, assuming
that 1,800 hours constitute a reasonable estimate of the average
time worked by each longshoreman in 1942 and that there were
approximately 90,000 longshoremen in the United States in that year,
then the reports received may be estimated to cover the full experience
of about 24,000 longshoremen, or more than one-fourth of the entire
industry. On this basis, the total volume of disabling injuries for the
industry as a whole in the year 1942 would amount to over 22,000.
More accurately, it may be stated that the reported figures indicate
that in 1942 the chances for an individual longshoreman were approxi­
mately 1 in 560 that he would be killed or completely disabled for
life; 1 in 48 that he would experience a permanent physical impairment;
and 1 in 4 that he would lose time because of a temporary injury.
Despite the fact that the reported figures indicate an extremely high
incidence of disabling injuries in longshore work, there are grounds for
believing that the frequency rate of 138 represents a substantial under­
statement of the true injury experience of the industry. As a general
rule stevedore employers do not maintain complete injury records.
In many instances the only records consist of copies of the workmen’s
compensation forms which have been filed for the injuries which re­
sulted in compensable disabilities. The suspicion that many of the
reports received were based upon such records rather than upon an
actual count of all disabling injuries was substantiated in a number of
cases when a Bureau representative visited the employers’ offices to
obtain data regarding accident causes.
For the purpose of maintaining comparability between establish­
ments and industries the standard method of compiling industrial
injury statistics provides that all injuries resulting in an inability
to work extending beyond the day of injury shall be included in the
computation of injury-frequency rates. Compensation, however, is
seldom payable unless the disability extends over a period of several
days. Reporting only compensable cases results in a frequency rate
considerably lower than if it were based on all lost-time cases as
called for by the standard. On the basis of the known understate­
ments in some of the reports, therefore, it is strongly suspected that
the true injury-frequency rate for the longshore industry in 1942 was
more nearly 160 than the 138 indicated by the tabulated reports.

f

OCCU PATION AL DIFFERENCES

Holdmen, as a group, have by far the most hazardous assignment
among all the longshore occupations. In 1942 this group of workers




The Industry Record , 1942

3

experienced an average of 294 disabling injuries in every million
employee-hours worked—more than double the average for all long­
shore work. Warehousemen had the next highest frequency rate (182),
but this rate was based upon a comparatively small sample and can­
not be considered entirely representative. It is pertinent, however, to
note the wide difference in the relative seriousness of the injuries ex­
perienced by the holdmen and the warehousemen. Out of 162 re­
ported injuries to warehousemen all but 1 resulted only in temporary
disability, and the average time lost per temporary injury was only
19 days. On the other hand, 89, or 8.7 percent of the 1,020 injuries
reported for holdmen, resulted either in death or in permanent physi­
cal impairment, and the average time lost per temporary disability
was 41 days.
T able

1.— Injury Rates and Extent o f Disability for Longshoremen, by Occupation, for
258 Stevedoring Establishments, 1942
Number of disabling injuries

Injury rates *

Aver­
age
days
Num­ Number of
lost
Total
ber of employeeper
Death Per­
number Fre­
Longshore occupations units
tem­
hours
Tem­ of days quen­
and
Sever­ porary
report­ worked
ma­
Total
ing
perma­ nent porary lost1
ity*
total
cy
nent partial total
disa­
total
disa­
disa­ bility
bility
dis­
ability bility
Resulting in—

All occupations---------

012 42,650,645

5,901

43

497

Car loaders..................
Checkers............... .
Dockmen....................
Hand truckers.............
Holdmen.....................
Trimmers....................
Warehousemen...........
Miscellaneous..............
Not classified-............

1,759,081
940,638
3,987,336
5,763,661
3,464,404
2,434,003
888,496
103 4,046,128
112 19,366,898

228
23
528
757
1,020
34
162

0
0
3
5
2
0
0
9
24

1
0
53
71
87
1
1
12
271

26
52
74
30
76
18
21

453

2,696

5,361 1,090,668

138.4

25.6

34

227
23
472
681
931
33
161

6,967
398
82,842
134,936
170,401
1,588
3,391
606,841

4.0
.4
20.8
23.4
49.2
.7
3.8
20.6
31.3

29
17
37
28
41
39
19

2,401

129.6
24.5
132.4
131.3
294.4
14.0
182.3
112.0
139.2

432

83,304

36

34

i Includes time charges for permanent disabilities and fatalities. The standard time-loss ratings for fatal­
ities and permanent disabilities are given in “ Method of Compiling Industrial Injury Rates/’ approved by
the American Standards Association, 1937.
* The frequency rate is the average number of disabling injuries for each million employee-hours worked.
The severity rate is the average number of days lost for each thousand employee-hours worked.
* Severity-rate data were not furnished by all reporting establishments. The severity rates shown are
based upon reports from 193 establishments.

Most of the other major occupational groups of longshoremen had
frequency rates of more than 100, but ranging somewhat below the
industry average. Dockmen had an average of 132 disabling injuries
for each million employee-hours worked; hand truckers had an average
of 131; car loaders averaged 130; and the miscellaneous group, which
includes winch drivers, hatch tenders, cargo repairmen, gear and
lockermen, watchmen, foremen, and other less numerous groups,
averaged 112. Checkers, as might be expected, had a comparatively
low frequency rate— 25. Surprisingly, however, the trimmers had the
lowest occupational frequency rate, averaging only 14 disabling in­
juries for each million employee-hours worked.
GEOGRAPHIC DIFFEREN CES

The striking differences in the average injury-frequency rates for
the four main coastal areas, as shown in table 2, graphically portray




4

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

the variations in the safety activities carried on in the different
regions. All of the regional rates were very high, however, and even
the lowest indicates that much more intensive safety work must be
done before the industry can take much pride in its safety record.
The lowest regional frequency rate in 1942 was 122 for the Pacific
Coast. In comparison with the rates for the other regions, this rate
reflects the incorporation of the Pacific Coast Marine Safety Code
into the working rules of some ports and the continuous accidentprevention activities of the Accident Prevention Bureau of the
employers’ association. In the North Atlantic area the average
frequency rate of 125 undoubtedly was lower than it would have been
if the Maritime Association of the Port of New York had not com)iled and distributed its Maritime Safety Code. In the South Atantic area safety conditions are influenced in some degree by the
activities in the North Atlantic area, with the result that the average
injury-frequency rate there (160) is not nearly so high as that of the
Gulf Coast where this influence is not effective. The exceedingly
high average frequency rate of 258 for the Gulf ports clearly reflects
the complete absence of safety activites noted in that area during
this survey.

{

T a b le 2.— Injury Rates and Extent o f Disability for Longshoremen, by Region, for 258

Stevedoring Establishments, 1942

Number
of estab­
lish­
ments

Region

Total
Number
of
number
employeeof
hours
disabling
worked
injuries

Injury rates1
Fre­
quency

Average,
days lost
per tem­
porary
total
Severity
disability

All regions................................................

258

42,650,645

5,901.

138.4

25.6

34

North Atlantic area.................................
South Atlantic area.................................
Gulf area..................................................
Pacific area........................ ......................

115
31
38
74

23,594,852
1,501,523
4.026.487
13.527,783

2,965
241
1,041
1,654

125.7
160.5
258.5
122.3

30.5
18.3
12.3
(*)

35
26
36
26

i Includes time charges for permanent disabilities and fatalities. The standard time-loss ratings for
fatalities and permanent disabilities are given in “ Method of Compiling Industrial Injury Rates,” approved
by the American Standards Association, 1937.
* Not available.

The Industry and Its Hazards
THE IN DU STRY

Longshore work, broadly defined, consists of loading and unloading
ship’s cargo. More specifically, it has been defined as “ All handling
of cargo in its transfer from vessel to first place of rest, including
sorting and piling of cargo on the dock, and the direct transfer of cargo
from vessel to railroad car or barge, or vice versa.” 2 In practice the
8 Arbitrators’ Award, August 7, 1934: International Longshoremen’s Association vs. Waterfront Employ­
ers of Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.
For more detailed discussion of the longshore industry and its operations see also:
Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 550, Cargo Handling and Longshore Labor Conditions, TJ. 8.
Government Printing Office, 1932.
Modern Ship Stowage, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, U. S. Government Printing Office,
1942.
Decasualization of Longshore Work in San Francisco, multilith report of the Works Progress Adminis­
tration, 1939.
Comparative Labor Standards in Transportation, multilith report of the TJ. S. Office of Federal Coordi­
nator of Transportation, 1937.
Hours, Wages, and Working Conditions in Domestic Water Transportation multilith report of the U. 8.
Office of Federal Coordinator of Transportation, 1936.




The Industry and Its Hazards

5

scope of the work undertaken by longshoremen varies somewhat, de­
pending upon local conditions and agreements with the unions. In
some ports, longshoremen may handle cargo not only between ship
and dock but also between the dock and railroad cars. In other ports
longshoremen are not permitted to load or unload railroad cars. On
one dock, visited during the survey, the boundary of the industry was
indicated by a white line painted upon the floor. On the ships' side
of the line, all operations were reserved for longshoremen. They
were not, however, permitted to handle any cargo on the other side
of the line. In moving bulk cargo across the line, the practice was to
wheel it up to the line in a “ Georgia Buggy” (a 2-wheel hand truck)
and to slide the loaded buggy across under the momentum of a shove.
This practice, incidentally, has resulted in a considerable number of
foot and leg injuries to workers who were struck by the frame of the
sliding buggies.
For the purpose of accident investigation and analysis, these varia­
tions in the scope of operations from port to port make little difference.
The fact that practically all longshore operations must be divided
between two workmen's compensation jurisdictions, however, intro­
duced some anomalies in the accident-record keeping procedures of
the various stevedoring contractors, which had to be taken into ac­
count in compiling the data for this study. Under the Longshore
and Harbor Workers Act all injuries which occur on a vessel, or on
any working surface attached to a vessel, come within the Federal
jurisdiction for workmen's compensation purposes, while injuries
experienced on the dock are under State jurisdiction. The Federal
compensation regulations are uniform in all ports, but are seldom
identical with the State regulations, which vary in considerable meas­
ure from State to State. The most important effect of these varia­
tions in the State regulations, so far as this survey is concerned, was
in respect to the differences in the reports required under the various
laws, which resulted in some variation in the amount of detail informa­
tion available in different localities.
Estimates of the number of workers in the industry are practically
unavailable. Much of the work is such that long training is consid­
ered unnecessary and the available labor force fluctuates widely as
workers who are not permanently attached to the industry offer
themselves for employment or withdraw to work in other industries.
Longshore work, however, is well unionized and the union membership
figures may be taken as a reasonable measure of the number of regular
workers in the industry. The voting strength of the International
Longshoremen's Association at the 1943 convention of the American
Federation of Labor indicated a membership of about 54,000. State­
ments by the Congress of Industrial Organizations indicate an approxi­
mate membership of about 48,000 in the International Longshore­
men's and Warehousemen's Union. Both of these organizations
include some workers other than longshoremen in their membership.
Making allowance for this fact, it would seem reasonable to assume
that in 1943 there were probably about 90,000 union longshoremen
in the United States. The total number of workers in the industry
is undoubtedly somewhat greater than the union membership, but no
information on which to base an estimate of the number of nonunion
workers is presently available.




6

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry
EM PLOYM ENT

Longshore work generally is not a continuing operation, hut is
usually carried on under high pressure once the operations are started.
Characteristically the stevedoring contractors hire their longshoremen
whenever a vessel puts in to take on or discharge cargo. The high
cost of maintaining a cargo vessel places a premium upon keeping
her in active service between ports and makes quick turn around a
matter of great importance. The necessity of holding the idle time
of a vessel in port to an absolute minimum dictates that loading and
unloading operations shall be continued around the clock, and at as
reat a speed as possible. Relatively large crews of longshoremen are
ired in the effort to speed operations and are released promptly when
the vessel is ready to move out. Employment in longshore work,
therefore, is essentially casual or intermittent.

E

H IR IN G METHODS

Traditionally the procedure of a longshoreman seeking employment
is to try to learn where and when a vessel is expected to dock and to
be there when she arrives, in the hope that he will be selected as one
of the group to perform the loading or unloading. This method of
selecting workers from those who happen to be available at the oppor­
tune moment quite frequently results in a very uneven distribution of
employment among the longshoremen of a port. In normal times
the irregularity of employment leads many longshoremen to accept
any available employment even to the extent of working consecutive
shifts. Beginning with 1943, however, greater opportunities for em­
ployment in other industries and induction into the armed forces have
reduced the number of available workers so that most longshoremen
now are assured of comparatively regular employment. The inclina­
tion to work excessively long periods without rest, therefore, is not as
strong as in the years before the war.
The force required to load or unload a vessel is almost invariably
organized into gangs, each of which works as a unit handling the cargo
through one hatch of a ship. In the East, a gang usually consists of a
foreman, one or two winch drivers, a hatch tender, about eight holdmen and the same number of dockmen. On the Pacific Coast the
minimum size of a gang is standardized at 16 men. This practice of
organizing the work by gangs has led to the formation of permanent
gangs which offer themselves for employment as groups rather than
as individuals.
On the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts the current method of hiring long­
shoremen generally follows the traditional pattern with slight varia­
tions from port to port. In most ports the longshoremen who are
available for work assemble daily at specified places and times. This
assembly is commonly known as a “ shape-up.” The contract steve­
dore then selects his crew from the “ shape,” either by choosing from
among the available permanent gangs, some of which he may know
through having employed them previously, or by organizing the nec­
essary number of casual gangs from the unattached longshoremen who
are present.
In some ports shape-ups are held only once a day. In New York
and several of the other large ports, however, two or more shape-ups
are held each day and relief crews are employed when the job is of long




The Industry and Its Hazards

7

duration. Shape-up times in New York are specified in the agreement
between the International Longshoremen's Association and the New
York Shipping Association, Deepwater Steamship Lines, and Con­
tracting Stevedores of the Port of New York as 7:55 a. m., 12:55 p. m.,
and 6:55 p. m.
On the Pacific Coast hiring methods are somewhat different. In
that area a planned program of decasualization has been undertaken,
based upon the use of hiring halls in place of the shape-up. This
program was established by agreement between the Pacific Coast
Longshore Division of the International Longshoremen's and Ware­
housemen's Union and the Employers Association of the Pacific Coast.
Hiring halls are maintained and operated jointly by the union and the
employers' association in each of the larger ports. Under the hiringhall system, the employing stevedore notifies the hall when longshore­
men are needed and the hall dispatcher sends the necessary number
of gangs to the pier. A record of all time worked is maintained in the
hall for each permanently organized gang and for each individual long­
shoreman who is not a member of a regular gang. Assignments are
made on the basis of these records so as to equalize the amount of time
worked by all of the registered longshoremen.
The expense of operating halls is divided equally between the union
and the association. Management of each hall is vested in a Labor
Relations Committee, composed of three union representatives and
three employer representatives. The hall dispatcher, however, is
selected by the union. Employment preference is given to union
members, but nonunion longshoremen may also be registered for
employment. The Port Labor Relations Committee also has general
jurisdiction over working conditions and grievances. A similarly con­
stituted Coast Labor Relations Committee governs general working
conditions throughout the Pacific Coast. Problems which cannot be
settled in the local port committee are referred to the Coast Com­
mittee. In the event of a failure to reach a satisfactory solution in
the latter committee, the agreement provides that an arbitrator shall
be appointed by the Secretary of Labor to decide the issue.
U N ION IZATION A N D EM PLOYERS’ ASSOCIATIONS

The predominant labor union for longshoremen oh the Pacific Coast
is the International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union, an
affiliate of the Congress of Industrial Organizations. On the Atlantic
and Gulf Coasts the principal union is the International Longshore­
men's Association, affiliated with the American Federation of Labor.
On the Pacific Coast practically all employers of longshoremen in
Los Angeles, San Francisco, Portland, and the Puget Sound ports are
members of the Waterfront Employers' Association of the Pacific
Coast. On the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts there are various local asso­
ciations of employers in particular ports, but there is no unifying
employer organization for the entire area.
W AGES AN D HOU RS

The wage scales for longshoremen vary from port to port on the
Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, with the New York rate of $1.25 per hour
probably representing the maximum for straight time on general cargo.
575441°—44------2




8

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

Overtime rates are generally paid for any work extending beyond 8
hours, for night work, and for work on Sunday or specified holidays.
The union agreement covering longshore work in the Port of New
York provides for a basic 44-hour week and specifies that straight
time shall be paid for 8 hours’ work between 8 a. m. and 5 p. m.,
Monday through Friday inclusive, and for 4 hours, from 8 a. m. to
12 noon on Saturday. All other time worked, including any time on
holidays, is paid at the overtime rate. The agreements also specify
special rates which shall be paid for handling particular kinds of cargo.
These “ penalty cargoes” are commodities which inherently present
unusual hazards or are particularly obnoxious to handle. Examples
of the penalty cargoes specified in the New York agreement, and the
straight-time rate of pay provided for longshoremen handling those
commodities are: Explosives, $2.50 per hour; bulk cargo, $1.30; cement
in bags, $1.30; wet hides, etc., $1.40; refrigerated cargo, $1.45; kero­
sene, $1.45; and damaged cargo, $2.50.
On the Pacific Coast the union agreement provides for a basic 6-hour
day, with a basic 30-hour week averaged over a 4-week period. Straight
time is paid for the first 6 hours worked between 8 a. m. and 5 p. m.
on any week day. All time over 6 hours in 1 day or over 30 hours in
a week, all time before 8 a. m. or after 5 p. m., and all time on Sunday
or a holiday must be paid for at the overtime rate. Straight time work
on general cargo is paid at the rate of $1.10 per hour under this agree­
ment. Penalty cargoes are also listed with straight-time rates ranging
from $1.20 per hour for cement and refrigerated cargo to $1.65 per
hour for handling damaged cargo or explosives.
OCCUPATIONS

The occupational designations used for identical work in the differ­
ent ports vary considerably. Among the more widely used classifica­
tions, however, are the following: Car loaders, cargo repairmen,
checkers and clerks, dockmen, foremen, gear and locker men, hand
truckers, hatch tenders, holdmen, trimmers, warehousemen, watch­
men, and winch drivers. In addition to these general occupations
many ports have specialized groups of longshoremen who work with
particular types of cargoes. Outstanding among the groups of spe­
cialists are banana handlers and case-oil handlers.
Car loaders are the longshoremen who transfer cargo into and out
of railroad cars. Hand trucks are generally used to move the mate­
rials between the cars and the dock, but most of the piling and unpil­
ing, both in the cars and on the dock, necessarily must be done by
hand. These workers, therefore, are constantly exposed to the
hazards of strains from improper lifting, crushed fingers and toes from
dropped or mishandled materials, cuts and abrasions from sharp,
rough, or broken materials, falls from piled material, and blows from
materials which fall from the piles. Inside the cars these hazards
are intensified because of the crowded and limited space in which the
work must be performed. Car loaders are also frequently exposed to
exceedingly high dust concentrations when handling cargoes such as
flour or cement. A good safety program for these workers should
stress instruction in safe lifting methods; the use of personal safety
equipment, such as safety shoes, gloves, aprons, hard hats, cup gog­
gles, and respirators; and instruction in safe piling of materials.




The Industry and Its Hazards

9

Cargo repairmen repair all broken cases, barrels, or other cargo
items. The principal hazards in this occupation arise from the mis­
use of hand tools, the use of defective tools, and the handling of the
broken items which are often sharp-edged or splintered. A safety
program for these workers should include the provision and mainte­
nance of tools in good condition; the use of safety shoes, gloves, and
aprons; and careful instruction in the safe methods of lifting and han­
dling materials.
Checkers and clerks, or tallymen as they are frequently called, are
required to check and record the cargo items which are moved into
or out of the vessel. The chief hazard faced in this occupation is
the possibility of being struck by the loaded sling as it raises and lowers
the cargo.
Dockmen handle all cargo on the pier. In loading operations they
move the cargo items to the apron of the pier at the side of the ship
and there prepare them to be hoisted on board the vessel. Most
frequently this involves piling the cargo items by hand upon a heavy
rope net, the corners of which are gathered together and caught by
the hook of the hoist forming a large rope bag or sling in which the
materials are lifted. This is called “ making cargo into a sling.,,
On some docks where fork trucks are used to move the cargo items
the material is piled upon pallets directly from the freight cars and
is handled mechanically from that point until it is deposited in the
hold of the vessel. Pallets are merely raised platforms standing about
6 inches off the floor on longitudinal rails. The fork trucks used in
handling loaded pallets are power-operated. Projecting forward
from the truck body are prongs or forks which can be raised or low­
ered through a hoisting mechanism. These forks slide under the
pallet between the supporting rails, which allows the loaded pallet to
be raised off the floor upon the fork and transported intact to the
desired location. At the ship’s side, ropes are attached to the pallet
and thrown over the crane hook. The pallet with its load of cargo is
then lifted aboard ship and deposited in the hold where the various
items are removed and stowed away. In unloading operations the
dockmen remove the cargo items from the sling at the side of the ship
and move them to the points on the dock where the car loaders take
over.
Dockmen are exposed to all the hazards of handling heavy mate­
rials and to the danger of being struck by material falling from piles.
In addition they are exposed to the possibility of being struck by the
loaded slings as they are raised and lowered at the side of the ship.
The slings frequently swing somewhat and must be steadied or pushed
and pulled into proper position. When this is done by hand instead
of by means of a rope attached to the sling, or by means of a pole,
there is serious danger that the person attempting to guide the sling
may get his hands caught and badly crushed by the sling ropes or
may even have the load set down on his foot. Dockmen also face
the hazard of being struck by the trucks used to move the cargo
items. The latter hazard becomes more serious when power trucks
are used because of their greater speed. Fork trucks are particularly
dangerous in this respect because the load, carried in front of the
operator, is frequently so high as to cut off his vision. Safety pro­
visions for these workers should include careful instruction in proper
lifting methods; instruction in the safe methods of rigging and guiding




10

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

sling loads; the use of safety shoes, gloves, aprons, and hard hats; and
instruction and strict rules covering the safe operation of trucks.
Gear and locker men are responsible for the storage and handling
of all stevedore gear. Usually this work is done by a longshoreman
temporarily assigned to such duties.
The work of holdmen is very similar to that of carmen and dockmen.
It is performed inside the ship, which tends to increase the hazards
because of the smaller space in which they must work. Little me­
chanical trucking is done on board ship, but holdmen are exposed to
all the dangers associated with the use of hand trucks. The hazard
of working under the sling is greater in the hold than on the dock
because of the limited area into which the sling is lowered. This is
particularly true when the cargo is being stowed directly beneath the
hatch. Holdmen are also exposed to dust hazards similar to those
experienced by car loaders when they are handling dry dusty cargo.
A safety program for workers in this occupation, therefore, should
include all of the points necessary in respect to both car loaders and
dockmen.
Winch drivers and hatch tenders are jointly responsible for the
operation of the power hoists which move the cargo between the ship's
hold and the apron of the dock. The winch driver, who actually
controls the movements of the hoisting apparatus, can seldom see
the load he is handling except when it is raised above the deck. He
must, therefore, depend almost entirely upon the hatch tender for
operating instructions to move the load. These instructions are usually
transmitted by means of hand signals. The hatch tender must always
be in a position where he can see exactly where the load is and at the
same time be in full view of the winch driver. His position, therefore,
is usually on the deck at the side of the open hatch or at the rail on the
dock side of the ship. The principal personal hazard faced by the
hatch tender is that of being struck by the sling or by material that
may fall from the sling as it is raised overhead. The winch driver,
on the other hand, is primarily exposed to the mechanical hazards
presented by the machinery which he operates. These hazards
generally can be overcome easily by the use of guards. However, it
is seldom within the power of the stevedore contractor to provide such
guarding, since the hoisting apparatus is almost always a part of the
ship's equipment—not property of the longshoremen's employer.
Much of the safety of other longshore workers depends upon the
manner in which the hatch tender and the winch driver perform their
work. The possibility of being struck by the sling is one of the great­
est hazards faced by most longshoremen. To prevent this the hatch
tender must be alert to see that all workers are in the clear before he
orders the sling moved. He should be very familiar with all of the
operations so that he can anticipate and be prepared for any unsafe
acts on the part of other workers which would expose them under the
load. He must not be excitable and he must be level-headed in an
emergency, and he must be able to transmit his signals to the winch
driver quickly and clearly. The winch driver similarly must be alert
to act instantly in response to the signals, which must never be
accepted from any one other than the designated hatch tender, and
he must never move the load or the hook without having received a
signal that it is safe to do so.




The Industry and Its Hazards

11

The major operations involved in handling bulk cargo such as
grain, coal, and oil are usually performed by loading machinery rather
than by longshoremen. Dry bulk cargoes, however, must be spread
and leveled in the hold by hand or by means of an electric trimmer
which must be operated by hand. Longshoremen who perform these
duties are called trimmers. These men work on the very uneven,
unstable and shifting surface of the cargo, often surrounded by thick
clouds of dust. Cup goggles and approved respirators are very
necessary equipment, and every precaution must be taken to prevent
sparks from the electric equipment since the danger of dust explosion
is ever present.
G E N E R A L H AZARDS OF TH E IN D U STRY

Nearly all the hazards encountered in longshore work are common
to many other industries; but most other industries have achieved
far more success in overcoming those hazards than has the longshore
industry. Although the handling of heavy materials is always
dangerous work, the dangers can be largely overcome through care­
fully planned safety programs.
It should be noted however, that the longshore industry has several
unique factors which intensify the hazards and tend to make safety work
unusually difficult. The fact thart longshoremen are hired as casual work­
ers makes it nearly impossible to make much progress in putting on a
safety-instruction program in any one establishment. The frequent
changes in personnel, particularly in the casual gangs, also mean that
many longshoremen are often called upon to work with strangers, men
whose habits and methods of working are entirely unknown to each
other. Mutual understanding and the ability to anticipate each others
actions and reactions, which contribute much to safety in employments
where the same individuals work together day after day, are therefore
largely denied these longshore workers by the casual nature of their
work.
The shifting of personnel also creates difficulties in promoting the
use of personal safety equipment. Many of these items, such as
safety shoes, goggles, hard hats, and gloves, should be individually
fitted and permanently issued to the persons who are to use them.
This is essential not omy to insure their effectiveness as injury preven­
tives, but also for sanitary reasons and to guard against their being
discarded because they are uncomfortable. In other industries, which
offer continued employment, the issue of personal safety equipment
presents no great problem since management can easily arrange to
have supplies available and can stimulate their use by assuming all
or part of their cost and by establishing rules making their use man­
datory. In longshore work, however, no one employer could success­
fully make the use of such equipment mandatory, nor could he arrange
to fit all of his workers in the short time usually intervening between
hiring and the start of work. The use of these items by longshore­
men, therefore, depends almost entirely upon the willingness of the
individual worker to obtain the equipment at his own expense for his
own protection.
The constant pressure for speed in longshore work and the long
periods of work also tend to intensify the ever-present hazards.
Operating at unsafe speed is commonly thought of as an accident
cause in connection with vehicular accidents; but it can also be the



12

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

cause of any type of accident—for instance, when a worker attempts
to lift a heavy weight by himself, instead of taking time to get help,
and as a result suffers a hernia. The effect of fatigue in causing
accidents is sometimes difficult to measure, but there can be no ques­
tion that an alert worker is the safest worker.
SAFETY CODES

On the Atlantic Coast the Maritime Association of the Port of
New York has compiled a Maritime Safety Code for Stevedoring and
Freight Handling Operations (1939)3 and has recommended that all
stevedore operators follow its provisions. The introduction to this
code states: “ This safety code includes all direct and incidental
cargo handling and stevedoring operations aboard ship and on the
dock. Its purpose is to identify the more important hazards, especi­
ally as to safe practice rules covering both personal and mechanical
or physical fault, to assist in establishing uniformity in safe operation,
to serve as a guide or reminder and an incentive to greater safety, and
to coordinate and encourage the active participation of all concerned
in a practical and effective effort towards the observance of reasonable
requirements for safety and health. * * * Sections are provided
for [applying to] receiving and delivering cargoes, preliminary or pre­
paratory work before cargo is actually handled, first aid and accident
investigation and reporting as well as for the operations of rigging,
making up and landing drafts, tiering and stowing cargo, and other
work common to stevedoring operations.”
The New York code originally was widely distributed in the East
among the employing stevedores. Its application, however, is en­
tirely voluntary and at the time this survey was made it was found
that comparatively few of the offices contacted had a copy on hand or
knew what the code provisions were.
On the Pacific Coast the development of safety codes for longshore
work started soon after the passage of the Federal Longshoremen’s
and Harbor Workers’ Act in 1927. In 1928, local committees of
employers prepared codes for the ports of Seattle and San Fransisco.
In 1929, a coast-wide code was drawn up and recommended for
voluntary adoption by all members of the various Pacific Coast
marine associations. This code was widely circulated during the
following 3 years and was annually reviewed and revised as its pro­
visions were tested in practice. In 1934, however, the coast-wide
strike in the longshore industry interrupted work on the code as a
coast instrument.
The arbitration award of October 12, 1934, and all subsequent
renewals of the working agreement between the International Long­
shoremen’s and Warehousemen’s Union and the Waterfront Employ­
ers’ Association of the Pacific Coast have recognized the importance
of a general safety code by specifying: “ The employers shall provide
safe gear and safe working conditions. A safety code for longshore
work shall be negotiated by the parties and if they shall not agree, it
shall be arbitrated only by mutual consent.” It is of particular
interest, however, to note that disagreements in regard to safety code
provisions can be arbitrated “ only by mutual consent,” whereas the
general arbitration clause of the agreement provides that—
* See appendix, p. 35.




The Industry and Its Hazards

13

In the event that any Port Labor Relations Committee shall fail to agree on
any question before it, it shall be immediately referred at the request of either party
to the Coast Labor Relations Committee for decision. In the event that the
Coast Labor Relations Committee fails to agree on any question involving the
interpretation of this agreement or any dispute arising hereunder, or on any
other question of mutual concern not covered by this contract and relating to
the industry, such question shall, at the request o f either party , be referred to the
Coast arbitrator for decision.

Strict interpretation of the safety code clause of the agreement
appears to indicate that either party may prevent a settlement of
any disagreement involving safety merely by refusing to agree to
arbitration.
Differences of opinion between the employers and the union leaders
in regard to the interpretation of the code have so far prevented its
adoption under the provisions of the coast agreement. It has, how­
ever, been incorporated into the local working rules for a few ports.
In actual practice neither the employers not the union pay much
attention to the code at the present time.
In direct contrast to the New York code, the Pacific Coast Marine
Safety Code 4 applies only to the longshore operations on board
vessels. The scope of its coverage is stated as “ all operations, persons,
employees, employers, and vessels included under the Federal Long­
shoremen’s and Harbor Workers’ Compensation Act in the States of
the Pacific Coast.” None of the code provisions, therefore, apply to
cargo handling operations on the dock. In general, the code contains
rules governing the safe operation and guarding of equipment on
board ship; specifies that certain safe practices shall be observed in
particular operations; prohibits particular unsafe practices, such as
entering dark holds or compartments without a light; and provides
for the maintenance of an approved first-aid kit in charge of a trained
attendant on every job. The only reference to personal safety
equipment, however, is that “ longshoremen shall wear (a) approved
goggles when handling cargo liable to injure or irritate the eyes; (b)
respirators of an approved type when handling cargo liable to irritate
the respiratory passages and lungs. When such goggles and respira­
tors are required, same shall be provided by employer.”
em ployers’

a s s o c ia t io n s

To implement safety work among its members the Waterfront
Employers’ Association of the Pacific Coast maintains an Accident
Prevention Bureau, which compiles and analyzes statistics relating
to injuries experienced by longshore workers on the Pacific Coast.
From these analyses the Accident Prevention Bureau prepares re­
ports showing the variations in injury frequency and the prevailing
accident causes. These reports, accompanied by accident prevention
recommendations based upon such summaries, are made available to
members of the Association to stimulate and aid the general safety
program. Safety engineers from the Bureau’s staff are also available
•as consultants on any safety problems of the Association’s members.
On the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts the employers’ associations have
undertaken no widespread or continuing safety program other than
the preparation of the Maritime Safety Code by the Maritime Asso­
ciation of the Port of New York.
4See appendix, p. 45.




J4

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry
UNION SAFETY A CTIVITIES

Except for the incorporation of the Pacific Coast Marine Safety
Code into the working rules of a few locals of the International Long­
shoremen’s and Warehousemen’s Union, the unions of longshoremen
have done little to increase the safet}^ of longshore operations. Safety
is rarely mentioned in the union agreements and such references as
do appear are usually vague generalities such as, “ the employer shall
provide safe equipment and safe working conditions.” In a few
instances the agreements specify that there shall be no smoking on
the job, that explosives shall he handled only when they are carefully
and safely packed, or that special gloves shall be provided for use in
handling certain types of cargo. Some agreements go one step farther
in that they specify the maximum quantities of various commodities
which may be made into a single sling load.
Analysis of Accident Experience

In addition to the summary reports, outlining in general the accident
experience of their employees during 1942, the original accident
records were made available by 22 employers of longshoremen for
analysis and transcription by a Bureau of Labor Statistics represent­
ative. The employers, who cooperated in this part of the survey,
operated in 16 different ports, 8 on the Atlantic Coast, 6 on the Gulf
Coast, and 2 on the Pacific Coast. Their combined operations in­
cluded over 8,000,000 employee-hours of longshore work and their
records furnished the details of 1,510 accidents. The Bureau’s agent
visited the offices of these employers and, insofar as possible, tran­
scribed from their records the following items regarding each injury:
Age, race, and experience of each person injured; place where the
accident occurred and time it occurred; nature and extent of the
resulting injury; type of accident; unsafe condition or act which led
to the accident; and the object or substance (agency) which caused
the injury. In some instances, however, all of the desired details
were not available. For this reason, the number of cases analyzed in
respect to particular accident factors varies considerably. All parts
of the analysis, however, are based upon data from the records of at
least 14 employers. The analysis follows the “ American Recom­
mended Practice for Compiling Industrial Accident Causes,” approved
by the American Standards Association, August 1, 1941.
IN JU R IE S A N D TH E AGE OF W O R K E R S

In no case was it possible to secure an age distribution for all the
longshoremen employed. No conclusion can be drawn, therefore,
as to whether or not the age of the worker has any bearing upon the
frequency of injuries. Fourteen of the employers, however, were
able to supply details regarding both the age and the disability
experienced by 1,317 of their employees who were injured. These
data 6 corroborate the findings of previous studies in other industries,
that injuries to older persons are likely to result in more serious disa­
bilities than those experienced by younger persons, the differences
primarily being due to the greater recuperative ability of the younger
persons.6•
•See Appendix A, table A.
^ See Monthly Labor Review, October 1940 (p. 789): Relation of Age to Industrial Injuries.




Analysis o f Accident Experience

15

Less than 8 percent of the injured workers who were under 35
years of age at the time of injury, experienced more than temporary
disability. The proportion of fatal and permanent impairment cases
rose to over 10 percent in the age groups over 35.
The relationship between age and recovery was even more strik­
ingly apparent in the various age groups in the amount of time lost
because of temporary disabilities. On the average the temporary
disabilities experienced by workers, who were not over 25 years of
age, resulted in less than 10 days of lost time. For the age groups
between 25 and 40, the average recovery period ranged from 20 to 26
days. Workers in age groups above 40, however, required an average
of 40 or more days to recover from temporary injuries.
KIN DS OF IN JU RIES E X P E R IE N C E D 7

Injuries to the lower extremities (toes, feet, and legs), accounting
for 43 percent of all the injuries for which details were available, were
far more common than injuries to other parts of the body. The
upper extremities (hands, fingers, and arms) were involved in 24
percent of the injuries while injuries to the trunk, including back
cases, accounted for another 24 percent. Head injuries amounted to
about 9 percent of the total.
Footj toe, and leg injuries.— Injuries affecting only toes constituted
about 9 percent of all the injuries analyzed. Nearly half of these
(46 percent) were fractures, over a third were severe sprains or bruises,
and about 15 percent were cuts and lacerations. Toe injuries were
experienced by practically all types of workers, but were particularly
prominent among the injuries suffered by the dockmen, car loaders,
and holdmen. Generally speaking, they occurred most frequently
to workers whose duties involve manual handling of the cargo items.
More than 13 percent of all injuries experienced by workers engaged in
trucking cargo items, and over 10 percent of those experienced while
stowing, piling, or breaking down cargo, were toe injuries resulting
principally from falling, dropped, or misplaced cases or heavy cargo
items.
Foot injuries, including those affecting the ankle but excluding
those affecting only a toe or toes, constituted over 20 percent of the
total number of injuries. Most foot injuries resulted from dropped
or improperly lowered cargo items. Twisted and sprained ankles
were not uncommon. Nearly two-thirds of the foot injuries were
sprains or bruises, 22 percent were fractures, and 12 percent were
cuts or lacerations. As in the case of toe injuries, the foot injuries
were most numerous among the dockmen, holdmen, and car loaders,
particularly among the workers engaged in landing or hooking-on
sling loads, operating trucks, or stowing, piling, and breaking down
cargo.
Injuries to the leg (above the ankle) numbered about 13 percent
of all the disabling cases. Nearly 31 percent of these injuries were
cuts and lacerations, 16 percent were fractures, and 52 percent sprains
or bruises. Holdmen, car loaders, and deck workers, other than winch
drivers or hatch tenders, all experienced a high proportion of leg
injuries, particularly in the operations of landing or hooking-on sling
loads, trucking, and stowing, piling, or breaking down cargo.
7 See Appendix A, tables B, C, D, E, F, and G.
575441°—44------ 3




16

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

Although safety shoes cannot prevent accidents, they can and will
prevent the occurrence of many foot injuries and will eliminate prac­
tically all toe injuries. It is reasonable to say, therefore, that the
universal use of safety shoes by longshoremen would have prevented
at least 19 percent of all the injuries experienced in the industry dur­
ing 1942. If they had been worn only by the workers engaged in
stowing, piling, or breaking down cargo, landing and hooking-on sling
loads, or trucking cargo, they would have prevented more than 20
percent of the injuries experienced in those operations. Protective
clothing probably would be of little avail in preventing leg sprains,
bruises, or fractures, but the use of leather aprons and leggings undoubt­
edly would have prevented many of the cuts and abrasions, which
constituted over 30 percent of all leg injuries.
Arm, hand, and finger injuries.— Hand and finger injuries, account­
ing for about 21 per cent of all reported disabilities, were somewhat
less numerous than foot and toe injuries, but produced a much higher
proportion of permanent impairments. One in every five finger
injuries resulted in the loss, or loss of use, of one or more fingers.
Finger injuries were particularly numerous in work involving the
handling of stevedore gear, and landing or hooking-on sling loads.
Generally speaking, most finger injuries were cuts or lacerations from
handling rough or sharp-edged cargo items, or crushing injuries from
pinches between cargo items. Hand and arm injuries were more
commonly sprains or bruises although they also included a high
proportion of cuts and lacerations.
Back injuries.— Nearly 14 percent of all reported disabilities
resulted from back injuries. The great majority of these were ^trains,
or sprains caused by overexertion, improper lifting, or slips and falls.
Relatively few back injuries developed into permanent impairments
but the average recovery period for temporary back injuries (42 days)
was longer than for any other type of temporary disability except brain
concussions. Back injuries occurred to, workers in all longshore
occupations, but were particularly common among workers engaged in
stowing, piling, or breaking down cargo.
Chest, abdominal, and other trunk injuries.— Injuries to the chest,
abdomen, and other parts of the trunk; (excluding back injuries) ac­
counted for over 10 percent of all the reported disabilities. About onethird of the chest injuries involved broken ribs and about half of the
abdominal injuries were hernia cases. Practically all other injuries in
this group were strains and bruises. With the exception of the hernia
cases, which almost invariably resulted from overexertion, these body
injuries were ascribed to a wide variety of accident types, such as
slips and falls, or being struck by moving cargo or sling loads.
Head injuries.—Head injuries, including eye cases, totaled slightly
less than 9 percent of all the reported disabilities. Eye injuries were
not very numerous and generally were not severe. The other types of
head injuries, however, tended to be very severe and resulted in a high
proportion of deaths and permanent impairments. Most of the eye
injuries were the result of flying particles becoming imbedded in the
eye, although there were a few cases of conjunctivitis contracted in
the handling of materials which are particularly irritating to the eyes.
The other head injuries resulted principally from blows inflicted by
falling objects or loaded slings. The use of hard hats would have
minimized a large proportion of these injuries.




Analysis o f Accident Experience

17

ACCIDEN T TYPES A N D AGENCIES IN VOLVED 8

More than half of the injuries for which details were available
respited from forcible contact with moving, falling, or flying objects.
Slips or overexertion, resulting largely from improper lifting, and
falls were each responsible for about 14 percent of the injuries, while
crushing accidents, in which the injured persons were caught in, on,
or between objects or machines, accounted for nearly 13 percent.
Cargo items were the injury-producing agencies in 46 percent of
the injuries, hoisting apparatus was involved in 18 percent, working
sp rite s in 16 percent, and platform trucks in about 10 percent.
Strfuck by falling or moving objects.— Blows from moving or falling
cargo items accounted for nearly one-fourth of all the disabling in­
juries experienced by longshoremen. Accidents of this type included
many cases involving cargo items which slipped out of the hands of
the workers or which fell from piles or dropped out of slings. Foot
and top injuries were prominent in this group of accidents.
AllTongshoremen who work on the apron of the dock, on the deck
of the vessel, or in the hold are exposed to the danger of being struck
by the loaded slings as they are raised or lowered into position.
When the sling is not placed directly under the head of the boom the
load tends to swing as soon as it is raised. Part of the hatch tenders
duty should be to anticipate this swing and to warn all workers to
stand clear. It frequently happens, however, that the hatch tender
cannot see the entire area around the sling and he may order the load
raised just as an unseen worker moves into range of the swing. The
area around the spot on which the sling must be deposited, or from
which it must be lifted, is also frequently piled high with cargo so
that there is little room for the workers to stand clear. This is
particularly true in the hold. The hold, moreover, is sometimes
comparatively dark, making it difficult for the hatch tender to see
where the holdmen are. As a result of these circumstances, accidents
in which workers are struck by sling loads, or even have the loads set
down upon them, occur frequently. Nearly 11 percent of all the
injuries studied resulted from accidents of this type.
The extensive use of platform trucks to move the cargo items,
both on the dock and in the hold, leads to a considerable volume of
injuries resulting from workers being struck by these vehicles. Much
of the space in which the trucking must be done is highly congested
with piled materials, which obstruct the operator’s view, and in many
instances the load on the truck itself cuts off the driver’s vision.
Leg injuries, including a high proportion of fractures, inflicted by
contact with the bed of the truck, are the most common result of
collisions between workers and industrial trucks. In 1942, over 5
percent of all the disabling injuries to longshoremen resulted from
this type of accident.
Slips (not falls) and overexertion.—A great deal of the work involved
in longshore operations involves moving cargo items by hand. In­
juries from improper lifting methods, therefore, are very common.
Generally, these injuries result from lifting with the back instead of
the legs, lifting in cramped or awkward positions, lifting excessive
weights, or from failure of lifting teams to act in unison. In the
aggregate, injuries resulting from overexertion in lifting accounted
for nearly 9 percent of all the cases studied in this survey.
•See Appendix A , tables L, M , and N .




18

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

Slips on wet or uneven working surfaces and other accidents
involving great exertion together accounted for nearly 6 percent of all
the disabling injuries. Many of these cases occurred when the
workers were carrying heavy items or were attempting to push or pull
the cargo items into position.
Falls.— Falls from one elevation to another accounted for nearly 6
percent of all disabling injuries compared with nearly 8 percent
charged to falls on the same level. Generally, however, the injuries
resulting from falls from one elevation to another were the more severe.
Falls were experienced with approximately equal frequency in all cate­
gories of longshore work. In piling and breaking down cargo, work­
ers frequently fell on the uneven surface of the piles or fell over the
edge of the pile. In dock and hold work, they frequently tripped
over cargo items or other material lying in their way; or they fell from
industrial trucks, off the dock and off the vessels, and from stagings
and ladders.
Caught in, on, or between objects.— Accidents of the caught in,
on, or between type accounted for nearly 13 percent of all the dis­
abling injuries. The majority of these were crushing injuries, such
as fingers and hands pinched between cargo items, or between sling
ropes and sling loads; persons crushed between loaded slings ana
piled cargo or between platform trucks and piled cargo; and hands
and fingers caught in unguarded gears, pulleys, or other parts of mov­
ing machinery.
Other types of accidents.—Accidents in which the injured person
bumped into some stationary object, such as piled cargo or hatch
beams, were responsible for 5 percent of all the injuries studied.
Cases of dermatitis or poisoning, resulting from the inhalation or
absorption of dusts, chemicals, and radiations, were infrequent. Of
the 20 injuries of this type for which full details were available, only
1 resulted in death.
Causes of Accident

M ost of the circumstances which lead to accidents in longshore
work could be corrected very easily were it not for the industry’s
two outstanding characteristics— casual employment for short periods
and continuous pressure for speed. Comparatively few of the hazards
encountered in the industry are such that extensive engineering or
mechanical guarding is necessary for their elimination. On the con­
trary, nearly all of the unsafe physical conditions revealed by analysis
of over 1,360 longshore injuries are hazards which are not inescapably
a part of the work, but rather are created by the way in which the
work is performed. The evidence that longshore work is carried on
with very little consideration for safety is amply borne out by the
general pattern formed by the unsafe acts which contributed to the
occurrence of these accidents. By and large these unsafe acts repre­
sent violations of the most elementary rules of safety; in short, they
are the type of unsafe acts which are committed by persons entirely
untrained in safety and condoned only by supervisors who are uncon­
cerned with safety. It seems evident that most of the injuries to
longshoremen could be avoided if the workers were thoroughly in­
structed in safety and were given safety-minded supervision.
The difficulties involved in teaching and practicing safety under
the existing system of casual employment are readily apparent, but




Causes o f Accident

19

m the final analysis these difficulties differ only in degree from those
encountered in many other industries in which much safety progress
has been achieved. To ascribe the failure to develop a successful
safety program in the longshore industry entirely to these difficulties,
therefore, is tantamount to questioning the ability of the longshore
industry to solve its own problems as well as do other industries, which
obviously is not the case. All of the evidence collected in this survey,
however, points to one outstanding fact: neither longshore manage­
ment nor longshore labor is yet fully convinced that safety pays, not
only in moral values but also in the material savings which alone are
usually greater than the expenditures necessary to insure safety.
Safety can be made a reality in longshore work, but it will require
continuous effort and full cooperation between management and the
workers’ leaders to make it effective.
UN SAFE PH YSIC A L CONDITIONS •

Hazardous arrangement or procedure.— Nearly 43 percent of all the
accidents analyzed resulted directly from hazardous arrangement in
and about the workplaces or from hazardous working methods. To
pile or stow cargo in such a manner that the piles are not stable and
are likely to topple, or to build the piles irregularly so that corners
will project and be struck by passing trucks or workers, presents not
only great possibility of injury but also the probability of material
damage to the cargo items. Resort to such piling or stowing methods
usually results from a desire to save time, even though it should be
obvious that the effort required to rebuild a toppled pile consumes far
more time than would be required to build it correctly in the first
place. Nevertheless over 13 percent of the accidents were caused by
unsafely piled or stowed cargo items.
The exposure of workers to the hazard of being struck by loaded
slings while working on the apron of the dock or in the hatchway of
the vessel arises largely from the fact that both of these areas are
frequently highly congested with cargo, making it difficult for the
workers to withdraw from the danger area when the load is raised or
lowered. The pressure for speed also frequently results in sling loads
being swung over the heads of workers who are engaged in moving in
the items for the next load or moving away the items from the previous
load. Some sacrifice in operating speed may be necessary to elim­
inate this exposure to being struck by sling loads. It is axiomatic
among safety experts, however, that tne safe way of performing any
operation is almost invariably the most efficient way. The fact that
nearly 13 percent of all disabling injuries to longshoremen result from
exposure to being struck by loaded slings indicates that any attention
to the organization of work on the dock apron or in the hatchway,
based upon safety, would be very productive in the reduction of
longshore accidents.
Defective agencies.— Mechanical defects in the hoisting apparatus
itself produced relatively few injuries. Improperly built and improp­
erly slung loads, however, led to a considerable volume of accidents.
These included instances in which the load was too heavy, or was
improperly attached to the hook, or was unevenly piled in the sling so
that articles of cargo spilled out and fell on the workers below.
4See Appendix A, tables J and K .




20

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

Slippery, worn, and uneven working surfaces produced nearly 5
percent of the injuries by causing falls and near falls. Some of the
slippery conditions were due to ice or snow which might have been
made much less dangerous through the liberal use of sand. Attention
simply to good housekeeping, such as better maintenance around the
docks and prompt attention to the cleaning up of spilled materials,
however, would have prevented most of these injuries.
The handling of defective cargo, particularly broken cases with
rough and splintered edges, accounted for over 3 percent of the
injuries. In large measure these items became defective through
improper handling, and the most effective way to avoid the hazard
which they present would be to prevent their being broken in the first
place. Once they are broken, however, the workers who must handle
them should be equipped with protective gloves and aprons.
Unsafe lifting.— The cases included in this category of unsafe
mechanical or physical condition include accidents resulting from
manual lifting of objects which should have been lifted mechanically,
from individuals7 lifting objects which should have been lifted by a
team, and from the lifting of objects in cramped or crowded quarters
which should have been cleared before the operation started. In a few
accidents resulting from individuals7 lifting what appeared to be
excessive weights there was some question whether the injury actually
might not hav<» occurred because of improper lifting procedure; when
this question could not be specifically answered the case was considered
as involving the lifting of excessive weight and was included in this
group. A substantial volume of injuries, 15 percent of all cases ana­
lyzed, resulted from the unsafe conditions falling in this classification.
Accidents of this type are primarily due to inadequate supervision.
In all work involving lifting, the supervisor should be required to see
that proper space is provided for the operation and that adequate
teams or proper mechanical lifting equipment are available.
UNSAFE ACTS OF PERSONS 10

Tabng unsafe position or posture.— Nearly a third (32 percent) of
the injuries analyzed were the direct outcome of the injured person’s
placing himself in an unsafe position or posture. Most prominent of
the specific acts in this general group was that of working or standing
under or in the path of suspended or moving sling loads. Other unsafe
acts in this category involved such actions as working, standing, or
walking in front of moving vehicles; riding the sling or the hoek;
working or walking too near the edge of the dock, deck, or hatchway;
and working in a cramped position. The injuries resulting from these
unsafe acts included a high proportion of fatalities and a considerable
volume of very severe temporary disabilities. The average recovery
period for temporary disabilities in this group was 41 days, as com­
pared with an average of 34 days for all temporary disabilities experi­
enced by longshoremen.
Using unsafe equipment, hands instead of equipment, or equipment
unsafely.—Relatively few injuries resulted from using unsafe mechan­
ical equipment or from using mechanical equipment unsafely, but
nearly 24 percent of all the cases resulted from the unsafe act of grip­
ping objects insecurely or taking hold of objects incorrectly. These
were principally cases in which cargo items slipped from the hands of
workers and fell upon their feet.
10 See A ppendix A , tables H and I.




Causes o f Accident

21

Operating or working at unsafe speed.— “ Shortcutting” accidents—
accidents which occurred because someone took a chance in order to
save time—produced more than 18 percent of the injuries. These
unsafe acts included running; sliding down or climbing ropes instead
of using ladders; jumping from piles and platforms instead of climbing
down; operating platform trucks at high speed in congested areas; and
throwing materials instead of passing or carrying them.
Failure to wear safe attire.—About 5 percent of the accidents resulted
directly from the failure to wear safe clothing or proper personal safety
equipment. The cases involving failure to wear safe clothing included
workers who handled lime while working without shirts and as a
result received severe body bums when their perspiration slaked the
dust on their shoulders; workers who w7ore trousers with tom and
ragged ends which finally tripped them; and workers who wore loose
clothing which caught on projections and in the lines of the sling. In
respect to the failure to use personal safety equipment, only accidents
in operations for which such equipment is essential were included in
this group. Cases in which the wearing of safety shoes, hard hats, and
similar equipment would have prevented injury, but would not have
prevented the accident, were not considered as falling within this
category of unsafe act. The failure to wear safety shoes while remov­
ing copper bars from an unstacked heap in which the bars shifted and
rolled down whenever one was pulled from the pile, howrever, was
considered an unsafe act of this type. Similarly, the failure to wrear
gloves when handling wire cables which had broken strands was also
considered as a failure to wear safe attire.
In a great many instances the specific unsafe acts which led to
injuries were the result of conditions over which the individual worker
had little control. In others the individuals could have elected to act
safely, but either through lack of safety understanding or because
safety seemed unimportant they chose to take a chance. Basically,
however, every unsafe act, regardless of how designated, is manage­
ment’s responsibility. As long as the supervisors do not plan the
work to avoid unsafe conditions and insure strict observance of safe
practices on the part of the workers there are bound to be many
accidents and many injuries.




Causes and Prevention o f Typical Longshore Accidents

To illustrate the general type of accidents experienced by longshore­
men, brief accounts of a number of accidents were secured and typical
examples of these were given individual consideration. The descrip­
tions of these accidents, accompanied by suggestions as to the preven­
tive measures, which might have avoided the occurrence of injury, are
given below.
DESCRIPTION OF ACCIDENTS AND SUGGESTED METHODS OF PR EV E N TIO N 11

1. Longshoreman was standing on hatch beam uncovering hatch. He failed to
let go of his end of the hatch cover and was dragged into the hold. Fatal.
(a) The removing of the hatch covers should he done while working from hatch
covers or deck, and standing on hatch beams to remove hatch covers should he
'prohibited.
(b) M en should work in unison and give warning when releasing loads, lifts,
or strains.

2. Longshoreman was fatally injured when he was caught between the couplings
of two freight cars as they were being pushed into position by a crane.
(a) Coupling operations should proceed only on a signal from hrakeman having
full view of the ends of the cars being coupled.
(b) The movement of railroad cars should be undertaken by railroad crews or
by men qualified to do this type of work.

3. Longshoreman was injured while attempting to avoid being struck by a sling
load of freight. He stepped into a door at upper deck level, which proved to be
an unguarded doorway to the escape hatch leading to the bottom of the ship. His
fall resulted in a fractured skull, fractured right jaw, injury to right eye, two broken
vertebrae, broken bones in right foot, fractured right leg, injuries to left foot, and
fractured left shoulder. Still disabled 6 months later.
(a) Whenever practicable all hatch or deck openings should be covered when
not in use.
(b) Workmen should not stand or walk under or in the line of movement o f the
sling.
(c) Hatch bosses should not permit drafts to be moved until all workmen are in
the clear.

4. Man was loading coal in buckets when large piece of coal rolled from top of
pile and struck his finger, causing him to lose fingernail. Disabled 4 days.
(a) The loading face of coal piles should be kept broken down to an angle o f
approximately 60 degrees.
(b) Strong leather gloves should be worn on coal-handling operations.

5. Longshoreman handling bars of copper was struck by a bar which slipped
from the tier and fell on right great toe. Disabled 9 days.
(a) Bars of copper should be piled flat and layers cross-tied with dunnage
between each layer.
(b) Bars should be removed from tiers in a manner to prevent others from
falling.
(c) Workmen handling heavy or bulky materials should wear safety shoes.

6. Holdman was stowing railroad rail, using a rail fork bar to turn rail over into
place. Rail was caught or jammed at one end; the bar slipped and rail sprung
back, causing point end of bar to strike man in the right eye. Loss of eye.
(a)
No attempt should be made to turn or roll railroad rail until rail is free for
entire length.
11In the analysis of these accidents, selected as typical of those reported, the authors were assisted by H. W.
Heinrich, assistant superintendent of the engineering and inspection division, and by Thomas J. Whelan,
supervising engineer, and R. J. Behley, assistant supervising engineer, in the construction unit of the engi­
neering and inspection division of The Travelers Insurance Companies.
The analysis was made from cards to which the accident descriptions had been transcribed so as not to
reveal the identity of the reporting establishments.

22




Causes and Prevention o f Typical Longshore Accidents

23

7. Dockman was making up a draft of steel slabs. A slab slipped from the pile,
not from the draft, and struck man on back of both legs. Disabled 2 days.
(a) Steel slabs should be piled flat and cross-tied with dunnage between each
layer.

(b) Slabs should be removed from tiers in a manner to prevent movement of other
slabs.

8. While raising hatch cover with his hook a longshoreman placed his right
hand under the cover; the hook slipped off the cover, causing cover to fall’ back on
his hand. Disabled 1 week.
(a) Adequate hand grips should be provided on all hatch covers.
(b) When hand grips are not provided on hatch covers, covers should be handled
with cotton hooks and free hand kept in clear.
(c) Cotton hook should be kept sharp and in good condition.

9. Longshoreman was using a bar to move steel slabs on a roller. A slab
slipped off the roller against the bar. The weight of the slab caused the bar to
fail from his hands and strike him across the feet. Disabled 3 days.
(a) Bars used in handling steel should be gripped securely and placed under
or against steel members being moved at an angle designed to deflect the weight
away , rather than on to the bar.
(b) Safety shoes should be worn and feet should be kept clear.

10. Dockman carrying a bag of coffee slipped on castor beans on dock floor and
strained his back. Disabled 10 days.
(a)
When coffee, castor beans, or any similar cargo is being worked, walkways
and working areas should be kept broom dean.

11. Longshoreman attempted to break a dunnage board by leaning it against
a box and stamping on it. A piece of the board flew up and struck him in the eye.
Disabled 2 days.
(a) Dunnage should not be broken over knees or by jumping on same.
(b) Saws should be provided and used for cutting dunnage.
12. Three holdmen were using prys to stow steel rails. Two of the workers re­
leased their prys, throwing the entire weight on the third man’s pry. The prybar
was pulled from his hands by the unexpected pressure and snapped down upon his
toes. Disabled 30 days.
(a) Workmen should work in unison and give warning when releasing loads
or strain.
(b) Safety shoes should be worn and feet should be kept clear.

13. Holdman was trying to steady a draft of bagged flour. The swinging draft
struck him on right hand, wrist, and elbow. Disabled 4 days.
(a) Workmen should not reach for swinging or descending drafts, but should
stand in the clear until draft is landed or comes to rest at working level.
(b) Swing drafts should be landed to steady same.

14. A dockman, handling copper bars, was struck on the toe by a bar which
slipped from the hands of another worker. Fractured great toe.
(a) Workmen should be spaced so as not to endanger one another.
(b) Safety shoes should be worn by employees handling heavy objects.
15. Longshoreman handling a platform, dropped it on the big toe of his right
foot. Loss of toe.
(a) Workmen should be given assistance when handling platforms or other
bulky or heavy objects.
(b) The wearing of safety shoes might have reduced the severity of this injury.

16. Holdman, who was trying to pry rubber bales apart, was struck on left
hand by the cargo hook of another employee. Infection, disabled 3 weeks.
(a) Workmen using cargo hooks should be spaced so as not to endanger
each other.
(b) Hooks when not in use should be carried on the person with points pro­
tected by hooking under belts.
(c) First aid should be provided promptly to prevent infection.

17. Hatch tender climbed over the rail to board ship, stepped on a boom
which was lashed at the ship’s rail, and then stepped down backwards. In doing
so he stepped on an angle iron, which was attached to the deck, and injured his
ankle. Disabled 5 days.
(a) Climbing over rails to board ship should be prohibited.
(b) Safe access by means of ramps or gangways should be provided.
575441°—44—4




24

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

18. A dockman was stooping over a draft near the string piece when he was
struck in the back by a tractor which was carrying a draft of oil drums to the
string piece. Disabled 3 weeks.
(a) Tractora should approach location where drafts are being made up with
extreme caution,
(b) Movements of tractors in close proximity to loading or unloading opera­
tions should be controlled by an authorized signalman.
(c) Drafts suspended from tractor booms should not obscure the operator’s
line of vision.

19. Dockman was slinging up a drum of caustic soda which had sprung a leak.
Some of the soda fell on his foot and got inside his shoe, causing a bad burn.
Disabled 10 days.
(a) Broken crates, leaky drums, or torn bagged cargo should be set aside to
be repaired by cooper, before being handled as regular cargo.
20. Longshoreman working in the hold of a bunkering barge signaled the opera­
tor to lower the clam shell to take up coal. When the bucket dropped, its lip
struck the holdman’s foot, severing his great toe and fracturing another.
(a) M en working in barge should stand in the clear while the bucket is ascend­
ing or descending.
(b) Safety shoes should be worn by workmen loading coal buckets.

21. A holdman, who was packing bags in a barge, stepped across the barge
directly under a lowering load. The winchman stopped the load in time to prevent
its entire weight from resting on the holdman, but not in time to prevent it from
crushing and fracturing his leg and ankle. Disabled 10 weeks.
(a) Workmen should not stand or cross under drafts that are ascending or
descending.
(b) Hatch bosses should not permit drafts to be suspended above or lowered
into hatches or barges until all workmen are in the clear.

22. Holdman was struck by a falling truck body which slipped from the sling
as it was being lowered into the hold. Fatal.
(a) Workmen should be made to stand in the clear when drafts, equipment, or
machinery are being lowered into holds.
(b) Properly adjusted and secured slings or clamps should be used in handling
special or unusual loads.

23. A draft of ship stores was being landed on deck. The draft swung and
crushed man against bulwark rail. Fatal.
(a) Workmen should not stand between any fixed object and moving draft.
24. Before the deceased started to work, ship’s crew had released the inshore
guy from the ship’s cleat in order to swing the boom, so as to land ship’s stores
nearer the galley. When the gang, of which deceased was a member, started to
strip the beams from No. 3 hatch in order to start loading, they assumed the guy
line was secured on the ship’s cleat as they had left it. The ship’s crew, however,
had failed to re-secure it properly, and when a draft of cargo was hoisted from the
deck, and a strain put on the up and down boom, the boom swung, causing the
draft to strike the deceased, precipitating him into the hold, causing death.
(a) A ll rigging used for stevedoring operations shoidd be checked by foreman
just prior to using , daily thereafter and whenever operations have been discon­
tinued for a considerable period.
(b) Crews using ship booms should leave same properly guyed or otherwise
secured after completing operations.

25. While working on aft deck, a member of the ship’s crew got in the way of
a swinging draft, which knocked him over the side onto the barge. Disabled for
3 weeks.
(a) Stevedoring operations shoxdd not be conducted in hatchest or over decks,
where members o f ship’s crew or employees o f others are at work.

26. While guiding a steel hatch cover into place, a longshoreman put his hand
in the ring where the bridle was attached. When full strain was taken on the
bridle the man’s fingers were severely lacerated. Disabled 5 days.
(a) A lanyard or tag line attached to the hooked ends o f sling should be used
to guide hatch covers into position.




Causes and Prevention o f Typical Longshore Accidents

25

27. A longshoreman climbed on a mine-cutter davit to clear a rope guy. He
lost bis balance and fell on mine cutter, receiving severe facial and head lacerations.
Disabled 11 days.
(a) Guys, running and mooring lines should he installed and secured so as
not to foul other gear.

28. A dockman stepped back to get out of the way of a rising draft of cases,
struck his heel on the edge of dock guard rail, fell into the water and drowned.
(a) Workmen on docks when stepping into the clear should move away from
the exposed edge.
(b) Cargo or save-all nets should be slung between ship’s rail and string piece.
(c) Conspicuously placed life rings with lines attached should be available
where stevedoring operations of this kind are being carried on.

29. Longshoreman slipped from gang plank into water between boat and dock.
Drowned.
(a) Gang plank should be o f adequate width, railed, and otherwise secured to
provide safe passage for men unloading ship.
(b) Save-all or cargo nets should be slung from ship’s side to string piece
under exposed gang ways.
(c) Conspicuously placed life rings with lines attached shoxdd be available
where stevedoring operations of this kind are being carried on.

30. Dockman was guiding a draft of lumber which was being landed on the dock.
The load was set down on his foot crushing his big toe. Disabled 2 weeks.
(a) Feet should be kept in the clear when landing drafts.
(b) Drafts should be pushed, not pulled.
(c) Safety shoes should be worn on stevedoring operations.
31. Longshoreman employed as hook-on man for ship's gear was hit by a
lumber carrier and killed instantly. Carrier was backing up, and driver failed to
see the man before the moment of impact.
(a) Lumber carriers should not operate among workmen loading or unloading
ships, unless movements are directed by an authorized signalman.

32. Longshoreman was assisting in removing refrigerating hatch cover from
No. 1 batch, between decks. One of the hatch covers was pushed hard against
leg causing severe bruises. Disabled 3 days.
(a) The lifting and moving of refrigerating hatch covers should be controlled
by tag lines to limit swinging of covers being moved.

33. Longshoreman, who was moving two bales of tobacco by hand truck, came
too far to his left on the gangplank. The tobacco, which was projecting too far
over one side of truck, struck the side of the vessel causing the man to be jerked
to the left. He fell between the wharf and vessel. Drowned.
(a) Bales of tobacco or other loads should be centered on hand trucks.
(b) Truckers should follow designated lines of travel, keeping clear of all ob­
structions.
(c) When non-railed gangplanks are used, save-all or cargo nets should be
slung from ship’s side to pier.
(d) Conspicuously placed life rings with lines attached should be available on
docks where stevedoring operations are being carried on.

34. A longshoreman who was pushing a heavy box on a roller, got his foot caught
and crushed under the box. Disabled 8 days.
(a) When moving boxes, crates, or other containers on rollers, the pushing of
the load should be done from behind.
(b) Safety shoes should be worn by workmen moving or handling heavy or bulky
materials.

35. A holdman was hooking a block to a tub when the tub rolled and mashed
two of his toes. Disabled 94 days.
(a) Tubs or other containers .that are to be loaded should be set level on sub­
stantial surface to prevent accidental movement.
(b) Safety shoes should be worn by workmen making up or landing cargo.

36. Longshoreman was standing on deck of ship waiting to go aboard a barge,
which was making fast alongside. Before the captain of the barge had finished
making fast and had time to place a ladder in position, the longshoreman attempted
to swing abord the barge with the assistance of a cable fastened to a cargo davit
on the ship. The cable was short and he dropped part of the distance to the deck




26

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

of the barge, dislocating his right ankle and fracturing his right foot. Disabled
10 weeks.
(a) Employees should not climb aboard vessels until docking or mooring opera­
tions have been completed and gangways or ship’ s ladders have been placed.

37. A longshoreman stepped on a hatch cover which was not in proper position.
The cover tipped and he fell 35 feet into the hold. The result was a broken arm
and internal injuries. Disabled 8 weeks.
(a) I f hatch covers must be worked on, they should be checked for proper fit
and i f found to be loose or short, should be blocked or wedged to take a good bearing
on the supporting angles.
(b) The promiscuous walking across hatch covers shoidd be discouraged.

38. A longshoreman was attempting to turn a 3-ton case which was being raised
from the wharf to the ship when the bull line broke. The case swung back and
pinned him against a curtain girder, breaking his jaw and shoulder and puncturing
his lung. Still disabled after 3 months.
(a) Employees should not stand in a position where they may be struck by a
load or draft being moved by a bidl line , should bull line or other gear let go.
39. A tractor pushed a railroad car over a man who was under the car unfasten­
ing tank straps. Fatal.
(a) Workmen should never be allowed to work under, on, or in railroad cars
unless MEN W ORKING signs are posted on tracks clear of ends of cars or
watchmen are in attendance.
(b) Railroad cars should not be moved until men working under, on, or in
cars are warned that car is to be moved and men are in the clear.
40. Dockman was making up a draft of general cargo on the dock to be loaded
into the ship. One of the cases in the pile from which the cargo wras being removed
fell on his toe. Disabled 10 days.
(a) Instructions to employees tiering freight or cargo on dock should indude

proper height of tiers, method of tieing in, and the need for set-back of tiers.
Cb) Material should be removed from, the pile in a manner to prevent the
remainder of the pile from falling.
(c) Hard-toe type safety shoes shoidd be worn by all workmen handling cargo.

41. Dockman wTas pulling wire from under a draft of pipe. The end of the wire
flew in the air striking his face. Disabled 2 days.
(a) When it is necessary to pidl loose tie wire from under drafts or piles of
cargo, a steady even pull should be exerted.
(b) The grip should be moved up as the wire is withdrawn to limit the length
of wire that may whip back.

42. Dockman was placing a case on top of a pile. He stepped backward and
fell from the pile. Disabled 7 days.
(a) M en standing on tiers should work facing toward the edge of the pile.
43. Holdman was assisting to stow* a large case containing an automobile truck.
He was using a pry bar in the operation. A bull line had been attached to the
case to pull it into position in stowage. The bull line dislodged a Tween deck
beam; the beam fell and struck the bar, which the man was using and caused it
to puncture his chest. Fatal.
(a) Hatch beams left in position should be pinned, locked, or lashed in place.
(b) Where hauling lines or load lines are not free running, the use of snatch
or lead blocks is recommended.

44. Longshoreman was standing in railroad car waiting for cargo hooks when
a bundle of truck bodies toppled over and crushed him. Fatal.
(a) When unloading cars, material shoidd be taken from the car in a manner
to prevent the remainder from falling.
(b) Long case material stacked on end or in a dangerous position should be
secured to prevent movement during unloading operations.

45. Longshoreman lost his balance and fell overboard from dock while hooking
draft, landing on a fender log. Fatal.
(a) Cargo nets or save-alls should be slung between ship’s side and string
piece at location of operations.

46. A foreman broke several ribs, when he fell from ladder while trying to push
open a sticking box car door. Disabled 5 weeks.
(a) Ladders should not be used as a support when pushing open box car doors.
(b) Difficidt doors can be pulled open i f several workmen are used to pull on a
line secured to the door.




Causes and Prevention o f Typical Longshore Accidents

27

47. Fellow employees were taking off the iron beams from No. 1 hatch. The
beam being moved struck a beam in place, causing the second beam to fall into
the hold where it struck a holdman, inflicting severe leg injuries. Disabled 7 days.
(a) Hatch beams in position should be pinned, locked, or lashed in place and
securing device not removed until beam is to be moved.

48. A trucker was backing an empty truck into gangway at No. 2 hatch. A
draft of raw sugar being lowered struck the end of his truck, causing handle to
hit his left arm. Fractured arm.
(a) Employees should be given warning when approaching location where
drafts are being moved and should stand in the clear until drafts have been brought
to rest.
(b) Employees should not stand by the shafts of hand trucks when trucks
are being loaded or unloaded.

49. Dockman was shifting a case which he had taken off a truck. To balance
himself he put his right hand on the tail of the truck; another case the driver was
moving fell on his finger. Fractured finger.
(a) When two or more men undertake to unload truck, the operations should
be carried on in sequence and no movement should be started until the adjacent
workman is in the dear.




A p p e n d ix A .—

Statistical Tables

T a b le A .— Disabling injuries to longshoremen, fey age of injured and extent o f disability,

for 14 stevedoring establishments, 1942
Number of disabling injuries
Resulting in—
Total

Age group

Num­
ber i
All age groups......................

Death and
permanent
total disability

Permanent
partial dis­
ability

Per­
cent

Num­
ber

1,368

100.0

(1) 10

0.7

119

26
76
173
175
187
202
194
156
85
43
51

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100. C
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

(1) 1
0
0
1
0
3
1
2
1
1
0

3.8

0
2
13
6
21
18
25
17
10
5
2

20 years and under________
21 to 25 years.......................
26 to 30 years_____________
31 to 35 years........................
36 to 40 years........... .............
41 to 45 years........................
46 to 50 years........................
51 to 55 years........................
56 to 60 years........................
61 years and over..................
Unknown..............................

Per­
cent

.6
i.5
.5
1.3
1.2
2.3

Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Temporary
total dis­
ability
Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Aver­
age
days
lost
per
tem­
porary
total
dis­
ability

8.7

1,239

90.6

34

2.6
7.5
3.4
11.2
8.9
12.9
10.9
11.8
11.6
3.9

25
74
160
168
166
181
168
137
74
37
49

96.2
97.4
92.5
96.0
88.8
89.6
86.6
87.8
87.0
86.1
96.1

7
9
20
25
26
43
42
45
40
70
46

1 Figures in parentheses indicate the number of permanent total disability cases included.

T a b l e B .— Disabling injuries to longshoremen, by part of body injured and extent o f dis-

ability, for 22 stevedoring establishments, 1942
Number of disabling injuries
Total
Part of body injured

Tntftl

_____________

___

Resulting in

Death
Tempo­
and per­ Perma­
par­
rary
Number Percent1 manent nent
tial
dis­
total
dis­
total dis­ ability
ability
ability 2
____

Fye(p)
Brain or skull_________________________
Head, not elsewhere classified
flhest (lungs)
_ _
B ack .. ______________________________
Abdomen....................................................
Trunk, not elsewhere classified
_ _
Arm(s)_______________________________
Hend(s)
.
Finger (s)______ _______________________
Leg(s)
_
__
_ _
Foot or feet ,
_ _____
Toe(s)________________ ________________
Not classified
_
. . .

1,510

100.0

(1) 10

122

1,378

33

26
37
65
55
203
26
75
45
84
232
193
303
137
29

1.8
2.5
4.4
3.7
13.7
1.8
5.1
3.0
5.7
15.7
13.0
20.3
9.3

0
4
(1)2
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

0
0
10
0
4
1
4
3
8
46
8
22
14
2

26
33
53
54
199
24
70
42
76
186
185
281
123
26

8
60
25
39
42
34
41
26
23
20
41
36
21
83

i Percentage of disabling injuries in which part of body injured is known.
* Figures in parentheses indicate the number of permanent total disability cases included.

28




Average
days lost
per ternporary
total dis­
ability

29

Appendix A .— Statistical Tables
T able

C.—

D isa blin g in ju ries to longshorem en , b y p a rt o f body in ju red and nature o f
in ju ry, fo r 1 7 stevedoring establishm ents, 194 2

Number of disabling injuries resulting in—
Total
Cuts and
num­
lacerations
ber of
Strains.
Indus­ Not
dis­ Am­ Burns
sprains Frac­ Her­ trial clas­
abling puta­ and
and
tures nia
dis­
si­
inju­ tions scalds With­ With
bruises
ease fied
out
ries
infec­ infec­
tion
tion

Part of body injured

Total..........................................

1,417

12

9

332

32

741

243

12

7

29

Eye(s)........................................
Brain or skull............................
Head, not elsewhere classified..
Chest (lungs).............................
Back...........................................
Abdomen___________ _____ _
Trunk, not elsewhere classified.
Arm(s).......................................
Hand(s).....................................
Finger (s)....................................
L eg (s)........................................
Foot or feet . ............ .................
Toe(s)........................................
Not classified.............................

26
37
60
52
189
25
71
42
81
236
183
278
130
27

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
1
1
0

1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
4
0
0

19
16
38
1
3
0
1
10
29
115
46
30
18
6

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
3
12
10
3
2
0

2
12
16
32
181
13
68
24
35
31
95
174
49
9

0
8
5
16
3
0
2
4
12
41
30
60
60
2

0
0
0
0
0
12
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

3
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0

1
0
1
3
0
0
0
1
1
5
1
6
0
10

T able D .— Disabling injuries to longshoremen, by place o f accident and location o f injury,

for 22 stevedoring establishments, 1942
Number of disabling injuries affectingXUUil
number
of dis­
abling
injuries

Eye(s)

Total...................... ................................

1,510

26

37

(>5

55

203

26

On board ship _ _
TWlr
Hold
Other.___________ ______________
Ship location not stated
Afloat, not on hoard ship _
D ock..._________ ___________________
Railroad cars_____ ____ _____________
Not elsewhere classified.
TTnlmown
........

843
187
509
24
123
43
413
116
49
46

10
6
4
0
0
0
14
1
1
0

25
6
15
4
0
0
9
1
0
2

41
9
27
1
4
3
15
3
1
2

38
11
19
3
5
3
7
4
0
3

118
27
70
5
16
14
49
11
5
6

12
3
7
1
1
1
7
5
0
1

Place of accident

Head,
else­ Chest
Brain not
or skull where
classi­ (lungs)
fied

Abdo­
men

Back

Number of disabling injuries affecting—

Place of accident

Total_______________________________
On hoard shin
___
Tleolr
Hold...................................................
Other_________________________ __
Ship location not stated___________
Afloat, not on board ship_____________
D o c k ______ ___ ____________________
Railroad cars___________ _________ ___
Not elsewhere classified
Unknown......... ........................................




Trunk,
not
Foot
Finelse­
or
where Arm(s) Hand(s) ger(s) Leg(s) feet
classi­
fied

Not
Toe(s) classi­
fied

75

45

84

232

193

303

137

29

47
13
28
1
5
7
14
3
1
3

19
6
9
1
3
0
17
7
1
1

41
8
29
0
4
0
27
11
2
3

127
29
73
1
24
2
65
23
13
2

127
23
80
4
20
1
43
14
3
5

164
33
i18
2
31
7
92
20
11
9

63
11
44
0
8
1
45
12
8
8

11
2
6
1
2
4
9
1
3
1

1

30
T

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

able

E.— D isa blin g

in ju ries to longshorem en, b y p la ce o f accident and nature o f in ju ry ,
fo r 1 7 stevedoring establishm ents, 1 9 4 2

Place of accident

Number of disabling injuries resulting in—
Total
num­
Cuts and
ber of
In­
dis­ Am­ Burns lacerations Strains,
Not
abling puta­ and
sprains, Frac­ Her­ dus­
trial
clas­
in­ tions scalds With­ With and
tures nia dis­ sified
juries
out
bruises
ease
infec­ infec­
tion tion

Total............................................... . 1,417
On board ship...................................
Deck...........................................
Hold...........................................
Other..........................................
Ship location not stated............
Afloat, not on board ship................
Dock.................................................
Railroad cars............. ...... ...............
Not elsewhere classified...................
Unknown................................... ......

783
183
493
23
84
41
389
114
49
41

12

9

332

32

741

243

12

7

29

4
1
3
0
0
0
5
1
0
2

6
2
4
0
0
0
3
0
0
0

181
42
115
6
18
2
102
29
12
6

18
5
8
2
3
0
9
2
2
1

412 1
102 |
264
10
36
30
190
61
21
27

141
30
90
4
17
4
65
15

4
0
2
1
1
1
3
3
0
1

3
0
3
0
0
0
4
0
0
0

14
1
4
0
9
4
8
3
0
0

144

T a b le F .— Disabling injuries to longshoremen, by nature of work of injured and location

o f injury, for 22 stevedoring establishments, 1942

Nature of work

Number of disabling injuries affectingTotal
number
of
Head, |
disab­
else- ] Chest
Brain not
Abdo­
ling in­ Eye(s) or
Back
1
skull where
men
juries
classi- i (lungs)
fied I

Total........................................................

1,510

26

37

65 |

55

203

28

Handling cargo........ . .............................
Stowing or piling cargo....................
Breaking down load or cargo______
Stowing, piling or breaking down,

1,044
317
110

21
5
3

16
8
1

38
12
6

37
7
4

161
55
21

22
8
1

355
68
30
42
32
9
7
74
13
35
47
127
244

2
1
0
6
0
1
1
2
0
0
1
1
3

2
3
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
2
9
9

9
4
3
3
0
1
0
0
1
1
2
8
15

13
2
0
5
2
2
0
2
0
1
3
4
10

62
3
2
1
5
3
2
7
2
2
6
13
19

9
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3

not stated.. . -------------------- -------

Landing slingloads..........................
Hooking on slingloads......................
Mechanical trucking.................. .. .
Hand trucking..................................
Driving winch..................................
Tending hatch.................................
Other................................................
Handling dunnage..................................
Handling ship's gear..............................
Handling stevedore gear........................
Not elsewhere classified........................
Unknown..............................................

Number of disabling injuries affecting—
Nature of work

Trunk,
not
else­ Arm (s) Hand(s) Fin­ Leg(s) Foot
or
ger^)
where
feet
classi­
fied

Not
Toe(s) classi­
fied

Total..........................................................

75

45

84

232

193

303

137

29

Handling cargo.......................................
Stowing or piling cargo............... ......
Breaking down load or cargo.............
Stowing, piling or breaking down,
not stated........................................
Landing slingloads.............................
Hooking on slingloads........................
Mechanical trucking..........................
Hand trucking...................................
Driving winch____________________
Tending hatch....................................
Other..................................................
Handling dunnage....................................
Handling ship’s gear...... ..........................
Handling stevedore gear....... ...................
Not elsewhere classified............................
Unkm wn ______
_____ _____ _____

48
12
3

27
8
2

61
26
5

157
47
17

131
39
8

205
58
26

105
32
9

15
0
4

20
6
2
1
0
0
0
4
0
6
2
9
10

9
1
0
1
1
1
0
4
0
0
2
8
8

21
5
0
1
0
0
0
3
1
1
3
5
13

49
8
12
5
1
0
2
16
4
7
13
13
38

41
13
6
6
4
1
1
12
2
8
4
19
29

70
18
3
6
9
0
0
15
1
5
5
27
60

43
3
1
4
6
0
0
7
2
3
4
3
20

5
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
7
7




31

Appendix A .— Statistical Tables
T able

G.—

D isa blin g in ju ries to longshorem en , by' nature o f work o f in ju red and nature
o f in ju ry, fo r 1 7 stevedoring establishm ents, 194 2

Nature of work

Number of disabling injuries resulting from—
Total
Cuts and
num­
lacerations
ber
Strains,
of dis­ Am­ Burns
Not
sprains, Fracr Her­ Indus­
abling puta­ and With­
trial clas­
W
ith
and tures nia disease
in­
out infec­ bruises
sified
juries tions scalds infec­
tion tion

Total...............................................

1,417

12

9

332

32

741

243

12

7

29

Handling cargo...............................
Stowing or piling cargo...........
Breaking down load or cargo..
Stowing, piling, or breaking
down—not stated.................
Landing slingloads..................
Hooking on slingloads.............
Mechanical trucking...............
Hand trucking.........................
Driving winch.........................
Tending hatch.........................
Other........................................
HandlingidunitagS. _......................
Handling ship’s gear......................
Handling stevedore g ear..............
Not elsewhere classified.................
Unknown........................................

994
306
102

7
1
0

8
1
1

230
76
22

17
5
2

537
170
63

166
46
11

8
5
0

5
1
0

16
1
3

334
65
28
42
29
9
6
73
13
34
44
118
214

1
0
1
1
0
0
0
3
0
0
1
1
3

4
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
0

69
15
9
13
4
1
1
20
4
7
12
29
50

6
0
0
1
0
0
1
2
0
1
2
3
9

190
30
12
13
18
6
3
32
8
19
20
53
104

52
18
6
13
6
0
1
13
1
7
9
23
37

3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3

3
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2

6
2
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
7
6

T able

H .— Disabling injuries to longshoremen, by nature o f work o f injured and unsafe
act, for 14 stevedoring establishments, 1942
Number of disabling injuries caused by—

Nature of work

Total Oper­
num­ ating
ber of without
dis­
abling author­
ity,
in­
juries failure
to se­
cure or
warn

Oper­
ating or
work­
ing at
unsafe
speed

Using
unsafe
equip­
ment,
or
equip­
ment
un­
safely

Tak­
Un­
safe ing un­ Fail­
load­
safe
ure
Un­
posi­ tro use known
ing,
plac­ tion
safe
ing, or pos­ attire
ture
etc.

Total...........................................................

1,367

12

170

224

164

284

44

469

Handling cargo...........................................
Stowing or piling cargo........................
Breaking down load or cargo..............
Stowing, piling, or breaking down—
not stated..........................................
Landing slingloads...............................
Hooking on slingloads.........................
Mechanical trucking...........................
Hand trucking.....................................
Driving w inch.....................................
Tending hatch.....................................
Other....................................................
Handling dunnage-....................................
Handling ship’s gear.................................
Handling stevedore gear............................
Not elsewhere classified...... .......................
Unknown....................................................

969
303
100

10
1
1

99
37
12

189
68
21

142
67
15

180
43
10

39
9
3

310
78
38

322
62
28
40
28
7
6
73
13
34
44
111
196

1
0
4
1
0
0
0
2
0
1
1
0
0

23
7
0
2
2
2
1
13
1
2
4
49
15

75
8
3
0
3
0
1
10
0
8
9
4
14

52
0
1
1
4
0
0
2
2
2
4
4
10

52
37
12
9
1
1
1
14
3
6
9
18
68

22
0
0
1
0
0
0
4
0
0
1
1
3

97
10
8
26
18
4
3
28
7
15
16
35
86

575441°—44-----5




32
T

able

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry
I .-— D isa blin g

in ju ries to longshorem en , b y unsafe act and extent o f d isa bility , fo r
1 4 stevedoring establishm ents, 1 9 4 2

Number of disabling injuries
Total

Resulting in

Unsafe act

Total.........................................................................

•'Average
days lost
per tem­
porary
total
dis­
ability

Num­
ber

Per­
cent 1

Death
and per­
manent
total
dis­
ability 3

Perma­
nent
partial
dis­
ability

1,367

100.0

0 ) 10

119

1,238

12
170
156
54
71
31
14

1.3
18.9
17.3
6.0
7.8
3.5
1.6

1
0
0
0
0
0
0

3
10
9
0
6
3
1

8
160
147
54
65
28
13

224

24.9

1

38

185

212
22
146
44
12
164
140
110
30
24
284
24

23.6
2.4
16.3
4.9
1.3
18.3
15.6
12.3
3.3
2.7
31.7
2.7

0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
6
2

37
6
24
7
1
0
0
0
0
0
24
1

175
16;
122
37
10
164
140
110
30
24
254
21

37
39
38
41
23
41
40

158
102
44
469

17.6
11.4
4.9

3
1
0
(1) 2

11
12
0
44

144
89
44
423

42
38
9
34

Operating without authority, failure to secure
or warn........................................................... .
Operating or working at unsafe speed------------Lack of proper care in walking or climbing.
On stowed or piled cargo.......................
On other working surfaces.....................
Other..........................................................
Other.............................. .................... ............
UsiDg unsafe equipment or equipment un­
safely...................- ........ - ..............- .....................
Gripping objects insecurely or taking
wrong bold of objects.................................
Hand t o o ls ...............................................
Cargo.........................................................
Other..........................................................
O th er.............. ...............................................
Unsafe loading, placing, e tc ................................
L iftir g ............................................................
Cargo........................................................
Other..........................................................
Other________________ __________ _______
Taking unsafe position or posture......................
Exposure to m oving vehicles....... ...............
Exposure under or to suspended or m oving
sling loads...... ..............................................
O th e r.................. ............................................
Failure to use safe attire.......................................
U nknown___________ _______________________

Tem­
porary
total
dis­
ability

34

i Percentage of disabling injuries for which unsafe act is known.
* Figures in parentheses indicate the number of permanent-total disability cases included.
T a b l e J. — Disabling injuries to longshoremen, by nature o f work of injured and unsafe

mechanical condition, for 14 stevedoring establishments, 1942
Number of disabling injuries caused by

Nature of work

Total
number
of dis­
abling
injuries

Im­
proper
guard­
ing

Hazard­
ous
Defec­ arrange­
Unsafe
tive
ment
or lifting
agencies
pro­
cedure

Not
classi­
fied

No
unsafe
condi­
tion

Total...........................................................

1,369

20

159

362

128

524

17 >

Handling cargo..........................................
Stowing or piling cargo.......................
Breaking down load or cargo............
Stowing, piling, or breaking down—
not stated.........................................
Landing slingloads....................... ......
Hooking on slingloads....................
Mechanical trucking...........................
Hand trucking.....................................
Driving winch____________________
Tending hatch.....................................
Other....... ...........................................
Handling dunnage.....................................
Handling ship’s gear..................................
Handling stevedore gear............................
Not elsewhere classified.............................
Unknown.................... ...............................

971
304
100

9
3
1

95
31
11

275
80
28

113
51
12

326
76
30

153
63
18

323
62
28
40
28
7
6
73
13
34
44
111
196

3
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
4
5

30
9
4
2
2
1
2
3
1
4
5
18
36

70
38
8
17
9
2
1
22
4
3
10
24
46

46
0
1
0
1
0
0
2
1
1
3
1
9

108
14
!4
20
16
4
3
41
7
18
18
61
94

66
1
1
0
0
0
0
4
0
7
7
3
6




33

Appendix A .— Statistical Tables
T

able

K . — D isa blin g in ju ries to longshorem en , b y un safe m echanical condition and extent
o f d isa bility , fo r 1 4 stevedoring establishm ents, 1 9 4 2

Number of disabling injuries
Total

Average
days lost
per tem­
porary
Death
Perma­
total
dis­
and per­
Tempo­
nent
manent
partial rary total ability
total dis­ disability disability
ability 2
Resulting in

Unsafe mechanical condition
Num­
ber

Per­
cent i

Total..................................................................

1,369

100.0

(1) 10

119

1,240

34

Improper guarding............................................
Unguarding staging or scaffolds.................
Other......................................................
Defective...........................................................
Working surfaces........................................
Slippery................................................
Other.....................................................
Cargo...........................................................
Sharp-edged..........................................
Other........r..........................................
Hoisting apparatus.....................................
Defective or improperly slung loads.
Other.....................................................
Other...........................................................
Hazardous arrangement or procedure..............
Congestion of working surfaces..................
Unsafely piled or stowed cargo..................
Unsafely loaded vehicles............................
Exposure to sling......... ............ .................
Loose material on working surfaces...........
Other..........................................................
Unsafe lifting.....................................................
Cargo..........................................................
Other..........................................................
No unsafe condition..........................................
Not classified.....................................................

20
7
13
159
39
18
21
28
19
9
67
56
11
25
362
22
112
16
107
13
92
128
109
19
176
524

2.4
.8
1.6
18.8
4.6
2.1
2.5
3.3
2.2
1.1
7.9
6.6
1.3
3.0
42.9
2.6
13.3
1.9
12.7
1.5
10.9
15.1
12.9
2.2
20.8

0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
2
1
0

5
2
3
14
1
1
0
2
1
1
7
6
1

15
5
10
142
38
17
21
26
18
8
57
48
9
21
335
18
107
15
99
13
83
128
109
19
145
475

79
87
75
30
22
44
7
12
10
20
36
38
19
50
40
34
38
56
46
36
35
37
39
28
23
32

4

4

23

0
0
0
1
0
3
0
0
0
0
(1) 3

4

5
1
7
0
6
0
0
0
31
46

i Percent?.Re of disabling injuries for which unsafe mechanical condition is known.
* Figures in parentheses indicate the number of permanent-total disability cases involved.
T a b l e L .— Disabling injuries to longshoremen, by agency and extent of disability, for 22

stevedoring establishments, 19421
2
Number of disabling injuries
Resulting in

Total
Agency

Death
Perma­
and per­
nent
manent
partial
total
disa­
disability2 bility

Average
days
lost per
tempo­
rary
Tem po­
rary
total
total
disability
disa­
bility

N um ­
ber

Per­
cent 1

T otal.......................................................................

1,510

1G0.0

(1) 10

122

1,378

33

Hoisting apparatus............................... ................
Belts........ ........................................................
Slings (including loads).................................
Other_________ _______ ________ _____ ____
Platform trucks; power- or hand-operated____
Railroad cars____ „ ...............................................
Other vehicles.......................................................
Hand tools................... ..........................................
W orking surfaces...................... ............................
Staging or scaffolds........................................
Stowed cargo...................................................
Other................................................................
C arg o.....................................................................
Dunnage................. ...............................................
Skids and platforms..............................................
Not classified-------- 1..............................................

232
21
197
14
123
25
16
47
202
22
56
124
597
28
26
214

17.9
1.6
15.2
1.1
9.5
1.9
1.2
3.6
15.6
1.7
4.3
9.6
46.1

4
1
3
0
1
1
1
0
0
0

24
4
19
1
10
1
2
9
12

204
16
175
13
112
23
13
38
190
18
56
116
551
26
24
197

39
38
40
14
37
46
61
17
35

2.2
2.0

0
0
1
0
0
(1) 2

4
0
8
45
2
2
15

1 Percentage of disabling injuries in which agency is.known.
2 Figtires in parentheses indicate the number of permanent-total disability cases included.




50
31
35
31
16
18
36

34
T

able

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry
M .—

D isa b lin g in ju ries to longshorem en , b y nature o f w ork o f in ju red and a ccid en t
ty p e , fo r 2 2 stevedoring establishm ents, 1 9 4 2

Nature of work

Number of disabling injuries caused by—
Total
Falls
numSlips, Inhal­
ber of
(not ation,
Caught
From falls) ab­
disab­ Strik­ Struck in, on,
Not
one
and sorp­ class­
ling in­ ing
On eleva­ overor be­
tion,
ified
juries against by
tween same tion exer­ inges­
level to an­ tion
tion
other :

Total..................................................... 1,510
Handling cargo..................................... 1,044
Stowing or piling cargo..................
317
Breaking down load or cargo........
110
Stowing, piling or breaking down—
355
not stated....................................
Landing slingloads.........................
68
Hooking on slingloads...................
30
Mechanical trucking......................
42
Hand trucking...............................
32
Driving winch................................
9
Tending hatch................................
7
‘ 74
Other.............................................
13
Handling dunnage................................
35
Handling ship’s gear............................
Handling stevedore gear......................
47
Not elsewhere classified.......................
127
Unknown... ________ ______________
244
T able

78
52
24
3

778
546
156
57

9
1
2
2
5
2
0
4
0
1
2
7
16

195
39
15
19
19
2
3
41
10
15
24
43
140

116
186
141 :!' 65"
25
39
14
12
42
14
9
12
1
0
1
11
0
7
7
8
23

10
5
1
1
2
2
1
4
0
6
7
26
12

85 | 215
47'!I 166
10
60
5
16
17
3
1
4
1
0
1
5
0
2
2
22
12

71
4
2
3
4
1
0
5
2
4
4
18
. 21

20
14
1
2

32
13
2
1

8
0
0
0
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
2
4

3
2
0
1
0
1
1
2
1
0
1
1
16

N .— Disabling injuries to longshoremen by type o f accident and extent o f disability,
for 22 stevedoring establishments, 1942
Number of disabling injuries
Average
days
lost per
Death
Perma­ Tempo­ tempo­
and
per­
Per­
par­
rary
rary total
manent nent
cent 1 total
dis­ total dis­ disability
dis­ tial
ability
ability
ability 2
Resulting in-

Total
Type of accident
Num­
ber
All types of accidents.......................................
Striking against.................................................
Cargo (including piled or stowed).............
Other..........................................................
Struck by ..........................................................
Hoisting apparatus.....................................
Slings (including loads).......................
Other..................................................
Platform trucks; power- or hand-operated.
Hand tools...................................................
Cargo..........................................................
Skids and rollers.........................................
Other...........................................................
Caught in, on, or between................................
Hoisting apparatus.....................................
Slings (including loads)........................
Other.......... .............. ..........................
Platform trucks: power- or hand-operated.
Cargo...........................................................
Other...........................................................
Falls...................................................................
On same level........... .................................
On stowed or piled cargo.....................
On other working surfaces...................
Other............... ....................................
From one elevation to another...................
From vehicles.......................................
From staging or scaffolds.....................
From stowed cargo..............................
Other....................................................
Slips (not falls) and overexertion......................
Slips on working surfaces...........................
Lifting cargo................................................
Other...........................................................
Inhalation or absorption of dusts, chemicals,
and radiations................................................
Not classified............................................ ........

1,510
78
29
49
778
175
159
16
79
41
345
30
108
186
44
32
12
19
89
34
201
116
<28
81
7
85
18
17
20
30
215
36
129
50

100.0
5.3
2.0
3.3
52.6
11.8
10.7
1.1
5.3
2.8
23.4
2.0
7.3
12.6
3.0
2.2
.8
1.3
6.0
2.3
13.6
7.8
1.9
5.4
.5
5.8
1.2
1.2
1.4
2.0
14.5
2.4
8.7
3.4

(l) 10
6
0
0
(1) 7
3
2
1
1
0
1
0
(1) 2
2
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

122
4
3
1
54
11
10
1
4
9
21
3
6
44
13
9
4
5
20
6
14
5
0
4
1
9
1
4
0
4
4
0
1
3

1,378
74
26
48
717
161
147
14
74
32
323
27
100
140
30
22
8
14
69
27
187
111
28
77
6
76
17
13
20
26
211
36
128
47

33
17
12
21
33
43
42
48
38
14
32
20
32
31
25
29
17
61
26
39
43
40
30
44
20
46
41
50
27
64
34
27
37
32

20
32

1.4

0
1

1
0

19
30

13
24

1 Percentage of disabling injuries in which type of accident is known.
* Figures in parentheses indicate the number of permanent-total disability cases included.




A ppendix B.— Safety Codes
Maritime Safety Code for Stevedoring and Freight Handling
Operations 1
A M anual o f Safe Practice Rules fo r the Prevention o f Personal In ju ry
Accidents to Employees Engaged in the Handling o f Cargoes
INTRODUCTION

The scope of this safety code includes all direct and incidental cargo
handling and stevedoring operations aboard ship and on the dock.
Its purpose is to identify the more important hazards, specifically as
to safe practice rules covering both personal and mechanical or physi­
cal fault, to assist in establishing uniformity in safe operation, to serve
as a guide or reminder and an incentive to greater safety, and to
coordinate and encourage the active participation of all concerned in
a practical and effective effort towards the observance of reasonable
requirements for safety and health.
Safe practice rides have been arranged as far as possible so as to
check with the sequence of operations conducted in stevedoring work.
This results in the grouping of items under general heads and the selec­
tion, under these general heads, of subheads which permit the inclu­
sion only o f such rules as apply to the operations or conditions coming
within the general and subheadings. It should be noted, however,
that certain safe practice rules in any one section are also applicable
to other sections.
The individual rules which have been selected represent the best
available material and generally accepted practice. They are offered
as minimum safety requirements with the thought that additional
rules should be adopted and followed as found necessary to cover in­
dividual operations and special circumstances.
Realizing that stevedoring safety' is largely a matter of the attitudes
and abilities of personnel, the first section of the code is reserved for
requirements dealing with experience and skill, placing men and as­
signing specific work, supervision and responsibilities.
Sections are provided for receiving and delivering cargoes, prelimi­
nary or preparatory work before cargo is actually handled, first aid
and accident investigation and reporting as well as for the operations
of rigging, making up and landing drafts, tiering and stowing cargo
and other work common to stevedoring operations.
Maritime Safety Code
FOREW ORD

The prevention of personal injury to workers is recognized as an
inherent factor in employer-employee relationship and in business
management. Both employer and employee have always been con­
scious of its significance from a humane point of view and also are
1 Compiled and Recommended by The Maritime Association of the Port of New York, 80 Broad Street,
New York City. 1939. *




35

36

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

keenly aware of its value as an economic factor in promoting continuity
of employment, and efficiency of operation.
The Maritime Association of the Port of New York, recognizing its
opportunity and its moral obligation to be of assistance, publishes this
safety code for stevedoring and freight-handling operations with the
hope and in the belief that it will play an effective part in reducing
the frequency and severity of injuries to workers who engage in the
handling of cargoes.
Substantial progress has been made in acquiring a broader and more
specific knowledge of accident occurrence and prevention. This per­
mits the development of prevention methods which are at the same
time businesslike and effective. It is now common knowledge that
more than 90 percent of all accidents are of a preventable type and that
with due regard to practicality at least half can be avoided by simple
common-sense measures. Approximately 85 percent of all accidents
have been proven to result from definite unsafe practices of persons.
Prevention requires that the more important and more frequently
violated safe performance rules be identified and that the employer
and his supervisors join with the owners and operators in a determined
and continuous effort to eliminate them. Approximately 15 percent
of accidents are due to faults in the design, construction, and condition
of vessels and structures, equipments, and cargoes. With respect to
the correction of these mechanical and physical hazards, it is also
necessary that an effective and determined cooperative effort be made.
The effects of accident occurrence fall most heavily on the workers
who suffer injury and whose livelihood is at stake. The industry bears
the burden of monetary cost and of impaired efficiency. Thus the
stevedore employees, the stevedore contractors, and the owners,
lessees, and operators of vessels and docks are directly concerned in a
common problem of vital interest to all.
The frequency and severity of accidents should be and can be re­
duced. No political or controversial questions are involved. Methods
of control are known and readily available. The unsafe practices and
conditions of most importance are itemized under suitable identifying
headings in this code. The essential requirement to success is the
sincere, sympathetic, and effective cooperation of all interests in the
control of a situation which is of the greatest significance in terms of
life and limb, personal welfare, continuity of employment, and good
business.
S ection I .— Responsibilities of Personnel
P a r t A.— The owner, master, and officers of the vessel.

1. To supply and maintain in safe condition for use, all ship’s gear, equipment,
tools, and work spaces which are to be used in stevedore operations.
2. To maintain order and discipline with respect to ships’ crews, passengers,
licensees, and visitors, so as to avoid interference with the safe performance of
stevedoring work.
P a r t B. — The owner, or lessee of the dock , warehouse, or terminal.
1. To place and maintain all work spaces, structures thereon, and such gear and
equipment as comes under his control, in safe condition for stevedoring work.
2. To maintain order and discipline with respect to vehicular and pedestrian
traffic under his control so as to avoid interference with the safety of stevedoring
work.




Appendix B .— Safety Codes

37

P a r t C.— The contracting stevedore or stevedoring department.

1. To maintain all gear, equipment, tools, and work spaces under his control in
safe working conditions.
2. To promulgate and enforce rules which shall require those immediately in
charge of stevedoring operations to report to their superior any unsafe condition
affecting the safe performance of the stevedoring work.
S e c t io n

II.— Preparation and Rigging

P a r t A .— Safe condition and maintenance of all winches, hatch covers, ship's gear

and equipment, decks, docks, and structures.

1. Special attention, during any inspection, should be given to the following:
(aj) Winches, tools, loose keys, loose lever pins, falls not securely fastened
to driims, and any otfrerdefeets.
(b) Shackle pins on topping lift and cargo blocks should* be checked to see
if pins have worked loose. Shackle pins should be secured with seizing wire
or key pins.
(c) Flooring of decks, docks, gang-planks, and passageways should be
examined for defects.
(d) Cargo booms should have approved capacity plainly marked in a con­
spicuous manner and place, preferably at the heel of the boom. In the
absence of such marking, the ship owner shall supply the stevedore with a
statement as to the capacity of the boom.
2. When decks, gangways, ladders, docks, or other passageways are slippery
due to ice, oil, grease, or other materials, an adequate supply of salt, sand, or
cinders should be provided and used to prevent slipping and falling. If it is
impractical to use these anti-slip materials, safety lines should be rigged and a
warning sign should be conspicuously placed nearby “ Danger, Slippery Deck,”
and the condition corrected as soon as possible.
3. Look about before passing working hatches.
4. Suitable protection should be placed near all open manholes.
5. All hatch covers and fore and aft and thwart ship beams shall, insofar as
they §re,not interchangeable, be kept plainly marked to indicate the deck and
hatch to which they belong and their position therein.
6. Deflectors shall be used on openings from ships discharging waste water or
matter interfering with the operations or affecting the health of longshoremen.
7. Where temporary stage is to be used for the purpose of discharging cargo by
the use of wheelbarrow, it should be equipped with side railings.
8. When working cargo over a deck load, a safe walkway should be provided
for the hatch tender from rail to coaming.
9. Where deck loads are to be carried, pennants should be secured to the ship’s
side that would reach above the highest deck load for the purpose of making fast
the derrick guys. This will do away with the necessity of men going down over
the side to adjust guys. Such pennants may be used in lashing the deck load.
10. Overhead flange on side-port gangway and hatch-door openings shoiild be
provided with head bumper or safety cushions at least 2 inches thick and to extend
across the entire door opening.
P a r t Bi— Provisions for hoarding and leaving the vessel.
1. When a ship is lying at a dock there shall be provided at all times a safe
means of going to and from the ship.
2. Water or steam hoses should not be laid on or across gangways. Brackets
or other suitable means should be provided for hanging hose on the side of gang­
ways to prevent tripping hazards to persons using them.
3. All persons going to and from the ship must use the gangplanks or ladders
provided. “ Short-cuts” over side via cargo slings, save-alls, moving conveyors,
etc., are prohibited.
4. When working a barge, scow, or raft alongside ship, a pilot’s (Jacob’s) ladder
or its equivalent, properly secured, shall be provided and used for each separate
unit of operation.
5. When a ship, boat, or other vessel is alongside any other ship, boat, or other
vessel, and persons are required to pass from one to the other, a safe means of
passage shall be provided.
6. No person shall ride a draft or cargo hook, or be hoisted from dock to ship,
or into hold, or vice versa, by ship’s gear, except in the event of an accident.
7. Jumping to &nd from any moving barge, scow, tug, or lighter should be
strictly prohibited.




38

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

P a r t C.— Provision of adequate light and ventilation.

1. Adequate illumination should be provided to afford safe passage on the
gangplanks and ladders.
2. No person shall be permitted to enter a ship’s hold unless sufficient hatches
are removed to give adequate natural light, or artificial illumination is provided.
3. Entering any dark compartments, hatches, buildings, boxcars, or other
places without safe and proper illumination shall be prohibited. The use of
matches or open lights shall be forbidden.
4. All lights aboard ship should be provided with substantial metal guards
or cages.
5. Lighting wires and fixtures shall be installed so as to be free from contact
with drafts, loads, running gear, or other moving equipment.
6. Periodical inspection should be made of all electrical installation, particular
attention being given to connections, insulation, location of wiring and fixtures,
methods Of suspension, etc.
7. Ship’s decks and holds where cargo is being handled at night should be
adequately illuminated.
8. Warehouses requiring the use of an extension light system due to the lack
of sufficient illumination should provide brackets or other means of support for
the cable to give clearance to tractors. At no time should this cable be permitted
to lie on the ground and tractors run over it as this may cause shock or other
serious personal injury to workers.
P a r t D.— Berthing and shifting vessels.
1. Prior to docking a vessel at any pier having a narrow string piece, the pier
door or doors around area of regular mooring ballards or cleats should be opened
so that men handling heavy lines can stand within pier.
2. Men should keep clear of the bight of a line and should not stand in or on
coil.
3. Mooring lines should be secured to bitts, not capstan or drum ends.
4. Men should stand to one side— not straddle a line when stopping it.
5. Men should not be permitted to stand on the side of a covered barge when
same is being shifted. They shall stand on the bow or stern deck with all parts of
their bodies inside the deck rail.
6. When the box type of barge is being shifted, men shall be prohibited from
crossing over hatch covers or walking across beams of open hatches.
7. Cargo falls or ships hoisting gear should not be used to move barges, scows,
or lighters or railroad cars.
8. All men assigned to the shifting of a barge, scow, or lighter shall stand on
the inboard side of the bitts, cleats, or ballard when making lines fast and always
face the line of direction of the strain.
P a r t E.— Laying out and installing equipment and gear.
1. Care should be taken to see that the fall lines of one derrick do not rub on
the standing gear of other derricks or equipment.
2. The fall should be of a length to provide three full turns on the drum when
the cargo hook has reached the farthest point of travel.
3. The ends of the fall should be fastened securely to the drum.
4. Whenever possible, the fall should be wound on the drum of the winch so
that the lever will have the same direction of operation as the load being handled.
5. The winch operator should be so located as to be protected from swinging
loads or drafts.
6. When winch drums are located so as to expose winch driver to the bight of
the fall, a fairleader should be provided to prevent the winch driver from being
injured by bight of fall.
7. Appropriate measures shall be taken to prevent exhaust steam and, so far as
practicable, live steam to any winch, from obscuring any part of the working
place at which a worker is employed.
8. Boom guys and gin blocks should be secured by shackles.
9. Cargo booms should be lowered to the deck for changing gear or making
repairs. When it is impossible to lower boom to deck and a man must go aloft,
a boatswain’s chair should be used and hoisted aloft by hand power only.
10. Where the derrick post is low it is important to avoid topping the boom too
high, as it will put undue strain on the boom and the topping lift.
11. When topping or lowering a boom is necessary, suitable stoppers should
be used to prevent falling of the boom. When ship is equipped with wire pur­
chases the ship should furnish a sufficient number of chain stoppers to permit of




Appendix B .— Safety Codes

39

safely shifting the derrick-topping lift. There should be at least one stopper
for each hatch.
12. All splices on wire bridles shall have a cover of marline, rubber hose, or
other suitable protection for men’s hands.
13. The boom guys and preventers should be kept as far away from the heel
of the boom as possible, but not past the line of the fall. No set-up should be
made that will automatically make the boom top up.
14. Guys, preventers, and other lines should each be fastened to a separate
cleat or ring bolt.
P a r t F .— Opening or closing hatches.
1. Bridle slings, which shall be furnished by the vessel, should be used for
handling large hatch covers, beams, and strongbacks. Lanyards or tag lines of
sufficient length should be fastened near the shackles or toggles so that longshore­
men can walk around the open hatch and hold the load from swinging.
2. Men shall not be allowed to walk out on hatch beams or strongbacks to
place slings, or to cross hatch.
3. All beams or strongbacks which will not hoist out with the usual strain,
because of being jammed, should be taken out under the supervision of a ship’s
officer.
4. When work is finished or temporarily suspended in one hatch, that hatch
cover should be replaced or the open hatchway should be properly guarded.
5. When longshoremen are working through an opening of one section in a
hatch, the remaining beams that are left in should be properly secured.
6. When hatch covers or strongbacks are off, they should be piled or placed
on deck in such a position as not to interfere with gangwavmen or others working
or walking on deck of vessel. When hatch covers are piled near open hatches,
with coamings, covers should be kept reasonably below the top of the coaming.
7. ’Tween deck hatch covers should be stowed at a safe distance from coaming
to prevent them from being thrown into hold by a draft swinging under coamings.
8. When gangwavmen make a flooring of hatch covers between the coaming
and sides of the vessel they should place them so as to leave no space between
the hatch covers and prevent a tripping hazard.
9. Any hatch covers or strongbacks which cannot be properly placed, or are
otherwise found defective, should be reported by the longshoremen to foremen
who should immediately advise proper officer of ship.
10. Hatch covers that are placed over beams resting on deck should be properly
blocked to prevent them from moving.
11. Beams used for hatch coverings shall have suitable gear for removing and
replacing them, of such a character as to render it unnecessary for workers to go
upon them for the purpose of adjusting such gear.
12. Adequate handgrips should be provided on all hatch covers.
13. Longshoremen should not be permitted to handle slingloads in the ’tween
decks being worked unless strongbacks and hatch covers are in place and properly
fitted, and if a section of covers is left off, then the strongbacks should be properly
secured and, if practical, lifelines rigged to prevent men from stepping off into the
open space.
14. Hatch coverings shall not be used in the construction of cargo stages or
for any other purpose which may expose them to damage.
P a r t G .— Transportation of men by boat or vehicle.
1. All boats owned, operated, or chartered for transporting employees shall be
licensed in accordance with all laws governing the Steamboat Inspection Service,
Department of Commerce, and United States Government.
2. Adequate and safe means of boarding and leaving the transporting vessel
shall be provided and all employees checked before going aboard and rechecked
when debarking.
3. Vehicles transporting workmen shall be operated in a safe and careful
manner and shall not exceed speed limits as prescribed by law.
4. Tools, materials, equipment, etc. , and persons are not to be transported in the
same vehicle unless all tools, materials, equipment, etc., are properly secured
against movement.
5. Drivers’ seats shall not contain more than the number of persons permitted
by law.
P a r t H.— General.
1.
All passageways on decks or between decks should be kept clear of slings,
trays, pieces of dunnage, etc.




40

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

2. Employees shall not be permitted to throw dunnage, gear, or equipment into
holds of vessels or from the ship to the dock or vice versa.
3. Life rings for the rescue of employees fallen overboard should be maintained
at easily accessible and conspicuously marked points.
4. If tools, materials, appliances, or any gear are at aay time found to be out
of repair, defective, or in any way unsafe, employees shall report this to the fore­
man in charge of the work immediately.
5. All defective equipment should be laid aside and collected daily and turned
in. The use of such equipment should be prohibited until repairs have been
completed.
6. Gear or equipment not in use should not be left lying around decks of ship
or dock.
7. When necessary, trucking planks should be lashed in place. Lashings to be
secured to the pier or boat as occasions require. Where necessary ring bolts shall
be located on both sides of each door opening so as to properly secure trucking
planks.
S ection III.— Freight Handling
N o t e : This section is intended to cover only rules specially applicable to the

work outlined under this general heading. Other sections, particularly IV
and V, should be referred to for other rules also applicable to freight handling.
P a r t A.— Loading or unloading railroad cars.
1. Race pieces or other suitable access to railroad cars should be provided and
should be secure, to avoid dropping; for instance, by means of drilling a hole near
the corner of each plate and dropping a bolt through the hole.
2. Car doors should be pulled open, not pushed, so as to eliminate the possi­
bility of men being struck by material falling out of car.
3. Employees should be prohibited from crawling or climbing under, over, or
through railroad cars when passing to or from their places of work. Regular
passageways should be used.
4. Employees assigned to work in railroad cars should stand outside car when
drafts of long heavy or awkward cargo are being hoisted or lowered.
5. Where boxcars are being loaded abreast of the vessel, a substantial landing
stage should be provided.
6. When boxcars are spotted abreast one another at each hatch, requiring the
use of steel plates (race pieces), these plates shall be so constructed that they can
be securely fastened at the four corners, as provided for in paragraph 1. Where
wooden skids are used, they shall be securely lashed.
P a r t B.— General.
1. Precautions should be taken when trucking over broken, uneven, raised, or
depressed surfaces.
2. Broken cargo should be recoopered before being made up into draft.
3. Employees shall stand clear of moving railroad cars and at no time shall
they be permitted to remain aboard while the cars are being shifted.
4. Cargo falls or booms shall not be used to move railroad cars on docks.
When shifting cars with other gear and equipment, all employees other than those
assigned to shifting operations shall be made to stand clear. No employee shall
stand between the stringpiece and the ship's side when cars are being moved.
S ection IV.— Making up and Breaking Down Drafts, Tiering and Stowing Cargoes
P a r t A.— Distribution , team work, and operating practices o f men.

1. Two men shall be assigned on a log boom at night. Where two hatches are
working from the same log boom in good daylight, or where suitable passage from
one boom to the other is provided, then it will be permissible to operate with one
man on each. Lines made fast on deck and hanging overside to water's edge for
lifelines shall be furnished by the ship.
2. Coal and bulk cargo trimmers shall be checked in and out of the hold, to
avoid the loss of men who might become trapped.
3. Men breaking down cargo should not turn their backs to the tiers if any
pieces in the tiers are overhanging, or the tiers themselves are leaning.
4. Particular attention should be given to the number of men assigned to
making up drafts in the square of a hatch where circumstances limit the working
area.




Appendix B .— Safety Codes

41

B.— M aking up and breaking down drafts.
1. Cargo shall be loaded so that no piece can fall from the draft.
2. Men should not make up drafts under or in the path of moving loads op
drafts.
P a r t C.— Tiering and stowing.
1. Cargoes which are likely to shift or roll shall be secured or blocked.
2. Dangerously tiered cargo shall be properly supported.
3. All cargo stowed in pier by stevedores, truckmen, etc., should be tiered in
such manner to prevent the tier from collapsing.
4. Cargo stowed in ’tween or shelter decks, or any upper cargo compartment,
should be secure before loading or discharging the compartment below.
5. Conveyors or escalators used for high tiering should be equipped with guards
to prevent employees from leaning over top of tier to grasp container or bag
before it reaches the top of the escalator.
P a r t D.— Use o f cotton hooks, jacks, or other hand tools.
1. Stevedores’ hand hooks when not in use should be put in some safe place
and should not be placed where they may be stepped on or sat upon or hung up
where vibration may shake them down.
2. Hooks should not be placed in belly of bag in breaking down or tiering up
cargo.
P a r t E.— General.
1. Dunnage should not be broken over a man’s knee or by jumping on same;
a saw should be provided and used for cutting dunnage.
2. Loose dunnage should not be permitted to be left in square of hatch or in
the path of draft being dragged or landed. It should be laid as needed or picked
up as uncovered.
3. Uprights for deck cargo should be lashed to the superstructure until they
can be removed.
4. Where temporary staging is used in connection with stowing of cargo, such
staging should be substantially built, securely fastened and with suitable flooring
of adequate width.
5. Men should not be permitted to walk on hatch coamings, deck rails, etc.
6. Men should not slide down ropes but should use the ladders provided.
7. Defective or broken crates or cases should be calfed to the attention of fore­
men so that employees shall not be injured by protruding nails or metal straps.
8. Ship’s crew shall not be permitted to work in the rigging over the heads of
men working in the hold, or deck or on the dock.
9. Cargo shall not be stowed to prevent a safe handhold or foothold on ladders.
Stiff leg portable or some other suitable ladders, securely lashed, shall be provided
where it is impossible to use the permanent hold ladders.
10. Where electric trimmers are used for bulk cargo, the electric conductor
should be disconnected before lowering into hold of ship; then, with current shut
off, the conductor should be secured to the trimmer. The current should be cut
off the trimmer before disconnecting the conductor and the conductor removed
before hoisting the trimmer. The thought to keep in mind is to keep the conductor
in good shape, free from chafing, and in every way possible prevent open spark in
the ever-present dust of bulk-cargo operations.
11. Ladders should be provided for men getting down from high tiers in termi­
nals or on lighters. Jumping or climbing down on protruding pieces of lumber
from tiers should be strictly prohibited.
Part

S ection V .— Hoisting and Landing Drafts
P a r t A.— Signalling.

1. Gangway men or anyone occupying a similar position, should not give signal
to hoist or lower any draft unless properly siung.
2. Hatch tenders and gangwaymen should be instructed not to give signal for
hoisting or lowering a draft until all men are clear of the draft.
3. Winch operators should be definitely instructed that they must take signals
only from one properly authorized and designated signalman.
4 Where work can be safely performed, it is understood that nothing in the
aforementioned recommendations are to be construed as making it necessary that
a definite person be employed as signalman, hatch tender, or gangwayman.




42

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

B.— General.
1. When drafts are to be landed in the wings, employees should be instructed to
push and not pull the draft.
2. Hooks on end of fall lines should not be swung from man to man prior to
hooking up or after draft has been released. The hook should be passed from man
to man or carried out to the square of the hatch.
3. Drafts of lumber, dunnage, pipe, or cargo of similar character should be hoisted
with a bridle sling whenever practical, to prevent short or unbound pieces falling
out of draft.
4. Crane operators should exercise care in moving or hoisting any load in bridle
slings until load is properly centered.
5. Longshoremen should not be permitted to land drafts on broken or defective
hatch covers or on hatch covers not properly supported. When necessary, a skid
or some other protection should be used to prevent damage to Tween deck covers.
6. Bales of cotton, wool, cork, gunny bags, or other similar articles shall not be
hoisted by single hooks attached to the bands or fastenings of such bales. Double
hooks shall be used at all times.
7. No person shall be permitted to stand between the load and fixed objects, such
as stanchions, or other cargo, and when using a bull line to move cargo, stand out
of the bight and clear of the throw of the load and hook.
8. Longshoremen landing drafts of steel rails, bundles of steel, pipe, etc., should
not place their hands on the draft. A rope lanyard should be thrown around it
and used to assist in landing the draft.
9. Drafts landed in net slings should be dumped slowly to prevent cargo from
breaking out suddenly and striking the men standing in the clear.
10. Longshoremen should not be permitted to reach upward for a descending
load.
11. Drafts should be lowered to within landing distance before longshoremen
take hold of them for landing.
12. When draft is being landed, men shoujd keep their feet well away from
under. When guiding a draft they should keep in a safe position to avoid being
struck by it.
13. Gangwaymen should be instructed that all drafts dragged from the wings
are to be stopped in rest position under the head of the boom before being hoisted.
14. A safe and secure place should be provided for tne hatch tender to work.
There should be no temporary obstructions in his path from the hatch to the ship’s
side.
15. In hoisting lump coal or similar bulk cargo in baskets, tubs, etc., containers
should not be filled above the rim.
16. A draft shall not be lifted with a chain that has a kink in it. The chain shall
be straightened before the lift is made.
17. Winchman must not be permitted to sit while operating, unless seats are
made of good strong lumber and securely Jashed.
18. No winch driver should leave his winch while steam is on, but should first
shut the steam off at the valve ahead of the throttle.
19. When sending empty board slings with fixed ears, in or out of the ship, on
edge, the spreader hooks should be inserted from the outside so that the board can
move up and down on the shank of the hook instead of the horn. This will pre­
vent losing the board off the hooks.
P

art

S e c t io n

VI.— Special Rules for Dangerous Cargo

A.— Explosives and inflammables.
1. The handling of all explosive cargoes or merchandise should be done in
accordance with the established codes and rules of the Federal, State, and local
governing Boards of Underwriters.
2. All men engaged in the handling, hoisting, stowing, and supervision of
explosive, combustible, and inflammable merchandise as well as all others on
ships engaged in such traffic, should be prohibited from smoking and should be
required to rid their persons of all matches or other flame-producing equipment,
before entering upon the work.
3. In all instances where explosive or combustible merchandise or cargo is
being handled in any way, open lights should not be permitted in or about the
ship, docks, or wharves and only approved lights and equipment of explosionproof design should be used.
4. In the loading of explosive merchandise in packaged form where chutes are
used, the chutes should be constructed only of wood and all fastenings thereon
Part




Appendix B .— Safety Codes

43

should be of wooden pins or dowelings or pegs. If metal fastenings are used,
they should be countersunk.
5. The bottoms of chutes should be provided with a stuffed mattress 4 feet
wide, 6 feet long, and not less than 4 inches thick.
6. In chuting packaged explosives, care should be exercised to see that the
angle of descent of chute is such as to prevent excessive shock or bumping of
packages and men should be warned not to allow cases or packages to be so bumped
or shaken.
7. In the tiering of packaged explosives, every possible care should be taken
to prevent the dropping of cases and packages and means taken to prevent all
shocks.
P a r t B .— Caustic and corrosive} noxious and irritating materials.
1. In handling soda ash, sodium carbonate in bags, the men shall be furnished
by the contractor with suitable overalls, socks, and gloves. At the completion
of each period of work, the men are to be compelled to wash the exposed parts
of their body with 2 percent solution of acetic acid. The protective clothing
must be laundered after each wearing.
2. Longshoremen shall wear (a) approved goggles when handling cargo liable
to injure or irritate the eyes; (b) respirators of an approved type when handling
cargo liable to injure or irritate the respiratory passages and lungs. When
goggles and respirators are required, they shall be provided by employer.
3. The handling of all chemical cargoes or merchandise should be done in ac­
cordance with the established codes and rules of the Federal, State, and local
governing boards of underwriters.
P a r t C.— Handling o f rails .
.1. All rails loaded aboard barges or lighters should be stowed and not dumped.
Scantlings should be placed between each tier.
2. Bail forks should be furnished and used by all employees working on lighters
or in the holds of vessels.
3. Short regular rail chain slings should be used when hoisting.
4. Employees landing drafts of rails in the holds of vessels should not attempt
to land draft before placing a lanyard around end of draft to prevent spreading.
At no time should employees place their hands on a draft of rails before lanyard
has been secured to the end of the draft.
5. Until such times as a smooth floor surface has been established in the stow­
ing of rails, a shovel or a similar instrument should be used for riding end of draft
back from first landing position until it reaches lowering position on scantling
where chain sling is to be removed.
P a r t D .— General.
1. In unloading ore, undermining or walling should not be permitted.
2. Before men are permitted to enter or work in stowage spaces or ships* tanks
in which explosive, poisonous, noxious, dusty or gaseous cargoes have been carried,
such spaces should first be thoroughly ventilated and made gas free.
S e c t io n

VII.— Motor Vehicle and Hand Truck Operations

A.— Traffic planning.
1. When practical, a system of one way traffic or circular traffic should be
established for dock trucking.
2. When practical, regular traffic gangways should be established.
3. All vehicles should follow designated traffic lanes.
4. Watchmen should be given designated areas and held responsible for keeping
gangways open.
P a r t B.— Hooking on, loading, and unloading.
1. When making a coupling between trucks, care should be exercised to see
that hands or other portions of the body will not be caught in the operation.
2. Cargo should be loaded on hand trucks in a safe manner.
P art

C.— Transporting.
1. Tractors, tractor cranes, burden trucks, and hand trucks should be operated
in a safe and careful manner, and tractors should be slowed down or come to a
halt when there is a possibility of injuring an employee.
2. Fall of tractor cranes, when without load, should be secured.
3. Trailers should be checked when heavy pieces of cargo are being loaded or
unloaded when there is a possibility of rolling.
Part




44

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

D.— G en era l.
1. No employees not engaged in the regular line of duty shall be permitted to
ride on tractors, trailers.
2. Switch shall be pulled out before connecting or disconnecting batteries of
electric tractors to the charging board.
3. Warning signs should be posted indicating vehicles, speed to be limited to 5
miles per hour, on premises, and watchman instructed to enforce these instructions.
4. All gear and equipment not in use or in motion shall be kept clear of traffic
gangways.
5. All tractors shall be equipped with efficient brakes and warning devices,
which should be kept in good working order. Operators of tractors and cranes
shall test the brakes and steering gear, etc., before starting work.
All cranes
shall be equipped with a rear vision mirror.
6. The frames of all hand trucks should be so constructed that small objects
will not fall through.
7. Where gas-fueled tractors are permitted to work in confined areas Jacking
free circulation of air, some practical system should be installed to eliminate
carbon monoxide poisoning.
8. When gas-fueled tractors are being refueled, ignition switch should be kept
off.
9. Refueling of gas tractors, etc., should be done before starting operations
for the day, in other words at morning and in lunch-hour periods.
10. All refueling of gas tractors, etc., should only be done at some designated
point, preferably outside of the pier shed.
11. In lieu of permanent or portable gas pumps, only approved safety type
cans with flexible nozzles should be used for refilling gas tanks.
P

art

S e c t io n

VIII.— First Aid and Hygiene

A.— First aid.
1. Notices shall be exhibited in prominent positions at every dock, wharf, or
quay, by each employer using it, stating:
(a) The position of the first-aid kit, and the name of the person in charge
thereof.
(b) Name, address, and telephone number of company’s physician, and
hospital.
2. An approved first-aid kit shall be maintained on each dock. As far as
possible, someone employed around the dock should be trained in first aid in
order that immediate assistance may be given.
P a r t B.— General.
1. At all places where men are employed, good drinking water in covered clean
utensils or devices shall be conveniently available.
2. At least one conveniently accessible toilet, either on board the vessel, or
on the wharf or other place where the vessel is moored, shall be available at all
times for the use of every person engaged in the operations. Such toilets shall be
kept clean and in good order.
P art

S e c t io n

IX.— Investigating and Reporting Accidents

A.— Notifying supervisors and authorities.
1. An injury of any kind, irrespective of its severity, shall be reported imme­
diately to the foreman, by the injured person if he is physically able to do so. If
the injured person is physically unable to report the injury, then it shall be re­
ported by any person in possession of the facts. The foreman shall see that the
injured party is given immediate first-aid treatment.
P a r t B.— Fact finding.
1. Upon the occurrence of a personal injury the foreman or man in charge shall
investigate and determine the cause of the accident.
P a r t C.— Reporting and recording.
1. The pertinent facts of accident occurrence shall be recorded on a suitable
form for purposes of analysis and prevention.
2. Accident facts shall be analyzed and summarized at periodical intervals so
as to develop trends and major causes and remedies.
P art




Appendix B .— Safety Codes
S e c t io n

45

X .— General

A.— Safe wearing apparel.
1. Gloves that are suitable and in good condition should be worn by longshore­
men handling undressed lumber, metal sheets, or any other rough-edged or sharp
material.
2. Longshoremen should wear good, stout shoes, without holes in soles, and
preferably with reinforced toe caps, but without rubber heels.
P a r t B.— Mechanical safeguards.
1. All winch wrorking parts exposed to workmen and gear must be properly
guarded and all exposed steam and exhaust pipes, as well as other hot surfaces,
must be protected.
2. The pin of all shackles should be so secured that it would be impossible to
work out.
3. All projecting set screws on moving parts should be removed or countersunk
or headless set screws should be used. No part of the set screw should project
above the surface.
4. Dangerous portions of docks shall be properly fenced until repairs are
made.
5. All ladders shall be kept in good repair and in a safe condition.
P a r t C.— General safe practice.
1. Smoking should not be allowed aboard ship in the vicinity of open hatches,
on the dock, or in the warehouse.
2. Any employee under the influence of alcohol or other drugs shall not be
allowed to remain on the job.
3. When necessary to move suspended loads, or trucks and dollies by hand,
employees should push rather than pull them.
4. Longshoremen should use leg and thigh muscles instead of back muscles
when lifting and proceed to lift from a squatting instead of a bending position.
5. Any cargo found to be broken shall be set aside a safe distance away from the
working area so the cooper or designated cargo man can repair without danger
to himself or fellowr workers.
6. When repairing cases of rubber, tea, or other commodities bound with tin
or steel strapping, the cooper shall use a glove while holding dowrn the strapping
to be nailed.
7. Noise of chipping on outside of hull or on the deck above, while men are
working below creates a real hazard in that it prevents the men working in the
hold from hearing the signals of the hatch tender. If possible, such work should
not be carried on wrhile ship is being loaded or unloaded.
8. Men should not be sent into holds or compartments that have been fumi­
gated until permission is given by the fumigation authorities.
9. Tools, equipment, or materials should not be carried by hand when climbing
or descending a ladder. Hands should be free for grasping side rails.
10. Employees after checking out at the end of a work period shall not be
permitted to return to the vessel or to the dock without permission of the Super­
intendent.
P a r t D.— Systematic safety organization.
The observance of the safe practice rules in this code requires that they be
known and understood, that there be agreement as to their value and practicality,
and that the effort to prevent accidents be continuous. Interest and desire to
achieve results must be aroused and maintained. Systematic effort as indicated
by some practical form o f “ safety organization” is highly beneficial in accom­
plishing satisfactory results.
P art

Pacific Coast Marine Safety Code 1
Stevedoring Operations on Board Ship
S e c t io n

1. Scope, Purpose, Exceptions, and Definitions

Scope.
R u l e 1 . This code applies to all cargo handling and stevedoring operations
aboard ship and covers all operations, persons, employees, employers, and vessels
d evelop ed under the sponsorship of the Pacific Coast Marine Associations' Accident Prevention
Buieau, 1929-1934.




46

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

included under the Federal Longshoremen’s and Harbor Workers’ Compensation
Act in the States of the Pacific Coast.
Purpose and exceptions .
R u l e 2. The purpose of this code is to provide reasonable minimum require­
ments for safety of life, limb, and health. In cases of practical difficulty or
unnecessary hardship an employer may make exceptions from the literal require­
ments of this code, or permit the use of other devices or methods, but only when it
is clearly evident that equivalent protection is provided. Any exceptions for an
employer shall be referred first to his District Code Committee; if the proposed
exception is approved by his committee, it shall be forwarded to the general
chairman of the Pacific Coast Safety Code Committee, who shall take a referendum
vote by mail of the entire Code Committee. Special port or district rules can be
adopted by the Code Committee by means of the same procedure provided for
employer “ exceptions” above.
Where an exception for any company is made to a given rule, according to stip­
ulated conditions, it is not necessary that each company petitioning thereafter be
given formal consent by Vote of the entire Code Committee, but such exception
may be granted within any district if it meets the approval of the District Code
Committee and the general chairman.
Mandatory and advisory requirements.
R u l e 3. The word “ shall” is to be understood as mandatory and the word
“ should” as advisory.

Definitions.— (a) General.
R u l e 101. The term “ Commission” means the United States Employees’
Compensation Commission.
R u l e 102. The term “ Deputy Commissioner” means the Deputy Commissioner
of the United States Employees’ Compensation Commission having jurisdiction in
respect of an injury or death.
R u l e 103A. The term “ Code Committee” refers to a standing committee which
is hereby created to consist of 13 members as follows: Three each, chosen from
both employers and employees as far as possible, from the following districts:
(1) Washington ports; (2) Oregon, including Columbia River ports; (3) San
Francisco Bay, and (4) Los Angeles Harbor District and San Diego, and a general
chairman to be elected by the Committee. The function of this Committee shall
include the approval of a final draft of this code, and the approval of subsequent
exceptions or amendments, and of any proposed port rules.
R u l e 103B. The term “ District Code Committee” refers to a committee to be
chosen from the districts prescribed in Rule 103A, consisting of three members to
be chosen from employers and employees as far as possible.
R u l e 104. The term “ State” includes a Territory.
R u l e 105. The term “ person” means an individual, partnership, corporation,
or association.
R u l e 106. The term “ employer” means an employer, any of whose employees
are employed in maritime employment, in whole or in part, upon the navigable
waters of the United States.
R u l e 107. The term “ operations and stevedoring operations” means the opera­
tion of loading, unloading, moving or handling cargo, ship’s stores, gear, etc., in,
on, or out of any ship and all activities incidental thereto at any port, dock, wharf,
pier, jetty, harbor, river, canal, or any other place, and included under the juris­
diction of the Federal Longshoremen’s and Harbor Workers’ Compensation Act.
Rule 108. The term “ vessel” means any floating structure used in navigation,
or for transporting commerce, upon the navigable waters of the United States.
R u l e 109. The term “ cargo” as defined for the purpose of this code includes all
goods or merchandise transported by vessel and also all ship’s stores, gear, etc.,
which may be moved in, on, or out of any vessel.
R u l e 110. The term “ contracting stevedore” means the person, firm, or corpo­
ration, contracting with the ship owner or his agents, to carry on stevedoring opera­
tions as defined herein; or any person, firm, or corporation engaged in stevedoring
operations.
R u l e 111. The term “ general foreman” means the person employed to supervise
the stevedoring operations.
R u le 112. The term “ gang foreman” means the person employed to supervise a
gang of longshoremen in the stevedoring operations.
R u l e 113. The term “ hatch tender” or “ gangwayman” means the person
employed to supervise all the hoisting and lowering operations of handling cargo.




Appendix B .— Safety Codes

47

R tjle 114. The term “ gang” means a group of longshoremen working as a unit
in the, stevedoring operations.
R u l e 115. The term “ longshoreman” means any person who is employed for the
purpose of loading or unloading or handling cargo or in other operations as defined
herein.
Definitions.— (b) Working places and gear.
R u l e 116. The term “ boom guy” means the device, consisting of pennants and
tackles, attached to the head of the boom or derrick and used for keeping the
boom in position for working cargo.
R u l e 117. The term “ bridle” means a device consisting of a ring or shackle
from which are suspended two or more pennants of rope, wire, or chain, to the
ends of which are attached hooks, shackles, or toggles.
R u le 118. The term “ bull line or bull rope” means an auxiliary rope or fall
worked from a winch and roved through lead or snatch blocks or chocks to move
cargo or other objects.
R u l e 119. The term “ deck” means the horizontal plating, planking, or floor
covering the transverse beams of a vessel.
R u l e 120. The term “ dunnage” means the material used in stowage for pro­
tecting cargo.
R u l e 121. The term “ fall or cargo fall” means the cable used to hoist cargo.
R u l e 122. The term “ gangway or gangplank” means the device used for persons
passing from the wharf or dock to the ship or vessel and vice versa.
R u l e 123. The term “ hatch” means the opening in a deck through which cargo,
fuel, etc., is passed.
R u l e 124. The term “ hatch cover” or “ hatch plank” means the device placed
on hatch beams or strongbacks and coamings to cover a hatch.
R u l e 125. The term “ hatch way” means the square of the hatch from the top
deck to the hold.
R u l e 126. The terms “ hatch beam fore and after, and strongback” mean the
devices used for supporting the hatch covers to close the hatch.
R u l e 127. The term “ Jacob’s ladder” means the device consisting of two
parallel pieces of rope or wire joined together at intervals by crosspieces of rope,
wire, or wood, the whole ladder being flexible.
R u l e 128. The term “ ladder” means an appliance or device consisting of two
parallel pieces of wood or metal joined together at intervals by crosspieces called
rounds.
R u le 129. The term “ lead block” means the device consisting of a grooved
sheave encased by a shell used to change the direction of the lead or line.
R u le 130. The term “ machinery” means the contrivances or machines, such
as conveyors, motors, capstans, winches, windlasses, tractors, jitneys, etc., used
in the operations.
R u le 131. The term “ passageway” means a path or clear space other than a
gang way or ladder through which persons or cargo are to be passed or move d.
R u l e 132. The terms “ pennant or pendant” mean the piece of wire or rope
to which tackles, etc., are attached or suspended to shorten the length of the
tackle and to cut down unnecessary amount of rope otherwise used in said tackle.
Rule 133. The term “ preventer guy” means the device consisting of a tem­
porary auxiliary rope or wire attached to the head of the boom or derrick to re­
lieve the boom guy of excessive strain in handling heavy drafts of cargo.
R u l e 134. The term “ shackle” means a U-shaped device of iron or steel with
a pin through the ends used to secure the ends of guys, falls, topping lifts, etc.,
to ringbolts or cleats.
R u l e 135. The term “ ship’s gear” means the devices used in the operations,
such as booms, derricks, falls, guys, slings, etc., and supplied and carried by the
vessel for the purpose of working cargo.
R u le 136. The term “ sling” means a device made of rope, wire, canvas, chains,
boards, or other material used to hold cargo for the purpose of hoisting it.
R u le 137. The term “ sling load or draft” means that part of the cargo held
by the sling.
R u l e 138. The term “ stevedoring gear” means the devices used and furnished
by the stevedoring contractor.
R u le 139. The term “ stowage” means the proper placing of cargo on or in
vessels.
R u le 140. The term “ topping lift” means the wire or rope attached to the
boom head and mast or Samson post or other fixed object by means of which the
boom or derrick is raised, lowered, or suspended.




48

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

R u le 141. The term “ ’tween deck or ’tween decks” means an intermediate
deck situated between the main deck and the hold.
R u le 142. The term “ set-up” means the manner in which the entire standing
and running gear is rigged for one gang to work cargo.
S ection 2. Responsibilities and Duties Under the Code
R u l e 201. The vessel, its owner, master, and officer in charge shall be severally
and jointly responsible for the safe condition of the ship’s gear and equipment,
and for the competency of any ship’s officer or member of the crew who may
engage in operations covered by this code. They shall provide, so far as the same
shall be under their control, a safe working place upon the vessel for all operations
carried on upon it.
R u l e 202. The contracting stevedore is responsible for the proper and safe
condition of all stevedoring gear supplied by it, and for the competency of foremen
and other persons supplied by it in charge of operations.
R u l e 203. The duties of the general foreman are: To see that all gear is in
apparent good safe working condition during the stevedoring operations. He is
in charge of all stowage and handling of cargo. He should see that stevedoring
operations are carried on in a safe manner. Where conditions warrant, and he is
not in immediate touch with his superior officers, he should stop work if necessary
to avoid accidents.
R u l e 204. The duties of the gang foreman are: To be in direct charge of his
gang, to supervise all the stevedoring operations in connection therewith, and to
see that all work is done in a safe manner. He shall report promptly to the general
foreman any defect in the gear or any unsafe working condition. In the event that
the gang foreman or hatch tender, upon discovery of defective gear, should find it
impossible to get in touch immediately with the general foreman, he shall himself
stop work, if necessary, until the general foreman shall have had opportunity to
pass upon the situation.
R u l e 205. The duties of the hatch tender or gangwayman are: He should be
familiar with the deck stevedoring operations and be capable of rigging booms,
derricks, and other deck gear for the proper hoisting or moving of cargo.
Before commencing to hoist cargo, he should, in conjunction with the gang
foreman, see that the boom topping lifts and boom guys are properly secured and
the save-all made fast; that pins in shackles on all cargo gear are properly fas­
tened; that the space from the hatch coamings to the ship’s side is clear for
working cargo and the hatch beams, strongbacks, fore and afters, and hatch
covers which are removed, stowed on deck in a safe, orderly manner; and inspect
generally, as far as possible, all running gear for any defect or unsafe working
condition.
He shall see that the cargo is properly slung before being hoisted and shall con­
trol the movements of slingloads or drafts by positive signals to the winch driver.
He should keep the slingload or draft in sight when being moved, and warn all
persons in danger of being injured by the movement of cargo. Whenever opera­
tions are suspended or terminated, ht shall see that the hatch covers are on, or
safety lines are stretched around hatch coamings, and rope stretched across side
rail opening or side rails properly shipped, if the appliances are supplied by the
vessel, or unless the duty has been assumed by the vessel. He shall be held
responsible, together with the gang foreman, for the safety of the men during
the operations.
R u l e 206. The duties of the winch driver are: To see before starting hoisting
operations that the winch is free from water, that the cargo fall is in good order
and properly secured to the winch drum, and that the winch is in good order,
reporting any defects to the gang foreman. He shall take signals only from the
hatch tender, if a hatch tender is used, for the operation of the winch, and shall
at all times operate the winch or winches in a safe manner. If the winches are
not properly oiled, he shall report same to his foreman. When leaving winch
unattended, he shall see that the power is turned off.
R u l e 207. The duties of the longshoremen, in addition to those presented else­
where in this code, shall be to use the safety devices provided, to practice the
safety methods prescribed, and to cooperate in all that makes for safety.
S ection 3. General Safety Rules
R u l e 301. All gears and friction drives, wherever located, should be com­
pletely encased. Where, in the case of gears, this is impracticable, a band guard
should be provided with side flanges extending inward beyond the root of the
teeth.




Appendix B .— Safety Codes

49

R u l e 302. Where there is a spoke hazard, the spokes should always be covered
on exposed side.
R u l e 303. All sprocket wheels, wherever located, should be completely encased.
R u l e 304. All projecting set screws on moving parts should be removed, o r
countersunk, or headless set screw should be used. No part of the set screw
should project above the surface.
R u l e 305. Shaft keys, unless enclosed by the housing of the machine, should
be flush or protected with cylindrical safety sleeves, or completely enclosed.
R u l e 306. Shields or screens should be provided which will prevent contact
with crank, connecting rod, valve rod, steam jam cylinder, or other moving parts.
R u l e 307. Removal of existing protective appliances during stevedoring opera­
tions is strictly prohibited.
R u l e 308. If tools, materials, appliances, or any gear are at any time found
to be out of repair, defective, or in any way unsafe, employees shall report the
same immediately to the person in charge of the work.
R u le 309. Where an edge of cargo or of a landing platform is exposed and there
is danger of falls of persons, the edge should be guarded by a life line.
R u l e 310. Winches, conveyors, belts, and all driving gear may be lubricated
while in motion only when this can be done by means of suitable contrivances,
without danger.
R u le 311. ‘Lubricating and oiling while a machine is in motion may be done
only by persons authorized to do so.

R u le 312. C leaning o f m ach in e parts m a y be don e on ly w hile th e m a ch in e is
n o t in. m otion .
R u le 313. Transferred to and made a part of R u l e 525.
R u l e 314. Employees shall do everything possible to prevent fires. Smoking

is prohibited.
R u le 315. Entering dark holds, decks, or compartments without a light is
prohibited. (See R u les 410 and 411).
R u l e 316. Naked lights are prohibited in stevedoring operations aboard ship.
(See R ules 410 and 411.)
R u le 317. No one shall be allowed to turn to or remain on the job if under the
.influence of intoxicating liquors.
S ection 4. General Working Conditions

Reporting o f injuries.
R u l e 401. An injury of any kind, irrespective of its severity, shall be reported
immediately to the foreman, or man in charge, by the injured person if he is physi­
cally able (if the injured person is physically unable to report the injury, then it
shal1 be reported by any person in possession of the facts.) The foreman, or man
in charge, shall see that the injured party is given immediate first-aid treatment
and that the injury is reported promptly to the employer.

First aid.
R u l e 402. An approved first-aid kit shall always be immediately available
when and where operations are being carried on. The first-aid kit shall be in
charge of, and maintained fully stocked by a designated attendant who shall be
trained to render first aid to the injured. The first-aid attendant should always
be available to give immediate assistance. One or more stretchers shall be avail­
able at places where operations are being carried on, to be furnished by the vessel
or by the dock operators.
R u l e 403. At each major port there shall be provided by some appropriate
port organization, facilities for the formation of a first-aid corps, and for the train­
ing of persons employed who wish to qualify to render first aid.
R u le 404. Notices shall be exhibited in prominent positions at every dock,
or wharf, stating:

(a) The position of the first-aid kit, and the name of the person in charge
thereof.
(b) The telephone number of emergency hospital or ambulance service.
(c) Name, address, and telephone number of company's physician and
hospital.
R u l e 405. One or more life buoys for the rescue of drowning persons shall be
maintained at each dock.
Clean drinking water.
R u l e 406. At all places where operations are being carried on, good drinking
water in covered clean utensils or devices shall be conveniently available.




50

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

Toilets.
R u l e 407. At Jeast one conveniently accessible toilet, either on board the
vessel or on the wharf or other place where the vessel is moored, shall be avail­
able at all times for the use of every person engaged in the operations. Such
toilets shall be kept clean and in good order.
Decks , floors , and passageways.
R u l e 408. All decks, floors, and other places, where persons are engaged in
the operations shall, as far as possible, be kept clean and free from dust, litter,
and slipperiness. Grease, oils, etc., spilled where stevedoring operations are
being carried on shall be immediately covered by sand or other suitable material.
R u l e 409. Transferred to and made a part of R u l e 408.
R u le 410. General foremen shall not permit operations on or in ship's decks,
h olds, or other places, unless adequately lighted. (See R u les 315, 316, 906 and
1009).
R u l e 411. One or more lights shall be kept burning on the dock near the gang­
plank or other entrance to the ship after dark while ship is tied up to dock. (See
R u les 315 and 316.)
R u l e 412. Passageways on dock shall be kept clear from tackle end of ship's
gear to shed, to give ample room for hooking or landing loads or drafts, except
when working cars direct to or from ship.
R u l e 413. Where men are to be required to work in a space below a deck w here
cargo is stowed, the said cargo in said deck shall be so stowed as to have clear
space o f 3 feet around hatch coaming of said deck for handling hatch covers.
R u l e 413B (new). Where it becomes necessary to stow deck loads closer than
3 feet to a hatch coaming, life line shall be rigged for safety of men handling strong­
backs and hatch covers.

Access to vessels.
R u l e 414. When a ship is lying at a dock, there shall be provided at all times
a safe means of going to and from the ship consisting of a gangplank or other
equally adequate method. All persons going to and from the ship must use this
equipment. “ Short-cuts" over side, via cargo slings, save-alls, moving convey­
ors, etc., are prohibited.
R u l e 415. Where a gangplank is reasonably practicable, a gangplank not less
than 22 inches wide shall be provided and properly secured to the ship. Such
gangplank shall be provided with a 2-rail railing on each side; such railing shall be
not Jess than 3 feet high; the upper and lower rails to consist of wood, taut
ropes or chains, or other equally safe devices.
R u l e 416. In other cases a ladder shall be provided which shall be of sound
material, of adequate length, and properly secured to prevent slipping.
R u l e 417. If a ship, boat, or other vessel is alongside any other ship, boat, or
other vessel, and persons employed are required to pass from one to the other,
a safe means of access shall be provided by the ship, boat, or other vessel which
has the higher freeboard.
R u l e 418. When working barge, scow, raft, or log boom alongside ship, a
Jacob's ladder, or its equivalent, properly secured, shall be provided and used
for each separate unit of operation.

Hold ladders.
R u l e 419. Ladders shall be provided in all holds where employees are engaged
in stevedoring operations. Where it is impracticable to use a ladder, an equiva­
lent safe means of escape shall be provided.
R u l e 420. Ship's ladders providing entrance to and exit from holds shall be
kept in repair and in safe condition.
R u l e 421. Hold ladders shall be kept clear, and no cargo stowed within 6 inches
from inside rungs of ladders. If cargo is so stowed that it is not possible to use
permanent hold ladders, portable ladders shall be provided and properly secured.

Winch operations.
R u l e 422. A place provided for winch drivers to stand or sit shall be kept in
good order and all means taken to prevent slipping and falling of seat of driver.
R u l e 423. The ship's gear should be so rigged as to protect the winch driver
against swinging loads.
R u l e 424. All winches operating with a single lever shall be counterbalanced
by a weight properly secured.
R u l e 425. Extensions on operating levers of winches, of substantial material,
where necessary, shall be furnished by the ship, and securely attached to the
regular lever.




Appendix B .— Safety Codes

51

Noxious cargo.
R u l e 426. Longshoremen shall wear (a) approved goggles when handling cargo
liable to injure or irritate the eyes; (b) respirators of an approved type when
handling cargo liable to injure or irritate the respiratory passages and lungs.
R u l e 427. When such goggles and respirators are required, same shall be
provided by employer.
R u l e 428. Strict care should be exercised when entering holds that have been
recently fumigated.

S ection 5. Safe Practices

(A) Preparations o f hatch and decks for cargo-handling operations.
R u l e 601. No cargo shall be worked through a section of a hatch unless the
strongback of section adjacent to uncovered portion of hatch is bolted to batch
coamings, or otherwise secured or removed.
R u l e 602. No cargo shall be hoisted from hatch until hatch covers and strong­
backs are off and stowed clear of working gear, except such cargo as must be
removed to clear beams.
R u l e 603. Strongbacks and hatch covers shall be so stowed as not to interfere
with a safe walkway for hatch tenders from rail to hatch coaming, and so that
drafts or gear cannot tip same into hatches or over ship’s side.
R u l e 504. Foremen or hatch tenders shall personally supervise the taking off
or placing of hatch covers, strongbacks, and beams. Booms shall not be raised
or lowered except under the immediate supervision of the man in charge of gang.
R u l e 505. When employees are below, they shall stand in the clear while
strongbacks, hatch beams, and hatch covers are being taken out or put in place.
R u l e 506. Sling loads or drafts of dunnage shall not be handled over the heads
of longshoremen. Where practicable double slings should be used.
R u l e 507. Where temporary deck stage is used for the purpose of loading or
unloading ships, such stage shall be strongly built and securely fastened.
R u l e 508. When it is necessary to work cargo on a skeleton deck, safe decking
shall be provided unless the workmen can work safely from the cargo stowed below
such skeleton deck.
R u l e 509. Employees shaU never ride strongbacks or beams; nor shall they
unnecessarily walk or climb upon them while in place.
R u l e 510.1 When working cargo over a deck load a safe walkway shall be
provided for the hatch tender from rail to coaming. When this is impracticable,
two hatch tenders shall be used.
R u l e 5 1 1.1 Deck loads shall be so stowed as not to interfere with safe operation
of winches or to permit loose material falling into hatches or overside.
(B) Rigging of ship’s gear for cargo-handling operations.
R u l e 512. Longshoremen should not be hoisted aloft except by hand power;
booms should be lowered to deck for changing gear or making necessary repairs.
R u l e 513. The winch fall should be so wound that the lever shall have the
same direction of operation as the load being bandied. Winches hereafter con­
structed shall be made so that they can be operated as above recommended.
R u l e 514A. The boom guys and preventers should be kept as far away from
the heel of the boom as possible, but not past the line of the fall. They shaU be
made fast so as to divide the strain on both. Preventers should be made fast
around the head of the boom independent of all other fastenings. Booms shall
always be so topped as to avoid undue strain on both boom and topping lift.
(Special caution where samson or derrick post is low.) In all “ set-ups” the drag­
ging of one fall against the other without plenty of sag is positively dangerous and
should be avoided.
R u le 514B (amended). When winch controls are located so as to expose winch
driver to bight of the fall, an additional preventer shall be placed on the lead
block at the heel of the boom. The preventer shall be no less than % inch wire
cable and preferably % or larger.
R u l e 515. Measures shall be taken to prevent steam from, or to, any crane,
winch, or other appliance obscuring any part of the decks, gangways, stages,
wharf, or other place, or otherwise hindering or injuring any person employed in
the operations.
1Interpretations, R ules 510 and 511: “ Special attention of all responsible for stowage of deck loads of
lumber and logs is hereby called to the serious hazards which some of the present practices have created.




52

Injuries and Accident Causes— Longshore Industry

(C) Handling of cargo and practices incident thereto.
R u l e 516. Riding cargo hook is prohibited ; however, in emergencies, and under
safe working conditions, specially prepared slings may be ridden in and out of the
holds, under the order and direct supervision of the foreman.
R u l e 517A. Sling loads shall not be held suspended over men’s heads, either
on dock or ship; standing or working under hanging loads is prohibited.
R u l e 517B. Slings loads that are improperly slung shall not be hoisted.
R u l e 518. No cargo shall be loaded or unloaded by a fall or sling at any
intermediate deck unless either the hatch at that deck is safely covered, or a
secure landing platform of a width not less than that of one section of hatch
coverings, has been placed across the hatch.
R u l e 519. Blocks, crow bars, chain slings, and other heavy equipment shall
not be thrown from deck to ship’s hold or from deck to dock.
R u l e 520. While working cargo which may shift or roll on workman, the cargo
shall be secured or blocked.
R u l e 521. All cargo raised by hoisting gear shall always be carefully secured
against falling or spreading. Where practicable double slings should be used on
small lumber.
R u l e 522. In hoisting lump coal or similar bulk cargo in baskets, tubs, etc.,
containers should not be filled above the rim.
R u l e 523. When assisting to steady or land a load, longshoremen should not
stand between the load and any fixed object, and shall always face the load. Loads
shall not be lifted from cars or docks when men are standing between load and
ship.
R u l e 524. When using a bull line to move cargo, the longshoremen should
stand out of the bight, and clear of the throw of the lead and hook.
R u l e 525. A sling load or draft shall not be lifted with a chain having a kink
in it. A chain shall not be shortened by wiring or tieing. Chains shall not be
repaired, even temporarily, by bolting two links together or by the use of wire.
R u l e 526. Each employer shall employ for every hatch or set of winches being
operated a signal man, gangway man, or hatch tender. (See also hatch tenders'
duties, R u l e 205.)
R u l e 527. The riding of moving conveyors, other than of mechanical steve­
dores, escalators, or other devices especially designed for transportation of men,
is strictly prohibited. Such special devices as are permissible for transporting men
in and out of vessels, may be ridden only when the driver is at the controls and
can stop the device.
R u l e 528. Two men shall be required on a log boom for each unit of operation.
Life lines shall be furnished hanging overside to water’s edge.
R u l e 529. Men trimming bulk cargo are to be checked in and out of the hold.
R u l e 530. Electric trimmers used for bulk cargo containing explosive dust
shall be disconnected from conductors before being lowered into hold of ship; the
electric current shall be kept shut off while conductors are being secured to or
disconnected from the trimmers.
R u l e 531. When men are working in the square of the hatch, bales of cotton,
wool, cork, gunny bags, or other similar articles shall not be hoisted by hooks
attached to the bands or fastenings of such bales.
R u l e 53IB (amendment to R u l e 802, and applicable to all ports).
Where
two gangs are working in the same hatch on different decks, a skid, preferably, or
at least a net, should be rigged from lower strongback and securely fastened above
over-hatch coamings so as to prevent the possibility of men or cargo from falling
on men below.
R u l e 531C (new). Where cargo is stowed on or in any deck above lower hold,
such cargo shall be adequately secured to prevent it from falling on men working
below the deck on which such cargo is stowed.
(D) Preparation o f hatch and deck at suspension o f cargo handling.
R u l e 532. When work in a hatch is finished for the day, upper deck hatch
covers or approved night hatches, shall be on, or safety lines stretched around the
hatch coamings. (See R u l e 205.) Manholes and other deck openings should be
protected in a safe manner.
S e c t io n 6. S hip's Gear
R u l e 601. All bridles for removing strongbacks or beams from hatch coamings
shall be of sufficient length so that strongbacks can be hooked on without neces­
sitating climbing out on them to do so; shackles or toggles are recommended in




Appendix B .— Safety Codes

53

place of hooks for handling strongbacks. Hand lines shall be attached of adequate
length for use in preventing swinging of hatch beams and strongbacks.
R u l e 602. All boom guys and gin blocks shall be secured by shackles.
R u l e 603. When deck loads of lumber extend above the bulwarks, there should
be a pennant of sufficient length to preclude sending a workman down ship's
side to secure or relase the boom guy from the deck ring bolt.
R u le 604. The ship shall furnish a sufficient number of approved topping lift
stoppers where necessary for safely shifting derrick topping lifts.
R u l e 605. Cargo booms should be tested and have approved capacity plainly
marked in a conspicuous manner and place, preferably at the heel of the boom.
R u l e 606. Cargo falls or ship's hoisting gear shall not be used to move railroad
cars on docks.
R u l e 607. Hatch rollers shall be so constructed that they can be firmly attached
or secured to hatch coamings.
R u l e 608. Broken, split, or ill-fitting hatch covers shall at once be discarded
or repaired. All hatch covers, and fore-and-aft and thwart-ship beams shall,
insofar as they are not interchangeable, be kept plainly marked to indicate the
deck and hatch to which they belong and their position therein, and a licensed
ship's officer should be present and responsible for the proper covering and
uncovering of all hatches. Sufficient hatch covers of proper dimensions to insure
a tight cover for each deck shall be supplied at all times during operations.
R u l e 609. Adequate handgrips shall be provided on all hatch covers, having
regard to their size and weight. Handgrips shall not be secured by means of
wood or lag screws; where bolts are used, ends of same shall be riveted.
R u l e 610. Deflectors shall be used on openings from ships emitting waste
water or matter interfering with the operations, or affecting the health of longshoremen.
R u l e 611. Inspection of ship's cargo gear should be made by the ship's crew
before gear is used for stevedoring operations. The crew should give all assistance
possible to maintain properly ship's cargo gear while in use.
R u l e 612 (new). Ship's cargo hoisting falls or whips shall not be used for
mooring or shifting ship.
S ection 7. Stevedoring Gear
R u l e 701. Wire bridles shall have a covering of marline, rubber hose, or other
suitable protection for men's hands over hook-splice.
R u le 702. Save-alls shall be stretched, hung, and safely secured to vessel and
dock, in line with each hatch when general cargo is being worked.
R u l e 703. If tools, materials, appliances, or any gear are at any time found to
be out of repair, defective, or in any way unsafe, men shall report the same im­
mediately to the person in charge of the work.
R u le 704. Stevedoring gear shall be carefully inspected by a designated and
competent employee before being issued for use in stevedoring any ship. Any
unsafe or doubtful gear shall be discarded, marked, and «o placed that it cannot
be used by longshoremen.
S ection 8. Special Port and District Rules (See Rule 2)

Los Angeles Harbor.
R u l e 801. While a ship is lying at a dock where fender logs are used, a save-all
should be stretched under the accommodation ladder, or other means of access,
in such a manner as to prevent a person from falling between the ship and dock.
R u l e 802 (an addition to G r a y B o ok R u l e 413)*. Where two gangs are working
in the same hatch, and one gang is on a deck below the other gang, a life net or its
equivalent should be used across the edge of the upper deck in such a manner as
to prevent men or cargo from falling to the lower deck.




FQRyiCTORY




BUY
U N IT E D
STATES

W AR
BONDS
AND

STAMPS