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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
JAMES J. DAVIS, SECRETARY
WOMEN'S BUREAU
FAMILY STATUS OF
BREADWINNING WOMEN
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
REVISION AND EXTENSION OP
BULLETIN 23
WASHINGTON
COVUJOQCNT PIUHTING OPPl<:a
UII
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CoNGRESS]
[H. R. 18229]
An Act To establish in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the
Women's Bureau
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
Statu of A merwa in Congress assembled, That there shall be established in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the
Women's Bureau.
SEo. 2. That the said bureau shall be in charge of a director, a
woman, to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice
and consent of the Senate, who shall receive an annual compensation of $5,000. It shall be the duty of said bureau to formulate
standards and policies which shall promote the welfare of wageearning women, improve their working conditions, increase their
efficiency, and advance their opportunities for profitable employ- .
ment. The said bureau shall have authority to investigate and
report to the said department upon all matters pertaining to the
welfare of women in industry. The director of said bureau m8.y
from time to time publish the results of these investigations in such
a manner and to such extent as the Secretary of Labor may prescribe.
SEc. 3. That there shall be in said bureau an assistant director,
to be appointed by the Secretary of Labor1 who shall receive an
RD.llual compensation of $3,500 and shall perform such duties as
shall be prescribed by the director and approved by the Secretary
of Labor.
SEO. 4. That there is hereby authorized to be employed by said
· bureau a chief clerk and such special agents, assistants, clerks, and
other employees 'at such rates of compensation and in such numbers
as Congress may from time to time provide by appropriations.
SEO. 5. That the Secretary of Labor is hereby directed to furnish
~ sufficient quarters, office furniture and equipment, for the work of '
this bureau.
·
· SEO. 6. That this Act shall take effect and be in force from and
after its passage.
Approved, June 5, 1920.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
JAMES J. DAVIS, SECRETARY
WOMEN'S BUREAU
l -'
BULLETIN
OF
Y ANDERSON, Director
THE
WOMEN'S
BUREAU,
No. 41
FAMILY STATUS OF
BREADWINNING WOMEN
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
REVISION AND EXTENSION OF
BULLETIN 2_3
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1925
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ADDITIONAL COPIES
Oi' THIS PUBLICATION HAY BE PROCURED FROM
TBB SUPERINTENDENT Ol' DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C,
AT
20 CENTS PER COPY
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CONTENTS
p ART l.
lNTRODUCT:CON:
~
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Scope of duty ___ --------------------------------------------Statistical summary _______________________________ .:. ___ _ __ _ _ __ _
Conclusion-Some social and economic problems concerning b:readwinning women_____________________________________________
PART II. BREADWINNING WOMEN IN JACKSONVILLE, FLA.:
Occupational distribution______________________________________
Country of birth and age______________________________________
Marital status____________________________________ __ __________
Breadwinning mothers _________________________________.__ _____ _
Economic responsibilities_____________________________ _ ________
Home ownership_____________ ___ ______________________________
Recapitulation_________________ _____________ ________________ _
PART III. BREADWINNING WOMEN IN WILKES-BARRE AND HANOVER
TOWNSHIP, PA.:
Occupational distribution ________________________ ..: _____ ~_______
Country of birth and age ___________ .:. __________________________
Marital status _____________________________ ,..__________________
Breadwinning mothers_________________________________________
Economic responsibilities _____________________ ~________________
Home ownership______________________________________________
Recapitulation________________________________________________
PART IV. BREADWINNING Wo.MEN IN BuT'rE, MoNT.:
Occupational distribution___________________________ ___________
Country of birth and age______________________________________
Marital status_______________________________________________ _
Bread winning mothers______________ ___________________________
Economic responsibilities______________________________________
Home ownership ____ __ _____ -,-- --______________________ ____ _____
Recapitulation________________________________________________
PART V. BREADWINNING WOMEN IN PASSAIC, N. J.:
Occupational distribution ________________ ______________ ~_______
Age groups________________________________________________ ___
Country of birth______________________________________________
Marital status________________________________________________
Breadwinning mothers_________________________________________
Economic responsibilities ______________________ ~__ ____ _______ __
. Home ownership______________________________________________
Recapitulation ____________________________________ --·-_____ __ __
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TABLES
PART
I:
Table 1. Proportion which women breadwinners formed 1of the total
female population 14 years of age and over, by locality _
2. Number and per cent of women breadwinners working in
their own homes or outside their homes, by locality___ _
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CONTENTS
IV
TABLES-Conti ued
PART
II:
Pare
Table 3. Industries and occupations in which breadwinning women.
were employed-Jacksonville, Fla ____________ _- - - - - - 4. Number and per cent distribution of breadwinning women,
by country of birth-Jacksonville, Fla _______________ _
~~~~~~~~~~~ _¥~'-~~ -~~~ ~~~~=~=
5. CoJ::~:o~~i~li:~~~6. Country of birth of breadwinning women, by industry and
occupation-Jacksonville, Fla ________________________ _
7. Specified age groups of breadwinning women, by industry
and occupation-Jacksonville, Fla ___________ _________ _
8. Number and per cent distribution of breadwinning women,
by marital status-Jacksonville, Fla ______________ __ _
9. Country of birth of breadwinning women, by marital
status-Jackson ville, Fla ________________ "" ___________ _
10. Marital status of breadwinning women, by age groups.Jackson ville, Fla:.. _____ . : ___________________________ _
11. Breadwinning women working in their own homes or
outside their homes, by martial status-Jacksonville,
Fla ___________________ __________________________ _
12. Marital status of breadwinning women, by industry and
occupation-Jacksonville, Fla ____________________ . __
13. Breadwinning women who had children or had no children,
by marital status-Jacksonville, Fla ________________ _
14. Breadwinning women who had children or had no children,
by country of birth-Jacksonville, Fla ____ ___ ________ _
15. Number of children of breadwinning mothers, by marital
status of mother-Jackson ville, Fla ______________ ~ __ _
16. Number of children of breadwinning, mothers by country of
birth of mother-Jacksonville, Fla __ _______ __ . :'_...: ~~ __ _
17. Breadwinning mothers having children of specified age
groups at home, in school, or at work, by marital status
of mother-Jacksonville, Fla __ _: _________ _____ _____ _ _
18. Breadwinniug mothers with children of specified age
groups at home, in school, or at work, by country of
birth of mother-Jackson ville, Fla __________________ _
19. Breadwinning mothers having children of specified age
groups at home, in school, or at work, by industry or occupation of mother-Jacksonville, Fla _______ __ ______ _
20. Number of men and women wage earners in breadwinning
women's families, according to size of family-Jacksonville, Fla _________________________________________ _
21. Family status and family responsibilities of single women
breadwinners-Jacksonville, Fla ____________________ _
22. Family ·status and family responsibilities of married women
breadwinners-Jacksonville, Fla ____________________ _
23. Family status and family resp nsibilities of widowed and
divorced women breadwinners,-Jacksonville, Fla ____ _
24. Tenure of home, by marital status, of breadwinning womenJ acksonville, Fla __ __ ___________________
_______ _
__ _
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25. Tenure of home; by country of birth, of breadwinning
women-Jacksonville, Fla _________________________ _
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CON:TENTS
V
TABLES-Continued
PART
III:
Page
Table 26. Industries ~nd occupations in which breadwinning VI omen
were employed-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township,
Pa ___ _ _____________ _ ______ _ ________ __ _ ____ ____ _ _ _
51
27. Number and per cent distribution of breadwinning women,
by country of birth-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa__ __ ___________ ___ __ ___________________ ____
28. Number and per cent of breadwinning wom en of foreign
birth unable to speak English, by years in the United
States-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa___ ___
29. Country of birth of breadwinning women, by age groupsWilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa ____ ____ _____
30. Specified age groups of breadwinning women, by industry
and occupation-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township,
Pa_ _____ _ __ _ _ ____ _ _________ _ _ ___ ____ _ _ _ _ ___ _ ____ _
31. Country of birth of breadwinning women, by industry and
occupation-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa_
32. Number and per cent distribution of breadwinning women,
by marital status-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, ·
Pa _ _ _ _ ___ ________ __ _ _______ ______ ___ __ __ __ _______
33. Country of birth of breadwinning women, by marit al
status-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa______
34. Marital status of breadwinning women, by age groupsWilkes-·B arre and Hanover Township, Pa___ _____ ____ _
35. Brea dwinning women working in their own homes or outside their homes, by marital status-Wilkes-Barre and
. Hanover Township, Pa __ _________ ____ ____ ____ ___ ___
36.' ' Marital status of breadwinning women, by industry and
occupation-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa_
37. "Bread winning women who had children or had no children,
.,,. by marital status-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Town, ship, Pa ____ ___________ ____ ____ _____ _____ _______ __
38. Breadwinning women who had children or had no children,
by country of birth, Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa __ __ ___ ____ ___ __ ___________ _____ _______ __ _
39. Number of children of breadwinning mot hers, by marit al
st atus of mother-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa___ __ ________ _________ __ __________________
40. Number of children of breadwinning m others, by country
of birth of mother-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa ____ ___ ____ ____ __ ____ ___ _____ _____ __ ___ ___
41. Breadwinning mothers having children of specified age
grqups at home, in school, or at work, by marital status
of mother-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa __
42. Breadwinning mothers with children of specified age
groups at home, in school, or at work, by count ry of
birth of mot her- Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa__________ _____ _____ __ ___ _____ ___________ _
43. Breadwinning mothers having children of specified age
groups at home, in school, or at work, by industry or
occupation of mother- Wilkes-Barre and H anover
Township, Pa____________________________ _________
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VI
CONTENTS
TABLES-Continued
PART III-Continued.
Table 44. Number of men and women wage earners in breadwinning
women's families, according to size of family-WilkesBarre and Hanover Township, Pa____________ __ ______
4.5. Family status and family responsibilities of single women
breadwinners-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township,
Pa___ _______________________ ___ __________ ________
46. Family status and family responsibilities of married women
breadwinners-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township,
Pa_______________________________________________
47. Family status and family responsibilities of widowed and
divorced women breadwinners-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa_________________________________
48. Tenure of home by marital status of bread winning womenWilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa_________ ____
49. Tenure of honie by country of birth of breadwinning
women-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa __ ___
PART IV:
Table 50. Industries and occupations in which breadwinning women
were employed-Butte, Mont_________________ ______
51. Number and per ce;nt distribution of breadwinning women,
by country of birth-Butte, Mont___________________
52. Country of birth of breadwinning women, by age groupsButte, Mont_ _____________________ ~___________ __ __
53. Country of birth of breadwinning women, by industry and
occupation-Butte, Mont___________________________
54. Specified age groups of breadwinning women, by industry
and occupation-Butte, Mont__________________ __ ___
55. Number and per cent distribution of bread winning W(?men,
by marital status-Butte1 Mont________________ ____ _
56. Country of birth of breadwinning. women, by marital
status-Butte, Mont___________ ______________ ______
57. Marital status of breadwinning women, by age groupsButte, Mont _____________________________·_____ ____
58. Breadwinning women working in their own homes or outside
their homes, by marital status-Butte, Mont__________
59. Marital status of breadwinning women, by industry and
occupation-Butte, Mont__________________ ___ ______
60. Breadwinning women who had children or had no children,
by marital status-Butte, Mont_____________________
61. Breadwinning women who had children or had no children,
by country of birth-Butte, Mont _____ ~------------62. Number of children of breadwinning mothers, by marital
status of mother-Butte, Mont_________________ ____ _
63. Number of children of breadwinning mothers, by country
of birth of mother-Butte, Mont ______________ ___ ___
64. Breadwinning mothers having children of specified age
groups at home, in school, or at work, by marital status
of mother-Butte, Mont ____________ ____________ __ __
65. Breadwinning mothers with children of specified age groups
at home, in school, or at work, by country of birth of
mother-Butte, Mont______________________________
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CONTENTS
VII
TABLES--Con tinued
PART IV-Continued.
Page
Table 66. Breadwinning mothers having children of specified age
groups at home, in school, or at work, by industry or
occupation of mother~Butte, Mont_________________
100
67. Number of men and women wage earners in breadwinning
women's families, according to size of family- Butte,
Mont _________________________________ _______ ____ · 101
68. Family status and family responsibilities of single women
breadwinners--Butte, Mont ___ .:.._____________________
69. Family status and family responsibilities of married
women breadwinners-Butte, Mont______________ ___ _
70. Family status and family responsibilities of widowed and
divorced women breadwinners-Butte, Mont__ _______ _
71. Tenure of home by marital status of bread winning womenButte, Mont________________________ ____ _________ _
72. Tenure of home by country of birth of breadwinning
women-Butte, Mont_______________________________ __
Pur V:
Table 73. Industries and occup~tions in which breadwinning women
were employed-Passaic, N. J__ _______________ _____ _
74. Specified age groups of breadwinning women, by industry
and occupation-Passaic, N. J__ ____ _________ ______ __
75. Number and per cent distribution of breadwinning women,
by country of birth-Passaic, N. J______ _______ _____
76. Number and per cent of breadwinning women of foreign
birth unable to speak English, by years in the United
States-Passaic, N. J___________________________ __ __
77. Country of birth of breadwinning women, by age groupsPassaic, N. J ___________________________________ ___
78. Country of birth of breadwinning women, by industry and
occupation-Passaic, N. J__________________ ______ __
79. Years in the United S1aies of foreign-born breadwinning
women, by industry and occupation- Passaic, N. J _ _ _ _
80. Number and per cent distribution of breadwinning women,
by marital status-Passaic N. J_ _______ _______ ______
81. Country of · birth of breadwinning women, by marital
status-Passaic, N. J_________ ______________________
82. Marital status of breadwinning women, by age groupsPassaic, N. J______________________________ ______ __
83. Breadwinning women working in their own homes or outside their homes, by marital status- Passaic, N. J_ _ _ _ _
84. Marital status of breadwinning women, by industry a nd
occupation-Passaic, N. J ______ _________ ___ _________
85. Breadwinning women who had children or had no children,
by marital status-Passaic, N. J_________ ___________ _
86. Breadwinning women who had children or had no children,
by country of birth- Passai-c, N. J ___________________
87. Number of children of breadwinning mothers, by marital
status of mother-Passaic, N. J_ _______________ __ ___
88. Number of children of breadwinning mothers, by country
of birth-Passaic, N. J_____________________________
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CONTENTS
VlII
TABLES--Continued
V-Continued.
Table 89. Breadwinning mothers having children of specified age
groups at home, in school, or at work, by marital status
of mother-Passaic, N: J --------------------------90. Breadwinning mothers with children of specified age groups
at home, in school, or at work, by country of birthPassaic, N. J______________________________________
91. Breadwinning mothers having children of specified age
groups at home, in school, or at work, by industry or
occupation of mother-Passaic, N. J _ _ _______________
92. Family status and family responsibilities of single women
breadwinners-Passaic, N. J____ ____________________
93. Family status and family responsibilities of married women
breadwinners-Passaic, N. J_ _ _ _ ___ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
94. Family status and family responsibilities of widowed and
divorced women breadwinners-Passaic, N. J _ __ ______
95. Tenure of home by marital status of breadwinning
women-Passaic, N. J_ ___ ___ ____ ______ __ ___________
96. Tenure of home by country of birth of breadwinning
women-Passaic, N. J _______________ .:_ ___ _____ __ ___
PART
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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF LABOR,
WOMEN'S BUREAU,
Washington, April 29, 1924.
Sm: I have the honor to submit to you the report of a detailed
study of material contained in the census schedules on the family
status of breadwinning women in Jacksonville, Fla.; Wilkes-Barre
and Hanover Township, Pa.; Butte, Mont.; and Passaic, N. J.
The Women's Bureau made a study of the family status of breadwinning women in Passaic, N. J., which was published as Bulletin 23 .
Many requests were received by the bureau for a more extensive
study and, while the bureau lacked funds for a study of th~ country
as a whole, it was felt that if data could be secured from different
parts of the country it would be of value. Therefore a city was
chosen from the East, one from the West, and one from the South.
The Women's Bureau has received the generous cooperation of the
Director of the Census in assembling this material.
Respectfully submitted.
MARY ANDERSON, Director.
Hon. JAMES J. DAVIS,
Secretary of Labor.
IX
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FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN IN FOUR
SELECTED CITIES
PART I
INTRODUCTION
The information contained in this bulletin concerning the family
status of nearly 40,000 gainfully employed women in four widely
separated cities is drawn from the population sheets of the United
St ates census for 1920. Corresponding data, of course, concerning
_ the family status of all persons in the Nation are collected in each
decennial year, but in the published volumes of the Bureau of the
Census the family information is not related to specific occupations
or industries. The regular census bulletins reveal how many men
and how many women are married. They show how many men and
how many women are wage earners, and in what industries and
occupations they are employed. They disclose how many children
there are in the United States and how many children of school age
are at school or at work and in what occupations they are engaged.
But the necessary publication of the enormous mass of basic data
about individuals exhausts resources before the individual data can
be shown in family context and before the family data can be related
to specific occupations and industries. Therefore the regular 1 ·
census publications must leave undisclosed inany industrial and
racial relations that are of great economic importance.
In order to liquidate some of these data in the interest of a larger
knowledge concerning the family status of breadwinning women, the
Women's Bureau, through the generous cooperation of the Director
of the Census, assembled the data for the breadwinning women of a
single industrial city in 1921, the resources available at that time not
permitting a more extensive study. Passaic, N. J., was chosen,
because it is the seat of many industrial woman-employing establishments, and because its population was small enough to permit of a
careful inspection of each schedule for the extraction of data concerning all breadwinning women in the community. The results of this
analysis were published in a special 2 bulletin.
1 In 1905 the Bureau of the Census published a special bulletin on "Women at Work" based upon the
1900 enumeration. A similar bulletin for selected cities based on the 1920 census enumeration is in course
of preparation.
2 U. S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, The Family Status of Brcadwinning Women, Bui.
23, 1922.
1
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FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
The information yielded by that study was of such value, _not only
in itself but in the light it threw upon the need for complementary
intensive investigations, that as soon as more funds were available
the study was extended to three other cities. The results of these
studies are discussed in the following pages. For purposes of comparison, and also because the issue of the first special bulletin on
the census data concerning Passaic's women breadwinners is nearing
exhaustion, the statistical sections of that bulletin are revised and
reprinted here. As in the case of the first study, the necessity of
scrutinizing carefully all schedules to secure data for all gainfully
employed women prevented the selection of the other three cities
from places-having very large populations.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to draw from the census data as complete a picture of the family status and family responsibilities of all
gainfully employed women in the cities chosen as· the material would
afford. To achieve this purpose the family responsibilities, so fa,r
as reflected by census data, are related to occupation and industry,
to age, to country of birth, and to marit al and domicile status of the
women breadwinners.
The cities selected.
The cities chosen for study were selected to secure. wide rangie
in regional and local influences. Just as natural locatiq.p.:3,;nd na_tural
resources mark the general direction and character of jndust:r~al
act1vity, so do they exert inevitably an instant and la~t~ng :influenye
upon the breadwinning opportunities for women. These influences
are easily traceable to-day in each of the four cities whose breadwinning women· constitute the subject ·of discussion in this bulletin.
tTacksonville, Fla., was chosen because it is a southern port city which
serves as Florida's eastern gateway through which .comes and goes a
wealth of coastwise and overseas trade. The city's port facilities
make it naturally a wholesale distributing point rather than a manufacturing center, and this circumstance of natural location, as will be
shown later, has a very marked effect upon the employment opportunities for the Jacksonville women who need or desire gainful
employment. Furthermore, the race characteristics of the city's
breadwinning population, common to all southern communities,
afford an opportunity for measuring the influence of this factor in
aggregate figures for occupational and family status groups. Finally,
while its population of 91,000 was not too large to prevent a careful
scrutiny of all schedules to secure the data for every gainfu~ly employed woman, it is the largest population recorded for any city in
Florida.
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iN . FOUR SELECTED CITIES
3
Wilkes-Barre and the adjoining commmiity, Hanover Townshiptogether embracing a population of approximately 85,000-were
chosen because they not only are places ·of diversified industries but
are located in the heart of the hard-coal region of Pennsylvania.
The picture of breadwinning women in these communities can be
drawn against a background of a great industry which dominates
a whole section in the wealth produced, in the taxable values controlled by the anthracite companies, and in the racial strains which
the industry is infusing into the region's breadwinning population
through its attraction of large numbers of foreign-born workers.
The anthracite mining population, that is, the mine workers and
their households, constitutes approximately one-half of the entire
population in the prii1:cipal hard-coal producing counties of Pennsyl-v-ania; this fact shows that among the mine workers there is a normal
proportion of family men. Barring the two large commercial cities
of the region, the anthracite industry employs over 45 per cent of all
the wage earners living in the organized and unorganized communities located in these same· hard-coal counties. More than one-half
of the anthracite mine workers were born .overseas, chiefly in Russia
and Poland. 3 In the I_nine workers' homes, as in the homes of other
wage earners, there are often daughters and other women of the
family gainfully employed. Although there are but 5,000 anthracite
mine workers out of more than 22,000 3 wage earners living within
-the city limits of Wilkes-Barre proper this is not true of the contiguous comm.u nity of Hanover Township whose breadwinning women
·,are included in this study with those of Wilkes-Barre. Hanover
Township, like scores of other communities not contiguous to but
within a short car ride of Wilkes-Barre, is thickly settled with anthracite mine workers' families whose womenfolk together with the
women of mine workers' families within the city limits find gainful
employment in the larger city's diversified industrial and commercial activities.
·
Butte, Mont., is the third city chosen for a study of the family
status of breadwinning women. The natural resources of the region
in which it is located also give dominance to the mining industry,
the operations being concerned, however, with the extraction of copper, silver, and gold. But the city differs sharply from WilkesBarre and Hanover Township in that it has little industrial or commercial activity that is not directly concerned with mining operations, ore shipments, and attendant transportation requirements, or
with the local trade and service activities essential to meet the
daily needs of a city of 40,000 people. In the city's transportation
facilities- six great railroads converge within its boundaries- and
in its restricted manufactures it resembles Jacksonville, _though
1
U.S. Coal Commission. Conditions of Living Among Anthracite Mine Workers.
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FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
it differs from the southern city as a far western interior city differs
from a southern seaboard town. In the relative number of men and
women, its population presents sharp contrasts with that of Jacksonville as it does with the population of the other cities discussed
in this bulletin, for, as might be expected in a far western community,
the total male population outnumbers the total female population,
the males of all ages being about 20 per cent in excess of the females
of . all ages. 4 The number of men 21 years and over exceeds the
number of women in the same age group by over 34 per cent. In
all other cities discussed in this bulletin the total female population
exceeds the total male population, though in two of the cities the
number of men 21 years and over exceeds slightly the number of
women of corresponding ages. 4 A:r;iy marked disparity in the numbers of men and women in a community should, of course, be taken
into consideration in discussing the proportions of women gainfully
employed in a community.
The fourth city whose breadwinning women are discussed in this
bulletin is· Passaic, N. J., the industries of which are conspicuous as
employers of women. . Except for the references to Pass:aic in -t he
general summary, the data presented here concerning the breadwinning women of that city are, as explained in the preface, mainly
reprinted from an earlier bulletin 5 of th Women's Bureau.
Detailed statistical analysis.
The 96 tablBS which summarize the 1920 census data concerning
tho family status of gainfully employed women in the four cities
selected for this study have been so arranged as, first, to reveal the
numbers and occupation.al distribution of the women breadwinners
in each city b.y age group and by country of birth, and then to develop
the detailed picture of family status and family responsibilities as
related to each of these subjects. The per cents showing the signifi_cance of figures in specified relations in each table speak for themselves
and need not be repeated in text form except as their bearing on other
figures is important. Unfortunately, however, the number of r~lations which can be shown by per cents in a single table is sharply
limited, and frequently other relations between figures in a table
are equally important. To make new tables in order to work out all
the relations would result in an unwieldy mas.s of statistics and in a
confusion of captions. The text analyses, therefore, are concerned
largely with comment on important relations between figures in
addition to relations shown by the per cents worked out in the tables.
In other words, the per cents used in the detailed text discµssion are
' U. S. Bureau of the Census.
5
Fourteenth Census. 1920.. V. 3, pp. 195, 584, 646, and 867.
U . S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, The Family Status of Bread winning Women, Bul.. 23,
1922.
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5
IN FOUR SELECTED 9ITIES
not, for the most part, those which are worked out in the tables and
which tell their own story, but are the per cents derived from putting
the figures shown in the tables in other important relations or combinations.
Useful for comparative purposes and as giving a bird's-eye view
of the number of women included in the study is the following table:
TAB LE
1.-Proportion which women breadwinners formed of the total female
population 14 years of age and over, by lowlity
City
TotaL ____ ________________ ____ ________ ____________ __ _• _______ _
Jacksonville, Fla _____________ ________________ _________ ____ __ ______ _
Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa _________________________ _
Butte,
__ ____________________________________________________
___ ___ _------------------------------ - _______________
Passaic,lVIont
N . J ___
P er cent
which
Number or women
Total
breadwomen
number of
winners
breadwomen
formed of
winners
14 years
total
14 years
of age
female
of age
and over
population
and over
14 years
of age
and over
100,084
38,446
38. 4
35,269
29, 408
14,144
21,263
15,726
8,789
4, 162
9,769
44. 6
29. !)
29. 4
45. 9
Women induded as "breadwinners."
Before going further with the analysis of census data concerning
the status of the nearly 40,000 bread.winning women living in the
four cities just discussed there should be a clear understanding of
the term "breadwinner" as used in this bulletin. Without such
understanding confusion will arise in making comparisons with
figures in the regular publications of the Bureau of the Census.
The purpose of the Census of Occupations as made by the Bureau of
the Census is to list the principal, gainful occupations of all the breadwinners in the country. Supplemental occupations, therefore, are not
recorded. In compliance with this policy women who are reported
as taking boarders or lodgers into the home are not listed among the
gainfully employed unless such occupation is the principal source of
income. 6 If a woman is concerned chiefly jn running her home, into
which she takes boarders or lodgers to supplement the family income,
the principal source of income originating elsewhere, she is not listed
by the Bureau of the Census as gainfully employed even though the
boarders may materially increase the labor involved in running her
home. In this study, however, such a woman is included among the
6 " Instructions to Enumerators," Jan. 1, 1920, p. 34, United States Bureau of the Census: "Keeping
boarders or lodgers should be t ermed as an occupation if the person engaged in it relies u pon it as his (or her)
principal means of support or principal source of income. • • • If, however, a family keeps a few
boarders or roomers merely as a means of supplementing or eking out the earnings or income obtained from
other occupations or from other sources no one in the family should be termed as a boarding- or lodginghouse keeper."
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6
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
gainfully employed, first, because the purpose of the study is to analyze
the family status of all women regularly performing labor for moneywhether such labor is main or supplemental to an unpaid occupation;
second, because the business of running a home and caring for a family
is in itself 7 recognized as responsible full-time service to the community and the Nation. The need for performing the additional labor
involved in caring for outsiders should be illumined as much as possible by available data concerning the economic plane upon which
women doing such dual service are living. A third reason why these
women should be included was disclosed after the study was made.
This reason is set forth by figures incorporated in the report which
show that in two of the three cities for which the information was
tabulated there was no substantial difference between the average
number of boarders and lodgers taken by women who engaged in the
work as a main source of income and by those who took in boarders
and lodgers as a means of supplementing the family earnings. In
the third city, the women ~ho were listed under the occupational
classification of boardiqg- or lodging-house keepers took nearly
double the average number of boarders or lodgers taken by the other
women who took outsiders into the home as a supplemental means of
income, but these women taking boarders to supplement the family
earnings took a markedly higher average number than did the
women in Jacksonville or Wilkes-Barre who were engaging in the
business as a main source _of income. 8 Accordingly, in this study
were included under the term "breadwinner" all women who worked
in or outside the home for gain regardless of whether their occupations
would be classed by the Bureau of the Census as a main or supplemental source of income.
The following table is of interest, since it throws light in a general
way on the methods of earning money used by the women in the four ·
cities:
1 The Bureau of the Census has recently issued a special Bulletin on "The Woman Home-maker in tho
City" which carefully analyses the labor involved in running a home.
a See statements on pp. 24, 52, and 84.
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TABLE
2.-Number and per cent of women breadwinners working in their own
homes or outside their homes, by locality
Wilkes-B arre
Jacksonville, and H anover Butte, Mont. Passaic, N. J.
Township,
Fla.
Pa.
Total
Women breadw inners
NumNumNumNumN um·ber of P er ber of Per ber of P er ber of Per ber of Per
women cent women cent women cent women cent women cent
-- - - --- - -- - - --- -- Total. ___ _______________ 38, 446 1c..__ I 15, 726 100. 0
9, 769 100. 0
4,162 100. 0
8,789 100. 0
Women working in own homes. 11, 985
31.2
7,000
44. 5
1,948
22. 2
1,138
27. 3
1, 899
19. 4
Women workin g outside own
homes ____ .... --- ---- --- - . -- - 1 26,418
68. 7
8,692
55. 3
1 6, 841
77. 8
3, 024
72. 7
7,861
80. 5
In factories, stores, or
offices . . . __ . -- ____ ______ . 20,045
In others' homes __ .. ____ .. 6,371
52.1
16. 6
4,922
3,770
31. 3
24.0
5,385
1,454
61. 3
16. 5
2,390
634
57. 4
15. 2
7,348
513
75. 2
5. 3
.1
34
.2
9
.1
Women with place of work
not reported _____ __________ _
1
43
-------- ------ -------- ------
Includes two women whose place of work outside own homes was not reported.
STATISTICAL SUMMARY .
From the data concerning the women breadwinners of Jacksonville,
Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Butte, and Passaic, derived
f.rom the 1920 census schedules and presented in the 96 tables of this
report, the most striking facts may b~ outlined as follows:
Numbers of breadwinning women.
1. The number of gainfully employed women in the four cities,
38,446, constituted over 38 per cent of the entire female population
14 years of age and over reported in these communities. The proportion of women breadwinners in the several cities varied from
slightly less than 30 per cent in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township and Butte, each, to approximately 45 per cent and 46 per cent
in Jacksonville· and Passaic, respectively. The first two cities having
practically the same proportion of adult women in the breadwinning
group are, as stated earlier in this discussion, differently circumstanced
in regard to local industries, Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township
possessing important woman-employing mills and factories, whereas
Butte's industrial activity is confined to or closely connected with
the extraction and shipment of copper, silver, and gold ores, none of
which occupations affords employment opportunities to women ex. cept in minor office positions. In Jacksonville and Passaic, where the
breadwinning women constituted in each case almost one-half of the
entire woman population 14 years of age and over, there is the same
contrast in local industrial activities. Jacksonville has practically
no woman-employing manufacturers of consequence, whereas Passaic
, is a center of industries that are traditional employers of women.
2511°-25t-2
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FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
Country of birth..
1. The question of race and nationality 9 apparently has some
bearing upon the problems of gainfully employed women. Jacksonville and Passaic, which, as has been pointed out, had th~ largest
percentages of breadwinning women, differed considerably from the
other two communities in regard to the race and nativity of the
women workers. In J acksonville almost two-thirds of the women
breadwinners were negroes, and in P assaic approximately three-fifths
were foreign-born whites. Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township and
Butte, on the other hand, showed a preponderance of -native-born
white women among those classed as breadwinners,. the former city
having over four-fifths of sueh native whites and the latter about
seven-tenths. The proportions of negro women gainfully employed
in Passaic, Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, and .Butte were
negligible, whereas the percentage of foreign-born workers in Jacksonville was insignificant.
2. Of the foreign-born women breadwinners, seven-tenths in
Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, somewhat less than threefifths in Butte, 10 and at least nine-tenths in Passaic,1° were born in
non-English-sp eaking countries. Moreover, in Wilkes-Barre and
Hanover Township, 27 per cent of such immigrants who had b een
in the United States for 10 years or more, and about 38 per cent of
those in Passaic with a similar •record for residence in this country
who reported on their ability to speak English, were still unable to
speak the language of their adopted country. Passaic showed a
strikingly large prop ortion of Polish women among its foreign-born
breadwinning women, that is, 44 per cent of the- total number who
had come from foreign countries.
·
Age.
1. The majority of the breadwinning women in the four cities
were mature wom~n, since over three-fifths of the total number
were 25 years old or over. A consideration of the younger workers,
those under 25 years, shows the proportions of women in this age ·
group to vary for the several places from slightly less than 29 per
cent in Jacksonville and 33 per cent in Butte to approximately 45
per cent in Passaic and Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, each. ·
2. A correlation of age and country of birth shows the smallest
proportions of young native-born women breadwinners, or thos.e
under 25 years, to have been found in Jacksonville and Butte (28.8
9 It should be borne in mind when nationality is discussed that for the purposes of this report all persons
born in the United States, regardless of the nationality of their parents, were considered Americans, in
accordance with the fourteent h amendment to the Federal Constitution.
10 It is impossible to ascertain from the Butte and Passaic tables the exact proportions of women coming
from non-English-speaking countries.
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IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
9
per cent and 42.2 per cent, respectively) and the largest proportions
in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township and Passaic (52.2 per cent
and 61.6 per cent respectively).
Marital status.
1. The breadwinning matrons, that is, the women who were or
had been married, constituted approximately 55 per cent of all the
women included. Jacksonville, as a normal consequence of the
largest proportion of older women, shows the greatest preponderance
of matrons working for gain, or not far from three-fourths of all the
breadwinning women. Even so, in this conjugal classification were
found also about one-half of the women breadwinners in both Butte
and Passaic. It is not surprising that Wilkes-Barre and Hanover
Township, for which was reported the largest percentage of girls
under 20, should reveal the smallest proportion of women who were
or had been married (31 per cent). The excess of negro women in
Jacksonville was partly but not entirely responsible for the large
number of breadwinning matrons reported there. When the nativeborn white women alone are considered, Jacksonville is still notably
in advance of the other cities in the proportion of matrons, showing
55 per cent as compared with 39 per cent in Butte, 22 per cent in
Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, and 20 per cent in Passaic.
2. Among the foreign-born women breadwinners, the proportion
who were or had been married is within close approximation of 70
per cent in each of the four cities, although the percentages of foreignborn women under 25 years of age in the several communities range
from about 10 per cent for Butte to 33 per cent for Passaic. Scrutiny
of the tables on marital status and race shows the largest proportions
of gainfully employed matrons to have prevailed among the women
from Italy and the Slavic countries.
3. Over 61 per cent of the more than 21,000 women breadwinners
who were or had been married were living with wage-earning husbands, the proportions ranging from 48 per cent in Butte to 76 per
cent in Passaic, the figures for Jacksonville and Wilkes-Barre and
Hanover Township (59 per cent and 57 per cent, respectively) falling
between the two extremes and resembling each other closely.
4. The difference between the proportions of the foreign-born and
native-born women breadwinners with wage-earning hm;-bands was
slight in Jacksonville, where the number of foreign born was inconsequential and in Butte, where the English-speaking races greatly
exceed all others. In Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township and Passaic; however, where the foreign born, and especially those of recent
immigration, h ad a material influence on all figures, there was a very
striking difference b etween the nati ;e born and foreign born in regard
to married women breadwinners with wage-earning husbands, the
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FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
proportion of matrons with such marital and economic status being
much greater among the women born in other countries than among
those born in the United States. In Wilkes-Barre 47 per cent of the
native-born breadwinning women who were or had been married
and in Passaic 64 per cent h ad wage-earning husbands, as compared
with approximately 65 per cent of the foreign-born breadwinning
matrons in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township and 77 per cent in
Passaic whose husb ands were wage earners.
~readwinning mothers.
1. It was not chiefly the childless women from whom the married
breadwinners were recruited, for nearly 53 per cent of all the gainfully employed matrons had children, and 40 per cent of these mothers
had babies under 5 years of age. Of the four cities, Passaic takes
the lead in the proportion of breadwinning mothers, with over twothirds of its gainfully employed women falling into this category.
Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township shows a little less than twothirds, Butte a little more than one-half, and Jacksonville more than
two-fifths of the women working for gain as having the additional
responsibility of motherhood. Passaic also heads the list in regard
to the proportion of mothers with children under 5, that is, approximately three-fifths of the mothers. This city far surpasses in this
respect not only Jacksonville and Butte, in each of which only approximately 30 per cent of the mothers had such young ·children, but
also Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township where 43 per cent of the
breadwinning mothers were so circumstanced.
2. Over two-thirds of aU the breadwinning mothers i1f the study
had wage-earning husbands. Passaic had much the largest proportion of mothers so situated, that is, almost four-fifths. Jacksonville
and Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township each with over 63 per cent
of the mothers having wage-earning husbands followed, with Butte,
where 55 per cent of the mothers were in this class, coming last.
Breadwinning homemakers.
1. Nor were women who assumed the burden of wage earning so
engaged because they were boarding and thus relieved of the responsibility of homemaking, since almost four-fifths of the women breadwinners who were or had been married were maintaining homes.
The resemblance of the proportions for the several cities in this respect
is very striking, Jacksonville and Butte revealing about 77 per cent,
f>r a little less than fo1tr-fifths, and the other two cities showing a
little over four-fifths of the gainfully employed matrons as enacting
the double role of breadwinners and homemakers.
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11
Women as breadwinners outside the home.
1. The women gainfully employed outside the home constituted
over two-thirds of the entire number of women breadwinners in the
four cities. Passaic takes the lead with four-fifths of its gainfully
employed women so occupied, closely followed by Wilkes-Barre and
Hanover Township with about 78 per cent, and Butte with
approximately 73 per cent. Jacksonville drops considerably below
the other three cities, showing only 55 per cent of its breadwinning
women working outside their own homes. ·
2. Analysis of occupational distribution of these women employed
at gainful occupations outside the home reveals that 31 per cent of
the Jacksonville breadwinning women (chiefly white women), a little
over 57 per cent of the women breadwinners in Butte, three-fifths of
those in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, and three-fourths in
Passaic were at work in stores, factories, or offices; and that 5 per cent
of the gainfully employed women of Passaic, 15 per cent of those in
Butte, approximately 17 per cent in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover
Township, and 24 per cent in Jacksonville were working in the homes
of others. In the last-mentioned place, negroes predominated among
the.- women employed in others' homes and are responsible for the
larger proportion found in such work in this cit_y as compared with
the corresponding proportions in the other three.
3. Almost one-half of the breadwinning women included in the
study who were or had been married were engaged in gainful occupations which took them outside their own homes. Wilkes-Barre
.a nd Hanoyer Township shows the smallest proportion in this group,
37 per cent, and Passaic the largest, 62 per cent, Jacksonville and
Butte occupying a middle ground, with 43 per cent and 48 per cent,
respectively.
4. Not far from two-fifths of the mothers were engaged in gainful
employment outside the home. In regard to this point the cities
rank as follows: Passaic, 54 per cent; Butte, 37 per cent; Jacksonville, 32 per cent; Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, 29 per cent.
Of the mothers· with children under 5 years of age, 37 per cent
were working outside the home for gain, the proportions varying
from 27 per cent in Jacksonville to 48 per cent in Passaic, with
Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township and Butte each showing about
30 per cent.
Women as breadwinners within the home.
1. The women who performed gainful occupations in their own
homes constituted 31 per cent -of all the breadwinning wo..nen included in the study. The great majority of such women in WilkesBarre and Hanover Township · and Passaic were engaged in the
business of taking boarders or lodgers. In Jacksonville, however,
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FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
although this means of earning money was the most frequent among
the white women working for gain within the home, the_chief occupation of the negro women reported as breadwinners in their own
homes was that of "taking in washing."
2. A little over one-half of the gainfully employed matrons in the
four cities combined, but varying in proportion from city to city,
were rendering within their own homes service to the community
for monetary gain. Nearly 63 per cent of these were keeping boarders
or lodgers, the other 37 p'er cent were "taking in washing" or performing other manual or mental labor for renumeration. The
proportions vary widely, however, between Jacksonville, where only
a little more than two-fifths 11 of the matrons engaged in breadwinning
activities within the home were taking boarders and lodgers, and
the other three cities, each of which shows a corresponding proportion
of over nine-tenths. In three cities,1 2 5,228 women breadwinners
took approximately 13,000 boarders and lodgers, thus rendering
home service to 13,0G0 people not members of the women homemakers' families. As explained in the paragraphs describing the
scope of this study, women taking boarders or lodgers to supplement
the family income, as well as those making the busin,ess a principal
means of support, are included in the figures.
Of the women who took in boarders or lodgers, over one-fourth
in Jacksonville, about one-fifth in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, and over one-third in Butte reported this business as the main
source of income for the family; the remainder of the women in each
of.these three cities earning money in this way did so as a secondary
occupation.
As stated in the descriptive paragraphs the differences in the
actual average number of boarders and lodgers taken by the two
groups in Jacksonville and Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township
are immaterial. While the women in Butte who took boarders and
lodgers as a main source of income served an average of 5. 7 persons
not belonging to the family as compared with an average of 3.1 served
by women taking boarders or lodgers as a supplemental source of
revenue, this 3.1 is an average of approximately one more stranger
in the family than was taken by women in the other two cities who
made boarding- and lodging-house keeping a chief occupation.
Economic responsibilities.
1. Of the 31,482 breadwinning women in the four cities who reported on the number of wage earners in the family, 27 per cent were
in families having no men wage earners and 21 per cent were classed
11 Scrutiny of Jacksonville tables on occupational distribution by marital status will reveal the fact
that-the large number of negro women who were or bad been married and who took in washing account
for the difference in the percentage of boarding- or lodging-housekeepers in Jacksonville and the other three
cities.
11 Information as to number of boarders and lodgers taken by women engaging in the business was not
tabulated for the Passaic report .
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IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
13
as the sole breadwinner in the f ami1y. Butte shows the largest proportion of women breadwinners living in families lacking male· WB,ge
earners (about 37 per cent) and Passaic the smallest proportion (approximately 15 per cent). In thi~ latter city was found also the smallest percentage of women as sole breadwinners (9 per cent). J a ksonville, on the other hand, takes the lead in this respect, with threetenths of its b:readwinning women so classified.
2. The women with broken marital ties reporting on the number
of wage earners in the family, showed over four-fifths of their number
as breadwinners in families devoid of men wage earners, and not far
from three-fourths of these women' were classed as sole breadwinner"
in the family. Only 15 per cent of the single women living under the
parental roof and a little over one-tenth of the married women were
in families having no male wage earners, and a little less than 5 per
cent of the single women living under the parental roof and approxim ately one-tenth of the married women were reported as the sole
breadwinners in the -family circle.
Living condition of single breadwinners.
Of the single breadwinning women, approximately three-fifths
were living under the parental roof. The remainder were living
"adrift," that is, they were maintaining their own homes, boarding' or
lodging, or living with relatives or employers, or in institutions.
CONCLUSION
SOME SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS CONCERNING BREADWINNING WOMEN
The foregoing summary stands as a skeleton of the most striking
problems related to the employment of women in gainful capacity.
In the statistical section of this report will be found 96 tables, which,
with the accompanying text analysis, present a detailed and arresting
picture of the nearly 40,000 breadwinning women living in the four
cities discussed in the foregoing paragraphs.
All the lights and shades, all the varying results o~ related and interlocking figures to be found in the picture can be revealed only by a
careful study of the tables in the orderly arrangement essential to
logical statistical development. The facts in the summary, however,
disclosed by a consideration of the tables taken together, not only
are of palpable significance in themselves but call urgently for further
inquiry,1 3 to explain their existence or to afford contextthatwillilluminate more fully their social and industrial significance.
13 The value of the extensive census data as background for intensive· studies was pointed out in the
Women's Bureau publication "The Family Status of Breadwinning Women," Bul. 23, p. 3: "Hundreds
of thousands of dollars are spent by public and private agencies to get this same information (census data)
as a basis for much needed intensive studies, such studies being confined necessarily to selected groups in
selected localities. Assembling the basic facts already collected by the Bureau of the Census for the entire
body of bread winning women will release large sums for more intensive work."
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14
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
The four cities analyzed in this report from the standpoint of
breadwinning women may be taken as more or less representative of
the country as a whole in the matter of the family status of the over
eight and a half million breadwinn~g women in ~he United States.
The existence in each of the four cities studied of so many of the same
problems connected with breadwinning women would seem to indicate
their prevalence in practically every average civic community in the
country. Additional evidence of the universality of these problems
is that the proportion of women who were gainfully employed did
not rise or fall in any discernible relation to the presence or absence
. of so-called woman-employing industries. Many women in every
city or town must earn a living not only for themselves but frequently
for dependents, and if they lack opportunities in certain directions,
they must enter any avenues of gainful employment available.
The facts revealed in this report challenge the attention of all
persons interested in the question of family support and care of
children and concerned about the strength and welfare of the Nation.
Since almost two-fifths of all the women who were 14 years of age and
over in the four communities were breadwinners the imp.orta;nce of
analyzing the relations of this class of women to the family aQd to the
community is apparent. These breadwinning women , can not
regarded as isolated indi ,riduals; they are closely linked 1,1p by their
life and work with a large proportion of the rest of the population ip
any community of which they form a part.
.
Such factors as age, race, conjugal condition are influep.ti.al in circumstancing the lot of breadwinning women and must of necessity
be gone into in any careful analysis of the subject.
The question of race appears to be closely related to · the matter of
the proportion of women found as breadwinners in a community. As
Rxemplified by the four cities, a preponderance of negro or of foreignborn women in a locality means a larger proportion of women breadwinners than in cities where native-born white women predominate.
Jacksonville, with negroes forming a large majority of the breadwinning women, and Passaic, with the proportion of foreign-born w.omen
gainfully employed surpassing the corresponding figure for native
w~men, show strikingly higher percentages of the female adult population found in the breadwinning class than do Butte and WilkesBarre and Hanover Township, where native white women constituted
the bulk of the gainfully employed women. It is a well-known fact
that most negro women must continue as breadwinners practically all
their lives, marriage rarely meaning a withdrawal from the wageearning ranks . Also the breadwinning responsibilities of women
born in other countries and coming as immigrants to this country are
apt to be heavy, .since economic stress is, as a rule, the cause of
departure from · the mother country and economic .opportunity the
oe '
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IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
15
reason for immigration to this one. , Even though there be male wage
earners in a family group of this sort they may be so handicapped by
their transplanting as to be unable to procure an income sufficient for
the establishment of a home and the maintenance of their family in
the adopted land; hence financial assistance from the women of the
household is probably needed.
The problems of foreign-born breadwinning women are naturally
intensified if Americanization is unduly retarded. That this situation exists in a sufficient number of cases to merit serious consideration is proved by the fact that 27 per cent of the breadwinning women
in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, born in non-Englishspeaking countries, who had been in the United States for 10 or more
years, and that about 38 per cent of such women in Passaic were
unable to speak English. These women would be handicapped in a
number of wa.ys, but especially in regard to breadwinning oppor-.
tunities outside the home.
In a consideration of the age of breadwinning women it is important
to point out that the public is too prone to accept the theory that
women for the most part are transients in the wage-earning ranks;
that most of those engaged in gainful oc·c upations are young, unmarried women who will be withdrawn from this field as soon as they enter
upon matrimony and shoulder the respoI_lsibilities of- home making
and motherhood. Such a theory, however, is undermined by facts
and statistics. For example, of the women included in this study
over three-fifths were 25 -years of age and over.
The types of occupation which the more mature women perform
are apt to differ to some extent from those of the young girls. The
older wcmen tend to engage in domestic and personal service and in
gainful employment within the home more extensively than do the
younger ones. In f3:ct the statistics of the present study show that
the proportion of native-born gainfully employed women under 25
varied widely with the fluctuations in opportunities for employment
in avenues of industry other than home occupations or domestic and
personal service. · The smallest proportions of young native-born
women breadwinners were found in Jacksonville and Butte, and the
largest proportions in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township and
Passaic. Where were the younger women in the first two cities in
which the principal opportunities for woman labor were in domestic
and personal service~ Had the commonly known aversion to domestic service resulted in keeping the younger women at home while the
older ones engaged in needful breadwinning1 Or had the aversion to
household and personal service, the advertised commercial and
industrial opportunities in other cities, and the urge toward gainful
employment sent the younger women breadwinners out of the home
and out of the ·home 'town, thus causing an earlier disintegration of
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16
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
family life among wage earners in these cities than occurred in those
localities from whose industries and commercial activities women
were not barred either by physical inadaptation, by lack of training
or opportunity, or by social prejudice~ These questions, of course, the
. census does not and can not answer. They can be answered only by
intensive studies with the census data as a background.
As conclusive evidence that marriage does not mean necessarily a
termination of the breadwinning activities of women stands the large
proportion of the women, more than one-half of those included in
the study, who were or had been married. It was not the women with
broken marital ties who constituted the majority of the gainfully
employed matrons, since approximately three-fifths of the breadwinning matrons were living with wage-earning husbands.
The greater tendency of foreign-born women who are part of a
family circle to become wage earners-a practice ah·eady ref erred to
-is illustrated by the figures from the four cities. The fact that
about seven-tenths of the foreign-born breadwinning women in each
city were or ha~ been married serves as a convincing proof of the
necessity for such women to aid financially in the maintenance of
the family. Moreover, in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township and
Passaic, where there was a strong admixture in the population of
persons born in non-English-speaking countries, the proportion::s of
breadwinning women so born who had wage-earning husbands were
considerably greater than the corresponding proportions among the
native women gainfully employed.
·'
Some obvious questions are raised at this point. In what industries
and occupations are the husbands of women breadwinners employed 1
What do authentic published records show concerning the wage scales
and earnings that prevail in the occupations and industries engaging
the energies of men whose wives are gainfully employed~ What do
these records show as to seasonal limitations of such occupations
and industries~ In what country were the husbands of these breadwinning matrons born and how long have these husbands been in the
United States~ How old are the husbands~ These and kindred
inquiries must be answered before it can be known in what measure
the gainful employment of wives who have wage-earning husbands is
due to economic, racial, or industrial causes.
,
Whatever may be the causes of the situation, certain results are
easily traced. Since so many breadwinning matrons have home and
family responsibilities in addition to their economic burden of earning
a livelihood, or of contributing to the family income, they are forced
to carry a double burden. As an illustration of the tendency among
breadwinning matrons to perform two jobs- one domestic, the other
economic-stand the figures from the four cities. Almost four-fifths
of all the gainfully employed women who were or had been married
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IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
17
were maintaining a home,- and over nine-tenths of those with wageearning husbands were caring for a household in addition to the
performance of breadwinning occupations.
The energies of women so circumstanced are being unduly drawn
upon. The home and family life in such cases is being menaced,
from the point of view of both health and happiness. The complexities
of the situation are increased, and the possibilities of disastrous effects magnified by the presence of children in the family of breadwinning matrons. The statistics from the four cities studied justify perturbation on this score. Over one-half of all the bread winning
matrons had children, and two-fifths of the mothers had babies under
5 years of age. Women with broken marital ties did not, as might be
expected, constitute the bulk of breadwinning mothers. On the
contrary, over · two-thirds- of the mothers were living with wageearning husbands. There is something radically wrong with the
economic situation in the country when so :many mothers with a
husband living in the family circle, presumably as chief supporter,
are undoubtedly forced to engage in gainful labor. Almost one-half
of the women gainfully employed who were or had been married
were working outside the home. Not far from two-fifths of the
mothers were so engaged, and of the mothers with children under 5,
37 per cent were working for gain outside the home. As has been
pointed out in the summary, the corresponding proportions of women
in these just mentioned circumstances vary for the several cities.
In whatever measure. the variations were due to the combined influences of race, status of conjugal ties, and industrial opportunities,
the aggregate, the maximum and minimum percentages alike press
the question as to the care of home and family in the absence of the
gainfully employed mothers.
The disclosure of the large proportion of breadwinning mothers in
Passaic who went out to work leaving young children at home led to
a field survey to determine what provision was made for the children's
care in the mother's absence and what assistance the mothers had
in the performance of household duties. These results are incorporated in the sections of the Passaic! report that have been reprinted
in this bulletin for purposes of comparison. In general the findings
prove that the care of young children left in the home was frequently inadequate and casual; that scarcely more than one-fifth of
the breadwinning mothers of young children had any help in the
performance of household duties; that the number having hired
assistance even for washing and ironing regularly or irregularly was
negligible; that the help came chiefly from the older children, relatives, or lodgers; and that over one-fifth of the mothers worked at
night, caring for the children in the intervals between indispensable
rest taken during the day. No surveys as yet have been made of
the similar conditions in the other cities; the actual numbers of
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
18
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
mothers of children under 5 do not stimulate inquiry in these cities
with the force ·exerted by the actual and relative numbers involved
in Passaic. Nevertheless, the numbers are too large to render the
percentages insignificant, and provisions for the care of these babies
would be necessarily an important phase of any more general investigation suggested by the census data into provisions for home and
family care-supposedly a married woman's principal though unpaid
occupation-when gainful employment takes her out of the home.
· The difficulties arising from the breadwinning activities of wives
and mothers are not all confined to the women gainfully employed
outside the home. There are certain probable complications for the
women working for gain within the home. The latter, unlike those
who go out to work, can serve their own families wh}le making the
home a means of breadwinning. But like those who go out to work,
they are the responsible custodians of the welfare of home and family
life-a woman-sized job in itself, as previously pointed out. Furthermore, the home is the accepted place of retreat for all members of the
family-for the children from school, play, or work; for adults from
the stress and strain of the daily struggle for a livelihood·, , Any
diversion of the functi9n of a home to breadwinning purposes
impinges upon its efficiency as a place of relaxation and of nurture of
family life. In the light of the large number of women charged with
the care of families and also rendering home service to others not
belonging to the family, these facts of common knowledge accentuate
the need for further information.
In addition to the -i nformation needed about the race, age, and
industrial status of the husbands of all breadwinning matrons the
circumstances call urgently for data on such subjects as these:
In how many cases of men engaged in each of the country's principal industries is the situation revealed where the wife is taking outsiders into the home "to supplement the family income "? How
large, in such instances, are the families and how many are · the
boarders or lodgers? How many children are there, and of what
ages, in homes thus diverted in part to the business of breadwinning?
How many of the women thus doing double duty have paid or
unpaid help in the performance of household tasks or in the care of
children? With the home serving a· double purpose of breadwinning
"plant" and family refuge, is the w·o man homemaker and supplemental breadwinner in possess10n of facilities for reducing household
labor and thus offsetting in soine measure the added labor involved
in caring for outsiders? .
Finally, these queries raise forcibly a more comprehensive question,
namely, just how environed in the matter of home equipment, house.hold assistance, and economic organi-zation of the family are the
homemaking wives of the men in the Nation's chief industries? To
what factors other than industrial status are the ·conditions related?
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IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
19
The business of running a home is fast winning, if it has not already
won, recognition as the Nation's most important industry. The
Nation takes stock periodically of the facilities available and the
labor required for the conduct of its principal industries. But stock
has not b een taken except in one instance 14 of the facilities available
to, and the labor required of, the great body of h omemakers of the
men doing the work in the Nation's basic industries. Yet floods
of light will be thrown on this and on related subjects now clouded
in uninformed controversies when the wealth of family data collected
periodically by the Bureau of the Census can be related to specific
industries and occupation.
It is obvious that many of the problems connected with breadwinning wives and mothers would be dissipated if the husbands and
fathers were to receive a wage adequate for the family needs. Un.:.
doubtedly such an economic reorganization would mean the withdrawal of a considerable proportion of homemakers from the ranks of
breadwinners. Even so, there would still remain a large number of
women with homemaking responsibilities engaged in wage-earning
activities, since in many instances a woman is the sole breadwinner
in a ·family or shares with other female members the responsibility
of ,supporting dependents in the family. In fact, over one-fourth
of the breadwinning women in the four cities who reported on the
subject were in families having no men wage earners, and a littl!3 over
one-fifth of th.is group of women were classified as sole breadwinners.
As would be expected, the great majority of women who were
widowed, divorced, or separated from their husbands were receiving
no' masculine assistance in the support of the family. To be sure,
satisfactory mothers' pension laws would do much toward lightening
the economic stress of such women. However, it is apparent from
facts and figures that the proportions of single women and of married
women with husbands incapacitated for breadwinning who are compelled to earn a livelihood not only for themselves but for dependents
are sufficiently large to challenge attention. In many cases, the
burdens of such women would be lessened if there were more general
recognition of the fact that women frequently are the sole support of
families and have as great a need as do men of a wage rate sufficient to cover the cost of living for dependents.
.
As stated at the outset, there is no intention in the foregoing
paragraphs of setting forth all the important facts disclosed concerning breadwinning women in each of the four cities. Indeed, but .
a small proportion of the impressive disclosures forms the subject of
this discussion, which is confined to such facts as show definite need
for reform or as call urgently for further information in regard to
cause and effect.
·
14 The United States Coal Commission assembled from the census records family data for all anthracite
mine workers and for nearly ·90 per cent of the bituminous mine workers. Much of the family data for
bituminous mine workers could not ~e published for lack of resources.
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20
FAMILY STATUS 0-F BREADWINNING WOMEN
Outline of salient truths ·of broad social significance revealed by the
study.
1. Because of present economic organization of society ma.ny
women are forced by stress of circumstances to b ecome
breadwinners.
2. A larger proportion of foreign-born and negro women than of
native-born are driven into breadwinning activities by
,
economic stress.
3. M aniage does not necessarily spell a release for women from
breadwinning activities, but frequently means greater economic responsibilities.
4. Many women are compelled to enact the double role of breadwinner and homemaker.
5. The coupling of economic responsiblities and domestic duties
for women tends to menace the health of women and the
happiness of the home.
6. Single women breadwinners as well as married ones· often must
carry heavy domestic and financial responsibilities for the
family.
7. The need for mothers to engage in breadwinning activities outside the home frequently means inadequate and casual care
of children.
·8. T.h.e performance by mothers of breadwinning activities within
the home tends to upset the normal relations, since any
diversion of a home to such purposes impinges upon its effici ency as a place of relaxation and of nurture of family life.
9. The failure of men to secure a living wage for the family necessitates the entrance of wives and mothers into breadwinning
activities outside or within the home.
10. Better wages for men would frequently mean withdrawal of a
large group of wives and mothers from breadwinning
activities.
11. Better and mo:re extensive mothers' pension laws would mean
the withdrawal of many more mothers from breadwinning
activities.
12. Women compelled by unavoidable circumstances to support
dependent should receive a wage sufficfont to cover the cost
·.
of living of such dependents.
13. The foregoing statements are applicable to practically every
average civic community in the country.
14. The disastrous effects resulting from neglect of the urgent
problems related to breadwinning women undermine each
community where harmful conditions are allowed to exist
and in the final analysis weaken the strength and prosperity of the Nation.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PART II
DETAILED STUDY OF FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING
WOMEN IN JACKSONVILLE, FLA.
As stated previously, J acksonville's principal activities are those
of a port city. The re in and phosphate rock, the lumber and tobacco,
the grains and fruits drawn from the State's interior pass in large
volume through Jacksonville into coastwise and overseas trade. It
is primarily a commercial rather than a manufacturing centei:.
However, that the dominance of shipping and general port activities
and the restriction in diversity of woman-etnploying occupations
have not reduced the proportion of breadwinning women in the city
of Jacksonville is made clear by the following statement derived from
Table 1 in the introduction, which reveals nearly 45 per cent of the
woman population as gainfully employed:
Total number of women 14 years of age and over ____________________ 35, 269
Number of women breadwinners 14 years of age and over _____________ 15,726 .
Per cent which women breadwinners formed of total female population 14
years of age and over_ ________________ -----~------______________
44. 6
.
Apparently restricted opportunity for employment in one or more
fields of woman labor does not remove the need to work.
Occupational distribution.
A perfectly logical consequence of the fact that Jacksonville is
primarily a city of port activities and of the further fact that nearly
one-half the adult women of the city were gain.fully employed is
shown by the accompanying statement made up from Table 2 in
the introduction:
Women breadwinners
Women working in own homes____ ____ ____________________
Women working outside own homes __ ______________________
In factories, stores, or offices __________ __ __ ______ 4, 922
In others' homes ______________________________ 3,770
Women with place of work not reported_____________________
Number
Per cent
7,000
8,692
44. 5
55. 3
34
0. 2
TotaL ___________________________________________ 15,726
100. 0
Approximately 70 per cent of the women breadwinners were earning money by labor performed in their own homes or in the homes of
others. It is interesting to note that 44.5 per cent were not going
21
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
22
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
outside their own horn.es to make or to supplement the family income.
This is in striking contrast to the situation among the breadwinning
women in Passaic, N. J., the first study of this sort made by the
Women's Bureau, where nearly 46 per cent of the adult women
were designated as breadwinners, but where less than a fifth of them
were gainfully employed in their own h omes, 75 per cent being at
work in factories, stores, or offices. In Jacksonville less than a
third .of the gainfully employed women were·occupied in such establishments.
Just how small a factor manufactures were in the employment of
women in Jacksonville is brought into stronger light by Table 3,
which shows that in all the factories taken together there were but
266 worn.en wage earners, or less than 2 per cent of the total number
of gainfully employed women in the city. In Passaic 52.4 per cent
of the breadwinning women were employed in manufacturing trades.
The group engaged in clerical occupations in Jacksonville constituted slightly more than 10 per cent of all the breadwinning women.
This percentage in which the influences of the port city requirements
for extensive commercial activities are evident demonstrates that
although woman-employing factories and mills may be lacking, other ·
. exclusively man-employing activities create some employment
opportunities for women. In fact, it shows in regard to clerical
occupations a striking resemblance to Passaic, in which city, with its
large manufacturing interests, only 11.4 per cent of the breadwinning
worn.en were in clerical occupations. Moreover, but 5.2 per cent in
Passaic were stenographers and typists, as compared with 5.3 per
cent in Jacksonville, where, as has been seen, only a relatively small
number of women breadwinners were at work in the" business world."
Only a glance at Table 3 is required to establish the fact t~at the
two dominant groups of breadwinning women were those engaged
in paid service at home-chiefly the taking in of washing or the taking
of boarders or lodgers - and those working for wages as servants in
the homes of others.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
IN
TABLE
FOUR
23
SELECTED CITIES
3.__:._Industries and occupations in which breadwinning women were employed-Jacksonville, Fla.
Women breadwinners
Industry and occupation
Number
Total ___ , ________ . _______________ ______ _- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Per cent
15, 726
100. 0
266
1. 7
1-----1----10
Clothing, men's, women's, and children's________ _______________________ ____
.1
Manufacturing ____________ ___ _______________________________________________ ____
Confectionery_______________________________________________________________
Printing and publishing_ ______ ______________________________________________
Tobacco and cigars___ _____ _____________ __ ___________ __ ______________________
Bread and bakery products__ ______ ___ ______________________________________
Other manufacturing__ ___ _______ ________________________ ______ __ _____ ___ ____
34
81
39
98
Dressmakers, seamstresses, tailoresses, milliners , and apprentices in shop or
employer's home ___________________ _____ __________ __ _________________________ _
116
4
(1)
.2
.5
.2
.6
.7
828
5. 3
1-----f----637
Sr 1eswomen___ ___ _____ __ ___ __ ____ ___ _________ ____ ______ ___ __ __ _____ ____ ____ _
4. 1
137
Retail dealers_________________________________________ ____ __________________
.9
.3
54
Other selling occupations----------~------------------------------- ----------
Selling trades___ _________ ____ _____ ____________________________________ ___________
257
Telegraph and telephone operators ___ -- -----------------------------------------
1.6
Telephone ___ ---- --- -------- ------- ----------- · _____________________ · _· _____ i----1-89-i-----1. 2
68
Telegraph__________________ __ ____ __ __ ______ ____ ____ _____ ___ _______ _______ ___
•4
Clerical occupations_____________________________________________________________
Stenographers and tytiists_ __ _____ ___ __ ___ ____ _______ _____ __ __ __ ___ __________
Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants_____________________________________
Other clerical occupations__ ____ _________________________ ___ _______ __ ________
i, 594
10. 1
1-----l----826
5. 3
371
2.1
397
2. 5
852
5. 4
------t----~
Managerial and professional service______________________________________________
Managers and executives_____ _______ ________________________________________
School teachers ________________________ --·-__________________________________
Trained nurses___________ ___________________________________________________
Journalists, librarians, and other professioan}__________________ _____________ __
Domestic and personal service outside worker's home ____ ______ ____________ ______
Servants living in employer's home______________ __ ________ _____________ ____
Servants living in own home________________________________________________
Day workers__ ____________________________________ __________________________
Power laundry workers ______________ : _________________________ : ____________
Cleaners and janitresses ____,_____ _______ ____ _________ ___ __ __ _____ ____________
Waitresses, restaurant keepers, and kitchen help____________________________
Nurses_____________________________________________________________ _________
Other domestic and personal service__ _______________________________________
16
469
207
160
.l
3.0
1. 3
1. 0
4,779
30. 4
1-----f-----
Working in own home ________ _______________________________ ___________________ _
190
196
2. 5
18. 7
.2
2.0
1. 3
3. 1
1. 2
1. 2
7,000
44. 5
394
2,948
39
318
208
486
Taking boarders or lodgers _______________________________________________ : __ i---2-,-7-58-f----17. 5
21. 6
3
· 3, 5
'
::~~.gmiliinery;or-irnittfng======================~= =============
26
Farm labor_______________ ___________________________________________________
.2
264
;__
_______________________________________________________
Other home service
·· 1. 7
i!~i~~ i~
. Not reported __ ------------------------- _________________________________________ ·
1
m
34
.2
Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.
In this study, for reasons previously given, women who made a
practice of taking lodgers or boarders, whether such occupation was
a main or a supplemental source of income, have been included among
the breadwinning women. This classification accounts for a differ25110-25t---8
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
24
FAMILY ·s TATUS 0-F BREADWINNING WOMEN
.
enee of more than 2,000 in the numbers of women gainfully employed
in Jacksonville, Fla., as reported by the 1920 15 Census of Occupations and as shown in Table 3 of this report.
The accompanying statement compiled from census data shows
i that although the women who took boarders or lodgers in order to
add to family income were nearly three- times as many as the numb er
who took outsiders into the family as a chief source of income, each
. group averaged practically the same number of boarders and lodgers.
At least the difference is not large enough to raise· the average number
of boarders and lodgers taken by all women engaged in the business
by as much as one-tenth of 1 per cent above the average for those
who took outsiders into the family to supplement the family income.
Bread winning women taking in boarders and lodgers
As main source of income ___________ ___________ __
As supplemental source of income ________________
Total ___________________________________
Number of
women
Average number
of boarders or
lodgers
727
2,031
2. 3
2. 2
2,758
2. 2
Country of birth and age.
The strong influences of raoe and age in casting the employment
lot of breadwinning women in Florida's chief city can be clearly
traced from an analysis of the next three tables, which bear on these
topics. As would be expected, the majority of the women gainfully employed were negroes. The 1920 census enumeration revealed that there were in the city 16,761 native white women and
. girls 15 years of age and over, and 15,940 negro women and gi.rls in
the same age groupY1 According to Table 4, approximately 30
per cent of the white women of Jacksonville were gainfully employed; whereas more than 60 per cent of the city's negro women
were breadwinners. The percentage of native white women gainfully employed taken by themselves would change Jacksonville's
place in regard to the proportionate number of breadwinning women
from second to last of the four cities under discussion. 17 If the negro
11 United States Bureau of the Census: Instructions to Enumerators January 1, 1920, p. 34, directs enumerators not to list as occupied any person keeping boarders and lodgers unless such person "relies upon it as
his (or.her) principal means of support or principal source of income."
1& U. S. Bureau of the Census, 14th Census, 1920.
Population. V. 3, p. 188.
11 The census age classification includes women 15 years of age and over, whereas the age classificat ion
for breadwinning women used in this report includes women 14 years of age and over. Consequently,
the percentage that breadwinning women of each race constitute of total woman population is slightly
larger than it should be.
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25
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
women were alone considered,. Jacksonville- would l.ead the other three
cities in the- actual and relative number of women gainfully employed. Foreign-born women gainfully employed in Jacksonville
were insignificant in numbers, forming but 2-.4 per cent of all breadwmmng women.
TABLE
4.-Number and per cent distribution of breadwinning women, by country
of birth-Jacksonville, Fla.
Number
Country of birth .
Per cent
100.0
TotaL ___ ------- -------------- - ------------------------------------------ f - - 15,
726
-----1---32.6
5, 126
IO, 220
65. 0
2'.4
380
U nit ed States, white_---------------------·----------------______________________
U-nited States, negro ______________ ----- ----- -- ------------ ______________________
Other countries ___ -----------------------------------------------------------__
Interesting features of Table 5 lie in the fact th.at a smaller proportion of the white breadwinning women than of the negro women
were 30 years of age and over, and that, the percentage of white
gainfully employed girls under 20 years was approximately 60 per
cent greater than that of negro girls. in the same age group. In a
consideration of breadwinning women as a whole it is noteworthy
that less than 29 per oent were under 25 years of age and that thi~
proportion is the smallest shown by the four cities whose breadwinning women constitute the subject of this report.
TABLE
5.-Country of birth of breadwinning women, by age groups-Jacksonville, Fla.
Number and per cent of women whose age was-
Country of birth
Total Under 16and 18and 20and 25and 30and 40and 50
under under under under years
17
19
16
and
25
40
50
30
years years years years
years years years over
Not
reported
-Total:
Number ______________ _
15,726
P er cent ________________ 100. 0
United States, white:
Number _______________ 5,126
Per cent_ ________ ______ 100. 0
United States, negro:
Number _______________ 10,220
Per cent_ ___ _______ ____ 100. 0
Other
countries:
Number
_______________
380
Per cent_ ______________ 100.0
2,825
18. 0
2,765
17. 6
4,353
3. 6
937
6.0
27. 7
2,469
15. 7
1,495
9. 5
0. g
1.0
284
5. 5
397
7. 7
990
19.3
872
17.0
1,192
23. 3
767
15. 0
567
11.1
.2
122
1.2
267
2. 6
524
5.1
1,792
17. 5
1,857
18. 2
3,074
30.1
1,598
15. 6
854
8.4
1.3
3
15
3. 9
16
43
11. 3
36
87
4.2
9.5
22. 9
104
27.4
19. 5
174
1.1
49
.8
566
74
142
8
132
2
.5
Table 6 reveals the race lines in occupational activities of Jacksonville's breadwinning women. Approximately 70 per cent of the white
women were at work outside the home as compared with less than
48 per cent of the negro breadwinning women. From an analysis of
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
26
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
tht.' columns of Table 6 showing occupational distribution, it appears
that over one-half of the white breadwinning women were employed
in commercial or professional pursuits- that is, in the selling trades,
in clerical, telephone and telegraph occupations, or in managerial and
professional service: Less than 4 per cent were domestic servants.
The parallel column giving the distribution of negro breadwinning
women, on the other hand, shows that, when all the negro women
found in all the pursuits are taken together, less than 5 per cent are
seen to have been engaged in the sellir~g trades, in clerical occupations,
in managerial and professional service, or as telephone and telegraph
operators. Over 30 per cent were domestic servants, and 41. 7 per
cent were engaged either as domestic servants or as day workers,
cleaners, janitresses, and in other personal service. Less than 30 per
cent of the white and over 52 per cent of the negro women breadwinners were gainfully employed in their own homes. The difference
in the manner of winning bread by inside labor is even greater, as the
principal service rendered by negro women was the washing of clothes,
whereas practically all of the white women who rendered paid service
within the home did so by taking boarders or lodgers.
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27
IN FOUR S.ELECTED CITIES
TABLE
6.-Country of birth of breadwinning women, by industry and occ1tpation- '
Jacksonville, Fla.
United States,
white
In dustry or occupation
United States,
negro
Other countries
Total
Per
Per
Per
cent Number cent Number cent
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - Number
TotaL ____________ ._______ - _-- - - -- - 15,726
--8,692
Total working outside the home _________
Manufacturing ____ ___ ___ ____________
266
5,126
100. 0
10,220
100. 0
880
100. 0
8, 575
69. 7
4,884
·47. 8
288
61. 8
158
8. 0
99
1.0
11
2. 9
Dr.e ssmakers, seamstresses , tailoresses , milliners, and apprentices
in shop or employer's home _______
116
98
1. 8
19
.2
4
1.1
Selling trades ___ ________ _______ _____
828
600
11. 7
157
1. 5
71
18. 7
Saleswomen __ ________________ ___
Retail dealers ___________________
Other selling occupations ________
637
137
54
495
63
42
9. 7
1. 2
.8
101
1.0
.5
.1
41
26
4
---
10.8
6. 8
1. 1
Telegraph and telephone operators __
257
244
4. 8
7
.1
6
1. 6
Clerical occupations _________________
1,594
1,497
29. 2
59
.6
38
10. 0
Stenographers and typists _______
Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants ___ •_________________
Other clerical occupations _______
825
788
15. 4
16
.2
22
5.8
371
397
340
369
6. 6
7. 2
25
18
.2
.2
6
10
1. 6
Managerial and professional service .
852
537
10. 5
281
2. 7
34
8. 9
16
469
207
12
265
138
.2
5. 2
2. 7
3
192
58
1
12
11
.3
3. 2
2. 9
Managers and executives ________
School teachers __________________
Trained nurses __________ __ ______
Journalists, li br a ri ans, and
other professional. ____________
Domestic and personal service _______
------
Total working in own home _____________
Taking boarders or lodgers ___ _____ __
Taking in washing _____ _______ ___ ___
Taking
in________
sewing,
millinery,
or
____________
_______
knitting
Other home service ____________ _____
Not reported ____________________________
(1)
1. 9
.6
2. 6
160
122
2. 4
28
.3
10
2.
4,779
448
· 8. 7
4,262
41. 7
69
18.
243
2, 862
38
309
202
2. 4
28. 0
.4
3. 0
2. 0
399
91
3. 9
.9
--------Servants living in employer's
home _______ ---------. ___ --- -120
2. 3
394
Servants living in own home ____ 2,948
68
1. 3
Day workers ___ ________________ _
(1)
39
1
Power laundry workers _____ ____
318
•2
9
Cleaners and janitresses _________
208
5
.1
Waitresses, restaurant keepers,
and kitchen help ______________
81
486
1. 6
Nurses ___ ____ . ____ . ___ ____ _--- -190
93
1.8
Other
domestic
and personal
_______________________
service
1
48
8
31
18
~
8. 2
•. 7
---------- -----------------------1
.3
6
6
1. 6
1. 6
196
71
1. 4
118
1. 2
7
1.8
7,000
1,531
29. 9
5,824
52. 1
145
88. 2
2,758
3,398
1,396
12
27. 2
.2
1,239
3,378
12. 1
33. 1
123
8
32. 4
2.1
554
290
113
10
2. 2
.2
430
277
4. 2
2. 7
11
3
2. 9
.8
34
20
.4
12
•1
2
.5
------ ------
Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.
Table 7 shows the age distributions throughout the series of occupational opportunities open to the women breadwinners of Jacksonville. Read in view of the "age by race" figures in Table 5, Table 7
is only another evidence that, regardless of race, the opportunities for
women breadwinners beyond 40 years of age were relatively small
except in the selling trades and in paid service rendered within the
home.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
~
7.-Specified age groups of breadwinning women, by industry and occupation-Jacksonville, Fla.
00
Women in specified age groups
Age
Under 16
years
Industry or occupation
16 and 17
years
18 and 19
years
20 and under
25 years
25 and under
30 years
30 and under
40 years
40 and under
50 years
50 years and
not
reported
Number
over
Total
Total __ ____________________ __ 15,726
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Nurnber
Per
cent
Num•
ber
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
,Per
cent
- - - - - - - - - - -937- - - -·- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - 174
100. 0
566
100. 0
100. 0
2,825
100. 0
2,765
100. 0
4,353
100. 0
2,469
100. 0
i, 495
100. 0
Manufacturing! __________________ _
382
6
3.4
31
5. 5
25
2. 7
84
3.0
71
2. 6
93
2. 1
53
2. 1
18
1. 2
Selling trades _____________________
828
21
12. 1
101
17. 8
79
8. 4
131
4. 6
111
4. 0
188
4. 3
129
6. 2
64
4.3
4
Saleswomen __________________
Other selling occupations ______
637
191
13
8
7. 5
~6
93
8
16.4
1. 4
75
8. 0
4
.4
117
~l
86
25
3.1
.9
130
58
3.0
1. 3
82
47
3. 3
1. 9
39
.5
2. 6
1. 7
2
2
TeleJ!'raph and telephone operators_
Clerical occupations __ _____________
Managerial and professional service
257
1. 594
852
5
18
2. 9
10. 3
48
99
10
8. 5
17. 5
1. 8
57
201
40
6. 1
21. 5
4. 3
3. 1
16. 8
6. 8
33
1. 2
314
184
11. 4
.4
8. 0
5. 2
4
105
138
.2
4. 3
5. 6
30
-----i
6. 7
17
348
226
.4
476
193
59. 2
219
38. 7
390
41. 6.
l, 019
36.1
809
29. 3
1, 196
27. 5
601
24. 3
4. 6
35. 6
1.1
2. 9
19
3. 4
24. 4
21
264
2
13
2. 2 .
28. 2
.2
1. 4
52
673
10
21
1.8
23.8
.4
.7
51
507
5
1.8
18. 3
23
.8
96
743
7
37
2. 2
17. 1
.2
.8
67
337
8
43
2. 7
13. 6
•3
1. 7
90
223
1,240
8.1
44. 8
313
2, 279
153
670
1,130
3. 5
15. 4
26. 0
------ --------
Domestic and personal service
outside worker's home __________ 4,779
--Servants living in employer's
home ___________________ ---394
Servants living in own home ___ 2,948
Day workers __________________
39
Nurses _______________________ _
190
Other
. domestic
and personal
service
______________________
Working in own home _____________
Taking
boarders
or lodgersMain
_____________________
SupplementaL ____ ________
T aking in washing ____________
T aking in sewing, millinery,
or knitting _______ __ ______ ___
Other home service ___________
Industry or occupation not reported __ _------------- - __ _______
1
1,208
7,000
727
2,031
3,398
554
290
34
103
8
62
2
5
-
26
20
14. 9
11. 5
3
-·-----.5
14
87
16
9. 2
1
.6
------ -------.6
---
-----.2
59
57
10.4
10. 1
9. 6
15. 4
263
829
9. 3
144
1
10
40
.2
1.8
7.1
1
43
90
.1
4. 6
9. 6
25
297
404
.9
10. 5
14. 3
67
425
588
2. 4
15. 4 ·
21. 3
1
5
.2
.9
3
7
.3
152
51
1.8
1.8
a6
.7
64
3. 5
2. 3
215
111
1
.2
1
.1
6
•2
3
.1
6
29. 3
- -- - - --- -- - - - - - ---
----3- --··1:1-
1
___138
.,. __
--- - - ---·
--
Includes all factory work and dressmakers, seamstresses, tailoresses, milliners, and apprentices in shop or employer's home.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
26
6
58
2. 0
s. 7
=
142
1
6
363
S
---24.--79
58
193
4
44
3. 9
12. 9
.3
2.9
22
31
1
1
5. 9
57. 8
4.3
6S. 7
24
953
204
392
679
8. 3
15. 9
27. 5
270
179
424
18. 1
12. 0
28. 4
6
12
27
4. 9
2. 5
116
37
4. 7
1. 5
68
12
4. 5
.8
2
3
.1
11
.4
5
.3
------
7. 2
14~
52. 4 ~428
--
~
50
- - - - --- --
•
29
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
Marital status.
The correlation of the information about the marital status of
Jacksonville's breadwinning women with the facts on age and occupational activities suggests what later analyses develop more clearly,
namely, that opportunities for employment are determined not alone
by the call of industry, commerce, and profession, but also by the
demands which the business of running a home makes upon women
who must perform the double function of home custodian and home
provider.
An impressive disclosure is made by Table 8, since it shows that
nearly three-fourths of the city's breadwinning women were or had
been married. It must be rememb ered, however, that previous discussion has revealed among the working women of Jacksonville a great
preponderance of negroes, and that marriage does not, as a gener al
occurrence, terminate breadwinning activities for this type of worker.
It will be noted that 1,257 women, or 8 per cent of the total number
whose marital status was given, were classified as "married, husband
not living with family." The conjugal condition of the women so
described was given in the census report as "married," but there was
no record of a husband in the family group. In some cases the
separation may have been temporary, although the instructions to
census enumerators stated explicitly that temporary absentees were
to be recorded as residing at home. Where actual separation had
occurred there was a possibility that the wife was receiving some
financial assistance from her husband. The economic status of this
group of women living apart from their husbands was so uncertain
that it has been considered an d carried separ ately in the tables.
TABLE
8.-Number and per cent di stribution of breadwinning womem by mari tal
status-Jacksonville, Fla.
M arital status
TotaL ___ --------------------------------------------------------------------Single ___ __ __ _____ ______ ___ _____ ___ _------------- - ----------------------------------M arried, husband living with family_ _________ _____ __ _______ ___ ___ __ ________ __ ______
M arried, husband not living with family ______ -- - --- ------------------ - ----------- Widowed ____ ______ ____ __ ____ _____ ___ ________ __ ____ ------------- - ------------------Divorced __ ___ ------- ------------ --------------- - ------------ -- ---- -- - --- - -------- -M arital status not reported ___ ____ ____ _______ _________ _____ ________ __ _____ ___ ___ ____
1
Number P er cent
___
15, 726 __
100._
0
,_
4, 245
6, 7Zl
1,257
3, 205
278
H
(I)
27. 0
42. 8
8. 0
20. 4
1. 8
Less than one-ten th of 1 per cent.
The extent to which ne_gro women continue to work after marriage
as compared with the white women is indicated by Table 9, which
discloses 73 per cent of the gainfully employed married women living
with husbands, as well as nearly 85 per cent of the gainfully employed
married women not living with husbands, to h ave been negro women.
In a consideration of the .. conjugal condition of the negro breadwinning women, it is seen that of the 10,220 negro women bread
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
30
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
winners, approximately 1,800, or less than 18 per cent, were single·
women. In other words, over 82 per cent were married, separated,
widowed, or divorced. The corresponding figures for the white women
show that 45 per cent were single, or that 55 per cent of the white
women gainfully employed were or had been married. Herein does the
marital status of the native white breadwinning women of Jacksonville differ sharply from that of the native white gainfully employed
women in P assaic, N. J., nearly four-fifths of whom were single.
Even when the total number of white breadwinning women, native
and foreign born, in Jacksonville is considered it is seen that the
proportion of women who were or had been married is greater than
the corresponding proportion of Passaic breadwinning women.
Obviously, therefore, while the presence of a large number of negro
women among the breadwinning women of Jacksonville is an influential factor in the proportion of the total number of gainfully
employed matrons, it does not account for all of the excess over
corresponding percentages in the other three cities covered by this
·bulletin.
TABLE
9.-Country of birth of breadwinning women by marital status-Jacksonville, Fla.
Marital status
Cou~try of birth
Total
Single
Total:
Number_ ___ ____ _
Per cent_ __ ___ ___
United States, white:
Number _________
Per cent _________
United States, negro:
Number _________
Per cent ____ _____
Other countries:
Number _____ __ __
Per cent ________ ~
1
Married,
Married, Married,
Marital
husband
husba nd husband
status
not living Widowed Divorced not
not a
a bread- breadrewith
ported
winner
family
winner
15, 726
100. 0
4,245
100. 0
6,648
100. 0
79
100. 0
5, 126
32. 6
2,306
54.3
1,635
24. 6
(1)
10,220
65.0
1,821
42. 9
4,857
73.1
(1)
380
118
2.8
156
2. 3
(l)
2. 4
29
1,257
100. 0
3,205
100. 0
278
100.0
174
835
26.1
142
51.1
(1)
2,294
71.6
129
46.4
(1)
76
7
2.5
----------
13. 8
45
1,065
84. 7
5
18
1. 4
I
2.4
14
100.0
5
9
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Table 10, which combines marital status of the breadwinning
women of Jacksonville with age, discloses a large number of married
breadwinning women (42.3 per cent) under 30 years of age. Reference to the data on age, country of birth, and occupation as given in
foregoing tables will recall the fact that a considerable number of
women in this age group, over one-third, were domestic servants,
and that the negro women breadwinners dominated the field of
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
31
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES·
domestic service. While correlated reading of tables will make it
clear that these two facts may account for the large majority of
married women in the under-30-years age group of women gainfully
. employed they do not answer the obvious question as to the cause
and domestic consequences of so large a proportion of young married
women engaging in breadwinping activities.
TABLE
10.-Marital status of breadwinning women, by age groups-Jacksonville,
Fla.
· Number and per cent of women whose age was-
Marital status
Total U nder 16 and 18 and 20and 25and 30and 40and
50
under under u n der under years Notre17
19
16
25
30
40
50
and
ported
years years years years years years years
over
- -- - - -- - - - - - - - - -- Total:
Number _____ __ _______ ___ 15, 726
174
937
566
Per cent ____ __ _______ ____ _ 100. 0
1.1
3. 6
6. 0
Single:
4,245
494
162
692
N
umber
__
--------------P er cent ___ ___ __ _____ _____ 100. 0
3. 8
11. 6
16: 3
M arried:
Number ___ __ ____________ 7,984
224
68
9
Per cent ___ ___ ____________ 100. 0
.1
. 9 . 2. 8
Widowed
and
divorced:
Number __ _____ ______ __ __ 3,483
3
4
19
P er cent. _________________ 100. 0
.1
.5
.1
Marital status not reported:
__
.., ____ _
Number ____ ________ _______
14
2
------ -
2,825
18. 0
2,765
17. 6
4,353
27. 7
2,469 1,495
15. 7 : 9. 5
I , 283
30. 2
698
16. 4
618
14. 6
4. 6
90
2. 1
14
.3
1,352
16. 9
1, 724
21. 6
2,699
33. 8
1,300
16. 3
520
6. 5
88
1. 1
189
5. 4
341
9. 8
1,035
29. 7
971
27. 9
885
25. 4
36
1. 0
1
2
1
4
194
-------
142
0. 9
4
At this point in the discussion there arises naturally the question
as to the proportion of m·a rried women who were gainfully employed
outside the home. From Table 11 , which deals with this subject, it is
seen that of the gainfully employed women who were or. had been
married, 43 per cent were at work outside the home, and that more
than a third of the breadwinning women with wage-earning husbands
were rendering paid service away from their homes. It will be
observed, however, that a markedly larger percentage of widows and
of women not living with husbands were working outside the home.
Information as to the kind of work which married women employed
.outside their own homes were performing can be derived from Table
12. The majority earned money through domestic and personal
service in the homes of others.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
Women working in own
homes
Marital status
Total
number
breadwinning
women
Tota} __________________________________
Single. _______________________ --__ - ___________
Married, husband a breadwinner __ ___________
Married, husband not a breadwinner ________
Married, husband not living with family ____
Widowed ______________ •... _•• __ _____________
Divorced ________ __ __ ________ ________________
Marital status not rePorted __________________
Total
Num- Number
ber
work- eming
~loyalone
PerNum- Permg
cent on own others ber
cent
account
In factories, stores, offices, etc.
In others' homes
'
Total
Number
Total
NumNumber
ber Num- work•
asem- ber as
ing
ploy- emalone Num• PerPer- ers ployees
cent
cent
on own ber
account
Number Num•
Num- workber
ber as
ing
emalone
ployees onown
account
--- --
7,000
44.6
6,993
7
8,692
55.3
4,922
31.3
55
4,674
193
3,770
24. 0
3,727
43
34
431
4,265
59
10.2
64. 2
430
4,264
1
1
1
3,803
2,372
20
770
1,530
186
11
89.6
35. 7
2,634
1,177
12
301
672
118
8
62.0
17. 7
6
20
2,611
1,051
10
287
593
114
8
17
106
2
12
52
4
1,169
1,195
8
469
858
68
3
27. 5
18. 0
1,154
1,186
8
464
846
66
3
15
9
11
11
'----
4,245
6,648
79
1,257
3,205
278
H
computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Not
rePort•
ed
- - --15,726
to
Women working outside their homes
Total
Number
1 Not
co
11.-Breadwinning women working in their own homes or outside their homes, by marital status-Jacksonville, Fla.
483
1,669
90
3
(1)
38.4
52.1
32. 4
(1)
58
483
1,665
90
3
-----4
------
------
(1)
61.3
47. 7
66.9
(1)
(1)
23.9
21. 0
42. 4
(1)
----227
-----------
--------
(1)
37.3
26.8
24. 5
(!)
✓
------512
2
-----.
6
2
-------- ------
TABLE
12.-Marital ~tatus of breadwinning women, by industry and occupation-Jacksonville, Fla.
Marital status
Industry or occupation
Total
M arried,
husband a
breadwinner
Single
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Married,
husband not a
breadwinner
Number
Per
cent
Married,
husband not'
living with
family
Divorced ·
Widowed
Number
15,726
4,245
100. 0
8,848
100. 0
~ =============================::::::::::::::
165
357
187
1, 151
488
3. 9
8. 4
4. 4
27. 1
11. 5
109
244
40
207
229
1. 8
:r~:!ai:a:~~~
arlep-aph and t~lephone operators. ____ ___ ___ ___ ______ ____
erical occupations. __ ._ .. _. _______ _____ _______ __________ _
Managerial and professional service . __ ___ _______ ____ ______
382
828
257
1,594
852
•6
3. 1
3. 4
Domestic and personal service outside worker's home __ ___
4,779
1,455
34. 8
1,543
23. 2
Servants living in employer's home . . _____ __ __ ________
Servants and day workers living in own home ________
Nurses. ____ . __ . _____ ____ .. _.. _. .... . __ __ . _. ___ _______ _
Other domestic and personal service __ _________________
Working in own home __________________________ ___________
394
2,987
190
1,208
162
877
60
356
3.8
20. 7
1.4
8. 4
25
1,056
50
412
.4
15. 9
.8
6. 2
7,000
431
10. 2
4,265 ,
2,758
554
3,398
1. 2
1. 6
290
49
69
270
43
'l4
11
T aking boarders and lodgers ____ _____ ___ ___ ___________
Taking in sewing, millinery, or knitting __ __ ___________
Taking in washing _____ _______ ____ ______ ____ -- ~------Other home servicll" __ •• -- - --------- ----------------- - Not reported .. _________________________ ____ _____________ __
1 Includes all factory work and dressmakers, seamstresses,
2 Not computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
79
Number
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
1,257
100. 0
3,205
100. 0
278
100. 0
1. 8
3. 7
.7
4. 2
2.3
71
155
13
131
98
2. 2
4. 8
.4
4. 1
3.0
12
22
7
8
4. 3
7. 9
2. 5
18. 0
2. 9
-------i
--- ---
--Total __________ ___ ____ ____ -- -- - - -- ----- -- --- ------- - -
Per
cent
Marital
11tatus
not reported
100. 0
---,Ir--
14
3
1
---,r('
22
47
9
53
29
15
(2)
810
48. 5
l, 084
33. 2
87
81. 3
5
1
8
-··er·
(2
('
47
392
14
157
3. 7
31.2
1.1
12. 5
148
608
59
249
4. 6
19. 0
1. 8
7.8
12
45
6
24
4. 3
16. 2
2. 2
8. 6
-------2
84. 2
59
(1)
483
88. 4
1,869
52. 1
90
32. 4
3
30. 5
3. 9
27. 2
2. 6
35
2
(')
(1)
(1)
(1) ,
97
47
314
25
7. 7
8. 7
25. 0
2.0
511
157
956
45
15. 9
5.0
29.8
1.4
36
19
31
4
12. 9
6. 8
11. 2
1. 4
--------
1. 0
2, 028
260
1,807
170
.3
11
•2
4
.3
6
.2
2
•7
·-------
6.4
3. 7
------2·
-----·2·
--------6
20
2
-------- --------
tailoresses, milliners, and apprentices in shop or employer's home.
00
1
1
-----··a
0
2
-------i
~
r./l
34
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
Breadwinning mothers.
Closely allied to the question of married women workers are facts
bearing upon the children of these women. Interesting data on
the subject of the Jacksonville breadwinning mothers and their
children are found in the census and presented in this report in
Tables 13 to 19, inclusive.
In this connection attention should be called to the fact that the
census schedules show only the number of children living in the
home at the time of enumeration. The schedules do not record the
number dead at the time of enumeration, nor do the returns count
children living permanently outside the home. A young girl working as a domestic servant and living with her employer would not be
tabulated by the census as one of the daughters in the family of
which she is an absent member. She would, of course, be accounted
for among the city's bread.winning women as "servant living with
employer" if she was employed within the city. The number of
girls under 18 living . with employers, as shown in Table 7, gains
added interest from this circumstance. Reference to that table,
however, will show that figures on the number of children in the
families of Jacksonville's breadwinning mothers were not seriously
affected by the small number of young girls living in the families of
employers in the city.
Table 13 discloses the fact that less than one-half of the gainfully employed women who were or had been married had children. It
also shows that th_e largest proportion of those having children were
among· the married women whose husbands were breadwinners.
In this group, the proportion with children is markedly larger than
the corresponding proportions among the widowed and separated
women. An equally challenging fact revealed by this table is that,
when the approximate · 5,000 women who had children are considered as a single group, over 63 per cent had breadwinning husbands,
living in the family circle.
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35
IN FOUR SELECTED CIT'.IES
TABLE
13.-Breadwinning women who had children, or had no children, by marital
status-Jacksonville, Fla.
Women
Women
who
who
Women bad no
were or who bad children
bad been children living in
married
family
circle
Marital status
'l'otal:
Number ____ _________________________________________________________ _ 11,467
4,956
6,511
Per cent_ ______________________________________________________ ____ -- _
43. 2
100. 0
56. 8
- - -- - -- - Married,
husband
a
breadwinner:
Number ___ __________ ____________ ____________________________________ _
6,648
3, 140
3,508
Per cent_ ______ ______ ______________ ______ ____ ____________ ____________ _
47. 2
52. 8
100. 0
Married, husband. not a breadwinner:
Number _______________________________________________________ ______ _
41
38
79
Per cent. ______________________________________________ ___ __________ __
(1)
(1)
100. 0
Married, husband not living with family:
~i~~;t
===== == === == == == === ==== === == ====== == == ==== == ======= '. ======= =
,Widowed:
Number _____________________________________________________________ _
Per cent_ ____ ____ ------ -- ---- -------- -- ---- ---- ---- ----- --- -- - --- ----Divorced:
Number ____________ __ __ _____________________________________ -_- _- _- -Per cent ______________________________ __ ______________________ _______ _
_1
1,257
100. 0
404
32. 1
853
67. 9
3,205
100. 0
1,274
39. 8
1,931
60. 2
278
100. 0
97
34. 9
181
65. l
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
That the breadwinning mothers were not relatively more numerous
in the negro race than in the white is shown by Table 14. ~n fact, a
larger proportion of native white than of negro women breadwinners
had children, the percentage being 48.5 for the former, and 41.3
for the latter. Of course, as the negro married women breadwinners
far outnumbered the white women, the actual number of gainfully
employed negro women with children greatly exceeded the actual
number of ·white gainfully employed · mothers.
TAnLE
14.-Breadwinning women who had children, or .had no children, by country
of birth-Jacksonville, Fla.
Country of birth
Total __ - -- -- -- - -- --- -- - --- -- -- --- -- --- - --- - - -- United States, white _________________________________
United States, negro _________________________________
Other countries __________ ___________________ _________
who bad
Women who bad Women
Women
Iio children Jiving
children
who were
in family circle
or bad
been
married Number Per cent Number Per cent.
11,481
4,961
43. 2
2,816
8,394
271
1,366
3,469
126
48. 5
41.3
46. 5
6,520
56.8
··''° I
51. 5
58. 7
53. 5
4,925
145
According to Tables 15 and 16 there were approximately 10,000
children in the homes of the breadwinning mothers of Jacksonville.
About 2,600 were children· of white breadwinning women. The
fact also is revealed that regardless of whether conjugal ties were
intact or broken, 86 per cent of the gainfully employed mothers had
not more than three children and that nearly 47 per cent had but one
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
3&
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
ehild. On the other hand, 53 per cent of the mothers had two or
more children and slightly more than -6 per C"ent had five or more.
Table 16, which deals- with the- number of children ac.cording to
the country of birth of the breadwinning mothers, contrary to
expectation does not show any marked differences between the homes
of the, white and negro women in respect to the numbers of children
in the family circle.
TABLE
15.-Nwmber of children of breadwinning mothers, by marital status of
mother-J_acks-onville, Fla.
Total
Women have specified number oichildren
Average
women 1-----,----,-------,-----,,----,----r---,---inumber
·having
of chil1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 or dren
cbil-
Marital status
~
Total:
Number_------------------Per cent_____________________
Mar,ried, husband a breadwinner:
Number
------------------_
Per cent___
___________________
Married, husband not a breadwinner:
Number ___________________ _
Per cent_ ___________________ _
M arded, husband not living
with family:
Number
____ ---- -- -----_
Per
cent_____
_______
____________
Widowed:
Number
------------------_
• Per
cent___
__________________
Divorced:
Number __ -----------------Per cent~----------- -- - -- ---Marital status not reported:
Number __ ------------- ----- -1
~m~
175
3. 5
74
1. 5
36.
0. 7
18
0. 4
2.0
263
8. 4
132
._ 2
57
1. 8
26
.8'
12
.4
2.1
2r3.26
46. 9
3,140
100.0
1,387
44. 2
41
100.0
(l)
404
100; 0
214.
53. 0
113
28. 0
45
11. 1
zr
3
6. 7
•7
1,274
100.0
647
50. 8·
330
25. 9-
14-7
11. 5
86
6. 8-
2. 7
9-7
100.0
(1)
5
1,302. 645
26. 2 13. 0
385
7. 8
4,961
100. 0
831
26. 5
20
(1J
56
(1)
432
13. 8
11
(1)
17
6
15
(1)
3
(1)
(1)
6
2 -------- ------ ------
l
1. 9
(1)
1
.2
34
15
1. 2
2,
10
.8
1
.2
1. 8'-
5
.4.
1. 9
1 - ----- ------
1.8
3 ------ ------ ------
3. 4
(1)
(1)
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
T ABLE
16.-Number of children of breadwinning mothers, by country of birth of
mother-Jacksonville, Fla.
. Country·of birth
Total
women
:h~h1~g
dren
Women having specified number of children
1
2
4
3
5
6
Average
number
of chi!dren
8 or
per
more mother
7
--- --Total:
Number ________
Per cent_ _______
United States, white:
Number ______ __
Per cent_ _______
United Sliates, negro:
Number_ _______
Per cent_ _______
0th.er countries:
Number ________
• Per cent_ ___ ____
74, '
4,961
100.0
2,326
46. 9
1,302
26. 2
645
13. 0
7. 8
175
3. 5
1. 5
36
0. 7
1,366
100.0
670
49.0
368
26. 9
180
13. 2
96
7.0
27
2.0
19
1.4
5
.4
3,469
100: 0
1.619
46. 7
889
25. 6
443
12. 8
277
8. o.
145
4. 2
52
2R
16
1. 5
.8
.5
126
100. 0
37
29.4
45
35. 7
22
17. 5
12
9. 5
3
2.4
3
2.4
3
2.4
.8
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
385
18
2.0
0.4 ------- 1
.1
1
1.9
----- --
2.1
--------
2.4
-------
37
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
The. degree of social consequence following upon the gainful
employment of women with children depends in large measure. upon
the presence or absence of very young children. The two following
tables answer this question in detail for all breadwinning mothers in
Jacksonville. In reading the tables it should not be overlooked that
the percentages of gain-fully employed mothers having children in
each age group are not mutually exclusive; the mother with children
under 5 years of age also may have had children between 6 and 7
years, as well as boys and girls of 14 or more.
According to Table 17, 29 per cent of the hreadwinning mothers
h ad children less than 5 years old. Over one-third of the mothers
whose husbands also were wage earners had children under 5 requiring
a watchful care more constant than employment in gainful occupation renders reasonably possible. Obviously, Jacksonville mothers
were not earning money in order that their children might continue
their education, for only 2.4 per cent of the families reported children
of 18 years of age and over in school.
T AB:t.E 17 .-Brreadwinning mothers having children of specified age groups at home,
in school, or at wm-k, by marital status of mother-Jacksonville, Fla.
.
M arital status
Total
women
having
cbildren
Women
Women
having
Women having
Women having
having
Women
children
7
children a and
children18
having children 5 and under
under 18 years
years of age
and
6
years
cbil14
years
otageand:overof agedren
of ageunder
5 years
of age
At
In At In At In At .At In At
home school home school home school work home school work
- - - - -Total:
Number ____________ 4,961
Per cent. _______ ____ 100.0
Married, husband a
breadwinner:
Number __ _________ _
P er cent __ __________
Married, husband not a
breadwinner:
Number ____________
Per cent. __ _________
M arried, husband not
living with family:
Number ____________
Per cent _____________
Widowed:
Number __ __________
Per cent. ___________
Divorced:
Number ____________
Per cent ___________ _
Marital status not reported: Number_·---1
3,140
100. 0
1,466
29. 6
489
9'.9
457
9. 2
1,098
35. 0
353
11. 2
356
11. 3
113 2,416
2. 3 48. 7
64 I, 633"
1.51
3'. 0
894
18.0
94
583
18. 6
265
8.4
2.0
52. 0
-----------
(1).
(1)
(1)
(l)
106
3.4
121
2.4
1,047
21.1
89
2.8
508
16. 2
41
100. 0
(1)
404
100.0
143
35. 4
1L9
28
6. 9
2. 5
177
43. 8
10
2. 5
55
13. 6
9_4
2. 7
1.
1,274
100.0
195
15. 3
72
5. 7
70
5. 5
262. 0
533 . 42
41. 8
3.3
231
18. 6
W7
16. 2
72
5. 7
1. 9
2
13
(1)
97
100. 0
5
· (1)
7
2
(1)
22
1
48
(1)
13
(1)
(1)
1
I
10
------ ------
Not computed owing to small number involved.
19
3.0
533
194
10. 7 ' 3. 9
51
(1)
3
3
2
(1)
3
16
(1).
5
38
18
(1)
1
(1)
1
(1)
4
I6
5
2·
58
14. 4
Zf.
453
35. 6
11
(1)
(1)
(1)
2
------ ------- ------ ------ ------
(1)
11
1
"
As has been pointed out in connection with Table 14, a smaller
proportion of the negro than of the white breadwinning women had
children, though a l3irger proportion of the former were married.
It is interesting to note, therefore, according to Table 18, that a larger
proportion of the negro breadwinning mothers than of the white
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
38
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
mothers had children under 5 years. The proportion of mothers
with children of different ages at school did not differ mate!..'ially
among the whites and the negroes.
18.-Breadwinning mothers with children of specified age groups at home,
in school, or at work, by country of birth of mother-Jacksonville, Fla.
TABLE
Country of birth
Women
Women
having
Women having
having
Women having
children 14 and
children 7
Total Women
children
5
children 18 years
having
under 18 years
and
under
worn- chi!- and 6 years
of
age and overH years
of ageen
of agedren
of agehaving under
chi!dren 5ofyears
age
In
At
In
At
At
In
At
At
At
In
home school home school home school work home school work
I
--- Total :
Number ____________ 4,961
Per cent_ ____________ 100. 0
United States, white:
Number _____ ___ ____
Per cent ______ _______
United States, negro:
Number ____________
Per cent_ ____________
Other countries:
Number _____ _____ __
Per cent_ _______ : ____
-
-
---- ----
1, 4(l6
29. 6
489
9. 9
457
9. 2
113 2,416
2. 3 48. 7
151
3. 0
894
18. 0
533
10. 7
194
3. 0
121
2. 4
1,047
21. 1
1,366
100. 0
377
27. 6
128
9. 4
104
7. 6
20
1. 5
581
42. 5
36
2. 6
238
17. 4
1'12
10. 4
42
3. 1
40
2. 9
351
25. 7
3,469
100. 0
1,048
30. 2
344
9. 9
345
9. 9
90 1, 786
2. 6 51. 5
108
. 3.·1
636
18. 3
374
10. 8
143
4.1
69
2.0
619
17. 8
126
100. 0
41
32. 5
17
13. 5
8
6. 3
3
2. 4
49
38. 9
7
5. 6
20
15. 9
17
13. 5
9
7.1
9. 5
12
77
61. 1
Studies of census tables, not presented in this report, on ages of
children and numbers of members in families in Jacksonville show
that there was a considerable number of homes in which the;re were
adults who presumably were able to look after th_e babies and other
small children in the absence of the mothers. There was an insignificant number of breadwinning mothers of young children in Jack:-:.
sonville with servants living in the home to care for the very young
children while the mother was winning bread outside_ the home.
What provisi~n was made by the remainder of the women who went
out to work leaving behind children under 5 or even boys and girls
of 5 and .6 years of age the census returns do not say. Naturally,
a question of paramount importance in a discussion of bread·winning
women with young children is the type of work in which such women
engage. That over a fourth of such mothers with children under 5
years of age in Jacksonville were working outside the home is shown
in Table 19. More than 60 per cent were in the domestic and personal service group of occupations, which include, it should be remembered1 not only household servants, who were largely negro women,
but also waitresses, janitresses, and nurses, among whom Table 6
shows there was a considerable number of white women breadwinners. Table 19 reveals the additional fact that an even larger proportion of women having children 5 and 6 years of age were gainfully employed outside the home, and that here again over 60 per
cent of this group of women were employed in some form of domestic
or personal service. Tliese percentages of mothers with children in
the two age classifications are, of course, not mutually exclusive.
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39
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
19.-Breadwinning mothers having children of specified age groups al
home, in school, or at work, by industry or occupation of mother-Jacksonville, Fla.
TABLE
Women
having
Total Women
children 5
having
wom• chil· and 6 years
en
of age-Industry or occupation having
dren
cbil· 5under
years
dren of age
At
In
borne school
Women
having
children 7
and under
14 years of
age-
Women having
children 14 and
under 18 years of
age-
Women having
children 18 years
of age and over-
At
In
In
In
At
At
At
At
home school home sch ool work home ~chool work
---- --------
-Total:
Number ............. 4,961
Per cent ............. 100. 0
Working outside the
home:
Number ...... ....... 1,593
Per cent .. ........... 32. 1
ManufacturingNumber ........
Per cent .........
Selling tradesNumber .......•
Per cent. ........
Clerical occupa•
tionsNumber ........
Per cent .........
Managerial and pro·
fessional service-Number ........
Per cent ... ......
Domestic and per·
sonal serviceNumber. .... . ..
Per cent ..... . ...
Working in own home:
Number .. ... . .......
Per cent. .......... .
--
1,466
489
457
118 2,416
151
894
121
533
194
100. 0 100. 0 lCO. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0
1,047
100. 0
394
26. 9
so. 5
149
138
30. 2
87
82. 7
759
31.4
39
25. 8
322
86. 0
188
35. S
68
35. l
47
SB. 8
286
27. 3
92
1. 9
22
1. 5
10
2. 0
5
1.1
2
1.8
46
1. 9
1
.7
20
2. 2
16
3. 0
5
2. 6
1
.8
18
1. 7
221
4. 5
54
3. 7
29
5. 9
3. 5
16
5
4.4
108
4. 5
6
4. 0
53
5. 9
30
5. 6
13
6. 7
6
5. 0
39
3. ,7
163
3. 3
41
17
3. 5
19
4. 2
4
3. 5
84
3. 5
1
.7
18
2.0
17
3. 2
6
2.8
3.1
1
.8
1. 9.
136
2. 7
35
2.4
7
1. 4
15
3. 3
-----------
62
2. 6
3
2.0
28
3.1
1. 7
9
4
2.1
8
6. 6
22
2. 1.
981
19. 8
242
16. 5
86
17. 6
83
26
23. 0
459
18. 2
19. 0
28
18. 5
203
22. 7
116
21. 8
40
20. 6
31
25. 6
1~7
17. 9
s, 368
1,072
73. l
340
69. 5
319
69. 8
76 1,657
67. S 68. 6
112
74. 2
572
64. 0
345
64. 7
126
64. 9
74
61. 2
761
72. 7
I
67. 9
20
Economic responsibilities.
The foregoing tables draw a fairly clear picture of the family status
of Jacksonville's 15,726 breadwinning women . . The following tables20 to 23, inclusive-throw light on the importance of the woman
breadwinner as an economic factor in the family of which she is a
member. Table 20, for example, discloses the number of gainfully
employed women who were sole breadwinners_ in families of two,
three, four, five, six, seven, eight, and nine or more members. This
table also shows in how many cases there were no men breadwm:o.ers
in the woman breadwinners' families. The significant feature of the
table lies in the fact that -there were over _2,000, or 19 per cent, of
the breadwinning women living with their own families in Jacksonville who had no men gainfully employed within the family · circle;
that over 1,300, or 12 per cent, of the gainfully employed women
were sole breadwinners; and _that nearly 200 of these sole breadwinners were in families of four to nine or more members.
2511°-25t---4
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
40
TABLE
FAMILY STATUS OF BR.EADWINNING WOMEN
20.-Number of men and women wage earners in breadwinning women's
fam ilies, according to size of family-Jacksonville, Fla.
Families having specified number of wage earners
Size of immediate
family 1
Total
One
Two wage
earners
Three wage
earners
Five
wage
earners
Four wage
earners
WO·
man
wage
earner
WoWoWomen To- Four
To- Both
man To- Three
men ToWO·
WO·
tal
and
tal
and
and
tal WO·
men man
men men
men men tal
---
I
---- -
-
Six or
more
wage
earners
WoWomen To- men
and tal and
men
men
-- -
-
Number ______ ____ __ _ 10,866 1,305 7,425 621 6,804 1,394
129 1,265 546
24 522 156 156
40
40
Per cent distribution:
Number of wage
earners ________ 100. 0 12.0 68. 3
12.8 ------ ----- 5. 0 ----1. 4
o. 4 --- -----Sex of'l-\'8.geearner.s ---- - ------- ------ ----- 100.0 8.4 91. 6 100.0 9.3 90. 7 100. 0 4. 4 95. 6 100.0 100.0 100.0 1oq. o
Two members _______ 5,016 823 4,193 413 3,780 --------- ---- - ---- --------- ---- - ----Three members _____ _ 2,352 293 1,590 109 1,481 469 -----68 401 --- -- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----Four members _______ 1, 448 116 838 48 790 366
348 128
1!
8 120 ----- ----- ----- ----Five members _______
930
21 231 163
12 151
50 417
27 390 257
43
43 ---- - -- --Six members . _. __ • __
540
13 125 106
4 102
11 229
16 213 138
32
32
24
24
Seven members. ____
271
:: 76 51 --- - - 51 34 34
90
79
9
94
4
4
4
Eight members ______
32
1
45
146
2
4
46
60
11
11
36
1
1
50 - ---Nine or more. _______
163
39
1
28
48
36
36
11
11
28 -----
-----
-----
-----
-----
39 ---- --
1
48 -----
Members of family living together.
As we have seen, Table 20 considers all breadwinning women,
irrespective of their marital status, but it is significant to study the
problem in conjunction with the conjugal condition.
Table 21 throws some light on the varying economic importance
of the single breadwinning women. The outstanding facts in the
table are that seven out of every hundred daughters who lived with
parent or parents were sole breadwinners in the family, and that a
third of those who were classified as one of two breadwinners were in
families of more than three members having no male breadwinner.
In all, 43 per cent of the single women breadwinners were living ·with
parent or parents. Almost 30 per cent were boarding or lodging, and
slightly more than 27 per cent were living with relatives, maip.taining
homes independently, living with employers, or were domiciled in
institutions. Since in the tabulations on this subject only members
of the family living together were included, no information as to ·the
number of breadwinners for the families of women who were boarding
or lodging is available. These women may have been supporting or
helping to support absent ·families or may themselves have been
recipients of help from breadwinning fathers, brothers, or sisters.
According to the methods of the Bureau of the Census information
for a woman boarding or lodging wa.s taken as for an unrelated
individual.
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TABLE
21.-Family status and family responsibilities of single women breadwinners-Jacksonville., Fla.
Single women
breadwinners
Family status
Number
reporting
as to
number of
breadwinners in
family
Families in which
daughter was sole
breadwinner
Families in which daughter was one of
two breadwinners
Families in which daughter was one of
three or more breadwinners
Per
cent of
those Averreportage
ing
NumIlllln•
num- ber
ber
in
b er of family
breadwinners
Having men
Per
breadwinners
cent of
those
Averreportage
ing
NumPer
number
cent
number in
of 2- family
ber of Number
breadbreadwinner
wingroup
ners
Having men
Per
breadwinners
cent of
those
Averreportage
Per
ing
Numcent
of
number
num3-orber in
ber of Num- morefamily
breadber
breadwinwinner
ners
group
Number
Per
cent
Total ___________________________ •. ---
4,245
100. 0
2,172
370
17. 0
1. 6
675
31.1
426
63. 0
3.2
1,127
51. 9
1,021
90.6
5.3
Living with parent or parents ______________
1,826
43. 0
1,826
136
7. 4
2. 6
592
32.4
394
66. 6
3. 3
1,098
60.1
1,008
91.8
5.3
724
9
313
41
17.1
.2
300
4
1
(1)
300
100. 0
3.9
3.8
4.0
5.3
58. 6
424
100.0
5
312
17
99. 7
(1)
5
312
17
100. 0
1.0
724
9
313
41
(1)
5.9
5. 0
5.2
6. 8
343
318
8.1
7. 5
343
318
184
108
53. 6
34. 0
115
87
62. 5
80. 6
4.6
5.2
70
8
1. 6
.2
70
8
47
(1)
(1)
4. 7
4. 0
Maintaining home_ •• _-------------------Neither parent living .... ______________
Adult women living independently. __ .
346
8. 2
346
234
67. 6
1. 1
13
(1)
4. 2
49
297
1. 2
7. 0
49
297
5
229
(1)
2. 2
1.1
13
(1)
4.2
Living with relatives. _____________________
Boarding or lodging ________________________
r~v!ng ~i~h e~pl?yer ______________________
1vmg m mst1tut10n_. _____________________
526
1,256
172
119
12. 4
29. 6
4. 1
2. 8
- --
Living with parentsFather a breadwinner ______________
Mother a breadwinner. ____________
Both parents breadwinners ______ • __
Neither parent a breadwinner .•• __ .
Living with motherMother a breadwinner. ____________
Mother not a breadwinner __ _______
Living with fatherFather a breadwinner._. ___________
Father not a breadwinner __________
1
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
7.4
- - - ---
-------- -------- --------------- -------- --------------····a:g·
13
-··cir··
2
115
.6
36. 2
2.4
-··c 3·-- -------2. 2
------- ~
6
2. 0
1
11
157
95
--- ---
41.4
(1)
.3
-------- ---------------5 ···c13·--
45.8
29.9
62
(1)
1. 6
4. 0
(1)
(1)
22
1
(1~
(1
3.1
5. 0
83
24. 0
31
(1)
2.4
29
31
52
(1)
29
2
(1~
(I
2. 5
2. 3
13
16
23
1
4
2.5
424
1
(1)
(1)
(1)
8. 4
(!)
47
1
(1)
-------- -------- 4.3
-------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------------- --------------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -----------·---------- -----·-- ------·- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- ----------·---- -------- -------- -------- --------------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- .................... . . -------- -------- -------- -------- -------77.1
17. 6
5.4
42
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
Tables 22 and 23 summarize corresponding data for the married
and for the widowed and divorced women gainfully employed in
Jacksonville. The average number of children instead .of the average number of persons in the family is given. The average number
of children is based on the total number.of married women, including
those who had no children. The married women in Table 22 are
divided into three groups-those with breadwinning husbands, those
with nonbreadwinning husbunds, and those not living with husbands.
Table 22 again throws into relief the large number of cases where
both husband and wife were earning while the wife was maintaining
a home. It also indicates clearly that married women whose husbands were not living in the family circle stood chiefly in the ranks of
sole breadwinners and that their responsibility frequently did not
extend beyond the care of one child.
The responsibilities ·of those whqse marital ties had been broken
by death or divorce are outlined in Table 23, which reveals nearly
80 per cent of such women who reported on the subject to have been
sole breadwinners in the family.
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TABLE
22.-Family status and family responsibilities of married women breadwinners-Jacksonville, Fla.
Women who were sole breadwinners in family
Married wornen breadwinners
Family status
Number
Per
cent
NumberreportPer
ing
cent
as to
of
numthose
ber of
rebreadportwin- Num- ing
ber numners
in
ber
famof
ily
breadwinners
Married,
husband a breadwinner ___________________
Maintaining home _____
Living with relatives ___
Boarding or lodging ____
Living with employer __
Living in institution ___
Married, husband not a
breadwinner:
Maintaining home _____
Married, husband not Iiving at home.--- -----·
Maintaining home. ____
Living with relatives .••
Boarding or lodging ____
Living with employer.
Living in institution. __
1 Not
7,984
6,648
100. 0
7,891
Average number
Having
Having
Average number
Per men bread- of children in
Per
of ch "ldren in
men breadcent
cent
family
winners
family
winners
of
of
those
those
rerePer
cent
Per
Num- portNum porting
ing
of
ber
cent
ber
18
Unnum18
num18
3-or- Unof 2- Under years Toder years Toder years Tober Num- breadber Num more18
and
tal
18
and tal
of
and
tal
of
18
ber
ber breadwin- years over
years over
years over
breadbreadwinner
winwingroup
ner
ners
ners
group
-- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - 1,119
14
2. 8
5. 2
.3
.2
79
1. 0
79
30
(1)
0. 5
6,005
76.1
5,977
99. 5
0.8
(1)
0. 9
767
9. 7
- - - - - - - - -751
97. 9
1. 6
1. 2
2.8
- - - - - - - --
1,257
15. 7
1,164
1,089
(1)
.8
0.1
.9
17
(1)
13
(1)
3.9
93. 6
.4
(1)
.4
71
6.1
47
. (1)
.1
2. 2
(1)
6.1
32
.1
4
(1)
.3
25
(1)
1. 8
1. 3
3. 0
1
(1)
1. 0
.5
1. 5
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
(1)
(1)
497
434
497
6. 2
87. 3
.7
.7
12.1
38
.1
60
.2
:6
3
1. 3 ----.-- 1. 3
(1)
304
295
97.0
3.8
304
2. 6
. 5 ------ . 5
8
6
1
.3
1 --<i)-- ------ 2.0 2. 0
---.T ------ . . 3
(1)
4. 5
360
99. 2
363
.1 ------ .1
.8
363
3
3
----------- ------- ------ ----- -- ------ -----73
. 9 --·---- ------- ------- ------ ------ ----- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------ ------ ----- ------ ------- ------ ------- ------ ------ ---20
.3 ------- ------- -----·- ------ ------ --- -- ----- -- ----- -- ------- ------- ------ ------ ----- ------ --- ---- ------ --- ---- ------ ------ -------
computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
0.4
(1)
89.0 5,917 100. 0
.9
99. 2
1. 6
1. 2 2.8
.8
11. 0
725
731
------- ---------------- -5,917
-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - (1)
5,261
5,261
714
.9
.9
1.
6
1.2 2.8
88.
1
100.
0
714
11.
9
100.
0
----------------- ----- 213 96. 8 213 100. 0 .4 (1) .4
------(1)
1. 0
. 7 l:7
7
3. 2
7
------ ------ --- -- 411
----------·-.
.
1
(1)
(1)
99.
3
411
.1
3
100.0
.3
1.0
1.3
3
.
7
------- ----·-- ------ ------ --- -(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
24
24
. 2 ------ . 2
1
1
---------- --·---- ------ ------ --- -----------(1)
(1)
(1)
2.2
8
8
1.5
0. 9 2.4
3.
2
5.
3
6
------- --·---- ------ ------ ---------- -------
6,648
5,975
220
414
25
14
220
414
25
H.2
___ ,.. __
83.3
----5,975
74.8
Women who were one of three or more
breadwinners in family
Average number
of children in
family
--- --Total_ - ______________
Women who were one of two breadwinners
in family
TABLE
23.-Family status and family responsibilities of widowed and divorced women breadwinners-Jacksonville, Fla.
WIDOWED
Women who were sole breadwinners in family
Total
Family status
'
Women who were one of two breadwinners in family
Women who were one of three or more
breadwinners in family
Number
Having
Having
Average number
reAverage number
Average numb~r
men
men
Per
Per
Per
of children
portof children
of children
bread
bread
cent
cent
cent
in family
ing
In
family
in family
winners
winners
of
of
of
as to
those
those
those
numrerereber
P er
of
Num- portNum- portNum- porting
ing
ing
cent
Per
bread- ber
ber number numDU.IDof
cent
win18
18
18
ber Num- 3-or- Unber Num- of 2- Unber Unners
der years Toder years Toder years Tobreadof
more
of
of
in
18
and
ber
18
and
tal
ber
18
and
tal
breadbread- years over tal
win- years over
bread- years over
breadfamily
ner
winwinwinwinners
group
ner
ners
ners
group
Number
Per
cent
Total..-·····------------- 3,205
Maintaining home .. __________ __ 2,105
Living with relatives ____________
486
Boarding or lodging _____________
464
Living with employer ____ _______
130
Living in institution .• _________
20
100.-0
3,035
2,3~
78. 9
0.4
(1)
0. 5
451
14. 9
293
65.0
0. 9
0. 7
1. 7
190
6. 3
166
87.4
1. 7
65. 7
15. 2
14. 5
4.1
.6
2,105
449
1,529
18. 7
7.1
4. 7
f)
1)
1. 0
.7
.4
•7
•7
.7
.5
.3
1. 7
1.4
.9
1.0
3
8.6
1.1
.7
158
5
3
1.8
(1)
262
17
12
2
86. 8
94. 5
(1)
.6
.3
.1
.1
182
380
73
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
66. 5
402
.5
•3
.1
.1
394
412
72. 6
91.8
(1)
1. 3
o. 6
1.8
9
4. 6
8
(1)
0.3
0.1
0. 4
1.4
.6
2. 0
1. 3
8
5.8
6
(1)
.4
.1
.5
• 2
(1)
-32
19
6
(1)
5
(1)
(1)
1. 5
3.2
1. 5
.. .., .. __ _ 1. 6
.3
•7
3.3
1. 6
1. 0
------ ------- ------ ------ ------ ----------- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------------ .. ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ -----· ------ ------ ------ ------ -----79
DIVOROED
Total..------ ------------Maintaining home. _____________
Living with· relatives ____________
Boarding or lodging _____________
Living with employer __ _________
Living in institution ___ _________
278
100. 0
194
166
85. 6
0. 7
(1)
o. 7
19
9. 8
12
137
55
49. 3
19.8
25. 5
4. 7
.7
137
33
19
3
2
114 83. 2
(1)
29
(1)
19
2 (1)
2 (1)
.7
1.0
.4
.5
(1)
.7
1.0
.4
.5
15
4
10. 9
10
71
13
2
'Not computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
(1)
2
.8
•5
(1)
--- --- ------ _____-_
45
IN FOUR SELECTED CIT'IES
Home ownership.
Because of the importance of women as an economic factor in
the family, it is of interest to include the question of tenure of homes
among the problems relating to breadwinning women.
Table 24 shows for all of Jacksonville's breadwinning women by
marital status the number who had the security and permanence
of homes owned free of encumbrance, as well as the number who
had the hope and encouragement, though burden, of homes owned
only in part. It is noteworthy that a larger proportion of widows
than of married women with breadwinning husbands owned their
homes in part or in whole.
TABLE
24.-Tenure of home, by marital status of breadwinning women--Jacksonville, Fla.
Women whose
families rented
homes
Marital status
Number reporting
tenure
Women whose families owned homes
I
Number
Per
cent
Number
Encumbrance
Mortgaged not
reported
Free
Per
cent
Num- Per Num- Per Number
cent ber cent ber
Total .. ______________ 10,700
Single _________ _-- -- __ --- --Married, husband a breadwinner ______ ___ ------ -- -Married, husband not a
breadwinner ___________ __
Married, husband not living with family __________
Widowed___________________
__ ---------------Divorced
Marital
status ___
not______
reported __________
1
-8,715
81.4
1,985
18. 6
1,307
12.2
626
5. 9
2,171
1,547
71.3
624
28. 7
396
18.2
218
10.0
10
5,758
4,844
84.1
914
15. 9
591
10. 3
297
5. 2
26
------------12
-------
71
51
71.8
20
28. 2
14
19. 7
6
8. 5
521
2,046
126
483
1,673
114
92. 7
81. 8
90. 5
38
373
12
7. 3
18. 2
9.5
26
272
5.0
13. 3
6.3
12
89
4
2. 3
4. 3
3.2
7
3
(I)
4
(1)
8
-------- ------ ------ ------
52
4
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
The matter of home tenure is correlated with race in Table 25,
from which it is evident that the percentage of negro women breadwinners who owned their homes free of mortgage was in marked
contrast to the small proportion who owned their homes in part
only. Of course, there is no information on the census population
sheets throwing light upon the relative values of homes owned in
part or in whole by the several groups shown in Tables 24 and 25.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
46
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
TABLE
25.-Tenure of home, by country of birth of breadwinning women-Jacksonville, Fla.
Women
whose families rented
homes
Women whose families owned homes
Number reporting
tenure
Country of birth
Free
Number
Per
cent
Number
-
. ..
,
Mortgaged
Encumbrance
not
reported
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Num-
ber
- ---- - - - - --- --Total ___ --------------- 10,700
United States, white _________ 3,376
United States, negro _________ 7,060
0ther countries ______________
264
-
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
8,715
81.4
1,985
18.6
1,307
12. 2
626
5. 9
52
2,438
6,082
195
72. 2
86.1
73. g
938
"978
69
27.8
13. 9
26.1
502
767
38
14. 9
10. 9
14.4
413
184
29
12. 2
2. 6
11. 0
23
27
2
RECAPITULATION OF ESSENTIAL DATA CONCERNING THE
BREADWINNING WOMEN OF JACKSONVILLE, FLA.
A recapitulation of the outstanding facts revealed by the foregoing 23 detailed tables permits the case of Jacksonville's women
breadwinners to be outlined as follows:
1. The approximately 15,700 gainfully employed women constituted nearly
45 per cent of the city's woman population 14 years of age and over.
2. Over 10,000, or nearly: two-thirds, of the gainfully employed women were
negroes, and these -10,000 comprised about 60 per cent of all the negro women
and girls classed as adults in Jacksonville. The 5,126 native white women breadwinners formed 30 per cent of the city's total num~er of white women and girls 18
15 years of age and over. The proportion of foreign-born women was negligible.
3. More than one-half of all the breadwinning women were gainfully employed
outside the home. Thirty-one per cent--chiefly white women-were in factories,
stores, or offices, and nearly a fourth-largely negro women-were at work in the
homes of others as servants or nurses. The chief occupation of white women
working for gain in their own homes was that of taking boarders or lodgers. ·The
business of taking in washing was the principal means of earning money among
the negro breadwinners at work within their own homes.
4. Less than 29 per cent of all the gainfully employed women were under 25
years of age.
5. Seventy-three per cent of the women breadwinners were or had been
married. In this classification were found 82 per cent of the negro and 55 per
cent of the white women gainfully employed.
6. More than 58 per cent of the gainfully employed women who were or had
been married had wage-earning husbands, the native white differing very little
from the negro women breadwinners in the proportion of matrons in this class.
7. Forty-three per cent of the breadwinning matrons were in occupations
which took them outside the home.
8. Over 43 per cent of the matrons had children. Of these gainfully employed
mothers, over 63 per cent had breadwinning husbands.
9. About 30 per cent of the gainfully employed mothers had children under
5 years of age, the proportions in this respect among native white and negro
women not differing markedly. Three-fourths of the breadwinning mothers
with such young children had wage-earning husbands.
10. Approximately 27 per cent of mothers with children under 5 years of age
were working outside the home. An insignificant number of these mothers had
servants living in the home, though more than four-fifths had adult relatives who
may presumably have looked after the babies in the absence of the gainfully
employed mothers. What care was provided for the babies in the case of the
other fifth, the census returns do not indicate.
11. Of the single breadwinning women, 43 per cent were living under the
parental roof; the remaining 57 per cent were economically adrift; that is, they
were maintaining a home independently, boarding or lodging, or living with
relatives or employers, or in institutions.
1e
See footnote 17, p. 24 of this report.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
47
48
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
12. About 77 per cent of the women breadwinners who were or had been
married, reporting on family responsibilities, were m aintaining homes and
probably in most cases carrying the double burden of household duties and
gainful employment.
13. Approximately 2,000, or 19 per cent, of the breadwinning women who lived
with their own families had no men wage earners in the family circle, and 12 per
cent were sole breadwinners for the family. Nearly 200 of these sole breadwinners were in families of from four to nine or more members.
14. Of the women giving information on the subject, 7 per cent of the single
breadwinners, 14 per cent. of the married breadwinner , and nearly 80 per cent
of those with broken marital ties, living in a family group, were report~d as sole
breadwinners in the family.
15: Approximately 19 per cent of the breadwinning women reporting on the
subject lived in homes owned entirely or in part by t he breadwinners of their
families, 12 per cent owning the homes unencumbered.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PART III
DETAILED STUDY OF FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING
WOMEN IN WILKES-BARRE AND HANOVER TOWNSHIP, PA .
. Wilkes-Barre, Pa., though located in the anthracite region, does
not have within its corporate limits a dominating number of mine
workers among its resident wage earners. In fact, of the approximate 150,000 anthracite mine workers to be found within a radius of
100 miles of Wilkes-Barre, only about 5,000 are within the city
limits proper. The city itself is a community of diversified aetivities,
well equipped with the resources of community life. In the immediate vicinity, however, are a number of townships, boroughs) and unincorporated mining communities in which live many wage earners,
half or more of w~om are eng.aged in hard-coal mining. Contiguous
to Wilkes-Barre is the township of Hanover, where not only mine
workers but other wage earners live. As a visitor to Wilkes-Barre
passes from the city limits to Hanover Township there is nothing to
arrest oasual observation in the transition from one place to the other.
Because of the large number of women breadwinners living in Hanover
Township and because of its contiguity to Wilkes-Barre, in which
were employed most ·of the Hanover women working outside their
homes, this township has been included with the city proper in the
study of the family status of the breadwinning women.
These facts should be kept in view in considering the figures in this
section, since they will not, of course, agree with the figures given by
the Bureau of the Census for Wilkes-Barre's breadwinning women
in 1920. The following statement derived from Table 1 in the introduction shows that approximately 30 per cent of the women 14
years of age and over living in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township
were gainfully employed:
Total number of women 14 years of age and over _____________________ 29, 408
Number of women breadwinners 14 years of age and over_____________ 8, 789
Per cent which women breadwinners formed of total female population
14 years of age and over________________________________________
29. 9
As stated in the general introduction and in connection with ..
Wilkes-Barre these gainfully employed women include also all
women who took boarders or lodgers, whether such activity was a
main or only a supplemental source of income.
49
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
50
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
Although the opportunities for wage-earning women outside ·the
home are more diversified in Wilkes-Barre than in ·Jacksonville, the
proportion of women who were breadwinners was markedly smaller
than in Jacksonville. This would indicate that the need to work
rather than the oportunity to work determines the proportion of
women found to be gainfully employed. The race factors entering
into the family status of breadwin:hing women which will be developed
by succeeding tables will account in part for the lesser need for employment in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township.
Occupational distribution.
The breadwinning women of Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township
were re.p orted in fields of labor usually visualize9- by the public in
the term "women in industry." This is apparent from the accompanying statement obtained from Tabie 2 in the introduction·:
Women breadwinners
Number
Per cent
Women working in own homes _______ _____ ____ _____
Women working outside own homes ______________ ___
In factories, stores, or offices _____________ 5, 385
In others' homes __________________ _____ l, 454
1,948
6,839
Women with place of work not reported ______________
2
Total
1 Less
---------------------------------------
8,789
22. 2
77. 8
(1)
100. 0
than one-tenth of 1 per cent.
Unlike Jacksonville, where nearly one-half of the breadwinning
women earned money by gainful labor performed within their own
homes, over three-fourths of the breadwinning women in these :Pennsylvania communities were occupied outside their homes,· over 60
per cent being employed in factories, stores, or offices.
Table 26 reflects the diversification of industry. Nearly 2,000
of the breadwinning women were found in mills and factories, silk:mill occupations being the principal activities in manufacturing life.
Slightly more than 2,000 of the breadwinning women were employed
either in selling trades or in clerical occupations, such as stenography,
bookkeeping, and other kindred employments.
·
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
51
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
TABLE
26.-Industries and occupations in which ·bread-winning women were
employed-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa.
Women bread winners
Industry and occupation
Number Per cent
Total ________ .... __ ...... ______________ . ____ - - - - __ - - -- - -- - -- - - ·_- -- - - - -- .. - - - - -
8,789
100. 0
Manufacturing ______________________________________________________________ _______ _
l , 883
21. 4
Cotton and cotton goods_---- --------------- --- -------- - --- _______________ ____ __ __
31
.4
Silk and silk goods __ - -- -------------------------- ______._________________ _______ _
1,162
13. 2
Spinning ____________________________________________________________ _______ _
Weaving ________ ____ ________________ _____ __ ________________ • ________ _______ _
Edging or other machine operating __________________________________ _______ _
Other factory operations _________ _______ ---------------------------- ---- ___ _
191
34.8
347
276
2. 2
4. 0
3.'9
3.1
Clothing: men's, women's, and children's ___________________________ ~--- - -------
m
l, 3
Confectionery _______________ ... _______________ . _________ ... ______________ _______ _
80
.9
.Printing and publishing, book and job ___ ________________________________ _______ _
26
,3
Other manufacturing ___ :_ __ ________________________ _________ ___ ___ __ __ _______ . __ ._ .. -
469
5. 3
Dressmakers, seamstresses, tailoresses, milliners, and apprentices in shop r employer's home ______________________ ___ ___ _____ ___ _______________ ____ ------- __ . __ _
432
4. 9
Selling trades ___________________________________________________________________ ---
1,062
12. 1
Saleswomen ____ • ___ ________ _______ ____________ ________ __ ____________ - -_-- _____ .
Retail dealers _______________________________________ ·---- _________ ------------ _
· Other selling occupations _______ ------------------------------.- ----------------
956
78
28
10. 9
,9
.3
Telegraph and telephone operators _________________________________________________ _
156
1. 8
Telegraph _________ • _____________ • _______________ • ___________ ________ ___ __ ____ . __
Telephone ____________ . __________________________ _______ _____ -- -----------------
(l
150
.1
l. 7
Clerical occupations __ __________ .. _. __________________________________________ ______ _
1,076
12. 2
Stenographers and typists ______ ____ _______ ___ ___ ___ ______ _____ _______ ____ ______ _
4.44
391
241
5.1
Ma~agerial and professional service ______ ____ _-_____________ __ _____ ------- ~- __ ______ _
631
7.2
Managers and executives _________________________________________________ ______ _
- School teachers __________________________________ • .---- ___ __ -- _______ ----- - -- ___ _
Trained nurses __________________________________ . ________________________ ______ _
Journalists, librarians, and other professional .. -------- -- -- --- -- -- ---~-- -- - -----,
14
436
154
27
1. 8
Domestic and personal service outside worker's home _________________________ ______ _
1,601
18. 2
735
346
· 41
76
95
72
66
154
8. 4
4. 0
.5
.9
1.1
.8
~fg!;~ifrT~~ :~t~~iioi:~ -~~~~~~t-~~~~~~ ~ =========== ======== == ==== =============
Servants living in employer's home_ c _____________________________ ·-----~------Servants living in own home ___________________________________________________ _
Day workers. ___________________________________________________. ___________ • ·
Laundresses in others' homes ______ ----------------------------------------------
~f:a~~::~~tfacif~~~~---_ ~
~-~ ~ ~
Taking boarders or lodgers ____ __ ___ ______ ______ ___________ --- ---~ ---- _________ _
Taking in sewing, millinery, or knitting _____ ___ __________________________ ____ _
Taking in washing __ ---------------------------------------------- ____________ _
Other home service ________________________________ . _______ -- ~--------------- ---
2. 7
.2
5. 0
.3
---- ----
== ====employees
==== ======___
== =·=
====__
==_____________
=== ==== ===== =
== ==== ==~ =
Waitresses and other restaurant
_____
______________
_
Midwives and nurses, not trained __ ____ ____ ___________________________________ _
Other domestic and personal serviee __ "--------·-------------~----a- -------~---Working in own home ___ ____ _______________________________ _____ _________________ __
4. 4
.8
16
1. 8
.2
1,948
'22. 2
1,592
232
57
18. 1
2. 6
67
.8
--------
.6
Only a little over 22 per cent of the nearly 9,000 breadwinning
women living in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township were earning
money through gainful labor performed within the home. The
overwhelming majority of these were reported as taking boarders or
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52
FAMILY STATUS OF BRE'ADWIN'N ING WOM'E N
lodgers. The following statement compiled from census figures
shows that while nearly four times as many women took boarders or
lodgers to supplement the family earnings as the number of women
who were taking boarders or lodgers as a main source of income, the
difference in the average number taken into the family is small.
Breadwinning women taking in boarders or lodgers
Number of
women
Average
number of
boarders or
lodgers
As· main source of income _____ ------------~--------As supplemental source of income ____________________
314
1,278
2. 0
Total _______________________________________
1,592
1. 7
1. 6
The average number of boarders or lodgers per woman, or 1. 7, is
less than in the case of Jacksonville, where, as has been pointed out,
the average was 2.2.
Country of birth and age.
Figures in Table 27 throw light upon the cause of the smaller proportion of women in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township who were
gainfully employed as compared with the proportion in Jacksonville.
While in both cities the overwhelming majority of breadwinning
women were native born, in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township
over four~fifths were native white, as compared with less than a _
third in Jacksonville. Less than one-half of 1 per cent of the breadwinning women in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township were
negroes, as compared with nearly two-thirds in the southern city•
Indeed the number of negro breadwinning women in these Pennsylvania communities was so insignificant that it can be disregarded in
the discussions. The foreign born, on the other hand, whose num bers were of no consequence in Jacksonville, constituted over 18
per cent in the Pennsylvania communities, in actual numbers running over 1,600. In all probability the absence of the negro breadwinning woman accounts in large part for the difference in the
proportions of adult women gainfully employed in Wilkes-Barre .
and Hanover Township and in Jacksonville. In general, the number
of negro families whose incomes are such as to keep women and girls
out of gainful employment is relatively small.
An interesting fact which comes to light in connection with Table
27, only when read in the light of :figures revealed by other studies,
is that the proportion of foreign-born breadwinning women who are
of the earlier immigration from England, Ireland, Wales, _and Germany far exceeds the proportion of immigrants from those countries
among all who come to the Pennsylvania hard-coal reg10ns. In
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53
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
other words, while a relativ€ly small number of immigrants coming
to Pennsylvania are from northern Europe, the proportion of foreignborn breadwinning women as shown in Table 27- that come from
England, Ireland, Wales, and Germany is not fa from the proportion that come from Austria, Italy, Poland, and Russia, which latter
group furnishes much more than one-half of the foreign-born anthracite mine workers.19
TABLE
27.-Nurnber and per -cent distribution of breadwinning women, by coimtry
of birth-Wilkes- B arre and Hanover Township, Pa.
Country of birth
Total ______ ___________________ _____________________________________________ __
United States, white _______________________________________________ ___ ___ _________ _
United States, negro ____ _____ __ ______ ____ ____ ____ ________ ___ -- ------------------- __
England, Ireland, Wales, and Germany (earlier immigration) ______________________ _
Austria, Italy, Poland, and Russia (more recent immigration) __ __________________ __
Other countries __ ___ ______ _____ ______ _______ ___ -- -- - -- _- _-- -- - ------- _-- --- -- --- -- --
Number
Per rent
8,789
100. 0
7,135
16
548
674
416
81. 2
.2
6. 2
7. 7
4. 7
Of the more than 1,100 breadwinning women of non-Englishspeaking races in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, almost a
third had not acquired the English language. Of the 77 5, or over
two-thirds, who had been in this country 10 year or more, 207, or
nearly 27 per cent, spoke no English. These figures apply, as will
be shown by Table 28, to the women of all of the non-Englishspeaking races taken together. There are some marked differences
among the immigrants from the several countries, but the numbers
are not large enough to make the differences as shown by percentages ·
of very -great significance.
11 U. S. Coal Commission: Report on Living Conditions Among .~nthr11Cite Coal Mine Workers.
(Unpublished.)
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
28.-Number and per cent of breadwinning women of foreign birth unable to speak English, by years, in the United States-WilkesBarre and Hanover Township, Pa.
Breadwinning women who had been in the United StatesTotal
Country of birth
':c
0
~~~
Total
T;Jf1
Under 5 years
5 and under 10 years
10 years and over
Years of residence not reported
English- speakinhg speaking ---------r----1----------,----1------------11----------speaking Englis
English
Not
Not
.
Not
Not
.
races
Speak~mg
S peak.mg
Speaking speaking Total
speaking Total
speaking
Total Speaking s_peaking Total
English English
English English
Enghsh English
Enghsh English
--------+----11-- - -1---Total:
Number ____
Per cent_ ___
Austria:
Number __________
Per cent __________
Germany:
Number __________
Per cent __________
Italy:
Number__________
Per cent_ _________
Poland:
Number __________
Per cent __________
Russia:
Number __________
Per cAnt ___ __ _____
Other non-Englishspeaking countries:
Number __________
Per cent __________
1 Not
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----1-----1---- - - - -1-----1-- ---1- - - -
1, 15-7
100. 0
784
67.8
373
32. 2
18
100. 0
133
100.0
82
61. 7
51
38.3
1
.8
117
100.0
116
99.1
•9
66
(!)
42
(1)
24
(!)
339
100.0
199
58. 7
140
41. 3
7
2.1
136
100. 0
92
67. 6
44
32.4
2. 9
366
100.0
253
69.1
113
30. 9
(1)
4
287
100. 0
1 ------------------- ----------
55
41.4
1 ---------- ---------- ----------
2
1. 7
computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
14
(!)
14
(!)
5
2
4
2
2 ---------• 5 ---------- ----------
•
47.4
136
151
52. 6
775
100. 0
25
30
71
53.4c
---------- ---------2 ----------
568
73. 3
207
26. 7
50
21
---------- ----------
102
87.2
101
4.3
29
8
(!)
66
85. 7
11
14.3
6
4. 5
13
11.1
13 ----------
14
5
3
18
5. 3
92
27.1
41
51
222
65. 5
141
81
50
36.8
21
29
71
52. 2
57
14
74
20. 2
39
266
72. 7
190
35
77
100. 0
11
8.1
76
24
6. 6
12
11 ----------
22
2
55
IN FOUR S.ELECTED CITIES
A correlation of data on country of birth with thnse on age, as is
presented in Table 29, shows what might be expected, namely, that
the younger women breadwinners came from the ranks of the native
born, and that the proportion of older women breadwinners was
greatest among women from England, Ireland, Wales, and Germany,
since such women belonged to the older immigration. It is interesting to note that the tendency among girls under 18 years to go
to work was greater in this Pennsylvania city than in Jacksonville,
for 13 per cent of Wilkes-Barre women breadwinners were under 18
years, whereas only 4.5 per cent of such breadwinners in Jacksonville ·were young girls. Almost one-half of the breadwinning women
of Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township were under 25 years of age,
whereas in Jacksonville almost three-fourths were 25 years of age or
older.
TABLE
29.-Country of birth of breadwinning women, by age groups-Wilkes-Barre
and Hanover Township, Pa.
Number and per cent of women whose age was-
Country of birth
Total Under 16 and 18 and 20 and 25 and 30 and 40 and
50
under under under under years Not
19
16
17
re25
30
40
50
and ported
years years years years
years years years over
,....__
--
--
Total:
Number ____________ 8,789
Per cent ____ _________ 100. 0
United
States:__ : __ ____________
Number.
Per cent ___ ___ _____________
England, Ireland, Wales, and
Germany (earlier immigration):
Number_. ________________
Per cent ___________________
Austria, Italy, Poland, and
Russia (more recent immigration):
Number
___________ _______
Per cent ___________________
Other
eountries:
Number __________________
Per cent ___________________
266
7
3. 0
882
10.0
938
10. 7
1,972
22. 4
1,229
14. 0
1,685
18. 0
1,088
12. 4
822
9. 4
0. 1
7,151
100.0
246
3. 4
811
11. 3
870
12. 2
1,805
25. 2
1,011
14.1
1,222
17. 1
667
9.3
514
7. 2
5
.1
548
100.0
6
1.1
17
3.1
8
1. 5
25
4. 6
30
5. 5
114
20. 8
137
25. 0
210
38.3
1
,2
674
100. 0
8
1. 2
41
6.1
41
6.1
103
15. 3
124
18. 4
193
28.6
110
16. 3
54
8. 0
-------------
416
100.0
6
1. 4
13
3.1
19
4. 6
39
9. 4
64
15. 4
56
13. 5
174
41.8
44
10. 6
1
.2
Table 30 reveals the flow of the gainfully employed women in
Wilkes-Barre into o~cupations ou_tside the home during the earlier
years of life and the marked ebb back to inside employment when
mature years and middle age were reached. Ninety-five per cent of
the breadwinning women un,d er 25 years of age in Wilkes-Barre and
Hanover Township were gainfully employed outside the home, while
40 per cent of those 30 years and over were earning money by gainful
labor performed within the home. The youngest workers, those
under 18 years, were employed much more extensively in manufacturing establishments than in other types of work. In fact, not far
from three-fifths of those under 18 were so engaged. Moreover, the
2511 °-25t--5
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56
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
young girls showed a much larger proportion in such work than did
the older girls and women. Although about three-tenths of the girls
and women of from 18 to 25 years were working in factories, approximately 48 per cent were found in commerci al and professional
occupations. In these two latter types of work also were reported
more than two-filths of the women between 25 and 30, but this group
showed a much larger percentage of women working in their own
homes than was found among the women under 25 years. In general
for the women breadwinners of 30 and ov:er, the proportion in manufacturing establishments and in commercial and professional occupations decreased with increasing years, whereas the proportion
working in their own homes increased with advancing age.
The lack of manufacturing in Jacksonville would seem, therefore,
mainly responsible for the relatively few young women who had
become breadwinners there. Wilkes-Barre breadwinning women
were only following the trend shown throughout the ranks of gainfully employed women in America.
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T AB L E
30.-Specifi ed age grou ps of breadwinning women, by industry and occupatio"n-Wi lkes-Barre and Han over Townshi p, Pa.
Women in specified age groups
U nder 16
years
Industry or occupation
16 and 17
years
18 and 19
years
20and under
25 years
25and u nder
30 years
30 and under
40 years
40 and under
50 years
Age
50 years and not
reover
ported
Total
Num- P er
ber .cent
Numb er
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
N umber
Per
cen t
N umber
Per
cent
N umber
P er
cen t
Number
Per
cent
Num•
ber
-Total. .. . . ................. . .......... • • 8, 789
266
100. 0
882
100.0
938
100. 0
1, 972
100. 0
1, 229
100. 0
1, 585
100. 0
1, 088
100. 0
822
Jlan ufacturing . •. ..• ••••••••••••• •••••••••••. 1,883
200
75. 2
458
51. 9
362
ss. 6
502
25. 6
148
12. 0
61
3. 8
109
lO. 0
43
Ootton and cotton goods .••••••••••••••.
31
Silk and silk goods ... . •. •. • . • •• • ••• ••. •. 1, 162
Other manufacturing ••.••••••• • ••••• •••.
690
107
40. 2
.4
02
34. 6
9
329
120
1. 0
37. 3
13. 6
19
213
130
2. 0
22. 7
13. 9
2
28
3l
.1
1.8
2. 0
Dresamakera, seamatresse1, tailoressea ,
milliners, and apprenticea in shop or employer'a home . ••. ~ •••.••.• • •••.••• _..•...••
l
------- -------
···aoi- -·i5T ···io1· ...i!T
201
10. 2
41
3. a
····15·
34
6. 9
3.1
119
18. 6
11
1. 2
22
1.1
88
7. 2
86
6. 4
99
9. 1
Selling trades ••••••••••••••• ••• ••• ••• ••••••• •• 1,062
19
7. 1
109
12. 4
175
18. 7
302
15. 8
154
12. 6
166
9. 8
93
8. 5
Saleswom~n . ••••••••••••••••••••••••• •• •
R etail dealers . . . . •••.. . . ..•..••........ .•
Other selling occupat ions . . . ••• .•....••..
956
78
28
19
7. l
107
2
12. 1
.2
167
1
7
17. 8
.1
.7
291
3
8
U .8
,2
lZ 0
.4
.1
132
18
6
8. 3
1. 1
.4
65
.4
148
5
1
6.0
2. 2
.4
Telegraph and telephone operators •••••••••• •
156
1
.4
6
.6
86
8. 7
62
s. 1
27
2. 2
18
1.1
8
.7
Clerical occupations .•••••• ••••••••••••••••••• 1,076
1
.4
60
8. 8
177
18..9
426
21. 8
212
17. 2
150
9. 5
81
2. 8
------····:.- 1517 1.1. 97 9557 10.6.11
1
.. __ ___
25
2. 7
28
3. 2
------28
3.
0
------- --··--- ----·-- ------1
.1
------- ------- --- ---- ------------- ------- --- -· -- ------- 225 2.. 35
------- ------- ------- ------------- --·---- -------------- -------- _____
196
126
103
9. 9
6. 4
5. 2
7. 6
2. 5
79
30
5. 0
1. 9
10
13
1. 2
192
9, 7
128
10. 4
189
10. 7
72
8. 8
1
143
46
.1
7. 3
2. 3
8
80
37
.7
6. 5
3. 0
2
113
45
2
.1
3
.2
9
482
Stenographers and t y pists .•. • •...... .. . .
Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants .
Other clerical occupations . ..... .... .•.••
391
Jlanagerial and professional senice . •••••••• •
631
Managers and executives ...• ••••••••• •• .
School teachers ... .. . . . . . ... . • ••. ... .. . . _
T rained nurses __ ___ . . ___ . ...... -·-· - -· - _
Journalists, li brarians, and other professional •• _. •.• •• • •• • •••• • ••••• _• •.... .
14
436
154
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
444
241
27
---~... -- ------~
------- ·-·---- ·------ -------
..,
_ ,.
-
87
94
31
24
4
- - - - - - - --7.1
41
2. 6
8
. 1 -- ---- 7. 1
49
16
2. 8
.6
7
.7
.9
------4. 5
·····2·
41
7
100. 00
6. 2
.2
5. 0
.t
7
===-
-------
-------
-------------
-------
------------------.2 -------------------- ------20
2. 4 ------2
. 2 ------7
.9 ·-----11
1. 3 ------42
5. 1 ------64
8. 8
27
25
2
3. 3
3. 0
2
1. 5
29
5
.2
3. 5
.6
.6
6
.7
-----~-------
-------------
TABLE
30.-Specified age groups of breadwinning women, by industry and occupation-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa.-Continued
Women in specified age groups
Under 16
years
Industry or occupation
16 and 17
years
18 and 19
years
20and under
25 years
25andunder
30 years
30and under
40 years
40and under
50 years
50 years and
over
Age
not reported
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Num•
ber
Per
cent
Numb er
Per
cent
Number
Total
Number
Domestic and personal senice outside
worker's home ____________ . ______ ... __ .. ·-_ 1,601
Servants livip.g in employer's home ______
Servants living in own home _____________
Day workers _____ -----------------·----·Laundresses in others' homes ____________
Power laundry workers •• ________________
Cleaners and janitresses. ________________
Waitresses and restaurant keepers _______
Nurses •• ___ • ___________ •• _______ ._. _____
Other domestic and personal service _____
Per
cent
Number
43
16. 2
122
21
16
7.9
6.0
735
346
41 ,.. ______
76 ------2
95
1
72
2
66
154
1
16 .....................
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 133
14. 2
299
15. 2
183
14. 9
326
20.6
232
21. 3
256
31.l
7
59
6. 7
42 __ .,. 4.
8
____
.. ,. _____
70
29
7.5
3.1
169
60
8.6
3.0
1. 6
·.3
.3
1. 2
.1
12
3
22
27
5
.6
.2
1.1
1. 4
.3
6.1
2. 0
.2
.3
2. 5
.2
.8
2. 2
.6
150
58
15
17
12
25
14
32
3
9. 5
3. 7
.9
1.1
.8
1. 6
91
55
11
24
4
18
3
26
8. 4
5.1
1.0
2. 2
.4
1. 7
.3
2. 4
96
61
12
29
6
18
7
27
11. 7
7.4
1. 5
3. 5
.7
2. 2
.9
3.3
4
---·:s· ----13- -·-1:5·
75
24
3
4
31
2
------.4
.8
.4
13. 8
2
3
3
.2
.3
.3
1
15
3
3
11
1
------- ------- -------
-··-:1· -··-·1· -·--:r
10
27
7
.9
2. 0
.2
1
-------------------------2
------.................... ------- -·----- ------- -------
Working in own home ________________________ 1,948
2
.8
9
1.0
17
1. 8
168
8. 5
289
23. Ii
619
39. 1
444
40. 8
400
48. 7
Taking boarders or lodgers _______________ 1,592
Taking in sewing, millinery, or knitting __
232
Taking in washing _____________ __________
57
Other home service ______________________
67
-------
2
.8
3
4
2
.3
.5
.2
4
9
4
.4
1.0
.4
114
20
17
17
5.8
1.0
.9
.9
234
31
19
5
19.0
2. 5
1. 5
.4
511
57
15
36
32. 2
3. 6
.9
2. 3
376
62
34. 6
5. 7
348
49
42.3
6.0
-------------·-----
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
------- ------------- ------------- ------- ------- ..................... ------· -------
6
----:ii- -----f ----:4- -------
c.,,
00
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES ,
59
The type of occupations attractive to women of the several nationalities is shown in Table 31. The native-born breadwinning women
revealed 85 per cent who were wage earners outside the home as
compared with two-thirds of the gainfully employed women of the
earlier immigration and over one-.:-third of those of the more recent
immigration so employed. In all, 46.9 per cent of all the foreignborn women working for gain were performing jobs outside the home.
Of the native-born breadwinners, 23.6 per cent were in manufacturing
establishments, 38.8 per cent were in commercial and professional
pursuits, and only 16. 7 p er cent in domestic and personal service.
In this last type of employment also were found 16.8 per cent of the
breadwinning women from Austria, Italy, Poland, and Russia, but a
much larger proportion (38.7 per cent) of the gainfully employed
women from England, Ireland, Wales, and Germany-the earlier
immigrants. It is interesting to note that both the earlier and more
recent immigrations showed practically the same proportion-about
12 per cent-in manufacturing enterprises. As might be expected,
the women of the earlier immigration, many of whom were Englishspeaking, were more extensively engaged in commercial and prof essional occupations than were the later immigrants. Even so, the
earlier immigrants showed a strikingly smaller proportion in these
same pursuits than did the native-born women breadwinners.
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60
FAMILY STATUS OF BRE.ADWINNING WOMEN
TABLE
31.-Country of birt i of breadwinning women, by industry and occupationWilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa.
United States
England, Irelan'a Wales,
and ermany
(earlier
immigrntion)
Austria, Italy,
Poland, and
R ussia (more
recent
immigration)
Other countries
Numb er
Number
Number
Number
Total
Industry or occupation
P er
cent
Per
cent
Per
cent
------
Per
cent
---
Total. _________ ---------
8,789
7, 151
100. 0
548
100. 0
674
100. 0
418
100. 0
Total working outside the
home ._. ______ .. _._ .. __ . -- -
6,841
6, 07S
84. 9
S67
67. 0
232
S4. 4
169
<10. 8
1, BBS
1,162
721
1,685
2S. 6
14. 8
8. 8
67
37
30
12. 2
83
36
47
48
34
H
H. 5
6.8
5. 5
12. 3
5. 3
7. 0
Manufacturing __________ .
Silk and silk goods ...
Other manufacturing
Dressmakers, seamstresses, tailoresses,
milliners, and apprentices in shop or employer's home __________
Selling trades ____ ________
Saleswomen __ ________
Retail dealers ___ _____
Other selling occupations .. _______ • __
Telegraph and telephone
operators ___ __ ______ . ___
Clerical occupations ____ __
Stenographers and
typists _____ _._._._.
Bookkeepers, cashs
iers, and accountants ..... __________
Other clerical occupations _______ . ____
Domestic and personal
service .... ___________ __
1 Less
424
974
956
78
917
32
28
25
.3
8. 0
4. 4
3. 6
-------- --------
3.4
2
.a
21
9
12
3. 4
1.3
1. 8
6
H
5.0
1. 4
3. 4
2
.3
1
.2
-------- -------23
151
2.1
a
.6
2
14. 4
22
4. 0
11
1. 6
11
2. 6
444
431
6. 0
5
.9
5
•7
3
.7
391
375
5. 2
6
1.1
5
.7
5
241
226
3. 2
11
2. 0
1
.1
3
631
616
8. 6
13
2. 4 -------- --------
14
436
154
14
427
149
.2
6.0
2. 1
27
25
.3
~
1,192
549
7. 7
346
41
256
21
3. 5 _
.3
. s -------- -------~
3
.
1. 2
•7
.'1
------9- ----i:ii- -------- -------- -------- --------------- --- - ---- --------------3
2
.5 -------- -------.Ii
1
.2
--------- --------
1
.2
104
----19. 0
45
6. 7
37
8. g
42
10
7. 7
1. 8
31
7
4. 6
1.0
17
3
4.1
.7
1. 9
16. 7
212
------
735
38. 7
113
16. 8
84
20. 2
1
76
45
.6
15
2. 7
8
1. 2
8
95
88
1. 2
5
.D
1
•I
1
.2
72
44
•6
17
3.1
9
1. 3
2
.5
66
154
55
132
.8
1.8
4
15
.7
2. 7
1
4
.1
.6
6
3
1.4
.7
(1)
-------- --------
16
2
1,948
1,078
15. 1
181
I, 592
769
10. 8
1
232
57
67
204
42
than one-tenth of 1 per cent,
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1. 1
5. 9
lS. 6
.~
12. 8
24
20
.4
8. 2
1,032
~
Servants living in
employer's home __
Servants living in
own home _________
Day workers ______ __
L aundresses in others' homes _________
Power laundry
workers ____________
Cleaners and janitresses _____________
Waitresses and restaurant keepers ____
Nurses ______________
Other domestic and
personal service ____
Total working in own home ..
Taking
boarders
or
lodgers __ . . ____________
Taking in sewing, millinery, or knitting _______
Taking in washing ____ ___
Other home service ______
432
1,062
156
Managerial and professional service_. ___ . ____
Managers and executi ves ______________
School teachers ______
Trained nurses _______
Journalists, librarians, and other professional. ___ • ______
1,055
630
63
2. 9
.6
.9 ---- ~ 1..
ss. 0
3~.
7
1. 0
7
1. 7
442
65. 6
247
59. 4
---
'----
--- ---
428
63. 5
241
57. 9
3
8
3
.4
1. 2
.4
3
2
1
.7
.5
.2
61
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
Marital status.
All of the foregoing tables in this section throw light upon the
character of gainfully employed women in regard to race, country of
birth, ability to speak English, occupational distribution, and age.
The next set of tables, 32 to 36, mark clearly the family status and
the family responsibilities of the breadwinning women as related to
age, occupational distribution, and country of birth.
Table 32 shows at a glance that nearly 69 per cent of the breadwmning women in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township were single,
the remaining 31 per cent being women who were or had been married.
This latter group is, as reference to corresponding data for the breadwinning women in the other three cities discussed in this bulletin
will prove, the smallest proportion of gainfully employed matrons
shown by any of the four cities included in the study. It should be
noted, however, that comparison of the age tables for each of the
four cities will also reveal the fact that there is a larger proportion
of women under 20 years of age among the women breadwinners in
Wilkes-Barre and H anover Township than will be found in any of
the other three cities. Naturally where a larger number of the
gainfully employed women were under 20 years of age there would
be found a larger proportion unmarried.
TABLE
32.-Number and per cent distri bution of breadwinnin g women by marital
status-W ilkes-Barre and H anover To wnship, Pa.
Marital status
N umber
Total _______ _________________________________ ____________ ____ ___ ___ ______ _
Per cent
8, 789
1 - -- - - t --
S
le_-- ---- -- --- living
- -- -- --with
- --- -family
---- -- --- --- - -- --_______
- ---- - ___
--- ____
-- -- __
- - ___
- -- __
---___________
-- ----- -- --_
Ming
arried,
husband
___________
M arried, husband not living with family __ ____ __ _____ ___ ________ __ ____ ____ ___ ___
,v
idowed___
______
__ ____ _____
-- _--- ------ ----- --- -____
-- ----- -________
-- -- -- - -- --- --_
Divorced
_________
__ _______________
___ ______
___ -____
__ -__ ----____ ______
M arital status not reported __ _____ _____ _____ __ ____ __ __________ _____ ___ ________ __
6,0G0
1,537
237
890
44
21
100.0
--
68. 9
17. 5
2. 7
10.1
•5
•2
An analysis of Table 33, relating country of birth to marital status,
sheds light on the family status of the breadwinning women in these
Pennsylvania communities. In the first place, this table discloses
by a brief computation of figures a marked discrepancy between the
proportions of native and of foreign-born gainfully employed women
who were or had been married, the percentages being 22 for the
native born and over 70 for the foreign born. Furthermore, the proportions of native-born and foreign-born women among those whose
. husbands also were breadwinners should be read in the light of the
relativ~ numbers of the native and foreign-born among the woman
breadwinners in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township who were
or had been married, those born in the United States constitut ing
almost three-fifths of the total number of matrons. The tendency
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
62
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
to earn money even though the husband was a breadwinner was
relatively strongest among women from countries of more recent
immigration. Of the 1,559 native-born matrons, 743, or 47 per cent
had breadwinning husbands. The number of foreign-born gainfully
employed women from countries of earlier immigration who were
or had been married is shown to be 320, of whom 109, or over 34 per
cent, had breadwinning husbands. Of the 674 gainfully employed
women born in Austria, Italy, Poland, and Russia, 506 were or had
been married, and 403, or nearly 80 per cent, were living with breadwinning husbands. A further obvious computation of which the
figures in Table 33 are capable discloses the impressive fact that the
1,491 breadwinning women with breadwinning husbands constituted
nearly 55 per cent of the total number of gainfully employed women
who were or had been married.
TABLE
33.-Country of birth of breadwinning women, by marital status-WilkesBarre and Hanover Township, Pa.
Marital status
I
Country of birth
Total
Married,
MarMarried,
ried,
busbusbusband
band
Single band a not
a
not
bread- bread- living
winwinwith
ner
family
ner
Widowed
M arital
Distatus
not' 1 '
vorced
reported ·
- - - -- \
Total:
Number. __________________
Per cent ___________________
8,789
100. 0
6,060
100; 0
1,491
100. 0
46
100. 0
237
100. 0
890
100. 0
44
100. 0
21
100.-0
United States:
Number
----------------------Per cent___________________________
7,151
81. 4
5,572
91. 9
743
49. 8
18
39.1
174
73. 4
586
65. 8
38
8 ,. 4
20
95. 2
548
6. 2
228
3. 8
109
7.3
17
37. 0
29
12. 2
162
18:2
3
6. 8
---------------
674
7.7'
167
2. 8
403
27. 0
8
17. 4
17
7. 2
77
8. 7
1
2. 3
1
4. 8
416
4. 7
93
I. 5
236
15. 8
3
6. 5
17
7. 2
65
7. 3
2
4. 5
---------- ·----
England, Ireland, Wales, and Germany (earlier immigration):
Number
----------------------Per cent .•
_________________________
Austria, Italy, Poland, and Russia
(more
recent
immigration):
Number
_________________________
Per cent_ ________________________
Other countries:
Number. - ----------------------Per cent __ --------------------.---
It is apparent from Table 34, which is a correlation of marital status
and age, that over three-fifths of the single breadwinning women were
under 25 years. On the other hand, approximately 90 per cent of
the married women were 25 years of age or older. A little more than
one-third of the married women were between 30 and 40 years, and
considerably more than one-third (38.6 per cent) 40 years and over.
In this latter age group, however, were found almost seven-tenths
of the widowed and divorced women.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
63
IN FOU R SELECTED CITIE~
TABLE
34.-Marital status of breadwinning women, by age groups- Wilkes-Barre
and Hanover To wnshi p, Pa.
N umber and per cent -of women whose age wasM arital status
Total
20 "'
25
30
40
16
18
50
Under and
:rot
and
and
and
and
and under
16
under under under years
re17
19
and
years years years
25
40
30
ported
50
years years years years over
- - - - - -- ------ - -
--
Total:
Number-- ______ ___ _ 8, 789
Per cen t_ __________ __ 100.0
Single:
Number __ __ __ ____ __ ____ __ 6,000
Per cent_ _____________ ____ 100. 0
M arried
:
Number
__ _______ ______ ___
1, 744
Per cent_ ___ ---- - ---- --- -- 100. 0
Widowed
and_______
divorced:
Number
_______ ___ _ 934
Per cent_ ______ __ _______ ___ 100. 0
MNumber
ari tal status
not reported:
____ _______
___ __ ____
21
266
3.0
882
IO. 0
938
10. 7
1,972
22. 4
1, 229
14. 0
1,585
18. 0
I , 088
12. 4
263
4.3
875
14. 4
927
15. 3
1, 781
29.4
893
14. 7
742
12. 2
3
.2
1
.1
8
.5
166
9. 4
293
16. 5
2
•2
1
.1
17
1.8
4
2
8
----------·--------
822
9. 4
7
0. 1
405
6. 7
169
2.8
5
.1
618
34. 8
413
23.3
271
15. 3
1
•1
41
4. 4
222
23.8
269
28.8
382
40. 9
---- ------ ---
2
3
1
- -- -
-------
1
That the propoi:-tion of women in general working outside the home
was larger than the corresponding proportion in Jacksonville can be
seen by comparing the figures in Table 35 with those in the corresponding table on Jacksonville (Table 11). In the P ennsylvania
communities approximately 96 out of ev ery 100 single bread-winning
women were employed outside the home, as against about 90 in every
100 in Jacksonville. However, in regard to the proportion of women
who were· or had been married, employed outside the home, WilkesBarre and Hanover Township dropped be1ow Jacksonville, the former
place showing 37.3 per cent, as compared with 43 per cent in the
latter city. The situation in the Pennsylvania communities stands
in marked contrast to that in Passaic, where over three-filths of the
gainfully employed women who were or had been married were at
work outside the home. Among the married women at work for
gain, whose husbands were breadwinners, in Wilkes-Barre and
Hanover Township, only 13 out of every 100 were employed outside
the home, though among arried women whose husbands were not
living in the family circle, 76 out of each 100 worked outside the home.
The proportion of widows employed outside the home was not so
great, as not more than an average of 66 out of every 100 were so
occupied.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
64
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
TABLE
35.-Breadwinning women working in their own homes or outside their homes
by marital status-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa.
..
Women working in own homes
Total
number
breadwinning
women
Marital status
Total
Number ·Number
working
alone on employmg
acPer cent own
others
count
Number
Total. . __ -- -- --- ---- - -- -----. - -- -- -- --- - -- --- - Single._ .. _.. ________ .. _. __ ... ____________ • ___ • _____ _
Married, husband a breadwinner __ ----------------·M arried, husband not a breadwinner ________ ________
Married, husband not Jiving with family.----------Widowed __________ . ____ .. _____________ ___ _---------.
Divorced ... _. ___ ......... -. - - ---- -- --- - -·. -. -- - -- . - M arital status not reported .. _____ ------ ____________ .
8,789
1,948
22. 2
J,861
87
6, 060
1,491
46
237
890
250
1,295
30
56
304
13
4.1
228
1,283
24
50
265
22
12
6
6
39
2
44
21
86. 9
(1)
23. 6
34. 2
(1)
11
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
Women working outside their homes
Total
In factories, stores, offices, etc.
Notreported
In others' homes
NumNumTotal
ber
ber
Num- work
Num- Num- workber
ing
ber
as
ber
as
ing NumNum- Per
as
em- alone
embar cent Num- Per ployem- alone
ber
ployon Num- Per ployon
awn ber cent ees
ber cent
ers
ees
own
acaccount
count
Total
Marital status
Total__ ________ _ 6,841
77.8 5,385
61. 3
Single ________________ 6,810
Married, husband a
bread winner ____ ._._ 196
Married, husband not
a breadwinner. _____
16
Married, husband not
living with family __ 181
Widowed . ______ ___ __ 586
Divorced .... _________
31
Marital
not_____
reportedstatus
_____ ____
95.9 4,790
79.0
21
1 Not
13.1
143
9. 6
14
5,245
5
4,738
-- - - - -
-
126 1,454
16. 5
1,341
47 1,020
16. 8
945
'105
38
53
3. 6
46
8
2
6
(1)
1
103
76
8
259
1
~
32.1
31. 3
-------------
(1)
10
(1)
76. 4
65.8
44. 3
(1)
105
305
17
34. 3
(1)
-------
(1)
15
(1)
-------
17
-------
'fl9
14
15
-------
6
6
(1)
68
257
13
(1)
6
---113
2
------------------- ------75
7
8
22
1
2
-------
------- -------
computed, owing to small number involved.
Table 36 shows the marital status of the breadwinning women in
the several occupations listed by the census for Wilkes-Barre and
Hanover Township. Of the 6,060 single breadwinning women, about
three-fourths were in mills and manufacturing establishments, or
in occupations concerned with trade, public, or professional service.
The table reveals the comparative insignificance in such establishments and occupations of the numbers of married breadwinning
women whose husbands were living with them, either as breadwinners
or not. The great majority of these women were gainfully employed
in their own homes-chiefly in taking boarders and lodgers. For
the breadwinning women who were widowed or otherwise separated
from their husbands the occupational distributions were very different.
Although they were rather widely scattered in the matter of occupation there was a much larger proportion of them than of 1the
single women and of the married ones with husband breadwinners,
who were engaged m domestic and personal service outside their
own homes.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
36.-Marital status of breadwinning women, by industry and occupation-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa.
Marital status
1---~------------,-------,-------------------1Marital
st atus
Married, hus• Married, hUS· M arried, hus•
not re•
band not living
Single
band a
band not a
ported .
Widowed
Divorced
with family
breadwinner
breadwinner
Total
Industry or occupation
Per
Number 1 cent
----------------------'1---:1--To&al_·------······································-···
llitanufacturing............................ ............. . . ...
8,789
6,080
Num•
ber
Per
cent
100. 0
1,491
100. O
.3
18. 3
10. 5
Dreamr.kers, seamstresses, tailoresses, milliners, and
apprentioea in shop or employer's home . ·-·--·············
432
319
5. S
18
1. 2
Sellins tn.dea ......•...•.• ·--·······························
1,062
872
14. 4
66
3. 8
TeleJfaph and telephone operatora..........................
Clenor.l occupations . ........................................
Stenographers and typists............. . .................
Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants.................
Other clerical occupations...............................
llitanagerial and professional servioe. .........................
Num•
ber
Per
cent
46
100. O
237
100. O
13
5
10
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Per
cent
Num•
ber
Per
cent
Num·
. ber
890
100. O
44
100. O
21
•9
• 3 ••••••• • ·-· · ··-.7
4
18
11
7. 0
4. 6
21
25
2. 4
2. 8
(1)
15
6. 3
78
8. 2
(1)
28
11. 8
94
10. 6
4
.2
•
8
(1)
(1)
4
5
(1)
(1)
I
1 - - - 1 - - - t - - - - t - - - + - - - - t - - - - t - - --1-- - -1- - - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - - - 1 - - - - + - - - + - - (1)
838
13. 8
29
8. 4
59
956
1. 9
2
(1)
20
6. 6
6
2
16
•3
24
34
78
1. 6
2
(1)
2
.8
3. 8
-------- --------------- -------- ---------------
28
18
.3
3
. 2 ••..••.. .•.•.•••
6
2. 5
1
.1
156
1,076
163
1,032
2. 5
17. 0
2
9
. 1 ........ ........
. 6 ···-·-·· • •••••••
1
12
.4
5. 1
18
2. 0
2
(1) •
3
1. 7
2
2
(1)
3
- - -11 - - - , 1 - - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - · i - - - - + - - - ·1- - 436
7. 2
2
444
. 1 •••• .1. . . . . . .. ..•
4
391
241
368
228
6.1
3. 8
3
4
. 2 .•..•... .•..••.•
. 3 .••••••. .•••••••
631
683
9. 6
13
. 9 •••••••• • •••••••
6
2
2. 5
.8
9
7
.2
1. 0
.8
4
1. 7
29
8. 8
1
.4
1.3
- - -1- - - 1 1 - - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - - 1 - - -1
Managers and executives................................
School teachers..........................................
Trained nurses .. . . . .. ·-·-···········_...................
1ournalists, librarians, and other professional............
Num•
ber
1----+----t---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+----+---+--18
1, 110
637
Saleswomen........ ••••••••••• .•••••••• ••• •• •• . . •••••.•.
Retail dealers. . . • • • • • • . • . •• • .. • . . • • . • • . • . • • • • • . • • • • •• • • •
Other selling occupations .•.•...••••••••..•.•...•.•• ·-···
Per
cent
l===l= ==t===!====!====l====l=====l====l====l====l====!===cl=== = I = = =
29. 1
1,765
28
1,883
1. 9 .••....• ....... .
29
12. 2
46
5. 2
6
(1)
9
31
1, 162
· 690
Cotton and cotton goods .. ·---·--·······---·-···-···-···
Silk and silk goods .. -·- · ·- · · ·- · -·-· . •••.•••••..••. .•••. .
Other manufacturing .... ___ .. _.: -·_ .•. _•. __ .••.•........
Num•
ber
- - - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - -1- - - - 1 - - - - - < - - - -1• - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
14
436
154
27
10
415
112
16
.2
6. 8
2. 3
.3
3
5
2
3
. 2 .....••. .....•..
. 3 ..••••.. ••......
.1
.2
3
TABLE
36.-Marital status of breadwinning women, by industry and occupation-Wilks-Barre and Hanover To wnship, Pa.-Continued
Marital status
1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - --,-- - - - -- 1Marital
status
Married, hus•
band a
breadwinner
Single
Industry or occupation
Total
Married, hus•
band not a
breadwinner
Married, hus•
band not living
with family
Per
cent
Num•
ber
Per
cent
Num-1
ber
Po,
cent
(1)
Num•
ber
12
6
27
6
9. 3
9. 3
2. 7
4. 5
.8
4. 5
1. 8
3.0
.7
23. 6
304
13.9
5. 9
2. 5
1. 3
240
Servants living
living in
in employer's
__ ··-----· ·------· --Servants
own home_.home
__________________________
Day workers _____________ -- ____________________ -------- ~
Laundresses in others' homes _________________________ ___
Power laundry workers ________ _______ __________________
Cleaners and Janitresses •• ____ • __________________________
Waitresses and restaurant keepers _______________________
Nurses
.. _--- -------- - -- --- - ---_____________________
- -- . --- - - -- -- - -- ____
Other domestic
and ---personal
service
.3
1. 3
106
6
.1
1. 3
.2
.7
1. 7
.1
1,948
250
4. 1
l, 295
86. 9
30
(1)
56
1,592
232
57
67
27
168
4
51
.4
1, 26.1
18
84. 7
1. 2
.6
.3
21
3
6
(1)
(1)
(1)
33
1 Not
computed, owing to small number involved.
' Less than one•tenth of 1 per cent.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
42
2.8
.1
.8
8
4
3
5
7
4
9
5
.5
.9
.3
.2
.3
.5
.3
----··a· ···c1r-1
2
(1)"
(1)
---(1) ___
14
3
-------10
4. 2
-----·-- -------- -------- --------
-------- ---·----
(1) •
36. 6
83
83
24
4. 7
5
20
Per
cent
326
70
10. 0
3. 7
14
Num•
ber
38. 8
17. 9
606
222
2
9
80
13
(2)
Per
cent
12. 7
6. 8
3. 0
3. 8
1.3
5. 9
1. 3
1,086
735
346
41
76
95
72
66
154
16
--------2 ···c1r-·
Num•
ber
92
1,601
9
Per
cent
30
16
7
9
3
Domestic and personal senice outside worker's home ••••• -.
Taking boarders or lodgers _____________ _________________
Taking in sewing, millinery, or knitting ______ ______ _____
Taking in washing ___ ____ _______________________________
Other home service _____ • __________ • _____________________
Divorced
not re•
ported
1-- -~--1---,,.----•r----,----1------ -1-----,-.---1-- - - - -- 1-- - Num•
ber
Working in own home _______________________________________
Widowed
14
6
3
40
7
40
16
25
31
8
6
5
3
1
(1)
2
(1)
34. 2
13
(1)
27. 0
2. 8
3. 5
.9
8
(1)
(1)
(1)
4
1
Num•
ber
67
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
Breadwinning · mothers.
The impressive feature of Table 37 is the relatively small propor-t ion of breadwinning matrons in Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township who had no children, only about 34 per cent reporting none
within the home circle. In Jacksonville nearly 57 per cent were
without children. In Passaic, however, there was an even smaller proportion of gainfully employed women without children than is shown
in this table. Moreover, in those Pennsylvania communities, apparently the women who had children were not, as might be expected,
less likely to engage in gainful labor when the husband was living in
the family circle as breadwinner and presumably as chief supporter.
Table 37 shows that over three-fourths of the breadwinning married
women living with wage-earning husbands had children.
TABLE
37.-Breadwinning women who had children, or had no children, by marital
status-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa.
Marital status
Total:
Number....••.•..... ___ .......... . •••••.....•.••.•••••••...••..
Per cent .....••.••................ . .•.••••••••••••••••••••......
Married, husband a breadwinner:
Number __ ........ __ ..... •.. ......•••.• ____ • ___ ... ____ •.•..••.•••••.. •
Per cent._. ________ . .......•........ ___ .. ____ •• --- --- •• --- •• -- . -- •..•.
Married, husband not a breadwinner:
Number ____ ._ .. __ • ___ .... _____ .. ___________ -- -- ----- ----- -- --- •.• --- .
Per cent. __ . _______ ... _.... __ ..... -..•• ----- ---- ----- -- .• - •• ----- -- --. Married,
husband
not living with family:
.
Number
_____________________________________________________________
_
Per cent. __ ••• _______ • _________ .----. -- --- ---- -- -- --- -- -------- -- ----Widowed:
Number
.••. ___
•..• ---- -------.
--- -- -. ••••••••••
-- • -• - • -. --____
--- ••••••••
------ -- --_______
•• -_____________
•• __________
__ ••••
Per cent.___
Divorced:
Number ____________________________________ • ________________________ _
Per cent .. __ ••••. _______________ .. ___ . ______ ._ ... ____ ... ________ ••••••
1 Not
computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Women
Women
who had
who
Women no chilwere or who had dren livhad been children ing in
married
family
circle
______ ,___
2,708
100. 0
1,781
65.8
927
34. 2
1,491
100. 0
1,136
76. 2
· 355
23. 8
46
100. 0
(1)
31
(1)
15
237
100. 0
127
53. 6
110
46. 4
890
100. 0
472
53. 0
418
47. 0
44
100.0
(1)
15
(1)
29
68
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
Additional figures of interest and importance on the subject of
breadwinning mothers are presented in Table 38. This shows at a
glance that between the proportion of the native-born gainfully employed women with children and the pro pr rtion of mothers born in
England, Wales, Ireland, and Germany there was no substantial difference. Among the breadwinning women born in Austria, Italy,
Poland, :and Russia, on the other hand, the percentage having children was 51 per cent in excess of the corresponding :figure for the
native born. As the preceding table showing the large number of
gainfully employed women with breadwinning husbands raises the
question as to the adequacy of the wage of the chief wage earner to
sustain the wife during the period of child rearing, so this table presen ts forcibly the question of race influence in the gainful employment of mothers with children living in the home and requiring
presumably a mother's care and supervision.
TABLE
38.-Breadwinning women who had children, or had no children, by country
of birth--Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa.
Country o! birth
TotaJ..________________________________________
Women who had
Women who had
Women
no children living
children
who
in family circle
were or
had been 1 - - - - - - - , - - -1-- - - - - . - - -married Number Per cent Number Per cent
2, 708
1, 781
65. 8
927
34. 2
1-----11-----11-----1---1---
United Stat.es__ _______ ________ __ ____________________
Ei:igla~d, ljeland, Wales, and · Germany (earlier
m1m1grat10n). · ---·-----------·· -- -------· · --·-· ___
A~1stri~, It!3-lY, Poland, and Russia (more recent
1rnm1grat10n)_ _______ ______________________________
Other countries__ ____________________________________
1,563
902
57. 7
661
42. 3
319
185
58. 0
13t
42. 0
503
439.
87. 3
78. 9
M
68
12. 7
323
255
21.1
Tables 39 and 40 show the number of children by marital status
and by country of birth of mother. Although the married women
with husbands at work show a slightly higher average number of
children than do the other mothers, there is a rather surprising similarity in the figures for all the conjugal groups, each of which shows
an average of between two and three children. Approximately 73
per cent of these mothers had not more than three children and about
30 per cent had but one child. On the other hand, slightly more than
70 per cent had two or more children and approximately 15 per cent
had five or more. As would be expected, the mothers of more recent
immigration had the larger families.
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69
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
TABLE
39.-Number of children of breadwinning mothers, by marital status of
mother-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Townsh~p, Pa.
Women having specified number of children
Marital status
Total
women
having
chi!dren
Average
number
of chil-
2
4
6
8
dren
or
per
more mother
7
---Total:
Number ___ _______________
Per cent_ ________ ________ _ 1,781
100.0
Married,
husband
a breadwinner:
Number
______________
___ _______
Per cent_ _______________________
Married, husband not a breadwinner:
Number _________ _____________ __
Per cent_.__ _____________ _____ __ __
Married, husband not living with
family:
Number ________________________
Per cent_________________________
Widowed:
Number ________________________
Per cent __ ___________ _______ ____
Divorced:
Number ________________________
Per cent_ ____ ________ ________ ___
1 Not
527
29. 6
455
25. 5
317
17. 8
207
11. 6
137
7. 7
83
4. 7
32
1. 8
23
1. 3
2. 7
1,136
100. 0
300
26. 4
270
23. 8
218
19. 2
150
13. 2
101
8. 9
59
5. 2
22
1. 9
16
1.4
2. 8
31
100. 0
(1)
9
13
(1)
(1)
127
100. 0
47
37. 0
37
29.1
23
18.1
12
9. 4
472
100. 0
165
35. 0
132
28.0
70
14. 8
15
100. 0
6
(1)
(!)
3
2
(1)
5
(!)
(1)
4
1
(1)
1
2. 4
------ --------
3
2. 4
2
1. 6
2
L6
1
•8
2. 3
38
33
7. 0
21
4. 4
7
1. 5
6
1. 3
2. 5
8.1
(!)
2
------ ------ ------ ------ - - - - - - )# -- - - - - - - - - - - - -
2. 1
--------
computed, owing to small number involved.
TABLE
40.-Nurnber of children of breadwinning mothers, by country of birth of
mother-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover To wnship, Pa.
Women having specified number of children
Country of birth
Total:
Number __________________
Per cent __________________
United
States:
Number
________________________
Per cent ________________________
England, Ireland, Wales, and Germany
(earlier
Number
____immigration):
____________ ________
Per cent ___ ______ ___________ ____
Austria, Italy, Poland, and Russia
(more
recent
immigration):
Number
_______
___ ____ __________
Per cent _________________________
Other
countries:
Number ________________________
Per cent_ _______________________
Total
women
having
children
Average
number
of
chil8
dren
or
per
more mother
1
2
3
4
Ii
8
7
1, 781
100. 0
527
29. 6
455
25. 5
317
17. 8
207
11. 6
137
7. 7
83
4. 7
32
1.8
902
100. 0
351
38. 9
250
27. 7
137
15. 2
73
8. 1
45
6.0
27
3. 0
1.0
Ll
--------
185
100.0
67
36. 2
55
29. 7
22
11. 9
19
10.3
13
7.0
4
2.2
3
1. 6
2
1.1
--------
439
100. 0
64
14. 6
92
21.0
105
72
16. 4
48
10. 9
37
14
7
3. 3
23. 9
8. 4
3. 2
1. 6
--------
255
100. 0
45
17. 6
58
22. 7
53
20. 8
43
16. 9
31
12. 2
15
5. 9
·6
2. 4
4
1. 6
--------
9
23
1.3
10
2. 7
-------2.3
2. 4
3. 2
According to Table 41, of the gainfully employed matrons who h ad
children, 43 per cent had children under 5 years of age. In this particular, Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township is second only to Passaic, N. J. , where 59 per cent of the breadwinnjng mothers had
children under 5 years. Table 41 shows not only that nearly 55 per
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
70
. F AlvfILY STATUS OF BREAD WINNING WOMEN
cent of the gainfully employed mothers living with wage-earning
husbands had boys and girls under 5 years, but that of the 766
mothers with such young children, 621 or 81 per cent had husbands
employed in gainful work. Only 1.8 per cent of the families showed
children of 18 years and over who were still at school.
41.-- Breadwinning mothers having children of specified age groups at home,
in school, or at work, by marital status of mother-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover
Township, Pa.
TABLE
Marital status
Women
Women
chi!- Women h aving Women having
h aving chil- having
dren
7 and
children 14 and
Women dren 5 and 6
children 18 years
under 14
under 18 years
Total having .years of
of age and overyears
of
of agewomen children
ageagehaving under
children 5 years
of age
At
In
At
In
At
In
At
At
In
At
borne school borne school home school work home school work
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - T otal :
Number_
Percent__
Married, husband
a breadwinner:
Number _______
Per cent _______
Married, husband
not a breadwinner:
Number _______
Percent_ ______
Married, husband
not living with
family:
Number _______
Per cent_ _______
Widowed:
Number _______
Per cent ________
Divorced:
Number_ ______
Per cent_ _______
1 Not
1,781
100. 0
766
43. 0
344
19. 3
180
10.1
36
2. 0
889
49. 9
42
2.4
300
16. 8
269
15. 1
112
6. 3
32
1. 8
466
26. 2
1,136
100. 0
621
54. 7
271
23. 9
130
11. 4
14
1..2
584
51.4
25
2. 2
167
14. 7
163
14. 3
55
,4. 8
20
1. 8
316
27. 8
31
100. 0
(1)
127
100.0
32
25.2
15
11. 8
9
7.1
472
100. 0
21. 6
102
51
10. 8
38
8.1
16
100. 0
(1)
--
6
5
(1)
5
2
(1)
(1)
3
(1)
------
6. 3
74
58. 3
4. 7
12
2. 5
214
46. 3
2. 3
(1)
2
8
:
------- ------------ ------
10
(1)
-----6
11
7 ------
------
15
(1)
(1)
3
12
(1)
-------------
(1)
17
21
16. 5
19
16. 0
5
3. 9
2
1. 6
31
24.4
94
19. 9
83
17. 6
40
8. 5
8
I. 7
96
20. 3
(1)
3
(1)
1
-----------
(1)
2
(1)
6
computed, owing to small number involved.
The readily anticipated importance of the more recent hnmigrants
in the proportion of breadwinning mothers with very young children
is disclosed by Table 42. Were the actual numbers involved not so
small, the large percentage of recent immigrant mothers with young
children, approximately two-thirds, as compared with the 35 per cent
of native born, would be the most impressive disclosure in the table.
Over 56 per cent of the mothers of more recent immigration had
children between 7 and 14 years .old at school as compared with 44.7
per cent of the native-born breadwinning mothers, whereas only 16
per cent of the former and 28 per cent of the latter had children 18
years of age and over at school.
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71
IN FOUR ·SELECTED CITIES
42.-Breadwinning mothers with children · of specified age groups at home,
in school, or at work, by country of birth of mother-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover
Township, Pa.
TABLE
Country of birth
Women
Women
having
Women having Women h aving
having
children
7
children 14 and
children 18
Women children 5
under 18 years
years of age and
Total having and 6 years and under
·of
age14
years
overwomen children of ageof agehaving under
children 5 years
of age
At
In
At
In
At
In
At
In
At
At
home school home school home school work home school work
---- ----------- --
--
Total:
Number_ ____
Per cent_ ____
United States:
Number_ _____ _____
Per rent ___________
England, Ireland,
Wales, and Germany
(earlier immigration):
Number_ _________ _
Per cent _______ ____
Austria, Italy, Poland,
and Russia (more
recent immigration):
Number ___________
Per cent ___________
Other countries:
Number __ ____ ___ __
Per cent_ __________
--
1, 781
100. 0
766
43. 0
344
19. 3
180
10.1
36
2. 0
889
49. 9
42
2. 4
300
16.8
269
15. 1
112
6. 3
1. 8
466
26. 2
902
100, 0
314
34.8
118
13.1
74
8. 2
19
2.1
403
44. 7
20
2. 2
156
17. 3
119
13. 2
69
7. 6
18
2. 0
256
28. 4
185
100. 0
21
11. 4
13
7. 0
10
5. 4
3
1. 6
75
40. 5
5
2. 7
38
20. 5
36
19. 5
24
13. 0
5
2. 7
95
51. 4
439
100. 0
289
66. 8
151
34. 4
66
12. 8
12
2. 7
248
56. 5
10
2.3
61
13. 9
65'
8
1.8
2
14.8
•5
70
15. 9
255
100.0
142
65. 7
62
24. 3
40
15. 7
2
.8
163
63. 9
7
2. 7
45
17. 6
49
19. 2
11
4. 3
7
2. 7
17. 6
32
45
Table 43 throws more light upon the status of breadwinning mothers
with children under 5 years of age. It shows that approximately 30
per cent went out of the home to perform gainful labor· and that the
larg~st single _group of those leaving these very young children at
home was employed in manufacturing establishments. I n respect to
the number of cases where babies were left at home while mothers
went out to work, a comparison of figures for the four cities included
in this bulletin 'reveals the conditions in Wilkes-Barre to have been
better than in two, and worse than in one of the other three cities.
What care was provided for these children the census returns do not
disclose.
2511°-25t-6
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
72
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
43.-Breadwi'N.ning mothers having children of specified age gr.oup3 at h<>m~,
in sel}ool, or at work, by industry or occupation of mother-Wilkes-Barre and
Hanover Township, Pa.
TABLE
Women
Women
Women having
Women having
Women ha.vingcbil- havingchilchildren 14 and
dren
7 and
children 18 years
Total having dren 5 and under
under 18 years
14
of age and
women chi!6 years of
years of
of age-overageIndustry or occupation having dre11
agechi!- under
dren 5 years
of age
In
At
At
In
At
At
At
In
In
At
home school home school home school work home school work
---------Total:
Number ______ _____
Per cent. .. ________
the
home:
Number __ _________
Per cent ___________
1,781
IOO. 0
76.6
34:4
180
889
42
300
269
112
36
32
100. 0 100.0 100. 0 100. 0 100.0 100. 0 100. O· 100: 0 100. 0 100. 0
466
100. 0
Working outside
517
29: 0
231
30. 2
Manufact~ring;
Number_ .. ____
Per cent. ______
Selling trades:
Number _______
Per cent. ______
occupaClerical
tions:
Number_______
Per cent. _______
Managenial' and
professional servJCe:
Number ____ ___
Per cent. ______
Domestic and personal service:
Number ____ ___
Per cent. ... ___
228-
64'
12. 8
8. 4
Working in own home :
Number_ .. ________
Per cent. __________
1, 264
71. 0
69. 8.
133
7. 5
165
7'l
48. 0 39. 4
126
90
16. 4 . 26. 2
119
6. 7
4. 2
4
1. 2
21
,1. 2
4
.5
1
.3
16
.9
.7
32
26
199
19
45. 2 66. 3
189'
70. 3
84
75. 0-
71. 9
268
57. 5
10
23. 8
106
35.3
98
36, 4
42
37. 5-.
12
37. 5
137
29. 4
47
5. 3
3
7.1
28
9. 3
14
5.2
10
8. 9
5
15. 6
37
7. 9
6
.7
r- -----
------
4
1. 3
-----___ __
- .. ----
1
•2
------
72. 2
4&2
50. 8
22. 2
13
26.1
245
27. 6
8
1
2.8
40
4. 4
23
:
5
53'5
-----------
------- ----------- ----- - .
,..
2
1. 1
2
5. 6
12
1. 3
1
2. 4
6
2.0
21
70
20. 3 , 11. 7
10
27. 8
142
16. 0
5
11. 9
55
18. 3
109
IO
27. 8
43'Z
23
101
80
49. 2
54. 8
33. 7
29. 7
179
52. 0
60. 6
-----17
28. 6
2
1. 8
1
.9
29
25. 9
------
------
--·--6
18. 8
28,
25. 0
28.
~ I.
4
.9
89
19.1
198
42. 5
Economic responsibilities..
Tables 44 and 4 7, inclusive,. indicate the :financial responsibilities
of the breadwinning women of Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township.
Table 44 shows for the 6,904 gainfully employed women reported as
part of a family group, both the number who were the sole mainstay
and the number who shared in the support of the family with other
breadwinners- one or more- living in the family circle. It also shows
in how many cases the other breadwinners in the family were all
women. The outstanding facts in Table 44 are that of all breadwinning women living in families of two or more members, over 1,300,
or almost one-fifth, were either sole breadwinners or members of
families in which all the breadwinners were women; and that 144 of
them were sole breadwinners in families of from four to nine or more
members.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
44.-Number of men and women wage earners in breadwinning wpmen's fa,milie$, according to $ize of family-Wilk es-Barre and
Hanove~ Town$hip, Pa.
Families having specified number of wage earners
Size of immediate ill.mily 1
Total
One
Two wage earners
Three wage earners
Four wage earners
Five wage earners
Six or more wage
earners
woman,----------r---------1-----------1- ---------+---------wage
earner
Both Woman
Three Women
Four Wow.en
Five Women
Six or Women
Total wqmen ~~i
Total women ~~
Total wo~en ~~~
Total w~~!n ~~~
Total women ~~~
------------,-----1·- --- ----r---1----1--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- Number________________________
15,904
630
Per cent distribution:
Number of wage-earners__ ___
100. 0
9.1
Sex of wage earners __________ -- ---- -- - ---- --- Two members __________________ _
992
341
Three members _________________ _
1,119
145
Four members __________________ _
1,174
70
Five members __________________ _
37
954
Six members ___ _________________ _
847
23
Seven members _________________ _
718
8
Eight members _______________ __ _
449
5
Nine or more members _________ _
651
1
1 Members
of family living together.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
2,754
39. 9
100. 0
651
766
500
310
222
158
81
66
490
2,264
----17.- 8-- -------82. 2
217
166
62
10
18
11
4
2
434
600
438
300
204
147
77
64
1,689
165
1, 474
23.8
100.0
10.1
89. 9
208
499
45
57
36
16.3
442
287
169
151
323
178
162
124
14~
1, 1J4
41
1,073
547
96.3
7. 9
100. 0
16. 1
9
11
1
6
123
1;39
10(). 0
3. 7
105
261
259
203
106
180
12
12
4
9
4
6
1.1
541
220
98. 9
3.2
100. 0
93
249
255
194
106
176
--219
0.5
-23
145
132
106
141
6
23
145
132
100
141
20
55
'fl
118
-----
99. 5
---•
------20
55
27
U7
74
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
Table 45 summarizes available census data concerning the family
responsibilities of the single-women breadwinners of Wilkes-Barre
and Hanover Township, the figures being arranged according to
domicile status. In addition to the percentages worked out in the
tables, which tell plainly enough their own story, certain computations bring other interesting facts to light. For example, of the
4,565 single-women breadwinners who were living under the parental roof or themselves maintaining homes, there were 739 who were
either sole breadwinners or in families with on.e other wage earner
or with two or more yet having no male breadwinners.
Tables 46 and 47 present corresponding data for the marriedwomen breadwinners and for those who were widowed or divorced.
Less than 10 per cent of the gainfully employed married women
whose husbands were living were sole breadwinners, these women
being chiefly those whose husbands were not living in the family
circle. There were but 17 sole women breadwinners whose husbands were nonbreadwinners and yet living in the family circle.
In four-fifths of the families in which mother and father were wage
earners there was an average of less than two children to be· supported. Where the father was not a member of the family, the
mother was usually the sole breadwinner with one child to support.
As might be expected, a much larger proportion of widowed than
of married· women were sole breadwinners, nearly 60 per cent having
·
the help of no other wage earner in the family •circle.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
45.-Family status and family responsibilities of single women breadwinners-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa.
Families in which
daughter was sole
breadwinner
Single women
breadwinners
l - - - -- - 1
Family status
Number
Per
cent
Families in which daughter was one of
two breadwinners
Families in which daughter was one of
three or more breadwinners
Num- l- - - - - -- - - - l -- - - - - , - - - - - - - - --,----1--- - - -~
ber reHaving men
porting
Per
Per
breadwinners
P er
as to
numo/th~se
Averofth~se1---~--i
Averof
cihJse
ber of
t
age
t
bread- Num- r~por t . n~Num- rel?or .
Per
num- Num- rerno: •
winners
ber
~~~- ber in ber n~cent
ber
ber
numinfamber of famb er of Num- of 2·
in
ber of
ily
breadily
b
d
b
bread· famb d
win~~~- •
er
ily
~fn."
;!~;
- - - - -- - - Having men
breadwinners
Numb
er
AverP
age
ce~~
numof 3-or- ber in
more
famb d
ily
~1~-·
1-4
~
ltj
0
q
___T_o_t_~---___-_-__-_-___-_-___-___-_-___-_-__-_-___- _ - _ ~ _ - 6 - , 0 0 - 0 ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ : ~ : ~ - 3 - , - M - 4 - - n - : - : - 7 - - 2 - , - 9 - W - - g - ~ - ~ - : - - - 6 - . 4
Living with parent or parents _____________ _
4,251
70.1
4,251
186
2. 7
4.4
1,115
26. 2
878
78. 7
4. 5
2,950
69. 4
2,815
95. 4
6. 5
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - -- 1- - - -1- - - - + - - -1- - -·l- - - 4 - -- - - 1 - - - - l• -- -1- - -
Living with parents:
Father a breadwinner _____________ _ 2: 718
Mother a breadwinner ____________ _
13
Both parents breadwinners ________ _
117
Neither parent a breadwinner _____ _
116
Living with mother :
Mother a breadwinner. ____ _______ _
219
Mother not a breadwinner. _______ _
878
Living with father:
Father a breadwinner _________ ____ _
151
Father not a breadwinner _________ _
39
,
________
24. 8
674
100. 0
5. 0
674
-------- --- . ---(1) -------- -------3. 2
6
-------- --------------------------is---(ly------20- ---i7~2- ----3~9- ----·2s- 24.1
5. 6
44. 9
.2
1. 9
1. 9
2,718
13
117
116
3. 6
14. 5
219
878
---------------------152
17. 3
2. 5
86
267
39. 3
30. 4
2. 5
.6
151
39
---------------------(1)
14
2. 5.
37
17
24. 5
{I)
37
5
35. 4
38. 4
33. 7
5. 2
109
34. 7
1. 3
111
314
314
Maintaining home_-----------------------1 - - - - 1 - - - - 4 - - -- - 1 -- - - 1 - - - - - 1 - - -i - - -either parent living ____________ ____ __ _
10. 7
112
112
12
1. 3
43
1.8
Adult women living independently ___ _
3. 3
202
97
48. 0
1.3
68
202
Living with relatives ___ ___________________ _
Boarding or lodging _______________________ _
Living with employer_ ____________________ _
Living in institution ______________________ _
1 Not
464
243
625
163
computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
7. 7
4. 0
10. 3
2. 7
2,044
7
117
75. 2
(1)
2,044
5
117
54
100.0
100. 0
(1)
6.8
4; 4
6. 0
6. 8
(1)
68
100. 0
58. 6
3. 0
3.8
133
459
52. 3
81
392
60. 9
85. 4
5. 0
5. 9
(1)
(1)
3. 8
3. 2
114
8
75. 5
114
100. 0
8
(1)
5. 3
5.1
39
35. 1
2. 5
94
29. 9
94
(1)
4. 4
39
(1)
2. 8
2. 4
67
37
50. 9
18. 3
57
37
(1)
(1)
4. 9
3.6
--------------144
53. 9
-------- --------
60. 7
(1)
l;:d
~
~
a
1-3
t_zj
t,
a
1-4
~
t_zj
r/l
-------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- ------·- _______ --------------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- ----·-·- ·------- -----·-- -------- ---·---- -------- -------.,.
-.::r
01
TABLE
46.-Family status and family responsibilities of married women breadwinners-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa .
.
Married
women breadwinners
Family ~tatus
Number
Per
cent
Women who were sole breadwinners in family
Number rePer
portcent
ingas
of
tonumthose
ber of
rebread- Num- portwinners ber ing
in
numbor of
family
breadwinners
Women who were one of three or more
breadwinners in family
Women who were one of two breadwinners in family
Having Average number
Having men Avera~e number
Per men breadPer
of children in
of children in
breadcent
cent
family
family
winners
winners
of
of
those
those
rePer
recent
Num- portNum- ~ortPer
mg
ing
ber
of
ber
Up18
Un- 18
18
uum- Num- 3-01 • Unnum- Num- cent
der years Toof 2- der years Toder years Toof
ber
ber
of
more
tal
ureaunnd
18
and tal
18
18
and tal
bread- ber bread- years
bread- ber winner years
over
over
years over
winwinwingroup
ners
ners
ner
group
Average number
of children in
fl\mily
1.0
---
--
TotaL __ -----•--- ____
1,774
100. 0
1,739
173
9. 9
1.1
(1)
1. 1
1,233
70. 9
1,217
98. 7
1.8
0.1
1.8
333
19. 1
329
98. 8
2. 4
3. 5
~
Married,
husband a breadwinner ___________________
84.0
1, 41ll
1,463
12
11
5
82. 5
.7
.6
.3
1,463
12
Married, husband not a
breadwinner:
Maintaining home _____
46
2. 6
46
17
(1)
1.3
237
13. 4
202
156
77. 2
1.0
98
92
12
31
4
5. 5
5. 2
.7
1. 7
.2
98
92
12
58
86
12
(I~
(1
1. 5
.8
.1
Married, husband not living at home, ____ ,,,-. ~---Maintaining home ____ _____
Living with relatives _______
Boarding or lodging ________
Living with employer ______
Living in institution _______
11
5
79. 6
1,187
100.0
1.8
(1)
1. 8
304
20.4
304 100. 0
2. 5
1. 0
3.5
1,159
12
100. 0
1. 8
.2
(1)
20.8
304 100. 0
2. 5
1.0
3. 5
5
(1)
5
(1)
.2
.2
1. 9
.2
.2
.2
304
11
79. 2 •l, 159
(1)
12
(1)
11
1. 3
2()
(J)
17
(I)
.9
.7
1.11
9
(1)
8
(1)
.6
1. 6
2.1
(1)
1. 0
2&
12. 9
13
(1)
1.1
.5
1. 6
20
9. 9
17
(1)
1. 9
1. 7
3- 6
(1)
(1)
1. 6
.8
.1
21
5
(1)
(1)
12
1
(1~
(1
1. 2
.6
.5
.4
1. 7
1.0
19
1
(1)
(1)
16
(1)
(1)
1.8
1. 7
1.0
3.6
4.0
------
(1)
(1)
----------------
------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ---------------- ------ ------ ------ ------ ---·-- ----------- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------
1
3.0
------- ------ ------- ------- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ---,-- ----------- ------ ------- ------ ------- ------- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------- . ----- ------ ------ -·---- ------------- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------- ------ ------- ------- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------
1Not computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1,187
------ ------ ------ ------ ----------- ------ ------ ------ ----------- ------ ------ ------ ----------- ------ ----- - ------ ----------- ------ ------ ------ ------
1,491
Maintaining home _________
Living with relatives _______
Boarding or lodging ________
Living with employer_ _____
(1)
TABLE
47.-Family status and family responsibilities of widowed and divorced women breadwinners-Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, Pa.
WIDOWED
Women who were sole bread- Women who were one of two breadwinners Women who were one of three or more
winners in family
in family
breadwinners in family
Number
reAverage
Average
Average
Having
Having
portnumber of
Per men
number of
Per
Per
number of
breadbreading
children in
cent
children
in
cent
cent men
children
in
winners
winners
family
family
of
of
as to
of
family
those
numthose
those
ber
rererePer
of Num- portNum- Per breadNum- portNum- porting
ing
ing
cent
Per
cent win- ber number number
ber numof
3 TTncent
18
18
18
ners
bor Unber N um- or
ber N um- of 2- Under years Total
der years Total
der years Total
of
in
of
of
bre.ad•
more
and
18
ber win• 18
and
ber bread- 18
and
faro•
bread• years
bread·
bread·
over
ily
win•
winwinner years over
win- years over
group
ners
ners
ners
ner
group
Total
Family status
- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Total._. ·······•·••p••·-·····
890
100. 0
742
440
59. 3
1
Maintaining home ...••••• ·--·· ..••
Living with relatives ......• ---·-···
Boarding
or lodging.·······-·-·---·
Living with
employer ______________
Living in institution. ______________
583
65. 5
. 17. 2
583
153
3
3
300
140
51. 5
91. 5
1. 3
153
49
88
17
5. 5
9. 9
1. 9
.6
1 Not
44
20
12
6
6
100. 0
38
computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
31
(1)
0. 5
~
22. 8
83
49.1
1.1
0. 7
1. 9
133
17. 9
86
64. 7
1. 4
1.4
2. 9
0
.1
1. 3
153
26. 2
7. 2
(1)
(1)
77
5
50. 3
45. 5
1. 2
.4
.8
.4
.3
2. 0
130
22. 3
84
64. 6
(1)
1.4
1. 5
2. 9
1. 0
t:;1
(1)
.6
11
.8
.3
2
1. 3
1
.5
•5
0. 5
.4
5
(1)
2
(1)
1. 8
0. 2
2. 0
2
(1)
"
(1)
0. 5
~
0
H
~
H
t:rj
r:/1
1:t·
5
3. 0
5
(1)
2
(1)
1. 8
.2
2. 0
2
(1)
1 (1)
.5
2. 5
3. 0
• 8 -----. 8 ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ·--- -- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ -----___ • 2_ ------ ___ · 2_ --- --- ------ ---- -- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ -- ---- --- - -- ------ ------ ------ -----.4
~
169
3
------ ------ ------------------- -~
------ -----1 "50:0· ------ ------ -----1 ·-ff1 ··c1r· ------ ··20- -·To
------ ------ ------ ------ 2
----------- ............. ------ ------ ------ ------ -·---- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------
20
13
(1)
45. 5
27. 3
12
12
( 1)
13. 6 ____ 6_____ 6_ __ (1)_.
13. 6
~
1. 1
DIVORCED
Total. ______________________ _
►.tj
0
q
0.1
-
Maintaining home. _______________ _
Living with relatives ______________ _
Boarding or lodging ___ ____________ _
Living with employer _____________ _
z
78
FAMILY STATUS OF · BREADWINNING WOMEN
Home ownership.
Tables 48 and 49 disclose by :marital status and country of birth
the extent to which home ownership prevailed among the breadwinning women in the Pennsylvania communities. Table 48 shows
that a larger percentage of the breadwinning women of WilkesBarre and Hanover Township than of the women breadwinners of
Jacksonville or Passaic enjoyed the security and encouragement of
home ownership. Not only did nearly 40 per cent in the Pennsylvania communities live in homes owned in -part or in whole by the
family, but over 23 per cent were in homes free of mortgage. Reference to the other three citie3 ·will disclose the fact that in this particular Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township stands at the head of
the four cities included in this bulletin. It is an interesting fact that
in this locality, too, the married women with breadwinning husbands
trail the list of percentages of such women owning ·homes.
TABLE
48.-Tenure of home, by marital status of breadwinning women-WilkesBarre and Hanover To wnship, Pa.
Women whose
families rented
homes
Marital status
Number
reporting
tenure Number
Women whose families owned homes
Per
cent
Num- P er
ber cent
Number
1
- - - -- -
Per Num- P er
cent ber cent
-- --- -
Number
---
-
4, 142
62. 3
2,507
37. 7
1,547
23. 3
833
12. 5
127
2,508
55. 8
1,988
44. 2
1,273
28. 3
608
13. 5
107
1,418
1, 088
76. 7
330
23. 3
159
11. 2
155
10. 9
39
25
(1)
14
(1)
8
(1)
6
(1)
95
571
17
13
78
420
13
10
(1)
73. 6
(1)
(1)
17
151
4
3
(1)
26. 4
(1)
(1)
8
96
3
(1)
16. 8
(1)
9
51
1
3
(1)
8. 9
(1)
(1)
TotaL __________________ _ 6,649
Single _____ ___ ____ ____ __ ___ ____ _ 4,496
Married,
husband
a breadwin•
ner _________
___ __________
__ __ _
Married, husband not a breadwinner _________ ____ ___ ___ ____
M arried, husband not living
with family
_-·· · -----------Widowed
___ ______
____________ _Divorced _____ ... _._. __._ . . _. -. Marital status not reported ____
EncumMortgaged brance
not reported
Free
------- --- ---
--
16
---- ----------4
---------- ---·-
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
A larger proportion of the native-born women than of the foreign
born were in families owning a home in whole or in part. The women
born in Austria, Italy, P oland, and R ussia showed the lowest record
in this respect. Moreover, the native-born women showed the largest percentage, and the women of the more recent immigration the
smallest percentage in the matter of ownership of unencumbered
homes.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
79.
IN ·FOU R SELECTED · CITIES
TABLE
49.-Tenure of home, by country of birth of breadwinn £ng ,w omen-WillcesBarre and Hanover Township, Pa.
_
Women
whose
families
rented
homes
Country of birth
Number
reporting
tenure N um- Per Num- Per
ber cent ber cent
-
____
T otal ____ -- -------------- --- 6,649 ,_ 4, 142
--United States _____________________ 5,378 3, 252
En gland, Ii:e.land, Wales, and
Germany (earlier immigration}_
345
228
Austria, Italy, Poland, and Russia
(more recent immigration) _______
586
435
Other countries ___ _____ _____ ___ : __
340
227
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Women wbose families owned homes
Free
EncumMortgaged brance
not reported
Num- Per Num- _Per
ber cent ber cent
--- ----- -- -
--
Num•
ber
- --
62. 3
2,507
37. 7
1,547
23. 3
833
12. 5
127
60. 5
2,126
39. 5
1,333
24. 8
681
12. 7
112
66. 1
117
33. _9
77
22. 3
3.8
11. 0
74. 2
66. 8
151
113
25. 8
33. 2
69
68
11. 8
20.0
71
43
12. 1
12. 6
'
2
11
2
RECAPITULATION OF ESSENTIAL DATA CONCERNING THE
BREADWINNING WOMEN OF WILKES-BARRE AND HANOVER
TOWNSIDP, PA.
The salient features of the 24 detailed tables presenting the census data on the family status of women breadwinners of WilkesBarre and Hanover Township are these:
1. Nearly 8,800, or approximately 30 per cent, of the women and girls 14
years of age and over in these Pennsylvania communities were gainfully employed.
In spite of the fact that Wilkes-Barre had a diversity of industries, many of
them woman-employing, this is a. markedly smaller percentage than is shown for
Jacksonville, whose industrial and commercial activities afforded relatively few
avenues of employment for women.
2. Less than a fifth of the women breadwinners were· foreign born. Approximately two-thirds of these foreign-born women were from non-English-speaking
countries. Of the 775 in this group who had been in this country 10 years or
more, 27 per cent still spoke no English.
3. Over three-fourt hs of the women breadwinners were employed outside the
home, 60 per cent of them working in factories, stores, or offices. Of those
earning money by labor within the home, the great majority did so by taking
boarders or lodgers, 80 per cent as a supplemental and 20 per cent as a main
source of income. Both groups, however, took substantially the same average
number of boarders or lodgers.
4. About one-half of the women breadwinners were under -25 years of age.
The percentage under 20 was larger than in any of the other three cities. The
native born predominated among the younger gainfully employed women.
5. Thirty-one per cent of the women breadwinners were or had been marrieda smaller proportion t han is shown for any of t h e other three cities and accounted
for in part by the larger proportion of women under 20 years
age. There was
a wide divergence in this respect, however, between the native and foreign born,
since but 22 per cent of the former as contrasted with 70 per cent of the latter
were or had been married.
6. Of the gainfully employed women who were or had been married, 55 per
cent had breadwinning husbands.
7. Approximately 38 per cent of the breadwinning matrons worked for gain
outside the home.
8. Approximately two-thirds of the matrons had children, and over 63 per
cent of these gainfully employed mothers were living with breadwinning husbands. The women from Austria, Italy, Poland, and Russia show the largest
percentages of matrons with children.
9. Forty-three per cent of the gainfully employed mothers had children under
5 years of age, and a little over four-fifths of these mothers of babies had breadwinning husbands.
10. Thirty per cent of th women with children under 5 were employed oatside the home, in factories, stores, offices, and other places.
80
of
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
81
11. Of the single breadwinning .women, seven-tenths were living under the
parental roof; the other three-tent h s were econ9mi.Q_ally adrift; that is, they were
maintaining a home independently, boarding or lodging, or living with relatives
or employers, or in institutioM.
12. Over four-fifths of the women breadwinners who were or had been married,
reporting on family responsibilities, were m aintaining homes and thus perform•
ing the double role of breadwinners and homemakers.
13. Over 1,300, or almost one-fifth, of the breadwinning women who lived
with their own families had no m en wage earners in the family circle, and 9
per cent were sole breadwinners for the family; 144 of them were sole bread•
winners in families of from four to nine or more members.
14. Over 6 per cent of the single breadwinning women giving information on
the subject, approximately 10 per cent of the married breadwinners, and three•
fifths of those with broken marital ties were reported as sole breadwinners in
the family.
15. Thirty-seven per cent of the breadwinning women reporting on the sub•
ject lived in homes owned in whole or in part by the breadwinners and their
families, 23 per cent owning the homes free of encumbranco.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PART IV
DETAILED STUDY OF FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING
WOMEN IN BUTTE, MONT.
The data available from the census population sheets of 1920 for ·
gainfully employed women in Butte reflect clearly the character of
the commercial activities of this·, the leading city of the State of
Mont ana. As the city is essentially a community in which the industrial and commercial activities revolve about the extraction and
transportation of minerals, such activities a~ are not related to mining are concerned chiefly with serving the needs of the population of
over 40,000.
The accompanying statement taken from Table 1 gives the number of women breadwinners in Butte.
T otal number of women 14 years of age and over __ __________ ~-------- 14, 144
Number of women breadwinners 14 years of age and over __ ___ ___ ___ __ 4, 162
P er cent which women breadwinners formed of total female population
14 years of age and over___________ _____________________________
29. 4
A comparison of these :figures with those for the other four cities
included in this bulletin proves that Butte had the smallest proportion of adult women gainfully employed, though the difference
in this respect between Butte and Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township is immaterial, the former showing 29.4 per cent and the latter
29.9 per cent. In this connection the excess in the number of males
over the number of females in Butte should not be overlooked, as
it has a probable bearing on the proportion of women gainfully employed.
A second statement derived from Table 2 makes apparent that a
little less than three-fourths of these breadwinners were engaged in
labor outside th eir homes.
Women breadwinners
Women working in own homes _____ _____ ______ ____ _
Women working outside own homes ___________ __ ___
In factories, stores, or offices ____________ 2, 390
In others' homes ______ __________ ______
634
Total __________________ _______________
Number
Per cent
1, 138
3,024
27. 3
72. 7
4,162
100. 0
83
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84
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
Occupational distribution.
The occupational distribution of Butte's gainfully employed women as shown in Table 50 reflects the "local service" nature of the
employment opportunities open to the breadwinning women in the
city. Approximately 48 per cent of the entire number were engaged
in the selling trades, public utilities, clerical occupations, or professional ser.vice. Twenty-five·per cent were in domestic and personal
service, and the rest-a little over 27'per cent-w.ere at work in their
own homes, engaged chiefly in taking boarders or lodgers either as
·main or- as a supplemental means of income.
TABLE
50.-lndustries and occupations in which b.read.winning women were
employed'-Butte, Mont.
Women bread'win•
ners
Induistr-y and occupation
Number Per cent
Total ____________ •. _... . . ..... _________________ . ____________________ . __ .. . ______ _
4,162
Manufacturing ____________________________________________________________________ _
Dressmakers, seamstresses, tailoresses, milliners , and apprentices in shop or employer's home _____ ______ _________________________________________________________ _
Selling trades _______ ~ _____________________________________________________________ _
100. 0
39
.!l
80
589
1. 9
12. 0
2. 4
18. 1
12. 2
Oomestic and personal service outside worker's h.ome ______________________________ _
1,on
25. 1
Servants living in employer's_home ___________________________________________ _
Servants
liV'ing in own home ______
~---------------------------------------------p9,y
workers_________________
__________
.. ___________________________________________ _
Fower laundry workers ____ _____________________________________________________ _
Cleaners and janitresse&-________ _______ __________________ ___ ________ ___ ________ _
Waitresses, restaurant keepei's, and kitchen help ________________________________ _
Nurses _________________________________________________________________________ _
Other domestic and ·personal service _______________________________ : ____________ _
2i5
5. 2
7. l
~f;~a1po~:unp~l!1~-~~~-~
-o-~~~~~~s---~
============·==_
:Managerial
.and.:Q?Ofessional
service __================================
_________ _______________________________________
Working- in own lieme ______________________________________________________________ __
501
99
752
1
i
296 " ·
14 - .
83 ·
54
214
77
91
1
1,138
1----1-
Tak;ing boarders or lodgers _________ ------------------------------- ______________ _
Taking·in washing ____ ____ ______________ ______ _______ _____ _____________________ .
Taking-in -sewing, millinery; or knitting ______________ ____ ______________________ _
Other home service __________________ --------------------------------------- ______ .
1,000
27
89
12
. :r
2.0
1. 3
5.1
1.9.
2: 2
21::r
24. .r
.6
2.1
• 3,
€Jensus-figµr.es make possible the·following·statemerrt:
Breadwinning women taking in boarders or lodgers
As main.source of. income __ _________________________ _
As supplemental source of income __________________ _
Total_____________________________________ _
Number of
women
Average numof boarders or
lodgers
354
656
5. 7
3. l
1,.010·
4. 0
These figu:r.es show that although, as in other cities included in
this bulletin, the number relying on boarding- and lodging-house
keeping,as a main source of income was much smaller than the number who took outsiders into the family "merely to supplement the
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8&
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES.
f.a mily income,'' nevertheless those who took boa~ders a,nd lodgers; as
a major occupation were. taking a substa:nti,ally la:rgeL' av.erage number.
This, it will be ;recalled, is in contrast with the situa.tion in Jackson-·
ville and in Wilkes-Barre and H anover Township, where the.difference.
in the average 1mmoe.r· of b-Oarde:r;s taken by those engaged in the
business as a primary and by those in it as a secondary occupation
is not material.. The. practice of taking boarders or lodgers was a
more serious occupati0n, therefore, in Butte- than in the otheli cities.
The woman who depend~d for her main source of income on this means
had an average of almost 6 people not member& of her family to
serve· in her home as compared with the corresponding average of
2 'in Wilkes-Barre and Jacksonville:, while the· w.oman supplementing her family's income averaged over 3. boarders or lodgers ascompared with an average of bet.ween 1 and 2 in. the other cities in-·
eluded in the study.
Country of birth· and- age.The race situation in Butte was quite different f: om that in the
other three localitie£ studied. Although approximately 30 per cent
of the gainfully employed women in Butte, Mont., were foreign born,
according to Table 51, over four-fifths of all of the breadwinning
women in the city were- of Eng_ sh-speaking races. No one of the overseas countries except the British Jisles had' a large enough representation among the gainfully employed women of Butte to warrant a
separate tabulation of its numbers. This situation is a sharp divergence from the racial lines found running through the gainfully employed woman population of Passaic, where not far from 60 per cent
were from non-English-speaking countries. It also presents a
marked, though not so extreme, divergence from the figures in
Wilkes-Barre and Hanover Township, where the foreign-horn gainfully employed women were principally from non-English-speaking
countries. Furthermore, Butte, with negroes constituting less than
1 per cent of the breadwinning women, stands in mai:-ked contrast
to Jacksonville.
TABLE
51.-Numbir and per c-ent distribution of breadwinning. women by country_of
birth-Butte, Mont.
Country of birth
Total __________________________________________ J>__ _______ ______ _____________ _ _
United States, white ________________________________________ _______________________ _
United States, negro _____ _______ _____________________________ ___ ____________ _______ _
Ireland ________________________ ________________ _______________ ___ ___________ ________ _
England and Wales ________________________________________ ____________ _____ __ ____ _
Other countries ____________________________________________________________________ _
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Number Per cent
4,162
100.0
2,899
36
30-5
189
733
69. 7
.9
7. 3
4. 5
17. 6
86
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
Table 52, giving the age groups of the gainfully employed women
in- Butte, disdoses about 33 per cent of all breadwinning women as
under 25 years of age. It is also noteworthy that nearly 59 per cent
of the native-born women breadwinners were under 30 years of age,
that less than 20 per cent of the women born in the British Isles were
under this age, and that about 25 per cent of all of the foreign born
from all other overseas countries combined had not reached the age
of 30 in 1920. The table shows furthermore that the largest single
group of native-born gainfully employed women, about one-fourth
of the total number, were between 20 and 25 years; that of those born
in Ireland the largest number, almost a third, were between 40 and
50 years of age; that of the English and Welsh born gainfully employed
women the largest single group, 28 per cent, were between 30 and 40;
and that in the same age period ·were found the largest single group
of all the other foreign-born women breadwinners ·in the city. It will
be noted that the women breadwinners from England or Walescountries of earlier immigration-were older than the women coming
fro~ countries of more recent immigration. Many women from
countries of earlier immigration doubtless had gainfully-employed
daughters who were born in this country. These, of course, would
not appear among the foreign born even though the parents had not
taken out citizenship papers. With the cessation of immigration
from these countries, therefore, there would be no Irish, English, and
Welsh women of the younger generation to offset the older age groups.
Many of the young breadwinning daughters of women from countries
of more recent immigration probably came as babies from the foreign country.
-The corresponding table from Wilkes-Barre, in which the gainfully
employed women from countries of earlier immigration are kept
separate from those born in countries of more recent immigration,
will reveal a somewhat similar situation, for that table shows th at
approximately two-thirds of the native-born single women in WilkesBarre and Hanover Township were under 30 years of age; approximately four-fifths of the women coming from countries of earlier
immigration were 30 years of age and over, whereas about one-half
of those coming from countries of more recent immigration were
30 years of age and over.
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87
IN FOU R SELECTED CITIES
TABLE
52.-Country of birth of breadwinning women, by age groups-Butte, Mont.
.
Country of birth
Total
Number and per cent of women whose age was-
Under
16
years
16
20
18
aod
and
17
y ears
19
and
under
years
25
years
25
and
under
30
years
30
and
under
40
years
40
and
under
50
years
- -- -- -- -- - - - - Total:
Number __ 4,162
Per cent_ _ 100. 0
United Stat es:
Number _______ _
Per cent ________
Ireland:
Number ________
Per cent. _______
England and Wales:
Number __ ______
Per cent.. ______
Other
countries:
Number
________
Per cent_ _______
305
100. 0
- -- -
310
846
7. 4
20.3
635
15. 3
988
23. 7
705
16. 9
37
155
1 761
25. 9
210
14
16. 4
610
20.8
380
5. 3
286
9. 7
482
1.3
12. 9
7. 2
•5
1
.3
20
6. 6
35
11. 5
89
101
55
4c
29. 2
33.1
18. 0
1. 3
12
53
6. 3
28. 0
43
22. 8
51
27. 0
--------
236
32. 2
181
126
24. 7
17. 2
-------- -------------- - --------
189
Notreported
174
4.. 2
39
0. 9
2,935
100. 0
50
years
and
over
100. 0
1
.5
733
100. 0
.1
1
13
8
6. 9
4. 2
8
4. 2
6
.8
15
2.0
57
106
7. 8
14.5
44.2
10. 6
23
0. 6
-------5
.7
Table 53 should be read in close reference to Ta.bl es 52 and 54,
because, although Table 53 shows that four-fifths of native-born
gainfully employed women in Butte were at work outside their own
homes as compared with slightly more than one-half of the Britishborn women, the difference was due not so much to mother country
as to age influences. In Butte as in all the other cities included in
this bulletin the older bread winnio.g women had drifted in to home
occupations, and Table 52 reveals the British born to have the
majority of the gainfully employed women who were over 30 years
of_ age.
Nearly 53 per cent of those aged 50 years and over were employed
in home labor, chiefly engaged in taking boarders and lodgers, and an
additional 31 per cent were employed in domestic and personal
service. Of those between 40 and 50 years, over 4 7 per cent were
working as breadwinners in their own homes, another . 29 per cent
being occupied by some sort of personal or domestic labor. Of the
women under 25, on the other hand, 95 per cent were working outside
their own homes, approximately 75 per cent being engaged in business
or professional occupations.
2511 °-25t--7
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FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
TAllLE
53.-Country of birth of breadwinning, women, by industry and occupation~
Butte, Mont.
Industry or occupation
Total
Manufacturing--~-------
England
and Wales
Ireland
Other
countries
Number
Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per
ber cent
cent ber cent ber cent
ber cent
- - - -- - - - -
2,899
100, 0
s, 024
2,331
80. 4
39
34
1. 2
TotaL . ...•• _ ---------- 4,162
Total
outside the
homeworking
______________________
United
United
States, white States, negro
Dressmakers, seamstresses, tailoresses, mil
liners, and apprentices
in shop or employer's
home ____ --------------
80
60
Selling trades.-------~---
601
406
36 100. 0
23
(1)
300
100. 0
160
02.
o
189
105
100: 0
733
100. 0
6/i. 6
405
55. 3
4
•5
-- ---- ------
1
-------- --- --- ---
3
1.0
1
.5
16
2. 2
17
5. 6
26
13. 8
52
7. 1
• 3 - -- ---
-------
I
2. 1 -- - -- -
14. Q,
Telegraph and telephone
operators ________ __ ____
99
95
3. 3,
.3
3
.t
752
699
24.1
------ ----------- ---- -·
1
Clerical occupations _____
4
1.3
15
7.9
34
4. 6
336
313
J0. 8 -- -- -- -- ----
1
.3
7
3. 7
15
2. 0
303
281
9. 7 --- ---
113
105
3. 6 ---- --
509
461
15. 9
3
300
2
285
.1
9. 8
59
110
46
91
1.6
3.1
37
37
1. 3
Domes&ic and personal
service ________________ _ 1,044
676
19. 9
215
104
3. 6
296
14
143
6
(1)
4. 9
13
.2 -- ---- - -----
83
53
------
54
27
(1)
214
77
lH
54
91
75
2. 6
1
(1)
1
.3
3
1. 6
11
1. 5
Tota.I working in own home __ 1,138
568
19. 6
13
(I)
145
47. 5
84
44.4
328
44. 7
491
4
16. 9
.1
9
4
(1)
(1)
139
2
45. 6
•7
75
39. 7
2.1
296
13
40. 4
1.8
3
1
1.0
.3
3
2
Stenographers and
typists_ . •• ____ .. __ _
Bookkeepers, cashaccountiers,.
_____________
ants ..and
Other clerical occupations. ___ _______ _
Managerial and profes1ional service ____ • ___ __
execManagers
_________ _
utives ___and
School teachers ____ . _
A rt and music
teachers ___________
Trained nurses __ ____
Journalists, Ii brarians, and othe r
professional. ______ _
Servants living in
employer's:home ___
Servants Jiving_ in
own home _________
Day workers ____ ___ _.
Power laundry
workers ____________
Cleaners
and janitresses _____________
Waitresses restaurant keepers, and
kitchen help _______
Nurses _____ __ ______ __
Other domestic and
personal service ___ _
Taking
boarders or lodgers _____________________
1,010
T aking in washing _______
27
Taking in sewing, millinery, or knitting ______
89
Other home service . . ____
12
64
9
4
11
3. 6
7
3. 7
12
1.6
1
.5
7
1.0
11
5. 8
22
3. 0
- -
~
2
l
(1)
(1)
-----6
- -----2. 0
4
5
2.1
2. 6
7
7
1. o:
1.0
-- ---- ------ ------ -- ----- ----- - -- ---- - -- --- - --- --19
3'
1.8 -- --- .9
1
(I)
(1)
3. 9 ,
(I)
1
1. 9 ------ --- ---
2. 2 ------ _____ .,
. 3 -- ---- ------
owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
(1)
----- --
(1)
1
---- -- --- -- - - - --- -- ---- -___..... _ ------ --- - 5 - ----1. -6
1. 1
2
8
1.1
--1 Not computed,
1.0
3
------ ----- -- -- -- -- ---- -
_ _. ___ ..,
37. 4-
123
40.3
52
42
13. 8
13
6. 9
53
7. 2:
32
3
10. 5
1. 0
15
2
7. I)
1.1
93
3
12. 7
.4
9
3. 0
4
2.1
17
2. 3
10
3.3
7
3. 7
9
1. 2
22
4
7. 2
1. 3
3
5
1. 6
2. 6
74
14
10. 1
1. 9
4
27. 5
274
19
2. 6
1. 6
1.1 ---- -- - --- --
TABLE
54.-Specified age groups of breadwinnin g women, by industry and oceupation- Butte, Mont .
Women in sp~cified age groups
Age
16 and 17
Under 16
years
Indust ry or occupation
years
18 a n d 19
years
20 and under 25 and under 30 and un der 40 and under
25 years
30 years
40 years
50 years
50 years an~
over
T otal
Num•
ber
- -
-
Tota.L •..••• ___ - -- --------------- - --·.
4,162
Manufacturing . . _- - ---- -- - - -----------· -- ·- -
39
Dressmakers, aeamstressea, tailoresses, and
pp1 enLices in shop or employer '11 home.-
39
601
Telegraph and telephone operators __________
99
Clerical occupations .. ·--- ---- - ----- - --- - --- Managerial and pr(?feasional senice_. ___. ___ _
752
509
1, 188
Per
cent
Num•
ber
P er
cent
~ erm-
- - - - - - - --- - - -
Per
cent
N um:
ber
- - --
P er
cent
Num·
ber
Per
cent
·-
~oo.o
174
100. 0
310
100. 0
848
100. 0
63~
ioo. o
988
100. 0
705
~00. 0
442
6
3.4
8
2. 6
4
•6
7
1. 1
9
.9
4
.6
1
.2
.
Number
=
-
23
-----------
1
.8
8
2. 8
8
.9
8
1.S
24
,
20
2. 8
11
IU
26. 3
76
24. 2
116
13. 8
77
12. 1
93
9.4
61
7. 2
27
8. I
8
4. 8
17
6. 5
49
6. 8
16
2.4
7
.7
3
.4
62
29. 9
103
33. 2
308
3~. 4
153
24. 1
97
9.8
27
3. 8
6
1.'
1
.6
27
B. 7
157
18. 6
102
18. 1
124
12. 8
65
9. 2
27
8.1
(1)
59
33. 9
82
20. 0
146
17. 1
153
114. 1
281
28. i
202
28. 7
137
~1. 0
~:~
15
17
8. 6
9. 8
10
17
3. 2
5. 5
31
29
3. V
3. 4
36
43
2
5. 7
6.8
6
.9
48
85
3
15
11
4. 9
8. 6
.3
1. 5
1.1
38
63
6
17
23
5. 4
8. 9
.9
2. ,
3. 3
25
39
3
12
15
5. 7
8. 8
.7
2. 7
3.4
-----------1
27
12
16
3. 8
I. 7
2.3
8
24
11
1.8
5.4
2.5
------
833
47. 2
~34
62. 9
Ii
46. 6
1. 1
5. 2
5
6
(I)
------ --------
---~Ir-- ----.- ----:.i.°3- .-----7 ----2:31)
(1)
7
4. 0
-------------------(1)
16
9. 2
------ ---------------
1-----
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Num• Per N um•
cent · ber
ber
4~
------ --------
Not computed, owing t o small number involved.
Per
cent
- - - - - - - --
(1)
T aking boarders or lodgers __ ___ ________ _
T aking in washing ___ _____ . _____ __ ___ ___ 1, 010
27 ----- Taking in sewing, m illinery, or knitting_
89 -- ---Other home service . __ --·---- - -- · ---- --12 -- -· · 1
Num·
ber
-------r
18
Domestic and personal service .outside work er'a hom~- ··-·--- · ·---- -- ---- -- ------ - ---- 1, 044 1 18
Servants living in employer's home _____
215
8
Servants living in own home ____ ______ __
296
3
D ay workers ____ __ ____ __ _____ ____ ___ ____
14
Power laundry workers _____ __ ____ ______
2
83
Cleaners and janitresses _____________ . ___
1
54
Waitresses, restaurant keepers, and
kitchen help ____ __ • ________ ________ · -214
1
N urses ______ _.• ___ --·- _-- ___ __ __ _____ ___
77 -----Other domestic and personal service. __ __
1
91
Worl~ing in own home ____ ___________ ____ ____
100. 0
--------------
80 ------
Selling trades _·· --- - ___. __ __ _______ __________
Per
cent
- -- -
not
report•
ed
-· -
19
2
---·:.i:2.2
.3
------ --------
18
1
9
5. 8
.3
2. 9
44
8
12
5.2
.9
1.4
46
8
13
7.1
1. 3
2. 0
62
13
24
6. 3
2. 4
I. 3
3
1. 7
10
3. 2
60
7. 1
120
18. 9
373
37. 8
1
.6
5
1. 6
54
6.4
2
1. 1
1
4
: :6
1
3
18. 3
.2
.5
1. 3
3
.4
328
8
32
5
33. 2
41. 8
206
295
13
.8
1. 8
5
3. 2
25
3. 5
23
. 5 __ .., ___ -------- ------
-----:f ---T -----:4-
------ --------
1
------ -------· -----9
•
•
4
2
~
-----------
-------- ------00
~
90
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
Marital status.
The group of Tables 55 to 59, inclusive, taken together affords a
fairly clear picture of the family status of the 4,000 breadwinning
women in Butte as related to country of bir th, age groups, and occupational distribution.
·
In view of the facts that the negro race is not a factor in the
make-up of Butte's woman breadwinning population and that so
large a number of the foreign born are of English-speaking races,
the impressive feature of Table 55 is the large proportion of breadwinning women who were or had been married, only half being single
women. This is almost the exact proportion shown in Passaic, N. J.,
where a majority of the breadwinning women were foreign born.
It will be recalled that Jacksonville had a larger proportion of matrons among its gainfully employed wome:µ, not only when both
white and negro are considered as one group but even when :figures
for the white women are analyzed by themselves. In other words,
Table 55 shows that Butte makes the count stand three out of four
cities with a recor9- showing one-half or more of the gainfully employed women in the matron class. Computation of the :figures in
Table 55 will disclose the fact that of the 2,048 gainfully employed
ma:trons over 48.1 per cent, or nearly one-half, had breadwinning
husbands.
·
TABLE
55.- Number cin d per cent distribution of breadwinning women, by marital
status-.----:-Butte, Mont.
Marital status
; TotaL ____ · ____________ · ------------------------------· _________________ · __
Single __ ___________ ____ ___ -__________ __ _____ -- --- -- -- --- - --- -- -- ---- - ----- - -- -- - M arried, husban~ living with family ____________________________ ______ _________ _
Married, husband not living with family _______ ______ _______ ___ ________________ _
Widowed ___ ___ ____ ___ _____________ ___ ___ ___ ____ _________________ ______________ _
Divorced _____ ______ _________ __ ___ ____ ______ - _-- -_-- __ ______ -__ _--- _-- -- -- -- -- - -Marital status not reported ___ ------------- -------- ___________________________ __
Number
-fer cent
4,162
100. 0
2,114
50.8
23. 7
4.3
17. 4
985
178
726
147
12
3. 5
.3
An analysis of marital condition by country of birth is possible
from Table 56, which reveals that over four-fifths of the single breadwinning women of Butte were native white and that of the 2,935
native white ga~nfully employed women about 60 per cent were
single. In other :words, only about 39 per cent of the native-born
breadwinning women of Butte were or had been married. Further
computations of figures given in the table will show that while less
than 7 per cent of the single women were British born, approximately
30 per cent of the British born and 25 per cent of the other foreign
born gainfully employed wonien in Butte were single, or, when · all
foreign born are considered as one group, it is ~een that 73 per cent
were or had been married. These facts should be vieweq in the .
light of the age gr,oups table, which shows that a much larger prop'ortion of the foreign born than of the native-born breadwinning w~nnen
were 30 years and over.
·
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
91
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
TABLE
56.-Country of birth of breadwinning women, by marital status-Butte,
Mont.
\
Marital status
Country of birth
Total
Total:
Number ..••.••••...•... 4,162
Per cent. .....• ••••...... 100. 0
United States:
Number ...•. •••.••••• ...... 2,935
Per cent. .. ...•...•••••..... . 70. 5
Ireland:
Number ...............•....
305
Per cent. ............... ~ ....
7. 3
England and Wales:
Number ..... .....••.•......
189
4. 5
Per cent .....•...••••.•••.•..
Other countries:
733
Number ..•.•••••..... ......
Per cent ......••......•...... 17. 6
1
Mar•
ried,
bus•
Marital
band Widowed Divorced status
not
not re•
living
ported
with
family
- ---- ------ --------Mar•
Mar•
ried,
ried,
hus•
bus•
Single band
band
not
a
a bread• bread•
winner winner
2,114
100. 0
970
100.0
1,782
84.3
549
56. 6
(1)
92
4. 4
81
8.4
(1)
53
2.5
62
6.4
(1)
187
8.8
278
28. 7
(1)
15
100. 0
178
100. 0
726
100.0
147
100. 0
6
ll9
66.9
368
50. 7
103
70.1
(1)
12
6. 7
111
15. 3
4
2. 7
(1)
1
8
4.5
54
7.4
11
7. 5
---------------
4
39
21. 9
193
26. 6
29
19. 7
(1)
4
12
100.0
--8
1
3
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
The influence•of age on marital status of the breadwinning women
in Butte is more plainly discernible in Table 57, whei·e a sharp
decline in the percentages of single women is found in the age groups
from 25 years on. Beginning with this same age division, we find
a sharp rise occurring in the proportions of married women. The
marked decline in the percentage of married in the 50-years-and-over
age group is probably due to the fact that "married" as used by the
Bureau of the Census includes only those whose husbands are living
in the family circle and that from 50 years on the conjugal ties are
more likely to be broken by death, divorce, or other causes.
TABLE
57.-Marital status of breadwinning women, by age groups- Butte, Mont.
Number and per cent of women whose age was-
Marital status
20
25
30
40
18
50
Total Under 16
and
and
and
and years
and
and under
Not re•
16
under
under
under
19
17
and ported
,40
years years
50
25
30
years years years years years over
- -- -- -- Total:
Number .......•.... 4,162
Per cent .•.. ~ •••...... 100. 0
39
0. 9
174
4. 2
310
7. 4
846
--442
20. 3
635
15. 3
988
. 23. 7
705
16. 9
10. 6
23
0. 6
720
34.1
374
17. 7
326
15. 4
138
6. 5
49
2. 3
•1
104
8. 9
196
16. 9
429
36. 9
284
24. 4
131
11. 3
.3
21
2.4
63
7. 2
233
26. 7
283
324
261
29. 9
.9
1
2
1
8
~
Single:
Number ...•••••••••••••..
Per cent. .••••••••••••••.•
Mil.Tried:
Number .. _______________ .
Per cent. _·--- -----------·
Widowed and divorced:
Number·- --------·------Per cent .. --------··-----Marital
status_________________
not reported:
Number.
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2,114
100. 0
1,163
100. 0
873
100. 0
12
39
1.8
170
8. 0
295
H.0
4
11
------.3
.9
------4
-- ----- ------.5
------------- ------- -------
------- -------
3
4
8
92
FAMILY S-TATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
Tables 58 and 59 reveal by marital status the occupational distribution of Butte's gainfully employed women. As might be expected,
over 70 per cent of the women working outside their homes were
single women, and over four-filths of the single women were gainfully
employed 0111tside the home. From Table 59 it is apparent that the
majority of these single women breadwinners were serving in office
or store or in some professional capacity. Of the women who were
or had been married,, almost one-half (48.2: _p er cent) were ·engaged as
breadwinners outside the home. A large proportion of these matrons
so employed, 55.7 per cent, or more than one-half, were engaged in
domestic and personal service.
·
On the other hand, Table 58 discloses the fact that, of the women
working for money inside the home, over 92.6 per cent were or had
been married, and that more than 51.7 per cent of the gainfully
employed matrons were so occupied within the home·. The business
of taking boarders and lodgers was the prevailing breadwinning
occupation for this group of women.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
58.-Breadwinning women working in their own homes or outside their homes, by marital status-Butte, Mont.
Marital status
Total
number
breadwinning
women
Total women
working in own
homes 1
Women working outside their homes
In factories, stores, offices, etc.
Total
Total
Number Percent Number Per cent
1
.
..
Total
Number
Number
Number Number working
Number working
asem- asemalone
as emalone
on own Number Per cent ploy:ees on own
Number Per cent ployers ployees account
aooount
- --- - -
"
T otal __ --------------------------------Single ________________________________________ •
Married, husband a breadwinner _____________
Married, husband not a breadwinner _________
Married, husband not living with family ______
Widowed ____ . ____ ._. ________ • ____________ • ___
Divorced
__ .. _______
-------------------------Marital status
not reported
____ ______________ _
In others' homes
4,162
1,138
27.3
3,024
72. 7
2,390
57.4
2,114
970
15
178
7~6
147
12
82
693
6
37
284
34
3.9
71.4
(2)
20.8
39.1
23. 1
(2)
2,032
277
9
141
96.1
28. 6
(')
79. 2
60. 9
76. 9
(2)
1,724
222
6
86
272
73
7
81. 6
22.9
(')
48. 3
37. 5
49. 7
(2)
2
442
113
10
13
---------4
----------------8
---------1
2,261
116
634
15. 2
617
1,696
176
4
79
230
70
6
28
308
55
3
55
170
14. 6
300
52
3
53
170
42
2
7
34
3
---------
fO
3
5. 7
(1)
30.9
23. 4
27.2
(')
36
3
17
8
3
---
2
------4
---------
All women work alone without assistance.
'Not computed, owing to small number involved.
1
co
o.:>
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
~
59.-Marital status of breadwinning women, by industry and occupation-Butte, Mont.
Marital status
.
I ndustry or occupation
Total
~
Married,
husband a
breadwinner
Single
Married,
husband not a
breadwinner
Married,
husband not
living with
family
Widowed
Marital
status
not reported
Divorced
l'zj
>~
H
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
· Number
Per
cent
Domestic and persona.I 1errice outaide worker' 1
home ___ .---- -- ----- --------------- - -------Servants living in employer's h ome __ _____
Servants living in own home _______ ___ ___ _
Day workers _____________ ; _____ ____ _______
Power laundry workers ___________ ________
Cleaners and janitresses ____ ____ __ __ _______
Waitresses, restaurant keepers, and
N~~;;~en help _________________ _________ ___
4,162
2,114
100. 0
39
32
1. 5
23. 1
102
148
113
2
43
7. 0
5. 3
.1
2. 0
.1
4
214
77
91
3
88
31
60
1,010
27
89
12
54
1
25
2
1 Not computed, owing to·small numbl:lr involved.
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6. 6
4. 6
488
Taking boarders or lodgers ____ _____ _______
Taking in washing _________
Taking in sewing, millinery, or knitting ___
Other home service _____________________ ___
Less than one-tenth of 1 per <;ent.
64
45 ·
215
296
82
1
1.0
5.8
1, 044
1, 138
_______________
10
56
1. 7
16.0
4.4
29. 4
20. 1
14
4. 2
1. 5
2.8
100. 0
15
100. 0
--------- ---------
35
339
92
622
424
Other domestic and person~! service _______
Working in own home ____ _______ _________ _____
0
970
80
501
99
752
, 509
83
54
-
10. 5
(1)
--------- ----------------- ---------
Number
Number
--12
100. 0
Per
cent
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --178
100. 0
4
2.2
5
20
726
100. 0
147
.1
.7
2.8
11. 2
.6
5. 6
3. 9
24
68
3
39
24
3. 3
9. 4
.4
5.4
3.3
6
18
3
15
9
4.1
12. 2
2. 0
10. 2
6.1
l'zj
(1)
94
52. 8
283
39. 0
61
41.5
9
16
33
2
4
3
9. 0
18. 5
1.1
2. 2
1.7
35
96
8
24
37
4.8
13. 2
1.1
3.3
5.1
9
21
1
1
5
6.1
14. 3
.7
.7
3.4
3
30
2
4
16. 9
1.1
2. 2
49
24
10
6. 7
3. 3
1. 4
14
9
9. 5
6.1
.7
1
t:
30
1
11
6
30
11
9
3.1
1. 1
.9
2
(1) :::
---------
--------(1)
----------------(1)
2
2. 6
660
1
29
3
68. 0
. 1 --------3. 0 --------.. 3
6
t:,:j _
1
~
>
t:l
~
H
1
(1)
37
20. 8
284
39. 1
34
23. 1
(1)
30
2
4
1
16. 9
1. 1
2. 2
.6
234
20
27
3
32. 2
2. 8
3. 7
.4
27
3
4
18. 4
2. 0
2. 7
----------------(1)
~
~00
7
•4
3.1
.1 ::::::: 3
1.1 --------.6 --·------
~
00
0
(1)
71. 4
.1
Per
cent
1
-------·-----------
693
1. 2
Number
1
10
7
3. 9
(2)
Per
cent
\
-----Total .. __ . ____ __ ___--- -- -- -- - --- - ---- --- Manufacturing ___________________________ ____
Dressmakers, seamstresses, tailoresses, milliners, and apprentices in shop or employers'
home ____ ------------------ --- - ------------Selling trades _________ -------- ---·---- -- --- - -Telegraph and telephone operators ___ _____ ____
Clerical occupations ______ _____________ ______ _
Managerial and professional ser vice ____ _______
Number
--------- ---------
z
z
z
0
H
5
2
2
~
0
~
t,,;j
z
95
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
Breadwinning mot.hers.
Tables 60 to 66, inclusive, reveal the number and age groups of
children of the married women breadwinners according to the status
of the conjugal ties and th . country of birth. In. Butte, as in the
other three cities included in this bulletin, it was not the woman
b ereft of the husband's sup ort through death or divorce and forced
into the ranks of breadwinn rs who swelled the number of gainfully
employed women with children. Not only does Table 60 show that
nearly 60 per cent of the women with breadwinning husbands had
children but it brings out what is of equal importance from the viewpoint of social economics, namely, that 55 per cent of all the breadwinning women who had children had breadwinning husbands.
TABLE
60.-Breadwinning women who had children or had no children, by marital
statu.s-Butte, Mont.
Women
Women
who had
who
Women no chilwere or who had dren livhad been children
ing in
married
family
circle
Marital statu
Total:
Number ________________ · ----------------------------------_____
Per cent._______________________________________________________
2,036
100. 0
1,047
989
48. 6
51. 4
t----t---t---
Married, husband a breadwinner:
Number________________ ____ __________________________________________
Per cent._____________________________________________________________
Married,
husband
not a breadwinner:
Number
_______________________________
_ _____ ._______________________
Per cent _________________ ________ ______ _ ____________________ ·-------Married,
husband
not living with ______
family:
Number
______________________
___ _ __________________ -- _____ ___ _
Per cent_______________________________ _ ___________________________ __
Widowed :
Number _________________ -------------- - ------ -- - • -- --- -- --- . ---- --Per cent. __________________________________ _________ -----------------Divorced:
Number ____________________________________________ . _______ .. ________
Per cent _____ ________________ ___________ _________ ____ -- --- _--- -- ___ -- _
1
970
100. 0
15
100. 0
178
100. 0
575
395
40. 7
59. 3
6
60
(1)
9
33. 7
118
66.3
100. 0
726
358
49. 3
368
50. 7
147
100. 0
48
32. 7
99
67. 3
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Analysis by country of bir th, as presented in Table 61, discloses
that the proportion of native-born gainfully employed women with
children in Butte, that is 44.5 per cent, drops considerably below the
corresponding proportions of the foreign born, as 71 per cent of the
breadwinning women born in Ireland, .54 per cent of those of English
and Welsh birth, and 57.6 per cent of those from all other represented
countries had children.
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96
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWIN'NING WOMEN
TABLE
61.-Breadwinning women who had children, or had no children, by country
of birth-Butte, Mont.
Women who had
no children livWomen Women who had
ing in famil:Y
who
-children
circle
were or
had been 1 - - - - - - , - - - - 1 - - - - - - - . - - - married
Number Per cent Number Per cent
Country of birth
I
T otaL _______ --- -- -- - -- -- ------- --- --- ---- -- -- -- United States __________________ --·- ____ -- ·- ---·-•--- _
Ireland ____ ____ _____ __ ______________________________ _
England and Wales _ ________ ______________ ________ . _
Other countries _____ ___________________________ __ ___ _
2,086
1,047
1,145
212
136
543
509
151
74
313
48. 6
989
« .5
71.2
64.4
57. 6
636
55. 5
61
62
28. 8
230
42. 4
45. 6
Table 62, giving the number of children of breadwinning mothers
according to marital status, reveals that 40 per cent of all the mothers
had but one child, and 83 per cent had not more than three children.
Although 60 per cent of all the gainfully employed women with
children had two or more children, less than 8 per cent had five or
more.
TABLE
62.-Number of children of breadwinning mothers, by marital status of
mother-Butte, Mont.
Marital status
Total:
Number_-----·--------Per cent ________________ _
husband
M arried,
Number
____ ___a__breadwinner:
___________ __
P er cent ___ ____ ______ ___ ___ ____
M arried, husband not a breadwinner:
Number_---··-----· ________ -~
P er cent ____ __ ___ _______ ___ ___ _
M arried, husband not living with
Women having spm:i.fied number
Average
Total
of children
number
women i - - - - ~ - . . . . . , . . - -- - - - : - - - - , , - - - . , - - i
of
having
children
2
3
•
5
0
,!g{e mgf~er
children
~
1, 047
100. 0
424
40. 5
279
20. 0
166
15. 9
9. 4
52
5. 0
21
2. 0
3
0. 3
0. 4
575
100. 0
212
36. 9
159
27. 7
101
17. 6
54
Q. 4
31
5. 4
13
2. 3
2
•3
3
.5
6
100. 0
(1)
60
100. 0
33
(1)
15
(1)
9
(1)
(I)
358
100.0
152
42. 5
91
25. 4
48
13. 4
38
19
8
1
1
10. 6
5.3
2.2
.3
.3
48
100. 0
25
(1)
11
(1)
8
(1)
(I)
- - -- 2
3
(1)
(1)
2. 0
------- ------------ ------ ------ ------ -·----·--
2
3
(1)
(1)
1
1
............ ··---- .. ..........
computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1. 7
--·--- ------- ------ ------ ---
2. 2
---------
1. 8
------ ----- ;
----------- ------ ------ ---------
"
1 Not
2. 3
---- -----
1 _. ____
family:
Number
P er cent__--•-----------------_____________ ________ _
Widowed:
Number
_-------- - ------------_
P er cent ______________________
'.Divorced:
Number _____________________ _
P er cent _______ _______________ _
2.2
4
,
IN FOUR SELECTED · CITIES
I t will be observed in Table 63 that the foreign born, particularly
the Irish born, showed not only a higher average in numbers of
children but larger pvoportions having four or more ehild~en.
TABLE
63.-Numbe'1' of children of brea<lwinning mothers, by country of birth of
mo.ther-Butte, Mont-
Gountry ol'birtb
Women having specified number
Average
of children
number
Total
women 1_--.---,----T--~---~---i
of
having
children
l
2
3
•
I
6
!i!e mgf~er
children
--Total:
Number ______________ _
Per cent ___ ____________ _
United
States:
Norn
ber _____ ______________ ___
Per cent ____________________ _
Ireland:
Number ____ _________ ________ _
Per cent ____ ______ ____________ _
England
and_______
Wales:______________ _
Number
Per cent ______________________ _
Other countries:
Number
--------------------_
Per cent___
_____________________
1
-
1,047
100. 0
424
40. 5
279
166
26. 6- 15. 9
98
9. 4
52
5. 0
21
2.,0
509
100. 0
251
49.3
124
24. 4.
76
14. 9
29
5. 7
22
4. 3
7
1. 4
151
100. 0
37
24. 5
42
27. 8
27
17. 9
25
16. 6
12
7. 9
6
4.0
74
100. 0
3lr
19
(l)
11
(1~
(1)
8
(l)·
(1)
31:'3
100. 0
105
33. 5
94,
30. 0
52
16. 6
36
11. 5
5.1
2
16
2
(1)
6
1. 9
3
0.. 3
4
2. 2
0. 4, ---------
2. 0
------ ------------ ------ --------2 -----2. 7
1. 3 ------ --------2. 2
------ (1)1
--------------
1
3
2. 4
•3
1.0
---------
Not computed, owing to small number involv:ed.
Further light on the impor tance of the proportion of breadwinning
mothers among the gainfully employed women of Butte is thrown by
Ta_b le 64, which correlates the school attendance and gainful employment of children according to age groups with the conjugal
condition of the mothers.
Three hundred, or nearly 29 per cent, of the 1,047 breadwinning
mothers- had children under 5 years of ager Thirty-nine per cent of
the gainfully employed women with breadwinning husbands had
children in this age group,, but three-fourths of all the breadwinning
mothers. with children under 5 years had breadwinning husbands.
This table also shows, however, that the percentage of mothers with
breadwinning husbands who had children between 14 and 18 years
of age at work, is markedly smaller than the proportion of widowed
women whose children of this age group were at work. The proportions who had children of these ages at school do not differ substantially. It is interesting to note that Butte reported a larger
proportion of families (4.5 per cent) with children of 18 years of
age and over at school than did the other three sections studied.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
98
TABLE
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
64.-Breadwinning mothers having children of specified age groups at home,
in school, or at work, by marital status of mother-Butte, Mont.
M arital status
Total
women
having
children
Womenhav- Womenhav- Women having Women having
Women ing children ing children
children 14 and
7 and under
children 18 years
having
5 and 6
under 18 years
of age and overchil- years of age- 14 years of
f ageagedren
under
5 years
In
In
At
In
At
At
In
At
At
of age At
home school home school home school work ~ome school work
--- ----- -Total:
Number_
P er cent ._
M arried, husband
a breadwinner:
Number . ______
Per cent_ ___ ____
M arried, busband
not a breadwinner :
Number. ______
P er cent_ ___ ____
M arried, husband
not living with
family:
Number _______
Per cent __ __ __ __
Widowed:
Number _______
Per cimt _____ ___
Divorced':
Numbe: ___ ____
Per cent. ____ ___
1
--
1,047
100.0
300
28. 7
86
8. 2
104
9. 9
25
2.4
497
47. 5
40
3.8
231
22.1
88
8.4
63
6.0
47
4. 5
274
26. 2
575
100. 0
224
39.0
56
9. 7
69
12. 0
15
2. 6
287
49. 9
22
3.8
127
22.1
29
5.0
28
4. 9
29
5.0
106
18. 1
6.
100.0
(1)
60
100.0
(1)
358
100. 0
51
14. 2
48
100. 0
(1)
1
14
10
.
------ ------- ------- ---- ------- -----(1)
3
23
6. 4
(1)
4
(1)
3
5
1
------
-----3
3
23
(1)
(1)
7
2. 0
156
43. 6
14
3. 9
------
(1)
(1)
27
7. 5
(1)
(1)
------
30
(1)
1
(1)
3
12
(1)
83
23. 2
(1)
6
(1)
1
9
------ ------------ ------3
(1)
(1)
46
12. 8
8. 4
(1)
3
30
2
(1)
(1)
1
16
4. 5
(1)
1
4
(1)
(1)
12
142
39. 7
(1)
10
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
A similar grouping of children of breadwinning mothers combined
with the data on country of birth of women occurs in Table 65,
which reveals approximately 30 per cent of the native-born gainfully
employed mothers with children under 5 years of age as compared
with about 25 per cent of the I rish born. E ven of the gainfully
employed mothers born in countries whence arise the more r ecent
streams of immigration, only 32 per cent had children under 5. This
is a rather unexpected disclosure in view of the fact that the proportion of native-born breadwinning mothers who had any children was
substantially smaller than the proportions of the several groups of
foreign born.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
99
IN FOUR SELECTED -CITIES
TABLE
65.-Breadwinning mothers with children of specified age groups at home, ·
in school, or at work, by country of birth of mother-Butte, Mont.
Womrn bav- Womenbav- Women having Women ba ving
Women ing children ing children
children 14 and
7 and under
children 18 years
Total- having
5 a-c.d 6
under 18 years
of age and overwomen cbil- years of age- 14 years of
of ageageCountry of birth having dren
cbil- under
dren 5 years
In
At
In
of age At
At
In
At
At
In
At
home 3chool borne school home school work home school work
---- - --------Total:
Number_ 1,047
104
497
231
300
86
25
40
47
88
63
274
Per cent._ 100. 0
8. 2
22.1
28. 7
9. 9
2. 4
47. 5
3.8
8.4
6.0
4. 5
26. 2
United States:
Number_ _____ _
149
31
509
48
14
217
18
96
43
25
120
28
Per cent_ _______ 100. 0
29. 3
6. 1
9. 4
2.8
42. 6
3. 5
18. 9
8. 4
5. 5
4. 9
23. 6
Ireland :
Number
151
14
47
37
13
1
80
7
16
8
9
55
24. 5
!'I. 3
53. 0
4. 6
31.1 10. ti
5. 3
6. 0
8. 6
7
36. 4
Per cent__====== 100. 0
England andWales:
Number_ ____ __
17
74
14
5
2
34
1
6
10
4
25
7
Per cent_ ___ ____ 100. 0
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
Other countries:
Number_ ______
100
166
14
17
313
36
36
8
71
23
74
9.
Per cent_ ______ _ 100.0
11. 5 11. 5
4. 5
31. 9
53.0
22. 7 7. 3 5.4
2. 9 . 23. 6
2. 6
--
1
--
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Table 66 reveals the avenues of gainful labor into which the_se
breadwinning mothers in Butte were found. Of first importance is
the disclosure that less than a third of the 300 mothers with children
under 5 went out of the home to work, though even this proportion
raises an insistent question as to the care provided for the babies
left behind by these 92 mothers. It must not be overlooked that
the children so treated were under 5 years of age and, in many cases,
infants. About one-half of the women who left children under 5
in order to go out of the home to work were employed in occupations
connected with the world of business and profession.
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100
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
66.- Breadwinning. mo~h.ers· having children of specified age groups at home;
in school, or at work, by industr.y or occupation of mother--Butte, Mont.
TABLE
Women Women havTotal having Jng children,
women
cliH- '5 and i6 years,
Industry or occu- having dren
· of agepation
chi!- under 5
dren
years
of age At
At
home .school
Women hav- Women having
ing children
children 14 and
7 and under
under 18 tears
14 years of
of ageage-
Women having
children 18 years
of age and over-
At
At
At
At
At
At
At
At
home school home school work home school work
--
-
Total :
Number.
Percent..
1,047
100. 0
300
86
100.0 100.0
104
25
100. 0 100. 0
40
497
100. 0 100. 0
231
88
63
100. 0 100. 0 100. 0
47
100. 0
274
100. 0
14
22. 2
14
29. 8
91
33. 2
Working
outside
the home;
Number. .... ..
Per cent. _______
ManufacturingNumber ...
Percent __ __
Telegraph and
telepho ne
operatorsNumber ___
Per cent ____
Belling tradesNumber ___
Per centc ...
Clerical occupationsNumber._
Percent_ ___
Managerial
and · professional serviceNumber ...
Per cent. ___
D omestic and
personal serviceNumber ___
Percent ....
Working
home:
in
386
36. 9
92
30. 7
30
34. 9
33
31. 7
9
36.0
9
.9
1
.3
1
1. 2
1
1.0
------------
178
35. 8
16
40. 0
87
37. 7'
39
44. 3
2
• 9,
2
2. 3
j
2
•2
97
9. 3
48
4.6
-------- ------ ------- ------------- ------ ------- -----4
25
8. 3
4. 7
9
&7
1
4, 0
15
5. 0
5
5.8
4
3. 8
-------------
7 -----1. 4 ------
2
.4
------
45
1··-·;·
9. 1
15.
24
4.8
8
2..7
3
3. 5
1
1.0
201
19. 2
43
14. 3
17
19, 8
18
17. 3
661
63.1
208
69. 3
56
65.1
71
68. 3
29
------ ------
2. 1
-----------
3
6.4'
25
9.1
1
o.
23
10. 0
9
10. 2
2
3. 2
-------- ---
9
3,9
3
3. 4
3.2
3. 2
2
4. 3
1. 5
2
-- -----------
3
1.1
,
:
2.8
1
.4'
------ ------- ---- ------- ------- ------
------
2
5. 0
7
3,0
1
1.1
32. 0
92
18. 5
8
20,0
45
19. 5
27. 3
8
12. 7
8
17. 0
59
21. 5
16
64. 0
319
64. 2
24
144
60. 0
62. 3
49
55. 7
49
77. 8
33
70. 2
183
66. 8
8
24"
2
4
8
1. 6
------
own
Number ______ _
Per cent ________
Economic responsibilities.
Tables 67 to 70, inclusive, throw furt er light upon the family
status of Butte's breadwinning women in revealing not only how
many breadwinners were in the homes of the gainfully employed
women but the extent to which the burden of family support, so far
as the census reveals, fell exclusively upon women. According to
Table 67, of 2,789 gainfully employed women who belonged to families having two or more members nearly 400 were sole breadwinners.
Eighty women were the only breadwinners in 80 families, each
having four or more members. Six hundred and fifty-four women,
or over 23 per cent of the total number, were either sole breadwinners
or in families in which there was no male breadwinner.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
67.-Number of men and women wage earners in breadwinning women's families, according to size of family-Butte, Mont.
Families having specified number of wag~ earners
Size of immediate fa mily
1
Total
2 wage earners
3 wage earn,ers
4 wage earners
5 or more wage earner~
1 woman i-----,-------,----i·- ------:------,-----i -- - --r- - - - = - - - - i----,------,----
~
earner
Number.··· - ---- ------------ --2, 789
396
Per cent distribution:
Number of wage earners_____
100. 0
14. 2
Sex of wage earners _______________ ____________ ___
2 members . ___ ___ __ ____ _____ __ __
3 members ______________ ______ __
4 members ____________________ __
5 members ____ _________________ _
6 members ____________________ __
7 members ________ ____ _________ _
8 members _· --- ----- -- ------- - -9 or more members ___ ____ ____ __ _
1 Members
806
582
464
361
255
159
59
103
223
93
42
19
8
6
Total
1,476
Both
women
Woman
and man
223
1,253
Total
W oi:pen
3 women and
~en
22
527
52. 9
505
15. 1
84. 9
[i83
383
232
131
77
39
22
9
112
55
471
328
210
22
14
16
4
117
61
3?
18
9
•
4 women anWdommeenn
8
270
100. 0
4.2
95.8
106
148
124
71
46
18
14
"16
3
90
145
124
--
3
68
46
18
14
100.0
42
78
65
42
11
32
I5 or more
Total
262
women
Women
and men
115
120
4.3
9. 7
18. 9
100. 0
Total
3.0
--- -4
4
100. 0.
97. 0
42
78
61
42
11
28
--I
--
- - ~
----- ----------------
-
9
34
29
26
~
8
43
8
43
of family living together.
I-'
C
I-'
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
102
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
The family status and family responsibilities of single women
breadwinners are outlined clearly in Table 68 . Approximately 45
per cent may be described as economically "adrift," that is, they
were no longer within the harbor of parent al walls, though less than
two-fifths of the number not living with one or both parents were
boarding or lodging, . in _the usual sense of th ese terms. The others
were maintaining their own homes, living with relatives or with
employers, or were housed in institutions. Except for the women
maintaining homes, the _census does not give any information concerning the families of these single women , either in regard to the
number of members or of breadwinners. It is ·probable that the
single women "adrift" were more or less depend~nt upon themselves,
as frequent investigations have shown gainfully employed women
similarly circumstanced to be not only self-supporting but to be
contributing to the maintenance of one or more relatives.
Of the 1,162 single women breadwinners, living under parental
roof and concerning whose families inform ation was available, 83,
or 7 per cent, were sole breadwinners. Thirty-four per cent were
cl_assified as one of two breadwinners, and ·nearly 59 per cent as one
of three breadwinners. Two hundred and sixty-two, or over 22.5
per cent, of the 1,162 single women breadwinners living at home were
· bread winning daughters in families havi g no men breadwinners.
These 262 added to the 952 single women breadwinners described as
"adrift" constituted nearly 58 per cent of the single gainfully employed women in Butte. The economic problems of these women
were usually more complex than those circumstanced as were the other
42 per cent of single worn.e n who had the help of male breadwinners,
particularly when the male breadwinner was the father of'the family.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
68.-Family status and family responsibilities of single women breadwinners-Butte, Mont.
Families in which
Families in which daughter was one of
Families in which daughter was one of
daughter was sole
two b!-eadwinners
three or more breadwinners
breadwinner
Num1 - - - - - - - 1 ber re- 1 - - - - - - - - - -1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - porting
Having men
Having men
as to
Per
Per
Per
breadwinners
breadwinners
numcent of
cent of
cent of
ber of
those
those
those
AverAverbreadrepart- Averreportrepartage
age
Per
age
wining
ing
NumPer
Numing
NumNumnumcent of numnumPer
ners
ber
cent
number
num- ber
ber
ber
numin
cent
of
ber
in
3-orber
in
in famber of
ber of Num- 2-bread- family
ber of Num- more family
ily
breadber
breadber
bread- family
winner
breadwinwinwingroup
winner
ners
ners
ners
group
Single women
breadwinners
Family statas
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- - - - --Total..---------- . ___________________
2,114
100. O 1,360
205
15.1
1. 6
4'2
32. 5
308
69. 7
3. 8
713
52. 4
627
87. 9
l===l===l===l====l====l====l====l====l====l=====l===::l===:l===:l==
Living with parent or parents______________ 1,162
55. 0 1,162
83
7. 1
2. 5
396
34.1
294
74. 2
3. 9
683
58.8
88. 7
606
1---+----1----1----+---l'----.J----+----+----~- - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - - 1 - - Living with parents:
Father a breadwinner______________
581 ---- . -- -------- -------581
369
314
27.5
63. 5
85.1
212
36.
5
212
100. 0
4. 5
1
(1)
Mother a breadwinner.____________
3 -------- -------- -------1
.1
3
-------2
()
-------- -------4. 0
(1)
Both parents breadwinners________
77
77
77
3. 6
77 --·{15··(1)
(1)
2
(1)
3. 0
3
(1)
3
(I)
4. 3
Neither parents a breadwinner_____
12
12
7
7
.6
Living with mother:
Mother a breadwinner_____________
115 -------- -------- -------(1)
52
45. 2
57
115
5.4
3. 0
63
54. 8
-------Mother not a breadwinner_________
325
325
32.3
127
15. 4
78
24.0
2. 4
105
57
54. 3
3.8
142
43. 7
89. 4
Living with father:
(1)
(1)
(1)
(!)
Father a breadwinner______________
44 -------44
2.1
1.
7
24
24
20
20
-------(1)
Father not a breadwinner__________
5
(1) 2
3 -·-{15··2. 7
2
2. 5 -------- -------- -------5
.2
--------
5. 9
6.0
6.3
6.0
5.5
7.6
4. 6
6.1
5.0
-------- --------
Maintaining home_________________________
Neither parent living___________________
Adult women living independently____
198
(1)
122
9. 4
1.0
46
23. 2
14
198
61. 6
1---+----1----1----t----il---.J----+----t----1·- - 38 -------(1)
(1)
17
14
38
1. 8
-------160
122 --·1ii.T
29
18.1 -------160
7. 6
1.0
Living with relatives ______________________ _
Boarding or lodging _______________________ _
Living with employer _____________________ _
Living in institution. ______ _______________ _
--------
167
343
148
96
'Not computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
7. 9
16. 2
7. 0
4. 5
2. 5
30
15. 2
21
(!)
4.1
2. 8
2. 3
21
(1)
21
(1)
4. 5
3. 0
9
5. 6
-------- --------
104
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
Table 69 presents for the gainfully employed married women whose
husbands were living ~orresponding data concerning family status
and family responsibilities. As is to be expected from the showing
in previous tables the great majority of these gainfully employed
married women were reported as one of two breadwinners in the
family, the other being the husband. This table also reveals that
these married women were not boarding or lodging. Probably,
therefore, the overwhelming majority were not free from household
cares, but were maintaining homes which exacted · their daily toll of .
physical and nervous energy from women who were also acting as
joint breadwinners.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
69.-Family status and fami ly responsibilities of married-women breadwinners-Butte, Mont.
Marriedwomen
breadwinners
Women who were sole breadWomen who were one of two breadWomen who were one of three or more
winners in family
winners in family
breadwinners in family
Number
reportHaving
Average number
Having
Average number
Average number
Per men bread•
ing
P er
Per men bread•
of children
of children
of children
cent
cent
as to
in family
in family
winners
c~it
winners
in family
of
numof
1
thosei-----11 ---.-----,-those 1-------1
those 1
ber of
rerebreadreP er
Num- Per win- Num- portNum- portcent
Num- portPer
ing
ing
ber cent n_ers ber ing UnQer
of
ber numcent Unnum18
18
rn
num18
of 2- der years
3-or· Unber Num· more
ber Nutn breadder years Total
famber
~ir
Total
of
ber win- 18
of
ber bread 18
and Total
and
ily
bri~d years over
broadbrrarlner years over
win• years over
winwinwingroup
ner
1-ners
ners
ners
group
•
-----1-------
Family status
~e:ds
Total_ •••••••••••••••••••••••. 1, 163 100. 0 1,075
79 7. 3 0. 7 0. 1 0. 8
862 80. 2
856 99.3
1.1
0. 1 1.1
134 12. 5 133 99. 3 1. 4
1.4
l==l===l==J:= = :===l===l===l===l===l===l===l===l==l==l==l= =J:==l===l===l===I==
(1)
970 83. 4
970
844 87. 0 842 99.8
1.1
1.1
126 13. 0
126 100. 0
1.4
1.4
Married, husband a breadwinner .• _
Maintaining home ...•••••••••••
Living with relatives ..••••••••..
Boarding or lodging ..•••••••.•..
Living with employer •.••••.••••
915
16
33
6
78. 7
1. 4
Married, husband not a breadwinner, maintaining home ....•..••...
15
1. 3
15
10
(1)
.1
178
15. 3
90
69
(1)
.8
Married, husband not living at
home._ ••••••••••••••• ••••••••....
2. 8
.5
915
16
33
789
16
33
6
• 6
1 Not
76
28
55
17
2
6. 5
2. 4
4. 7
1. 5
.2
76
56
10
9
3
1
3
1
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
.7
1. 2
1. 3
2. 0
.1
.1
f)
I)
(1)
789 100. 0
16
33
(I
1. 2
.2
.1
(1)
1. 2
.2
.1
(1)
.5
.8
1. 3
(1)
1. 3
•6
1. 9
(1)
2
.9
14
(1)
12
126
13. 8
126 100.0
1.4
1.4
2. 7
3.0
1.0
4.0
------ -·---- ------ ------ ------ ------ ----------- ------ -·---- ------ ------- ------ ----------- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ -----------
(1)
4
.8
1. 2
1. 3
2. 0
(1~
4
.1
1---t--------ll---+----l---+---:·- --l---+--
Maintaining home .....•••••••..
Living with relatives •.•••••••••
Boarding or lodging ......•...••.
Living with employer. .••.•...•
Living in institutions ..•••....••
86. 2
2. 8
2.8
(1)
(I)
7
(1)
6
(1)
1. 4
1.1
2. 6
7
(1)
6
(1)
1.4
1.1
2. 6
- l - - - - l - - - l -- - l - - - l - - + - - -I
13
1
(1)
(1)
11
1
(1)
(1)
1. 3
1.0
.6
1. 9
1.0
------ ------ ------ ------ ----- - ------ --------
computed, owing to small number in volved.
1---A
0
Ol
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
A smaller proportion of the widowed and divorced gainfully employed women in Butte than of m arried women
were maintaining homes, but the number still constituted an ample majority. As might b e expected, a large proportion-over three-fourths- were sole breadwinners.
TABLE
70.-Fami ly status and fami ly responsibilities of widowed and divorced women breadwinners-Butte, Mont.
WIDOWED
Women who were one of three or more
Women who were sole breadWomen who were one of two breadbreadwinners in family
winners in family
winners in family
Number
reHaving
Average number
Having
Average number
Average number
portPer men breadP er
Per men breadof childr en in
of ch ildren in
of children in
ing
cent
cent
cent
family
winners
family
winners
family
as to
of
of
of
num•
those
those
those
ber
rerereP er
of
cent
Num- portP er
Num- portNum- Per bread- Num- porting
ing
ing
3- Unof
ber
cent
ber
ber cent win- ber num18
n umUn18
num18
orof 2- Unners
der years Tober Nu m- more
ber
der years Tober Num- breadder years Toin
and tal
ber bread- 18
of
of
18
and tal
of
ber winand tal
18
fam•
breadbread- years over
breadwin- years over
ner years over
ily
winwinwinn er
group
ners
n ers
ners
group
Total
Family status
---
-
- - - -
Total . _···-----·---·-··
726
100.0
707
539
76.2
o. 6
Maintaining home.··-·---··Living with relativ es _________
Boarding or lodging __ ________
Living wit h employer. _______
Living in institutions .. ···-··
504
82
02
69.4
504
345
74
80
35
68. 5
(!)
(!)
(1)
(!)
.8
.4
.2
43
5
11.3
12. 7
5. 9
.7
76
86
36
5
5
(!)
.1
--ff-
----------- -----(1)
0. 6
115
16. 3
70
60. 9
.8
106
2
6
1
21.0
64
1
60.4
.4
.2
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
------ ------ ------DIVORCED
TotaL _-----·····-·----
147
100. 0
Maintaining home. · -· --·-···
Living with relatives ..•. ____ _
Boarding or lodging ___ ______ _
Living with employer . ...... .
77
26
34
52.4
1 Not
10
17. 7
23.1
6. 8
computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1.1
-- -
-
0. 7
1. 8
53
7. 5
50
(1)
1.2
2. 0
3. 2
1. 9
.5
1.0
3.0
53
10. 5
50
( 1)
I 1.2
2. 0
3. 2
1.1
.8
(1)
-.5
(1)
4
.3
.7
(1)
1
3. 0 ---- ---·--- ------- ------ --·---
--
- - -- --- - - - - ·······i- · ·---
------ ------- ---- ------- -----=======i==
I ====___ __
--------------- -- -----· ······-r ·····
-----,..
107
IN' FOUR SELECTED CITIES
Home ownership.
The number of gainfully employed women in Butte living in homes
owned in part or in whole by the women breadwinners of· their families
is presented in Table 71 according to marital status. In this respect
the gainfully employed women in Butte were better circumstanced
than the gainfully employed women in any other of the three cities,
over 43 per cent holding some equity in the houses in which they
lived and nearly 29 per cent owning the homes free of encumbrance.
The proportion of single women breadwinners so situated exceeds the
corresponding proportion of women who were or had been married,
doubtless because the parents were older and had bad a chance to
accumulate savings. It is apparent that the large percentage of
gainfully employed marl'.ied women who had breadwinning husbands
was not due to efforts to purchase homes, as of this marital group
only 13 per cent were purchasing homes.
TABLE
71.-Tenure of home, by marital status, of breadwinning women-Butte,
Mont.
Women
whose
families
rented
homes
Marital status
Number
:-ePorting
tenure
Women whose families owned homes
Free
Kumber
Per
cent
Number
Mortgaged
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Encumbrance
not reported
Per Numcent ber
- -- -- -- TotaJ ______ -------------· 2,884
Single _____ . __. __ ___ ____ ___ _. _. 1,328
Married,
a breadwinner __husband
. ________ ___________
Married,
husband not a breadwinner ______________________
Married,
husband
not living
with family
_________________
Widowed______________
__------------------DivOl'ced
________
Marital status not reported. __
1 Not
1. 636
56. 7
1,248
43. 3
833
28. 9
340
11. 8
75
627
47. 2
701
52.8
489
36.8
176
13. 3
36
878
552
62. 9
326
37.1
189
21. 5
118
13. 4
19
15
12
(1)
3
(1)
2
(1)
1
(1)
-------
87
502
67
7
73
315
50
7
(1)
14
187
17
(1)
10
127
16
(1)
3
41
1
(1)
1
19
62. 7
(1)
(1)
37. 3
(1)
25.3
(1)
8. 2
(1)
------------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
computed, owing to small number involved.
Table 72 deals with the tenure of home according to country of
birth. The conspicuous feature of this table is that the Irish born
make the best showing in the matter of the ownership of homes and
that the native born stand next to the last, 44.6 per cent holding some
equity in the home, thoug in unencumbered homes they are second
to the Irish born. ·
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108
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
TABLE
72.-Tenure of home, by country of birth of breadwinning women.~Butte,
Mont.
Women
whose
families
rented
hemes
Count r~ oi birth
Number
reporting
tenure
Women whose families owned homes
Free,
Nwnber
Per
cent
Number
Per
eent
Number
TotaL __________________ 2, 884
United States _________________ 2, 026
IIieland ________________________
202
England and Wales __ _________
149
Other countries .. _____________
507
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Mortgaged
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
EncumbFa ~ce·
not reported
Numbeli
-----56. 7
1,248
43. 3
833
28, 9
340
11. 8
75
1,123
55. 4
102 I 50. 5
51. 7
77
65. 9,
334
903
100
44. 6
606
49.5
48.3
34.1
64
40
123
29. 9
31. 7
26.8,
24. 3
248
24
24
44
12.1
ll!. 9,
16.1
8. 7'
49
12
8
6
1,636
72
173
RECAPITULATION OF ESSENTIAL DATA CONCERNING THE
BREA.DWINNING WOMEN OF BUTTE, MONT.
The outstanding facts concerning the women breadwinners of
Butte, given in detail in 23 tables, may be summarized as follows:
1. The 4;162 gainfully employed women and girls in Butte constituted a little
less than 30 per cent of the total female population 14 years of age and over.
2. Seventy per cent of the gainfully employed women were native born and
four-fifths were of English-speaking races. No one non-English-speaking race
had a substantial representation among the breadwinning women, although the
total number of women from non-English-speaking countries constituted approximat ely one-sixth of the entire number of gainfully employed women.
3. Seventy-three per cent of the gainfully employed women were at work
outside the home. The great majority of this group, or almost one-half of all the
women breadwinners, were in fields of a "local service" nature-selling trades,
publici utilities and professions. One-fourth of the total number were in domestic
service. The remaining 27 per cent were stay-at-home breadwinners, engaged
chiefly in taking boarders or lodgers. Those relying on this occupation as a main
source of income showed double the average number of boarders taken by those
who merely supplemented the family income by having strangers in the home
circle. The average number of boarders, however, taken by those who engaged
in the business as a supplemental occupation was much greater than the corresponding average for women in Jacksonville and Wilkes-Barre.
4. Less than 33 per cent of all the gainfully employed women were under
. 25 years of age. Nearly 59 per cent of the native-born gainfully employed
women were under 30 years of age, whereas one-fifth of the British-born and onefourth of other foreign-born women breadwinners were under 30.
5. Approximately one-half of the breadwinning .women were or had been
married. In this classification were found 40 per cent of the native-born and 73
per cent of the foreign-born women gainfully employed.
6. One-half of the gainfully employed women w:ho were or had been married
were living with breadwinning husbands.
7. Forty-eight per cent of the breadwinning matrons were gainfully employed
outside the home.
8. More than one-half the matrons had children, and 55 per cent of these ·
mothers were living with breadwinning husbands.
9. Twenty-nine per cent of the mothers had children under 5 years of age, and
of these mothers, approximately three-fourths had wage-earning husbands.
10. One-third of the breadwinning mothers of children under 5 years of age
went out of the home to engage in gainful labor.
11. Of the single breadwinning women, 55 per cent were living under the
parental roof; the other 45 per cent were economically adrift; that is, they were
maintaining J:\omes independently, boarding or lodging, or living with relatives
or employers, or in institutions.
12. Over four-fifths of the women breadwinners who were or had been married
reporting on family responsibilit ies were maintaining homes and enacting the
double role of breadwinners and homemakers.
109
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110
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
13. Six hundred_and fifty-four, or 23 per cent, of the breadwinning women who
lived with their own families had no men wage earners in the family circle and 14
per cent were sole breadwinners for the family; 80 of these sole breadwinners
were in families of from fo ur to nine or more members.
14. Of the women reporting on the subject, 15 per cent of the single breadwinning women, about 7 per cent of the married breadwinners, and a little over
77 per cent of those with broken marital ties, living in a family group, were
reported as sole breadwinners in the family.
15. Over 40 per cent of the breadwinning women reporting on the subject
lived in homes owned in whole or in part by the breadwinners or their families,
29 per cent owning their homes clear of mortgages . The I rish-born women led
all the other nativity groups, including the native born, in the tendency to acquire
homes.
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PART V
DETAILED STUDY OF THE FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING
WOMEN IN PASSAIC, N. J.
[Being mainly a reprint for purposes of comparison of the statistical sections of Bulletin No. 23 of the
Women's Bureau)
The 9,769 women and girls who are the subject of this discussion
comprised the women breadwinners of Passaic, N. J. The number
constituted 45.9 per cent of the city's total female population 14
years of age and over. This is 56 per cent more than the corresponding percentage for Butte, Mont., which, of the four cities studied,
shows the smallest proportion of adult women gainfully employed, and
almost 3 per cent more than the proportion for Jacksonville, which
st~nds next to Passaic in the number of women breadwinners.
Furthermore, as will be seen from the statement compiled from
Table 2 in the introduction, almost 8,000, or 80.5 per cent, of the
breadwinning women of Passaic were engaged in occupations which
took them away from their homes. Less than 20 per cent were earning money at work which they did in their homes.
Women breadwinners
Women working in own homes ______________________ _
Women working outside own h omes ______________ ___ _
In factories, stores, and offi ces _____________ 7, 348
In others' homes _________________________ 513
Women with place of work not reported_______________
TotaL _ ____ ________ ______ __ __ _ _ __ _ __ ____
1
Per cent
Number
19. 4
80. ·5
1,899
7,861
9
(1)
1-------t----9,769
100. 0
Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.
Occupational distribution.
Passaic is essentially a manufacturing center. As is shown in
Table 73 more than one-half of the breadwinning women of the city
were employed in the producing departments of its factories. Many
others were engaged in ·t e offices of manufacturing establishments,
in clerical capacities, but these women have been classified under
other clerical occupations rather than with the factory workers.
Ranking first in size and importance, the woolen mills employed
2,528, or 26 per cent, of P assaic's breadwinning women, and the cot111
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112
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
ton and handkerchief factories provided work for 1,387, or 14 per cent.
The women in the textile mills were chiefly engaged in spinning and
weaving, while many women in the handkerchief factories were operating sewing machines. The silk mills employed about 3 per cent of
the breadwinning women. A smaller proportion were engaged in
making cigars and cigarettes, clothing, paper boxes, and laces and
embroideries.
Office service claimed the second largest group of women working
outside the home. Over 11 per cent of all women breadwinners were
employed as stenographers and typists, clerks, bookkeepers, cashiers,
or accountants in the offices maintained by the professions or by
industrial and commercial establishments.
Among the 7 per cent who were engaged in domestic and personal
service, the largest group was that designated as household servants.
About 3 per cent wer e servants who lived with employers, 1 per cent
were servants· who went to their own homes at night, and less than a
per cent were women who did washing or cleaning in homes by the
day.
· One thousand eight hundred and ninety-nine women, or 19.4 per
cent, of all women breadwinners reporting in Passaic earned money
by service rendered in their own homes. With the exception of about
100 who took in washing, sewing, or millinery, or who taught music
or other arts in their homes, all of these women took boarders or
lodgers to increase the family income.
Among the women who were employed outside their homes 184
also took boarders or lodgers. These women are 1ncluded among the
women engaged in remunerative positions in factory, store, or office
rather than as workers in thei:i. homes, because the work outside the
home was deemed their principal occupation.
A larger proportion of women were at work in managerial and professional capacities than in selling occupations. Teaching engaged
the largest number of women in the professional group.
It is interesting to note the small but significant number of women
who were retail dealers; 98 women were independent proprietors. of
notion or grocery stores,millineryshops, or other small establishments.
Of this number, 33 shared with husbands the responsibility of the
business.
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113
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
TABLE
73.-1ndustries and occ pations in which breadwinning women were
employed-Passaic, N. J.
Ibread,ivinners
Women
Women
bread winners
Industry and occupation
Industry and occupation
Num•
ber
Per
cent
Total........................... 9, 769
100. 0
Manufacturing...............•....... 5, 115
52. 4
Num•
ber
Per
cent
76
0. 8
Clerical occupations .............•.•.. 1, 117
11. 4
Telephone operators .........•.......
Woolen and worsted roods ....... 2,528
25. 9
,____ __,__ __,,
Spinning....................
571
5. 8
Weaving. . ..................
643
6. 6
Other factory operations..... 1, 314
13. 5
Stenographers and typists.......
Bookkeepers, cashiers, and ac•
countants . .... . .... . .... . .....
Other clerical occupations.......
505
5. 2
203
409
2.1
4. 2
Managerial and professional service..
485
5. 0
Cotton and cotton goods, includ•
1---1--ing handkerchiefs............. 1, 387
14. 2
Managers and executives........
20
.2
,____ _ _ ___,,
School teachers..................
366
3. 7
Spinning....................
87
.9
Journalists, librarians, and other
Weaving....................
102
1. 0
professional...................
99
1. 0
Sewing•machine operating..
250
2. 6
Other factory operations....
948
9. 7 Domestic and pers:inal service out•
side worker's home ..•.•.....•.....
674
6. 9
Silk and silk goods...............
310
3. 2
Servants living in employ~r•s
2. 7
home .......... . .. . ... . ....... .
Winding....••••••••••••••••.
74
•8
260
Servants living in own home ... .
Weaving ............•..•••••
105
1. 1
102
1. 0
Day workers ............. .•.....
Other factory operations ....•
131
1. 3
82
.8
Power laundry workers ........ . .
.2
16
Cleaners and janitresses .... . .. . .
Textiles, not specified .......... .
108
1.1
20
.2
Waitresses, restaurant keepers,
Spinning ... _....•.• ________ _
35
.4
and kitchen help .............•
.4
37
Weaving . ............. . ...••
40
.4
Nurses .. . ........ . . . ........... .
138
1.4
Other factory operations ....
Other domestic and personal
33
.3
service ...........••••••••••....
•2
19
Clothing: men's, women's, and
children's ........ _........... .
93
1. 0 Working in own home............... 1, 899
19. 4
•
Sewing.machine operating...
Other factory operations.....
Tobacco and cigars.... ...........
49
.5
44
.5
188
Taking boarders or lodgers...... 1, 796
Taking in washing. ...... . . ..... .
18
Taking in sewing, millinery, or
knitting.... . ....... . . . . . .... . .
57
Teaching music or performing
other professional service at
home......... . ................
26
Other home service..............
2
1. 9
r----+---11
Cigar making................
Other factory operations.....
100
88
•9
Other manufacturing. ............
Dressmakers, seamstresses, tailor•
esses, milliners, and apprentices
in shop or employer's home........
501
6. 1
811
.9
Selling trades........................
308
3. 2
Saleswomen.....................
Retail dealers......... . ..•. _.....
Other selling occupations .....• _.
204
1 98
6
2.1
1
1
1. O
Not reported........................
9
18. 4
.2
.6
.3
(')
.1
1.0
.1
Thirty•three women shared business with husbands.
Less than one•tenth of 1 per cent.
Age groups.
In the matter of age and occupatiqnal distribution it can be seen
from Table 74 that, just as the proportion in each age group employed
in manufacturing decreased with advancing age, so the proportions
in various groups employed in work at home increased as the age
increased. Eighty-nine per cent of the girls under 16 years of age
worked in factories, while only 25 per cent of the women of 50 years
and over were so employed. No children under 16 were earning
money by service rendered in the home, whereas almost one-half of
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· } 14
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
the women of 50 and over were at work in their own homes. However,
the factories drew most heavily upon the women who were 20 to 40
years of age, whereas the home workers were chiefly women 25 years
of age and over.
The factories employed many women of all ages. This is not true
of other industries. Telephone operators were usually from 16 to
25 years of age. Almost three-fourths of all office employees and
seven-tenths of all saleswomen were under 25 years of age. The
professions and do,mestic pursuits drew largely from the more mature
women. Of the gainfully employed women as a whole, over.44.5 per
cent were under 25 years of age.
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TABLE
74.-Specified age groups of breadwinning women, by industry and occupatwn-Passaic, N. J.
Women in specified age groups
Under' 16
years
Industry or occupation
16 and 17
years
18 and 19
years
20 and under
25 years
25 and under 30 and·hnder
30 years
40 years
Age
40 and under 50 years and not
re50 years
over
ported
Total
Total .................... ····- - -- - -- -- - 9,769
lllanufacturing ____ . _________________________ 5, 201
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
S88
100. 0
752
100.0
8S2
100.0
2,879
100.0
1,702
100.0
2,047
100.0
975
100. 0
689
100.0
5
S46
89. 2
518
68. 9
512
61. 5
1,847
56. 6
888
52. 2
990
48. 4
426
48. 7
17S
25.1
1
Woolen and worsted goods ________ _______ 2,528
Cotton and cotton goods, including
llandkerchlefs _______________________ - All other textiles _______________ :_ ________ 1,387
418
Other manufacturing 1 __________________
868
152
39. 2
210
27. 9
176
21. 2
607
25. 5
443
26. 0
597
29. 2
255
26. 2
88
12.8
78
59
57
20.1
15. 2
14. 7
146
69
93
19. 4
9.2
12. 4
155
66
115
18. 6
7. 9
13. 8
412
95
233
17. 3
4. 0
9.8
263
44
138
15.5
2. 6
8.1
214
53
126
10. 5
2. 6
6.2
84
19
8. 6
1. 9
7.0
35
13
37
5.1
1. 9
5.4
------------------i
sos
15
S.9
41
5. 5
28
S.4
66
2.8
SB
2. 2
65
S.2
88
8.9
17
2. 5
204
104
15
3.9
41
5. 5
27
1
3.2
.1
58
8
2.4
.3
23
15
1. 4
.9
23
42
1.1
2.1
15
23
1. 5
2. 4
2
15
.3
2. 2
20
218
10
2.4
26. 2
1. 2
24
410
112
1.0
17. 2
4. 7
8
144
106
.5
8. 5
6. 2
4
126
140
.2
6. 2
6.8
2
S2
81
.2
s.s ----i2- --T1- ------2
Selling trades------------------------------Saleswomen _____________________________
Other selling occupations ________________
Telephone opera.tors _________________________
76
Clerical occupations __ _______ ----------------· 1,117
Managerial and professional service ________
485
Domestic and persona.I senice outside work674
er's home __ ------------------------------Servants livinJ in employer's home _____
Servants and ay workers living in own
home _____________ ___ - -------------- -Nurses ______________ ___·___- ______ - - __ - - Otherdomesticand personal service _____
260
184
138
92
Working in own home _______________________ 1,899
Taking boarders or lodgers ______________ 1,796
Other home service _____________________
103
Industry or occupation not reported _________
1
9
------- ------- ------- ------18
2.4
----is- ---f9- 154
20. 5
1
.s
s
.4
-------------------
-------
8.S
32
4. 6
7
1.8
15
2. 0
S5
4. 2
189
5. 8
108
6.S
185
6.6
114
11. 7
119
17. S
2
4
1.0
12
1. 6
21
2. 5
66
2.8
44
2. 6
34
1. 7
33
3.4
44
6. 4
2
3
.8
6
5
3
.7
.6
.4
29
32
12
1. 2
1. 3
.5
23
29
12
1. 4
1. 7
.7
41
37
23
2.0
1.8
1.1
46
22
13
4. 7
2. 3
1. 3
36
13
26
5.2
1. 9
3.8
------------·
7
.8
277
11. 8
408
24. 0
587
28. 7
282
28. 9
885
48.6
6
1
.7
.1
270
7
11. 3
.3
391
17
23. 0
1.0
564
23
27. 6
1. 1
260
22
26. 7
2. 3
303
32
44.0
4. 6
-------------
2
.2
4
•2
2
.1
----·-- ------- ------- -------
1
.1
-------
------- -------
------- -------- ----T .4
-- ... ---- ------s
.4
------- ------.....................
2
.3
------.1
1
--·---- --------·---- -·----- ------- ----·--
Includes dressmakers, seamstresses, tailoresses, milliners, and apprentices in shop or employer's home.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
68
-------------
116
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
Country of birth.
The city of P assaic has a large foreign population. According to
the 1920 census more than 4.1 per cent of its total population of 63,841
were foreign born. 20
Of the total female population 40 per cent were foreign born.
Among the breadwinning women the percentage of foreign born
wa~ still larger or nearly 60 per cent of the total number as shown
in Table 75. The Polish born predominated among the foreigners~
forming slightly more than one-fourth of the entire number of working women. The Hungarian born, who formed about 10 per cent,
ranked next in numerical importance, and there were many smaller
groups from Italy, Russia, Austria, and other overseas countries.
American whites were the largest single group, comprising 40 per
cent of the total. Included in this classification were native-born
daughters of foreign-born parents.
TABLE
75.-Number and per cent distribution of breadwinning women, by country
of birth, in Passaic, -N. J.
Country of birth
Total___________________
Number
Per cent
9,769
100. 0
t----1----11
United States~
White_______________ ___ __
N egro______ ______________
Austria- --- - -- ---- ---- --- --- -Czechoslovakia_______________
3. 929
40. 2
264
3. 5
2. 7
139
345
1. 4
Countr~ of birth
Holland______________________
Germany______________ _______
Hungary______________________
Italy___ __________ ___________ __
Poland________ ______ _________ _
Russia _____________ ______ _____
Other countries __ ____ .___ ____ _
Number Per cent
80
197
983
418
2,519
380
515
0.8
2. 0
10.1
4. 3
25.8
3. 9
5. 3
The complete cessation of immigration f~om some countries and
reduced immigration from all lands make figures concerning the years
which women workers had been in the United States of less significance
than would attach to them had the years immediately preceding 1920
been a period of normal immigration. Few women workers in Passaic had been in this country less than five years.
The disclosure in Table 76 that over 40 per cent of the 5,701
foreign-born breadwinning women of Passaic did not speak English
is rendered more impressive, in view of the fact that only 73 women
were recent immigrants and that approximately two-thirds had been
,
here 10 years or more.
The number of non-English-speaking among the Polish born is
particularly striking, nearly two-thirds, or over 1,600, not speaking
English. Forty per cent had been in the United States less than 10
but more than 5 years, while 56 per cent bad been here 10 years or
more. The percentage unable to speak English does not, however,
diminish perceptibly among those who had been here 10 years or
longer; nearly 65 per cent of that group were still unable to speak
our language.
20
U.S. Bureau of Census. Fourteenth Census, 1920. V. 3, Population, p. 660.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
IN FOUR SELECTED CIT'.IES
117
About one-third of those from Austria and Czechoslovakia, more·
than one-fourth of those from Hungary', and approximately one-fifth
of the Italian-born women did not speak English. In these groups,
however, the percentages of those who did not speak English weremuch smaller- among those who had been here 10 years or over than
among those who had been here less than 10 years. The percentage
of non-English-s~aking Italian born is 34 per cent among the women
who had been here from 5 to 10 years and 18 per cent among those
who had been here 10 years or over. The non-English-speaiting
women from Austria drop from 48 per cent to 32 per cent after longer
residence. Thirty-three per cent of the more recent immigrants from
Hungary and 25 per cent of those who had arrived more than 10
years ago•did not speak English.
The Russian born, a large proportion of whom are Jews, apparently
learn to speak English very readily. Only 28 per cent of those who
had been here between 5 and 10 years and less than 9 per cent of
those who had been here 10 years and over were non-Englishspeaking.
Among the races represented by the breadwinning women of Passaic, it is apparent that the Polish born clung most tenaciously to
their own language and consequently to their own national life. and
customs.
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TABLE
76.-Number and per cent of breadwinning women of foreign birth unable to speak English, by years in the United States-Passaic, N. J.
Brea.dwinning women who had been in the United StatesYears of residence not
reported
10 yea.rs and over
5 and under 10 yea.rs
Under 5 years
Grand
tote.I
Country of birtb
- - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - 1 - - - 1 - - - - -1-- - 1 - - - 1 - - - 1 - - -1- - - 11 - - - - 1 - - - 1 - - ~ 1 - Total:
Number__ ______ __ ____ __ __ 5, 701
Percent_ __________ ___ ___ 100.0
2,980
52.3
2,306
40.4
415
73
7.3 100.0
37
50.7
34
46.6
2
2.7
1,847
100.0
715
38.7
970
52.5
162
8.8
3,577
100.0
2,073
58.0
1,262
35.3
242
204
6.8 100.0
155
76.0
19
5. 5
14
40
19.6
9
4. 4
1 - - - 1 - - - -1-- - - 1 - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - 1 - --1 - - - - + - - - 1 - - - + - -l'- - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - -1-- -l- - ~ - - - 1 - - - 1 - -
Austria.:
Numb~r- __________________ _
Per cent_ __ _________________ _
Czechoslovakia.:
Number ___________ - _- - _- -- Per cent __________ - - __ - - ____ _
Holland:
Number _________ __ ________ _
Per cent_ ___________________ _
Germany:
Number _________________ __ _
Per cenL ___________________ _
Hungary:
Number _________________ __ _
Per cent_ ___________________ _
Italy:
Number- _______ __ _________ _
Per cent ____________________ _
Poland:
Number ___________________ _
· Percent ____________________ _
Russia.:
Number ___________________ _
Per cent_ ___________________ _
Other
countries:
Number
___________________ _
Per cenL- _____ ___ _____ : ____ _
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
10
2
0.6
2 --- ---- ------
103
29.9
50
49
4
221
64.1
145
70
1
1 ------- ------
80
30. a
30
35
15
176
66. 7
108
50
• 4 ------- ------- ------
1
1 --- ---- . ----1. 3 ------- ------- ------
7
8.8
345
100. 0
211
61. 2
124
35. 9
2. 9
264
100. 0
144
54. 5
86
32. 6
34
12. 9
80
100. 0
79
98.8
1
L3
197
100. 0
191
97.0
5
2. 5
.5
• 5 --- ---- ----- -- ------
983
100.0
664
67. 5
266
27.1
53
5.4
• 6 ------- ------- ------
418
100.0
328
78. 5
90
21. 5
2,519
100. 0
639
25.4
1,635
64. 9
380
100. 0
305
80. 3
515
100. 0
419
81. 4
1
1
6
·1 --- ---- ------
4
2 ------
7 ------- --- - - -
29
14. 7
25
3
307
31. 2
187
100
98
23.4
65
20
62
77.5
18
62 - ------ ------
152
77.2
150
659
67. 0
462
287
68. 7
236
2 ------
164
33
7
2.6
10
12. 5
15
7.6
9
1 ------
15 ------- ------
11
11 ------- -----1.1 --- ---- ------- ------
51 ------
15
3.6
15 ------- ------
245
9. 7
386
231
890
1,026
691
138
104 1, 414
31
23
1. 2 ------ - ------- ------ 40. 7 --- - --- --- --- - ------ 56. 1 ------- ------- ------
48
1. 9
15
31
2
52
13. 7
23
6.1
4
2
2 -----1.1 ------- ------- ------
94
24. 7
61
26
7
259
68.2
226
22
11
23
6.1
16
2
5
47
9. 1
49
9. 5
9
7
1. 7 ---- - -- ------- ------
103
20. 0
59
33
11
347
67.4
298
13
36
18
4. 3
12
6 ------
33 ------
56
10.9
55 -------
I-'
I-'
00
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
·T able 77 shows that 44.5 per cent of the tot al number of bread·winning women ip Passaic were under 25 years of age, but that over
60 per cent of all American white women as compared with 33.3 per ·
cent of the foreign-born white women were in this age group. Among
the girls between 14 and 18 years of age the largest number and
_p roportion who were at work were American born, these including,
as already stated, the children of foreign-born parents. Approximately 8 per cent of all the American women and girl breadwinners
were under 16 years of age and 14.6 per cent were 16 and 17 years
of age. The Dutch born and the Italian born rank next to the Americans in the proportions going to work at an early age. About 16
per cent of the women workers of each of these nationalities were
under 18 years of age. The significance of the proportions of Dutchborn and the German-born women is reduced materially because
the actual numbers concerned were small.
It is interesting to note that among the women from Austria,
Czechoslovakia, and Hungary a larger proportion of women at
work were between the ages of 30 and 40 than were found in other
age groups.
TABLE
77 .-Country of birth of breadwinning worri,en, by age groups-Passaic, N. J.
Number and per cent of women w hose age was-
Country of bfrtb
Total Under 16 and 18and 20 and I25 and 30 and 40and
50
under under under under years Notre16
17
19
25
30
40
50
an
d ported
years years years y ears years years years over
- - - -,-
Total:
Number . ___________ 9,769
P er cent ____________ 100. 0
United
St ates,
white:
Number
__ ________________
Per cent. __ ___ ___ _________
UnitNumber
ed States,
negro: ________
__ ________
Per cent. _______________ __
Austria:
Number ________ __________
P er cent. ___ ___________ ___
Czechoslovakia:
N umber __ ____ _.___________
P er cent ________________ __
Hollan
d:
Number
________________ __
Per cent __________________
German y:
Number __________________
Per cent . ______________ ___
Hungary :
Number _________________ _
Per cent. _________________
Italy:
Number- ________ __ ________
P er cent. ________________ _
Poland
:.
Number.
_________ _____ ___
P er cent_ __ _______________
Russia :
Number
-------------Per cent.--__- -_______________
Other
countries:
Number __________________
Per cent. _________________
1 Less
4. 0
388
752
7. 7
832
8. 5
2,379
24. 4
1,702
17. 4
2,047
21. 0
975
10. 0
689
7. 1
3,929
100.0
305
7. 8
572
14. 6
561
14. 3
!)78
24. 9
476
12. 1
510
13. 0
263
6. 7
264
6. 7
139
100. 0
1. 4
1.
2
4
8
5.8
24
17. 3
24
17. 3
32
23. 0
26
18. 7
345
100. 0
5
1. 4
16
4. 6
15
4.3
74
21.4
54
44
15. 7
105
30.4
12. 8
31
9. 0
264
100. 0
4
1. 5
9
3. 4
8
3. 0
50
18. 9
52
19. 7
79
29. 9
43
16. 3
19 --- ---7. 2 -- -- -- -
80
100. 0
6
7. 5
7
8. 8
5
6.3
12
15. 0
6
7. 5
13
16. 3
15
18. 8
16
20. 0
197
100. 0
3
1. 5
4
2. 0
5
2. 5
27
13. 7
20
10. 2
49
24. 9
31
15. 7
29. 4
-------------------------
983
100. 0
16
1. 6
25
2. 5
48
4. 9
174
17. 7
156
15. 9
317
32. 2
174
17. 7
72
7. 3
1
.1
418
100. 0
22
5. 3
45
10. 8
54
12. 9
79
18. 9
68
16. 3
77
18. 4
37
8. 9
36
8.
-------------
2,519
100. 0
11
.4
26
1.0
64
2. 5
769
30. 5
693
27. 5
685
27. 2
201
8. 0
70 -- ----2. 8 -- -----
380
100. 0
5
1. 3
30
7. 9
40
10. 5
115
30. 5
63
16. 6
66
17. 4
36
9. 5
22
5. 8
.8
515
100. 0
9
1. 7
16
3.1
24
4. 7
77
15. 0
90
17. 5
114
22.1
105
20.4
80
15. 5
-------------
th a n one-tenth of 1 per cent.
2511 °-25t--9
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
2
(1)
5
----------·--
15.211 ,------ -------
58
(l
1
0. 3
3
120
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
Table 78 indicates the industries and occupations in which the
women of each racial group were concentrated. Table 79 following
· it summarizes the data for all women of foreign birth and shows
the industries in which were employed those who had been here
but a short time and those who came a number of years ago.
The distribution of American-born workers throughout the occupations was greater than that of the foreign-born women. About 41
per cent of the former were working in factories as against 61 per
cent of the latter. The cotton and handkerchief mills had a slightly
larger number of American born than had the woolen mills, whereas
the cotton mills employed little more than two-fifths as many foreign
women as did the woolen and worsted mills. The silk mills and
other factories in tbe city employed about as many American women
as foreign women. Office, professional, and selling occupations
were filled chiefly by the American born, whereas domestic service
had attracted but few American born.
With the exception of the Dutch, German, and Russian-born women
foreign women workers were concentrated in Passaic's factory occupations. Their numbers tended to be greatest in the woolen mills,
except that the Italian born were employed in the largest ·numbers
incottonandhandkerchiefmills. A considerable proportion of Russian
born had become saleswomen and office workers. Only one-third
were factory workers. More than a fourth took boarders or lodgers
to supplement the family income. Of the Dutch and German born,
a third did work in their own home, and a larger proportion than
among other white women were engaged in domestic and personal
service.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
121
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
-TABLE
78.-Country of birth -o f 'breadwinning women, by industry and occupation. .
Passaic, N. J.
United States,
white
United States,
negro
Austria
Total
Industry or occupation
NumNumPer
Per
NumPer
ber
cent
ber
cent
ber
cent
--- --- --- --- --- --Total_ _____________ _________ _______ ______ _
9,769
3, 929
. 100. 0
139
100: 0
346
100. 0
Total working ou,t side the home _____:__________ _
7,861
3,462
88. 1
106
76. 3
262
75. 9
Manufacturing ___ -··· ... _._ ... _... ___ . ___ _
5,116
1, 604
.40.8
16
10. 8
200
58. 0
t---+----+----r---t---1----1---
W oolen and worsted goods __ J _____ ___ _
Cotton and cotton goods, i,11cluding
handkerchiefs ___________ -· ______ ___ _
Silk and silk goods ________________ ___ _
Textiles, not specified_J-- ----- · --- - --Clothing,
men's, women's,
and chil- _
dren's ____________
__________________
Tobacco and cigars ___________________ _
Other manufacturing _________________ _
2,528
495
12. 6
2
1. 4
153
44.3
1,387
527
13. 4
172
4. 4
5
2
3. 6
1.4
45
1.1
25
10
1
7. 2
310
108
93
188
501
39
69
1.0
1.8
6. 5
4
7
1. 2
2. 0
257
Dressmakers, seamstresses, tailoresse s,
milliners, and apprentices in shop or
employer's home _______ ___________ ______
86
35
Selling trades ______ ·------------- ~---------
308
144
Saleswomen_______________________ ____
Retail dealers_________________________
Other selling occupations______________
2
.3
1. 4
--------------4
2. 9
•9
2. 9
1. 4 -------- -----·--
S. 7 -------- --------
14
4. 1
3.1 ________ ________
7
7
2. o
2. O
1 - - - - 1 - - - - + - - - - + - - - - - i - - - - . . j l - - --!- - -
204
98
6
122
18
4
Telephone operators___________________ ____
76
74
Clerical occupations____ __ ________________ _
1, 117
961
Sten ograph ers-and typists_____________
-------- --- -----
. 5 -·-·---- ________
.1
1. 9
1. 4
24. 2 ________ ________
1----1----1----+----+---1------
436
11.1 ____ ____ ________
Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accou tants_______ __________ ________ ________
Other clerical occupations_____ ________
505
203
409
168
347
4. 3 ________ ________
8. 8 ________ ________
Kanagerial and professional senice__ ___
485
436
11. 1 __ ______ ________
.3
2
2
.6
.6
.3
1-- - - 1 - -- - 1 - - - -1- - - -1- - - -1-- -
Managers and executives______________
School teachers________________________
Journalists, librarians, and other professional_____________________________
20
366
16
341
.4
8. 7
Domestic and personal senice___________ __
99
711
2. O
674
218
5. 5
.3
89
64. 0
42
12. 2
1 - - - - 1 - - - - + - - - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - -1-- -
Servants living in employer's home___
Servants living in own home__________
Day workers_______________ _________ __
Power laundry workers_______________
Cleaners and janitresses_______________
Waitresses, restaurant keepers, and
kitchen help ________________________ _
Nurses ___ _____________________________
Other domestic and personal service_ _
260
102
82
16
20
66
19
8
7
3
1. 7
.5
37
138
19
14
92
9
.4
2. 3
.2
Total working in own home_ ____________ ____ ___
1, 899
461
.2
.2
.1
11. 7
21
28
36
15. 1
20.1
25. 9
2. 2
26
6
3
2
2
7. 5
1.7
.9
1
2
.3
.tl
•6
.6
. 7 --- ----- ------ --
33
23. 8
83
24. l
1 - - - - 1 - - - - + - - - - l - - - - - i - - - - . . j ' - - -- ! - --
Taking boarders or lodgers_______ ___ ___ ___ 1,796
Taking in washing____ ____ _____________ ___
18
Taking in sewing, millinery, or knitting__
57
Other home service_____________________ ___
28
Not reported __ _____________________________ ___
9
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
401
3
31
26
6
10. 2
.1
.8
•7
23
8
2
16. 5
5. 8
82
1
23. 8
.3
1. 4
. 2 -------- -------- -------- ------- -
122
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING W OMEN
TABLE
78.-Country of birth of breadwinning women, 'by industry and oceupationPassaic, N. J.-Continued
Czechoslovakia
Holland
Germany
Hungary
Industry or occupation
Num•
ber
Per
cent
Number
Per Num- Per Num- Pllr
ber
cent
cent
ber
cent
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -80 100. 0
197 100. 0
983
100. 0
Total. ______ · __________________________
264
Tota.I working outside the home ________ _______
208
78. 8
52
65. 0
135
88. Ii
823
Manufacturing ___________________________
178
67. 4
28
35. 0
67
~4. 0
714
72. 6
128
48. 5
2
2. 5
46
23.4
644
65. 5
24
4
9. 1
1. 5
.4
13
4
16.3
5. 0
6
4
1
3.0
. 2. 0
.5
29
3. 0
.9
2
1.0
3
13
Woolen and worsted goods ______ _____
Cotton and cotton goods, including
handkerchiefs ________ _____ ______ ___
Silk and silk goods _____ __ _·___ _____ ___
Textiles, not specified .------ - - --- - --Clothing, men's, women's, and cbildren's ___ ______ ___ __ __________ _____ _
'l'obacco and cigars _____ __________ ___ _
Other manufacturing __ _______________
100. 0
- - -, _ _
1
2
4
15
Dressmakers, seamstresses, tailoresses, milliners, and apprentices in shop or employer's home __ ___ _________________________
------- ------------- --- ----
.8
1. 5 ------- ------9
11. 3
5. 7
------7
Selling trades .. --------------------------
2. 7
------------8
4.1
9
8
8
83. 7
.8
.3
1. 3
.8
1. 3
•5
3
.3
6. 3
2. Ii
8
.8
--------------------Saleswomen____ __ _________ _______ ___ _
2
.8
2
2. 5
2
1. 0
3
.3
Retail dealers __ ______________________
5
1. 9
3
3. 8
3
1. 5
5
.5
Other selling occupations __________ __ _____ __ _______________________ ___ ________________ ______ __
~
Telephone operators ________ ____________ _______________________ _____ ____ ___ ______________________ _
Clerical occupations _____________________ _
Stenographers and typists ____________
Bookkeepers,
cashiers, and accountants ________________________________
6. 3
1. 1
3
1.1
3
3. 8
------Other clerical occupations ____________ ------- ------- ------2
2. 5
Managerial and professional serrice ______
1.3
2
.8
Managers and executives ___________________ _ ___ _______ ___ _______ _
2
. 8 _____________ _
School teachers_______________________
Journalists, librarians, and other pro1. 3
fessional __ . - ------------------------______________
Domestic and personal service __________ _
10
6. 1
1. 7
18
6. 8
12
15. 0
4
2. 0
4
.4
2
3
.3
1.0
4
1.0
2. 0
8
4.1
1
•5
56
21. 2
28
35. 0
10
.2
5
2. 5
2
1.0
2
.2
44
22. 3
79
8. 0
31
22
3. 2
2. 2
1.1
.1
.4
25 . 12. 7
Servants living in employer's home __
7
2. 7
3
3. 8
Servants living in own home. ______ __
3
1. 1
9
4. 6
2. 5
2
Day workers__ ___ ____ __ __ ____________
2
.8
4
2. 0
1
1. 3
Power laundry workers________ ___ __ _
1
.4
1
.5
Cleaners and janitresses ______ _____________________ _
1
.5
1. 3
Waitresses, restaurant keepers, and
kitchen help ____ ___ ____ ______ ______
. 4 _________ ______ ____________ _
Nurses __ ___ _____________ _________ ____
4
1. 5
5
6. 3
4
2. 0
Otherdomesticandpersonalservice ________ _______ __________________________ __ _
Tota.I working in own home . _______________ _
17
f - - - - t - - - 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
82
Sl. 5
11
1
4
6
3
.6
.3
1
.1
159
16. 2
------------------
Taking boarders or lodgers___ ____________
56
21. 2
26
32. 5
57
28. 9
155
15. 8
Taking in washing ______ ______________ _________________
2
2. 5
1
.5
1
.1
Taking in sewing, millinery, or knitting____ ____________ ___ __ __ _______
4
2. 0
3
.3
Other home service ___ "----- ------ -------- _________ __ __________ ____ _________ _____ __ _ _____________ _
Not reported ________________________________________
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
-------r------- ____________________ _
.1
123
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
TABLE
78.-C'ountry of birth of breadwinning women, by industry and occupationPassaic, N. J.-Continued
Italy
Indust ry or occupation
Num•
ber
Poland
P er
cent
Num•
ber
R ussia
P er
cent
-Other
Num• Per
ber
cent
Num•
ber
P er
cent
380 100. 0
515
100. 0
418 100. 0 2, 519 100. 0
= ==l===l===f===:i= ==f:===l===l===
342
81. 8 1, 822
72. 8
272
71. 6
377
78. 2
1===!====1===1=====1===1===1===1===
Manufacturing __ .. ____ __ .. __ .---·---- - - - . ,__3_00_ _ 1_
1._8_,_1
_,_7_
~1_,__6
_7_._5 _, __
12_s_,__s_2_.4_ ,._1_8_5_, __
35_.9
TotaL __ _·--- -· ·· ·- · --·· ··---·-···-· - --·
Total working outside the home ....... ..... ...
W oolen and worsted goods ·- ···· ·-·-·
Cotton and cotton goods, including
han dkerchiefs __· ·· ····· · ·· ····· -· ·
Silk and silk goods .. · · · ·········· - · T extiles, not specified·-······ ·· ···-··
Clothing, men's, women's, and chil·
dren's······· ···· ···· · · · ········-··
Tobacco and cigars ... ... ·-· · ···· ··-··
Other manufacturing ... · -· ····-···-· ·
Dressmakers, seamstresses, tailoresses,
milliners, and apprentices in shop or
employer's home .. . . . ................. .
1
71
17. 0
860
34. l
53
13. 9
74
14. 4
128
50
30. 6
21. 2
12. 0
.2
535
24
42
33
62
1.0
1. 7
12
8. 7
3. 2
19
.8
12. 0
3. 7
3
6
1. 2
32
87
121
1. 3
3. 5
3
3
.8
2
34
2. 4
1. 4
8.1
4. 8
16
.4
4. 3
16
8. 6
12
.5
11
2. 9
6
1.2
1.7
28
1. 1
70
18. 4
20
3. 9
.2
47
23
12. 4
6.1
11
8
1
2.1
1. 6
.2
56
14. 7
43
8, 3
1
10
6
Selling trades ...•••••••••••• • ••• . --······.
Saleswomen. ...... ........ . ..... . ....
3
.7
Retail dealers . .............. ~. . . . ....
4
1. 0
Other selling occu pations ... ...•. .. •............... .
5
22
1
18
1 - --t--
Stenographers an d t y pists........ . ...
B ookkeepers, cashiers, and account•
ants........................... .. . . .
Other clerical occupations...... . . . ...
Kanagerial and professional service. .....
2
8
2
1 - - - t --
8. 1
(1)
14
.6
.2
- - t - - -1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
.7
8
.3
25
6. 6
18
3. 5
.5
1. 9
2
4
.1
.2
15
16
3. 9
4. 2
9
16
1. 7
3. 1
.5
9
.4
1. 8
19
3. 7
- - t - - - t - - - t - - - -1- - - - - - - -
Managers and executives .. . .. . .. . ..... . ........ . . . . . ........ . ............. . .. . .
School teachers............ . ......... . . . . ... . .... ...
8
.3
3
.8
J ournalists, librarians, and other pro•
fessional........... .. . ....... . ... .. .
2
.5
(1)
2
.5
Domestic and personal service . . . . .. . . .. . .
1. 2
Servants living in employer's home..
1
.2
Servants living in own home .. . .... . .
D ay work;ers........ . ................
1
.2
P ower laundry workers ....... . ... . . .
C leaners an d janitresses . . ......... -.l
.2
Waitresses, restaurant keepers, ar:d
kitchen help.·······-···- -···---·· ·
.2
1
.2
N urses---- · · · · -- --·· · - -· ----··--·-· -·
Other domestic and personal service__ -- · --· ·· · - - -- -
57
17
8
11
2. 3
1. 8
. 7 ·--· · -· ·-----•3
.4
.3
.6
1. 4
9
1. 7
103
20. 0
63
12. 2
1.0
2
.1
5
.2
3
.6
3
5
6
.1
.2
.2
.3
1. 1
7
18
1.4
3. 5
.3
1
.2
1
4
1
Taking boarders or lodgers ·-······· · · - -· 73
17. 5
693
27. 5
104
27. 4
T aking in washing · · ·--·--·- · ·····---- - ----·-·-···-·-·- · -------·- - ---- · ···-· -· · - ···
2
.5
4
.2
3
.8
T aking in sewing, millinery or knitting..
Ot her home service __ ·-·· · ··· · · ·-······ · -·
t
3
7
5
4
2
Total working in own home ••••••••••••....... ,_ _7_5......._17_._a_,__6_97_,__
27_._7_ _
10_1__, __2_8_. 2_
Not reported ..... .•.. •••.••••.•••••••••.••. ..
22
(1)
Telephone operators . . . ..... . .... . . . ... ............. . .. .
Clerical occupations . .. . ..... . . . . :. . . ... . . .
.9
.8
4. 2
. 2 •••• •.•••• • •••
.8
.4
-~~j-~
126
2
8
2
2-U ,
.4
1. 6
.4
. 3 • • •••••••• • •• •
Less t han one•tenth of 1 per cent.
As previously stated, only 73 of the foreign-born women workers
in Passaic had been in this country less than five years. Their distribution in the industries is, therefore, without significance.
It can readily be seen in Table 79, however1 that immigrants of
5 to 10 years ago were more concentrated in factory occup ations, and
particularly in woolen and worsted mills work, than were the women
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
124
FAMILY STA1.~us OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
who had been m this country 10 years or more. The latter had
entered the selling, office, and professional occupations to a small
extent, while the numbers of recent immigrants therein were practically ·negligible.
TABLE
79.-Years in the United States of for eign-born breadwinning women, by
industry and occupation-Passaic, N. J.
Industry or occupation
Foreign.born Num• Women in
United
ber
women
States
worn•
bread•
than
less
en
winners
5 years
report•
ing
years
in
Num• Per
Num- Per
cent
ber
cent
ber
~f11!~
Women in
United
States
5 and under
10 years
Nnm•
ber
Per
cent
Women in
United
States
10 years
and over
Nuin•
ber
Per
cent
100. 0
73 100. 0 1,847 100. 0 3, 577
TotaL. .... .•... . ........ . ....... 5,701 100. 0 5,497
===1===:===1==='-l===t==~==:1 ====1===
021
2,
3
72.
335
1,
6
401
56. 5
61.
S,
3
45
61.
Manufacturing ... ...•....... . ......... 3,496
Woolen and worsted goods. .... ... 2, 031
Cotton and cotton goods including
855
handkerchiefs .......... ·--..... .
136
Silk and silk goods................
63
Textiles, not specified ........... -·
Clothing, men's, women's, and
52
children's ............... ···-··-119
Tobacco and cigars...............
240
Other manufacturing . ............
35. 6
1,992
20
27. 4
825
44. 7
1,147
32.1
15. 0
2. 4
826
126
13
3
2
17. 8
318
36
16
17. 2
1. 9
495
.9
45
13. 8
2.4
1. 3
22
56
62
1. 2
3. 0
3. 4
26
57
164
1. 6
4. 6
1.1
63
.9
48
11 5
4. 2
231
2.1
4.1
2. 7
2. 7
2
5
6. 8
87
.7
Dressmakers, seamstresses, tailor•
esses, milliners, and apprentices
in shop or employer's home.........
49
.9
46
1.4
15
.8
30
.8
Selling trades ...... .................. .
164
2. 9
156
1. 4
21
1.1
134
3. 7
14
.8
.4
64
1.8
1. 9
.1
Saleswomen ....•.. .... . ..•...•....
Retail dealers .............. ...... .
Other selling occupations ......•.. _
82
80
1. 4
1. 4
1.4
79
75 ....... -·-··-·
2
(1)
Telephone operator■ ....•••••.•••••....
2
(1)
Clerical occupations.... ...............
166
2. 9
Stenographers and typists ....... .•
Bookkeepers, cashiers, and ac•
countants .... . . _. _. _.. _.. _.. ... .
Other clerical operations ........ . .
69
1. 2
35
62
.6
Managerial and professional senice .. .
49
.9
Managers and executives .........•
School teachers .......... _.. _-·._ ..
Journalists, librarians, and other
professional. .. ___ .... _._ .. _._-- ·
4
25
.1
.4
20
.4
Domestic and personal aervice out•
side worker'• home..... ............
367
6. 4
330
11
15. 1
173
55
3. 0
1.0
153
9
1
1
Servants living in employer's
home................... ..... ...
Servants living in own home......
Day workers ... · ·· ·---- ···· · ·····
Power laundry workers...........
Cleaners and janitresses...........
Waitresses, restaurant keepers,
and kitchen he!p .··-- ··--·- ·-· ·
Nurses_ ·-· -·····-- -····-·-·-· -·-· ·
Other domestic and personal
service..........................
38
9
1. 1
•7
17
.2
.3
20
46
.4
.8
7
68
2
2
(1)
15
.8
138
s. 9
67 ......• ·-·-·-·
4
.2
63
1.8
35 ·····-· ···-· -·
6
•3
29
5
•3
46
.8
1. 3
43 ....... ···-- ·-
.4
35
1.0
4 ••••.•• ···-·-21
.1
.2
3
.1
17
•5
18 ·····•• ...... .
.2
15
.4
79
4. 3
240
6. 7
12. 3
51
2. 8
93
1. 4
1. 4
12
1
2. 6
1. 1
154
1. 4
52
51
34
8
1. 4
.
15
19 ··-···- ·······
41
.6
38
2
2
.1
.1
.1
32
6
13
.9
.2
.4
1
.1
18
36
1.0
5
.3
.5
9
•2
5
•3
4
.1
Working in own home.................. 1, 405
24. 6
1, 363
14
19. 2
374
20. 2
975
27. S
T aking boarders or lodgers........ 1, 372
7
Taking in washing.. ... . ..... .....
24
Taking in sewing, millinery, etc...
2
Otber home service ... ....... .... .
24.1
.1
.4
1,332
7
22
14
19. 2
370
20. 0
948
7
19
1
26. 5
.2
.5
Not reported ........••••...••••.......
1
Less than one•tenth of 1 per ce.qt.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
(1)
.1
9 .•............
2
.2
.1
3 -- ····· --····· · -·- ··- -······
(1)
. ]
125
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
Marital status.
According to Table 80, one-half-that is, 4,945-of the br~adwinning women of Passaic w re single; 4,013, or 41 per cent, were
married; 751, or nearly 8 per cent, were widows; and less than
one-half of 1 per cent were divorced. Of the married women, however, 367, or 3.8 per cent, are classified in the table as "married,
husband not living with family. " The 3,646 gainfully employed
when shown in Table 80 as living with breadwinning husbands constitute approximately 76 per cent of all the gainfully employed
women who were or had been married.
TABLE
80.-Number and per cent distribution of breadwinning women, by marital
status-Passaic, N. J.
Marital status
TotaL _____ _________________
Number
Per
cent
9, 769
100. 0
1- - - + - - - 1 1
Single . . ____ _______ _. ___ __ _. ___ . . __
Married, husband living with
family_____ _____________________
4, 945
50. 6
3,646
37. 3
Marital status
Married, husband not living with
family __ __ ______ ______ _________ _
Widowed ____ ______ ______________ _
Divorced ______________ _______ ____ _
Marital status not reported ______ _
Number
Per
cent
367
3. 8
751
38
22
7. 7
.4
.2
Table 81 discloses in detail the differences in the proportions
which women of each race formed of the · total number of breadwinners and in the proportions they constituted of the several marital
groups.
Almost two-thirds of the single breadwinning women were to be
found among the American born. As a consequence it is to be
expected that the married women breadwinners were largely foreign
born. From the Slavic races came one-half of the married women
breadwinners whose husbands also were breadwinners. In this racial
group, of which by far the largest number were Polish, fall als·o· the
greatest number who were married but whose husbands were not
living in the family circle.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
126
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
TABLE
81.-Country of birth of breadwinning women, by marital atatu&-:-Passaic,
N.J.
Marital status
Country of birth
Total
Single
Total:
Number_________
Percent_ ________
United States:
WhiteNumber _ __ ________
Per cent___________
NegroNumber___________
Per cent___________
Austria :
Number_______________
Per cent_______________
Czechoslovakia:
Number_______________
Per cent_______________
Holland:
Number _______________
Per cent_______________
Germany:
Number __ _______ __ __ __
Per cent_ _-- ---~------Hungary:
Number_____________ __
Per cent_______________
Italy:
Number___ __ ________ __
Per cent_____________ __
Poland:
Number __ _____________
Per cent_______________
Russia :
Numher _ ______________
Per cent_ ___ ___________
Other countries:
Number __ -- ----·-·--- Per cent_ __ ___ ______ ___
1
9, 769
100.0
100.0
3,929
40. 2
4,945
Married, Married, Married,
husband husband husband
not a
not liva breadwinner
bread- ing with
winner
family
Marital
Divorced status
not reported
Widowed
50
100. 0
367
100.0
751
38
22
100.0
100. 0
100. 0
100. 0
3, 134
63. 4
602
14.0
14
28.0
72
19. 6
24. 6
(1)
139
1.4
39
.8
62
11
1. 7
3.0
26
3. 5
(1)
345
3. 5
90
1. 8
166
4.6
33
9. 0
55
7.3
264
2. 7
47
1.0
167
2
4. 6
4.0
20
5.4
27
3. 6
80
.8
39
.8
30
2
8
.5
1.1
197
2. 0
72
1. 5
82
2.3
1
2. 0
6
32
1.6
4. 3
983
10.1
195
3.11
589
16.4
9
18. 0
418
4. 3
205
4.1
165
4. 6
2,519
25.8
724
14.6
1,504
380
3. 11
181
3. 7
150
4. 2
515
6. 3 .
4. 4
219
3,596
.8
41.8
179
5_0
185
M
131
14. 7
17. 4
12. 0
7
1. 9
34
4. 5
13
26.0
115
31.3
145
6
5
10.0
19.3
19
26
5. 2
3. 5
28
7. 6
82
10. 9
16
(1)
6
(1)
(1)
(1)
3
(1)
2
(1)
(1)
8
(1)
2
2
(1)
10
(1)
2
(1)
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Table 82 brings out clearly the age differences between single and
married breadwinning women. Seventy-one per cent of the single
women breadwinners were under 25 years of age, almost 40 per cent
of the total being less than 20. On the other hand, 80 per cent of
the married women breadwinners were 25 years of age or older,
more than one-third of all married women being between 30 and 40
years. The numbers of married, widowed, and divorced who were
under 20 were negligible, as might be expected. Widows and
divorcees formed the largest group among those aged 50 or more.
The inclusion of boarding- or lodging-house keepers among breadwinning women accounts for the large number of women in the older
age groups shown in Table 82.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
127
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
TABLE
82.-Marital status oj breadwinning· women, by age groups-Passaic, N. J . .
--
Marital status
Number and per cent of women whose age wasTotal Under 16 and 18 an d 20 and 25 and 30 an d 40 and 50
un der under under under years Not re16
17
19
40
25
30
50
an d ported
years years years years
years y ears years over
--
T ot al :
Nu m ber __ _____ _____ 9, 769
P er cent_ ____ ______ _ 100. 0
Single:
N
u mber
___-------·-··---P er
cent ____
_____________ _
M arried :
Number. ______________ ___
P er cent _____ __________ __ __
Widowed and divorced:
N umber ________ ____ ____ __
P er cent. ___ __________ ___ __
M arital status not report ed:
Number ___ .. . ______ ____. _
1
- -
- -
-
- -
-
--
- i-
388
4. 0
752
7. 7
832
8. 5
2,379
24. 4
1, 702
17. 4
2, 047
21. 0
388
7. 8
745
15. 1
776
15. 7
1,602
32.4
653
13. 2
469
9. 5
187
3. 8
123
2. 5
(1)
4, 013 ---- --100. 0 -- -----
6
.1
52
748
18. 6
990
1. 3
24. 7
1,369
34. 1
584
14. 6
203
6. 6
(I)
789 -- --- -100. 0 -------
1 ------.1 ------ -
22
2. 8
57
7. 2
205
26. 0
202
25. 6
302
38. 3
--·--- ------ -
7
2
4
2
1
2
4, 945
100. 0
22 -- -----
-------
4
975
--
689
~__?:_!_
(1)
5
2
]
L ess than one-tenth of 1 per cent.
The factor of importance disclosed by Table 83 is the large number
of brcadwinning matrons--:--over 62 per cent- who were going outside
their homes to work. Fifty-six per cent of the women whose husbands were at work were employed in factories, stores, and offices or
in others' homes. The proportion was naturally still greater among
widows, divorcees, and women whose husbands were not living with
the family group.
As one-half of all breadwinning women were employed in factories,
it is to be expected that a large number in each marital group would
be so employed, as is shown in Table 84. The woolen and worsted
mills employed a much larger proportion of women who were or
had been married than did the other factories. Almost as many
single women were employed in the cotton and handerkerchief millR
as were employed in the woolen mills.
Next to the woolen industry the business of taking boarders or
lodg rs occupied the largest number of women workers who were ·
widows or whose husbands lived in the family group. This is not
true among the married women whose husbands were not living with
their families; only 6 per cent of these women took boarders or
lodgers, whereas abouf 13 per cent were employed in domestic and
personal service outside the home.
The saleswomen, office workers, telephone operators, and professional workers were largely single women, and only 7 .9 p er cen t of
the single women were engaged in domestic and personal service,
and but 1.6 per cent worked in their own homes.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
83.-Breadwinning women working in their own homes or outside their homes, by marital status-Passaic, N. J.
Women working in own homes
Marital status
Total. _____________ •• ___
Single._. _________________ _____
Married, husband a breadwinner ___ _------ - ---- _______
Married, husband not a breadwinner ______________________
Married, husband not living
with family _________________
Widowed ____ _________ ________
Divorced ______ __ _____ __• ___ ___
Marital status not reported __ _
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Total
Total
number
breadwinDing
women NumP er
ber
cent
Not
reported
Women working outside their homes
Total
In factories, stores, offices, etc.
NumNumber
workber
ing
employalone
ing
on
own ac- others
count
In others' homes
Total
Total
NumNumber
ber Num- Per
Num- workNum- workber cent
ber
as
ber
as
ing
ing
NumPer
ememcent
alone Number
alone
ployployNumPer
Per
on
on
cent
ber
ees own
cent
ees own
ac- ber
account
count
--- ------ ------ --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ----Number as
employers
--
9,769
1,899
19. 4
1,896
4,945
77
1. 6
77
3,596
1,577
43. 9
1,577
50
21
42. 0
20
367
751
38
27
189
7
1
7. ,(
25. 2
18. 4
4. 5
27
187
7
1
22
3
--------------1
-------2
------- --------
7,861
80. 5
7,348
75. 2
17
7,231
100
513
5. 3
424
89
9
0.1
4,860
98. 3
4,564
92. 3
4
4,549
11
296
6. 0
243
53
8
. ,2
2,019
56.1
1,942
54. 0
3
1,877
62
77
2.1
62
15
29
58. 0
28
56. 0
27
1
1
2.0
340
561
31
21
92. 6
74. 7
81.6
95. 5
306
465
23
20
83. 4
61. 9
60. 5
90. 9
5
21
34
96
8
1
9. 3
12. 8
21. 1
4. 5
- - - - - - · - - - ·- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
--------------10
--------
--·----·
301
434
23
20
---------------
-------31
82
5
1
------ -----__ ___
.;.
-----3 ------ -----14
1
.1
3 -----.................. -·---- ----------,..
1
129
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
TABLE
84.- Marital status of breadwinning, women, by industry and occupationPassaic, N. J .
Marital status
Married, Married,
Married, husband
husband
husband
n ot livnot a
a breadbread- ing with
winner
family
winner
Single
Industry or occupation
Tota!
---~
.0
~
z
~
P-t
Q)
s:::s
0
....i:l
~
.0
Q)
s:::s
0
~
P-t
z
.0
~
~
z
P-t
s:::s ...
- - -- - - - - -
Total. _____ ___ • ________ ._ 9,769 4,945 100. 0 3,596 100. 0
Manufacturing ____________ ••. _ 5,201 2,726 55. 1 1, 770 49. 2
Woolen and worsted
goods ________ .. _________ 2, 528'1, 033 20. 9 I, 097 30. 5
Cotton and cotton goods,
including handkerchiefs 1,387 865 17. 5 369 10. 3
All other textiles. __ .... _._ 418 294 5. 9
77 2.1
Other manufacturing 1__ _ _ 868 534 10. 8 227 6.3
Selling trades _________________ sos 191 s. 9
73 2. 0
Saleswomen __ ________ ____ 204 178 3. 6
18
.5
13
Other selling occupations. 104
.3
55 1. 5
Telephone operators .. ____ ____
76
73 1. 5
Clerical occupations ___________ 1, 117 1,055 21. 3
Managerial and professional
service ____________________ __ 485 425 8. 6
Donestic and personal service
outside worker's home ______
Servants living in employer's borne. __ . ___ ___
Servants and dayworkers
living in own borne _____
Nurses. _____________ . ____
Other domestic and personal service ____ ___ _____
Q)
0
Q)
....
~
.0
§3
z
P-t
s:::s ...
0
Q)
Widowed
Divorced
--~
.c
~
z
P-t
sss
61. 0
Q)
s:::s
0
...
Q)
-50 100. 0 367 100. 0 751 100. 0
23 46. 0 285 72. 2
10 20.0 149 40. 6 227 30. 2
7 14. 0
1 2.0
5 10. 0
57 15. 5
21 5. 7
38 10. 4
M arital
status
not reported
78 10.4
20 2. 7
58 7. 7
~
.c.
@
z
P-t
s:::s ...
0
Q)
...
s:::s
z
Q)
.0
-- --38 100. 0
22
18 (1)
16
(1)
3
3 (1)
2 (1)
4 (1)
8
3
2
9
4
8. 0
7
1. 9
32
4. S
1 (1)
--------
2
2
4. 0
4.0
1
6
.3
1.6
4
28
.5
3. 7
1 (1)
-- ------
2
35
. 1 ---- ----1. 0 ---- ---- -
1
11
3. 0
10
1. S
2
29
. 8 ----
-----
9
2. 5
20
2. 7
2 (1) - -------
2
4. 0
110
390
7. 9
260
200
4. 0
6
. 2 ____
---- -
17
4. 6
35
184
138
60
101
1.2
2. 0
58
15
1. 6 ---.4 ----
------ ---
15
8
4.1
2. 2
47
.6
31
2
I. 9
23
11
4
8 (1)
1
4. 7
2 (1)
--·-----
6. 3
1. 5
3
3
(1)
(1)
1
47 12. 8 116 15. 4
674
3. 1
---- -----
. s ---- ---- - ---- ----- -------(1)
-------3. 1 ---- ----- --------
92
29
4. 0
7
Working in own home _________ 1,899
77
1. 6 1,577 43.,9
21 42. 0
27
7. S 189 25. 2
7 (1)
l
Taking boarders or lodgers ___ _____ _______ _______ 1,796
Other home service .... ___ 103
Not repor ted ___ ______________
9
27
60
. 51,554 43. 2
.6
23
1. 0
20 40. 0
1 2. 0
22
5
6. 0 170 22. 6
1.4 19 2. 5
3 (1)
4 (1)
-- ------1
8
. 2 ----- -----
1
2
.9
---- ----- ---- -----
1
. 1 ----
----- --------
N ot computed, owing to small number involved.
Includes dressmakers, seamstresses, tailoresses, milliners, and apprentices in shop or employer's borne.
Breadwinning mothers.
There were 4,802 women breadwinners in P assaic who were or
bad been married. Nearly seven-tenths of these married, widowed,
or divorced breadwinners were mothers; only 32 per cent had no
children living with them. There is little variation in the proportions of those reported with children in the several marital groups.
The range is from 41 per cent for the small number of married women
not living with husbands to 72.5 per cent for the women workers
whose husbands were breadwinners, the latter representing by far
the largest group of workers.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
130
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
TABLE
85.-Breadwinning women who had children or, had no children, by marital
statu~Passaic, N. J.
Women
who were or
had been
married
Marital status
Total:
Number _____________________________ ____ _______________ __
Per cent_ ___________________________ _____________________ _
Married, husband a breadwinner:
Number ________________ _________ ______________________________ _
Per cent_ ______________________________________________________ _
Married,
husband
not a breadwinner:
Number
____________________________________________________
___ _
Per cent_ _____ _______________________ ____ _____________ _________ _
Married,
husband
not
living
with
family:
·
Number _____________ •___________________________________ _____ __
Per cent _______________________________________________________ _
Widowed:
Number _____ __ _______________________________________ _________ _
Per cent __ _____________________________________________________ _
Divorced
: _____ ____ _________________________________________ _____ _
Number
Per cent_ ______________________________________________________ _
Women
who had
children
Women
who had
no children
living in
family
circle
4,8021
100. 0
3,271
68. 1
1,531
31. 9
3,596
100. 0
2,603
72. 5
988
27. 5
50
100. 0
35
70. 0
15
30. 0
367
100. 0
(1.
151
1
216
58. 9
751
100. 0
456
60. 7
295
39. 3
38
100. 0
21
55. 3
44. 7
17
Table 86, concerned with the correlation 6f race and motherhood,
shows a smaller proportion of mothers among the American born
th1tn among any foreign-born group except . those of German birth.
The American whites, it will be recalled, were a much younger group
of women. It is interesting to note that 76 per cent of the Polishborn women, who constituted by far the largest group of foreignborn women, had children.
TABLE
86.-Breadwinning women who had children or had no children, by country
of birth-Passaic, N. J.
,
Country of birth
Women who bad
no children •livWomen Women who had
ing in family
who
children
circle
were or
had b e e n , - - - ~ - - - -- -- - married
Number Per cent Number Per cent .
68.1
), 531
TotaL------------~--------------- -----------4,802
3,271
31. 9
1 - - - - t - - - - t - - - - 1 - - - -1- - -United States, white_________________________________
789
448
43. 2
56. 8
341
United States, negro __ _______________________________
100
33
67. O
33. 0
67
Austria________ _______ _____________ __________________
254
184
27- 6
72. 4
70
Czechoslovakia______________________________________
217
157
27. 6
72. 4
60
Holland________________________ _____________________
41
29
29. 3
70. 7
12
Germany___________________ ____ _____________________
125
63
49. 6
50. 4
62
Hungary____________________________________________
786
495
37. 0
63. 0
291
Italy __ -------------- ------- --- ---- ------ _----- -- ----
Poland______________________________________________
Russia_______________________________________________
Other countries____________________________ __________
212
1,785
197
296
·
155
1,360
163
184
73. 1
76. 2
82. 7
62. 2
57
425
34
112
26. 9
23. 8
17. 3
37. 8
Although approximately three-fourths of the working women who
were or had been married were mothers of children, the prevailing
families were not large. The essential feature of Table 87 lies in the
fact that approximately 80 per cent of the breadwinning mothers had
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
131
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
not more than three children, and 32.8 per cent had only one child.
Nevertheless, it is important to note that two-thirds had two or more
children and that a little less than 10 per cent had five or more.
The variations of the actual and average number of children of the
mothers living with husbands and of those widowed, divorced, or
separated were so slight as to indicate that the number of children
in a family was not a differential factor in conditions surrounding
the breadwinners in each group.
TABLE
87 .-Number of children of breadwinning mothers, by marital status of
mother-Passaic, N. J.
Marital status
Total
wornenbaving
cbildren
Women having specified number of children
1
2
4
3
5
6
7
8
g
10
-- Total:
Number _____ 3,271
Per cent_ _____ 100.0
Married, husband a
breadwinner:
Number ___________
Per cenL ________ __
Married, husband not
a breadwinner:
Number_ ________ __
P er cent_ __________
Married, husband not
living with family:
Number ___________
Per cent_ ______ ____
Widowed:
Number _____ ______
· Per cent_ _________ _
Divorced:
Number ___________
Per cent_ __________
1
Average
munber of
chi!dren
per
mother
- --
1,073
32. 8
926
28.3
590
18. 0
370
11. 3
176
5.4
82
2. 5
34
1.0
12
0.4
6
0.2
2
0.1
--------
2,608
100.0
787
30. 2
755
28. 9
489
18. 8
306
11. 7
157
6.0
68
2.6
31
1. 2
9
0. 3
4.
0. 2
2
0.1
--------
35
100.0
13
37.1
7
20.0
7
20.0
4
11.4.
1
2. 9
2
5. 7
151
100.0
84
55. 6
(1
27. 2
16
10. 6
6
4.0
1
.7
1
.7
1
.7
1
.7
456
100. 0
178
39.0
117
25. 7
76
16. 7
52
11. 4
17
3. 7
11
2. 4
2
.4
2
.4
21
100. 0
11
(1)
(1)
- -- -- -
6
(1)
2
(1)
2
------ ----------- ------
1
2. 9
2.4
2. 5
2. fl
----------- --------
1. 7
------ ----------- ------ -------1 -----.2 ------
2. 3
--------
1.8
------ ---- -- ------ ------ ------ ----------- ------ ------ ------ ------ --·---- --------
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
The prevailing number of children in the families of the foreign
born differed very little from the number in American families, according to Table 88, which discloses the fact that the average number
of children per mother varied by less than one. However, there was
one distinguishing difference. The percentage of women having only
one child was highest among the Americans, white and negro, approximately one-half of whom had but one child. Among the Polish-born
women, 28.5 per cent had but one child, 29.9 per cent had two chil(!lren, and 18.5 per cent had three children.
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132
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNI-NG WOMEN
TABLE
88.-N umber of children of bread'µ)inning mothers, by country of birth of
mother-Passaic, N. J .
Country of birth
- - -- - - -
AverTotal
age
Women having specified number of child ren
wornnumenhavber of
ing
chilchi!- ,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - -, dren
dren
per
6
7
8 .
mother
.10
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
Total:
Number_ ____ 3,271
Per cent_ _____ 100. 0
United States, white:
Number__ _____ ____
P er cent __ __________
United States, negro:
Number___________
Per cent_ ______ ___ _
Austria:
Number___________
Per cent__ __ __ _____
Czechoslovakia:
Number___________
Per cent ___________
Bolland:
Number___________
Per cent_ __________
Germany:
Number___________
Per cent_ ___ _____ ___
Hungary:
Number___________
-Per cent_ __ ________
Italy:
Number___________
Per cent_ __ ________
Poland:
Number ______ _____
P er cent___________
Russia:
Number __ _-------Percent_ __________
Other countries:
Number_ __ ------~Per cent ___ ________
2
2.4
0. 1 -------~
1,073
32. 8
926
28. 3
590
18. 0
370
11. 3
176
5. 4
82
2. 5
34
1. 0
12
0. 4
·6
0. 2
448
100. 0
211
47. 1
115
25. 7
70
15. 6
27
6. 0
13
2. 9
9
2. 0
1
0. 2
1
0. 2
1
2. 0
0. 2 ------ --------
33
100. 0
18
54. 5
7
21. 2
4
12. 1
2
6.1
2
6.1
184
100. 0
59
32.1
48
26.1
29
15. 8
23
12. 5
15
8.1
5
2. 7
5 ------ ------ -----2. 6
2. 7 ------ ------ ------ -------·
157.
100. 0
46
29. 3
38
24. 2
32
20. 4
23
14. 6
16
10. 2
1
•6
1 ------ -----2. 6
. 6 ---- . _ ------ - -------
29
100. 0
8
27. 6
8
27. 6
5
17. 2
3
3
10. 3
10. 3
1
3. 4
1 ------ ------ -----2. 7
3. 4 ------ ------ --- --- --------
63
100. 0
23
36. 5
22
34. 9
9
14. 3
5
7. 9
2
3. 2
2 ------ ------ ------ -----3. 2
495
100. 0
177
35. 8
145
29. 3
79
16. 0
55
11. 1
20
4.0
11
2.2
155
100. 0
40
25. 8
45
29. 0
32
20. 6
22
14. 2
9
5.8
3. 9
1,360
100. 0
387
28. 5
406
29. 9
252
18. 5
169
12. 4
81
6.0
38
2.8
18
1.3
163
100.0
44
27. 0
48
29.4
38
23. 3
21
12. 9
6
3. 7
3
1. 8
1. 2
1 ------ --.- -·- . 2. 5
. 6 ------ ------ -- -- - -,--
184
100. 0
60
32. 6
44
23. 9
· 40
21. 7
10. 9
6
3.3
2
1.1
1
.5
20
9
4. 9
1.9
5
1.0
2
.4
6 ------ ------
2
6
.4
2. 2
1
2.3
.2 ------ -------1
2. 6
• 6 ------ -- --- - --
2
.1
1
.5
1
2. 5
.1 --------
1
2_ 6
.5 --,- -·--·
Though the families of working mothers were not large, the children
in many instances were young. Table 89 shows that approxima.t,ely
60 per cent of the employed mothers had children under 5 years .of
age, 20 per cent had children of 5 to 7 years of age who had not yet
entered school, although the New Jersey school regulations permit
children to go to school at the age of 5 years. These percentages
are not mutually exclusive, as mothers with children under 5 years
may also have had children between 5 and 7 years. The strikingly
significant fact is that all of these breadwinning mothers had small
children at home requiring care. The 12 per cent of breadwinn1ng
mothers who had children of 5 to 7 years of age at school had the
assurance that for part of the working-day at least the little ones
were safe. Who got them ready for school in the morning or looked
to their physical and moral welfare after school the census data, of
course, do not show.
Another singularly striking feature of Table 89 is the revelation
that it was not the widowed mothers nor other women with disrupted
marital relations who were winning bread apparently at the expe~s~
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
133
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
of the care of young children, but the married women living with
breadwinning husbands. The revelation makes a strong urge for
further information.
Although children are permitted to enter school at the age of 5 in
New Jersey, attendance is compulsory only from 7 to 16 years of
age. ,vith the consent of parents and upon securing a proper certificate, children may leave school at the age of 14 to go to work.
Apparently many working women find it necessary to take their
children from school as soon as permitted by law. Eleven per cent
of the breadwinning mothers had children who were 14 to 18 years
of age at work. Eight per cent permitted children of these ages to
continue their school work · less than 1 per cent had children at
school who were as old as 18 years.
TABLE
89.-Breadwinning mothers having children of specified age grou ps at home,
in school, or at work, by marital status of mother-Passaic, N. J.
Marital status
Women
Total having
women children
having under
children 5 years
of age
Women
having
children
5 and 6
years of
age-
Married, husband a
breadwinner:
Number ___________
Per cent_ _____ __ ___
Married, husband not
a breadwinner:
Number __ ___ ______
Per cent_ __ ________
Married, husband not
living with family:
Number ________ ___
Per cent_ _____ _____
Widowed:
Number ___ _______ _
Per cent ___________
Divorced :
Number ___________
Per cent_ __________
Women having
children 14 and
under 18 years
of age-
Women having
children 18
years of age
and over-
I
In
At
In
At
In
At
At
At
At
In
home school home school home school work home school work
- --Total:
Number_ ____
Per cent_ ____
Women
having
children
7and under
14 years of
age-
--.
--
3,271'
100.0
1,934
59.1
642
19. 6
393
12. 0
187 1,445
5. 7 44. 2
41
1. 3
261
8.0
376
11. 5
51
1. 6
21
0. 6
14.6
2,608
100. 0
1,767
67.8
575
22. 0
345
13. 2
153 1,172
5. 9 44. 9
29
1.1
194
7. 4
238
9.1
29
1.1
16
.6
232
8.9
35
100. 0
6
17.1
2
6. 7
3
8.6
2
6. 7
1
2. 9
7
40.0
20.0
9
25. 7
1
2. 9
2
5. 7
14
40.0
151
100.0
37. 7
1 -----. 7 ------
33
21. 9
456
100.0
21
100.0
5
23.8
14
14
11
6
55
8. 3
7. 3
4.0
36.4
2
1.3
4.6
27
17. 9
99
60
21. 7
11.0
32
7.0
26
6. 7
195
42.8
7
1. 6
50
11.0
100
21. 9
1
4.8
2
9.5
2
5
14.3
57
-----------
9
42. 9
9.
7
3
20
4.4
2 ------
9. 5
----- -
3
.7
-----------
476
192
42.1
5
23.8
Information about the status of the children of the breadwinning
mothers of the several nationalities is presented in Table 90.
In most cases the Polish-born mothers had young children. Over
three-fourths of these breadwinning mothers had children under 5
years of age; nearly a third had children of 5 and 6 years of age at
home, and 10 per oent had children of those ages at school. The
problem of the very young child was less acute with the American
born, somewhat more than a third of whom had children of less
than 5 years of age.
The Polish born, it would seem, did not as a rule send children to
school before the compulsory school age was reached. Less than
one-fourth of those having children of 5 and 6 years were sending
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
134
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
them to school. The ·same tendency was marked among _the Austrian born. Larger proportions of the remaining groups took advantage of the opportunity afforded by the State law to begin the
education of children at an early age.
Another striking feature set forth in the table is the tendency
among the races to send the child to work as soon as the law permits. The only racial groups of mothers having a larger proportion of children from 14 to 18 years at school than at work were
the American-born white and the Russian-born women.
TABLE
90.-Breadwinning mothers with childre?J, of specified age groups at home, in
school, or at work, by country of birth of mother-Passaic, N. J.
Women
Total having
women children
having under
children 5 years
of age
Country of birth
Women
h av ing
children
5 and 6
years of
age-
Women
having
children
7 and under
14 years of
age-
I
I
United States, white:
Number ________ ___
Per cent_ _______ ~--United States, negro :
Number __ _____ ___ _
Per cent_ ____ ___ ____
Austria:
Number ________ ___
P er cent ____________
Czechoslovakia:
Number ___________
P er cen t_ ____ _______
Holland :
Number _______ ____
Per cent_ ___________
Germany:
Number ___ ________
Per cent ___________
Hungary :
Number _______ ____
Per cent _______ _____
Italy :
Number ___________
Per cent ____________
Poland :
Number ___________
Per cent ________ ~--Russia:
Number ___ ________
Per cent_ ___ ________
Other countries:
Number ____ _______
Per cent_ ___ ________
~
Women having
children 18
years of age
and over-
In
At
In
At
At
At
At
In
At
In
home school home school home schooi work home school work
- ----- Total :
Number _____
Per cent_ ___ __
Women h aving
children 14 and
under 18 years
of age-
- ---- ---- -- -
-
- -
3,271
100. 0
1,934
59. 1
642
19. 6
393
12. 0
187 1,445
5. 7 44. 2
41
1. 3
261
8. 0
376
11. 5
51
1. 6
21
0. 6
476
14. 6
448
100. 0
162
36. 2
34
7. 6
47
10. 5
12
2. 7
158
35. 3
9
2. 0
52
11. 6
43
9. 6
24
5. 4
8
1.8
27. 2
33
100. 0
12
36. 4
3
9. 1
3. 0
-----------
1
3. 0
3
9.1
2
6. 1
--------- --
9
27. 3
184
100. 0
99
53. 8
33
17. 9
17
9. 2
13
7. 1
91
49. 5
2. 2
20
10. 9
34
18. 5
1 -----. 5 ------
32
17. 4
157
100. 0
96
61. 1
26
16. 6
22
14. 0
8
5.1
1
.6
11
49. 7
7.0
32
20. 4
2
1. 3
1
.6
29
100. 0
8 --- --5
27. 6 ------ 17. 2
15
51. 7
1
3. 4
6
20. 7
8
27. 6
3
10. 3
-----------
63
100. 0 ·
10
15. 9
---------------------
32
50. 8
2
3. 2
8
12. 7
14
22. 2
-- ---------
2
3. 2
39. 7
495
100. 0
241
48. 7
61
12. 3
84
17. 0
23
4. 6
268
54.1
5
1.0
40
8.1
74
14. 9
1
.2
65
13. 1
155
100. 0
82
52. 9
19
12. 3
33
21. 3
9
5. 8
75
48. 4
2
1. 3
13
8.4
17
11. 0
1,360
100. 0
1,041
76. 5
416
30. 6
130
9. 6
109
8. 0
557
41. 0
13
1. 0
64
4. 7
110
8.1
3
.2
2
.1
6. 0
163
100. 0
98
60.1
15
9. 2
27
16. 6
9
5. 5
69
42.3
2
1. 2
28
17. 2
12
7. 4
5
3.1
6
3._7
29
17. 8
184
100. 0
85
32
17. 4
19
10. 3
4
2. 2
86
46. 7
2
1.1
18
46. 2
9. 8
29
15. 8
6
3. 3
1
.5
50
27. 2
".I.
3
8
4. 8 ,12. 7
16 -----48. 5 ------
78
4
3
.6
2 -- ---1. 3 ------
122
25
15. 9
13
44. 8
25
25
16.1
81
A vital question that arises in connection with breadwinning
mothers is: How many mothers with young children were away
from their homes during working hours~ Table 91 shows that over
47 per cent of the mothers with children under 5 years of age, and
about one-half of those having" children 5 and 6 years of age at home,
were engaged in remunerative service outside the home.
More than one-half of these mothers who went out to work were
employed in the woolen and worsted mills. The cotton and handkerchief mills gave work to the next large.st number.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
91.-Breadwinning mothers having children of specified age groups at home, in school, or at work, by industry or occupation of motherPassaic, N. J.
t..:)
........
.
I
Cl
Industry or occupation
Total
~
Cl
-1-
l
0
Total:
Number __________________________________ __
Per cent ____________________________________
Working outside own home:
Number
---------------------------------Per cent.___
_____
________________________________
Manufacturingumber __________________________________
Per cent _____ _______ ______________________
Woolen and worsted goodsNumber_ __ _____ . _______ __ ___________ _____
P er cent _____ ______________ _____ _____ ___ __
Cotton
and cotton
goodsNumber
_____________
_____________________
Per cent. _____ ____________________________
Other manufacturingNumber ___ __________ _____________________
Per cent. ______________ ______ _______ ______
Women
having
children
under 5
years of
age
Women having
children 5 and 6
years of age-
Women having
children 7 and
under 14 years
of age-
Women having children 14
and under 18 years of age-
Women having children 18
years of age and over-
At home In school At home In school At home In school At work At home In school At .work
3,271
100. 0
1,934
100.0
M2
100. 0
393
100. 0
187
100.0
1,446
100.0
41
100. 0
281
100. 0
378
100. 0
51
100. 0
21
100.0
478
100. 0
1,778
54. 4
924
47.8
316
49.2
220
56.0
73
39.0
876
60.6
23
56.1
134
51.3
235
62. 5
17
33.3
7
33. 3
226
47.5
~
z
1-tj
0
q
~
1,517
46.4
853
44.1
290
45.2
187
47.6
66
35.3
734
50.8
18
43.9
84
32.2
202
53. 7
5
9.8
41
21. 9
460
31.8
11
26.8
56
21. 5
135
35. 9
3
5. 9
11
1
4. 8
155
32. 6
938
28. 7
525
27.1
176
27'.4
122
31. 0
319
9.8
185
9. 6
77
12. 0
32
8.1
12
6.4
148
10.2
3
7.3
4.2
27
7. 2
260
7. 9
143
7.4
37
5.8
33
8. 4
13
7.0
126
8. 7
4
9.8
17
6.5
40
10. 6
2
3. 9
1
4. 8
29
6.1
Selling tradesNumber ___ ____________ · _____________ --------Per cent _______________ ____________ ____ ____ ___
Clerical
occupationsNumber
______________ _______________ __ _____ __
96
2. 9
35
1.8
13
2.0
17
4.3
5
2. 7
52
3. 6
2
4.9
27
10. 3
11
2. 9
4
7. 8
3
14. 3
24
5.0
Per cent. ______ --------------------- ---------Professional
serviceNumber ___________________
_____ ________ · ____ _
Per cent _________________ --------------------Domestic
and
personal
serviceNumber _____________________________________ _
Per cent. ___________________________ _-- - ---- - -
20
.6
8
4
2
.3
2
.5
1
.5
10
.7
1
.4
1
.3
22
.7
2
,l
2
.3
1
.3
1
.5
10
.7
1
2.4
3
1.1
1
.3
123
3. 8
26
1.3
9
13
3. 3
70
4. 8
2
1.4
4. 9
19
7. 3
Working
in own
home
:
umber
_______
________________
___________ _______ _
P er cent. _______ ____ ___ ________________ ____ - - . -- - -
1,493
45. 6
1,010
52. 2
326
50. 8
173
44. 0
569
39.4
18
43. 9
127
48. 7
141
37. 5
101
21.2
---------- ------------------- ----------
25
5.3
gj
~
0
b3
t:;
a
~
~
H
t;,:j
114
61. 0
---------- ------------------- ----------
rJ).
3
.6
7
3
5. 9
1
4. 8
1. 5
20
5
5. 3
9.8
2
9. 5
37
7.8
34
66. 7
14
66. 7
250
52. 5
i~
Cl
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
136
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWIN'NJNG WOMEN
One of the most important questions raised by the census data
concerned the care provided for young children of mothers working
outside the home and the amount of help in household duties which
_these mothers had from paid or unpaid assistants. The census
schedules show that in none of these families with young children
were there servants living in the home who might have cared for
the children in the absence of the mothers. Whether other arra11gemen ts were made for the care of these children is a question of indisputable social significance, but it can not be answered from census
material. However, to test the dependability of collected census data
as an index to the importance of questions left unanswered, this
subject alone was chosen for an experimental survey.
Approximately 1,000 addresses of women having small children
were selected. The numbers were chosen from each Passaic enumeration district in proportion to the numbers of breadwinning women
reported therein. Five hundred and twenty-two of these women
were found and were identified as those enumerated in 1920. They
were interviewed as to the care provided for the children and the help
re~eived in the performance of household duties during the year the
census was taken. The results, though briefly stated, have a long
reach in social consequence. The following outline gives an insight
-into the situation:
Care of young children of mothers working away from home
M other kept store, cared for children a,t same time_____ _____ _____ ___ ____ 22
M other worked nights, cared for children in daytime _____________________ 107
Paid custodian to care fo r young children _~ -- --- -- ------- - -- -- ---------Relative ____ ___________________________________________ _____ 2
Hired woman________________________________________________ 4:
Day nursery ____________________ ___ _____________ ___ ___ __ _____ 3
Neighbor ____________________________ ________________________ 16
Relatives looked after children________________________________________
Living at home __________________________ ____________ ________ 66
Living near_ ______ _ _ __ ___ _ __ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ 27
Landlady or boarders looked after children______________________ _______
Neighbors cared for children______ __ ________________________________ __
Husband "kept eye on children"______________________________________
Worked nights, home during day _____________________ ___ _______ 44
Worked at home or unable to work _________________ _·___________ 10
25
93
35
68
54
Children cared for each other-- ------------------- -------------- ~----- 118
All from 7 to 14 years ___ ____ __ _ __ __________________ _________ _ 82
Some under 7, others from 7 to 14 years in same family ___________ 34
All under 5 years_____________________________________________ 2
Total__________________________________ - ·- ____________________ 522
The care provided seems in great measure to have been casual and
inadequate. It is difficult to fix the line of demarkation between the
conditions -confronting women who said they depended on neighbors
to care for their childre_n and those who frankly stated that the chil-
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
137
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
dren cared for themselves or that "God took care of them." M any
of the families lived in three-story tenements, containing from 6 to
12 families. The children, therefore, were not -left in the isolation
that would have obtained under other living conditions. Undoubtedly, should any children of the absent mothers have been hurt,
neighbors would have -rendered assistance, whether or not the
children were supposed "to care for themselves."
Mothers working at night usually had a 10-hour shift five nights
a week; that is, from 7 p. m. to 5 a. m., or from 8. p. m. to 6 a. m.
They were, therefore, at home in time for breakfast in the morning.
Sixteen night workers, however, worked on a short shift, or from
early evening to midnight, thus enabling them to get some sleep
before beginning the household duties of the day. At the time the
investigator visited Passaic many women who had been on njght
work in 1920, when the census was taken, were out of work. As soon
as the mills were busy enough to run the night shifts, however, these
women expected to return to work. 21
Except for the women storekeepers and those who were fortunate
enough to have relatives living in the family, or those who paid
some one to care for the children, the picture given above indicates
very clearly that the children of many of these working mothers had
to depend upon themselves for most of their needs during the mothers'
absence.
Almost four-fifths of the women interviewed did the housework in
addition to the performance of their other labors, with no assistance
except that rendered by the husband or small children. Women who
worked in the factories five nights a week had, of course, Saturday
in which to work at home. Twenty-one others said they took off
from one-half to two days weekly in order to look after household
d~.
.
Only 14 employed help for housework, either regularly one or two
days a week or for an occasional day; 19 sent laundry out to be done .
About 70 others stated that a mother, daughter, boarder, or nejghbor
helped with the laundry and cleaning. All the other breadwinning
mothers- that is, 419 of the 522 interviewed- cooked, cleaned, an tl
washed for their families in addition to caring for the children and
performing remunerative service outside the home.
Economic responsibilities.
The family status and responsibilities of Passaic's women workers
are reflected in Tables 92, 93 , and 94.
Table 92 deals with the apparent burdens of single breadwinning
women. The significant feature of this table is that almost twothirds of the single breadwinning women were living at home with
one or both parents. Not all of these _were equally circumstanced,
s1 Since the original publication of this section, New Jersey has passed a law prohibiting night work for
women, ~ffective December 31, 1924.
.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
138
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNJNG WOMEN
however, since only 63 per cent were living in homes where there
were mothers at home . and breadwinning fathei·s. 2:i The others
showed marked deviations from the normal standard of family life.
The proportions of women who wern sole breadwinners, or in
families with one other or with two or more others, yet having no
male breadwinners, show other curves in the lines of personal and
family responsibilities of the single breadwinning women living under
the parental roof.
One-third of the entire nu.mbe1· of single breadwinners in Passaic
might be described as economically "adrift"; that is, they were
boarding or lodging, maintaining independent homes, or living with
relatives or employers. These may, of course, have been contributing to the support of absent families or may themselves have been
recipients of help from home. The census data simply show the
group as not under the parental roof o_r protected by the solidarity
of an immediate family group.
Similar data with regard to married women, but showing the
average number of children instead of the average number of persons
in a family, are set forth in Table 93. Here the married women are
divided into three groups-those with breadwinning husbands, those
with nonbreadwinning husbands, and those not living with husbands.
The average number of children is based on the total number of
married women, including those who had no children.
Almost 90 per cent of the 4,013 married breadwinners were women
whose husbands were employed. Nine per cent had husbands who
were not living in the family, and less than 2 per cent (50 women) had
husbands who were living in the family but whose occupations were
recorded by the Bureau of the Census as "none." As would be
expected, by far the great majority of married women maintained
homes with their husbands or by themselves. A few lived at home
with parents or with other relatives. About 9 per cent were boarding ·
or lodging. Less than 5 per cent of the married women were sole
breadwinners. This group consists of 28 women with nonbreadwinning husbands, and 148 whose husbands were not living in the
family. The women who were sole breadwinners had for the most
part but one child, usually young and in no case as old as 18 years.
Most of the married women, 85 per cent of those reporting, were in the
group having two breadwinners, and because, as has been said, the
great majority were women with breadwinning husbands.,._ in nearly
every instance the second breadwinner was· a man. The average
number of children in the two-breadwinner group was about two.
Between 10 and 11 per cent of the married women were in families
with three breadwinners. In these families the average number of
children was more than three, the women with nonbreadwinning
husbands having the largest families.
22 Wherever a father was "retired" and the family apparently in comfortable circumstances, he has been
considered a breadwinner, on the assumption that bis contribution to the family support bad not cease.d.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
92.-Family status and family responsibilities of single women breadwinners- Passaic, N. J.
Single women
breadwinners
reporting
Family statll8
Number
Per
cent
Fami l ies in which
Families in which daughter was one of
Families in which daughter was one of
daughter was sole
two breadwinners
three breadwinners
breadwinner
umber
reportHaving men
ing as
Having men
P er
Per
Per
breadwinners
to numbreadwinners
cent
cent
cent
ber of
of those 1_ __ -,-_ _ _ 1 Averof those 1_ _ _ _ _ _--1 Averof those Averbreadreportage
reportage
winners Numrepit
Per nu~ter Numing
Per number
ing number Number number
ber number
in
cent of
in
ber number
cent of
in
in
family
of
Num- 2-bread· family
of
~~- 3-bread- family
of
family
breadber
winner
breadwipner
breadwinners
group
winners
group
winners
1
1
1
--T-o-ta_l___-_-___-_-__-_-___-___-___-___-_-_-__-_-__-_-__1 - 4-,9_4_5_ - -100. O-t--3-,-:l-76_ ,- --18-6 --5-.5- --1-.9- _ _86_0_ --2-6. 5- __6_3_0_, __7_3_.-3--4-.3-,--2,-3-30- --6-9-.0- - 2,-2-443, 179
Living with parent or parents __ ~--------- --
64. 3
3,179
98
3.1
2. 6
790
24. 9
602
---➔----1--- 1 ---f----+----+----1 ·--- ~
Living with parents :
Father a breadwinner_ ______ __________ _
Mother a breadwinn er_ ___ ___ _________ _
Both narents breadw inners ____________ _
_ either parent a breadwi nner_ _____ ___ _
Li ving with mother :
M other a breadwinner __ _________ _____ _
~,1:otber not a breadwinner ___ ________ __
Li ving with father :
Father a breadwinner_ _____ ___________ _
Father not a breadwinner ___ ____ _____ __
Maintaining home_________________________
either parent living_____ __ __ __________
Adult women Ii vi ng independentl y____
Living with relatives__ __ ___________________
Board ing or lodging __ _______ _______________
Liv ing with employer_ ___ ____ ______________
Living in institution _________ ______________
1
2,008
40. 6
.3
2,008
470
16
16
4
283
67
5. 7
1. 4
283
67
12
17. 9
3. 2
24
35. 8
16
(1)
221
4. 5
8. 9
221
442
80
18. 1
2. 5
98
147
44. 3
33. 3
73
49. 7
2. 4
117
25
40
24. 0
2. 0
34. 2
28. 0
40
3
100. 0
6
442
117
25
7
(1)
470
4. 5
100. 0
5. 2
3. 3
(1)
5. 1
3. 0
102
2. 1
256
992
206
115
5. 2
20. 1
4. 2
2. 3
102
84
82. 4
1.
O
15
14. 7
9
(1)
2,291
72.1
2,217
96. 8
6. 4
1,538
12
283
31
76. 6
1,538
10
283
31
100. 0
6. 9
100. 0
46. 3
100. 0
100.0
6. 0
7.2
82
189
66. 7
87. 9
4. 6
5.4,
100. 0
(1)
5. 0
3.3
69. 2
4. 2
(1)
123
55. 7
215
48. 6
3. 0
3. 6
77
65.8
48. 0
77
19. 8
27
2. 5
--6.-4,
- -----+----+---- - - -
3. 7
197
4. 0
197
88
44. 7
1. 0
70
35. 5
28
40. 0
2. 3
1 - - -+----+-- ---i- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 1 - - --1--- - -1-- - 95
1. 9
95
4
4. 2
2. 0
55
57. 9
19
34. 5
2. 2
Not computed, owing to small number involved.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
.5
23. 4
76. 2
------
- ; ; -
12
39
- - - -1--
36
3
-
7
(1)
7. 0
- t - -- 1 - -- - 1 - - - -
37. 9
2. 9
24
3
66. 7
(1)
4. 2
3. 3
TABLE
93.-Family status and family responsibilities of married women breadwinners-Passaic, N. J.
Matrietl
women breadwinners
Women. who wer~ sol~ bread•
winners in family
Women who were one of three or more
breadwinners in family
Women who were one of two breadwinners
in family
, _ _ _ _ _ _ , NUtn· 1-- - r - - - , - - - - - - - - -1- - - - , - - - - - , - -- - - - - - - - - - - 1·~--,,..----:------~.....,~~~~~~~
Fa't:1111y status
ber reporting as
to
mimber
of
Per Average number
cent
of children
of
in family
t hose
re- ,_ _ __ __ _,
Having m :m Average number
P er
breadof children
cen.t of
winners
in family
those
i - - - - - - i- - - - - ' - - - --i
report•
Per Having men Avera~ number
cent
b_read•
of children
of
wmners
in family
those ---,----~- - ~ ~ - - reNum• P er brf:lad• Num- portNum- ing
Per
Num• portPer
ber re- cent
ber
ing
cent of Unwm- ber ing Un- 18
ber
numc~nt Un18
port•
18
ners
number
of
of
2
num•
Num•
3•or•
der years Toing
in
):)er of der years Total
bread- Num- bread de r years Total
ber
of
ber
more
18
and
ta!
family
b d 18
and
winber
win•. 18
arid
b~~~~!~~~~; years over
years over
ners
ner years over
ners
group
ners
group
;fn_·
- - ~ ~ ~ - - ~ ~ - - - 1 - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ·l- - - + - - -1 - -- - - - - -- - - -l- - • l - - -1- - --1----+----1---
T6taL ... ~ .•....•.•.•... 4,013
100.0
3,8~6
176
4.6
1. 0
1.0
Married, husband a breadwinner···················· · · 3, 596 1 89. 6
Malntainihg home . ...••.. 3,281
iving with parents. .•••••
51
iving with relatives ..... .
56
Boarding or lodging ...... .
202
Living with employer .... .
6
Married, husband not a bread•
winner:
Maintaining home .. . •. .. .
50
Married, husband not living
at home ........•.... ~ ......•
367
t
81. 8
1. 3
1. 4
5. 0
3,281
51
.1
6
.'i6
202
2,7
.8
B. 5
100. 0
2. 7
.. 8
a. 5
381
a
5. 4
.5
89. 3
3,211 100. 0
2,900
51
53
88. 4
100. 0
94. 6
99. 5
100, 0
100. 0
100. 0
100. 0
(1)
100, 0
381
385
1, 7
.6
.4
.5
3,211
(1)
385
11. 6
1. 6
1. 7
1. 6
6
10. 7
1. 6
99. 5
201
2. 6
10. 9
3, 237
2,900
51
53
201
6
99. 0
418
84. 6
(1)
'6
.4
'5
1
- - --
4, 14
1. 6
3, 252
0.9
3. 5
····a~ .. (i)···
··1:a· ~----·"i:a
"To· (i.0
(1)
4.0
1
(1)
2.0 2. 0 4. 0
(1)
10
0, 5 1. 5
11 22. 0
11
22. 0
1.0
------ i.o
(I)
1. 5
1. 5
a.'o
19
22 11. 0
9.1
200
148 74. 0
1.0 ------ 1.0
15. 0
20 66.1
1. 6
30
L1
.5
· - - - - - - - - - -•- - • -- - - • · l - - - l - - -"- - - l - ~ - - l - - - + - - -l - - - f - - - 1- ---t----11---+---I -- - - -· - - - (1)
1. 4
2.8
1. 4
Maintaining home ...•....
16 14. 4
14
111
2.8
111
74 66. 7
14 66. 7
1.8
.9 -----.9
21
18. 9
1. 2
.6
(1)
1.4
3. 2
1.8
Living with parents ...... .
(1)
4
43
1.1
34 79.1
5 11. 6
43
.9 ------ .9
4
9. 3
13
3
1.0
.3
(1)
4.
0
6.0
(1)
2.
0
10
(1)
(1)
(1)
1
1
Living with f,elatives ....• •
24
.6
15
1. 5 ------ 1.5
4
1. 3
2
1.0
.3
Boarding or odgihg .. ..•.•
165
4.1
31
30 96. 8
1.2 ------ 1. 2
1
3.2
i (1)
1.0 -- -- - ----&.- ------ ------- ____ ------ ----·
1. b
Living with employer .••..
19
.5
1. 2
50
28
56. 0
1.0
_:,
~
Living in institution •...••
1 Not
5
.i
-••-•-•
-•-•••
computed, owing to small number involved
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
-•••••
•••-••
•-••••
-•••••
•••••••
••••••• •••-•••
.,. • • • • •
•- •- •-
~ :,J
• - ~ ;;:
.,..,.g.,. •· -
•
• _, •• ~ •
• • r • • • • • • • •~
• ;.;:..,. .. .:.:;:
~=-~:.:..;.; :;:,;.:: ~= :.:
1,,&""·"
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
141
The family status and responsibilities of the 751 widowed and 38
divorced women are shown in Table 94. About two-thirds of the
widows- a percentage smaller than that of the married womenmaintained homes; 10 per cent lived with relatives, and 14 per cent
were boarding or lodging. .Almost three-fourths of the widows r.eporting family responsibilities had no male wage earner in the family to
share the burden. With the exception of the divorced women, ..who
were but an insignificant number, the largest percentage of sole breadwinners in any marital group was found among the widows, over oneh alf of them being the only breadwinners in the family. One hundred
and sffrnnty-two of the widows or about 30 per cent were in families
with two breadwinners. The _children in homes of this group averaged
slightly less than two. Less than one-half of these women had men
breadwinners in the family group. The widows who were in families
with three or more breadwinners formed the smallest group, :approximating 16 per cent of the whole, and 85 per cent had the assistance of
a wage-earning man or boy. The children averaged more than three
to each family in this grqu p.
There were so few divorced women that information concerning
them is without significance, except to account for the entire number
of women breadwinners who were or had been married.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
94.-Family status and family responsibilities of widowed and divorced women breadwinners-Passaic, N. J.
WIDOWED
Women who were sole breadwinners in family
'l'otal
Women who were one of two breadwinners in
family
Number
Raving men
reportPer
P er Average number of
ing
cent breadwinners
cent children in family
as to
of
of
Family status
numthose
those
ber of
Num- reportNum- Per bread- N um- reportPer
ing
ing
Un18
ber
ber
cent win- b er num
- der years
num - Num- cent·
of
2nersin
ber of
ber of
18
and Tobreadfamily
bread- years
bread- ber winner
t al
over
winwingroup
ners
ners
:·
- - - -- - - Total. _~~~-- ________ 751 100. 0
325 .i5. 2
1. 2 (1)
172
29. 2
77
44.8
1. 3
589
Average number of
children in family
Per Having men
cent breadwinners
of
those
report•
Per
Num- ing
cent
numof3-orber
Tolier of Num- more
tal
bread- ber breadwinwinner
group
n ers
Average number of
children in family
Un18
der years
18
and
years over
Un18
der years
18
and
years over
504
26
77
106
37
1
67.1
3. 5
10. 3
14. 1
4. 9
.1
504
26
27
28
4
258
21
17
27
2
51. 2
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
------- ------ -------
1. 2
1.4
1. 7
1. 8
1.0
1. 2
0. 2 1. 6
(1)
1. 7
(1)
1. 9
------ 1.0
------- ------ -----(1 )
155
5
9
1
2
30. 8
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
71
45. 8
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
Total
- - - - -- -
---
~
~
M aintaining home _____ __
Living with p arents _____
Living with relatives . ....
Boarding or lodging _. ... _
Living with em ployer . .. .
Living in institution ____ _
Women who were one of three or more breadwinners in family
1. 1
0. 7
1. 8
92
1. 2
.8
1. 1
.7
.2
1. 4
1.0
1.0
1. 9
1.0
1. 6
1.0
1.0
91
15. 6
78
84. 8
77
84. 6
18. 0
------- ---- - - -- - --------(!)
(1)
1
1
1. 4
1.8
3.3
1.4
1. 9
3. 3
------ ---------3.--3.0
0 --------------------------------------------------_____
1
---------- --- ------ --- ---- ____
----------------__
------ ------- ------- -- ----- ------- ------ ------ ---- -- ---- --- ------ ------------ -----3
2
_.
,..
DIVORCED .
Total. _.. ---- -- ---M aintaining h ome . . ____ _
Living wit h parents __ ____
L iving with relatives .. ...
B oarding or lodging. ____ _
Living with employer. . ..
1 Not
38
100. 0
7
42. 1
18. 4
1
2. 6
16
12
31. 6
2
5. 3
27
16
7
1
3
19
9
6
1
3
computed, owing to small number involved.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
70. 4
1.0
1.1
.7
1.0
1.3
1.0
1. 1
.7
1.0
1. 3
4
14. 8
(1)
0. 8
1.0 ·
1. 8
4 1 14. 8
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
1.0
1.0
1.0
2. 0
4
1.0
(1)
2 1 (1)
2. 3
2
2. 3
(1)
0. 5
2. 8
2. 8
------ ------- ------ ------- ------- ------ ------
143
IN FOUR SELECTED CITIES
Home ownership.
Three-four ths of · all women r eporting tenure of homes lived in
r en ted h ouses according t o figures presented in Table 95. The proportion was largest among the maITied women breadwinners whose
husbands also were working and smallest among the single women.
Even in the latter group the number whose families rented homes
was large, for only a little over a third of the famili es of single working
women owned th~ir homes and less than 8 per cent owned their
homes without encumbrance. Only 1.5 per cent of all the m arried
women workers with breadwinning husb ands own ed their homes free.
Over 9 per cen t owned their homes mor tgaged. Among the widows
over four-fifths ren ted their homes and only one-twentieth actually
owned their homes free from encumbrance.
TA BLE
95.- '1.'enure of home, by marital status of breadwinning women- Passai c,
N .J.
M arit al status
Women
whose famiWomen whose fam ilies owned homes
lies rent ed
homes
Number
reportEncu ming
Mortgaged brance not
Free
tenreported
ure N um- P er N um- Per
ber cent ber cent
Num- Per Num- Per N um- P er
ber cent
ber cent ber cent
------- -- ------
Total. _____ _____ __ __ ____ 7,251
Single. ___ ____ ___ _____ _______ _ 3,277
Mwinner.
arried, husband
a bread_____ __ __ ___________
M arried, husband not a
breadwinner. ___ ____ __ __ __ __
M arried, husband not living
with family ____ _______ ____ _
Widowed ___ __ _____ .:_ ____ _____ _
Divorced __ _____ ___ __ ___ __ ___ _
M arit al status not reported ._
1
----
76. 4
1,710 , 23. 6
345
4. 8
1, 326
18. 3
39
2, 069
63. 1
1,208 ; 36. 9
253
7. 7
946
28. 9
9
2, 879
89. 1
351
I 10. 9
47
1. 5
303
9. 4
1
47
31
66. 0
16
34. 0
8
17. 0
7
14. 9
1
2. 1
162
506
18
119
417
16
10
73. 5
82. 4
43
89
2
1
26. 5
17. 6
11
6. 8
4. 9
4
2. 5
12. 6
28
17. 3
3, 2:30
11
5, 541
Less th an one-t enth of 1 per cent.
(2)
(2)
t
(2)
(2)
25
1
(2)
------ ---- --
64
1
1
(2)
(')
0. 5
-.3
(1)
------ -- ------ --- -- ---.
------ ------
Not computed , owing to small number involved.
The tendency to purchase homes appears to have been greatest
among the families of girls and women who were American, Dutch,
or German b orn, according to T able 96. Thirty-seven an d 40 per
cen t , respectively , of the American and the Dutch born women
breadwinners and about a third of the German-born women lived in
h omes owned in p art or in whole by their families. More than ninet enths of the Polish, Czechoslovakian, and H~garian-born workers
lived in rented h omes. Less than 1 per cent of the families of women
workers from these countries owned their homes rmencumbered.
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144
FAMILY STATUS OF BREADWINNING WOMEN
TABLE
96.-Tenure of home, by country of birth of breadwin"ning women-Passaic,
N.J.
Country of birth
Women
whose fami•
Women whose families owned homes
lies rented
homes
Num•
ber
reportEncumIng
Free
Mortgaged brance not
ten:
reported
ure Num• Per Num- Per
ber cent ber cent
Num• Per Num- Per Num- P er
ber cent be_r cent ber cent
- -
--
Total. ..•••••••••.••..•. 7,251
5,541
76. 4
1,710
23. 6
345
4. 8
1,326
United States:
White . . _·······---···---- 3,091
79
Negro...........• ----·--·
242
Au tria . .... . ..•...•••••••....
Czechoslovakia...•• ••••••.. ..
203
69
Holland. __ ......•• ··-·-····-Germany ..........•••••...•..
140
801
Hungary .. _······ ·······---··
Italy __.••...•••••••••.•••.•. .
368
Poland .....•..••• ·~•······· .. 1,565
Russia... ___ __...•• •••••.•••••
345
Other countries. __ . : •••.•.. __
348
1,941
62
215
188
41
92
734
281
1,459
255
273
62. 8
78. 5
88. 8
92. 6
59. 4
65. 7
91. 6
76. 4
93. 2
73. 9
78. 4
1,150
17
27
15
28
48
67
87
106
37. 2
21. 5
11. 2
7. 4
40. 6
34. 3
8. 4
23. 6
6. 8
26.1
21. 6
281
3
2
1
3
7
5
9
11
13
10 I
I
9.1
3. 8
.8
.5
4. 3
5. 0
.6
2.4
.7
3. 8
2. 9
860
~
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
90
75
14
25
14
25
41
34
77
95
77
64
18. 3
39
27. 8
9
17. 7 -----10. 3 -----6. 9 -- ---36. 2 -----29. 3 --- -- 4. 2
28
20. 9
1
6.1 -----22.3
18. 4
1
0. 5
.3
---------------------- ---3. 5
.3
------
:3_
.,
•c
(
RECAPITULATION OF ESSENTIAL DATA CONCERNING THE
BREADWINNING WOMEN OF PASSAIC, N. J.
The outlines of the picture of the women breadwinners of Passaic
presented in the foregoing 24 tables are easily traced.
1. The 9,769 gainfully employed women and girls constituted not far from
one-half of the city's woman population 14 years of age and over.
2. Nearly 60 per cent of the city's breadwinning women were foreign born.
The Polish born predominated among the foreigners, forming slightly more than
one-fourth of the entire number of gainfully employed women. The Hungarian
born forming about 10 per cent ranked next in numerical importance. Of the
foreign-born women who had been in this country for 10 years or more, about 38
per «mt were unable to speak English.
3. Four-fifths of the women breadwinners were employed outside the home,
three-fourths being in factories, mills, stores, or offices.
4. Nearly 45 per cent of all the gainfully employed women were under 25 years
of age. Of the foreign born one-t hird and of the native born a little over threefifths were under this age.
5. One-half of all the breadwinning women were or had been married. This
proportion does not prevail among the native born and foreign born taken sepa~ately , since only 22 per cent of the first mentioned in contrast to 69 per cent of
the second were in this class. The foreign born constituted 82 per cent of the
breadwinning matrons.
6. Three-fourths of all the gainfully employed women who were or had been
married were living with breadwinning husbands.
7. Sixty-two per cent of the breadwinning matrons were in occupations outside
the home.
8. Nearly seven-tenths of the matrons had children and nearly eight-tenths
of these gainfully employed mothers were living with breadwinning husbands.
9. Almost three-fifths of the mothers had children under 5 years of age and
over nine-tenths of these mothers had wage-earning husbands. Foreign-born
women constituted 91 per cent of the mothers with children under 5.
10. Almost 48 per cent of the mothers with children under 5 years were engaged
in remunerative service, outside t he home.
11. Of the single breadwinning women, 64 per cent were living under the
parental roof. The others, approximately 36 per cent, were economically _a drift;
that is, they were maintaining homes independently, boarding or lodging, or
living with relatives or employers, or in institutions.
12. Over four-fifths of the breadwinning women who were or had been married
were maintaining homes and hence were carrying the double burden of household
duties and gainful employment.
13. Of the women reporting on the subject, a little more t h an 5 per cent of the
single breadwinning women, a little less than 5 per cent of the married breadwinners, and approximately 56 per cent of those with broken marital ties, living
in a family group, were classed as sole breadwinners in the family.
14. The important facts disclosed by the field inquiry as to the provision for
care of children in the absence of working mothers were that over one-fifth of
the mothers worked at night when husbands or ot her adults were at home to
look after the children; that one-tenth left the care of the children to husbands
who were night workers and at home in the daytime; that a fifth could intrust
the children to maternal or parental relatives, a fourth of whom lived outside of
the breadwinners' homes; that nearly another fifth had to leave the children with
boarders, landladies, or neighbors; that less than 5 per cent of the mothers left
children to the care of paid custodians; and that more than one-fifth had to leave
the childTen virtually without care except such as could be given when there were
other children, although in none of these cases were the children as much as 14
years of age.
15. Over 23 per cent of the bread winning \vomen lived in homes owned in whole
or in part by the breadwinners or their families, 18 per cent owning the homes
free from mortgages.
145
0
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PUBIJCATIONS OF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU
BULLETINS
~
1. Proposed Employment of Women During the War in the Industries of
Niagara Falls, N. Y. 16 pp. 1918.
No. 2. Labor Laws for Women in Industries in Indiana. 29 pp. 1918.
No. 3. Standards for the Employmeni of Women in Industry. 7 pp. 1919.
No. 4. Wages of Candy Makers in Philadelphia in 1919. 46 pp. 1919.
No. 5. The Eight-Hour Day in Federal and State Legislation. 19 pp. 1919.
No. 6, The Employment of Women in Hazardous Industries in the United
States. 8 pp. 1919.
No. 7. Night-Work Laws in the United States. 4 pp. 1919.
No. 8. Women in the Government Service. 37 pp. 1920.
No. 9. Home Work in Bridgeport, Connecticut. 35 pp. 1920.
No. 10. Hours and Conditions of Work for Women in Industry in
32 pp. 1920.
No. 11. Women Street Car Conductors and Ticket Agents. 90 pp. 1920.
No. 12. The New Position of Women in American Industry. 158 ;l?P• 1920.
No. 13. Industrial Opportunities and Training for Women and Girls. 48 pp.
1920.
No. 14. A Physiological Basis for the Shorter Working Day for Women. 20 pp.
1921.
No. 15. Some Effects of Legislation Limiting Hours of Work for Women. 26 pp.
1921.
No. 16. State Laws Affecting Wotking Women. 51 pp. 1921. Superseded
by Bulletin No. 40 (Supplement, 1923.)
No. 17. Women's Wages in Kansas. 104 pp. 1921.
No. 18. Health Problems of Women in Industry. (Reprint of paper published
in the Nation's Health, May, 1921.) 11 pp. 1921.
No. 19. Iowa Women in Industry. 73 pp. 1922.
No. 20. Negro Women in Industry. 65 pp. 1922.
No. 21. Women in Rhode Island Industries. 73 pp. 1922.
· No. 22. Women in Georgia Industries. 89 pp. 1922.
No. 23. The Family Status of Breadwinning Women. 43 pp. 1922.
No. 24. Women in Maryland Industries. 96 pp. 1922.
No. 25. Women in the Candy Industry in Chicago and St. Louis. 72 pp. 1923.
No. 26. Women in Arkansas Industries. 86 pp. 1923.
No. 27. The Occupational Progress of Women. 37 pp. 1922.
No. 28. Women's Contributions in the Field of Invention. 51 pp. 1923.
No. 29. Women in Kentucky Industries. 114 pp. 1923.
No. 30. The Share of Wage-Earning Women in Family Support. 170 pp. 1923.
No. 31. What Industry Means to Women Workers. 10 pp. 1923.
No. 32.
No. 33~
No. 34.
No. 35.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
No. 42.
No. 43.
No. 44.
Women in South Carolina Industries.
128 pp.
1923.
Proceedings of the Women's Industrial Conference. 190 pp. 1923.
Women in Alabama Industries. 86 pp. 1924.
Women in _Missouri Industries. 127 pp. 1924.
Radio Talks on Women in Industry. 34 pp. 1924.
Women in New Jersey Industries. 99 pp. 1924.
Married Women jn Industry. 8 pp. 1924.
Domestic Workers and Their E1!!J>loyment Relations. 87 pp.
State Laws Affecting Working Women. 53 pp. 1924.
Family Status of Breadwinning Women m Pour Selected Ci.ties.
145 pp. 1925.
List of References on Minimum Wage for Women in the United States
and Canada. 42 pp. 1925.
Standard and Scheduled Hours of Work for Women in Industry. (In
press.)
Women in Ohio Industries. 136 pp. 1924:.
First Annual Report of the Director. 1919. (Out of print.)
Second Annual Report of the Director. 1920. (Out of print.)
Third Annual R&port of the Director. 1921.
Fourth Annual Report of the Director. 1922.
Fifth Annual Report of the Director. 1923.
S1nh Annual Repori of the Direc~. 19U.
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