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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
ROYAL M E EKER, Commissioner

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED S T A T E S\
(WHOLE
B U R E A U O F L A B O R S T A T IS T IC S / ’ ' * ( NUMBER
W O M E N

I N D U S T R Y

S E R I E S :

NO.

m
LLj
11

EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN AND
J U V E N I L E S IN G R E A T
BRITAIN DURING TH E WAR

REPRINTS OF THE M EM ORANDA
O F T H E B R I T I S H H E A L T H OF
MUNITION WORKERS COMMITTEE

A P R IL , 1917

W A SH IN G TO N
GO VE R N M EN T PR IN T IN G OFFICE
1917

A D D IT IO N A L COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATIONMAYBE PROCUREDFROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OFDOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENTPRINTINGOFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
15 CENTS P E R COPY
V

CONTENTS.
Page.
I n t r o d u c t i o n .....................................................................................................................................................
S u m m a ry o f th e

c o m m i t t e e ’ s c o n c l u s i o n s .....................................................................................

R e p la c e m e n t o f m e n
E x t e n s io n

b y

w o m e n in

in d u s t r y in

o f e m p lo y m e n t o f w o m e n i n

E m p lo y m e n t o f w o m e n

(M e m o ra n d u m

M ig r a t io n

la b o r

o f

w o m e n ’s

G r e a t B r i t a i n ........................................ 1 5 - 5 2

G re a t B r it a in
N o . 4 ) in

th ro u g h

th e

5-8
9-14

1 9 1 6 ....................................... 5 3 , 5 4

G r e a t B r i t a i n ....................................5 5 - 6 7

e m p lo y m e n t

excha ng es

G re a t

B r i t a i n ........................................................................................................................................................... 6 8 - 7 0
E m p lo y m e n t a n d r e m u n e r a t io n o f w o m e n i n
O u t p u t o f m u n it io n s i n
R e g u la t io n s a s to

w a g e s o f w o rk e rs in

J u v e n ile

e m p lo y m e n t ( M e m o ra n d u m

J u v e n ile

e m p lo y m e n t c o m m itte e s i n

E m p lo y m e n t o f w o m e n

G re a t B r it a in — M u n it io n O r d e r s . ..

71-83

F r a n c e ........................................................................................................... 8 4 - 9 4

an d

m u n it io n s f a c t o r ie s i n
N o.

13) in

F r a n c e .........................9 5 - 9 7

G r e a t B r i t a i n .................................. 9 8 - 1 1 0

G r e a t B r i t a i n ......................................................... 1 1 1 - 1 1 4

b o y s o n m u n it io n

w o rk

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1 1 5 ,1 1 6

A p p e n d ix :
C o n te n ts o f o th e r b u lle t in s
th e

r e la tin g

la b o r i n

G re a t B r ita in

as a ffe c te d b y

w a r ..................................................................................................................................................

A d d it io n a l m a te r ia l r e la t in g

la b o r i n

f o r e ig n

c o u n t r ie s a s a ffe c te d

b y

w a r .............................................................................................................................................. ..

117

th e
117-121

PREFACE.
T his bulletin is the third of a group of bulletins published by the Bureau
of Labor Statistics of the United States Department of Labor, in compliance
with the following resolution vojed April 7, 1917, by the Council of National
D efen se:
That the complete reports of the committee appointed by the British Minister
of Munitions to investigate conditions affecting the health and welfare of work
ers be edited so that the salient features thereof may be made applicable to the
conditions pertaining in the United States, and printed in condensed form by
the Department of Labor.
T his bulletin reproduces in full all the official and quasi official documents
listed in the table of contents except the report on the replacement of men by
women during the war. The first article contained in this bulletin is a summary
of a report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science appearing in
the volume “ Labor, Finance, and the War.”
Two earlier bulletins (Bulletins 221 and 222 ) contained documents, official
and unofficial, dealing with hours, fatigue, and health in British munition
factories, and welfare work in British munition factories, together with some
related material which has been considered of sufficient interest and importance
to warrant reprinting or summarizing in bulletin form.
It is thought that these bulletins published at the request of the Council of
National D efense w ill be of great service to the country, by giving wider circu
lation to the experiences of Great Britain, France, Canada, and other countries,
in dealing with labor in the production of the largest quantity of munitions in
the shortest space of time.
ROYAL MEEKER,
United States Commissioner of Labor Statistics.

B U L L E T IN O F T H E

U. S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
WHOLE NO. 223.

WASHINGTON.

APRIL, 1917.

EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN AND JUVENILES IN GREAT
BRITAIN DURING THE W AR.
INTRODUCTION.
The British Health of Munition Workers Committee was appointed
in the middle of September, 1915, by the Minister of Munitions, with
the concurrence of the Home Secretary, “ to consider and advise on
questions of industrial fatigue, hours of labor, and other m atters
affecting the personal health and physical efficiency of workers in
munition factories and workshops/'
The composition of the committee is as follows:

Sir George Newman, M. D. (chairman).
Sir Thomas Barlow, B art., K. C. Y. O., M. D., F. R. S.
G. Bellhouse, Factory Department, Home Office.
Prof. A. E. Boycott, M. D., F. R. S.
J. R. Clynes, M. P.
E. L. Collis, M. B., Factory Department, Home Office.
W. M. Fletcher, M. D., F. R. S., Secretary of Medical Research
Committee.
Leonard E. Hill, M. B., F. R. S.
Samuel Osborn, J. P., Sheffield.
Miss R. E. Squire, Factory Department, Home Office.
Mrs. H. J. Tennant.

E. H. Pelham (secretary).
The committee took evidence in various industrial centers from
employers, representatives of workers, and other interested persons,
and made numerous special studies and investigations. In addition,
members have visited a large number of factories and workshops and
discussed m atters with the management, with foremen, and with in
dividual workers. W ith this information, and having the advantage
of the special knowledge and experience already possessed by mem
bers of the committee, it has published, up to the present time (April,
1917), 15 memoranda dealing with one or more of the subjects in
trusted to it.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

As these memoranda are the work of a committee especially qualified
by technical knowledge and special experience and as they contain many
suggestions and recommendations made with the purpose of securing
maximum output over a period of months, or even years, and at the
same time safeguarding the health and physical efficiency of the
workers, it is believed th a t their reproduction at this time may be
of value in a similar way to industry and labor in this country. The
memoranda have therefore been arranged in three groups, the related
subjects being brought together, and are reprinted as bulletins of the
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics under the following titles:
(The list here given contains only the memoranda of the Health of
Munition Workers Committee. Each of the bulletins, however,
includes also other official and nonofficial material dealing with
related subjects. The contents of Bulletins 221 and 222 are given
in full at the end of this bulletin.)
B U L L E T IN NO. 221, H O U R S, FA T IG U E, A N D H E A L T H IN B R IT IS H M UNITION
FA C T O R IE S.

Sunday Labor (Memorandum No. 1 ).
[Cd. 8132.]

November, 1915.

6 pp.

(Summarized in Monthly R eview of the IT. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, May,
1916, pp. 66, 67.)

Hours of Work (Memorandum No. 5).
[Cd. 8186.1

January, 1916.

9 pp.

(Summarized in Monthly Review , June, 1916, pp. 77-79.)

Statistical Information Concerning O utput in Relation to Hours of
Work (Memorandum No. 12 ). (Report by H. M. Vernon,
M. D.) August, 1916. 1 1 pp. [Cd. 8344.]
(Summarized in Monthly R eview, December, 1916, pp. 105-119.)

Industrial Fatigue and its Causes (Memorandum No. 7).
1916. 1 1 pp. [Cd. 8213.]

January,

(Summarized in Monthly R eview, June, 1916, pp. 79-81.)

Sickness and Injury (Memorandum No. 10).
pp. [Cd. 8216.]

January, 1916.

(Summarized in Monthly Review , June, 1916, pp. 88-90.)

Special Industrial Diseases (Memorandum No. 8).
8 pp. [Cd. 8214.]

February, 1916.

(Summarized in Monthly R eview, June, 1916, pp. 83-88.)

Ventilation and Lighting of Munition Factories and Workshops
(Memorandum No. 9). January, 1916. 9 pp. [Cd. 8215.]
(Summarized in Monthly Review, June, 1916, pp. 81-83.)

The Effect of Industrial Conditions Upon Eyesight (Memorandum
No. 15). October, 1916. 8 pp. [Cd. 8409.]
(Summarized in Monthly Review, April, 1917, pp. 538-540.)

IN T R O D U C T IO N .
B U L L E T IN NO. 222, W E L F A R E W O R K IN B R IT IS H M UNITION FA C TO R IES.

Welfare Supervision (Memorandum No. 2 ).
7 pp. [Cd. 8151.]

December, 1915.

(Summarized in Monthly Review , May, 1916, pp. 68, 69.)

Industrial Canteens (Memorandum No. 3).
7 pp. [Cd. 8133.]

November, 1915.

(Summarized in Monthly Review , May, 1916, pp. 69, 70.

Canteen Construction and Equipment

(Appendix to No. 3.)
[Cd. 8199.]

(Memorandum No. 6).

January, 1916.

7 pp. and plates.

(Summarized in Monthly Review , June, 1916, p. 91.)

Investigation of Workers’ Food and Suggestions as to Dietary
(Memorandum No. 1 1 ). (Report by Leonard E. Hill, F. R. S.)
August, 1916. 1 1 pp. [Cd. 8370.]
(Summarized in Monthly Review, January, 1917, pp. 56, 57.)

Washing Facilities and Baths (Memorandum No. 14).
1916. 8 pp. [Cd. 8387.]

August,

(Summarized in Monthly Review, January, 1917, pp. 150, 151.)
B U L L E T IN NO. 223, EM PLOYM ENT OF WOMEN A N D JU V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN
D U R IN G T H E W AR.

Employment of Women (Memorandum No. 4).
10 pp. [Cd. 8185.]

January, 1916.

(Summarized in Monthly Review, June, 1916, pp. 74-76.)

Juvenile Employment (Memorandum No. 13).
8 pp. [Cd. 8362.]

August, 1916.

(Summarized in Monthly Review , December, 1916, pp. 92-97.)

In the present bulletin there is first presented a summary of the
more im portant suggestions and recommendations of the commit
tee. This is followed by a comprehensive statem ent relating to the
replacement of men by women in industry in Great Britain, which
summarizes detailed reports from various trades, based upon in
vestigations made in London, Birmingham, Glasgow, and other
centers, conducted in 1915 and 1916 under the direction of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, and published
by th at association in the volume entitled, “ Labor, finance, and
the w ar,” A. W. Kirkaldy, editor.
A statem ent is also given regarding the extension of employment
of women in Great Britain down to October, 1916, taken from the
Board of Trade Labor Gazette for January, 1917. Another state
ment refers to the migration of women’s labor through the employ
ment exchanges, and is taken from the Board of Trade Labor Gazette
for March, 1917. A reprint is also given of the several orders relating

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N A N D J U V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .

to the employment and remuneration of women, made by the
Ministry of Munitions in pursuance of section 6 of the Munitions of
W ar (Amendment) Act of 1916. In addition the report made in
December, 1915, to the British Ministry of Munitions, by the mis
sion appointed by the director general of recruiting for munitions
work, on the “ O utput of Munitions in France / 7 is reproduced in
full. The bulletin concludes with a statem ent of the nature and
functions of juvenile employment committees in Great Britain, taken
from the Board of Trade Labor Gazette for February, 1917.

SUMMARY OF THE COMMITTEE’S CONCLUSIONS.
In its study of Employment of women in munition factories (Memo
randum No. 4), the committee considered five m atters which, apart
from questions of wages, concern the health and industrial output of
the workers: ( 1 ) The period of employment (including night work,
length of hours, overtime, etc.); (2 ) rest pauses and provisions of
meals; (3) sanitary conditions of the factory; (4) physical condition
of women workers; and (5) questions of management and super
vision. Recognizing th a t the night work of women in factories, after
almost a century of disuse, has of necessity been revived by the war,
the committee directed its efforts to the consideration of those safe
guards which would reduce its risks to the minimum. Evidence of
the merits of continuous work as against weekly, fortnightly, or
monthly change of shifts being somewhat conflicting, the committee
concluded th a t the m atter is one which m ust be largely dealt with
locally on social considerations. I t was stated by some managers
and foremen th at the last lew hours of a 12 -hour night shift yield
little output, and inspection by the committee indicated the relative
failure of these hours. The employment of women at night calls for
particular care and supervision and adequate pauses for rest and
meals are indispensable.
Conditions of housing and of transit to and from work are mentioned
as contributing to the fatigue of the workers, for u where home con
ditions are bad, as they frequently are, where a long working day is
aggravated by long hours of traveling, and where, in addition, housing
accommodation is inadequate, family life is defaced beyond recog
nition.^ There should be in the m atter of hours of labor for women
little conflict between the interests of the home and the interests of
munitions, for the hours which conduce most to a satisfactory home
life and to health conduce most to output. Long hours, particularly
when they are worked during the night, are perhaps the chief factors
in fatigue, and it is held th a t in the interest of output and health
alike they should be restricted within proper limits, th a t there should
be suitable pauses for rest during the working period, and th a t there
should be adequate cessation from work at each week end in addition
to periodic holidays.
The three systems of employment most commonly adopted for
women in munition factories were found to be one shift of 13 to 14
hours (the overtime system), two shifts of 12 hours, and three shifts
of 8 hours. The last system appears to yield the best results in the

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND JU V E N IL E S IN GEEAT B E IT A IN .

long run, for “ the strain of night work, indeed strain generally, is
sensibly diminished, greater vigor and work is maintained throughout
the shift, less time is lost by unpunctu^lity or illness, and there is less
liability to accident.” The flagging output which appears to char
acterize the last hours of a 12 -hour night shift seems similarly charac
teristic of the last hours of overtime during the day, and it is stated
th a t the disadvantages of the overtime system are being increasingly
recognized by employers. This seems to have been forced upon some
by the resultant fatigue, illness, and bad time keeping (failure to
work full time) of the workers, and upon others by some accidental
shortening of the day which has shown th a t the loss of hours has
carried with it no diminution in output. The adoption of the threeshift system, without overtime, is recommended wherever a sufficient
supply of labor is available.
Declaring th at pauses, well distributed and adapted in length to
the needs of women workers, are of the highest value in averting
breakdown and in giving an impetus to output, the committee is of
the opinion th a t a portion of Saturday and the whole of Sunday
should be available for rest, and th a t the periodic factory holiday
should not, on any account, be omitted. The advantages of wellmanaged industrial canteens in convenient proximity to workshops
are emphasized, and facilities, especially during the night, for rest
in cases of fainting and other temporary illness are urged. Con
siderable importance is attached to the necessity of maintaining the
sanitary condition of the factory, including adequate wash rooms
and toilet facilities, for “ the effect upon the health and energy of
women and girls which results from clean, bright, and airy work
rooms, well warmed in winter, can hardly be exaggerated. Clean
liness and good order contribute to increased output as well as to the
discipline and morale of the factory.” On the ground th a t the nature
of a woman’s work should be determined with due regard to its effect
on her immediate and future health, it is suggested th a t inattention
in this regard may cause, or at least accentuate, certain ailments and
forms of physical disability to which women are liable, among which
are noted (1) disturbances of digestion, (2) anemia, (3) headaches,
(4) nervous exhaustion, (5) muscular pain and weakness, flat-foot,
etc., (6) derangement of special physiological functions. To detect
minor ailments and incipient or actual disease, provision for the exam
ination by a medical woman of all applicants for employment is
recommended.
In view of abundant evidence of the necessity of wise and suitable
arrangements for the management and supervision of women’s labor,
the committee concluded th a t there is hardly a condition of greater
importance than this in respect both of smooth working and of max
imum output, and therefore recommended th at in all cases where

SU M M A R Y OF T H E C O M M IT T E E *S C O N C L U SIO N S.

women are employed consideration be given by the management to
the appointment of forewomen, nurses, and welfare supervisors whose ~
position and status should be properly assured and whose duties
should be prescribed.
Memorandum No. 13 relates to Juvenile employment. This is one
of the war problems confronting the British Ministry of Munitions,
not so much in textile trades, where under the Factory and Work
shops Act the employment of children has been regulated for many
years, b u t more particularly in certain nontextile processes, including
the manufacture of percussion caps and cartridges and in other
occupations incident to the manufacture of war supplies. According
to this memorandum, the committee regards it as extremely impor
ta n t th a t the nation, at a time when war is destroying so much of
its manhood, should guard the rising generation not only against
immediate breakdown but also against the imposition of strains
which may stunt future growth and development. Although signs
of immediate breakdown are not generally apparent, the committee
quotes from the annual report for 1915 of the chief inspector of facto
ries to indicate the evil effects of long hours of work by day or night.
Conditions outside the factories, it is admitted, contribute to the
fatigue of juvenile workers, and it has to be remembered th a t boys
and girls need sufficient reserve energy not only for the maintenance
of health b u t for growth. “ Even under normal conditions there is
some danger of juvenile employment adversely affecting physique,
and this danger is materially increased by the present conditions of
employment.”
Opportunity for recreation is regarded as highly im portant and
th a t portion of the report of the chief inspector of factories which
states th a t requests for Saturday afternoon work have become less
common and th a t there seems to be a more general recognition of
the advantage of the week-end rest is commended. “ Recreation is
necessary not only for the physical well-being of the boys and girls
b u t also as a healthy relief from the monotony of work.”
The prevalence of night work prompted the committee to give
some attention to the question of sleep, and it was found th at many
of the children workers were suffering curtailment of this im portant
means of recuperation.
The exigencies of war have led the secretary of state to relax the
restrictions governing the employment of boys and girls under 18
years of age, as provided in the Factory and Workshops Act, 1901.
Under th a t act such children may be employed 60 hours a week, and,
subject to some exceptions in the case of boys, all night work and
Sunday work is prohibited, as also is overtime. The memorandum
notes, however, th at the weekly hours have frequently been increased

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

to 67; night work ha§ been common; Sunday work has also been
allowed.
An extension of weekly hours beyond 60 can be obtained only by
increasing the length of the working day or by reducing the week
end rest; and since the committee believes th at the strain thus
imposed would not be justified except in rare instances, it strongly
recommends th a t every effort should be made to restrict the employ
ment of all boys under 16 within the limits of 60 hours, even at the
cost of some inconvenience to male labor. As to the employment of
girls, it is stated th a t at a number of factories the three-shift system
has been introduced, and in works where this has not been found
practicable the weekly hours have frequently been kept below 60.
The committee does not recommend a prohibition of the extension
of daily hours of labor beyond the 12 (8 on Saturdays) provided in
the Factory and Workshops Act, b u t suggests th at such extension,
if the weekly hours are limited to 60, m ust be made by a correspond
ing reduction in the hours of work on Saturday or on other days of
the week, thus providing an opportunity for exercise in the open air
which might not otherwise be available. Sudden emergencies in
factory operation may demand an extension of the hours beyond 1 2 ,
and such an extension, it is believed, will not do harm, provided (&)
th a t maximum weekly hours already recommended are not exceeded
and th at (b) overtime employment is concentrated on not more than
three evenings in any week and, so far as possible, not on consecutive
evenings.
Comparatively little work is performed by children on Sunday,
according to the memorandum, and the argument in favor of the
elimination of Sunday work, as set forth in its Memorandum No. 1
on “ Sunday labor,” is emphasized. As to night work, attention is
called to serious objections to it as outlined in the memoranda on
“ Employment of women” and “ Hours of work,” and it is stated
th a t “ girls under 18 and boys under 16 should only be employed at
night if other labor can not be obtained. Wherever possible it should
be stopped.” Working for a continuous period of as much as five
hours (the maximum legal period) without a break, even though
brief, to afford opportunity for rest and recovery from fatigue and
the monotony of work and for refreshment is deprecated. In addi
tion to the ordinary holidays, boys and girls are likely to benefit
greatly by occasional opportunities for a holiday of longer duration.
Welfare supervision of girls seems to have received more attention
than such work among boys, b u t a tendency of employers to regard
the health of boys with greater consideration is noted. If fatigue,
sickness, or home troubles cause boys to leave work after a few days
of employment, it becomes necessary to ascertain the reasons under
lying discontent, and for this purpose the welfare department of the

SU M M A R Y OF T H E C O M M IT T E E

C O N C L U SIO N S.

Ministry of Munitions has recommended the deputizing of a welfare
supervisor to study the problem and outlines his duties as follows:
1. To become acquainted w ith all boys when first employed, to be present at the
medical examination by the factory surgeon, to note any matters needing attention,
to arrange for the reexamination of special cases.
2. To visit cases of sickness and to investigate other causes of irregular attendance
and of complaints in regard to work.
3. To receive complaints made by boys and their parents and to dispose of misun
derstandings.
4. To be consulted before any boy is dismissed.
5. To watch the conditions of housing and transit and the facilities for obtaining
food.
6. To supervise and promote arrangements for saving.
7. To seek facilities for recreation and to organize their use. In one case, quoted
by a witness, an excellent recreation ground was provided b y a firm, but was at present
unused, largely owing to the lack of anyone to organize its use.

I t is believed im portant to provide means for instructing the chil
dren in the best methods of performing their work, and also in its
aim and purpose, in order to stimulate interest and relieve monotony
as well as to make them proficient.
The necessity for adequate canteen facilities, whereby good food
may be obtained and eaten under restful conditions, is emphasized.
In order th a t the high wages commonly earned by boys and girls
under present conditions may not encourage undue indulgence,
extravagance, and thriftlessness, the committee urges th a t means be
adopted to induce the children to save a portion of their earnings,
the collection of deposits being placed in the hands of the welfare
supervisor or some other person who through his acquaintance with
the boy and his home can advise him as to the amount which may
properly be put by from one week to another. This memorandum
by the H ealth of Munition Workers Committee does not indicate
the extent of juvenile labor either in normal times or as a result of
the unusual demands for employment of children created by the war.
Such information, so far as available, is included in the annual report
of the chief medical officer of the board of education for 1915, who
states th a t under normal conditions about 450,000 children pass out
of the elementary schools annually at or about the age of 14, and
th a t this figure appears to have been far exceeded during 1915 and
since. This report suggests th a t approximately 45,000 children,
ranging in age from 12 to 15 years, in excess of the normal number
permanently left school for employment during the year 1915, and
th a t the extent of juvenile employment existing to-day is probably
much greater than during the year reviewed. Moreover, this figure,
it is explained, refers almost exclusively to those legally entitled to
le§ive school and does not include the large number of children nor
mally liable to attend school b u t excused for longer or shorter peri

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

ods by local education authorities for agricultural and other employ
ment, nor does it include half-timers.
More definite information as to agricultural employment appears
to have been gathered, indicating th a t on May 31, 1916, not less than
15,000 children were excused for the purpose of whole-time employ
ment alone. A tendency to excuse for employment children under
12 is noted, and the report states th a t it is very doubtful whether
children under 12 thus excused will ever return to school. T hat
children have withdrawn from school since the outbreak of the war
at an earlier age than th a t contemplated by the attendance laws
appears evident, in the opinion of the chief medical officer. In this
situation the children would seem to be exposed to conditions of
strain detrimental to physical welfare, and as a means to conserve
their health the following recommendations are presented as essential:
1 . Careful examination of children leaving school.
2 . Similar examination of those applying for labor certificates.
3. Medical supervision of children employed out of school hours.
4. Coordination of school medical work with juvenile employment
committees.
This latter recommendation is believed to be im portant because if
carried out children may be directed to occupations suitable to their
mental and physical capacities. This point has been emphasized
in the excerpt above quoted from the memorandum of the Health,
of Munition Workers Committee.

REPLACEMENT OF MEN BY WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN GREAT
BRITAIN.
Comprehensive studies of the effects of the war upon industrial
conditions in Great Britain have been carried on under the direction
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Two
reports have so far been published. The second, with the title
“ Labor, Finance, and the W ar ,” 1 contains a chapter upon the replace
m ent of men by women during the war, down to the springof 1916.
This chapter presents detailed reports for the various trades covered,
based upon investigations made in London, Birmingham, Glasgow,
and other centers. As regards the character and scope of these
investigations, the report says:
They do not claim to give, in any instance, an exhaustive account of the industry;
but, as far as possible, representative centers and firms have been selected, and the
information, so far as it goes, is believed to be accurate and illustrative of the conditions
prevailing in the trades and industries in question.
As the object of the inquiry was to reveal the nature and extent of the replacement
of men by women, those industries have been selected in which such replacement
has been found to be frequent or of a significant nature. Consequently, engineering
and metals are most exhaustively treated. For the same reason, the cotton industry
is omitted, but one small report on textiles in Glasgow is included to illustrate the
effect on the industry of the competition of munitions. In “ nonindustrial ” occupa
tions clerical work, distributive trades, and transport have been the most fruitful
fields of inquiry.

The detailed reports referred to are presented below in summary
form. For the most part, the wording of the original has been
closely followed.
THE INCREASE IN THE EMPLOYMENT OF W OMEN.

Over half a million women were added to the ranks of labor be
tween the outbreak of war and the spring of 1916. Other changes,
more im portant than the mere addition to numbers, have also taken
place. Alterations in demand and the shortage of men have brought
about transference of women from process to process and from indus
try to industry, with the result th a t over half a million women are
now directly replacing men.
In July, 1914, the number of occupied women in the United King
dom was 5,020,000. In mid-April, 1916, the number had risen to
5,490,000. This was an increase in 21 months of war of 470,000.
This is about five times the normal peace-time increase, which for
such a period would have been only about 94,830.
1 Labor, Finance, and the War, edited by A, W . Kirkaldy. Published by authority of the Council of
the British Association for the Advancement of Science. London (1916).

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND JU V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .

This accelerated rate of increase is not due entirely to the recruit
ing of additional women into industry—i. e., of women entering
industry for the first time. Probably fewer women have married;
certainly fewer women have retired from industry on marriage, and
many former workers who had retired from industry have returned
for the period of the war.
The normal increase of occupied females in peace times is not, of
course, proportionately distributed over all industries. In the intercensal period 1901-1911 there had been an actual decrease in the
number of females in domestic service, agriculture, and clothing.
The decline in domestic service and agriculture continued during the
war, and there has also been a decline in the number of females in
the printing and allied trades, due to scarcity of paper and general
slackness in th a t industry. On the other hand, there has been a
fresh influx of women into the clothing trades as a result of increased
Government orders for clothing.
In all other groups of industry the war has increased the employ
ment of women. The increase has been greatest in what may be
called the “ nonindustrial” occupations, banking and finance leading,
with an increase of 242.7 per cent, as compared with 1914, and trans
port next, with 168.7 per cent. Among the strictly “ industrial”
occupations the group of metal industries shows the greatest increase
in the employment of females, 88 per cent, with the chemical group
closely following with an increase of 84 per cent over the 1914 fig
ures. The other industrial groups show a relatively low rate of in
crease, the advance for all “ industrial” occupations being only 13.2
per cent.
THE REPLACEMENT OF MEN BY W OMEN.

The number of women replacing men in various occupations is
larger than the number (470,000) given above as representing the
total increase in the employment of women since the war began, as
many women have been transferred from their normal occupations
to do men’s work. As a result of these two factors, it is estimated
th a t in April, 1916, there were 523,000 women directly replacing
men and 737,000 replacing men either directly or indirectly. This
has involved changes in the relative numbers of men and women
engaged in different occupations.
Even in normal times such changes have taken place to a notice
able degree. A comparative study of the figures in a series of census
reports from 1861 to 1911 shows th at in most groups of industries
women have been increasing relatively to men. In a few, however,
the proportion of men to women has risen. This is true of domestic
service, transport, agriculture, metals, paper and printing, and dress.
I t is not possible to carry on this comparison into 1916, b u t the
weight of the evidence at hand leads to the belief th at in all groups

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U S T R Y .

of occupations, with the possible exception of printing, the number
of women to each man has increased (or men to women decreased)
since the beginning of the war. While in most cases this is simply a
continuation of a tendency already in process before the war, the
change in some instances has been remarkably abrupt. This point
is brought out in the following table, which shows the number of
women in different industries who are performing work in substitu
tion of men and the number directly replacing men:
IN D U S T R IA L PO PU L A T IO N , B Y SE X , JU L Y , 1914, A N D IN C R E A SE IN N U M B E R OF F E
MALE E M PL O Y EE S, FE M A LES ON W O R K IN SU B ST IT U T IO N OF MALE W O R K E R S,
A N D N U M B E R OF W OM EN D IR E C T LY REPLA CIN G M EN, D E CEM BER , 1915, A N D A P R IL ,
1916.1

Increase in
females.

Estimated
number of fe
males on work
in substitution
of males.

Number of
women directly
replacing men.

Females.

Decem April,
ber,
1916.
1915.

7.000
9.000
144.000
40.000
851.000
654.000
170.000
169.000
39.000
96.000

3,600
6,400
800
2,300
71.700 126,900
19.400 33,600
29.700 27,800
6,700 11.700
31.700 30,900
2900
7,400 13,200
25.400 35.700

8,800
6,100
4,400
2,700
70,300 117,400
9,600 16,200
57,600 73.400
30.400 42,300
29.500 35,000
22.500 23,600
11.400 17.400
Vr,QQ* 37.400

700
1.300
16,700
7,700
23,000
13.300
21.300
7.300
4,600
13,100

6,500
3,100
59,200
15,600
35.500
18,800
32.500
11,700

Total industrial occupations 6,300,000 2,180,000 196,500 287,500 267,100 375,900 109,000

217,400

Estim ated indus
trial population,
July, 1914.
Occupational group.
Males.

B uilding.............................................. 967.000
Mines and quarries........................... 1 , 220,000
Metal trades....................................... 1,642,000
160.000
Chemical trades................................
T extile trades.................................... 608,000
Clothing.............................................. 286,000
350.000
Paper and printing.......................... 301.000
W ood................................................... 282.000
444,000

Commercial........................................ 1.057.000
Professional
.... .............................
174.000
Banking and finance....................... 179.000
Public entertainm ents.................... 181.000
Transport........................................... 1.032.000
Civil service........................................ 231.000
71,000
Arsenals, dockyards, e tc ................
Local government (including
teachers)............... ......................... 477.000

10,000

24.500

474,500
68,500
9.500
172.000
9.500
63,000

189,000
16,000
25.000
32.000
15. 000
31.000
13.000

168,000
13.000

2,000

181,000
13.000
23.000
14.000
16.000
29.000
13.000

184.000

21.000

37.000

18.000

983,000

310,000

361,000

306,000

All occupations...................... 9, 702.000 3,163,000 ............. '597,000

736,900

523,000

Total nonindustrial occu
pations ................................. 3,402,000

21.000

27.000
17.000
29.000
13.000

1 The figures in this table are as given in the original report, hut in some instances the totals are not
the sums of the item s given.
^Decrease.

1. ENGINEERING AND SHIPBUILDING TRADES— GLASGOW AND
CLYDE DISTRICT.

THE

Prior to the outbreak of the war the engineering and shipbuilding
trades in this district were practically confined to male workers, the
census figures of 1911 showing 219,000 males as against only 5,000
females, of whom more than 2,000 were in sewing-machine
manufacture.
Since the war there has been a large influx of women. Apparently
this represents additional labor and is not in substitution of men
94148°—Bull. 223—17------2

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S I N GEEAT B E IT A IN .

who have enlisted, the number of males not having decreased. In
the whole Clyde district, at the middle of June, 1916, some 18,500
women were employed in the metal trades. Of these, roughly, 12,000
were engaged in shell making and shell filling, 4,700 in sewing-machine
manufacture for war purposes, and the remaining 1,800 in ship
building, general engineering, and miscellaneous metal trades
(including scientific instrum ent manufacture).
It is in this latter group of 1,800 workers th a t the women have been
deliberately introduced to work formerly done by men, under the
“ dilution” schemes agreed on by the Government, the employers,
and the trade-unions. Existing plans call for the ultimate intro
duction of some 4,500 women. Most of this work is unskilled or
only semiskilled.
The other women are for the most part not engaged in work done
by men in this district prior to the war, but most of it, with the
exception of shell filling, would have undoubtedly been regarded in
prewar days as properly “ men’s ” work.
Most of the women have come from the immediate locality where
employed, very few from a distance. Thus the m atter of their
housing has not been serious. A large proportion were formerly
unoccupied, about one-fifth being married, but most all of them are
from working-class homes.
The higher wages offered in the metal trades have attracted women
from other employments, and this has caused an appreciable shortage
of labor in other industries, particularly in the textile trades.
W ORK DONE B Y WOMEN.

(1 )
Shell factories.—Women are engaged on all the processes in the
production of shells after the rough forging, from the small
“ 2-pounder” for antiaircraft guns, to the 8-inch H. E. projectile,
which is the largest so far worked on by women in this district. The
main operations done by women number between 20 and 30. Despite
highly automatic machinery, a considerable amount of attention and
skill and also of manual labor is required by the machine workers.
For example, one woman rough-turned 100 shells, each weighing 32
pounds, in a 10 -hour shift. This entailed lifting a shell in and out of
the machine every six minutes and also the heavy labor of tightening
up the chuck which grips the shell.
Work on shell fuses, such as capstan turning, boring, milling, screw
ing, drilling and tapping, fitting and assembling, is also done by
women in the district, but not apparently to any appreciable extent.
Shell filling is carried on extensively by women. Little information
on the detailed processes performed was obtained except th a t the
work consisted in filling cartridges with cordite and NOT accessory
processes, and assembling H. E. shells; b u t.a considerable propor
tion of the work appears to be of a heavy laboring type. One unveri

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U ST R Y .

fied estimate gave 200 lifts up and 200 lifts down of a box of shells
weighing about 120 pounds, between the floor and a table about 2
feet 6 inches in height, during a day of 8f hours. The lifting is done
by two packers to each box. Women are also employed in shellfilling factories outside the danger area in laboring and packing. The
training period for all this work is short, usually one or two weeks.
(2 ) General engineering.—The dilution of labor in the engineering
and shipbuilding trades has not been in operation to a sufficient extent
to give more than a tentative indication of how far women will succeed
in doing work hitherto done by men. Much of the work done by
them so far is laboring of a kind hitherto and still done by laborers
in all classes of engineering. This unskilled work is very varied and
the training period is very'short—a m atter of a week or two. In the
case of semiskilled and skilled work, which is, more strictly, “ dilu
tion” labor, the training period is naturally much longer, extending
from two to four months. The policy generally adopted in these
classes of work has been th a t of “ upgrading,” i. e., the women start
on the simplest class of work and gradually go on to a higher class.
Women are at present working at drilling, tapping, milling, slotting,
boring, planing and shaping machines, turning lathes, fitting (file
and chisel), marking off, etc. Where the work is skilled, the opera
tions are usually subdivided, and the women do the simplest work,
and always under the supervision of skilled men. For example, in a
machine-tool shop, women are scraping the beds of lathes and filing
off the rough edges of gear boxes; b u t the men in each case finish the
work, which in prewar days was entirely done by them. In this
sense, the processes done by women are dissimilar to those done by
skilled men. In semiskilled work, this does not hold true to the same
extent, and many of the processes are done as formerly.
(3 ) Scientific instrument making.—Not many women are engaged
in this branch of the metal trades. The processes done are machining,
filing, scale engraving, polishing lenses, assembling, mounting, clean
ing, inspecting, testing and adjusting, and work in the store. Much
of this work is highly skilled, and requires very delicate handling.
But, although in most processes the women are doing work hitherto
done by skilled men, many of these processes have been subdivided.
The women in all cases are doing the simpler forms of work and, in
every case, under supervision of skilled men. The period of training
in this class of work is about four months.
The following table shows the various operations performed by
women in connection with the manufacture of shells and in engineering
shops:
(a )

W ORK DO NE

BY W O M EN ON SH ELLS.

On shell

1. Cutting off open end.
2. Centering.
3. Rough-turning.

body.

20
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

E M P L O Y M E N T OP W O M E N AN D JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

Transfer marks body to base.
Rough face base leaving center.
Rough bore.
Finish bore.
Bore recess and finish face for nose.
Bore and tap for fixing screw.
Mill thread.
A fter nose fixed.

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Finish, turn, and form outside of complete shell.
Weigh and mark excess weight.
Cut base for weight.
Groove and wave.
Recess for base plate.
R ivet base plate and skim base.
Turn copper band.
O n nose preparatory to fixin g.

4. Finish, taper, bore, and face.
1. Cut off.
5. Turn and recess for screwing.
2. Rough bore.
6. Rough form nose,
3. Rough cup.
Examining in addition, and washing, polishing, and lacquering.
Fuses.

Capstan turning, boring, drilling, m illing, and screwing; tapping brass work, mark
ing, stamping, soldering, tinning, washing, and assembling.
Shell fillin g.

F illing cartridges with cordite ajid NCT, accessory processes, assembling H. E.
shells, and packing and laboring inside and outside danger zone.
(b)

W O R K D O N E B Y W O M E N IN

E N G IN E E R IN G

SH O PS.

Aeroplane and balloon work.

Screwing, milling, and boring nuts and bolts. Screwing tie rods. Drilling and
turning buckles and fork joints. Punching aeroplane parts. Vertical boring. Turn
ing (turret and center lathes). Filing. Stretching and sewing canvas. Painting,
solutioning, and varnishing. Balloon making.
General and electrical engineering shops.

Boring, drilling, slotting, planing, tapping, shaping, and m illing machines. Auto
matic, turret, center, and chuck lathes. Buffing and grinding and gear-cutting
machines. Hack saw. Hand filing. Scraping and bedding slides. Working at
bench and surface table. Brass turning and finishing. Driving and following cranes.
Core making. Iron and brass dressing. Hammermen’s helpers. Boiler makers’
helpers. R ivet heating. Armature winding. Tinning and commutator fitting.
Boiler firing and light laboring. “ Slap-up” painting and plate-edge machines.
Motor-car ivorks.

Light turning, and turning and screwing on semi and fully automatic lathes.
Laboring.

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U S T R Y .

Shipyards.

Attending plate rolling and joggling machines. Backhanding angle irons. Flanging.
Fitting, upholstering, and polishing. Drillers’ and calkers’ assistants. Plumbers’
assistants. Platers’ helpers. R ivet heaters. Holders-on. * Crane driving. Catch
girls. Firing plate furnace. General laboring (gathering scrap and cleaning up
vessels in construction).
Tube works.

Cutting, screwing, and stamping small tubes; oiling and stacking tubes.
work. Testing tubes. Staving tubes.

Stove

Scientific instrum ent makers.

Machining, filing, scale engraving, polishing lenses, assembling, mounting, clean
ing, inspecting, testing, adjusting, and store work.
SH O P ORGANIZATION.

Under normal conditions, with male workers only, shop organiza
tion in general engineering work is simple. The individual male
engineer, skilled and semiskilled, is, as a rule, directly responsible to
his foreman, w^ho, in turn, is responsible for organization, as well as
for discipline. Except on special work there is little inspection.
Generally the setting up of machines and the grinding of tools are
done by the men who work with them, although there are a few
exceptions in the case of semiskilled men.
W ith the introduction of women there has been a decided change.
In shell factories, general engineering shops, and scientific instrum ent
shops, the women work in squads, which may number, according to
the operation and the shop, from 2 or 3 to over 30. In the engineer
ing shops the women sometimes form part of a mixed squad under a
“ charge ” or “ leading hand.” In all cases they are supervised by
men, usually skilled engineers, who teach them the work, set up the
machines, and grind or supply the cutting tools. The supervisors,
in turn, are under a foreman responsible for the organization of pro
duction and output. There is always also a woman superintendent,
who is solely concerned with the discipline of the women.
Setting up machines and grinding tools.—The setting up of the
machines is, without exception, the work of the supervisors, but
occasionally, and particularly in those processes involving frequent
tool setting, a woman will “ set u p ” rather than stand idly waiting.
Much the same is true with regard to the grinding of cutting tools,
although in one national projectile factory the grinding of tools not
required to be exact in size or shape is being done by women. There
are also women working grinding machines, in which the tools are
fixed automatically in the required positions, and hence little skill is
involved.
Inspection.—In addition to official inspectors, there are in the
shell factories women inspectors—or “ viewers”—who gauge the
work at various stages in order to get faults rectified, or if the fault

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

is irremediable, to scrap the work without wasting further time on it.
Some of the workers complain th a t those inspectors who have no
experience of the machining often fail to find the source of the error
and blame the wrong operator.
F lying squads.—In at least two factories making 4.5-inch shells
there is an organized group of workers hitherto strange to engineering
shops in the district, each of whom has been taught every operation
on the shell, who are prepared to fill the place of those off work for
any reason. This group, called a “ flying squad,” consists of women
workers, in one case in the proportion of 12 women to every 1 1
machines.
Laboring.— Light laboring work is largely performed by women,
e. g., sweeping floors and lifting shells in and out of machines. In
some factories they remove metal cuttings; in others this is done
b y men or boys. The removal of shells in quantities is done almost
invariably by men.
Opportunities of rising to better posts. —The opportunities of pro

motion are not many, and the women at the machines, as a whole,
do not want it, as it usually entails financial loss.
Machinery.—For the work on shells now being done in this district
for the first time, a very large amount of new plant has been brought
in. One competent observer said that, for the first time in the his
tory of the west of Scotland, engineering shops had been filled with
modern machine tools. I t is doubtful if this is due to the introduc
tion of women. I t is probable th at it would have been done in any
case, to meet the necessity of producing huge quantities of a highly
standardized product. Dilution of labor in general engineering has
taken place in a relatively small degree, and its effect so far on the
introduction of new plant has been inappreciable.
General conclusions in regard to end o f w ar.— The extent to which
processes at present performed b y women are identical or even
similar in character to those done by men prior to the war is very
limited. In the case of skilled work it is almost nonexistent; and
while there is a considerable amount of semiskilled work being done
by women, it is under the supervision of men and is largely confined
to repetition work.

On the other hand, the new and highly automatic type of machinery
introduced into the shell factories can be adapted to general engineer
ing work, and especially to the production of “ standardized” and
“ interchangeable” parts. This will strengthen the general tend
ency, already rapidly growing before the war, to specialization in
production and subdivision of labor. When the war ends, m anu
facturers will find to their hand an organization suited to its use
and a supply of labor experienced in handling it. Such valuable
material will not readily be thrown to the scrap heap; rather will

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U S T R Y .

it be employed in an expansion of those branches of engineering
organized on lines of specialized labor and automatic production.
It may even create new industries.
H O U R S OF LABOR.

The working hours of women as of men in the m etal trades are based
usually on the two-shift system—a day shift and a night shift. In
shell factories, night work by women is common, but in general
engineering women, as a rule, work only on the day shift.
Day shift.—On the day shift, the normal working week of women
varies from 44 to 56 hours, with 54 the most common. The daily
hours are longest in certain shell factories—from 6 a. m. to 6 . p. m.,
with two breaks for meals, one of 50 minutes and the other of 60
minutes. But in one shell factory the shift was only 8 hours, includ
ing an hour meal period.
Generally, outside the shell-making industry, and sometimes
within it, the day shift is 9f hours, exclusive of two meal breaks, one
of 45 minutes and the other of 60 minutes. This is the regular
working-day in the district for men. Some firms, however, in order
th at the men and women may be kept separate, provide th at the
women start later and leave earlier than the* men.
A new practice for the industry has been the introduction of rest
periods for women in addition to the meal-hour breaks. Two such
rest periods of from 10 to 15 minutes each are now in force in most
shell factories and several general engineering shops. In some
cases, this arrangement applies also to the men.
Night shift.—Where night shifts are worked, they are in length
from 12 to 12\ hours, with two meal breaks of from 30 to 45 minutes
oach. In most cases, two short breaks of from 10 to 15 minutes are
allowed to women. Women as a rule work the same hours in the
night shift as men, b u t experience has shown th a t they do not take
kindly to night work. After some experimenting the normal arrange
ment has now settled down in their case to alternate fortnights of
day and night shift.
Overtime and Sunday work.—A considerable amount of overtime is
worked by women in both shell factories and general engineering
shops. Generally the practice is to work three hours on three nights
per week; and, in one shop at least, the women work on alternate
Saturday afternoons. Sunday work is, on the whole, rare. Only
one firm is known to employ its ordinary workers on Sundays, and in
this case alternate Sunday day shifts are worked by the women in
conjunction with alternate Saturday afternoon shifts.
Time keeping.—Both employers and women superintendents were
generally agreed th a t women are, on the whole, excellent timekeepers.
Not only are they punctual in their attendance at starting time, but

24:

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D J U V E N IL E S I N GEEAT B E IT A IN .

they are seldom off work for any lengthy period. Night-shift work
accounts for more broken time than day-shift work, especially among
married women. In addition to the influences which affect men
equally with women, there is the tendency on the p art of women to
take the opportunity when on night shift to use the hours when they
should be asleep for the performance of domestic duties. This tend
ency is naturally strongest in the case of married women who have
children to look after, and some employers, recognizing the fact, have
done their best to exclude married women from their works.
There was general agreement also th a t women are, on the whole,
better timekeepers than men. I t was not possible to test this opinion
satisfactorily, but the returns by one firm for one week, so far as they
go, support the view.
General observations regarding hours of labor.—The inquiry has
shown th at not only do women nominally work, roughly, the same
hours as men, but their actual time keeping compares very favorably
with th at of men. In an industry making under the best conditions a
heavy call upon physical powers, this result is striking. I t may be th at
psychical factors are at work which, for the time being, prevent
physical effects from revealing themselves, and on th a t account it is
well to suspend final judgment on the ability of women to work the
same hours as men in this industry. I t has to be remembered, too,
th at already modifications (e. g., short rest breaks) have been made
in prewar conditions. B ut so far as experience goes, any unfitness of
women to work the normal day hours in the engineering trades is not
appreciable.
R A T E S OF W AGES A N D EA R N IN G S.

The wage rates of women 18 years and over in the engineering
trades are governed generally by Government order under the Muni
tions Act.
Time rates.—The time rate for women in shell factories is based on
£1 ($4.87) per week for a 54-hour week—the usual working hours in
the district. This works out, roughly, at 4J pence (9.1 cents) per
hour. Overtime is paid generally at time and a half, and, in cases, all
weekly excess over the usual 54 hours is regarded as overtime. Sun
days (in the rare cases where worked) are paid for at double time. On
night shift, meal Hours are paid for, and usually the allowance of 1
shilling (24.3 cents) per shift to men is also made to women.
The time rates paid to women in other than shell factories vary
considerably. Those employed on skilled work do not, in many
cases, perform all the operations th at were formerly done by men, and
hence the rate paid to them is not always the men’s rate. Shop com
mittees of the men have usually come to an agreement with th e ’
employers and the Dilution Commissioners upon training periods
varying between two and five months in length (the upper limit is

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U ST R Y .

rare), during which women, employed on skilled and, in a few cases,
semiskilled men's work, starting from a minimum time wage of
20 shillings ($4.87) per week, receive gradually increasing rates until,
when the training period ends, the men’s time rate is paid. But,
dilution has been too recently introduced for semiskilled and skilled
men’s time rates to be generally paid to women. On unskilled work—laboring of all kinds—the men’s time rate is not generally paid.
In establishments where the work done by women is similar to
work done by them prior to the war, the rates have not generally
levelled up to the war minimum, with the result that, in one factory
at least, two classes of work—the one done by women prior to the war
and the other not, involving apparently about equal skill—are paid
for at widely varying time rates.
Piece rates and premium bonus systems.—Piece rates have not been
widely applied to women’s work except in shell factories, and even in
these the practice is not universal. Premium bonus systems have
only in rare cases, in general engineering, been applied, and not at
all, so far as the inquiry has shown, in shell factories. Other forms
of bonus are, however, in operation in certain shell factories. Some
have adopted a bonus on output, and in several departments of one
factory a «bonus is given to the woman turning out the maximum
number of shells in the shift or in the week. This form of bonus is
strongly objected to by male trade-unionists on the ground th at it
tends to “speeding up,” with ultimate reduction in piece rates;
serious injury to the health of the worker; and a weakening of com
mon action among the workers. To the woman worker, undoubtedly,
this bonus is a strong temptation to overexertion. One example was
given where a woman had won a “shift” bonus by turning out 132
shells (nose profiling) in one shift where the normal output was 100
shells, and had had, as a result, to remain in bed on the following day.
Another kind of bonus takes the form of a paym ent to all workers who
keep full time. From the male trade-unionist point of view, this
bonus is not nearly so objectionable as the bonus on output.
No general comparison of women’s piece rates with the piece rates
of men in shell work would be useful, since the work done is not the
same. Actual rates for women were procured in a few cases; but
the significance of a piece rate is seen in the earnings that it yields
in a given time and not in itself, and the few examples collected are
not here stated.

Earnings of women.—The actual earnings of women are, on the
whole, considerably above the 20-shillings ($4.87) minimum. In
shell factories the minimum is generally exceeded and, over a large
proportion of the women employed therein, much exceeded. This is
due ( 1 ) to good time keeping; (2 ) to the amount of overtime worked;
and (3 ), principally, to the prevalence of piecework. Actual cases

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND JU V E N IL E S I N GEEAT B B IT A IN .

came under notice of women earning in shell factories as much as £ 5
($24.33). I t is true th at earnings above £3 ($14.60) are not generally
reached; but in at least one factory employing a large number of
women, this amount is often exceeded, and there the average earnings
are slightly over £2 ($9.73). Earnings in general engineering shops
are considerably lower than in shell factories, due principally to the
absence of piecework in the former, but several cases of women
earning on the average over 30 shillings ($7.30) per week were
observed .1
Comparative earnings of men and women.—Not much material has
as yet been collected on this subject. From the information avail
able, it appears th at men, generally, earn more than women. The
difference is chiefly marked in the case of skilled labor, as might be
expected from the fact th a t training here counts for more and women
have not yet had opportunity for extended training. At best, how
ever, comparison is difficult as, even in shell factories, men and
women are rarely engaged on the same kind of operation.
E F F IC IE N C Y OF WOMAN LABOR.

In dealing with the efficiency of female labor in the metal trades,
it has to*be borne carefully in mind th at many of the women had
before the war no experience of working machines, and th a t the
experience of those who had worked machines (e. g., textile workers)
was of a very different kind from th at necessary to skilled engineering
work. Where simple laboring is concerned, apart from physical
disabilities, women might be reasonably expected to become quickly
proficient; and in the case of work done on automatic machines,
where technical skill is subordinate to attention, carefulness, and
dexterity, they might also be expected to reach a fair level of pro
ficiency in a short time.
Such expectations have undoubtedly been satisfied. There is
general agreement th at in unskilled and semiskilled work, women
have very quickly achieved success. In regularity, application,
accuracy, afrd finish, they have proved very satisfactory; and the
opinions gathered on their work amply confirm w hat their earnings
when on piece rates indicate. Where skilled work—requiring, in
addition to the above-mentioned virtues, technical knowledge,
experience, adaptability, and initiative—is concerned, it is too early
to speak confidently. So far as opinion has been formed, it appears
to be adverse, b u t difference in organization and the short time
during which women have been employed upon such work do not
perm it of any final conclusions being drawn. Any inferences which
can be made from the slender evidence seem, however, to point to
1 See also “ Employment and remuneration of women in Great Britain, p. 71.”

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U ST R Y .

women—should they continue in the metal trades after the war—■
entering into competition with men, so far as skilled work is concerned,
under methods of organization and mechanical conditions practically
unknown in prewar days to the engineering trades in the district.
C O NDITIONS OF L A BO R A S A F F E C T IN G H E A L T H .

The war has broken down the standards regarding the hours of
labor of women. Given the necessity for this, it has been the business
of the Government authorities to see th at these relaxations should
react with a minimum of evil results upon health. The difficulty of
dealing with the problem has been increased in the Clyde district by
the employment of women in the metal trades, where, until the war,
their presence was scarcely known. Fortunately the employers have
risen to the occasion. The result is th at with the lowering of the
standards of working hours there has gone the raising of standards
in other directions. The significance of this latter fact for the future
is probably greater than th a t of the former.
Hygienic and sanitary conditions of workrooms.—The inquiry has
shown th a t in the im portant m atters of ventilation, light, tempera
ture, and cleanliness, the conditions under which women work in the
industry are good. Lavatory and closet accommodation conform
generally to the requirements of the Home Office. In one large
factory, the absence of hot water from the lavatories was noted.
Cloakrooms for the women are provided in all factories. In some
the accommodation is rather inadequate and the lighting defective,
but, on the whole, the arrangements are satisfactory. In the course
of the inquiry the investigators were impressed by the excellent
hygienic and sanitary conditions of several of the workshops.
Provisions for meals.—In most works where women are employed
the incidence of meal periods is satisfactory; rarely indeed does the
interval between them exceed four hours. On the basis of food being
taken on the premises the length of the meal interval is also, as a
rule, sufficient. Usually three-quarters of an hour for breakfast and
one hour for dinner are allowed; on night shift, two intervals of 45
to 50 minutes are, as a rule, allowed. Women working in the danger
areas of shell-filling factories are given a quarter of an hour before
and a quarter of an hour after meals to change their outer clothing,
in addition to the meal interval. This time is paid for. I t is clear
that these intervals leave little time on day shift and no time on
night shift for going to and from home even to those who live close
to the works. The evils resulting from carried meals are well known,
and the Health of Munition Workers Committee has emphasized the
importance of providing well-managed and properly equipped canteens
for women workers. Most of the firms employing considerable num
bers, and one or two employing small numbers of women in the metal

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN ,

trades, have either already provided or are providing canteens where
hot meals can be taken by the workers at a low cost.
The women do not take full advantage of the canteen. Estimates
of the proportion of women taking dinner in different cases give from
7 per cent to 10 per cent, and of those taking a full night meal from
25 per cent to 75 per cent. A considerable number of women, in
addition, take one course only or carry “ pieces,” and take tea or
soup in the canteen.
During the two short rest intervals of 10 to 15 minutes given
generally, one or two firms provide tea for the women.
Physical strain, fatigue, and liability to accidents.—No sufficient data
are yet available on which to form a reliable opinion of the physical
or mental effects of engineering work upon women. I t is clear th at
no very serious consequences have yet emerged, and the period during :
which the women have been employed is too short for less obvious
effects to be measured. There is, however, a considerable body of
evidence th at the work in handling the heavier classes of shells and
some kinds of laboring work tax very much the strength of the women.
Tackle or assistance of laborers is, except in a few instances, provided .
where shells of over 40 to 50 pounds in weight are handled; but
women, in many cases, complain- of the strain of frequent handling
of shells of less weight. Moreover, the women in their haste to pro
ceed with their work frequently do not wait for assistance. In ship
building yards, also, the laboring work is trying (e. g., where bogies
are pushed and where rubbish is removed from ships by women).
The liability of women to pelvic congestion and hernia through lifting
weights and prolonged standing was emphasized in the medical
opinions given. In this connection it is im portant to note th a t at
least one firm employing a large number of women has provided seats
for them.
Fatigue was referred to by several doctors interviewed as a con
sequence within their experience of the employment of women in
engineering works. On the bad effects of night work upon the women
there was general agreement among those interviewed.
No evidence of a greater proportion of accidents among women
than among men was secured. Apparently any accidents th a t have
occurred have been slight in character and relatively few in number.
A more serious question has been th a t of women exposed to risk
of industrial disease in handling certain chemical substances.
“ Doping,” dangerous because of the presence of tetrachlorethane
in the varnish used, is, where done by women, carried out at widely
separated intervals, and then only for an hour or two at a time. In
one aeroplane factory, the u doping”—under the same conditions—
is done only by men. No cases of injury from “ doping” came under

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U ST R Y .

notice. In filling shells with cordite, cases of temporary suffocation
rendering artificial respiration necessary have occurred in the dis
trict; and in shell-filling factories the use of TNT has resulted in
cases of serious illness, accompanied by jaundice, eczema, inflamma
tion of the arms, and pains in the limbs. Picric acid, also used in
shell-filling factories, has caused illness, accompanied by nosebleeding; but no serious case was reported. Provision has been made
in the factory to which these cases relate for the women attending
the Red Cross department in the works when feeling ill. An hour
is now allowed as a maximum for this purpose without loss of pay.
Against the foregoing general evidences of deleterious effects
upon health have to be set the opinion that, in many cases, the
women have improved in bodily condition since entering the engi
neering industry. Improvement has been marked particularly in
the case of women occupied prior to the war in dressmaking, and
other employments where the hygienic conditions were not so good
as those in which they now work. But a probably more im portant
cause is th a t many of the women came from low-paid occupations.
Good wages have made possible more adequate nourishment and
better conditions of life, which have resulted in raising the physical
and mental tone of the workers. The economy of high wages ap
pears to have here a practical example.
The general impression left by the inquiry into the conditions of
labor in relation to health is that, with the exception of night hours
and overtime, they are considerably better than in many other in
dustries in which women are employed. Doubtless the exceptions
have been largely responsible for the raising of the standard in other
respects, but there appears to be little doubt th at firms engaged in
the industry have shown a readiness to concern themselves with
the welfare of their women workers, which has, unfortunately, not
been a marked feature in the history of the factory employment of
women. On the point of hours, one observation suggests itself.
Notwithstanding the absence of any definite data, a fact which
emerges clearly is th a t night work is ill suited to women. Given
the necessary workers, it seems desirable to introduce generally, at
the earliest possible moment, the three-shift system, instead of the
present two-shift.
TRADE-TTNION ORGANIZATION OF WOMEN.

As far as could be ascertained, the number of women in the'm etal
trades who have organized in trade-unions is between 3,000 and 4,000,
constituting between 16 and 22 per cent of all the women in these
trades. This is a relatively small percentage, but it compares very
favorably with the proportion of women organized in any other in
dustry except textiles.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

Most of those organized belonged to the National Federation of
Women Workers, which enrolls women only. The remainder, as
far as known, were distributed among four other “ m ixed” unions,
only one of which—the Dyers and Bleachers—organizes skilled
workers. The women have been admitted to the “ m ixed” unions
on the same conditions as men, except for lower minimum contribu
tions with correspondingly reduced benefits and varying kinds of
benefit; but as none of these unions held prior to the war or now
holds a considerable membership in the engineering industry of the
district, this point is relatively unimportant.
Women workers are notoriously difficult to organize. In spite of
this severe handicap, the National Federation of Women Workers
made a strong and, in the circumstances, very successful effort to
organize women munition workers. The initial success has been
difficult to maintain.
On the other hand, in the metal trades the class of woman dealt
with has been generally of a higher working-class grade than those
among which the unions have hitherto worked. This made the
membership in the metal trades more stable. The appeal, too,
th a t has been made to the women to organize th a t they may safe
guard the position of the men who have enlisted has been very effec
tive, due doubtless in large measure to the fact th a t many of the
women are related in one way or another to male workers in the
industry.
The Amalgamated Society of Engineers decided at an early period
of the war, in view of the temporary nature of the introduction of
women', not to take them into the society, but to pledge support
to the National Federation of Women Workers in any effort it made
to organize them. The active members are alive to the advantage
of the women being organized, and in most cases would have pre
ferred th a t a temporary section had been set up for them in their
own society. If the women ever get a permanent foothold in the
industry, then it is extremely probable th a t they will be taken into
the men’s union.
ATTITUDE OF MALE TRADE-UNIONS.

The introduction of women into the engineering and allied trades
has been accepted by the trade-unions only on the plea of urgent
national necessity, and then not without w ritten guaranties (1 ) th a t
the women shall go out with the end of the war; (2 ) th a t the change
shall in no way prejudice the economic position of the men; and
(3 ) th a t all trade-union rights and customs shall be fully restored at
the termination of the war.
Despite the guaranties and the conditions at present in force to
safeguard their position, trade-unionists, the rank and file especially,

R E PL A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U ST R Y .

are convinced that their prewar position is being undermined. It
is pointed out that, although in a number of instances the employers
themselves have been compelled to introduce women against their
will, when once the trouble of training them, and of adjusting the shop
organization to the new conditions are over— assuming that certain
processes can be economically done by such labor— a large reserve will
have been created which, at the first favorable opportunity will be
called upon.
It is further maintained that after the war the old struggle against
the encroachment by the employer upon the skilled man’s ground
through the introduction of automatic machinery worked by semi
skilled labor will be resumed with these additional factors operating
against the men. The result will only be determined then by the
relative strength of the organized forces.
The attitude of the skilled men’s trade-unions to women is largely
determined by these considerations. With a view to simplifying the
return at the end of hostilities to prewar conditions, they prefer that
women rather than men should now come into the industry, since the
line of sex demarcation is clearer than any line based upon classes
of men. On the other hand, if the influx of unskilled and semiskilled
labor is to remain or increase after the war, they prefer that men
rather than women should now come into the industry on the ground
that the former are stronger in their support of trade-unionism, and
the probability of a reduction in the skilled man’s standard of life by
their competition is, therefore, less.
OBSERVATIONS ON POSTWAR CONDITIONS.

Without attempting to prophesy, certain observations regarding the
position of women in the metal trades of the Clyde district are sug
gested by this inquiry. Shipbuilding and marine, structural, and
locomotive engineering form the backbone of the metal trades in the
area. The destruction caused by the war has largely occurred in just
those materials which these main branches of the industry produce.
It seems probable, therefore, that following upon the end of the war
the present activity in these trades will not lessen considerably, though
its direction will be largely changed. This change will make for the
employment of larger numbers of skilled men rather than for the con
tinued employment of the unskilled and semiskilled labor which is at
present at work on munitions. This fact will make for a return to
prewar methods of output in the engineering trades. On the other
hand, the purchase of large quantities of automatic machinery, the
creation of an organization suited to its use, and the presence of a
body of labor trained in handling it will make for the extension of old
or the setting up of new industries engaged in repeat production.
Women have proved themselves suited to this last class of work and,

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .

given normal hours and no night work, there seems no reason why
they should suffer injurious physical or mental effects through under
taking it.
2. ENGINEERING AND METAL TRADES, BIRMINGHAM.

This investigation covered the employment of women in the
various engineering and m etal trades in Birmingham. These trades
employ a far larger number of women than any other group of
industries in th a t city. In 1:911 there were 570,000 males and
37,000 females so employed.
Since the war there has been a very great increase in the business
of most of these firms and many new munitions workshops have
been built. Into these new shops there has been a large influx of
women. Many smaller m etal firms have turned to the manufacture
of cartridge caps and similar war supplies, and m any women are
employed a t such work. In certain plants not engaged in muni
tions work, and where large numbers of women were employed
before the war (such as galvanized hollow ware and fire brick), the
women employed have noticeably decreased. In brass foundries,
sheet-metal works, and motor works few women are employed, and
little change has been made since the war, as, in general, the work
is too heavy for any b u t male workers.
For the most part, the women employed have been in addition to,
rather than in substitution of, male labor; b ut their work has been
similar to th a t formerly done by men.
Very many of the women have come from distant parts of Great
Britain. In -most cases they had been previously employed at
lower paid occupations, such as domestic service and shop assistants.
This has caused a labor shortage in such occupations.
w ork: done

w om en.

The work done by women is nearly all unskilled and semiskilled.
This includes capstan lathe and press working and assembling.
The machines used are automatic, and the work is repetitive and
continuous. Other processes on which women are engaged are the
early processes in tool making, saw milling, and boxes (heavy lifting
is done by men in this last process). Women are also carriers in
fuse huts and sweepers, and are engaged in the stamping room.
One factory tried to employ women on “ mufflers,” b u t found the
strain was too great except for the women who had been Cradley
H eath chain makel's previously; these last had to be allowed extra
nourishment.
Women were also found engaged in cartridge-cap making and on
some of the last processes of making shell cases by hydraulic press.
The first processes, which were heavier, were done by men. In one

R E P L A C E M E N T OE M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U ST R Y .

kind of lathe the men and women work together, about one man to
four women. The man does the first part of the process, tightening
the clutch and the first part of boring.
In a few cases women were doing skilled work after a short period of
training. The work was identical in character with th a t of skilled
men, but in many processes was lighter.
SHOP ORGANIZATION.

In many shell factories foremen were at the head of various
departments, and the women workers were supervised by women
charge hands (who did some work in the department). In the fuse
huts the women charge hands supervised five women workers. In
other shell factories forewomen supervised the work in certain
departments. Where the workshops have arisen with the war, and
where the influx of female labor has been very great, supervisors, or
women welfare workers, have been appointed to represent the interests
of the workers and to investigate all conditions of their work.
Machinery.—In many cases the existing plant needed no altera
tion when turned to munition purposes. In other cases slight
modification and readjustm ent of parts had to be made. Automatic
machinery has been the most striking introduction, but it may not
be due to the influx of women into new industries, b ut to the necessity
to increase the output of certain goods.
Opportunities of rising to letter posts.—There are not many oppor
tunities, as the work done is so frequently limited to one process, and
lack of ambition prevents many women from doing more skilled work.
The capable and intelligent workers are sometimes promoted to be
forewomen.
HOURS OF LABOR.

In most of the factories the two-shift system—one day and one
night—prevails. But in one large plant three shifts were in use.
In the shell factories it is usual for the women employees to alter
nate fortnightly between day and night work.
The hours vary from 50 to 60 weekly. Night shifts are shorter
than day shifts; in one factory they worked 48f hours on the night
shift, and at two of the largest factories visited there were three
breaks in the night shift. As regards the day shift, it was found
that, in addition to the meal-hour breaks, in most shell factories
there were two short breaks at 10.30 a. m. and about 4.30 p. m.,
when it was possible for the women to make tea in the shop. Over
time, where worked, varies from one-half to two hours and, in some
cases at least, is voluntary. There was no Sunday work for women
in most of the plants visited.
The majority of the employers were agreed th at women were good
timekeepers, although in one large munition plant where many
9 4 1 4 8 ° — Bull. 2 2 3 — 17------- 3

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

married women were employed an opposite opinion was reported.
Time keeping by women was generally worse on the night shift.
On the whole, it would appear that, though the weekly hours of
men and women are nominally the same and the conditions of
labor are practically identical, the women are giving as great satis
faction to the employers as the men. I t is not possible at this stage
to say whether this would hold in normal times, or whether it is due
to any special effort they are making at present which may lead to
collapse when the war is over. One must also take into considera
tion the fact th at there have been several modifications (e. g., more
frequent rest intervals) in conditions of labor since the war.
RATES OF WAGES AND EARNINGS.

In the large shell factories the minimum weekly wage is 20 shillings
($4.87) per week for women of 18 and over engaged upon unskilled
and semiskilled work. In some factories this is paid by a time
rate, and in others by a piece rate with a time basis. For women
trained at a technical school in munition work the minimum wage
is 25 shillings ($6.08). In some cases, a war bonus of 10 per cent
is given for good time keeping.
In one firm 25 per cent additional wages were paid on night-shift
work, which was only occasional; 50 per cent above the ordinary
wage is given for overtime; and where Sunday work is done, employees
are paid double wages.
The time rates paid to women in other than shell factories vary
considerably.
Time rates are the more usual for women, except in shell factories,
where piece rates are almost universal. Piecework prices are gener
ally fixed to allow the average worker to earn 25 per cent over the
time rate. The piece rates of women in shell factories can not be
compared with those of men, because the work is not the same.
I t was found, however, th a t in processes where women were doing
the same work as men they received the same wages as men.
EFFICIENCY OF WOMAN LABOR.

In heavy capstan work women were able to do three-quarters of
the men’s work; on light capstan work women were able to turn
out more than men. In several large firms the output of men and
women was equal, and in the turning out of small articles the women’s
output was considerably more. Some firms stated th a t the women
turned out more than the men, because the trade-unions prevented
the men turning out all they might have done.
Nearly all employers agree that women are giving great satisfac
tion.

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U ST R Y .

CONDITIONS OF LABOR AFFECTING HEALTH.

The influx of women into places where they were not employed
before has necessitated many changes in workshop conditions.
Hygienic and sanitary conditions.—Where the workshops are
entirely new, ventilation, light, and cleanliness are noticeably good.
Where workshops have had to adapt themselves without being able
to extend, in some cases the workrooms appear too small, and to
have insufficient light and air. In some cases, temperature seems
higher than desirable, because of the nature of the processes, the
overhead lighting, and the material of the building.
Lavatory and closet conveniences are generally suitable, hot and
cold water being provided. In one large factory, the arrangement
for regularly douching the floors with a disinfectant gave a freshness
particularly admirable. Cloakrooms, in some cases, were good and
ample; in other cases, only racks at one end of the workrooms were
provided, or passage-hanging accommodation was allowed.
Provision for meals.—Large mess rooms are provided for the workers
in all the new shell factories, and very well equipped kitchens.
These mess rooms are spacious, airy, and well lit; and hot meals are
served at certain intervals and at very reasonable prices.
In some cases, the workers brought their food with them, and had
what hot drinks they needed. At one of the largest factories, beer
was sold on the premises at the lunch hour: one pint to men and half a
pint to women. The head forewoman considered th at this ar
rangement made for less drunkenness, as there was less going to the
public house. There was no marked desire on the part of the
younger women to avail themselves of this opportunity. In some
firms, women are allowed to have tea in the workrooms: in one case
at stated hours and in another case when they wish it.
Physical strain, fatigue, and liability to accidents.—The work, as
a whole, is so new, th a t it involves the use of muscles which women
do not usually employ, and this has involved a great strain for the
first month or two. At the same time, the women workers of Bir
mingham district have long been accustomed to work involving
physical strain (e. g., chain making), and do not feel bad effects so
much as women in other districts.
The opinions vary as to the relative carelessness of men and women
in proximity to machinery. Some say th a t women are less clumsy
and naturally more careful. In many of the new factories, the
women wear overalls and caps, which lessen the risks, and machinery
is carefully fenced.
In one firm there was some slight risk in lead soldering. The women
who have replaced men in th e fuse huts have light work, b u t it is
very dangerous, and was previously considered only fit for men.
I t consists of hammering in small screws and putting on red paint

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

marks. In the stamping-out room, the work was hard and in a hot
atmosphere, and red-hot metal was used in the process. The hours
were long, and the continued application made for overfatigue.
This led to straying attention and consequent liability to accidents.
Ambulance rooms and rest rooms are provided, with nurses in
attendance, in all the new factories. In two of the largest factories,
seats are provided in certain of the workrooms, and are largely used.
Apart from the signs of fatigue, the physical condition of the women
seems surprisingly good. This may be due to a higher wage or to
better conditions of working than they previously had.
As the welfare of women workers is so essential, many large firms
have appointed lady welfare workers to attend to the well-being of
their female employees.
HOUSING.

The fact that so many of the women munitions workers came from
distant points makes a very considerable demand for lodgings. It
seems, however, that this is balanced by the number of men who
have left to join the army, so that little extra overcrowding has
resulted.
A committee of the city council conducts an office for directing
women to vacant lodgings which a health officer has visited and
approved of. Also, some of the larger munitions plants maintain
lists of available and suitable lodgings to which their employees may
be directed.
TRADE-UNION ORGANIZATION OF WOMEN.

No figures are available regarding organized women m the imme
diate district of Birmingham. In the whole Midland area there are
some 200,000 women and girls employed, of whom perhaps 25,000
are organized. Of these latter, between 8,000 and 10,000 are in the
National Federation of Women Workers. The others are distributed
among 8 unions, of which 5 were not open to women before the war.
That the women realize the value of unionism is seen in the fact
that many of them are paying the union fees of the men they are
replacing, in order to keep the men’s membership alive. But there
has been the same general indifference of women themselves to organ
ize that was a recognized fact of peace times. The alleged reasons
are: General indifference, especially as wages are good; lack of ability
to act collectively; and the fact that many women consider their work
only temporary, for the period of the war.
ATTITUDE OF MALE TRADE-UNIONS.

Before the war, skilled men were indifferent on the matter of female
organization, thinking that women would never compete with them.
Since the introduction of women in such large numbers, the skilled

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N IN IN D U ST R Y .

men, fearing undercutting, have tried to induce women to organize.
For the most part, this has been done by persuading the women to
join a women’s union. The Amalgamated Society of Engineers, for
example, has agreed with the National Federation of Women Workers
to give every encouragement to women to join the National Federa
tion of Women Workers.
So far as the war has led to the replacement of men by women and
the relaxation of trade-union rules to permit of women’s employment
in new spheres, the attitude of the men is one of determination to have
all prewar privileges restored. I t is believed in some trade-union
circles that, after the war, there will be a great demand for semiskilled
and unskilled labor rather than for skilled labor. If the subdivision
of processes, which has been a feature in the metal trades, continues,
the women who have become expert on a particular operation may
displace skilled men.
3. CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES, GLASGOW.

This inquiry did not cover the manufacture of explosives. Its
scope was thus limited to two classes of manufacture, which may be
designated as:
1 . Manufacturing chemists, such as soaps, drugs, and patent medi
cines.
There has been no im portant change of employment in these plants.
The plants are small and many of them have temporarily suspended
business, partly because of dependence on Germany for the basis of
drug preparation.
2 . Chemical manufactures, such as artificial manures, bichromate
of potash, bichromate of soda, sulphuric acid and its by-products.
In this branch of the industry there seems to have been a shortage
of men and some increase in the employment of women. But the
women are solely engaged in light, unskilled labor—such as filling
sacks and sewing bags. These take the place of boys or of men of the
casual labor type. The opinion in the plants visited is th a t in this
class of employment the output of women is equal to only about half
of th a t of men. Their wage is less than th a t of the replaced men by
15 or 16 per cent. There has apparently been no substitution of
women for men in the skilled or semiskilled occupations.
4. TEXTILE INDUSTRY, GLASGOW.

The textile industry in Glasgow is a declining one and was so
before the war. Since the war there has been a marked decrease in
the number of both male and female employees. The women have
been attracted by the higher wages paid in munitions factories and
by the city tramway service.

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There has been comparatively little replacement of men by women.
Out of a total of 1,289 men and 4,808 women in the textile factories
covered by this inquiry, the number of women taking the place of
men was 71, and of these 32 were engaged in clerical work, leaving
only 39 replacements in textile occupations.
In one firm, 19 women have replaced 13 men in threading and
filling carriages; in another, 4 women are employed in threading and
1 in card punching. In cotton, the women are employed as warpers,
ingivers, harness helpers, tape helpers, and waste packers. One fore
man in the twisting department was replaced by a forewoman. The
difficulty of obtaining skilled and unskilled labor, the long period of
training necessary to fit the unskilled, together with the heavy nature
of the men’s work and the unsuitability of women’s clothing amongst
swiftly moving machinery, prevent the entire replacement of the men
who have gone on service.
The replacements have been so few in number that no change in
plant, organization, or process has taken place.

According to the opinion of the manager of a lace factory, women
in threading and brass winding (replacement in the latter process took
place prior to the war) have proved as satisfactory as men and could
completely replace them. A director of a large weaving factory sub
mitted as his experience th a t heavy work required two women in
place of one man, but with th at reservation women have proved as
satisfactory as men.
Employers reported an influx of orders and delay in execution
through lack of workers. Thus there is, and will probably continue
to be, a demand for every type of worker skilled in the industry.
5. PRINTING AND ALLIED TRADES, LONDON.

The war caused a serious depression in the printing trades. But
the shortage of labor has now overbalanced this, and where women
have not been substituted for men it has been due to some natural
or artificial restriction and not to the fact th at there is sufficient male
labor to meet the demand. Of the 36 firms giving information, all
but 6 were experiencing a shortage of labor.
Of these 36 firms, 23 had introduced women in one capacity or
another since the war; 1 was completely staffed by women before
the war; and 12 (small firms with one exception) had neither intro
duced women nor increased their employment in the processes in
which they had previously been engaged.
WORK DONE BY WOMEN.

Compositors.—In London, there has been but a negligible attem pt
to substitute women compositors for men. No cases were found of
women on the linotype machine. Four firms out of 36 were using

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U ST R Y .

women on hand composition and three on the first process on mono
type machines. All of these were nonunion or cooperative plants.
Aside from the m atter of skill and physical strength, there are two
im portant reasons for the slight attem pt to use women as composi
tors. First, is the fact th at London is in a peculiar position with
regard to the printing trade. The business consists in a maximum
of newspaper, jobbing, and emergency work, with a relatively small
amount of book printing. Consequently it is only practicable to
employ those who can work at night and for long stretches at a time.
Apart from any other reasons, women are prohibited from this by
the Factory Acts.
A second factor is the strength of the Compositors’ Union in Lon
don. This union is willing to admit women members, provided they
join under the same conditions as the men (i. e., th a t they earn the
same minimum time wage and have served the seven years’ appren
ticeship). So far, these conditions have prohibited the introduction
of women on any appreciable scale.
Furthermore, the unions seem to feel th a t the indiscriminate intro
duction of women into the trade would be dangerous, partly because
this might tend to weaken their own organization and increase the
power of the employers, and partly because they feel th a t the nature
of the work is detrimental to the health of women (e. g., lifting the
forms and other heavy work).
Compositors require a long training, apart from trade-union
agreements; therefore, it is impossible for women to be suddenly
introduced into this department.
As opposed to these views, some employers maintain th at the
trade would be benefited if women were widely introduced, since they,
could do all bu t the heaviest work, b u t they feel th a t this has been
prevented by trade-union opposition. Some nonunionists oppose the
long apprenticeship required by the Compositors’ Union, stating
th a t this is unnecessary. On the other hand, the Union upholds its
system of apprenticeship to insure (amongst other things) th a t its
members know more than one process, and so increase their mobility
and decrease unemployment during times of trade depression.
There are also many employers who are, on the whole, in agreement
with the policy adopted by the union with regard to women com
positors, thinking th at they are unsuited to the work, and that a
seven years’ apprenticeship is essential.
Much of the work included in a compositor’s duty is too heavy for
women, although they could undoubtedly do the actual “ composi
tio n ” ; but, broadly speaking, they are prohibited from this (a) on
account of the long apprenticeship, which, owing to their short
industrial career, they are unwilling to serve; (b) because for the
same reason, employers are unwilling to train them; and (c) because

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

employers are not prepared to pay them at the same rate as male
compositors, since they have to employ men to do the heavy work
(e. g., lifting, etc.).
Machine minders and managers.—These superintend the machines
which print the impression from the forms. Machines vary from
small treadle machines, often worked by a boy, to large cylinder,
newspaper machines.

Very few women have been placed in these positions, and then only
on the lighter kinds of printing. The nature of the London trade in
part accounts for the difficulty of introducing women into this depart
ment. An ex-machine minder said th at where newspapers are printed,
the lifting of the paper to and from the large rotary machines 16nearly
tears the inside out of even a m a n ”
Where books are printed, “ women m inders” can be introduced
more easily, since the machine can be run for a considerable period
without being reset. But, apart from newspaper work, London is
chiefly concerned with jobbing and emergency orders, in which the
machines have continually to be reset, and have to be worked at long
stretches without a stop, often through the night. I t is exceedingly
rare for a woman to set a machine; thus it is impracticable for women
to be employed as “ m inders” only, since they would be idle for a
large proportion of their time.
The work of a machine minder requires much skill and an appren
ticeship varying from four to seven years is demanded; it also involves
certain dirty and oily tasks which are often considered unsuitable for
women.
On the whole, employers are agreed th at it is.impossible for women
*to be widely employed as machine minders, though some of them
consider th at the dirty work would not hurt them. One foreman
remarked: “ If they wore overalls and used plenty of soap, they
would be none the worse.” The real difficulties are ( 1 ) lack of train
ing, (2 ) heavy work, and (3) restrictions imposed by the Factory Acts.
Printers’ assistants (layers-on and takers-ojf) and machine rulers and
feeders.—A layer-on places the separate sheets of paper in position on
the machine, which then proceeds to make the impression. A takeroff is sometimes employed on some of the machines to remove the
printed sheets. A printers’ assistant not only feeds the machines, but
also oils them and cleans the rollers, etc.
Machine ruling is a separate branch of printing (i. e., the marking
of lines for account books, ledgers, forms, etc.). The ruler’s work
consists of setting up the pens in the required position, and in regu
lating the supply of ink.

Boys, girls, and women were employed to a certain extent as
machine feeders before the war, though only to a limited degree in

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N IN IN D U ST R Y .

London. Adjustment by the introduction of women seems to have
taken place to the greatest extent in this department of the work.
On the whole, women are not employed in the capacity of printers’
assistants. Cleaning the machines is considered too dirty for them,
and they have rarely had the necessary training to understand the
technicalities of the machines; in addition to this, some of the work
is very heavy.
It takes from two to six months for a woman to become an efficient
layer-on; and where the work is limited to laying-on, it is not heavy,
though entailing a considerable nerve strain. The comparatively
short training greatly facilitates the introduction of women in this
department, the majority of those thus employed being transferred
from the folding, stitching, and warehouse departments.
Generally speaking, employers are availing themselves of women
feeders as far as possible, the great drawback being the prohibition
of night work. However, the National Society of Operative Printers
is making its agreements on the assumption that women have per
manently entered this department.
Readers.— Readers are employed by the larger firms to read the
manuscript to the compositors, and to correct the first proofs, etc.
In London, this work is usually done b y boys. In the course of this
inquiry we found seven firms which had substituted girls for this
work. As in the other processes, women are not employed in London
as readers for newspapers, since it means night work.
According to the trade-union secretary, although girls can not
be used for newspaper work, “ owing to the scarcity of boys, employers
are using girls as copyholders on day work in the general printing
house” ; and that “ in many cases they are receiving more wages
than boys,” on account of the fact that the majority of the boys
formerly used were apprentices to composing.
In many cases, reading proves a “ blind alley ” trade for boys; and,
on the whole, the unions do not object to the introduction of women,
provided they maintain the standard rate of wages.
Stereotyping and electrotyping.— In only one firm did we find any
attempt to introduce women into the stereotyping process. The
trade-union opinion is that their employment would be impracticable,
the trade being of a “ highly skilled and technical nature combined
with work of a laborious character.”
Lithography.—We found one firm which had trained women for
this work since the war. In the opinion of a trade-union secretary,
apart from the long training required, lithography is too heavy for
women, the weight of the stones frequently being injurious to men.
Warehousemen are employed in connection with the storage of
paper and its distribution to the working staff. We did not find any
firms which had introduced women into this department for the first

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

time; but three fiims (two being union houses) had employed them
in this capacity before the war, and had since increased the numbers
thus employed.
Folding.—Hand folding was found to be exclusively done by women
and to be universally recognized as a woman’s work. Those firms
which possessed folding machines employed women on them; and
where men had also been employed, the numbers of women had been
increased since the war.
Bookbinding.—Folding, stitching, and collating was done by women
in all the firms covered. The actual binding is heavy work, and in
London is usually done by men, although one firm had introduced
women for the cheap flush binding, which is not such heavy work.
In no cases were women found at such occupations as guillotine
cutting^ and type founding, all of which work required considerable
physical strength.
EFFICIENCY OF WOMAN LABOR.

On the whole, the verdict of the employers is very favorable as to
the value of women’s work compared with th at of men. Women are
said to be loyal, conscientious, regular, punctual, and clean at their
work. One employer found women readers slower than men, while
two stated girl readers were better than boy readers.
Women compositors are said to be slower, but more accurate, than
men. Women are generally slower at feeding the machines than men;
in one case, we were told th at a man would feed at the rate of 1,800
sheets per hour, while a girl could only do so at a rate of 1 ,200, the
machine being capable of printing 3,000.
A union secretary said th a t women can work as quickly as men at
any given moment, but th at their staying power is weaker; and thus
in a longer period, such as a week, their output is less.
All the firms had made some alteration with regard to their clerical
and messenger staff, and in many cases the employers stated that
they preferred the women and would permanently employ them in
th a t capacity.
REASONS FOR AND AGAINST INTRODUCTION OF WOMEN.

The trade-unions only oppose the introduction of women in so far
as—
( 1 ) They would be physically injured by the work.
(2 ) They would undercut m en ’s wages.
(3) They would possibly increase unemployment by flooding the
m arket after the war, and since, through lack of training, they
would be restricted to one process, and would tend to increase the
hardship at times of depression.

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U ST R Y .

On the other hand, those who favor the introduction of women
argue th a t—
( 1 ) There are many strong women who could do the heavy work
(instancing th a t printing is no heavier than the fishing done by
girls on the east coast of Scotland).
(2 ) Training is an overrated difficulty, the long apprenticeship
being unnecessary.
B ut the shortness of a woman’s industrial career is universally
recognized as an insurmountable objection to any widespread
employment in the highly skilled processes.
In any case it is, perhaps, safe to say th a t the obstacles in the way
of the further employment of women in London printing firms are
very great. In the Provinces and in Edinburgh, where book print
ing is mostly done, these obstacles do not exist to such an extent,
and women are more widely employed on a greater number of
processes, and, on the whole, are considered satisfactory.
6. PRINTING TRADE, BIRMINGHAM.

The printing trade in this city is mostly commercial, such as
catalogue printing, and this has naturally declined greatly during
the war. This decrease in business has about balanced the loss of
men to the army. Thus, the question of labor shortage has not be
come acute, and the introduction of women has been on a very small
scale and in a limited number of processes.
No women have been introduced to take the place of men as hand
compositors, on the linotype or monotype machines, as machine
minders and managers, or on the highly skilled work of electrotyping
and stereotyping. Women have done machine ruling in many firms
in Birmingham for some time, and the war has caused no increase
in female machine rulers; folding has always been women’s work,
and continues such.
I t is in “ feeding” or “ laying o n ” th a t the greatest change has
taken place, and women have been introduced here to replace both
men and boys. The introduction of female labor in binding and in
cutting, in both of which processes they were considered very satis
factory, was also reported. From the employers’ point of view
women have proved as satisfactory as men in all the processes they
have entered.
In addition to the usual physical and legal obstacles to the full
entrance of women into many of the skilled processes, the most
immediate reason for their nonentry is th a t of the trade-union
restrictions.
The trade-unions stand very definitely for “ equal work, equal
pay, ” in the skilled processes especially. They do not wish semi

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND JU V E N IL E S IN GREAT1 B R IT A IN .

trained women to attem pt these processes; the result would only
be the lowering of the rate of wages.
On the other hand, the trade-unions strongly advocate more
women entering the feeding and other unskilled processes; they
prefer women to youths working on these—as it prevents boys
entering “ blind alley” occupations. The employers are willing, in
most cases, to take on women in all the unskilled processes, and
several of them expressed their inability to see why women should
not do composing (except the lifting of the forms) and also the
linotyping and monotyping. Two of them strongly recommend th at
women should enter the artist lithographing and designing depart
ment, as being clean, interesting, and well-paid work.
W ith regard to the future, both employers and trade-unions recom
mended apprenticeship as the best method of regularizing employ
ment, and they considered it should be universal and compulsory.
If both men and women went through the same term of apprentice
ship, it is probable the trade-union rules would be relaxed and women
allowed to work side by side with men, providing always they re
ceived equal pay for equal work.
7. PRINTING TRADE, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.

In two newspaper printing offices women have replaced men in the
dispatch and in the machine room. In both cases they proved
slower workers, and some of the work in the machine room (e. g.,
carrying the lead plates up narrow ladders to the “ plater,” who fixes
them on the cylinders of the rotary machines) is said to be too heavy
for the women. Two or three women are required to replace one
man, and the wages paid are correspondingly lower than the men’s.
In other printing works (nonunion), one or two women are found as
hand compositors on linotype machines, and on platen machines, at
wages considerably lower than those paid to men for the same work.
Women have always been employed as “ feeders,” b u t since the war
their wages have risen in consequence of the competition of munition
works.
8. BRUSH MAKING, LONDON.

Formerly brush making was essentially a man’s trade. B ut even
before the war women were gradually encroaching in various depart
ments of the work.
The shaping of the stock and the sorting of the bristles are almost
entirely confined to men. For the drilling of holes in the stock to
receive the bristles, machinery has been introduced and enabled
women to take the place of men. A t present, however, most of the
women are found in “ drawing” (i. e., in drawing bristles through the
holes in stock and fastening with a loop of wire). “ Pan w ork”—i. e.,

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M £ N BY W O M E N I N IN D U ST R Y .

the setting of bristles into the stock by means of hot pitch, instead of
by drawing—has been the most strenuously preserved sphere of men’s
work. I t was said to be too hard and demoralizing for women. B u t
even here women are entering to some extent. And in the finishing
of the brush—i. e., the gluing on of the back, shaping and polishing—
women are employed in increasing numbers.
The brush-making trade can be pursued by quite young and by
quite old people. Consequently, the drain of the war has not been
felt so acutely as in trades where great physical energy and endurance
are needed. B ut all factories and workshops visited have suffered to
some extent, and, at the same time, work has increased owing to
Government contracts for army brushes. B ut the obvious solution of
introducing more women has not up to the present been generally
accepted. The reasons for this, as given b’y the employers, are
{a) th a t the introduction of numbers of women would, in nearly every
case, have necessitated setting up new premises and plant; (6) the
trade-unions would not easily perm it the introduction of women to
processes th a t were previously men’s; (c) the long training (seven
years’ apprenticeship) necessary for some of the highly skilled men’s
processes; (d) “ female labor is more trouble than it is worth.”
Of the four brush-making unions, only one, the Amalgamated
Society of Brushmakers, has adm itted women members. They are
excluded because it “ is not recognized as a women’s trade.” One
official stated th a t women are excluded from “ pan w ork” “because
they are not physically fit for i t ; ” b u t also stated th a t where women
are replacing men, the unions are trying to safeguard their position by
insisting th a t the women shall be dismissed at the end of the war.
Employers, on the other hand, say th a t if the women prove satisfac
tory they will be retained after the war.
Piece rates are the general rule, b u t time rates and combinations
of time and piece rates are also to be found. Of the 40 firms visited,
6 were paying a “ war bonus” ; b u t there were no obvious indications
th a t women’s wages had risen generally during the war to correspond
to the 15 per cent secured by the men.
9. TAILORING, LONDON.

This investigation included the wholesale trade (inquiries made in
Whitechapel) and retail trade (West End). The sum of the investi
gation is th a t the tailoring trade has not been appreciably affected
by the war as regards the displacement of men by women. If there
has been any displacement it has simply been a continuation and
development of tendencies th at were at work before the war. Women
have apparently not been employed on any novel processes, and the
substitution of women plus machinery for men—chiefly in the whole
sale trade—occurred long before the war.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

No novelty attaches to the employment of women in this trade,
hence no changes of organization or plant have been involved. Some
firms have laid down new plants, but entirely to cope with the extra
work connected with the large military contracts, not because women
were employed.
The employment of women in the branches in which they were
and have been employed before and during the war will probably
continue after the war. The general idea seems to be th at more
women may be employed on the old processes in which they were
already employed, but not more on new.
10. LEATHER, BIRMINGHAM.

The employment of women in the leather trade has increased by
about 30 per cent since the beginning of the w ar; this is chiefly,
though not entirely, in the m ilitary equipment branch, and is due
rather to the great increase in the amount of work than to the actual
substitution of men by women. There is a certain amount of sub
stitution, but generally the work is not identical with th a t done by
men, the men’s work being subdivided in order to simplify it. For
example, ‘‘girthing” is divided into three sections for this purpose;
formerly one man would do all three processes. B ut there is an
exception to be made here in the case of "preparing” ; one firm has
put women on to the identical men’s work, but has not found them
so satisfactory.
The processes which women are now working on, in addition to the
usual stitching and machining, are riveting, preparing, and lighter
forms of cutting. In one firm (light leather goods), cutting had been
undertaken by women prior to the war, but this was a firm in which
even in normal times about 90 per cent of the employees were women,
and the only two processes exclusively done by men were clicking
and heavy cutting, which demand great physical strength. The firm
stated, however, th a t even in these processes they would try women
in preference to closing down the particular department.
There is no change in manufacturing process except the subdi
viding of occupations. This has entailed extra foremen, who, where
possible, have been taken from other departments of the work.
There appears to be divided opinion as to the efficiency of women.
Where substitution is concerned it seems to be lower. In riveting
and cutting the inferiority is due to lack of physical strength, but
one firm seemed to think that, with good training and practice, these
might be done by women to a greater extent than they are at present.
The women are chiefly on daywork and their wages, compared
with men’s, are lower, since the work is simplified.
Most employers seem to regard the specialization of work as only
of a temporary nature, to be discontinued after the war, when it is

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U ST R Y .

hoped th a t the men will again take on the work. The trade-union
secretary who gave information said th a t his union is quite willing
to admit skilled women, but not unskilled women. Women members,
many of whom are married women (soldiers’ wives), and will remain
after the war, have been admitted to the union on the same terms
as men. The majority are quite willing to be organized and take
their p art in trade-unions.
11. TRAMWAYS, GLASGOW.
(This inquiry relates chiefly to Glasgow, btit reports were also received from London
and Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and the findings as a rule apply also to those other centers.)

Previous to the war, no women were employed except in the offices
as clerks. The change since August, 1914, has been rapid—due in no
way to increase of traffic, but entirely to the replacement of men by
women. A very large number of the tramway men were enlisted;
they did so on the understanding th a t those who are physically fit
will be taken back to their old positions.
Conductors and drivers.—There are now 1,153 women acting as
conductors on the cars out of a total of 1,643. The working condi
tions have been somewhat changed. Previously, all conductors, after
serving about 6 months, had also to serve as drivers; no one unfit
for the work of driver was allowed to remain a conductor. Now
women are allowed to remain conductors, no pressure being p u t on
them to attem pt the more trying work. In April, 1916, there were
only 23 women drivers out of a total of 1,443, b u t the manager is
entirely satisfied with those who have served in this capacity. Train
ing for the position of driver takes 12 days, provided always th at the
applicant has served as conductor for 6 months, while training for
the position of conductor takes only 8 days.
The working week is the same for women as for men—51 hours
(i. e., 8 § hours per day). The shifts are, as far as possible, of four
hours’ duration, the extra half-hour being allowed for reaching one’s
destination and making up the cash. One objection expressed by the
women used to be th at they might wind up a late “ run far from their
hom es/’ but an effort is now made, for men as for women, to finish duty
on routes landing them within reach of their homes in reasonable time.
The only other im portant objection is th at women are often exposed to
impertinence from uncivil passengers, bu t the complaint is not general.
Women as conductors and drivers are paid a t practically the same
wage scale as are the men, the minimun being 27 shillings ($6.57) per
week.
The manager expresses himself as satisfied with the women’s work.
F ar fewer have given up than was expected. Up to 17th September,
1915, when there were 787 in actual service, 15 had been dismissed and
55 had resigned. Large numbers are waiting for vacant openings.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND JU V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .

Generally speaking, the women employed do not lose much working
time; they are more often off than were the class of men employed
before the war, b ut not more so than the class employed since.
Car cleaners.—In April, 1916, there were 125 women engaged in
cleaning the cars, out of a total of 524. The manager expects th a t
before long there will be few men employed in this capacity; those at
present employed have been asked to leave the service for “ more
im portant national work,” though it is understood th a t this is only
for the period of the war.
The car cleaners have a working week of 51 hours—from 10.30 p. m.
to 8 a. m., with an hour’s rest between 3 a. m. and 4 a. m. As far as
possible, one night in the week is given off; b u t every fourth week the
cleaner gets from Saturday morning till Monday night. The wage is
27 shillings ($6.57) per week.
The wage is large, b u t many do not like the night work and many
do not stand it, so th a t as many have given up as have stayed on.
Probably those who have families do not take sufficient sleep during
the day.
Future of women in tramway service.—There seems no doubt th a t
women will be retained after the war for car cleaning; but it is open to
question whether the proportion of those engaged in conducting will
be large, if the old rule is reestablished th at the conductor m ust
become proficient in driving as well. I t is too soon to assert th at it is
only the exceptional woman w^ho can drive. Conductors have some
times to face overcrowded cars and unruly passengers, and get through
to the satisfaction of the manager and the general public.
12. SCOTTISH RAILWAYS.

The employment of women on the Scottish railways has probably
doubled since the war. This has been due to the substitution of
women for men and not to additional business. The increase in
women employees has taken place in many departments, including
the transport departm ent of “ coaching.”
“ Coaching” comprises ticket collectors, booking clerks, carriage
cleaners, and porters. Of these, carriage cleaners and booking clerks
are the only grades not included in the agreement between the com
panies and the National Union of Railwaymen. There were women
carriage cleaners before the war, and there were a few booking clerks.
In one company the carriage cleaners are all paid at the old rates—
12 shillings ($2.92) for a working week of 54 hours, with a war bonus
of 3 shillings ($0.73); while in another they are now paid the minimum
men’s rate. The same applies to booking clerks in the same com
panies.
B ut ticket collectors and porters are paid everywhere at the mini
mum rate of the men’s grade, the former receiving in a representative

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U ST R Y .

company 21 shillings ($5.11) per week, with a war bonus of 4 shil
lings ($0.97).
The women ticket collectors and booking clerks as a rule work pre
cisely the same hours as men and have early and late duty. The car
riage cleaners work usually on day shifts only, although at one station
at least, there were both day and night shifts.
Opinions differ as to the work of women on the railways. One
authority of wide experience expressed his conviction th at three
women are needed for every two men employed in a work like car
riage cleaning—not th a t three women would take the same time as
two men, but two women would not suffice and a third would need
to be employed. The same authority also held to it th a t women
could not, for physical reasons, work the same hours as do men in
strenuous employment and would prefer, as experience had taught
him, shorter hours and less pay. B ut others again stated their cojiviction th a t what women lacked in quantity of work they made up
in quality, and expressed their surprise at the amount of work
women could get through if they had sufficient wages to feed and
clothe themselves properly.
As in the case of the tramways, time is needed to show whether
women can undertake the same hours and duties as men carriage
cleaners, ticket collectors, and booking clerks or whether changes
m ust be made to allow of their partial employment. I t is hardly
likely th a t they will wish to continue as porters. The work is too
heavy even for the few.
Women were admitted to the railway men's union two years ago,
and “ quite a few” have joined.
13. CLERICAL WORK.

This report covered the employment of women in banks, solicitors’
offices, shipping offices, gas company, engineering firms, accountants’
offices, and cooperative stores. In these businesses there were women
employed before the war as typists and as telephone girls, b u t in
most cases their employment as general clerks seems to be a new
departure.
• In one bank having several branches, where a few typists only were
employed before the war, there are now 90 women clerks, whereas
the number of men has fallen from 166 to 80. In another bank where
formerly there were no women, the women now number two-thirds
of the staff.
In general, the employment of girls and women is due entirely to
the necessity for replacing men. The exceptions to this generaliza
tion are found in shipping offices and in cooperative stores, where the
increase of business has m eant a real increase in staff. The same
may also be true of engineering firms. In one colliery office the em94148°— Bull. 223— 17------ 4

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

ployment of girls has necessitated provision of suitable accommo
dation, which seems to have been the sole hindrance to an even earlier
adoption of women for clerical work.
The employment of women is almost everywhere confined to the
more mechanical sides of the clerical work—typing, shorthand writ
ing, copying, and filing. In some cases, such as shipping business
and accountancy, the higher grades of work are very technical and
need special training and experience, which the women do not possess
and do not think it worth while to acquire.
Most of the firms estimated the worth of a girl clerk as less than
th a t of a male clerk. B ut there is a general opinion th a t women
are more conscientious and painstaking than men, though the
latter are probably more accurate on the whole. In all routine work
(such as typing and copying), women prove better workers than
men. Lack of staying power constitutes a barrier to women’s
employment, in the opinion of most. Women, for example, can
seldom stand overtime. Underlying these defects is the fact th a t
the woman does not take such an impersonal interest in business
as a man does. Opposed to this view was th a t of the manager of
a large shipping firm, who considered th a t in quickness and initia
tive there was nothing to choose between men and women, th a t the
girls, as a rule, did a more thorough and better day’s work, and
worked overtime if necessary.
As regards hours, the periods worked are generally the same as
those worked by men. In a few cases, hours are slightly shorter
for women, and, as mentioned above, overtime is generally regarded
as impossible.
In banks, colliery offices, and shipping offices, girls are getting
higher wages than youths of about 17 years doing the same work.
This is because the latter are paid on an apprenticeship basis. A
large engineering firm has an apprenticeship system for girls as
well as for boys.
In most businesses there has been a substantial increase in wages,
due to general changes in conditions. Solicitors, for instance, pay
20 shillings ($4.87) to beginners who formerly received 12 shillings
and 6 pence to 15 shillings ($3.04 to $3.65); while one firm which
paid its women clerks 20 shillings to 22 shillings and 6 pence ($4.87
to $5.47) before the war, now gives them 25 shillings ($6.08) to start,
experienced women getting 30 shillings to 35 shillings ($7.30 to
$8.52).
As to the possibilities of continued employment of women after
the war, the general opinion seems to be th a t it will be only in the
lower grades of work, and that, in general, the numbers retained
will be small. Among solicitors in Newcastle there exists a great
body of opinion th a t not only will woman labor continue, but it
will increase,

R E P L A C E M E N T OF M E N BY W O M E N I N IN D U S T R Y .

14. LAUNDRIES, NEWCASTLE.

In the laundries visited in Newcastle there has been little replace
ment of men by women, except in a few cases in the washhouses.
On the whole, all work for which women are capable was done by
them before. Where substitution has taken place in the washhouse,
it has almost always been in the proportion of two to one, because
of (a) the heavy nature of the work (specially with military con
tracts); (i ) the unreliability of many of the women, so th at two
must be engaged to make sure of the presence of one.
The working conditions of laundries have been seriously disor
ganized by the efflux of women to munition factories and to clerical
work. These women were skilled, especially as packers and sorters;
and the latter, according to one firm, take years to become really
efficient. On the whole, the type of woman is much lower than
formerly, and managers prefer to take on young girls to train.
There has been a general rise in wages, because of the shortage in
workers and the desire of the managers to retain a certain number
of skilled women. The rise has not, however, been very great,
averaging from 1 shilling to 2 shillings and 6 pence (24.3 to 60.8
cents) a week.
15. DISTRIBUTIVE TRADES, GLASGOW AND NEWCASTLE.

In eight out of nine representative drapery and grocery firms in
Glasgow an increase in the number of women employed since the war
was reported. W ith one exception, this was attributed to the sub
stitution of women for men, not to increased business.
Where an increase has occurred it was, in all cases except one/
almost entirely due to the replacement of men. The changes in
organization necessitated by the introduction of women have been
few and slight. In certain wholesale drapery warehouses there have
been redivisions of work—the still remaining men were being gradu
ally transferred from “ light” departments, such as neckwear, to
“ heavy” departments for which women are unsuited, and women are
taking up the “ light” work. There is no record of any reorganization
in the grocery establishments covered.
As regards the efficiency of women in comparison with men, opinions
of employers are widely diverse. Summing up, as far as possible, the
varying statements, the impression received is: First, th a t so far as
the less “ skilled” departments are concerned, while lack of physical
strength does, to some extent, militate against the successful employ
ment of women, where there is no undue tax on strength, women’s
work is as satisfactory as th a t of men, and will in all probability
continue. Second, that, in the case of the “ skilled” posts, such as
managers and travelers, and of sales people in dress fabrics and linen
departments, there will be a tendency to give men the preference.
This is for two reasons: (a) The greater willingness of men to devote

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .

some study to the technique of the work (as in the case of dress
fabrics and linen, by taking suitable classes). (6) The greater chance
of retaining a man’s services permanently. I t may be suggested th a t
possibly the lack of prospects of promotion is, to some extent, the
cause of the alleged unwillingness of women to give more interest
and study to their work.
The attitude of trade-union members may be noted. Male mem
bers are desirous th a t women should organize as well as men. Women
employees are stated to be less enthusiastic than men regarding
organization; but, since the war commenced, the National Amal
gamated Union of Shop Assistants, Warehousemen, and Clerks has
made a special appeal to women employees with considerable success.
16. PUBLIC SERVICE.

Teaching {in one city)*—There has been no im portant increase in
the number of women teachers as a result of the war, b u t the scarcity
of teachers had necessitated many temporary measures, such as
putting children on half time.
W ith regard to the future, as shortage of good assistant masters is
to be expected, and the present new openings are drawing women
away from the profession of teaching, the salaries of both men and
women will, therefore, probably rise, and women will be more exten
sively employed in boys’ schools as teachers of the lower grades and
as teachers of special subjects.
The salaries paid just now to secondary teachers are equal or
almost equal for men and women.
- Head post office {in one city).—There has been an increased employ
m ent of women since the war in all departments of the post office,
including postmen and telegraphists. The increase is due to the
replacement of men, the business done being slightly less.
Women have proved as satisfactory as men in the routine clerical work
of the engineering department, b u t do not seem to have taken so well to
the night work of sorting. On delivery, the women u have done splen
didly ’’ on lighter rounds, b u t they are not good for heavy work, and even
the light work would tell on them in the long run. Telegraphist women
are nearly as good as men. Women, however, are not paid the same
as the men, who can stand a strain longer and can work any time.
The maximum of an expert male telegraphist in this city is 58 shillings
($14.11) per week; th a t of a woman, 36 shillings ($8.76).
City engineer’s office {one city).—Before the commencement of the
war women were employed by this departm ent only in women’s
lavatories. Since the war 123 women have been engaged to replace
men. Of these 123, 100 are employed in street cleaning; 20 in
public parks; and 3 in sorting waste paper.
As a general rule, women have not proved to be so satisfactory as men
on the particular kind of work for which they are engaged by this depart
ment, and it is probable th a t they will not be so employed after the war.

EXTENSION OF EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN GREAT BRITAIN
IN 1916.1
The data regarding the increase in the employment of women in
Great Britain during the war, as presented in the report summarized
above, are brought down as late as October, 1916, in the January,
1917, number of the British Labor Gazette. The tabular statem ent
of this increase, together with the text comment of the Gazette,
is as follows:
FE M A LES E M PL O Y ED JU L Y , 1914, INC R E A SE IN N U M B E R E M PL O Y ED SINCE TH A T
D A T E , A N D N U M B E R R E P O R T E D AS D IR E C T L Y R E PL A C IN G M EN.
Estimated increase in
the number of fe
Estimated
m a le s e m p lo y e d
number of
since July, 1914.
females
employed
in July,
1914.
July, 1916.1 October,
1916.

Number of females re
ported by employers
as directly replacing
males.

July, 1916.1

October,
1916.

Industrial occupations......................................
Government establishm ents 2.........................
Commercial occupations..................................
Professional occupations..................................
Banking and finance.........................................
Hotels, public-houses, cinemas, theaters,
etc.......................................................................
Agriculture, permanent labor (Great
B ritain).............................................................
Transport (not municipal)..............................
Civil service..........................................................
Local government (including teachers and
transport workers under municipal au
thorities) ...........................................................

2,133,000

184.000

30.000

34.000

26.000

31.000

Total...........................................................

3,231,000

889,000

988,500

783,000

933,000

496.000
67,500
9,500

361.000
79.000
240.000
14.000
32.000

393.000
117.000
268.000
15.000
37.000

264.000
3 79,000
226.000
15.000
31.000

314.000
3 117,000
264.000
15.000
37.000

176.000

20.000

16.000

31.000

30.000

80,000
17.000

20,000

500
41.000
67.000

35.000
35.000
3 41,000

41.000
3 64,000

2,000

66.000

35.000
58.000

20.000

1 The figures for July, 1916, differ slightly from those previously published, as they have been revised in
view of additional information received.
2 Arsenals, dock-yards, national shell-filling factories, etc.
s Estimated.

Since the war about 988,500 women, or 30.6 per cent of the numbers employed in
July, 1914, have been drawn into the various occupations included in the above table.
Women employed in connection with the nursing of soldiers and sailors are not in
cluded, and under this head there has been an increase since July, 1914, of some
34,000 women. Allowing for this and for the displacement of women from domestic
service and from small workshops and workrooms in the dressmaking trade, which are
also excluded from the table, it is estimated that the net increase since July, 1914, in
the number of women regularly engaged in occupations outside their own homes is
in round figures about 850,000.
In the occupations enumerated in the table there has been an increase since July,
1916, of nearly 100,000, which is roughly one-third of the corresponding increase be
tween April and July. It appears therefore that, taking the whole field of employ
ment, though the number of women is still increasing rapidly, the rate of increase has
slackened considerably compared w ith that of the preceding three months.
i Great Britain.

Board of Trade Labor Gazette, January, 1917, pp. 7, 8.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

As far as substitution is concerned there has been an increase since July, 1916, of
150,000 in the number of women directly replacing men, which is considerably more
than half the corresponding figure for April to July. As in the case of the increased
employment of women, there has therefore been a check to the rate of expansion, but
this check is less marked in the case of women acting as substitutes than for the total
numbers employed.
The increase in the number of women employed has not been equally divided
between the different classes of employment. In industrial occupations there has
been an increase of 32,000 between July, 1916, and October, 1916, the corresponding
increase for the preceding three months being 83,000. In the chemical and metal
trades alone there has been an increase of 42,000 women since July, 1916, so that
in all other industries taken together there has been a decrease of 10,000. T h is is
accounted for b y a drop in the number of women employed in the textile, clothing,
and paper and printing trades. In the clothing trades alone the number of women
employed has fallen since July, 1916, by 15,000, or 2.5 per cent of the prewar numbers,
exclusive of dressmakers in small workshops; the tailoring trade accounts for 8,000 of
this number. In the tex tile trades the number has fallen b y 1,000 since July, 1916,
or 0.7 per cent of the numbers employed before the war. This change in the clothing
and textile trades is explained in part by a lessened demand for women, due to changes
in the extent of Government work and to the increasing economy of the general public,
but this does not appear to be the sole explanation. The returns received from em
ployers show that this decrease in the number of women employed has been accom
panied by an increasing shortage of women’s labor. In July, 1916, 38 per cent of the
textile firms and 20 per cent of the clothing firms making returns reported that they
were unable to get all the women they required. B y October, 1916, the figures had
risen to 40 per cent and 21 per cent, respectively. In the paper and printing trades
the corresponding figures were 17 per cent in July, 1916, and 19 per cent in October,
1916. It is clear, therefore, that though the demand for women’s labor has fallen off
somewhat, the supply of women’s labor has decreased to a greater extent and that
the process of transference from these trades to munition work or other better paid
occupations still continues.

EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN.
[Memorandum No. 4.]

1 . Though some brief reference has already been made in other
memoranda issued by the committee to certain m atters affecting the
employment of women, there are substantial grounds for dealing in a
single memorandum with the various and difficult problems involved.
I t will be generally adm itted th a t in considering the conditions of
employment of women workers as compared with those of men,
account must be taken not only of physiological differences but also
of those contributions which women alone can make to the welfare
of the state. Upon the womanhood of the country most largely rests
the privilege of creating and maintaining a wholesome family life and
of developing the higher influences of social life. In modern times,
however, many of the ideals of womanhood have found outward ex
pression in industry, and in recent years hundreds and thousands of
women have secured employment within the factory system. The
problems thus raised are numerous, b u t broadly they may be con
sidered as chiefly concerned with the wise and effective organization
of women’s industry, in such a way as to protect and safeguard their
unique contribution to the state.
2 . The engagement of women in the manufacture of munitions
presents many features of outstanding interest. Probably the most
striking is the universal character of their response to the country’s
call for their help; but of equal social and industrial significance is the
extension of the employment of married women, the extension of the
employment of young girls, and the revival of the employment of
women at night. The munition workers of to-day include dress
makers, laundry workers, textile workers, domestic servants, clerical
workers, shop assistants, university and art students, women and
girls of every social grade and of no previous wage-earning experience;
also, in large numbers, wives and widows of soldiers, many married
women who had retired altogether from industrial life, and many
again who had never entered it. In the character of the response lies
largely the secret of its industrial success, which is remarkable. The
fact th a t women and girls of all types and ages have pressed and are
pressing into industry shows a spirit of patriotism which is as finely
m aintained as it was quickly shown. Conditions of work are accepted
without question and without complaint which, immediately detri
m ental to output, would, if continued, be ultim ately disastrous to
health. I t is for the nation to safeguard the devotion of its workers

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

by its foresight and watchfulness lest irreparable harm be done to
body and mind both in this generation and the next,
i 3. More than ever in the past should consideration now be given
to the well-being of young girls fresh from school, of the prospective
mother, and of the mother whose care is especially claimed by her
infant during the first months of its life; for more than ever is their
welfare of importance to the state, and much more than ordinarily is
it threatened by conditions of employment.
Speaking generally, there are five matters, which apart from ques
tions of wages, concern the health and industrial output of the worker,
and which demand the careful attention of employers in regard to
the employment of women on any large scale, viz, ( 1 ) the period of
employment (including night work, length of hours, overtime, etc.);
(2 ) rest pauses and the provision of meals; (3) sanitary conditions
of the factory; (4) physical condition of women workers; (5) ques
tions of management and supervision. The committee recognize th a t
certain collateral issues, such as housing, transit, and the means of
recreation are also intimately concerned in the welfare of women
workers, although they may lie somewhat outside the immediate
sphere of the employer. The committee have given careful consider
ation to the subjects enumerated above, and they desire to offer some
observations under each heading. They appreciate the exceptional
importance of women’s labor in the present emergency, and they do
not desire to suggest the imposition of conditions which are likely to
embarrass employers or restrict the usefulness of women. They con
fine themselves, therefore, to m atters which in their view are both
necessary and urgent in the interest of the women themselves and
the industrial output of which they are capable.
I. PERIODS OF EMPLOYMENT.

4.
Night work.—The imperative necessity of war has revived, after
almost a century of disuse, the night employment of women in fac
tories. Prohibited for the textile trades by the factory legislation
of 1844, it disappeared gradually in Great Britain, and also in other
countries, until, after inquiry and deliberation, it was banished by
international agreement from the 12 European countries which signed
the convention drawn up a t the international conference held a t Berne
in 1906.1 These countries included Great Britain, Austria, Belgium,
France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Switzerland, and Spain. The
agreement was based upon the results of inquiries into the effects,
economical, physical, and moral of night work for women. The
reports showed deterioration in health caused by the difficulty of
securing sufficient rest by day; disturbance of home life with its inju
1 B ulletin of International Labor Office, English edition, Vol. I., 1906, p. 272. Certain minor modifi
cations were inserted by some powers.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N .

rious effects upon the children; and diminished value of the work
done—the common experience being th a t nightwork was inferior to
daywork. Now once more all these half-forgotten facts are in evi
dence in the munition factories. In a working-class home the diffi
culty in obtaining rest by day is great; quiet can not be easily secured;
and the mother of a family can not sleep while the claims of children
and home are pressing upon her; the younger unmarried women are
tempted to take the daylight hours for amusement or shopping;
moreover, sleep is often interrupted in order th a t the mid-day meal
may be shared. The employment of women a t night is, without ques
tion, undesirable, yet now it is for a time inevitable; and the com
mittee have, therefore, directed their efforts to the consideration of
those safeguards which would reduce its risks to a minimum.
5. Evidence is highly conflicting as to the merits of continuous night
work as against those of a weekly, fortnightly, or monthly change of
shift. The committee have been impressed by the argument th at the
difficulty of sleeping by day and digesting food by night is largely
overcome by practice, arid th a t for this reason it is better to allow
women to remain on night shift continuously for some months; it is
also urged with considerable force th a t only those persons who can
make suitable domestic arrangements would engage themselves for
continuous night work. On the other hand, it is said th a t women
who are engaged for night work only are disinclined to remain more
than a month or two, and th at those who offer themselves for per
manent night work are less efficient than those who prefer the day
shift. The example of the night duty of hospital nurses has been
quoted to show th a t women can work for long periods a t night with
excellent results. The committee feel, however, th a t comparisons
can not be fairly drawn between industrial night work and the night
duty of hospital nurses; not only are nurses a selected and trained
body of women, b u t the disciplined conditions of their life are not
those either of the factory or the working-class home. The commit
tee are fully alive to the disadvantages of a constantly recurring
alternation between day and night shifts, b u t they consider th a t the
m atter is one which m ust be largely dealt with locally on social
considerations.
6 . I t has been stated by some managers and foremen th a t the last
few hours of a 12 -hour night shift yield little output. This greater
influence of fatigue a t night is partly due to the fact th a t the hours
between 3 a. m. and 6 a. m., and 4 a. m. and 7 a. m. coincide with the
period when, apart from industrial fatigue, vitality is low, and partly
to the fact th a t night workers lack the stimulus of a satisfactory meal.
There seems little appetite for the meal which occurs between 1 a. m.
and 3 a. m., and it is often of a most unsatisfactory character. In
one factory visited a t night the manager stated th at fatigue pre-

58 EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN AND JUVENILES IN GEEAT BEITAIN.
►
vented many of the women from making the effort to go from their
work to the mess room though in itself the room was attractive.
In another, visited also a t night, several women were lying, during
the meal hour, beside their piles of heaped-up work, while others,
later, were asleep beside their machines, facts which bear additional
witness to the relative failure of these hours. A few women of rare
physique withstand the strain sufficiently to m aintain a reasonable
output, b u t the flagging effort of the majority is not only unpro
ductive a t the moment, it has its influence also upon subsequent
output, which suffers as in a vicious circle. The committee are satis
fied, therefore, on the facts before them th a t the employment of
women a t night calls for particular care and supervision, and th a t
adequate pauses for rest and meals are indispensable.
7.
House accommodation and transit.—While the urgent necessity
for women’s work remains, and while the mother’s time and the time
of the elder girls is largely given to the making of munitions, the
home and the younger children m ust inevitably suffer. Where home
conditions are bad, as they frequently are, where a long working day
is aggravated by long hours of traveling, and where, in addition,
housing accommodation is inadequate, family life is defaced beyond
recognition. If the home is to be preserved from such processes of
destruction, greatly improved conditions of transit and housing m ust
be secured, as well as the best possible hours of work by night
and day. I t is far from uncommon now to find some 2 or 3 hours
spent on the journey each way, generally under the fatiguing condi
tions of an overcrowded train or tram , often with long waits and a
severe struggle before even standing room can be obtained. The
superintendent of a factory situated in a congested district stated
th a t the women constantly arrive with their clothes torn in the strug
gle for a tram, the satchel in which they bring their tea being some
times tom away. The workers were of an exceptionally refined type,
to whom such rough handling would be altogether unfamiliar, but
they bore these conditions with cheerful resolution. Tribute is con
stantly paid by foremen and managers to a similar spirit; they tell
of workers readily working overtime in the knowledge th a t their
action means the loss of the last tram and a 4 or 5 mile walk at mid
night. Often far from offering a rest from the fatigue of the day,
the home conditions offer b u t fresh aggravation. A day begun a t
4 or even 3.30 a. m., for work a t 6 a. m., followed by 14 hours in the
factory and another 2 or 2 | hours on the journey back, may end at
10 or 10.30 p. m., in a home or lodging where the prevailing degree
of overcrowding precludes all possibility of comfortable rest. Beds
are never empty and rooms are never aired, for in a badly crowded
district, the beds, like the occupants, are organized in day and night
shifts. In such conditions of confusion, pressure, and overcrowding
home can have no existence.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N .

8. There is great need for improvement in means of transit, and
this alone would help to relieve the unsatisfactory conditions of hous
ing; but, however great the increased facilities of service, the journey
between home and factory m ust still add, in many cases, a couple of
hours to the working-day. When considering hours in relation to
efficiency and fatigue this influence upon the total length of day
should be remembered; the factory day can not always stand by itself
as the only contribution toward fatigue. To quote a single in
stance—a recent inquiry made for the committee into the conditions
of employment of 75 women employed from 6 a. m. to 8 p. m., showed
th a t though most of the workers lived within a mile or a mile and a
half of the factory, none of them got more than about 7 J hours’ sleep
and m any of them less than 7 hours. The majority rose before 5
a. m. Of the 75 workers only 19 were over 2 1 years of age, and many
were between 16 and 18. Such facts illustrate the domestic side of
the problem which the committee have had to consider. They serve to
demonstrate both the need for improved facilities in housing and in
transit and the need for limitation of the periods of employment.
9. Hours of Labor.—Happily there should be in the m atter of hours
of labor for women little conflict between the interests of the home
and the interests of munitions, for the hours which conduce most to
a satisfactory home life and to health conduce most to output. Long
hours, particularly when they are worked during the night, are per
haps the chief factors in fatigue, and the committee are of opinion
th at in the interest of output and health alike they should be restricted
within proper limits; th a t there should be suitable pauses for rest
during the working period; and th at there should be adequate cessa
tion from work a t each week end in addition to periodic holidays. I t
may be stated broadly th at conditions which press hardly upon the
average man press, because of her different constitutional develop
ment, with greater severity upon the average woman; while similarly,
though conditions of mental fatigue are probably equally injurious to
boys and girls, conditions of muscular strain well borne by the ordi
nary boy may be highly detrimental to the girl of corresponding
vigor and physique. I t is therefore especially im portant th a t women
and young girls should be relieved from those conditions of over
strain to which they are now so widely exposed.
10 . The importance to women of a wise limitation of their hours
of work and an appropriate distribution of the pauses in those hours
,can hardly be overstated. The weight of scientific evidence is be
hind such limitation, and w ithout it health and efficiency can n o t be
maintained. The history of factory legislation, with its record of
the progressive limitation of the working hours of women and girls,
affords interesting proof of a growing conviction resulting from ex
perience in the m atter. The three systems of employment most

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N A N D JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT BRITA IN *

commonly adopted for women in munition works are as follows: One
shift of 13 to 14 hours (the overtime system), two shifts of 12 hours;
and three shifts of eight hours.
Of these the system of eight-hour shifts appears to yield the best
results in the long run. The strain of night work, indeed strain gen
erally, is sensibly diminished, greater vigor of work is maintained
throughout the shift, less time is lost by unpunctuality or illness, and
there is less liability to accident. More hours of actual work are
available out of the 24, and in the 8-hour shift each hour has a sus
tained value in contrast to the diminishing value of the later hours
in a 12 -hour shift. When the shift changes over weekly the night
shift, which is the most trying, recurs every third instead of every
other week, and, partly for this reason, a class of labor is attracted
which would otherwise be unrecruited. I t has been suggested th a t
in certain districts, and for certain industrial processes, it may be
possible, during the stress of the war, to employ married women on
half time, in two or more shifts daily of four or five hours each. The
committee recognize th a t such a system possesses its own inherent
difficulties, which may, however, not prove insurmountable. (A
separate memorandum deals with hours of labor.)
11.
Overtime.—The flagging output which appears to characterize
the last hours of a 12 -hour night shift seems similarly characteristic
of the last hours of overtime during the day. The disadvantages of
an overtime system are being increasingly recognized by employers.
The recognition has been forced upon some by the resultant fatigue,
illness, and bad timekeeping of the workers; to others it has come by
some accidental shortening of the day; which has shown th a t the loss
of hours has carried with it no diminution in output. One large muni
tion firm, finding bad results from overtime, changed to a system of
two 12 -hour shifts. The firm now believe th a t these hours also are too
long for women, and they are endeavoring to collect a sufficient number
of workers for three 8-hour shifts. Another munition firm which has
employed some women from 8.15 a. m. to 8 p. m. and some on 8-hour
shifts has decided th a t the longer hours exhaust the women without
any corresponding value in output. I t is now proposed to employ
these workers on two shifts of 7.30 p. m. to 6.30 a. m. (with \\ hours
for meals) and 8.15 a. m. to 6.30 p. m. (with 1^ hours for meals).
Again, several employers of different kinds who, accustomed to work
their women from 8 to 8 , were forced by lighting regulations and
other causes to stop at 6 , found the output undiminished. While
an army-clothing factory, well experienced in times of pressure, was
satisfied th a t no increased output would be secured by an extension
of its normal day of 8 to 6 , yielding 8J hours’ actual work. The
management, convinced, by old experience, th a t any extension of
these daily hours only exhausted the workers, secured their increased

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N .

output by extending the Saturday hours to the level of the other
days. In all these circumstances the committee recommend the
adoption of the three-shifts system, without overtime, wherever a
sufficient supply of labor is available. Where the supply is governed
by difficulties of housing and transit the committee are of opinion
th at every effort should be made to overcome these difficulties before
a less serviceable system be continued or adopted.
II. ARRANGEMENTS FOR REST AND MEALS.

1 2 . Pauses, well distributed and adapted in length to the needs of
women workers, are of the highest value in averting breakdown and
in giving an impetus to output. The Factory Acts permit in textile
factories a maximum of four and a half hours’ continuous work; in
nontextile the limit is five, b u t many managers believe th a t four
hours is the longest period during which a woman can m aintain con
tinuous work at full vigor. Within this period a pause of 10 minutes
has been found to give excellent results, and where the spell is con
tinued for five hours some such pause should certainly be made for a
cup of tea or cocoa. I t is particularly valuable in the morining spell
in those numerous cases where breakfast has been hurried or omitted
altogether, and also in filling factories where some of the high explo
sives seem to create a special feeling of hunger. Here there is the
added reason th at a well-fed person is the better able to resist the
influence of poisonous materials.
13. Facilities should be provided, especially during the night shift,
for rest in cases of fainting or other temporary illness. These are
now frequently found in well-equipped works; they usually consist
of a few comfortable chairs 1 and a camp bed for the more serious
cases, placed in the surgery or rest room now being provided by many
employers. A nurse is generally in attendance, whose assistance
may be claimed by men and women alike.
14. The week-end rest has been found to be a factor of such im
portance in maintaining health and vigor th a t it has been reinstated
by employers who had taken it for work a t the beginning of the war.
The committee are strongly of opinion th a t for women and girls a
portion of Saturday and the whole of Sunday should be available
for rest, and th a t the periodic factory holidays should not, on any
account, be omitted. (A separate memorandum dealing with Sunday
labor has already been issued.)
15. When women are employed on eight-hour shifts an interval of
half an hour for a meal may be regarded as normally sufficient, but
where longer hours are worked, it is im portant th a t they should be
1 Suitable seats of the “ deck chair” type can be provided economically in regard to both cost and space
by the following means: F ix tw o strong horizontal rails, one 12 inches from the ground and 30 inches in
front of the second, which should be 36 inches from the ground. Between the rails fasten a series of strips
©f strong material (canvas, cord, or wire netting), 54 inches long and 18 inches wide.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .

allowed an hour for dinner and for the principal meal during the
night. Indigestion can not easily be avoided if a substantial meal
is followed immediately by work w ithout an intervening period for
rest. Half an hour, especially in large factories, and in filling fac
tories where the actual consumption of food in the danger area is
prohibited, provides b u t scant time even for the eating of the meal.
Ten minutes are easily spent in reaching the mess room and returning
to work, certainly another five are occupied in the washing of hands
and the service of the dinner. And so b ut 15 remain for the meal.1
During the course of this inquiry women and girls hiave frequently
dwelt upon their need of a meal time which, for the principal meal,
shall allow opportunity for the comfortable consumption of their
food and the enjoyment of a short rest afterwards. A ttention should
also be given to the provision of good, wholesome, and tempting
hot meals, as well as to the conditions under which they may be
taken, which should be as restful as possible. The committee are
convinced of the advantages of well-managed industrial canteens for
women and girls, in convenient proxim ity to the workrooms, and
open both day and night at suitable hours. They have sometimes
found canteen or mess room conditions providing, in themselves, only
fresh occasion for fatigue. Ill-ventilated, dark, and overcrowded
rooms with narrow benches offer little chance of rest either during
the progress of the meal or the resting time which should naturally
follow. These conditions should be avoided, and the committee are
satisfied th a t the extra expenditure entailed by the opening of can
teens at every change of shift, by the provision of seats with backs,
and the provision of other similar amenities, is well rewarded by the
greater comfort and relaxation of the workers, which is unquestion
ably reflected in increased output. (^L separate memorandum deals
with industrial canteens.)
III. THE SANITARY CONDITION OF THE FACTORY.

16.
The effect upon the health and energy of women and girls
which results from clean, bright, and airy workrooms, well warmed
in winter, can hardly be exaggerated. The Factory Act secures a
minimum of these essential things, b ut the highest standard attained
in the best factories is not too high. Women desire these things in
their working hours and appreciate and respond to a good environ
ment. Cleanliness and good order contribute to increased output as
well as to the discipline and morale of the factory. The provision of
washing accommodation has become increasingly im portant. The
refreshing effect of washing and its influence on self-respect, especially
where workers are heated by their work, have been dwelt upon by
many witnesses who have given their evidence before the committee.
i Where workers are required to “ clock in ” and “ clock out,” the available tim e is stiUfurther diminished.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N .

In those processes in which poisonous substances are used, such, for
example, as the filling of shells and fuses with high explosives, suit
able washing conveniences are required by law .1 I t is a great con
venience when the lavatories and cloakrooms can be grouped with
the canteens. The lavatories should be of sufficient size to accommo
date all those workers from a room or departm ent who cease work
at the same time, and they should be provided with a good supply of
hot and cold water, soap, and nailbrushes. Clean towels should be
supplied before every meal, and the lavatories should be kept scrup
ulously clean and in good repair. If these facilities are easily acces
sible and are sufficient to enable the workers to wash without undue
encroachment upon their meal times, experience shows th at they are
much appreciated and fully used.
17. Cloakrooms should also be provided, and wherever possible
should be near the canteens and lavatories. I t is of importance th at
they should afford facilities for changing clothes and boots, and for
drying wet outdoor clothes in bad weather and working overalls used
in wet processes. Steam pipes placed under the hanging pegs have
been found a convenient and simple method. Lockers for each person
are provided in many factories and are much appreciated. Each
peg or locker should bear the worker’s name or work number. The
cloakrooms should be kept very clean .3
18. The provision of adequate and suitable sanitary accommoda
tion is a m atter of special importance. The necessity for proper
equipment and maintenance of cleanliness, privacy, and convenience
of access should be borne in mind. I t is the more necessary to call
attention to this m atter since in many instances women are now
employed in factories where, until quite recently, there have been
male workers only. The conveniences for women should be so
situated as to be readily accessible at all times, with due regard to
the privacy of the approach. They should be adequate in number,
suitably planned, and of sound sanitary construction .3 In the case
i The requirements, as far as structural points are concerned, are that there shall be either ( 1 ) a trough
w ith a smooth, impervious surface, fitted w ith a waste pipe w ithout plug, and of such length as to allow
at least 2 feet for e ve ry five persons employed and having a constant supply of warm water from taps or
jets above the trough at intervals of not more than 2 feet; or ( 2) at least one lavatory basin for every five
persons fitted w ith a waste pipe and plug or placed in a trough having a waste pipe and having either a
constant supply of hot and cold or warm water laid on, or (if a constant supply of heated water be not rea
sonably practicable) a constant supply of cold water laid on and a supply of hot water always at hand when
required for use by persons employed. (“ Memorandum upon structural requirement of the Factory and
Workshop A cts.” 1912. Home Office.)
3 Hanging pegs should not be less than IS inches apart and may, if desired, be separated b y small parti
tions. Lockers may be made of metal open work in perference to wood to allow of a free circulation of air.
3 The Home Office Sanitary Accommodation Order, 1903, requires, inter alia, that the closets shall be
(a) sufficient in number, nam ely, not less than one for every 25 females; (&) so arranged and maintained as
to be conveniently accessible at all tim es to all persons employed; (c) separated from workrooms b y the
open air or by an intervening ventilated space; ( d ) sufficiently ventilated; ( e ) sufficiently lighted; (/) under
cover; (<7) every convenience so partitioned off as to secure privacy and w ith a proper door and fastening
to each (the height of door not less than 6J feet); (ft) provided w ith separate approaches for men’s and
women’s conveniences, and w ith proper screening of the interior so as to be invisible from places where
persons of the other sex have to pass.

E M P L O Y M E N T OP W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

of some new factories of a temporary character, or in isolated situa
tions, the most approved system of drainage and construction can
not be carried out, and recourse m ust be had to pail closets. In such
cases the number m ust be greater in proportion to the women
employed unless proper arrangements for daily scavenging (out of
working hours) can be made. But, whatever the accommodation
provided, a high standard of cleanliness must be maintained, and it
is desirable th at an attendant shall be in charge of the conveniences
throughout the period of employment.
IY. THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF WOMEN WORKERS.

19.
I t is obvious th at many women now entering upon employment
in the factory system are unaccustomed to its conditions. They
come, as we have seen, from various spheres, domestic and other,
which have not involved them in the strain and stress of factory life.
In considering the physical capacity of such a woman successfully
to withstand the fatigue consequent upon continued work of this
kind it should be remembered th at her body is physiologically different
from, and less strongly built than, th a t of a man; th a t her muscular
system is less developed; and th at she may have lived a sedentary
or domestic life and is not in the habit of taking active and regular
exercise. The nature of her work should therefore be determined
with due regard to its effect on her immediate and future health.
Certain ailments and forms of physical disability to which women are
liable are readily caused, or at least accentuated, by inattention to
these matters. Among such conditions are (a) disturbances of diges
tion, due to unsuitable food, irregular and hurried meals or fatigue;
(b) anemia, with possibly associated disease of the heart and circula
tory system; (c) headache; (<d) nervous exhaustion; (e) muscular
pain and weakness, flat-foot, etc.; and (f) derangement of special
physiological functions. Though these conditions may not in all
cases be immediately incapacitating, they frequently have a tendency
to become chronic in nature and far-reaching in effect. They lead
directly to malnutrition and a reduction of body energy. If allowed
to persist they inevitably lay the foundations of ill-health and disease
in later years, and in some cases they may exert an injurious effect
on maternal functions. W ith a view to the detection of minor ail
ments and incipient or actual disease (e. g., tuberculosis or organic
heart disease), it is desirable when practicable to provide for the
examination by a medical woman of all applicants for employment.
I t would also be advantageous, if possible, to arrange for girls who
complain of illness to consult a medical woman familiar with the
conditions of their employment. The committee are satisfied th at
there is a significant amount of physical disability among women in
factories which calls both for prevention and treatm ent.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N .

20. In this connection the com m ittee consider it is desirable th a t
the lifting and carrying of heavy weights and all sudden, violent, or
physically unsuitable m ovem ents in the operating of machines
should, as far as practicable, be avoided. Often a simple appliance,
or the alteration of a m ovem ent, modifies an objectionable feature
when it does not altogether remove it. B y sim ilar thought and care
much m ay be done to m itigate the strain of prolonged standing,
which should be restricted to work from which it is inseparable.1
Prolonged standing has been found a highly provocative cause of
trouble to women and girls, whose health it has often perm anently
and seriously injured. W hen standing is absolutely unavoidable,
the hours and spells of em ploym ent should be proportionately short,
and seats should be available for use during the brief pauses which,
occasionally occur while waiting for m aterial or for the adjustm ent
of a tool. Where so m uch depends upon the character of a move
m ent, upon the angle and position a t which a weight is lifted or
carried, it is not advisable to lay down a standard of prohibited
weights. B ut serious accidents and injuries to health have been
caused in factories in the past by the excessive carrying of weights,
and it is trusted th a t employers will give this m atter their m ost
earnest consideration.2
V. MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION.

21. The com m ittee have received abundant evidence of the neces
sity of wise and suitable arrangem ents tor the m anagem ent and
supervision of women’s labor. Their personal visits to large and small
works where women and girls are employed, as well as the evidence
placed before them , have led them to the opinion th a t there is hardly
any condition of greater im portance th an this, in respect both of
smooth working and of m axim um output. The m odem develop
m ent of commercial undertakings, not to speak of the vast size of
m any factories, precludes the personal oversight and interest of the
responsible employer, and makes it all the m ore necessary to appoint
efficient substitutes. This is particularly im portant in regard to
the occupation of women unaccustom ed to the organized factory life,
business m ethods, and discipline of large engineering shops. Briefly,
the comm ittee recom mend th a t in all cases where women are employed
consideration should be given by the m anagem ent to the appointm ent
of forewomen, nurses, and welfare supervisors, whose position and
statu s should be properly assured and whose duties should be pre
1 See medical evidence on the grave effects of long hours of standing on the health of women given before
the Select Committee on Shops, 1895 (p. 219, answers 5401 to 5406), and the effects of industrial strain on the
working woman (Trans. Fifteenth International Congress on Hygiene and Demography, Washington
1912, vol. iii, pt. 2, p. 933).
2Report of Departmental Committee on Accidents, 1911, (Cd. 5535),

9 4 1 4 8 ° — B u ll. 223— 17------- 5

EM PLOY M ENT

OF W O M E N

AN D J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT’ B R IT A IN .

scribed. In this way provision is m ade for each woman worker to
have ready access to an officer of her own sex in case of difficulties
occurring in regard to her work, her health, or the conditions of her
employment.
22. The com m ittee have w atched, in several factories, a steady
stream of workers bringing to the nurse troubles of m any kinds;
sometimes a girl who has ju st fainted, or a girl whose feet are badly
swollen by long standing; or hands have been injured, or eyes struck
by a splinter of steel; or there is a burn from some boiling splashing
liquid or from some explosion in the danger area. B oth employers
and workers w arm ly appreciate the value of the services of a nurse,
and in the opinion of the com m ittee a trained nurse should always be
available whenever the liability to accident is considerable or the
num bers employed are large. I t is desirable th a t a com plete register
of accidents and cases of sickness should be kept. (The subject of
sickness and injury will be dealt with in a separate memorandum.)
23. A nother appointm ent urgently called for in m unition works is
th a t of a welfare supervisor. Those employers who have already
secured the help of a skilled woman in this capacity give the highest
testim ony to her usefulness, n ot only to the workers b u t to them
selves. The com m ittee have dealt w ith this subject in an earlier
mem orandum , b u t they desire in the present statem ent to refer to
the duties of the welfare supervisor in respect of the peculiar needs of
prospective m others, and m others w ith infants or young children.
24. Clearly everything it is possible to do should be done to reconcile
the m other’s conflict of interests between her duties to her hom e and
children and her work on m unitions. W herever other labor is
available, the em ploym ent of m others w ith infants is to be deprecated,
as is also th a t of the m other of any young family, for it m ust be
remembered th a t the m other’s work is certainly n o t ended w ith her
factory day. H er children m ake m any claims upon her tim e and
energy, more especially, of course, a t the period of the m idday meal
and a t bedtim e. In some factories the m ajority of the women
employed at night are m arried, and m any of them express a preference
for their work, because it leaves them free for dom estic work during
the day. In thus undertaking double duties their zeal m ay easily
outrun their strength, and factory and home equally m ay suffer.
W here m arried women are indispensable, every effort should be m ade
to give them the preferential treatm en t common, in norm al times,
in some factory districts. I t is th e experience of m anagers th a t
concessions such as half an hour’s grace o j x leaving and arriving, or
occasional “ tim e off,” is n o t injurious to output, as the lost tim e is
m ade good b y increased activity, and under the system of eight-hour
shifts it m ight be arranged w ithout industrial dislocation of any kind
th a t m arried women are employed only in th a t shift which would

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N .

cause least dislocation in their home. For organization of this kind,
as well as for the care of young girls, individually during the first
few m onths of their em ploym ent, the welfare supervisor would be
invaluable; she would secure short periods of rest, or such interchange
of occupation as would lessen either the spell of m uscular fatigue or
the continued exposure to an injurious process. H er supervision
would have particular value during night shifts when ordinary
supervision tends to become relaxed. (A separate memorandum
deals with welfare supervision.)
VI. CONCLUSION.

25.
Finally, the com m ittee desire to sta te th at, in their opinion, if
the present long hours, the lack of heipful and sym pathetic oversight,
the inability to obtain good, wholesome food, and the great diffi
culties of traveling are allowed to continue, it will be im practicable
to secure or m aintain for an extended period the high m aximum
ou tp u t of which women are undoubtedly capable. The com m ittee
recognize th a t emergency conditions m ust obtain in m any cases7 b u t
they are satisfied th a t every effort should be m ade to organize
women’s labor effectively and prom ptly. I t m ay be th a t in the
entanglem ent of problems new and old the coming of the new and
their im perative claim for solution will help the solving of the old.
There is impulse now as there was impulse long ago when the cause
of the children in the cotton mills of Lancashire won the early factory
acts for the generations th a t followed. There is need now as there
was need then. There is need for the work of women in industry;
there is need also for safeguarding th a t service. H appily there is
manifest a public spirit and a devotion able to overcome difficulties
and solve problems. There is also a fuller recognition of the claims
of women and of their children and of their vital im portance to the
State, which is rew ard for the sacrifice and courage of those women
now working steadfastly in the ranks of labor.
Signed on behalf of the committee.
G e o r g e N e w m a n , M. D.,
Chairman,
E. H. P e l h a m , Secretary.
Ja n u a ry ,

1916.

MIGRATION OF WOMEN’S LABOR THROUGH THE EMPLOY
MENT EXCHANGES IN GREAT BRITAIN.1
During 1914 the num ber of women who obtained em ploym ent in
other districts through the em ploym ent exchanges was 32,988; in
1915 the num ber increased to 53,096, and 1916 to no less than 160,003.
In some cases these figures merely indicate a transference of labor
from, e. g., one village to the next, or from one district of London to
another; in others they indicate a complete change of residence and
of occupation. (The num ber of women a t present being transferred
away from home through the em ploym ent exchanges to work a t a
distance am ounts to an average of between 4,000 and 5,000 a m onth.)
In general the figures illustrate the increasing m obility of women’s
labor due to w ar conditions.
Two m ain difficulties have been experienced by the exchanges in
the past in attem pting to move even women w ithout domestic ties
from areas where there was unem ploym ent or a lack of staple indus
tries employing women’s labor to centers where their services were in
demand. In m any cases the wages offered were too low to support a
woman living in a strange town, or to a ttra c t a woman from a district
where the men of her household norm ally earned high wages. In
others, even where the wages offered were com paratively high, there
was a lack of a compelling m otive strong enough to counteract the
working wom an’s n atu ral distrust of new conditions of employment
amongst strange surroundings.
These difficulties have been in great p a rt lessened by the increasing
com petition during the last two years for women to carry out Govern
m ent contract work, or to act as substitutes for men, which has
resulted in a growing dem and for their services on favorable term s.
A t the same time, economic pressure in the early days of the war
and the patriotic desire of women of all classes to undertake work
directly in connection w ith the m anufacture of m unitions and other
w ar supplies have been powerful incentives to women to volunteer for
work away from home if necessary.
The migration of women has also been very considerably facilitated
by the arrangements made for their housing, welfare, and recreation
in the larger demand centers, through the activities of the Ministry
of Munitions and of the local advisory committees on women’s war
employment appointed under the Labor Exchanges Act (details of
whose work in this connection were described in an article in the
November, 1916, issue of this journal).
1 Great Britain. Board of Trade Labor Gazette. March, 1917, pp. 92, 93.

M IG R A T IO N OF W O M E N 'S LABOR I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

Some incidents of this war-tim e m igration of women’s labor are
described below.
In the early days of the war women thrown out of employment in
the pottery districts were moved to silk mills in neighboring towns,
cotton operatives and carpet weavers were transferred to the York
shire woolen mills, and tailoresses from Cambridge, Cardiff, Belfast,
and elsewhere were imported into Leeds for work in the local clothing
factories.
In the West Midlands district alone, where before the war the
migration of industrial women was practically unknown, over 4,000
women were during 1915 placed by the employment exchanges in
employment away from their own districts, the greater number on
munitions work, and others as artificial silk workers, rubber workers,
chocolate makers, farm hands, and as substitutes for men in various
kinds of work.
In the great majority of cases the occupations were entirely new to
the workers, who were drawn from such diverse occupations as carpet
weaving, chair making, domestic service, dressmaking, fustian cut
ting, lock making, millinery, shopwork, tailoring, web weaving, and
pottery decorating.
Similarly much useful work was accomplished during this early
period by the exchanges in transferring inland to other employment
women from seasonal resorts on the east coast, and fisher girls and
other women engaged on subsidiary industries in fishing towns.
For example, women from Scarborough and Grimsby were moved
to Keighley and the Colne Valley, and between March, 1915, and the
end of the year no less than 700 women from the northeast coast
towns and villages in Scotland were found employment in the Dundee
jute mills and other industries of the town.
During the last year women have been transferred through the
exchanges in steadily increasing numbers to act as substitutes for
men in clerical and commercial occupations or in staple industries
and to meet the growing demand for their services in agricultural
districts and in different large munitions centers.
Some 300 women, for example, have been transferred from the
Provinces for work in Government offices in London, in addition to
the 11,000 or so who have been drawn into this work from London
and its suburbs. Over 200 women have been imported from other
northern districts into Huddersfield to act as pieceners, and a suc
cessful experiment was made at Barwell in drawing in some dozens
of women from other East Midlands towns and villages to undertake
work on various processes in the boot trade hitherto entirely per
formed by men.
During the summer of 1916, partly as the result of a specially organ
ized scheme for vacational land workers, 1,225 women were moved

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

to rural areas for fruit picking, harvesting, and other seasonal work,
in addition to the very large num bers who were found perm anent
em ploym ent on the land.
The effort m ade by the M inister of L abor and the M inistry of Muni
tions in recruiting for m unitions work to avoid as far as possible dis
turbing th e labor employed on other im p ortant work in m unitions
centers or. in other areas has in m any cases necessitated^he transfer
ence of women over considerable distances. Special propagandist
campaigns have been undertaken appealing to unoccupied women in
nonindustrial areas rem ote from th e center where their* labor is
required. F o r example, efforts have been m ade to enroll the services
of women in eastern and southern coast towns, in London suburbs,
and in Tyneside towns, where there is norm ally little outlet for
women’s industrial activity.
D uring the last m onth 5,118 women from some 200 different ex
change areas were brought in to eight large m unitions centers alone.
To one factory, for example, in the south of Scotland, 1,641 women
were brought during this period from 63 different districts, including
228 from two Tyneside towns alone, 40 from Berwick, 55 from
Inverness, and 9 from one small Fifeshire village. To another in
the W est M idlands 772 women were im ported from centers as far
a p art as Aberdeen and Penzance.
In this responsible work of transferring large num bers of women
aw ay from home th e exchanges have had valuable assistance from
local authorities, from women’s county com m ittees for agriculture,
from the central and local advisory com m ittees on women’s w ar
employm ent, and from other voluntary workers cooperating w ith
them unofficially in m eeting emergency problems.
As a general result the em ploym ent exchange authorities are able
to guarantee th a t no wom an is sent forw ard fo r em ploym ent away
from hom e w ithout suitable arrangem ents having been m ade as to
reception and tra n sit a t the other end, lodging or hostel accommo
dation, and general welfare. Women subm itted for work in national
factories have to pass a medical test before they leave home, and in
all cases before proceeding on their journey women are fully informed
as to th e conditions of em ploym ent, the details of the journey, the
address of the exchange a t the other end, and the n atu re and approxi
m ate cost of th e lodging accom modation available.
The exchanges also have general powers under the Labor Exchanges
A ct to advance m oney for traveling expenses by m eans of railway
w arrants.

EMPLOYMENT AND REMUNERATION OF WOMEN IN GREAT
BRITAIN—MUNITION ORDERS.
No. 9.
T

M u n it io n s

(r e m u n e r a t io n

w om en

and

g ir l s

NOT RECOGNIZED AS M E N ’S WORK) CONSOLIDATED O R D E R ,
d a te d

Janu ary

6, 1917,

m ade by th e

w ork

No. 2,

M in is te r o f M u n itio n s

IN PURSUAN CE OF SECTION 6 OF THE M U N IT IO N S OF W A R (A M E N D
M ENT) A c t ,

1916 (5

and

G eo.

5, c. 99).

W hereas section 6 of the M unitions of W ar (Amendment) Act, 1916,
provides as follows:
6. (1) W here female workers are employed on or in connection w ith
m unitions work in any establishm ent of a class to which the pro
visions of section 7 of the principal act as am ended by this act are
for the tim e being applied by an order m ade thereunder, the M inister
of M unitions shall have power by order to give directions as to the
rate of wages, or (subject, so far as the m atte r is one which is dealt
w ith by the F actory and W orkshops Acts, 1901 to 1911, to the con
currence of the secretary of state) as to hours of labor, or conditions
of em ploym ent of the female workers so employed.
(2) A ny directions given by the M inister of M unitions under this
section shall be binding on the owner of the establishm ent and any
contractor or subcontractor employing labor therein and the female
workers to whom th e directions relate, and any contravention thereof
or noncompliance therew ith shall be punishable, in like m anner as
if the order in which the direction is contained was an aw ard m ade in
settlem ent of a difference under P a rt I of the principal act.
(3) No directions given under this section shall be deemed to relieve
the occupier of any factory or workshop from the obligation to comply
w ith the provisions of the F acto ry and W orkshops Acts, 1901 to 1911,
or of any orders or regulations m ade thereunder, or to affect the
liability of any person to be proceeded against for an offense under
the Em ploym ent of Children Act, 1903, so, however, th a t no person
be twice punished for the sam e offense.
A nd whereas the establishm ents nam ed in the second schedule
hereto are establishm ents of a class to which the provisions of section
7 of the principal act, as am ended by the M unitions of W ar (Amend
m ent) Act, 1916, are for the tim e being applied by an order m ade
thereunder. Now, therefore, in pursuance of the above-m entioned
powers, the M inister of M unitions hereby orders and directs th a t the

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND JU V E N IL E S IN GEEAT B E IT A IN .

directions contained in the first schedule hereto regarding the wages
of female workers employed on m unitions work shall take effect and
be binding upon the owners of the establishm ents nam ed in the second
schedule hereto and any contractor or subcontractor employing labor
in any such establishm ent, and th e female workers to whom the
directions relate, as from Ja n u ary 22, 1917.
This order m ay be cited as “ The M unitions (Rem uneration of
W omen and Girls on W ork n o t Recognized as Men’s W ork) Consoli
dated Order, No. 2.”
This order amends and extends the directions given in the orders
of Ju ly 6 and Septem ber 13, 1916 (S ta tu to ry Rules and Orders,
1916, Nos. 447 and 618), relating to the rem uneration of women and
girls on m unitions work of a class no t recognized as m en’s work and
in The M unitions (Rem uneration of W omen and Girls on W ork not
not Recognized as Men’s W ork) Consolidated Order, No. 1 (S tatutory
Rules and Orders, 1916, No. 759).
D ated this 6th day of January, 1917.
Signed on behalf of the M inister of M unitions.
U. W o l f f ,
Deputy Assistant General Secretary.
M in is t r y

M u n it io n s

6, Whitehall Gardens, London, S. W’.
First schedule.
D

ir e c t io n s

r e l a t in g

the

r e m u n e r a t io n

o f w o m e n a n d g ir l s

ON M UNITIONS WORK OF A CLASS WHICH PRIOR TO THE WAR WAS
NOT RECOGNIZED AS M EN ’S WORK IN DISTRICTS W HERE SUCH WORK
WAS CUSTOMARILY CARRIED ON.

1.
W here women or girls are engaged on m unitions work of a class
which prior to the w ar was not recognized as m en’s work in districts
where such work was custom arily carried on, the tim e rates for piece
workers and prem ium bonus workers shall be as follows:
Per hour.

Workers
Workers
Workers
Workers
Workers

18 years and over...........................................................
17 years and under 18..................................................
16 years and under 17..................................................
15 years and under 16...................................................
under 15 years................................................................

4d. [8.1 cts.]
3^d. [7.1 cts.]
3d. [6.1 cts.]
2Jd. [5.1 cts.]
2d. [4.1 cts.]

2.
The rates for such women and girls when custom arily on tim e
shall be as follows:
Per hour.

Workers
Workers
Workers
Workers
Workers

18 years and over..........................................................
17 years and under 18..................................................
16 years and under 17..................................................
15 years and under 16..................................................
under 15 years................................................................

4£d. [9.1 cts.]
4d. [8.1 cts.]
3Jd. [7.1 cts.]
3d. [6.1 cts.]
2-Jd. [5.1 cts.]

E M P L O Y M E N T AND R E M U N E R A T IO N OF W O M E N .

3. W omen and girls in danger zones shall be paid ^d. (1 cent) per
hour in addition to the above rates. Allowances for other processes
which are dangerous or injurious to health will be decided on the
m erits of such cases.
4. In an establishm ent in which a custom prevailed prior to the w ar
of differentiating betw een the rates of wages paid to women and girls
employed in warehouses and those otherwise employed, an application
m ay be m ade to the M inister of M unitions for special directions as to
the rates of wages to be paid to women and girls employed in w are
houses.
5. W omen and girls m ay be rated a t ^d. (1 cent) per hour less
th an their appropriate tim e rate under these directions for proba
tionary periods not exceeding—
In the case of workers of 18 years and over.................................. 1 month.
In the case of workers of 16 years and under 18.......................... 2 months.
In the case of workers under 16 years............................................ 3 months.

Such probationar}^ periods shall be reckoned from the date when
women or girls are first employed, and no women or girl shall be called
upon to serve more th an one probationary period.
6. The appropriate time rate shall, in the case of any woman or
girl on piecework, be guaranteed irrespective of her piecework earn
ings. D ebit balances shall not be carried forward from one week to
another.
7. On premium bonus systems every wom an’s and girl’s appropriate
time rate shall in all cases be paid.
8. Women or girls shall not be p u t on piecework or prem ium bonus
system s until sufficiently qualified. The period of qualification
should not generally exceed four weeks.
9. Additional paym ent in respect to overtime, night-shift, Sunday,
or holiday work shall be m ade to women and girls employed on
m unitions work of a class which, prior to the w ar, was not recognized
as m en’s work in districts where such work was custom arily carried
on. Such additional paym ents shall be m ade in accordance w ith
the custom of the establishm ent for the class of workpeople concerned,
in cases where such a custom exists. W here no custom providing for
such additional paym ent exists in the establishm ent, such additional
paym ents shall be made at the rates and on the conditions prevailing
in similar establishm ents or trades in the district. W here there are
no similar establishm ents or trades in the district, the rates and con
ditions prevailing in the nearest district in which the general industrial
conditions are similar shall be adopted. In the absence of any custom
prevailing in the establishm ent, or in the district, or elsewhere, such
additional paym ents shall be made at such rates and on such condi
tions as the Minister of Munitions m ay direct.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

10. Piecework prices and prem ium bonus basis tim es shall be such
as to enable a wom an or girl of ordinary ability to earn a t least 33J
per cent over her tim e rate, except in the case of an establishm ent
where an application th a t this provision should be dispensed w ith
either generally or as regards any particular class of workpeople
has been approved by the M inister of M unitions.
11. The above rates and conditions shall be recognized as war rates
and conditions, and as due to and depending on the exceptional cir
cumstances resulting from the present war.
12. The position of any person or persons whose existing rates of
remuneration exceed the rates herein prescribed, shall not be preju
diced by this order either by a reduction in existing rates or by replace
ment by another person or other persons at lower rates, nor shall
employers be prevented from recognizing special ability or respon
sibility.

13. For the purpose of this schedule the term “ m e n ” m eans males
of 18 years of age and over.
14. A ny question which arises as to the in terpretation of these pro
visions shall be determ ined by the M inister of M unitions.
Second schedule.
L

is t

s t a b l is h m e n t s .

No. 10.
T

M u n it io n s (r e m u n e r a t io n

RECOGNIZED

d a te d J a n u a ry

M E N ’S

6, 1917,

ct,

1 9 1 6 (5

and

CONSOLIDATED

ORDER,

No. 3,

m a d e b y t h e M in is t e r o f M u n itio n s in

PURSUAN CE OF SECTION 6
M ENT) A

o f w o m e n a n d g ir l s o n w o r k n o t

WORK)

OF TH E M U N IT IO N S OF W A R (A M E N D

Geo.

5, c . 9 9 ).

[The body-of this order is identical w ith that of No. 9, and is therefore not reprinted
here. The differences in th e orders are indicated b y the schedules, w hich are repro
duced in full.]

This order m ay be cited as “ The M unitions (R em uneration of
W omen and Girls on W ork n o t Recognized as Men’s W ork) Consoli
dated Order, No. 3.”
This order amends and extends the directions given in the orders of
Ju ly 6 and Septem ber 13, 1916 (S tatu to ry Rules and Orders, 1916,
Nos. 447 and 618), relating to the rem uneration of women and girls on
m unitions w ork of a class n o t recognized as m en’s w ork and in The
M unitions (Rem uneration of W omen and Girls on W ork n ot Recognized
as Men’s W ork) Consolidated Order, No. 1 (S tatu to ry Rules and
Orders, 1916, No. 759).
D ated this 6th day of January, 1917.

E M P L O Y M E N T AND R E M U N E R A T IO N OF W O M E N .

First schedule.
D

ir e c t io n s r e l a t in g

to t h e

r e m u n e r a t io n o f w o m e n

and

g ir l s

ON M UNITIONS WORK OF A CLASS WHICH PRIOR TO THE WAR WAS
NOT RECOGNIZED AS M E N ’S WORK IN DISTRICTS W H ERE SUCH WORK
WAS CUSTOMARILY CARRIED ON.

1.
W here women or girls are engaged on m unitions work of a class
which prior to the w ar was n o t recognized as m en’s work in districts
w here such work was custom arily carried on, the tim e rates for piece
workers and prem ium bonus workers shall be as follows:
Per hour.

Workers
Workers
Workers
Workers
Workers

18 years and over...........................................................
17 years and under 18...................................................
16 years and under 17...................................................
15 years and under 16...................................................
under 15 years................................................................

3 |d .
3Jd.
2§d.
2Jd.
lf d .

[7.6 cts.]
[6.6 cts.]
[5.6 cts.]
[4.6 cts.]
[3.6 cts.]

2.
The rates for such women and girls when custom arily on time
shall be as follows:
Per hour.

Workers
Workers
Workers
Workers
Workers

18 years and over..........................................................
17 years and under 18...................................................
16 years and under 17...................................................
15 years and under 16...................................................
under 15 years................................................................

4Jd. [8.6cts.]
3|d . [7.6 cts.]
3Jd. [6.6 cts.]
2 |d . [5.6 cts.]
2Jd. [4.6 cts.]

3. Women and girls in danger zones shall be paid |d . (1 cent)
per hour in addition to the above rates. Allowances for other proc
esses which are dangerous or injurious to health will be decided on
the m erits of such cases.
4. In an establishm ent in which a custom prevailed prior to the
war of differentiating between the rates of wages paid to women and
girls employed in warehouses and those otherwise employed, an
application m ay be m ade to the M inister of Munitions for special
directions as to the rates of wages to be paid to women and girls em
ployed in warehouses.
5. Women and girls m ay b e rated a t id . (1 cent) per hour less th an
their appropriate time rate under these directions for probationary
periods n o t exceeding—
In the case of workers of 18 years and over.......................... - . . . 1 month.
In the case of workers of 16 years and under 18.......................... .2 months.
In the case of workers under 16 years............................................ .3 months.

Such probationary periods shall be reckoned from the date when
women or girls are first employed, and no women or girl shall be called
upon to serve m ore than one probationary period.
6.
The appropriate tim e rate shall, in the case of any woman or
girl on piecework, be guaranteed irrespective of her piecework earn-

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D J U V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .

ings. D ebit balances shall n o t be carried forw ard from one week to
another.
7. On prem ium bonus system s every w om an’s and girl’s appropriate
tim e rate shall in all cases be paid.
8. Women or girls shall n o t be p u t on piecework or prem ium bonus
system s until sufficiently qualified. The period of qualification should
n o t generally exceed four weeks.
. 9. A dditional paym ent in respect of overtim e, night-shift, Sunday,
or holiday work shall be m ade to women and girls employed on
m unitions work of a class which, prior to the w ar, was n o t recognized
as m en’s work in districts where such work was custom arily carried
on. Such additional paym ents shall be m ade in accordance w ith the
custom of theestab lish m en t for the class of workpeople concerned, in
cases where such a custom exists. W here no custom providing for
such additional paym ent exists in the establishm ent, such additional
paym ents shall be m ade a t the rates and on the conditions prevailing
in similar establishm ents or trades in the district. W here there are
no similar establishm ents or trades in the district, the rates and con
ditions prevailing in the nearest district in which the general indus
trial conditions are sim ilar shall be adopted. In the absence of any
custom prevailing in the establishm ent, or in the district, or elsewhere,
such additional paym ents shall be m ade a t such rates and on such
conditions as the M inister of M unitions m ay direct.
10. Piecework prices and prem ium bonus basis times shall be such
as to enable a woman or girl of ordinary ability to earn a t least 33J
per cent over her tim e rate, except in the case of an establishm ent
where an application th a t this provision should be dispensed w ith
either generally or as regards any particular class of workpeople has
been approved by the M inister of M unitions.
11. The above rates and conditions shall be recognized as w ar rates
and conditions, and as due to and depending on the exceptional cir
cum stances resulting from the present war.
12. The position of any person or persons whose existing rates of
rem uneration exceed the rates herein prescribed, shall n o t be preju
diced by this order either by a reduction in existing rates or by replace
m en t by another person or other persons a t lower rates, nor shall
employers be prevented from recognizing special ability or respon
sibility.
13. F or the purpose of this schedule the term “ m e n ” m eans males,
of 18 years and over.
14. A ny question which arises as to the interpretation of these pro
visions shall be determ ined by the M inister of M unitions.

E M P L O Y M E N T 1 AND R E M U N E R A T IO N OF W O M E N .

Second schedule.
L

is t

s t a b l is h m e n t s .

N o . 48.
M u n it io n s (e m p lo y m e n t a n d r e m u n e r a t io n o f g i r l s o n
m e n ' s w o r k ) O r d e r , N o. 4, d a t e d J a n u a r y 2 2 , 1 9 1 7 , m a d e b y
t h e M in is t e r o f M u n it io n s in p u r s u a n c e o f s e c t io n 6 o f t h e
M u n i t i o n s o f W a r ( A m e n d m e n t ) A c t , 1 9 1 6 (5 a n d 6 G e o . 5,

The

c . 9 9 ).

W hereas section 6 of the M unitions of W ar (Amendment) Act, 1 9 1 6 ,
provides as follows:
6. (1) W here female workers are employed on or in connection
w ith m unitions work in any establishm ent of a class to which the
provisions of section 7 of the principal a c t as am ended by this a ct
are for the tim e being applied by an order m ade thereunder, the
M inister of M unitions shall have power by order to give directions as
to the rate of wages, or (subject, so far as the m atte r is one which is
dealt w ith by the F actory and W orkshops Acts, 1901 to 1911, to the
concurrence of the secretary of state) as to hours of labor, or condi
tions of em ploym ent of the female workers so employed.
(2) A ny directions given by the M inister of M unitions under this
section shall be binding on the owner of the establishm ent and any
contractor or subcontractor employing labor therein and the female
workers to whom the directions relate, and any contravention thereof
or noncom pliance therew ith shall be punishable, in like m anner as
if the order in which the direction is contained was an aw ard m ade in
settlem ent of a difference under P a rt I of the principal act.
(3) No direction given under this section shall be deemed to relieve
the occupier of any factory or workshop from the obligation to
comply w ith the provisions of the F actory and W orkshops Acts, 1901
to 1911, or of any orders or regulations m ade thereunder, or to affect
the liability of any person to be proceeded against for an offense under
the E m ploym ent of Children Act, 1903, so, however, th a t no person
be twice punished for the same offense.
And whereas the establishm ents nam ed in the second schedule
hereto are establishm ents of a class to which the provisions of section
7 of the principal act, as am ended by the M unitions of W ar (Amend
m ent) Act, 1916, are for the tim e being applied by an order m ade
thereunder. Now, therefore, in pursuance of the above-m entioned
powers, the M inister of M unitions hereby orders and directs th a t the
directions contained in the first schedule hereto regarding the wages of
female workers employed on m unitions work shall take effect and

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N A N D J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

be binding upon the owners of the establishm ents nam ed in the
second schedule hereto and any contractor or subcontractor employ
ing labor in an y such establishm ent and the female workers to whom
the directions relate as from F ebruary 5, 1917.
This order m ay be cited as “ The M unitions (Em ploym ent and
R em uneration of Girls on M en’s W ork) Order, No. 4.”
D ated this 22d day of January, 1917.
Signed on behalf of the M inister of M unitions.
U. W o l f f ,
Deputy Assistant General Secretary.
M in is t r y

M u n it io n s

6, Whitehall Gardens, London, S. W.
First schedule.
D

ir e c t io n s r e l a t in g t o

GIRLS U N D E R

WHICH PRIOR TO
LABOR OF

the

em ploym ent a n d

r e m u n e r a t io n

YEARS OF AGE ON M UNITIONS WORK OF A CLASS
THE

WAR

WAS

CUSTOMARILY

DONE

MALE

YEARS OF AGE AND OVER IN DISTRICTS W HERE SUCH

WORK WAS CARRIED ON.
N ote.—These directions are on the basis of the setting up of machines being otherwise provided
for. They are strictly confined to the war period and are subject to the observance of the provisions of
Schedule II of the M unitions of War Act.

(1) W here girls under 18 years of age are employed on work cus
tom arily done by m ale labor of 18 years of age and over the following
rates shall be p a id :
(a) In the case of tim e-workers of—
17 and under 18 years, 18 shillings ($4.38) per week reckoned on the
usual working hours of the district in question for m en in engineering
establishm ents.
16 and under 17 years, 16 shillings ($3.89) per week reckoned on the
usual working hours of the district in question for men in engineering
establishm ents.
U nder 16 years, 14 shillings ($3.41) per week reckoned on the usual
w orking hours of the district in question for men in engineering estab
lishm ents.
(b) In the case of pieceworkers of—
17 and under 18 years, the piecework price paid or allowed for the
w ork when custom arily done by m en, less 10 per cent.
16 a n d u n d e r 17 years, th e piecework price paid or allowed for the
work when custom arily done b y m en, less 20 per cent.
U nder 16 years, the piecework price paid or allowed for the work
when custom arily done b y m en, less 30 per cent.
(2) W here girls are prevented from w orking owing to breakdown,
air raid, or other cause beyond their control, they shall be paid for th e
tim e so lost a t the ra te of three-fourths of their above tim e rates,
unless they are sen t home.

E M P L O Y M E N T AND R E M U N E R A T IO N OF W O M E N .

(3) Girls shall not be p u t on piecework or premium bonus systems
until sufficiently qualified. The period of qualification on shell work
shall not, in general case, exceed three to four weeks.
(4) On piecework, each girPs time rate shall be guaranteed irrespec
tive of her piecework earnings. Debit balances shall not be carried
forward beyond the usual weekly period of settlement.
(5) On premium bonus systems each girl's time rate shall in all
cases be paid.
(6) Overtime and night-shift and Sunday and holiday allowances
shall be paid to girls employed on piecework or premium bonus sys
tems on the same conditions as now prevail in the case of men in
engineering establishments in the district in question for time-work.
(7) Piecework prices and premium bonus time allowances, after
they have been established, shall not be altered unless the means or
method of manufacture are changed.
(8) All wages and balances shall be paid to girls through the office.
(9) The foregoing rates and conditions shall not operate to preju
dice the position of any person who has better terms and conditions,
nor prevent employers from recognizing special ability or responsi
bility.
(10) Any question which arises as to the interpretation of these
directions shall be determined by the Minister of Munitions.
Second schedule.
L

is t o f

s t a b l is h m e n t s .

No.
T h e M u n it io n s
m e n ’s w o r k )
t h e M in is te r
M u n it io n s o f
c . 9 9 ).

49.

(e m p lo y m e n t a n d r e m u n e r a t io n o f w o m e n o n
O r d e r N o . 6 , d a t e d J a n u a r y 24, 1 9 1 7 , m a d e b y
o f M u n it io n s , in p u r s u a n c e o f s e c t io n 6 o f t h e
W a r ( A m e n d m e n t ) A c t , 1 9 1 6 (5 a n d 6 G e o . 5 ,

N o t e —This order reenacts the provisions of the Munitions (E m ploym ent and Remuneration of Women
on Men’s Work) Order No. 5 (Statutory Rules and Orders, 1916, No. 888), w ith an amendment to para
graph 1 ( b) thereof.

[The body of this order is identical w ith that of No. 48, and is therefore not re
printed here. The differences in th e orders are indicated b y the schedules, which
are reproduced in full.]

This order may be cited as “ The Munitions (Employment and
Remuneration of Women on Men’s Work) Order, No. 6.”
This order amends and reenacts the directions commonly known
as L2 given in the Munitions (Employment and Remuneration of
Women on Men’s Work) Orders Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 .
Dated this 24th day of January, 1 9 1 7 .

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN ,

First schedule.
D

ir e c t io n s

r e l a t in g

OF WOMEN OF

the

em ploym ent

and

r e m u n e r a t io n

YEARS OF AGE OR OVER ON M UNITIONS WORK

OF A CLASS WHICH PRIOR TO THE WAR WAS CUSTOMARILY DONE BY
MEN OF

YEARS OF AGE

OR OVER IN DISTRICTS W HERE

SUCH

WORK WAS CUSTOMARILY CARRIED ON.
N ote.—(1) These directions are on the basis of the setting up of the machines being otherwise provided
for.
(2) These directions are confined to the war period and are subject to the observance of the provisions of
Schedule II of the Munitions of War A ct, 1915.
(3) Proposals under paragraph 1 (a) (ii) of these directions for advances to classes of women upon the
tim e rates prescribed by paragraph 1 (a) (i) are proposals for changes in rates of wages within section 4 (2)
of the Munitions of War A ct, 1915, and m ust accordingly be subm itted to the Minister of Munitions for his
sanction.

1.— (a) (i) Women employed on time-work customarily done by
men shall, except as provided in paragraphs 1 (a) (ii) and 1 (6) be
paid :
Where the working week is 48 hours, £1 ($4.87).
Where the working week is less than 48 hours, £1 ($4.87) for the
working week and for additional hours, if any, worked up to 48.
Where the working week exceeds 48 hours, as follows:
£ s.
d.
For 49 hours...................................................................................10 6
For 50 hours...................................................................................1 1
For 51 hours. . .......................................................................... ....1 1
For 52 hours...................................................................................1 2
For 53 hours...................................................................................1 2
For 54 hours...................................................................................1 3

f$4.99]
0 [$5.11]
6 [$5.23]
0 [$5.35]
6 [$5.47]
0 [$5.60]

(a)
(ii) Women employed on time, (a) on work of a class custom
arily done by semiskilled men, or (b) on work of a specially laborious
or responsible nature, or (c) where special circumstances exist, shall
be paid according to the nature of the work and the ability of the
women, but in no case less than the time rates specified in paragraph
1^
(а) (iii) Overtime, night-shift, Sunday and holiday allowances, as
customarily paid to men, shall be paid to the women to whom para
graphs 1 (a) (i) and 1 (a) (ii) refer. The basis for overtime shall be
the working week for women in the establishment in question. For
this purpose the working week for women shall in no case be reckoned
as less than 48 hours or more than 54 hours. The rate for overtime
for women other than those referred to in paragraph 1 (a) (ii) and
1 (b) shall be computed on the basis of £1 ($4.87) for 48 hours.
(б) (i) Women employed on the work customarily done by fully
skilled tradesmen shall in all cases be paid as from commencement the
time rates of the tradesmen whose work they undertake.
(6)
(ii) A woman shall be considered as not employed on the work
customarily done by fully skilled tradesmen, but a part or portion
only thereof if she does not do the customary setting up, or when there

E M P L O Y M E N T AN D R E M U N E R A T IO N OE W O M E N .

is no setting up, if she requires skilled supervision to a degree beyond
th at customarily required by fully skilled tradesmen undertaking the
work in question.
(ib) (iii) Women who undertake part or portion only of the work
customarily done by fully skilled tradesmen shall serve a probationary
period of three months. The wages of such women for this period
shall be reckoned as follows:
They shall be rated for a period of four weeks at the time rate of
wages to which they are entitled under these directions when em
ployed on time, and from th a t rate shall then rise from the beginning
of the fifth week until the end of the thirteenth week by equal weekly
increases to the district time rate of the fully skilled tradesman, and
shall thereafter be rated at the district rate of the tradesman whose
work they are in part or portion undertaking.
(6)
(iv) In any case where it is established to the satisfaction of the
minister th at additional cost is being incurred by extra setting up or
skilled supervision due to the employment of women in place of fully
skilled tradesmen, the rates payable to women under these directions
may, with the sanction of the minister, be subject, for so long as such
additional cost is incurred, to deductions not exceeding 10 per cent to
meet such additional cost, provided th at no women shall in any case
be paid at lower rates than those prescribed by paragraph 1 (a) of
these directions.
(b) (v) No woman shall be called upon to serve more than one pro
bationary period.
(b)
(vi) Every woman who has served the probationary period
shall receive from her employer a certificate to th a t effect.
(&)
(vii) Any time immediately before the date on which these
directions take effect during which a woman has been employed on
part or portion of the work customarily done by fully skilled trades
men shall be reckoned in diminution or extinction as the case may be
of the probationary period prescribed by these directions.
(b)
(viii) The same overtime, night-shift, Sunday and holiday
allowances shall be paid to women employed on the work customarily
done by fully skilled tradesmen or part or portion thereof as are cus
tomarily paid to the tradesmen. The basis for overtime for such
women shall be on the working week for the tradesmen in the estab
lishment in question. For this purpose the working week for such
women shall be the same as th at of the tradesmen.
2. Where women are prevented from working owing to breakdown,
air raids, or other causes beyond their control, they shall be paid for
the time so lost at three-fourths of their time rate unless they are
sent home.
3. Women shall not be put on piecework or premium bonus system
until sufficiently qualified. The period of qualification on shell work
94148°— Bull. 223— 17------ 6

E M P L O t M ^ T OF W O M E N AN D J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

shall not exceed four weeks without the express sanction of the
Minister of Munitions.
4. Where women are employed on piecework they shall be paid the
same piecework prices as are customarily paid to men for the same
job.
5. Where women are engaged on premium bonus systems, the time
allowed for the job shall be th a t customarily allowed to men for the
same job, and the earnings of the women shall be calculated on the
basis of the man's time rate.
6. Where the job in question has not hitherto been done on piece
work or premium bonus system in the establishment in question, the
piecework price, or the time allowed, shall be based on a similar job
previously done by men, on piecework or premium bonus system as
the case may be.
7. Where in the establishment in question, there are no data from
previous operations to enable the parties to arrive at a piecework
price or time to be allowed, the price or the time to be allowed shall
be so adjusted th a t the woman shall receive the same percentage over
the time rate of the class of men customarily employed on the job as
such man would have received had he undertaken the job on piece
work or premium bonus system as the case may be.
8. The principle upon which these directions proceed is th at on
systems of payment by results equal payment shall be made to women
as to the men for an equal amount of work done.
9. Piecework prices and premium bonus basis times shall be fixed
by m utual agreement between the employer and the woman or women
who perform the work.
10. On piecework every woman other than a woman to whom para
graph 1 (6) relates shall be guaranteed, irrespective of her piecework
earnings, the time rate prescribed by paragraph 1 (a) (1), or where
special circumstances exist such higher time rate as the Minister of
Munitions may direct. Every woman to whom paragraph 1 (&) re
lates shall be guaranteed the time rate prescribed by paragraph 1 (6).
Debit balances shall not be carried forward beyond the usual
weekly period of settlement.
11. On premium bonus systems every woman other than a woman
to whom paragraph 1 (6) relates shall, in all cases, be paid the time
rate prescribed by paragraph 1 (a) (1), or where special circumstances
exist, such higher time rate as the Minister of Munitions may direct.
Every woman to whom paragraph 1 (&) relates shall, in all cases, be
paid the time rate prescribed by paragraph 1 (6).
12. Overtime and night-shift and Sunday and holiday allowances
shall be paid to women employed on piecework or premium bonus
system on the same conditions as customarily prevail in the case of
men for time-work.

E M P L O Y M E N T AND R E M U N E R A T IO N OF W O M E N .

13. Piecework prices and premium bonus time allowances, after
they have been established, shall not be altered unless the means or
method of manufacture are changed.
14. All wages and balances shall be paid to women through the
office.
15. For the purpose of these directions, the term “ woman” or
“ women” means a woman or women of the age of 18 years or over,
and the term “ m an ” or “ m en” means a man or m en of the age of
18 years or oyer.
16. Any question which arises as to the interpretation of these
directions shall be determined by the Minister of Munitions.

Second schedule.
L

ist o f

s t a b l is h m e n t s .

OUTPUT OF MUNITIONS IN FRANCE.1
W ith the concurrence of Mr. Lloyd George and with the hearty
approval of M. Albert Thomas, the French Minister of Munitions,
Lord Murray of Elibank, Director General of Recruiting for Muni
tions Work, appointed the following as a mission to visit the indus
trial districts in France and report on the causes which have
contributed to the enormous increase which has taken place in the
production of munitions in th at country, notwithstanding th at oneeighth of the country and five-eighths of the former metallurgical
productivity are in the hands of the enem}^
The mission was as follows:
Mr. J. T. Brownlie, Chairman of the Amalgamated Society
of Engineers and member of the National Advisory Com
mittee and the Central Munitions Labor Supply Committee.
Mr. Alexander Duckham (Ministry of Munitions).
Mr. D. J. Shackleton, Labor Adviser (Ministry of Munitions).
Mr. Allan M. Smith, Secretary of the Engineering Employers
Federation and member of the Central Munitions Labor
Supply Committee.
Attached to the mission were two engineers of wide experience in
the manufacture of war munitions in this country.
REPORT.

1.
Interview with M. Thomas.—On 30th November, 1915, the
mission, accompanied by Col. Le Roy-Lewis, military attache to the
embassy in Paris, were received by M. Albert Thomas, Minister of
Munitions for France. At this meeting the mission explained the
purpose of their visit, and M. Thomas placed every facility at their
disposal in order th a t whatever they desired they might have an
opportunity of inspecting. I t is desirable at this stage to say th a t
the treatm ent of the mission by the French ministry deserves an
expression of the greatest gratitude. Every effort was made to
simplify their task* and the attention paid to the mission by various
officers and others detailed for the purpose gave evidence of the most
friendly feelings. Both at the ministry and in the various factories
all information asked for was made available, and no restriction
was placed on the inspection of any processes of manufacture.
1 Great Britain. Ministry of Munitions. Report by Mission, appointed by the director general of recruit
ing for munitions work, on the Output of Munitions in France, December, 1915. London, 1916. 10 pp.
[Cd. 8187.]
84

O U T P U T OF M U N IT IO N S I N FR A N C E .

2. Factories visited.—The mission visited 23 establishments en
gaged in production of munitions.
3. Nature of investigation .—The mission endeavored to ascertain
what circumstances had led up to the greatly increased production
of munitions in France.
4. Causes of increase of production.—Three factors appear to have
contributed to this increase:
(A) Increasing intensity of production.
(B) Erection and equipment of new factories and extension of
existing munitions factories.
(C) Adaptation of existing factories to the manufacture of muni
tions.
5. Increased intensity.—W ith regard to the increasing intensity
of production, it was evident to the mission th at as the war has
proceeded the French nation has settled down with a determination
and feeling of set purpose to the fulfillment of the task allotted to it.
There is no question but th a t the nation is at war, and the dominant
sentiment not only of the men b ut also of the women is to carry the
war to a successful termination. Everything else is subordinated to
this determination.
Women, of whom many thousands are employed in munition
factories, work with a good will which is most impressive; this spirit
is also evident in the case of male workers.
The men have apparently welcomed the introduction of women
into the factories and are doing everything they can to instruct and
cooperate with them in increasing the output of munitions.
This feature is im portant and is worthy of careful notice in view
of the fact th a t not only have the women been introduced for the
purpose of increasing the supply of labor, but also of freeing the men
for service in the army.
6. New factories j etc.—The erection and equipment of new fac
tories has been resorted to in great measure.
I t is remarkable th at this effort is due to private enterprise.
No factories have been subsidized by the Government, nor have
loans of any kind been made to the owners.
The owners have, at competitive prices, taken orders from the
Government, and on the "strength of these orders have purchased
land, built factories, procured machinery, and now depend on the
contract prices for reimbursement of their outlay and for gaining the
profit to which they are entitled.
In cases of this description the Government has paid, on the equip
m ent of the factory, one-third of the contract price of the contract
taken and the remaining two-thirds of the price are paid as and when
the munitions are delivered.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N A N D J U V E N IL E S IN GREAT B E IT A IN .

No a tte m p t is m ade b y employers to amortize the expenditure; it
is sufficient th a t they are able to tu rn out the m unitions. The rest
is for determ ination after the war is over.
7. Adapted factories.—Remarkable success has attended the efforts

of a number of employers who have abandoned their normal manu
facture and adapted their machinery for the output of munitions.
This is especially noticeable in the case of shops whose usual pre
war trade was gear cutting, manufacture of small parts for motor
cars, and of articles from bars of small diameter, etc.
In these cases very satisfactory progress is being made in the pro
duction of fuses, gaines, and shell up to 75 millimeters.
8. Layout of shops.—In new shops the layout much impressed the
mission.
The amount of space left clear for transit of material and the
mechanical devices for transport are most carefully thought out.
The result amply justifies the expenditure, no congestion takes place
and the facility with which the products are handled can not fail to
have a good effect on the workpeople employed.
9. Congestion in shops.—In some of the older shops where con
gestion does take place, the free and unrestricted effort of the work
people seems adversely affected in a sentimental as well as a material
manner.
10. The small producer.—A feature of the French system is the
fostering of the small producer for machine operations. Of these
there are*, about 1,800 in the Paris district.
In such cases it is found th at for reasons of administration, inspec
tion, etc., it is better th a t small producers should be working under
subcontract and not under direct contract from the Government.
The work let on subcontract is paid for a t the price the m ain con
tracto r receives from the Governm ent, and no profit is m ade by the
m ain contractor out of the work subcontracted.
Many small shops are manned by various members of a family and
work day and night shifts.
In one case visited, for example, the day shift was superintended
by the father and daughter and the night shift by the mother and
son. Although the shop was of meager proportions and the equip
ment poor, very satisfactory output was effected, due no doubt to
the spirit which dominated every one employed in it.
In another case, a very small shop, the work had been superin
tended by the wife of the owner, who was serving in the army. The
woman worked herself to death, and the husband was ordered back
from the army to continue the work she had been doing.
11. Night shifts.—Practically all the factories run night shift as
well as day shift. In some cases the hours are divided into three
shifts.

O U T P U T OF M U N IT IO N S IN F R A N C E . '

tTV

12. Day-shift hours.—Those on the two-shift system have one break
in the day. The usual starting times axe 6 a. m. to 7 a. m. A break
of one to two hours (averaging one and a half hours) takes place at
noon, and the day shift continues until 6 or 7 p. m. The long break
in the middle of the day enables the women to look after the meals
and comfort of their children at home and is highly valued on this
account.
13. Night-shift hours.—On night shift usually 10 hours are worked,
one hour is generally allowed for a meal, b u t this is usually taken a t
the machines, and where the period is half an hour it is paid for, and
in few cases is the machinery stopped.
14. Change of shifts.—In most cases the shifts change over every
fortnight, and on the change the workpeople get 24 hours off.
15. Saturday work.—No difference is made in the case of Saturdays,
the same hours being worked as on other week days.
16. Sunday work.—In some cases no work is done on Sundays
after noon. This gives an additional time for carrying out necessary
repairs, etc.
17. Introduction of female labor.—In practically all cases, women
have been introduced since the commencement of the war. They
have been drawn from all kinds of occupations.
18. Hours of female labor.—In most cases the women work the
same hours as the men, but where tramway journeys are undertaken
the women start usually 15 minutes later and leave 15 minutes
earlier than the men, to avoid congestion on the trams.
19. Night-shift production.—The production on night shift appears
to equal th a t on day shift. In some cases it is better, owing, as was
stated, to there being less interruption at night.
20. Women on night shift.—Not much female labor is at present
employed on night shift. So far, the tendency is to have a female day
shift and male night shift. This, however, is being modified, and
probably women will, to a large extent, be engaged on night shift.
Where three shifts are worked, the women are of course engaged
during the night.
21. Sphere of female labor.—There is no restriction on the work
which women may do. The only processes which are confined so far
to men are setting up and tool making, though with regard to the
former the women qualify for some part of it and with regard to the
latter some women are actually grinding the edges of the cutting tools
for machines.
22. Output specialized.—One consideration which has made the
employment of unskilled male and female labor satisfactory is th a t in
most cases the factory has specialized on a single product, or a t least
a small range of products.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

For example, many factories specialize in fuses, others in games,
others in 75 mm. shell, and so on, with the result th a t the repetitive
nature of the work is increased and the tool-room and inspection work
is proportionally decreased.
The specialization has been arrived a t after due regard has been
paid to the n atu re and capacity of the m achinery employed.
The G overnm ent has paid great attention n o t only to the desires of
employers in this m atter, b u t also to the capacity of each factory and
its plant.
23. Capacity, of female labor.—The opinion in the French factories
is th a t the output of females on small work equals and in some cases
excels th at of men, and in the case of heavier work, within certain
limits, women are of practically the same value as men. I t has to be
kept in mind th a t physical considerations limit the range of work
which may be done by women. I t was noticed, however, th a t part
of the work done by women involved greater strain than might be
thought reasonable in this country.
24. Locker and sanitary axcommodation.—In most cases good
locker, washing, and sanitary accommodation is provided.
25. Provision of overalls, etc.—Several firms supply and arrange for
the washing of caps and overalls for their women, b u t this is not
universal. I t was noted, however, th a t those women who are so
provided give the impression of being superior to those employed in
works where such provision is n o t made. No doubt the form er will
have the pick of the supply.
26. Piecework.—Practically all the work except tool-room work,
setting up, and floor laboring is done on piece. Prem ium bonus
system is n o t known.
In the case of women there does not appear to be any recognized
time rate other than th a t paid during the period of training; these
rates are usually recognized as guaranteed minimum rates.
The same piecework prices are paid to women as to men.
27. Training.—The period of training, for machine operations for
women is on the average one week. In some cases it extends to a
fortnight, while in others it is less than one day.
28. Technical instruction.—There does not appear to be any
arrangement made by the Government for technical instruction of
unskilled men or of women.
This work is done in each factory.
In some cases a man will teach a woman, who will then take his
place and teach another woman, and thereafter be promoted and be
replaced as a teacher by her pupil.
In a few cases men originally objected to this system, but th at
objection has long since disappeared, and no difficulty is placed in the

O U T P U T OF M U N IT IO N S I N FR A N C E .

way of unskilled male and female labor being enabled to acquire all
the skill necessary for their work.
29. Dilution.—The introduction of unskilled male and female labor
has not presented the difficulties experienced in this country. I t was
ascertained from representatives of the trade-union movement in
France th a t trade-union conditions as regards wages and labor had
been practically suspended.
In France there does not appear to be any recognized system of
apprentices except in the higher branches of the engineering trade.
Labor is being specialized and workpeople are permitted to specialize
in more skilled operations as they show ability.
30. Time keeping.—A remarkable feature in the French factories
is the almost entire absence of lost time. The time lost by the work
people owing to avoidable causes does not exceed on the average 1
per cent of the total time.
A t one factory, for example, where 10,000 are employed, on the
day of the visit of the mission 10 to 20 were to be punished for cul
pable abaence, of whom 2 or 3 were the worse for drink. On the same
day 60 persons made a late start in the morning. On many days,
however, not a single late start takes place.
31. Penalties for lost time.—In cases of loss of time the usual pun
ishments for civilians are a reprimand for the first offense, in some
cases a fine for the second offense, b u t generally the workman is
dismissed for the second offense. I t is, however, not usual for the
second offense to take place within such a short period as would not
justify its being dealt with by a further reprimand.
In the case of military workers the man is sent to his depot and
dealt with under military law.
32. Military labor.—A large proportion of the male labor employed
is military, and of this many of the men are those who have not been
able to pass as fit for active service but in view of the military law
are still mobilized.
33. Strikes.—Although prior to the war the usual labor troubles
were experienced, no strike has taken place since the commencement
of hostilities.
34. Advance in wages.—No applications for general advances in
wages have been made by the workpeople since the commencement
of the war.
35. Female superintendents.—There is not uniformity of opinion as
to the desirability of having women superintendents of discipline,
etc., as distinguished from superintendents of manufacturing opera
tions. Some employers prefer female and others male.
36. Industrial fatigue.—There is no evidence of fatigue due to the
long hours worked either on day shift or night shift. This is worthy
of note, as the temperature of the shops is so high as to make the

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D JU V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .

atmosphere oppressive, and even at this temperature the work
people have rigged up screens to prevent any draft playing on them.
Perhaps the best evidence of the absence of industrial fatigue is
afforded by the intensity of production and the good time keeping.
On the other hand, it m ust be kept in view th a t the long break in the
middle of the day and the absence of overtime beyond the usual
working hours have, no doubt, an im portant bearing on this question.
37. Importation of machinery.—The extent to which the owners of
the factories have been able to import machinery much impressed the
mission.
Thousands of new machines have been installed. These are mainly
from America, b u t in many cases are of British and Swiss make.
Representatives were sent to America, provided with cash and
instructed to purchase all the machinery available for munitions
work, and if any machinery available was not exactly what was
required, if it could be used, it was to be purchased. By this means
there has been a steady flow of most valuable machinery from America
to France.
38. General conclusions.—The general conclusions at which the
mission have arrived are:
(A) The people of France realize th a t they are at war.
(B) The one idea in the mind of all is to bring the war to a successful
issue.
(C) The spirit which dominates the nation has prevented difficul
ties arising in the manufacture of war material.
(D) Loss of time is practically negligible.
(E) No trade-union restrictions exist at the moment.
(F) Everything is done to increase production.
(G) No limitation of profits exists and no question in this respect
has been raised by the workpeople.
(H) The manner in which the employers in France have been able
to acquire machinery, and the initiative and energy dis
played by them are beyond all praise.
(I) In conclusion, it appears to the mission th a t the increase of
production in France is due to one cause and one only, and
th at is the patriotic enthusiasm which exists there.
APPENDIX A.
R E P R E S E N T A T IV E L IS T OF O PER A T IO N S U N D E R T A K E N B Y FEM ALE LA BO R IN
M U N IT IO N FA C T O R IE S IN FR A N C E .

(a) Hand operations.
Assembling.
Bogey-running.
Brazing water jackets of motors.
Cartridge (rifle), complete.

O U T P U T OF M U N IT IO N S I N FR A N C E .

Charging gaines with melinite.
Checking.
Compressing powder in rings on time fuses.
Core making.
Filing.
Filling shrapnel with resin and bullets.
General survey, for information of management, of quality of
articles made.
Gauging shell, cartridge cases, fuses, rifle cartridges, etc.
Loading rifle cartridges.
Making up powder charges in bags.
Molding (sand).
Oxy. acet. welding.
Screwing on shrapnel caps.
Setting up.
Sights—
Filing and finishing.
Finishing and assembling optical work.
Soldering (electric iron).
Sound testing of shell.
Testing fuse taps.
Water-pressure testing of shell.
(b) Machine operations.

Boring, including finish boring of shell.
Centering.
Chamfering.
Cleveland machines—four bars (one woman working two machines).
Drilling.
G rin d in g General.
Turning tools (jigs supplied).
Lathes—
Center—power and hand.
Shell—four tools on one rest and base faced by tool on back
rest, all on one operation.
Shell—two tools on one rest.
Rifle barrels—two tools on two rests.
Turning copper bands.
• Finishing shell—back and front rest and former—hand-filing
for finishing to gauge (one operation).
Shell—combination boring.
Fuse bodies filed on lathes to make them concentric with
thread.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .

Machines—two and three worked by a woman according to length
of operation.
Milling—hand-fed—in some cases not straight work.
Thread-milling machine for case and shell.
Narling recess for copper bands.
Painting shell.
Recessing for copper bands.
Rectification of shell (machine).
Rifle barrels—
Boring—one woman working two boring machines, two bar
rels to each machine.
Turning, two tools—two rests.
Milling, except milling for foresight.
Stamping studs—hot metal.
(c) Special instances o f complete manufacture.
75 millimeter shell, complete.
120 millimeter shell, complete.
Fuses, complete.
Rifle cartridges, complete, including loading, but not loading of
caps.
APPENDIX B.
STA TEM ENT SHOW ING P R E S E N T A N D FO RM ER OCCUPATIONS OF WOM EN EM
P L O Y E D IN ONE OF TH E M UNITION FA CTORIES IN FR A N C E.

Department.

Number
of work
women.

Occupation in factory.

Boring..

Hardening..

39 \f309 inspectors.....................................
laborers.........................................

Vertical boring.................................

F inishing..

337

337 turners.........................................

Inspection room.

255

255 inspectors...................................

Former occupation.

15 housewives.
1 corseti&re.
20 factory girls.
4 mechanics.
1 florist.
29 housewives.
1 shirt maker.
1 cutter out.
1 domestic.
1 clerk.
. 6 factory girls.
30 dressmakers.
30 children’s nurses.
1 hospital nurse.
36 domestics.
6 lace makers.
68 housewives.
46 clerks.
120 factory girls.
56 housewives.
60 dressmakers.
4 shorthand writers.
40 clerks.
14 embroiderers.
30 breeches makers. *
4 florists.
27 no occupation.
. 20 factory girls.

O U T P U T OF M U N IT IO N S IN

FRA N CE.

ST A T EM E N T SH O W IN G P R E S E N T A N D FO R M E R OCCUPATIONS OF W OM EN EM
P L O Y E D IN ONE OF T H E M U NITIO N FA C T O R IE S IN FR A N C E —Concluded.
Number
of work
women.

Department.

Former occupation.

Occupation in factory.

67 housewives.
4 domestics.
3 artists.
hairdressers.
cashiers.
4 florists.
4 embroiderers.
209 inspectors...................................
18 dressmakers.
typists.
schoolmistresses.
15 children’s nurses.
clerks.
. 60 factory girls.
drillers.........................................
70 turners........................................
55 correctors.................................... 470 breeches makers, seam
45 dressers.......................................
stresses, and milliners.
45 setters up....................................
clerks.
40 greasers........................................ 125
125
housewives.
35 markers....................................... 53 no profession.
30 screw-tap makers..................... 75 factory girls.
30 inspectors...................................
363 gaugers................... „..................
25 various........................................
30 dressmakers.
furniture polishers.
florists.
4
bread carriers.
(62 inspectors................................... 16 children’s
nurses.
<40 turners........................................
weavers.
(56 laborers....................................... 40 housewives.
16 tulle makers.
16 cardboard-box makers.
. 10 factory girls.

2
2

209

8
2
20

(110
Fuses..............................................

848

6
10

Gaines............................................

158

APPENDIX C.
STATEMENT SHOWING THE EARNINGS (IN FRANCS) OF MALE AND FEMALE LABOR
IN MUNITION FACTORIES IN FRANCE.
M ales .

F e m a le s .

Average per day.

Laborers...................... 6.01 francs [$1.16] Minimum...................... 3.53 francs [$0.68]
Machinemen............... 10.42 francs [$2.01] Mean............................... 5.95 francs [$1.15]
Skilled......................... 12.23 francs [$2.36]
Note 1.— The foregoing averages are averages of the mean earnings per shop. In ascertaining the aver

ages the proportion of workpeople employed at the various rates in each shop has not been considered.
Each shop furnished the mean of the earnings of its workpeople, and the above average is the average of
the mean earnings supplied to the mission.

APPENDIX D .
STATEMENT SHOWING NUMBER OF HOURS WORKED PER WEEK IN MUNITION
FACTORIES IN FRANCE.

TW O-SHIFT SYSTEM .

(1) Day shift.
Morning s ta rt varies from 6 a. m. to 7 a. m. Mean, 6.30 a. m.
Morning period, 4 | hours to 5J hours. Mean, 5 hours 6 m inutes.
M idday break, 1 hour to 2 hours. Mean, 1 hour 30 m inutes.
Afternoon period, 4J hours to 7 hours. Mean, 5 hours 30 m inutes.
Stopping tim e, 6 p. m. to 8 p. m. Mean, 6.45 p. m.
N um ber of hours worked per day, 10 hours to 12 hours. Mean,
10 hours 45 m inutes.

E M P L O Y M E N T OF, W O M E N AN D J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

(2) Night shift.
S tartin g tim e, 6 p. m. to 8 p. m. Mean, 7.10 p. m.
Supper tim e, usually 1 hour, about m idnight.
Stopping tim e, 5 a. m. to 7 a. m. Mean, 6.15 a. m.
N um ber of hours worked per night, 9^ hours to 11 hours.
10 hours 10 m inutes.

Mean,

TH R EE-SH IFT SYSTEM.

4 a. m. to 12 noon or 6 a. m. to 2 p. m.
1 p. m. to 9 p. m. or 2 p. m. to 10 p. m.
8.45 p. m. to 4.15 a. m. or 10 p. m. to 6 a. m.
CHANGE OVER.

Two shifts.
Shifts change over each per fortnight w ith 24 hours off.
Three shifts.
In some cases the shifts do not change o v er; in others they change
each fortnight, w ith 24 hours off.
There are no breaks for meals on the three-shift system , b u t in
some cases light refreshm ent is taken whilst work proceeds.

REGULATIONS AS TO WAGES OP WORKERS IN MUNITIONS
FACTORIES IN FRANCE.
The new regulations concerning earnings of m ale and fem ale
workers engaged in the m anufacture of arm am ents, m unitions, and
war m aterials in Paris and in the D epartm ent of the Seine are as
follows:
1.
The rates of pay provided for in the schedule hereto attached shall not be considered
as effecting in any case a decrease in wages which may be higher at present, whether
they be basic or piecework wages.
This schedule represents, w ith respect to the minimum wages, and with respect to
piecework, the minimum hourly wages which should be earned b y an average worker
working normally, but in neither the one nor the other case do they preclude higher
wages.
2. BASIC RATES.

A basic rate is established for occupations in Paris and the Department of the Seine.
The basic rate shall be uniform for all workers, male and female, performing identical
work.
The lowest wages paid must assure the minimum necessary to provide a living.
Premiums, extra pay, etc., constitute supplementary earnings corresponding to the
increased production of male and female workers more apt and more enduring.
This schedule of rates and the present regulations shall be posted in the workshops
in accordance w ith regulations issued by the controller of labor.
3. PIECEWORK.

The rate of pay for piecework must be fixed in a manner to permit an average
workman, working normally, to earn a minimum computed on the basic rate, and a
bonus determined b y the scale appended here (minimum hourly wage for piecework).
In case of disputes, the burden of proof rests on the employer to establish the fact
that the piece rate surely permits the earning of the bonus provided.
There is no limitation of rate provided for piecework.
4. PREMIUMS (GRATUITIES OR ENGLISH PREMIUMS).

Male and female workers, to whom work may not be assigned at piece rates, may
receive premiums or gratuities above the basic rate.
Their minimum earnings in that case (basic rate plus the premium or gratuity) must
be fixed at the minimum piece rate of workers of the same class employed on like
manufactures and working at piece rates.
5. EARNINGS OF WOMEN AT PIECEWORK.

For work exactly identical, performed under the same conditions b y men and b y
women, the piecework wages paid the women shall not be less than those paid to
men. If one part of the work done b y the men (setting up machines, regulating tools,
or supplementary care) is not performed b y the women, or if male workers must be

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D JU V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .

provided in order to make operation possible, the total earnings of the women, plus
th e general expenses which the employment of women necessitates, shall not be less
than that which men earn who perform all parts of the same work.

STABILITY OP PIECEWORK RATES.

The rates for piecework may only be decreased in case of actual modifications in
machines having an influence on production and in proportion to that modification.
During the period of training of the workers, male or female, or during the period
of adaptation required for new work, the proper rate of earnings shall not be less
than the minimum rate known as the English rate, defined above in paragraph 2 of
article 4.
7. IMPERFECT WORK.

If piecework is rejected because of imperfection and deductions are made from the
earnings of male or female workers, such rejected work must be rendered useless in
their presence. If, however, such imperfect work can be utilized b y correction of
the imperfection, of which the controller shall be the judge, the worker shall receive
earnings as per schedule less costs of correction of the imperfection.

STOPPAGE OF WORK FOR CAUSES NOT INHERENT IN THE WORKERS.

In case of stoppage of work b y accident to the machinery, lack of material, or any
other causes not inherent in the laborers, the workers, male or female, shall be paid
an allowance representing the loss of earnings during the period of unem ploym ent.
The sum thus paid as a substitute for earnings shall not take into account piecework
earnings or premiums. Time lost in this manner shall be paid for at the basic rate.
9. PIECEWORK TICKETS.

Work tickets for piece rate or bonus work must show the district basic and special
rate and the various bonuses.
The tickets must also show the number of pieces produced and the wage per unit
and must be delivered to each worker on commencing work.
10. RATE SHEETS.

Rate sheets shall be prepared in conformity to a uniform model which w ill permit
workers to easily determine the equality of wages in the different establishments.
The model rate sheet w ill be prepared by the controller of labor.
11. EMPLOYMENT.

Regulations shall be established fixing the conditions of discharge and reemploy
ment; they shall at all times guarantee the workers against earnings inferior to their
individual ability, and assure the regularity of production of articles necessary for the
national defense.
12. PENALTIES.

The system of penalties, in force in a certain number of workshops, shall be revised
b y a mixed commission appointed b y the Minister of Munitions.
13. APPLICATION.

A ll differences arising in the application of these regulations shall, in cases of indi
viduals, be laid before the controller of labor and, in collective cases, before the com
m ittee above provided for.
The earnings of special classes of workers, male or female, not specified in the present
schedule, and which do not come under any of the specified classes, shall be fixed on
identical bases b y the action of the same commission.

W AGES I N M U N IT IO N FA C TO R IES IN FR A N C E .

14. REVISION.

The present rate schedule may be modified on demand of either the employers'
or workmen ’s organizations.
BASIC MINIMUM WAGE SCALE.

Unshilled workers.

Basic wage: Men, 0.80 franc [15.4 cents]; women, 0.65 franc [12.5 cents]. Average
minimum hourly wage for piecework: Men, 1 franc [19.3 cents]; women, 0.75 franc
[14.5 cents].
SK IL LE D W O R K ER S.

Occupation.

F ran cs.

Fitters, semiskilled...........................................................................
Fitters, setters up, inspectors.........................................................
Tool fitters...........................................................................................
Turners, skilled.................................................................................
Turners, tool makers........................................................................
Milling..................................................................................................
Milling, hand-fed...............................................................................
Metal beaters, planers......................................................................
Correctors.............................................................................................
Correctors, tool makers....................................................................
Tinsmiths, sheet-iron workers.......................................................
Boiler makers.....................................................................................
Solderers’ helpers..............................................................................
Solderers, autogenous. . *................................................................
Hammer works: Blacksmiths, skilled pattern makers..........
Small forges: Blacksmiths’ helpers (hand), and tool makers

94148°— Bull. 223— 17------ 7

Average
hourly mini
mum wage
for piecework.

Basic

0.75

1.00
1.10
1.00
1.15
1.00
1.10
1.00
1.00
1.10
.95
1.00
.75
1.00
1.15
.95

C e n ts . F r a n c s .

14.5
19.3"

21.2
19.3=
22. 2=
19.3"
21.2
19.3'
19.3=

21.2"
18.3^
19.3"
14. 5
19.3*

22.2

18.3'

0.95
1.30
1.40
1.30
1.45
1.30
1.40
1.30
1.30
1.40
1.25
1.30
.95
1.30
1.60
1.35

C ems.
n ts .

18.3'
8.3]
25.
5.1]
27.
7.0]
25.1
28.0=
25.1
27.0s
25.1'
25.1
27.0=
24.1'
25.1:
18.3’
25.1]
30.9]
26.1]

JUVENILE EMPLOYMENT.
[Memorandum No. 13.]

I. GENERAL.

1. I t is now more than a century since the problems of juvenile
employment first became the subject of public discussion and legis
lative enactment. For a long time, however, the factory acts were
concerned only with conditions of employment in the textile trades,
and it was only in 1864 th at they were extended to certain non
textile processes including the manufacture of percussion caps and
of cartridges, and in 1867 to other industries with which this memo
randum is immediately concerned. Some reference has already
been made in earlier memoranda to conditions of juvenile employ
ment, but the subject is of such immediate urgency at the present
time that no justification is needed for a fuller discussion of the
subject, especially in so far as it concerns boys. At the present
time when the war is destroying so much of its best manhood, the
nation is under special obligation to secure th at the rising generation
grows up strong and hardy both in body and character. I t is neces
sary to guard not only against immediate breakdown, but also
against the imposition of strains which may stunt future growth
and development. Long hours of work by day or by night, often
coupled with unsatisfactory conditions of housing and transit, late
hours and lack of parental care, make the dangers grave and imme
diate. Some spirit of inquiry and desire for change are natural
features of adolescence, and harm may be done if they are unduly
checked by long hours of monotonous toil and the absence of oppor
tunity for healthy recreation. Though, fortunately, signs of imme
diate breakdown are not as yet generally apparent, it is interesting
to note th a t in the annual report for 1915 of the chief inspector of
factories the principal lady inspector states th a t:
Miss Constance Smith has been much impressed b y the marked difference in out
ward effect produced b y night employment on adult and adolescent workers. “ Very
young girls show almost im m ediately, in m y experience, symptoms of lassitude,
exhaustion, and impaired vita lity under the influence of employment at night. ” A
very strong similar impression was made on me by the appearance of large numbers
of young boys who had been working at munitions for a long time on alternate night
* and day shifts.

2. Where definite symptoms of fatigue are already apparent, con
ditions outside the factory are frequently found to be a contributory
cause as well as those within it. Thus, after examining 40 per cent

JU V E N IL E E M P L O Y M E N T .

of the workers in a steel works, one of the medical investigators
employed by the committee concludes:
First, that fatigue does exist among both the boys and the men.
Secondly, that the best evidence of fatigue are the muscular painsr the foot ache,
the restlessness, the sleepiness and tired feeling of the workers, and, particularly
among the boys, a dry skin, a vacant expression, and a skin rash.

Regarding the boys employed at this factory, he reports:
Of the boys it may be said for the most part that they are “ so spiritless, so dull, so
dead in look, so woe-begone and attacked with weariness to a dulling of their spirits ”
as to compel attention. These conditions are attributable in a very large measure to
the conditions outside the workshop, many of them going to bed very late* due to a
want of proper parental control.

Inquiries showed th at in almost every case lost time was due to the
fact th at the boys went to bed so late at night th a t it was almost im
possible for them to get up at the proper hour on the following morn
ing. On the other hand, the same medical investigator reports as
follows of the boys employed in a factory where, though the hours
were long and the wages by no means high, the conditions outside the
factory were highly favorable:
The nervous system shows its response to good conditions and to reasonable hours
in the very large percentage of boys who feel perfectly fit and fresh on rising, though
most of them are out of bed never later than 5.15 a. m., some of them even starting
for their work at or before 5 a. m ., but always fortified with food before doing so. It
is all important to remember that the homes from which these boys come are, though
small, in every case well situated; that is to say, there are no squalid courts, no backto-back houses, no sordid areas as in most industrial towns. * * * These boys are
an example of what juvenile workers under proper conditions can be. About 50 per
cent of them are engaged for more than 60 hours per week and yet find time and are
sufficiently fresh at the end of the day to cycle, to act as golf caddies, to swim, to
boat, or to pass the tim e playing football or enjoying other healthy recreation. * * *
In no case do they earn high wages nor do they come from what may be termed the
children of the middle-class workers.

3.
Again, it has to be remembered th at boys and girls need a suffi
cient reserve of energy not only for the maintenance of health, but
for growth. Even under normal conditions, there is some danger of
juvenile employment adversely affecting physique, and this danger
is materially increased by the present conditions of employment.
A social worker who has had considerable experience of boys employed in munition
works stated that, so far as he knew, there had been no general breakdown, but then
he did not expect to see immediate effects, notwithstanding the long distances that
some boys had to travel. He suggested, however, that the boys are drawing on their
strength, and pointed to the fact that boys fall asleep in the trains and trams, and
often travel on beyond their stations. They have no leisure, no recreation, and no
classes, and he was very anxious as to what would become of the boys after the war.
H e suggested that too big a price was being*paid for output. E ven the hours allowed
under the factory acts were very lenient. The granting of relief at the week-end
was a great boon.

100

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .

II. HOURS OF LABOR.

4. In considering what hours of employment are reasonable for
boys it is necessary to distinguish between boys under 16 years of
age and those over. A recent witness before this committee has
expressed the view that:
Boys between 16 and 18 were quite different from boys under 16, th ey were much
stronger. Boys under 16, on the other hand, were probably more delicate than girls
of the same age, and more likely to break them selves up. The essential safeguards
were the reduction of hours and welfare work. Apart from the strain on the health
involved, long hours had disastrous effects upon the characters of boys. They also
might make an adequate amount of sleep difficult and, perhaps most important, th ey
prevented adequate facilities for recreation. Such facilities were of primary impor
tance both for the physical and the moral welfare of the boys. This latter danger
was accentuated by the monotonous character of their work, which afforded no in tel
lectual interest. In the absence of healthy recreation the boys’ minds and conversa
tion were likely to become unhealthy and to lead to a general deterioration in char
acter. Eight hours of sleep at least were essential, nine hours would be better. U n
fortunately many boys got only six or seven hours.

The committee entirely concur in the view of this witness as to the
importance of recreation, especially for younger boys, and they note
with satisfaction the statem ent in the report for 1915 of the chief
inspector of factories th at requests for Saturday afternoon work
have become less common, and th at there seems to be a more gen
eral recognition of the advantage of the week-end rest. Recreation
is necessary, not only for the physical well-being of boys and girls,
b u t also as a healthy relief from the monotony of work.
5. At a time when night work is so prevalent, the* question of
sleep is a m atter of special concern, and there is much danger
th at it may be unduly curtailed. The temptations of the cinema
and the amusements of the street tend to keep boys and girls up too
late; while the distance of the home from the works often renders
early rising compulsory. The selling of newspapers in the evening
and in the early morning before work is not unknown. I t must be
remembered, too, that in many instances the homo conditions leave
much to be desired, even where the wages earned are high. Thus an
inquiry made at a large munitions center showed th a t out of 33 boys
employed at one factory only 3 had a room to themselves, and the
m ajority shared a bed with at least one other person. In a number
of cases three persons occupied a single bed. The following cases,
which are typical of .many, may also be quoted:
1. A boy, aged 14, stated that his average wage was 19s. [$4.62] weekly. He slept in
the same bed with two young men each earning about <£2 [$9.73] a week; also in the
same room, but in another bed, two young girls slept.
2. A boy, aged 16, earning about 22s. [$5.35] w eekly, slept in a bed with another
boy. In another bed, in the same room, a boy and girl slept.

In some cases the same beds are occupied b}r day as well as by night.

JU V E N IL E E M P L O Y M E N T .

101

The question of sleep during the day also needs consideration. I t
can hardly be disputed th a t under the ordinary conditions of an
industrial home sleep during the day is not comparable with th a t
which should be obtained at night. Noises in the street and in the
home, the family meals, and other causes interrupt sleep during the
day. A part from this a good deal depends on the influence of the
parents; though the boy may go to bed immediately he leaves the
night shift, it has been stated th a t he not infrequently gets up early
in the afternoon so as to obtain some social amusement before going
to work. On the other hand, inquiries made on behalf of the com
mittee show that this is not always so. Thus in one instance out of
81 boys employed alternately on day and night shifts, 36 boys
obtained 8 or more hours of sleep at night as compared with 56 boys
when they slept during the day. The greater amount of sleep
obtained in this case by the boys when they slept during the day
may be accounted for by the fact th a t they came from very crowded
homes and could generally get a bedroom to themselves only during
the day, an advantage which has to be set off against the disadvan
tages referred to above.
6. Though these evils may be mitigated in individual cases, their
general removal is beyond the powers of factory management, and
they must accordingly be taken into account in determining hours
of labor and other conditions of employment.
7. Under the Factory and Workshops Act, 1901, boys and girls under
18 years of age, who are legally exempt from further attendance at
school, may be employed for 12 hours (10^ exclusive of meal times)
a day during the week, and for 8 hours (7i exclusive of meal times)
on Saturdays, th a t is to say for a weekly period of 60 hours. Sub
ject to some exceptions in the case of boys all night work and Sunday
work is forbidden, as also is overtime. Under section 150 of the act
the secretary of state has power in case of public emergency to relax
these restrictions, and since the commencement of the war this
power has been widely exercised. The weekly hours have frequently
bsen extended to 67, and in some instances even longer hours have
been workedD The daily hours of employment have been extended
to 14, and occasionally even to 15 hours; night work has been com
mon; Sunday work has also been allowed, though latterly it has been
largely discontinued.
8. The hours prescribed by the factory act are to be regarded as
the maximum ordinarily justifiable, and even exceed materially what
many experienced employers regard as the longest period for which
boys and girls can usefully be employed from the point of view of
either health or output. Any extension of these hours m ust there
fore be critically examined with a view to discontinuance on the
first opportunity. The problem of the limitation of the hours for

102

EM PLO Y M EN T

OF W O M E N

AN D J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

which boys are employed is one of special difficulty, owing both to
dearth of labor available and to the extent to which they are employed
to assist men; in the absence of the boys the work of the men may
be hindered or altogether stopped. The demand for adult male labor
both for industry and for the army is so acute th at any substitution of
adult for boy labor is impracticable. In 1912 the departmental com
mittee on the u Night employment of male young persons” rejected,
with regret, as impracticable the general establishment of the threeshift system, and existing conditions have only emphasized the diffi
culties in carrying out such a system.
9. In these circumstances the committee, though with great hesi
tation, recommended in their memorandum on “ Hours of work”
th a t boys should be allowed to be employed for the same hours as
for men (about 65 hours a week); they urged, however, th at every
effort should be made not to work boys under 16 for more than 60
hours a week, and also th a t opportunity should be afforded for
outdoor recreation on Saturday afternoon. An extension of the
weekly hours beyond 60 can only be obtained by increasing the
length of the working day or by reducing the week-end rest. Such
extensions impose a strain, which only exceptional circumstances can
justify, and the committee are strongly of opinion th at every effort
should be made to restrict the employment of all boys under 16
within the limit of 60 hours, even at the cost of some inconvenience
to male labor. They trust th at the time has now come when excep
tions can be limited to cases where boys under 16 are employed to
assist men.
10. Similar difficulties do not often arise in regard to the employ
ment of girls, and as employment has become more organized a
noticeable reduction has taken place in the hours of work. Employers
have increasingly recognized th at there are definite limits beyond
which women and girls can not usefully be employed. At a number
of factories the three-shift system has been introduced, and in works
where this has not been found practicable the weekly hours have
frequently been kept below 60. The committee are glad to learn th at
the Ministry and the Home Office are now taking steps to bring the
hours of work for women and girls in controlled establishments
generally within the weekly limit of 60 hours allowed under the
ordinary provisions of the factory act.
11. Hours o f daily work.—While there can be no doubt th at a daily
period of 12 hours is longer than is desirable under ordinary circum
stances, the committee do not feel justified in recommending th at no
extension beyond this limit should be permitted. Such extension,
if the weekly hours are limited as proposed above, must be met by a
corresponding reduction in the hours of work on Saturdays or on other
days of the week, and it provides an opportunity for exercise in the

J U V E N IL E E M P L O Y M E N T .

103

open air which might not otherwise be available. Some power of
extension is of value to employers in enabling them to meet sudden
emergencies, and the committee consider that, unless the conditions
of employment are specially unfavorable, daily employment for more
than 12 hours a day may continue to be allowed under the present
exceptional circumstances provided th a t—
(a) The maximum weekly hours already recommended are not
exceeded.
(b) Overtime employment should be concentrated on not more
than three evenings in any week, and so far as possible not on con
secutive evenings.
If these conditions are satisfied, the concession is not likely to do
harm.
12. Sunday worTc.—The arguments in favor of a weekly period of
rest put forward in the committee’s memorandum on “ Sunday lab o r”
apply with special force in the case of boys and girls; they are less
fitted to resist the strain of unrelieved toil, and are more quickly
affected by monotony of work. Sunday work for boys and girls
has always been less frequent than for men, and has recently been
largely reduced through the action of the Ministry and the Home
Office. Apart from a few cases where authority has been given to
work on a Sunday in the event of a breakdown of machinery or
similar emergency, the Home Office as a rule only authorize Sunday
work on condition th at each boy or girl employed on Sunday shall be
given a holiday on another day in the same week, or as part of a
system of eight-hour shifts in which provision is made for weekly or
fortnightly periods of rest. Apart from this, permission for boys over
16 to be employed periodically on Sunday was on July 1 last
only allowed, in seven cases, and in three cases for boys under 16.
In only one instance are boys employed every Sunday, but this is
limited to boys over 16, and the total weekly hours are only about
56. In only one case are girls employed periodically on Sunday and
there the concession is confined to girls over 16. It is greatly to be
hoped th at all Sunday work will shortly be completely stopped.
Where the two-shift system is in operation, at least two shifts should
be dropped at each week-end.
13. Night work.—Under the factory act the employment at night
of women and girls is forbidden and is only allowed so far as munition
works are concerned, in the case of boys over 14 employed in blast
furnaces and iron mills. I t should, however, be pointed out th at the
committee on the “ Night employment of male young persons” in
1912 recommended the repeal of this concession so far as it affects
blast furnaces, and its restriction to boys over 16 in the case of rolling
mills. Acting on the recommendation of th a t committee, the secre
tary of state in 1913 withdrew an order allowing the employment of

104

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND JU V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .

boys over 16 on certain processes in the manufacture of cordite and
guncotton. The same committee stated th a t—
We are strongly of opinion that the em ployment of boys under 18 years of age at
night in factories is undesirable, and ought not to be allowed to any greater extent
or at an earlier age, than is absolutely necessary. This applies specially to boys
between 14 and 16 years of age, when the rate of growth is most rapid, and when the
conditions of life ought to be rendered as favorable as possible for mental and physical
developm ent.

Under existing circumstances night work has been widely used
owing to the desire to employ machinery for the maximum number of
hours. The serious objections which exist to night work, notably
in the case of young persons, have been already set out in the memo
randa on “ Employment of women” and “ Hours of work.” Subse
quent experience has fully confirmed the propriety of the recom
mendations made in those memoranda, and the committee remain of
the opinion th at girls under 18 and boys under 16 should only be
employed at night if other labor can not be obtained. Wherever
possible it should be stopped. In March last, in reply to an inquiry
as to the employment of girls of 15 at night, the parliamentary secre
tary to the Ministry stated th a t—
The general practice of the Home Office, in consultation w ith the Ministry of
Munitions, has been and is to refuse all proposals for the employment of such young
girls on night shifts. In one or two cases, however, through exceptional circumstances
a departure has been made from this practice. These cases are now under review
with the object of arranging for the discontinuance of such employment at the earliest
possible moment.

14.
Change o f shifts.—On physiological grounds there is little doubt
th at if adults are employed at night the change from day to night
shift should not be made too frequently; the body requires time to
become accustomed to the altered conditions and frequent changes
prevent the system from becoming accustomed to either day or night
conditions. It has been represented to the committee th a t—
A period of a week on night shift is so short that a boy can not get accustomed to
sleep in the day time. H e is indeed glad to be free during the day, and for the short
period of a week he can manage to exist with very little sleep. If, however, his night
shift continued for a longer period, his physical being would very soon rebel against
the loss of sleep, and he would be forced to take it.

On the other hand, unless they are made to work seven nights
in the week (a highly objectionable plan), boys and girls will, during
each week-end, tend to revert to their day habits; further, boys and
girls suffer more quickly from the interruption of friendships or
hobbies and the absence of recreation and amusements, and they are
tempted to seek them at the cost of a perhaps already insufficient
allowance of sleep; it is probable, too, th a t the adaptability of youth
makes them suffer less than adults from frequent changes.

J U V E N IL E E M P L O Y M E N T .

105

15. Spells and breaks.—There is considerable evidence in support of
the view th at young persons can not profitably work for a continuous
period of as much as five hours (the maximum legal period). Even
in somewhat shorter spells, a break of 10 minutes has proved highly
beneficial. I t not only affords a period of rest and recovery from
fatigue and a break in the monotony of work, but provides an
opportunity for refreshment, which is particularly necessary in the
morning, since frequently the only food previously taken is a light
breakfast hastily eaten before a long journey to work. The com
mittee understand that the Home Office are now requiring the provi
sion of an opportunity for refreshment in all cases where work begins
before 8 a. m., and no breakfast interval is allowed and they hope
th at employers will arrange for similar facilities whenever the length
of the spell approaches five hours, whether in the morning or in the
afternoon.
16. Holidays.—In addition to the ordinary holidays boys and girls
are likely to benefit greatly by occasional opportunity for a holiday
of longer duration. Whenever feasible a week’s holiday may be
usefully granted, perhaps as a reward for regular attendance during
the year.
III. SUPERVISION OF HEALTH AND WELFARE.

17. The committee in their memorandum on “ Welfare super
vision” recommended the appointment of welfare supervisors in all
factories where women and girls are employed, and also wherever 100
boys are employed. The manager of a controlled firm, who have for
many years taken an active interest in the welfare of their works,
as regards the effect on girls, states—
The results have been em inently satisfactory, and we undoubtedly get the pick of
the labor available in the town. Internally, there has been an improvement in the
health, discipline, and broadened outlook of the girls, who are also more reliable.
Generally, the girls have improved in manner and dress, and they have been taught
self-respect; their morality has also improved. There is a general eagerness to come to
our works, and we always have a very long “ w aitin g” list. The majority of the girls
stay with us till they are married. The age of marriage originally was at 18 and many
of the girls made bad matches in consequence. Now they marry mostly from 23 to 25
and make very much more careful choice.

18. In the past the need for the welfare supervision of boys has not
been so widely recognized as in the case of women and girls; present
conditions have, however, served to call attention to its urgency and
it is receiving the attention of an increasing number of employers.
Boys fresh from the discipline of a well-ordered school need help
and friendly supervision in the unfamiliar turmoil of their new sur
roundings. They are not men and can not be treated as such. On
the other hand high wages and the absence of the father have fre
quently tended to relax home control. Long hours of work prevent

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attendance at clubs; healthy and organized recreation is seldom
available. As might be anticipated under these circumstances,
complaint is often made of boys leaving their work after a few days
or playing truant; this may be the result of slackness and discontent,
or the cause may be found in fatigue, sickness, or perhaps home
troubles. If smooth working is to be secured, the real causes of such
discontent and trouble must be ascertained and appreciated. Expe
rience, however, shows th at the problems involved are outside and
distinct from those of ordinary factory discipline, and they are likely
to remain unsolved unless someone is specially deputed for the
purpose.
19. The solution of these problems has been taken in hand by the
welfare department of the Ministry, who have issued special memo
randa dealing with the duties of a welfare supervisor. The more
im portant of these may be briefly summarized as:
(a) To become acquainted with all boys when first employed;
to be present at the medical examination by the factory surgeon,
to note any m atters needing attention, to arrange for the reexamina
tion of special cases.
(b) To visit cases of sickness and to investigate other causes of
irregular attendance and of complaints in regard to work.
(c) To receive complaints made by boys and their parents, and to
dispose of misunderstandings.
(<d) To be consulted before any boy is dismissed.
(e) To watch the conditions of housing and transit and the facilities
for obtaining food.
(f) To supervise and promote arrangements for saving.
(g) To seek facilities for recreation and to organize their use. In
one case, quoted by a witness, an excellent recreation ground was pro
vided by a firm, but was at present unused largely owing to the lack
of anyone to organize its use.
20. I t may be of interest to give the following statem ent of duties
assigned to the “ Boy visitors” in the scheme of welfare supervision
for boys which has recently been initiated at the royal ordnance
factories at Woolwich Arsenal—
The boy visitors’ work is directed to improving the boy workers’ moral and material
well-being and to reducing the difficulties which slackness, ill discipline, etc., cause
the factory staff.
The present abnormal conditions of work, high wages, lack of healthy recreation,
and in many cases the absence of the father, tend to thriftlessness, ill discipline, and
otner evils.
In fairness to the boy it should be said that bad timekeeping, etc., may be the out
come of genuine fatigue, illness, home troubles, or discontent. It is the business of
the boy visitor to get at the root of these troubles by personal work amongst the boys
and to inform the factory officials of the knowledge which his investigation of the
boys’ circumstances, home life, etc., w ill give him.

J U V E N IL E E M P L O Y M E N T .

107

The boy visitor w ill, by personal guidance, work toward getting contented, welldisciplined boy workers, and the information he gathers w ill always be available to
assist the staff in the smooth working of the factory.
1. To m eet new boys on entry and keep a record of the boys’ progress and career in
the factory.
2. To deal with absentees and bad timekeepers—first with the boy, then, if neces
sary, with parents.
3. To see boys before dismissal or leaving and, if necessary, to see the parents.
4. To investigate shop and police reports and make recommendation thereon.
5. To keep an eye on the feeding arrangements, dining halls, lavatory accommo
dation, etc., and to report and make suggestions thereon to the welfare supervision
department.
6. To inquire into and discuss with the boys their complaints and troubles, and,
where necessary, present them on behalf of the boys to the proper authorities.
7. To overlook th e general conditions and health of the boys, and, where necessary,
arrange for m edical inspection.
8. To suggest suitable candidates for convalescent homes after sickness or injury.
9. Where necessary, to v isit the homes of the boys who are evidently ill-cared for,
and report upon the home conditions, etc. To note specially the state of clothing
and boots of boy workers.
10. To encourage and arrange recreations, sports, etc., at spare times.
11. To keep in personal touch with the boys by means of individual talks, meeting
them at meal times, etc., and advising them in difficulties, encouraging them to
thrift and w ell doing.
12. To gather information as to boys’ characters and progress and capabilities for
promotion and for post-war employment.
N. B .—The boy visitor has no executive authority and his function is to assist the
boy when he is in difficulty or trouble and to place his case in a very tactful way
before the foreman or manager. It is emphasized that great tact is necessary in the
relations of the boy visitors as the boys’ friend with the foremen and officials. The
boy visitor should clearly show to the officials that his work w ill not in any way reduce
their authority, but w ill strengthen it and help to secure efficiency and discipline in
the factory.

The boy visitors are stated to have a definite responsibility for the
selection of boys for employment. Notices are prominently dis
played wherever boys are at work stating the name of the boy
visitor for th a t particular shop, and how he can be communicated
with. Records are kept of the boys’ character, progress, trade, or
technical training, amusements, manner, intelligence, appearance,
and home circumstances. The plans for boys7 recreation include
the use of a recreation ground, formation of a boys' club, swimming
competitions, and a standing country camp for short rest periods
during the summer. Special canteen accommodation is reserved for
boys.
21.
Instruction of young workers.—The first days of factory employ
ment are likely to press hardly on the boy or girl fresh from school.
They take time to get acclimatized, and it may often be well to allow
for the first week some relaxation of their conditions of employment.
They should also be instructed in the best method of performing
their work, and if possible also in its aim and purpose; by such means

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E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D J U V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

they will not only become more quickly efficient but interest may
be stim ulated and monotony relieved. Thus in one munition factory
the boys are to begin with being put together in a room under special
supervision, so th a t they get a real insight into the work. In another
the boys are put to work under supervision in a gallery where types
of all machines are available. Under ordinary conditions young
persons are frequently encouraged or even required by their em
ployers to attend classes for technical or other instruction; such
instruction is wholly advantageous, provided th a t the hours of work
are sufficiently curtailed. A t present, unfortunately, the stress of
work has rendered the continuance of education impracticable.
Recently an education authority in a large munition center has allowed
boys of 13 to be employed full time on condition th a t they attended
an evening school; it should be obvious, however, th a t for a boy who
has to work from 6 a. m. until 5 p. m. or even longer, subsequent
attendance at school is worse than useless.
22. Food.—Though good food may be generally obtainable in the
home, this is not always the case during the long hours spent away
from home. In many factories there are no means of obtaining a
good hot meal at the factory or in its immediate neighborhood, and
the necessary food m ust be brought from home. Such food may
prove adequate, if proper facilities exist for warming it up, b ut it is
liable to be unsatisfactory in character, or it may become stale and
unpalatable. The committee accordingly desire strongly to empha
size the importance of adequate canteen provision, whereby good
food can be obtained and eaten under restful conditions. In some
instances provision may be required at night, though unnecessary
during the day. A special part of the canteen should be set aside
for boys, otherwise they may be crowded out by the men. When the
numbers are sufficient, there is much to be said for the provision of a
separate canteen for boys, but in such cases the question of super
vision should not be overlooked. Facilities should also be available
for obtaining light refreshments at stated times. Where workers
have to travel a distance to and from their work provision should be
made for obtaining food at the beginning and end of each shift.
23. Wages and saving.—Much anxiety has been expressed by wit
nesses as to the demoralizing effects which may result from the high
wages now commonly earned by young boys and girls. Such wages
have undoubtedly been beneficial to health to the extent th a t they
have brought good food and suitable clothing within reach of all.
On the other hand they may encourage undue indulgence and extrava
gance. The possession of a large amount of pocket money is a serious
tem ptation to indulge in thriftlessness and gambling. The need for
saving against periods of sickness or other future difficulties is seldom
appreciated. I t is therefore of urgent importance th a t saving should

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109

be encouraged. The personal aspect of the question should not,
however, be allowed to obscure the national one; the boy should be
shown th a t here is a way in which he can help his country, and an
appeal should be made to his spirit of patriotism. The arrangements
must be so organized as to attract the support of those who are not
naturally thrifty. The rules should be few and easily understood.
The collection of deposits should be made in close connection with
the paym ent of wages. Since the wide variation of home circum
stances, apart from other difficulties makes any uniform system of
deductions from wages generally impossible, it is essential th a t the
collection of deposits should be in the hands of the welfare super
visor or some other person who, through his acquaintance with the
boy and his home, can advise him as to the amount which may
properly be put by from one week to another. Upon the wisdom
and tact of the supervisor rather than upon formal regulations should
depend the restriction of improper withdrawals. If the boy thinks
th a t he can not get his money out whenever he wants it, he may
-hesitate to deposit it. The rate of interest is sometimes im portant;
too low a rate may prove a serious hindrance to success. The various
forms of Government security now available should be found suitable
for all conditions. Lastly, the support of the parents should be
secured for whatever scheme is to be adopted.
24.
Supervision of health.—Under existing conditions of employ
ment, and with the urgent demand for juvenile labor, special care is
necessary to prevent boys and girls entering employments for which
they are physically unsuited. Local education authorities now
possess much valuable information as to the physical condition of
children leaving school, and means should be sought for making it
available for employment committees and certifying surgeons. Once
a boy or girl has been admitted to work, the welfare supervisor has
many opportunities for guarding their health and physical fitness.
The less robust should be given work within their powers. The
effects of night work on individuals should be noted and arrange
ments should be made for those adversely affected to be employed
only during the day. Careful records should be kept of any physical
defects or other m atters calling for such watchfulness. The mainte
nance of a high standard of personal cleanliness and the provision of
suitable clothing have an im portant influence on health, and merit
the careful attention of the welfare supervisor. As has already been
pointed out, the conditions of employment may affect not only the
present but also the future physical fitness and development of the
boy or girl. In some cases it may be found possible to take periodical
measurements of the heights and weights of the boys and girls in
employment. As a result of the school medical service much evidence
is accumulating as to the effect of employment of children while at

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E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D J U V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .

school, but no similar evidence is available as to the effects of employ
ment after school age. Records, if carefully kept, should not only
be of immediate value as giving early evidence of the presence of an
undue strain, but may prove of more permanent value as throwing
light on the many difficult problems arising out of the effect of occu
pation upon health.
Signed on behalf of the committee.
George N ewman, M. D.,
Chairman.
E. H. P elham, Secretary,

A ugust, 1916.

JUVENILE EMPLOYMENT COMMITTEES IN GREAT BRITAIN.1
The departmental committee on juvenile education in relation to
employment after the war have recently recommended th at juvenile
employment committees should be set up in about 150 new areas
where, up to the present, no such provision has been made. I t is,
therefore, of some interest to describe the nature and functions of
the existing committees which have during the last six years been
set up in connection with employment exchanges in about 130 areas
of the United Kingdom.
Nearly half of these committees have been formed by local educa
tion authorities under the Education (Choice of Employment) Act,
1910, while a similar number of advisory committees for juvenile
employment have been appointed by the Board of Trade under the
Labor Exchanges Act, 1909. The latter include the London com
mittee, which has itself formed 20 local advisory committees to work
with the employment exchanges in the area of the L. C. C. I t should
be added that the control of the committees of this type has now
passed from the Board of Trade to the new Ministry of Labor, togethei
with the administration of the employment exchanges themselves.
On the other hand, committees under the Choice of Employment Act
are subcommittees of the education committee of the local authority
in each case.
Four parts of the work may conveniently be distinguished. In the
first place, there is the work of obtaining full knowledge of the educa
tional and physical qualifications of boys and girls on leaving school
or at later stages in their careers, in order th a t it may become possible
to advise them suitably as to the occupations which they should
enter. To this end teachers send to the committee, in respect of
children leaving school, forms designed to obtain, among other
information, particulars of their educational qualifications, their
own wishes as to employment, and a summary of the school medical
officer’s health report. Invitations to meet members or officers of
the committee are sent to children and their parents. Assistance is
also given by committees to older children up to 17 years of age who
apply to the exchange on seeking a change of employment.
The second part of the work consists in obtaining knowledge of
the conditions of juvenile employment in the various trades, and of the
particular vacancies which arise from time to time. The cooperation
of employers is enlisted by means of circular letters and personal
i Great Britain Board of Trade Labor Gazette, February, 1917, pp. 48, 49.

I ll

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EM PLO YM ENT OE W O M EN AND JU V E N IL E S IN GREAT BRITA IN .

canvass. Such a canvass is usually undertaken by the officers of
the employment exchange, but it may also be carried on by a sub
committee of employers. In the third place, the committee have to
bring the boys and girls desiring work into touch with the employers
desiring workers. I t is at this stage th a t the information which has
been collected as to the children on the one hand and the available
employment on the other is found to be of extreme value in helping
each child to choose the employment which is best suited to him.
A committee can often give most valuable advice which prevents a
promising boy from taking up uneducative b u t highly paid work or
from entering an occupation for which his aptitude or physical condi
tion makes him quite unsuited. Often the child is persuaded to remain
at school until a suitable vacancy arises, or, if he is placed forthwith,
arrangements may be made for his attendance at continuation
classes, or, again, he may be found temporary employment and record
kept in order th a t he may be placed in skilled employment at a later
date.
The last of the four parts of work referred to is th a t of supervising
the boys and girls who have been placed, and giving them, on appro
priate occasions, much needed advice designed to counteract the
effects of the deteriorating industrial conditions to which they are
so frequently exposed. For this purpose the committee will usually
establish after-care committees and attract voluntary workers who
are willing to keep in touch with boys and girls, and from time to
time forward reports on their welfare to the committee. The
influence of these after-care workers, exerted in a variety of ways, has
been found to be extremely valuable in dealing with the difficulties
of juvenile employment. I t is largely directed to steadying the
child during a difficult period by impressing upon him a sense of his
responsibility to his employer, by deprecating frequent changes of
employment without adequate reason and without the knowledge of
the juvenile exchange, and by encouraging attendance at continuation
classes and the practice of thrift. The- visitor will concern himself,
too, with the physical welfare of the child by urging parents to obtain
expert advice when necessary. A special watch will be kept over the
boy who has been placed in some temporary employment with a
view to his becoming an apprentice in a skilled trade a year or two
later.
Most committees are not content with limiting their work to the
essential branches which have been indicated. They go further, and
widen their activities in attem pts to improve the general conditions
of boys’ and girls’ employment. They use their influence in the
direction of raising the age a t which children leave school; in a num
ber of districts exemption certificates are issued to children only after
the cases have been referred to the local juvenile employment com

JU V E N IL E EM PLO Y M EN T COMMITTEES I N GREAT BRITAIN .

113

m i t t e e . T h e y h a v e , in s o m e c a s e s , s e c u r e d t h e a d o p t io n a n d , in o th e r
c a s e s , t h e b e t t e r e n f o r c e m e n t o f b y - la w s u n d e r t h e E m p lo y m e n t o f
C h ild r e n A c t ; o c c a s io n a lly s t r e e t t r a d in g li c e n s e s a r e is s u e d o n ly
th r o u g h t h e c o m m it t e e , w h o t h e r e b y a r e e n a b le d to u s e th e ir in f lu e n c e
to d is s u a d e p a r e n t s fr o m a llo w in g c h ild r e n to t a k e u p t h is w o r k . I n
s o m e c a s e s c o m m it t e e s h a v e in d u c e d e m p lo y e r s to a d o p t a p la n ,
w h ic h is r a p id ly g r o w in g in f a v o r , o f a p p o in t in g in t h e ir w o r k s o ffic e r s
w h o s e s p e c ia l d u t y i t is to c o n c e r n t h e m s e lv e s w it h t h e w e lfa r e o f t h e
j u v e n i le e m p lo y e e s . T h e in f lu e n c e o f in a n y c o m m it t e e s h a s b e e n
s u c c e s s f u l in in d u c in g e m p lo y e r s to e n c o u r a g e t h e a t t e n d a n c e o f t h e ir
b o y a n d g ir l w o r k e r s a t c o n t in u a t io n c la s s e s , e s p e c i a ll y b y a llo w in g
t i m e o ff w it h p a y d u r in g w o r k in g h o u r s , a n d b y o ffe r in g p r iz e s o r
s p e c ia l p r o s p e c t s o f p r o m o t io n to t h o s e e m p lo y e e s w h o d o w e ll a t th e
c la s s e s .
A p a r t ic u la r ly p r o m is in g a v e n u e in w h ic h t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f j u v e n i le
e m p l o y m e n t c o m m it t e e s h a v e r e c e n t l y b e e n d ir e c t e d is t h a t o f c o n
v e n in g c o n fe r e n c e s o f e m p lo y e r s a n d w o r k p e o p le in v a r io u s tr a d e s w it h
a v ie w t o d is c u s s in g t h e c o n d it io n s a n d p r o s p e c t s o f j u v e n i le e m p l o y
m e n t . I t is s a t is f a c t o r y to n o t e t h a t a m a r k e d im p r o v e m e n t in t h e
a r r a n g e m e n t s fo r tr a in in g b o y s a n d g ir ls in t h e lo c a l tr a d e s h a s
f r e q u e n t ly r e s u lt e d fr o m s u c h c o n fe r e n c e s .
C o m m it t e e s h a v e n a t u r a l ly b e e n c o n c e r n e d w it h t h e a b n o r m a l
la b o r c o n d it io n s a r is in g a s a r e s u lt o f t h e w a r . I n p r e s e n t c ir c u m
s t a n c e s , b o y s a n d g ir ls a re in g r e a t d e m a n d fo r o c c u p a t io n s p r o v id in g
110 tr a in in g fo r f u t u r e e m p l o y m e n t . T h e h ig h w a g e s in t h e s e o c c u
p a t i o n s , t h e c o n s e q u e n t s l a c k e n in g o f p a r e n t a l c o n t r o l— f r e q u e n t ly
a c c e n t u a t e d b y t h e a b s e n c e fr o m h o m e o f f a t h e r s in t h e a r m y — t h e
le n g t h e n e d h o u r s o f la b o r , t h e g e n e r a l s p e e d in g u p o f in d u s t r y , a ll
h a v e b e e n b la m e d fo r a n a d v e r s e in f lu e n c e r e s u lt in g in le s s s a t is f a c t o r y
e d u c a t io n a l a n d in d u s t r ia l tr a in in g , in s o m e in j u r y to h e a lt h , a n d in
a m a r k e d d e t e r io r a t io n o f c h a r a c te r . J u v e n il e e m p l o y m e n t c o m
m i t t e e s h a v e s h o w n t h e m s e lv e s f u l ly a liv e to t h e s e d if fic u ltie s , o n
w h ic h t h e y w e r e in v i t e d to r e p o r t b y t h e d e p a r t m e n t a l c o m m it t e e
r e fe r r e d t o a b o v e .
T h e s h o r t a g e o f b o y s h a s r e s u lt e d in n u m b e r s o f o c c u p a t io n s b e in g
e n t e r e d fo r t h e fir s t t i m e b y g ir ls . I n a r r a n g in g t h is s u b s t it u t io n t h e
a s s is t a n c e o f j u v e n i le e m p l o y m e n t c o m m it t e e s h a s b e e n o f m u c h
v a lu e .
F u r t h e r , i t h a s , to a li m i t e d e x t e n t , b e e n fo u n d d e s ir a b le t o d r a f t
b o y s a n d g ir ls fr o m a r e a s w h e r e t h e ir s e r v ic e s a r e n o t m u c h in d e m a n d
to d is t r ic t s w h e r e t h e r e is a s c a n t y s u p p ly o f la b o r fo r e s s e n t ia l in d u s
tr ie s , o r w h e r e o p p o r t u n it ie s fo r tr a in in g in s k ille d e m p l o y m e n t a r e
a v a ila b le . W h e r e s u c h m ig r a t io n h a s b e e n c a r r ie d o u t th r o u g h th e
e x c h a n g e s , s p e c ia l a r r a n g e m e n t s h a v e b e e n m a d e to s e c u r e t h e w e lfa r e
o f t h e b o y s a n d g ir ls in t h e ir n e w s p h e r e s .
94148°— Bull. 223— 17------ 8

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EM PLO Y M EN T OF W O M EN AN D JU V E N IL E S IN GREAT BRITA IN .

Finally, it is certain th a t very im portant work lies before these
committees during the period of industrial resettlem ent after the war.
Difficulties may be anticipated—they are indeed already noticeable—■
as a result of the increasing employment of female labor in industry
leading to considerable displacement of boys. By means of confer
ences of the kind already mentioned, information is being collected
with regard to the probable openings for boy and girl labor in the
altered conditions of industry. Committees have shown themselves
eager to support proposals for the extension of the normal school life
and the establishment of some system of compulsory day or evening
continuation classes. They hope, when peace is in sight, to get into
personal touch with those boys and girls who are likely to be dis
charged from highly paid occupations, and persuade them, where
possible, to accept employment promising some future, though
offering smaller initial wages.
The war has naturally made many special demands upon voluntary
social workers, but committees are endeavoring to keep their organi
zation in being in the confident hope th at their knowledge and
experience of the question of juvenile employment may contribute to
the solution of the many difficulties attending social reconstruction
which are certain to arise in the future.

EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN AND BOYS ON MUNITION WORK
IN ITALY.1
The Bollettino dell’ Ufficio del Lavoro (Journal of the Italian
Labor Department) for October 16, 1916, publishes the tex t of two
circulars issued by the undersecretary for arms and munitions with
regard to the employment of women in munition factories. The
first of these circulars is dated August 23, and is addressed to various
officials and administrative bodies. Having recapitulated numerous
previous circulars as being based on a desire to promote the em
ployment of women at work which they are capable of performing,
so as to release men for work requiring great strength or high skill,
and also to find work and wages for the wives and other dependents
of men called to the colors, the document proceeds to state th a t the
results already attained, though considerable, are not sufficient.
“ More m ust be done by following the examples set in Great Britain
and in France.”
In Italy (and particularly in southern Italy and Sicily) the em ployment of women
in munition factories has met with passive resistance in some districts on the part of
employers, in others on the part of workmen, or, owing to prejudice and traditional
notions, on the part of the women themselves, whose aversion has been unmistakable
and persistent.
In France, where the question of staffs of male workers is even more pressing than
it is in Italy, the undersecretary of state for arms and munitions has ordered (in a
circular, dated July 20, 1916) that after August 20, with a preliminary eight days’
notice, all the conscripted workmen, without any exceptions, who are skilled merely
in work on which they can be, and should be, replaced by women, are to be with
drawn. Attached to this order is a list of all the occupations to which the new pro
visions are applicable. Of course, the managers and foremen are to be kept on as
conscripted workpeople.
In Italy, for reasons stated above, it is not possible to contemplate an immediate
and general application of a measure analogous to the French order. Y et it is the
intention of the department of arms and munitions that such a measure shall be
adopted gradually, with local modifications, as need arises.
The district committees on industrial mobilization (assisted by the various pro
vincial commissions for testing munitions) are therefore to compile exact and com
plete lists of the factories and the departments of factories devoted to the making
of fuses, parts of fuses, bombs, diaphragms (for field telephones), and projectiles of
small caliber (up to 87 mm .). Definite instructions are to be given by the aforesaid
authorities to the managers of these factories for the purpose of insuring that by
October 31, of this year, 50 per cent of the men of military age, whether discharged
men or men allocated to* factory work, shall be replaced by as many women or boys.
The latter are to be recruited specially from the pupils of secondary schools, to whom
an appeal was recently made in a circular issued by the minister of education.
iFrom British Board of Trade Labor Gazette, December, 1916, pp. 452, 453.

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E M PLO YM ENT OP W O M EN AND JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT BR ITA IN .

Moreover, the factory managers are to be instructed that by December 31 the percentage must be brought up to 80.
In regard to the actual numbers corresponding to the percentages, special modifi
cations may be made in those districts where the girls and women are least fitted for,
and least disposed toward, industrial employment. In regard to such modifications,
special reports must be subm itted for approval to the ministry.
It is anticipated that as a result of such instructions there w ill be available, at the
turn of the year, a large number of men who may be utilizable for work on shells of
medium and large caliber and on such other work as can not be done by women and
girls. Furthermore, it may be possible to restore a considerable number of men to
the fighting ranks.

The second circular published in the Bollettino is dated September
28, and is devoted mainly to urging the various authorities to renewed
and increased activity, in order to promote the employment of women.
Sufficient progress, it is asserted, has not been made, much more being
absolutely necessary in order to secure the safety of the country
and to avoid unnecessary bloodshed.
Much credit is due to women for what they have done. B u t it is b y no means
enough. Out of 355,349 persons employed in 882 munition works, only 45,628, or 13
per cent, are women.
It is necessary to remove the obstacles to the larger employment of women. What
is required is a convinced, intelligent, widespread, and vigorous propaganda that will
destroy the preconceptions of manufacturers, the opposition of trade-unions, and
inertia of women—such inertia being, fortunately, restricted to one locality.
For such a propaganda much help would be afforded by an exhibition of schemes
recently sanctioned for the moral and material benefit of working women. Emphasis
must be laid on the fact that the employment of women is not a mere artifice to get
work done at low wages for the sole profit of the employer.
The recruitment of women for industrial work w ill be facilitated in proportion to
the provision of means to safeguard their health and well-being, particularly in those
transitory cases where it is necessary, owing to the exigencies of the tim e, to employ
women on nightwork.
Compliance with the laws made to insure decency, health, and safety from acci
dents—important as it is in normal times—is now more than ever necessary.

The circular adds:
I t may be affirmed that as soon as manufacturers show plenty of in itiative and of
adaptiveness for this new type of labor and cease to. cherish preconceived opinions
as to the inferiority of w om en’s work and as to the low wages that it merits, the labor
of women w ill respond splendidly to the utmost variety of demands. This is true
not merely as to the highly satisfactory results of wom en’s work in the making of
cartridges, fuses, and boxes for shells, but also in actual work on the shells them selves
and on their fittings. In various workshops in Liguria and Lombardy women are
intrusted not only w ith making shells of small caliber, but also w ith making those
of 102 mm., 105 mm., and even those of 149 mm. Thus it is evident that the field for
utilizing the working powers of women is very wide, and that the very best results
may be attained by admitting them to it. * * * The department expects to see
month by month a marked and continuous increase in the percentage of women
em ployed in the workshops devoted to the manufacture of the weapons necessary for
the attainment of victory.

APPENDIX.
CONTENTS OF OTHER BULLETINS RELATING TO LABOR IN GREAT
BRITAIN AS AFFECTED BY THE WAR.
Bulletin No. 221. Hours, fatigue, and health in British munition factories.
Introduction.
Summary of the comm ittee’s conclusions.
Sunday labor (Memorandum No. 1).
Hours of work (Memorandum No. 5).
Output in relation to hours of work (Memorandum No. 12), report by II. M. Yernon,
M. D.
Industrial fatigue and its causes (Memorandum No. 7).
Sickness and injury (Memorandum No. 10).
Special industrial diseases (Memorandum No. 8).
Tetrachlorethane poisoning (report of the British medical inspector of factories).
Dope poisoning (leaflet issued by the British factory inspector’s office).
V entilation and lighting of munition factories and workshops (Memorandum
No. 9).
Effect of industrial conditions upon eyesight (Memorandum No. 15).
British treasury agreement as to trade-union rules affecting restriction of output.
Munitions of War Act, 1915, relating to labor disputes and restoration of tradeunion conditions after the war.
Munitions of War (Amendment) Act, 1916.
Munitions tribunals (provisional) rules for constituting and regulating munitions
tribunals in England and Wales.
Compulsory arbitration in munitions industry in France.
Bulletin No. 222. Welfare work in British munition factories.
Introduction.
Summary of comm ittee’s conclusions.
Legal regulation of welfare work in Great Britain.
Value of welfare supervision to the employer, by B. Seebohm Rowntree, director
of welfare department, Ministry of Munitions.
Welfare supervision (Memorandum No. 2).
Industrial canteens (Memorandum No. 3).
Canteen construction and equipm ent (Memorandum No. 6).
Investigations of workers’ food and suggestions as to dietary (Memorandum No. 11).
Washing facilities and baths (Memorandum No. 14).

ADDITIONAL MATERIAL RELATING TO LABOR IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES
AS AFFECTED BY THE WAR.
WOMEN IN IN D U S T R Y .

Woman’s war work in Great Britain. Summary of British War Office report on
woman’s war work. (London, September, 1918. 54 pp. 72 illustrations.)
(In Monthly R eview , December, 1916. pp. 88-92.)
Employment of women on munitions of war. Summary of Ministry of Munitions
pamphlet entitled “ Notes on the Employm ent of Women on Munitions of War,
with an Appendix on Training of Munition Workers.” (London, 1916. 94 pp.,
ill.)

(.In Monthly Review, September, 1916. p. 105.)

118

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AN D JU V E N IL E S I N GREAT B R IT A IN .

Employm ent of women in retail stores. Summary of reports of the shops committee
appointed by the Secretary of State for the Home Department to consider the
conditions of retail trade which can best secure that the further enlistm ent of
men or their employment in other national service may not interfere w ith the
operations of that trade. (London, 1915. 10 pp.)
(In Monthly R eview , July, 1918. pp. 162, 163.)
LA BO R CON D ITION S A N D LEG ISL A T IO N .

Effect of the war upon railway labor in Great Britain. Article based on report of the
general secretary of the National Union of Railway Men in Great Britain, 1916.
(In Monthly Review , August, 1916. pp. 81, 82.)
Proposed ministry of labor in Great Britain. Article based on proceedings of British
Trades-Union Congress, September 6 to 11, 1915.
(In Monthly Review , August, 1916. pp. 82, 83.)
Report of the chief inspector of factories and workshops. Summary of annual report
of British factory inspector’s office for 1915. (London, 1916. 15 pp.)
(In Monthly Review , December, 1916. pp. 121-123.)
E xtension of unemployment insurance in Great Britain.
(In Monthly R eview , November, 1916. pp. 65-68.)
Labor in Great Britain after the war. Resolutions of conference of representatives of
capital and labor held in London, January, 1917.
(In M onthly R eview , March, 1917. pp. 479, 480.)
Industrial unrest in Great Britain. Summary of Chapter II of Labor, Finance, and
the War, edited b y A. W. Kirkaldy. Published by authority of the council of
the British Association for the Advancement of Science. (London, 1916.)
(In Monthly Review , April, 1917. pp. 520-525.)
New ministries in th e British Cabinet.
(In Monthly R eview , May, 1917. pp. 770, 771.)
Minimum-wage law in France.
(In Monthly R eview, December, 1915. pp. 36-41.)
Chinese labor in France. Summary of article b y “ S. G. C., a Chinese correspondent, ’ ’
in the New Statesman, January 13, 1917. p. 343.
(In Monthly Review , March, 1917. pp. 480, 481.)
Compulsory arbitration in Norway.
(In Monthly R eview , September, 1916. pp. 78, 79.)
Great Britain: The Public General Acts, 1914-16, London. Printed for F. Atterbury, K ing’s Printer of Acts of Parliament, b y Eyre & Spottiswoode (Ltd.),
1916. X II, 459 pp.
Great B ritain: Manual of Emergency Legislation, comprising all of the acts of Parlia
ment, proclamations, orders, etc., passed and made in consequence of the war
to September 30, 1914. E dited b y Alexander Pulling, London. Printed for F.
Atterbury b y Darling & Son (Ltd.), September, 1914. X I, 572 pp. Price,
3s. 6d.
Great Britain: Supplement No. 1, to November 2, 1914, to the Manual of Emergency
Legislation. November, 1914. V II, 54 pp.
Great Britain: Supplement No. 2, to December 15, 1914, incorporating and super
seding supplement No. 1, to the Manual of Emergency Legislation. December,
1914. X III, 217 pp. Price, Is. 6d.
Great Britain: Supplement No. 3, to April 30,1915, in continuation of supplem ent No.
2, to the Manual of Emergency Legislation. May, 1915. X V III, 219 to 697 pp.
Price, 2s. 6d.

A P P E N D IX .

119

Great Britain: Supplement No. 4, to August 31, 1915, in continuation of supplement
No. 3, to the Manual of Emergency Legislation. September, 1915. X X V II, 462
pp. Price, 2s. 6d.
Great Britain: Manual of Emergency Legislation, Defense of the Realm Regulations
made to May 23, 1916. Second Edition. London. Printed for F. Atterbury
by Darling & Son (Ltd.), 1916. X , 102 pp., ill.
Canada: Copies of proclamations, orders in council, and documents relating to the
European war; compiled by the department of the secretary of state of Canada.
Ottawa, Government Printing Bureau, 1915. X X , 209 pp.; appendixes, 142 pp.
Canada: First supplement to copies of proclamations, orders in council, and docu
ments relating to the European war. Ottawa, 1915. X X X II, 526 pp.; appen
dixes, 350 pp.
Canada: Second supplement to copies of proclamations, orders in council, and docu
ments relating to the European war. Ottawa, 1916. L X V I, 527 to 1,050 pp.;
appendixes, 351 to 537 pp.
Canada: Order in council of March 23, 1916, for the extension of the provisions of the
Industrial Disputes Investigation Act, 1907, other than section 63, to include
employers and employees engaged in the construction, production, repairing,
manufacture, transportation, and delivery of ships, vessels, works, buildings,
munitions, ordnance, guns, explosives, and materials and supplies for the use of
the military or naval forces.
Canada: Order in council of November 10, 1916, respecting the high cost of living, as
amended b y order in council of November 29, 1916.
Canada: Sessional paper No. 35a. The provision of employment for members of the
Canadian expeditionary force on their return to Canada, and the reeducation of
those who are unable to follow their previous occupations because of disability.
A plan submitted by the secretary of Military Hospitals and Convalescent Homes
Commission, together with appendixes dealing with similar work in England
and on the continent of Europe. Ottawa, 1915. 53 pp.
Canada: Sessional paper No. 185. Pensions granted and money allowances made to
members of the Canadian expeditionary force since beginning of war to February
16, 1916. Ottawa, 1916. 83 pp.
Canada: Ministry of Agriculture. Patriotism and Production more than Usual.
Agricultural war book. Ottawa, January, 1915. 157 pp.
GOVERNM ENT R EG U LA T IO N OF IN D U S T R IE S A N D COMMODITIES.

Restrictions on output of textile establishments in Germany. Article based on
material in Reichs-Arbeitsblatt, November, 1915; Soziale Praxis, November 11,
1915.
(In Monthly Review, April, 1916. Pp. 81, 82.)
Government control of food supplies in Great Britain.
(In Monthly Review , March, 1917. Pp. 390-407.)
Government control of food supplies in France.
(In Monthly Review , April, 1917. Pp. 525-533.)
Government control of coal mines in Great Britain.
(In Monthly Review, April, 1917. Pp. 533, 534.)
Government control of food supplies in Germany.
(In Monthly Review, May, 1917. Pp. 703-727.)
Government control of food supplies in Italy.
(In Monthly Review, May, 1917. Pp. 727-744.)

120

E M P L O Y M E N T OF W O M E N AND J U V E N IL E S IN GREAT B R IT A IN .
W AGES.

Wages of miners in Germany during the first year of the war. Article based on mate
rial in Soziale Praxis, Berlin, 1915, Vol. X X V , No. 4, October 28, 1915, p. 89.
(In Monthly Review, April, 1918. Pp. 80, 81.)
Minimum-wage law in France.
(In Monthly Review , December, 1915. Pp. 38-41.)
New regulations as to wages of workers in munitions factories in France. T ext of
decree issued by minister of munitions on January 17, 1917.
(In Monthly Review, March, 1917. Pp. 382-385.)
PR IC E S.

Foreign food prices as affected by the war.
(In B ulletin No. 170 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (May, 1915.) Also
summarized in Monthly Review, July, 1915. Pp. 42-44.)
Increase in retail prices of coal in Great Britain. Summary of British Board of Trade
report of departmental committee to inquire into the causes of the present rise
in the retail prices of coal sold for domestic use. (London, 1915.)
(In Monthly Review, July, 1915. Pp. 45-58.)
R etail prices in foreign countries.
(In Monthly Review, September, 1915, pp. 48-57; October, 1915, pp. 44-49; D e
cember, 1915, pp. 44-53; March, 1918, pp. 80-85; July, 1918, pp. 80-91; November,
1918, pp. 49-80; February, 1917, pp. 244-251.)
Increase in prices of commodities in Great Britain, 1916. Summary of interim report
on meat, milk, and bacon of British Board of Trade. Departmental committee
on prices. (London, 1918. 20 pp.)
(In Monthly Review , January, 1917. Pp. 51-58.)
Wholesale prices in Great Britain.
(In Monthly Review, April, 1917. Pp. 588-588.)
EM PLOYM ENT.

Employm ent conditions in foreign countries.
(In Monthly Review, July, 1915, pp. 60-80; August, 1915, pp. 18-20; October,
1915, pp. 49-52; December, 1915, pp. 58-71; March, 1918, pp. 86-89; July, 1918, pp.
92-98; January, 1917, pp. 138-149.)
Land settlem ent and unemployment in England. Summary of introduction and
Part I of the final report of the British departmental committee appointed by the
president of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries to consider the settlem ent
or employment on the land in England and Wales of discharged sailors and sol
diers. (London, 1918. 30 pp., fold., chart.)
(In Monthly Review , April, 1918. Pp. 11-13.)
Employm ent of discharged soldiers and sailors on the land in Great Britain. Sum
mary of Part II of the final report of the British departmental committee appointed
by the president of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries to consider the settle
m ent and em ployment on the land in England and Wales of discharged sailors
and soldiers. (London, 1918. 39 pp.)
(In Monthly Review, September, 1916. Pp. 87-90.)
IN D U S T R IA L D IS E A S E S .

A nonpoisonous dope for airplanes. Parliamentary statement by British War Office
and Admiralty.
(In Monthly R eview, January, 1917. pp. 97,98.)

A P P E N D IX .

121

IN D U S T R IA L FA T IG U E .

Some new studies of industrial fatigue. Summary of the following reports:
Interim report on an investigation of industrial fatigue by physiological methods,
by A. F. Stanley Kent, professor of physiology, U niversity of Bristol. Great
Britain, Home Department, London, August, 1915. 34 pp. [Cd. 8056.]
Second interim report on an investigation of industrial fatigue by physiological
methods, by A. F. Stanley Kent, professor of physiology, .U niversity of
Bristol. Great Britain, Home Department, London, August, 1916. 76 pp.,
18 charts. [Cd. 8335.]
The question of fatigue from the economic standpoint.—Interim report of the
committee, consisting of Prof. J. H. Muirhead (chairman), Miss B. L: Hutchins
(secretary), Mr. P. Sargent Florence (organizing secretary), Miss A. M. Ander
son, Prof. Bainbridge, Mr. E. Cadbury, Prof. Chapman, Prof. Stanley K ent,
Dr. Maitland, Miss M. C. Matheson, Mrs. Meredith, Dr. C. S. Myers, Mr.
C. K. Ogden, Mr. J. W. Ramsbottom, and Dr. J. Jenkins Robb. Report
submitted at the Manchester meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1915. Manchester, 1915. 67 pp.
The question of fatigue from the economic standpoint.—Second interim report of
the committee. Report submitted at the Newcastle meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science. Newcastle, 1916. 24 pp.
(In Monthly R eview, December, 1916. pp. 97-105.)
W ELFARE WORK.

Welfare work in Great Britain. Summary of book on welfare work. Em ployers’
experiments for improving welfare work in factories, by E. Dorothea Proud.
(London, G. B eil & Sons (Ltd.), 1916. X V II, 363 pp. 7s. 6d. net.)
(In Monthly Review, December, 1916. pp. 81-88.)
COAL-M INING IN D U S T R Y .

Organization in coal mines to increase output in Great Britain. Summary of report
of British Home Office committee to inquire into the conditions prevailing in
the coal-mining industry. (London, 1915. Cd. 7939.)
(In Monthly R eview , July, 1915. pp. 56-58.)
Compulsory cartel or monopoly in the German coal-mining industry.
(In Monthly Review, November, 1915. pp. 83-85.)
Conditions prevailing in the coal-mining industry in Great Britain. Summary of
second report of British Home Office committee to inquire into the conditions
prevailing in the coal-mining industry.
(In Monthly Review , July, 1916. pp. 151-153.)
Effect of the war on the coal-mining industry in Great Britain. Summary of third
report of British Home Office committee to inquire into the conditions prevail
ing in the coal-mining industry. (London, 1916. 17 pp.)
(In Monthly Review, April, 1917. pp. 534, 535.)
Increase in retail prices of coal in Great Britain. (See Prices.)

Full text of Employment of Women and Juveniles in Great Britain During the War: Reprints of the Memoranda of the British Health of Munition Workers Committee : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 223

FRASER