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EMPLOYMENT OUTLOOK IN THE BUILDING TRADES UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR • BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MAURICE J. TOBIN, Secretary EWAN CLAGUE, Commissioner IN COOPERATION WITH VETERANS ADMINISTRATION OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK SERIES BULLETIN NO. 967 EM PLOYM ENT OUTLOOK IN THE BUILDING TRADES Bulletin No. 967 United States Department of Labor Maurice J. Tobin, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Ewan Glague, Commissioner in cooperation with Veterans Administration Letter of Transmittal U nited S tates D epartment of L abor, B ureau of L abor S tatistics , Washington, D. C., July 20, 1949. The S ecretary of L abor : I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the employment outlook in the building trades. This is one of a series of occupational studies conducted in the Bureau’s Occupational Outlook Branch for use in vocational counseling of veterans, young people in schools, and others interested in choosing a field of work. The study was financed largely by the Veterans Administration, and the report was originally published as Veterans Administration Pamphlet 7-4.11 for use in vocational rehabilitation and education activities. The study was prepared by Alexander C. Findlay, who was assisted in the preparation of Part 3 by Ruth Gordon. The Bureau wishes to acknowledge the generous assistance received from the international unions making up the Building Trades Department of the American Federation of Labor, from asso ciations of contractors, from architectural and building magazines, and from others. E w a n C lague , Commissioner. Hon. M aurice J. T obin , Secretary of Labor. For sale by the Superintendent o f Docum ents, U. S. Governm ent Printing Office W ashington 25, D. C. - Price 50 cents CONTENTS Page S U M M A R Y ............... ,................................................................. 1 P A R T I. C O N S T R U C T IO N : C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S O F T H E I N D U S T R Y A N D IT S E M P L O Y M E N T Page Major Types of Employment................................................ The Contract Construction Industry................................. Long-Range Outlook for the Building Trades................... Booms and Depressions in Construction Activity............. Seasonality of Employment ............................................... General Characteristics of Employment........................... Informal Personnel Practices............................................... Opportunities for Advancement......................................... Opportunities for Minority Groups..................................... Hours and Earnings............................................................. Classes or Grades of Workers............................................. Trades as the Basis of Construction Work....................... Training for the Skilled Trades......................................... 3 4 8 11 14 20 22 23 26 27 35 37 38 P A R T II. T H E IN D IV ID U A L C O N S T R U C T IO N TRADES Pag© Carpenters ............................................................................. Bricklayers ............................................................................ Stonemasons ................................................... Cement Finishers .................................................................. Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers......................... Rodmen (Reenforcing Iron W orkers)............................... Boilermakers ......................................................................... Operating Engineers (Construction Machinery Oper ators) .................................................................................. Lathers.................................................................................... Plasterers............................................................................... Marble Setters, Tile Setters, and Terrazzo Workers....... Painters and Paperhangers................................................. Glaziers ................................................................................. R oofers................................................................................... Asbestos W orkers................................................................ Plumbers and Pipe Fitters................................................... Electricians ........................................................................... Sheet Metal Workers............................................................. Elevator Constructors ......................................................... Building Laborers and Hod C arriers............................... IV 44 49 53 55 57 60 61 62 64 66 68 71 75 77 78 80 84 86 89 91 PART III. THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CONSTRUCTION EM PLOYM ENT Page New England States ............................................................ Middle Atlantic States ........................................................ Great Lakes States (East North Central States) ........... West North Central States ................................................ South Atlantic States........................................................... East South Central States................................................. West South Central States................................................. Mountain States .................................................................... Pacific States ....................................................................... 98 100 103 105 107 Ill 114 116 119 TABLES No. Page 1 Expenditures for New Construction in 1939 Prices by Source of Funds, 1915-1948 ........................................... 13 2 Expenditures for New Nonfarm Building Construction by Type in 1939 Prices, 1915-1948 ............................... 13 3 Average Annual Employment of Wage and Salary Workers ............................................................................. 14 4 Months Worked in 1939 by Male Wage or Salary Work ers in the Construction Industry................................. 15 5 Months Worked in 1939 by Male Wage or Salary Workers in Certain Construction Occupations........................... 17 6 Months Worked in 1939 — Percentage Distribution of Male Wage and Salary Workers in Certain Construc tion Occupations............................................................... 18 7 Average Hourly and Weekly Earnings and Average Weekly Hours in Private Contract Building Construc tion, 1934-1948 ................................................................. 31 8 Average Hourly and Weekly Earnings in Private Con tract Building Construction by Type of Contractor, December 1948 ...................... 33 9 Index of Union Hourly Wage Rates in All Building Trades, 1907-1948 ........................................................... 33 10 Average Annual Earnings Per Full-Time Employee for Certain Industries, 1929-1947 ....................................... 35 Estimated Expenditures for New Construction, 1947 and 1939: 11 New England States ........................................................... 100 12 Middle Atlantic States ....................................................... 102 13 Great Lakes States (East North Central States) ........... 104 14 West North Central States................................................. 106 15 South Atlantic States ......................................................... 110 16 East South Central States ................................................. 113 17 West South Central States................................................. 115 18 Mountain States ................................................................... 118 19 Pacific States ....................................................................... 120 V CHARTS No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 VI Page General Building Contractors— Size of Business— 1939.... Special Trade Contractors— Size of Business— 1939 ..... Average Value of Work Performed (by Selected Types of Contractors) 1939 ............................................................ Expenditures for New Construction (1915-48) 1939 Prices ................................................................................. Employment in Contract Construction (1939-48) Annual Average .............................................................................. Percent Distribution of Employed Male Workers in Con struction— Months Worked in 1939 ............................... Percent of Negroes Among Employed Male Workers in Construction, 1940 ............................................................ Union Wage Rates in Building Trades (1907-48) ........... Average Hourly Earnings in Private Contract Building Construction (1934-48) ....... ,........................................... Average Weekly Earnings in Private Contract Building Construction (1934-48) ................................................... Average Weekly Earnings for Employees of Selected Types of Contractors— 1948 ......................................... Average Annual Earnings per Equivalent Full-Time Em ployee (1929-47) ............................................................. 5 6 7 11 12 16 27 28 29 30 32 34 SUMMARY Prospects for workers in the skilled building trades are excellent for the next few years and, on a long-range basis are very good. Exceptions are the trades of painter, paperhanger, and boilermaker; for stonemasons the outlook is fair, and for tile setters it is uncertain; for laborers it is not as good as for most of the skilled trades. There is a very large backlog of work to be done and, although the current rate of new construction activity is by far the high est in the country’s history as measured in dol lar expenditures, in physical volume it is well below the rate during several of the predepres sion years. Construction employment is strongly depend ent on general business conditions and has been marked in the past by great reduction when general employment falls. Complete stability cannot be expected, but it seems unlikely that such a disastrous drop as that from 1928 to 1933 will be repeated in its full intensity. All trades are affected to at least some degree — and some trades to a serious degree— by sea sonal unemployment resulting from weather and other causes. Some degree of improvement seems likely, but year-round employment for most building workers is at best a hope for the distant future rather than an expectation for the near future. The building trades are lifetime occupations, from two standpoints: They will continue to offer employment opportunities for a long time to come; and a workman can keep his skill and continue to find employment at a greater age than in many other industries. All trades have changed within the past generation, some of them quite markedly, and most are in process of change at the present moment, but the neces sary adjustments have presented few serious difficulties to those already in the trades. In the future there is likely to be more complete proc essing and fabrication of materials before de livery and more complete mechanization of work at the construction site, but each will be a continuation of a long-time trend rather than a new development. There is no risk that building workers will be supplanted by magical new methods, even though factory assemblies may reduce site labor requirements greatly fo r cer tain quite specific types of buildings; these types are not a large enough part of the total market to constitute a real threat. As in all occupations, there are jobs where young workers are preferred; but there are also jobs where older workers are regarded as fully equal, if not superior. In many jobs, particu larly remodeling and repair work, it is far more important that a workman understand com pletely what he is doing and be able to recognize and deal with any condition that he may en counter, than that he have the speed and en durance of youth. With respect to its labor force, the construc tion industry is outstanding in being an indus try of journeymen; it is by far the largest industry in which this is the case. The skilled building trades make up the Nation’s largest group of related skilled occupations — about three times as many as workers in the skilled machine-shop occupations, about eight times as many as in operation of railroad trains, about two and one-half times as many as in printing and publishing. Semiskilled workers are much less important, in building construction particu larly; except for truck drivers, most of them perform services for the journeymen, and few of them take part in the journeymen’s activity of using tools and installing materials. Unskilled workers (laborers) will continue to be needed permanently, as far as can now be seen, al though their place has been reduced progres sively by mechanization and further mechaniza tion of unskilled operations seems virtually certain. Journeymen have high hourly earnings and, during normal economic conditions, fairly high although seasonally irregular annual earnings. Status as a journeyman carries prestige; it means membership in a group universally recog nized for skill and competence in a basic part o f the country’s economic life. It is an asset for employment in any part of the country and, for 1 the larger trades, in communities of any size. The work is satisfying, offering variety and opportunity to see the results of the work being done, in contrast to repetition and close spe cialization found in many other occupations. Journeyman status confers a greater degree of independence than that of most other occupa tions. A journeyman depends on his competence in the trade and on general economic conditions, rather than on either the fortunes or the good will of any particular employer; and he can change to another employer without penalty. His opportunity to establish his own business is greater than for the man in almost any factory occupation. While most such businesses are fairly small, they afford opportunity for expan sion and many large contracting firms have been started and operated by former journey men. For several contracting fields competi tion from persons with other backgrounds is keener than in the past, but the opportunities remain good for those with the appropriate combination of abilities. The prinicpal disadvantage of building work has been its extreme variation with general business conditions, so that a reduction in total nonagricultural employment or national income has been accompanied by a much greater reduc tion in construction employment. Less serious, but far from negligible in importance for the majority of workers, is seasonal lost time, even during comparatively good years. They must pay their yearly expenses from high earnings for about 8 or 9 months plus much lower earn ings for the remaining months. Several weeks of continuous unemployment in winter is by no means uncommon, even in good years. Unem ployment compensation benefits are, of course, much below full-time earnings. Construction occurs everywhere, and even on quite specialized jobs or those performed by contractors from distant cities, local workers 2 are hired as far as possible. This means that employment opportunities will be present every where. The number of workers to be hired at any time will necessarily be greatest where the greatest amount of construction is going on— for the most part, the largest cities. That does not necessarily mean that employment oppor tunities are greatest in such cities, however, because in each case the local construction labor force is also largest there. Employment pros pects in different localities can be stated in gen eral terms only, and such statements are given in a later section of this bulletin. In general, employment prospects are best in those parts of the country now in an active stage of indus trial development and population growth. Even in the economically mature parts of the country, where construction activity seems unlikely to make up as large a part of the national total as in the past, new workers will be needed al most continuously to replace those leaving the labor force because of death or retirement. Furthermore, men in the construction trades find it much easier to move from place to place than do workers in many other occupations. A young man having an opportunity for appren ticeship in a trade which interests him should not be guided solely or even primarily by his opinion of construction prospects in his home locality. Skills learned through apprenticeship there will be applicable in employment any where else he may go. Requirements for those wishing to enter a trade are good health, average intelligence, a fairly good education (completion of high school is advantageous but in some cases is not required), willingness to learn, at least average strength, and some manual dexterity. Adept ness and enjoyment in the use of tools are highly desirable, but for most of the trades an interest in the principles and in how and why the parts fit together is fully as important, if not more so. PARTI CONSTRUCTION: CHARACTERISTICS OF TH E IN D U STRY AND ITS EM PLOYM ENT Major Types of Employment The Fields of Employment Construction workers work in the contract construction industry (described on page 4), in force-account construction and maintenance, and as self-employed workers. In addition, some of them are employed on jobs having no direct connection with construction but using the skills of a construction trade. There is almost com plete fluidity between these fields, so that a journeyman employed by a contractor at one time may be employed a few weeks later by a manufacturing firm to work on remodeling its plant office, or may be conducting a small busi ness of his own as a self-employed workman. The largest single field is the contract con struction industry, for which average monthly employment was a little over 2 million during 1948, with a monthly range from 1,731,000 to 2,253,000. From January 1939 through Decem ber 1948 monthly employment ranged from 904,000 to 2,577,000.1 A workman’s employment in this industry is related to a given type of work rather than to any individual contractor, or even to any particular type of contractor. Thus, carpenters are employed mainly by build ers and general building contractors, but any individual carpenter may in the course of a year be employed by a highway contractor to build forms for a concrete bridge, by an electrical or plumbing contractor to build a temporary job office and tool shed at the site where a large building is being put up, and by a carpentry contractor for the framing and rough carpentry on a church, as well as by one or more builders or general building contractors. Similarly a painter would ordinarily be employed by a painting contractor but might be employed by a general building contractor having his own painting crew, or by a general building con tractor to paint a job office or even some of his construction machinery. The contractor desig nates the work to be done; plans the sequence of operations at least broadly, either in person or through a superintendent or foreman; sup plies the materials as needed; supplies any machinery, equipment, and special tools that are needed; and assumes full responsibility for the financial outcome of his part of the total construction work (which may be the entire structure, or may be a single part of the job such as painting or electrical w iring). The con tractor also is responsible for acceptability of the completed work to the owner or architect and to the building inspector and other appro priate public officials. A journeyman’s respon sibility is for competent performance of the work assigned to him and for notifying the foreman or contractor of any unsatisfactory conditions affecting his work, such as errors in related work of other trades. Force-account employment, although smaller, is an important employment field. Here the em ployer is a business establishment or govern ment body performing construction work for its own use, instead of engaging a contractor to handle it. In the field of new construction this is commonest for paving, although it is also used to some degree for all other types, including building. New construction projects carried out by force account can be very large, but usually are of moderate or small size be cause of the disavantages of forming and later dissolving large organizations for infrequent jobs of unusual size. The characteristics of such employment on new construction are es sentially the same as those of employment by contractors on projects of the same type. Forceaccount work is more common, however, for maintenance, repairs, and minor alterations.1 1 These figures include other employees as well as members of the skilled trades. 3 Industrial plants, hotels, owners of office build ings and large apartment buildings, boards of education, State and county highway commis sions, city water departments, organizations of all types employ workers directly to main tain and repair their property, to do remodel ing as necessary, and to make minor improve ments. Employment here is frequently on a year-round basis with wages often at a weekly or monthly rather than an hourly rate. Unless the property involved is very large there is very likely to be less specialization than in new work, so that a workman is often hired on the basis of doing all work within his own trade plus the commoner jobs in related trades. In some cases there is a combination of building work and shop work. Thus a maintenance painter in a hotel might refinish marred furni ture as occasion arose, as well as doing paint ing, paperhanging and other decorating in the guest rooms, corridors, and other parts of the building. Self-employment is the third large field. A self-employed workman is hired directly by a series of property owners or their agents for specific jobs. This has some of the characteris tics of wage employment, and, in other respects, it resembles contracting. It is limited to small jobs, in which the workman can do most if not all of the work himself; he may hire one or two men to work for him occasionally, but not regularly, and, in any case, works with the tools of his trade. He may be paid by the job and may include materials in an over-all price, or the materials may be provided by the owner; in other cases, he is paid by the hour or day. In any case he does not sublet work to others — if the job includes work which he cannot do (such as plastering or electrical work in small alterations consisting mainly of carpen try) the owner arranges for this directly. A self-employed workman resembles a contractor in taking responsibility for completion of the job, in planning the way in which it is to be done, in providing any equipment needed as well as hand tools, and (in most cases) in scheduling and ordering the materials needed even though the material bills may be paid directly by the owner. He resembles a wage employee in that his income is derived mainly from his own direct work. 4 Self-employment is commonest in those fields having a large volume of maintenance, repair, and small alteration jobs— particularly paint ing and decorating and carpentry. It is present in other trades also but is less common than it would otherwise be in the trades for which a State or municipal license is commonly re quired (especially plumbing and electrical work). It is, of course, completely impractical for any type of work needing expensive ma chinery or shop equipment. Self-employment is probably as common as ever for painting and decorating. For carpentry, however, it has met keen competition in many areas from home im provement establishments which seek small jobs of all sorts by active sales efforts, often with a sales room containing displays of the types o f ‘work they offer. The remaining employment field is much smaller and differs in extent among the trades; it consists of nonconstruction employment, in factories and elsewhere, using the skills of one of the construction trades. Men so employed are journeymen in the full sense of the term and are not to be confused with semiskilled workers performing repetitive work on the same materials. Thus sheet metal workers are employed in making enclosures and other parts for custom-built machinery, and in making full-size, nonoperating models (mock-ups) o f new devices to show their exact appearance before quantity manufacture is started. Ex amples in carpentry are the making of similar “ mock-ups” in wood, the building of displays of various types for window or other use, build ing of work tables and wooden templates, etc. Plumbers, pipefitters, and electricians are em ployed extensively in shipbuilding. Boilermak ers are employed only partially in construction; their past employment has been mainly in factory manufacture of boilers and tanks, in shipbuilding, and in repair and rebuilding of locomotive and marine boilers. The importance of this nonconstruction employment differs among the trades, ranging from the major part of all employment for boilermakers to negli gible amounts for several of the trades. The Contract Construction Industry In its organizational form, the contract con struction industry is unique among American industries. This form has developed from the CHART t GENERAL BUILDING CONTRACTORS Size of Business 1939 NUMBER OP ESTABLISH M EN TS VALUE OF WORK PERFORM ED Thousands Millions of Dollars U N ITED STA TES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS tremendous variety in its product, with conse quent need for great flexibility, which in turn is provided by specialization. For most types of construction several contractors work joint ly, each doing the kinds of work for which he is especially fitted. The industry is usually classified into three groups of firms: Builders, general contractors, and special trade contractors. Builders operate on their own account, putting up houses; in some cases, apartment buildings; occasionally, stores or other nonresidential buildings. The houses are ordinarily built fo r sale, and the other buildings may be intended either for sale or for ownership and rental.2 The builders de cide on the characteristics of their projects; 2 Persons and organizations performing construction for their own use are not regarded as part o f the construction industry even though they buy materials, hire workmen, and direct the work. obtain designs; buy land; arrange financing; arrange for site improvements, such as water lines, sewer lines, and street paving; and in the building operations proper do the work corresponding to that of general contractors as described below. The term “ contractor” refers to a firm per forming construction work authorized by others, rather than work undertaken on its own initiative. The form of authorization dif fers widely and is not limited to a written agreement to build a structure described in more or less detail by drawings and specifica tions at a stipulated price. There are numerous other types of written agreements, and in some cases the authorization is verbal only. But de cision to proceed, selection of land, obtaining of individual or stock architectural drawings, arrangement of financing and other matters 5 CHART 2 SPECIAL TRADE CONTRACTORS Size of Business N U M B E R OF E S T A B L IS H M E N T S 1939 V A L U E OF W ORK P E R F O R M E D Millions of Ootlors 0 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR 8UREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS separate from the construction operations themselves are the responsibility of the owner, and any advice or assistance which the con tractor may give is outside of his basic func tion of carrying out the construction opera tions. General contractors construct buildings and other structures and do alteration and repair work, on contract for owners. They take re sponsibility for the entire job, except that in some cases certain parts of the work are omit ted from the general contract and arranged separately by the owner or architect. Standard practice is that general contractors carry out the major part of each project with their own forces and sublet the remainder to other con tractors (special trade contractors), but usage with respect to the amount and kinds of work sublet differs greatly. There are three types of general contractors, based on the type of con 6 100 20 0 300 40 0 Sourcf- 1939 CONSTRUCTION CENSUS struction which they undertake: Building; highway, which includes other forms of paving such as city streets or airport landing strips; and heavy, which includes all other important forms of nonbuilding construction (dams, piers, sewer or water lines, dredging, tunnels, many other form s). Special trade contractors carry out the work of a single trade or two or more closely related trades— painting, electrical work, plumbing with or without steam and hot water heating, sheet metal work with or without roofing, etc. Much of this work is done for builders or gen eral contractors, while other jobs (most repair jobs, and some new jobs as well) are done directly for the owners. There is also secondary subcontracting, as when a plastering contractor receives a subcontract for plastering and lath ing and sublets the lathing to a lathing con tractor. CHART 3 AVERAGE VALUE OF WORK PERFORMED 1939 0 THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS 10 20 30 40 A L L T Y P E S OF CO N TR A CTO R S B U IL D E R S G E N E R A L BUILDING CO NTRACTO RS S P E C IA L T R A D E CO N TR A CTO R S Carpentry Electrical Heating and plumbing group Plumbing only Plastering and lathing Plastering Painting Masonry UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Ordinarily a contractor provides as well as installs all materials for his part of the project, but not uncommonly specified materials are pro vided for him by others, if the owner or general contractor has particularly favorable buying arrangements for certain items. The extreme case is “ labor only” contracting, in which the person or firm awarding the contract provides all materials. This can be bona fide contracting, with the contractor operating an established permanent business and having the customary employer relationship to his workers. As such, it is found mainly in some of the specialized fields— setting of reenforcing steel or cut stone for general contractors, installation of numer Source-. 1939 CONSTRUCTION CENSUS ous specialities in the ornamental metal field where a manufacturer’s representative obtains an over-all contract but sublets installation to a local ornamental iron contractor, etc. This is entirely distinct from “ labor only” subcontract ing as a disguised form of piecework employ ment, described briefly on page 24. The 1939 census of construction, reports 215,050 firms in the construction industry— 3,705 builders, 29,641 general building contrac tors, 5,517 other general contractors, and 176,187 special trade contractors. Most of these were small. Well over half of the builders, about two-thirds of the general building contractors, and more than eleven-twelfths of the special 7 trade contractors performed work valued at less than $25,000 during the year.3 In fact, al most a fifth of the general building contractors and three-fifths of the special trade contractors performed work valued at $5,000 or less. At the opposite extreme were a few large firms performing work valued at $500,000 or over. There were only 296 building contractors in this group, but their work performed was over $310,000,000, or more than a quarter of the work performed by all building contractors. Of the special trade contractors only 163 were in this class, but the value of work which they performed ($213,000,000) was nine-tenths as great as that of the 107,620 special trade con tractors performing work valued under $5,000 ($233,000,000). Long-Range Outlook for the Building Trades For a young man considering apprenticeship, what is the risk that the building trade he chooses will become obsolete, leaving him with training and ability for which there is no em ployment market? This danger is so slight that it can be ignored, although long-range pros pects are not equally good for all trades. The employment field for boilermakers has been declining because of developments entirely out side of the construction industry; long-range prospects for painters are for a quite large volume of employment, although smaller in proportion to total employment than in the past; but obsolescence is scarcely a risk to be considered seriously. Two questions arise in evaluating the out look for the construction trades: What will be the effect of new designs, new methods, and factory assemblies on site construction work as a whole? and, what will be the effect of these, plus new materials, on individual trades? Factory assembly is by no means a new de velopment but has been in progress for well over a hundred years at least. An early scene in George Eliot’s novel “ Adam Bede” shows the making of doors and other millwork for a house by the same carpenters who would later install them. This procedure was standard until the introduction of power woodworking 3 Value o f work performed excludes the value o f work sublet to others and so is less than total gross operating income for the year. 8 machinery, followed by factory manufacture of millwork. Within recent years particularly, factory processing has become more complete so that a smaller part of the total work occurs at the site. This trend will probably continue but will mean a gradual change just as it has in the past. The fear that prefabrication of houses would reduce greatly the employment for site work ers, particularly carpenters, has so far proved to be groundless. Many of the large residential builders have been able to achieve greater eco nomies by suitable planning and mechanization of their work, than by purchase of the pre fabricated houses available to date. Prefabrica tion on medium and small projects has reduced site work but has by no means eliminated it; prefabricated houses are very far from selferecting. Manufacturers of factory-made “ in dustrial houses” 4* which within recent months attained commercial introduction estimate very great reduction in the man-hours required for erection from the hours necessary with other construction systems. These estimates may be substantially correct, and houses of this type may prove much more popular than all earlier prefabrication systems. Even under these conditions, they are not a serious threat to building workers because by their nature they are highly standardized and thus are ap propriate only to certain portions of the hous ing market. Production and sale of 100,000 such units a year would be a notable achievement for this particular industry and cannot be expected for several years at least. Such a volume would be about an eighth of the single-family houses built during a year of high residential activity. It would not mean hardship to building work ers and might very well prove to be a helpful stimulation to other construction methods. Neither are there signs of real danger for individual trades. Almost without exception, the work of the several trades has already been changed greatly. Fifty years ago plumbing com monly meant lead pipes for water supply; these have been replaced completely by steel pipes, and the steel pipes in turn partially replaced by copper tubes. The operations of handling, con 4 “ Industrial houses” are essentially an extension o f prefabricated houses to include plumbing, heating, electric wiring, exterior and interior finish, in the factory operations, reducing above-ground site work to assembly. Those currently in commercial-scale manufacture are designed in metal rather than wood. necting, and installing the pipes have changed correspondingly, but plumbers still do the work and many of the older plumbers have worked continuously since an apprenticeship in which lead work was one of the most important parts. During the last 10 years there have been sev eral important changes in electric wiring usage — introduction and very rapid adoption of “ bus ducts” for factory wiring, use of raceways beneath the floor instead of conduit for better grade commercial installations, virtual replace ment of soldered connections for wires by me chanical connectors. These and other changes have been a development in the trade, without any change in its essential character. The elec tricians were not primarily men who installed conduit, wires, outlet boxes, etc.; instead they were primarily men who understood electric systems, and had the skills necessary to provide such systems as were wanted. Under these con ditions, they were able to adjust to the new materials and methods without difficulty. Per haps more basic has been the partial change from riveting to welding in structural steel erection but this likewise has been absorbed by the existing trade. Distinctions between trades in a period of rapid technical progress are likely to be com plicated and at times can be confusing. From time to time certain types of work have been transferred from one trade to another, and further transfers may be expected from time to time in the future. Such events are, how ever, minor in importance, and change the rela tive importance of the trades and their respec tive fields of employment only slightly. Despite very great technical progress in con struction, especially since the invention of steelframe buildings, the only instance of obsoles cence of a recognized trade was that of rubble stonemasons5 following the rapid adoption of plain and reenforced concrete for foundations, abutments, retaining walls, and such uses. The conditions here were quite unique in that this trade was completely dependent on continued use of a single type of material in one broad field of application. When this material, re quiring special skills for its installation, was completely superseded by another material for which those skills were useless, collapse of the trade was unavoidable. None of the existing trades are in this haz ardous position. Brickwork has become unim portant as a load-bearing member for tall buildings and buildings designed for heavy floor loads. Yet there is an acute shortage of bricklayers, and every reason to expect that their work will continue to be an important basic trade indefinitely. Brick and other mas onry units which they handle have so many desirable characteristics for so many different uses that it is hardly possible to picture a con struction industry from which these have been eliminated. Ornamental plastering has become less common than 20 years ago and other ma terials than plaster have been used for sur facing of walls and ceilings, but there is an acute shortage of plasterers and every reason to expect that plastering will continue to fill a place for which no other treatment is fully satisfactory. Meanwhile the recently developed use of plaster as a fire-resistive covering for structural steel may well become common— if not indeed standard— opening a new field for plasterers’ employment. Carpentry has been changed by the use of electric hand tools, by more completely fabricated millwork not re quiring fitting for installation, by hardware de signed for easier and quicker installation, by much better planning of site work; but it is still the largest single trade and will remain so during the predictable future. It is interest ing to note that widespread use of reenforced concrete instead of “ mill construction” 6 for multistory buildings intended for heavy floor loads created work for carpenters in building the concrete forms while it took work away from - carpenters on the permanent floors, beams, and columns. Those entering the skilled building trades may expect that their occupations will change during their years of active work. Individual trades will gain employment by some changes and lose by others. For the trades as a whole there is little doubt of a long-time trend toward use of more fully standardized and more com pletely fabricated materials in many kinds of building construction, toward more complete 5 Rubble stone is still used in some localities fo r its ornamental 6 A design using heavy wood floors supported by joists resting on value, but such use is trivial compared to the former use as a major wood beams, which are carried by the exterior walls and by wood structural material in nonbuilding as well as building construction. columns. 9 mechanization of site work, and toward the a generation ago, but this is no longer the case. A bathroom with two wash basins is probably replacement of small pieces of material used still a luxury feature, but much less clearly so in great quantity by fewer but larger pieces than when it first came into use— about 1940. of different materials. All of these mean in creasing productivity and, hence, fewer hours For certain types of manufacturing plants an of employment for a given final result. These air conditioning-installation has become almost changes are not a threat to those about to enter as important as the factory machinery in main the building trades, however, because from taining quality standards for the product. their nature they are slow and very gradual. Many other illustrations could be given. Natural turn-over of workers will provide more Over-all increase in the work of the mechani adjustment than is needed. Hence, apprentice cal trades means that employment in these ship training of additional workers will con trades is likely to make up a larger part of the tinue to be needed indefinitely, although not total, and the work of the other trades a smaller necessarily at the present numerical rate. It part of the total. But this does not mean an is recognized that employment opportunities for actual reduction in the work of these other apprentices and journeymen would be greatly trades from what it would otherwise be, ex reduced in a serious recession, with a tem cept under two conditions: Where mechanical porary excess of competent workers in all the equipment in an industrial or commercial skilled building trades. This consideration re building permits a reduction in space require sults directly from the economic forces govern ments for a given volume of business, or where ing construction and is irrelevant to technologi the cost of mechanical equipment in a residen cal changes affecting employment opportunities. tial building is met wholly or partially by a As mentioned in the summary, prospects are reduction in over-all size. poor for boilermakers, painters, and paperhangAnother change significant to employment ers as compared to other trades. In the case prospects has been in ornamental design. of boilermakers, reduction of employment in. Ornate buildings are much less common than the construction field is not a reason and is not even a generation ago and far less common expected to occur. A further statement on the than two generations ago. The practice of clothsituation is made in the section on each of these ' ing buildings with an exterior covering so that occupations. to some degree they resemble buildings of a Consideration of the relative prospects of quite different type or buildings constructed the individual trades should, however, take in at an earlier period is likewise less common. to account a long-range increase in emphasis The design possibilities opened by modern on mechanical equipment in almost all kinds technology are being used to an increasing de of buildings. This change has proceeded at gree— large glass areas, comparatively simple varying rates for about two generations and lines, absence of ornamentation foreign to the shows every indication of continuing. If so, purpose and the basic structural design of the the relative positions of the individual trades building. This is not the place for an attempted will be changed somewhat. discussion in the controversial field of classical Mechanical equipment includes plumbing, versus modern architecture and particularly central heating, electric wiring, ventilating and not the place to attempt to say which view air conditioning, refrigerating apparatus, in point is “ right.” It may be pointed out, how dustrial piping, and means for interior trans ever, that modern designs have already been portation (elevators, moving stairways, con used extensively in commercial architecture, veyors, numerous other devices) built into the including some of the most important office structure.7 With changing standards and the buildings of the postwar period, and have been availability of a wider range of useful items, used to some degree for university architecture. the extent to which such equipment is used has It is noteworthy that Walter Gropius, one of the increased steadily. Anything in excess of one best known of the “ functional design” archi bathroom in a house was a mark of luxury about1 tects, is senior member of the group engaged to design a new men’s residence hall project 1 Portable apparatus is in the field o f furnishings, rather than for Harvard University. that o f construction. 10 E X P E N D IT U R E S FOR NEW CO NSTRUCTIO N Billions of Oollors of Oollors 12 ------- 1915 193 9 1920 1925 1930 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR ST A T IST IC S Furthermore, improved public taste has re duced the use of architectural veneers (such things as the imitation half-timbering on fairly cheap row houses built during the ’20’s, or the florid interiors of a great many of the movie theaters built at that same time), which are condemned by supporters of both classical and modern points of view with equal vigor. To some extent this will mean decreased em ployment, but probably to a greater extent it will mean a change in the nature of employ ment. The choice for carpenters is not between half-timbering and partial unemployment; other work such as installation of storage and kitchen cabinets has since come to be used much more extensively than in the 1920’s. Even for plasterers, the trade affected most strongly, the partially discontinued types have been re placed by new and increasing types of work such as accoustical plastering, fireproofing of steel, and an increase in the use of suspended 12 P R IC E S 1935 1940 Building Construction (except form) 1945 1950 All Other Construction SOURCE• U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE ceilings. These developments mean an increased emphasis on work aimed at utility and con venience rather than on ornamentation as an end in itself. Booms and Depressions in Construction Activity The unusual dependence of new construction on general business conditions must be taken into account in any consideration of its occu pational prospects. The construction industry’s products are necessities rather than luxuries on the whole, but they have great durability. Hence at any time the supply of existing struc tures of a given general type is many times as great as the number of new ones which can be built, and the existing supply meets the major part of the need. Under unfavorable eco nomic conditions, a large part of the demand for new construction can be and is postponed. 11 CHART 5 EMPLOYMENT IN CONTRACT CONSTRUCTION ANNUAL 1939 '40 ’41 '4 2 '43 AVERAGE ’4 4 '45 '46 '4 7 1948 U N IT E D S T A T E S D E P A R T M E N T O P L A B O R B U R E A U OF L A B O R S T A T IS T IC S During times of increasing prosperity, new construction activity is speeded up to meet cur rent needs, to catch up with the backlog of un met past needs, and, with continuing prosper ity, to anticipate future needs. This situation is shown in chart 4 and in tables 1, 2, and 3. The picture given by these must be modified to some degree, however. The building boom of the late 1920’s was magnified by highly unsound financing which has not since reappeared, and fo r which the necessary machinery was almost completely destroyed in the collapse which followed. It is, therefore, unlikely that the types of buildings most affec ted at that time by blue-sky financing (larger apartment buildings, hotels, office buildings, and, to some extent, amusement buildings) will be built so greatly in excess of current re quirements and, hence, unlikely that there will 12 be a later period of several years in which construction of these types is almost completely prevented by such a great oversupply. With the oversupply resulting from an un regulated boom reduced, the other “ morning after” effects will be reduced as well. Much more conservative financing, combined with solvent insurance of residential mortgages, mean that losses to investors and property owners in a declining market will be below those of the early 1930’s. Monthly payments to reduce the indebtedness on residential mort gages, now the customary arrangement, mean likelihood of fewer foreclosures and hence a smaller quantity of property for sale at distress prices to compete with new construction. Specu lation in securities and commodities is less ex tensive than in the 1920’s and seems likely to remain so, and speculation in vacant property, at that time exceedingly common, is now quite limited in extent. Hence the loss o f capital funds in some future downward movement of general prices is likely to be less rapid and much less disastrous than in the early 1930’s. Table 1 .— Expenditures for new - construction in 1989 prices for sources of funds, 1915-48 Despite these conditions, construction activity will not and cannot increase indefinitely; on the contrary, there will be periods of contraction during the working lifetime of those now enterTable 2.— Expenditures fo r new nonfarm build ing construction by type in 1989 prices, 1915-48 [Millions of dollars] [Millions of dollars] Year Total new construction 1915 4 ,9 8 4 3 ,80 6 1 ,17 8 191 6 5 ,30 5 4 ,3 0 4 1,00 1 1 91 7 5 ,20 9 3 ,6 5 7 1 ,55 2 1 918 5,10 9 2 ,65 7 2 ,45 2 1 919 5 ,41 3 3 ,62 5 1,78 8 1 920 4 ,5 7 0 3 ,69 0 880 1921 5,07 8 3 ,8 6 7 1,211 Privately financed Publicly financed 1 922 7 ,18 3 5 ,75 4 1,429 1 92 3 8 ,0 0 2 6,761 1,241 1 924 8 ,99 3 7 ,51 9 1 ,47 4 1925 1 0,0 2 7 8 ,2 9 7 1 ,73 0 1 926 1 0,5 6 9 8 ,8 0 4 1 ,76 5 1 927 1 0,6 0 4 8 ,6 0 0 2 ,0 0 4 1 928 1 0,3 1 4 8 ,16 3 2,15 1 1 929 9 ,2 5 7 7 ,15 0 2 ,10 7 1 93 0 7 ,85 7 5 ,26 9 2 ,58 8 1931 6 ,36 3 3 ,68 6 2 ,6 7 7 1 932 4 ,0 5 7 1 ,81 4 2 ,24 3 1 933 2 ,72 8 1 ,26 7 1,461 1 93 4 2 ,97 1 1,41 3 1 ,55 8 1 935 3 ,55 8 1 ,94 3 1 ,61 5 1 936 193 7 5 ,21 0 5 ,43 8 2 ,86 5 3 ,41 8 2 ,3 4 5 2 ,0 2 0 1938 5 ,20 3 3 ,10 2 2 ,10 1 1939 6 ,30 7 3 ,80 8 2 ,49 9 1 94 0 6 ,85 8 4 ,2 4 6 2 ,6 1 2 1941 9 ,33 9 1942 1 0 ,3 9 0 4 ,8 5 7 2 ,50 8 4 ,4 8 2 7 ,88 2 1 943 5 ,7 3 7 1 ,35 5 4 ,3 8 2 194 4 3 ,10 3 1 ,3 9 7 1 ,7 0 6 1945 3 ,50 0 1,98 3 1 ,51 7 Year Total nonfarm build ing Residen tial building 1915 3 ,14 0 1916 3,42 8 1917 2 ,72 4 1918 2 ,27 2 Nonresidential building Total Indus trial 1 ,74 0 1 ,37 0 3 48 i l 1,83 5 1 ,59 3 3 98 i 1 ,39 6 4 50 i l i 1 ,08 9 492 i X X 455 '1 ,3 28 8 90 Com mercial Other 1919 2 ,94 0 1,651 1,28 9 577 i 1920 3,02 6 1,276 1,75 0 794 501 1921 3 ,56 5 1,707 1,858 571 558 729 1922 5,229 3 ,05 5 2 ,17 4 485 647 1,042 1923 5,80 6 3,62 9 2 ,17 7 510 671 9 96 1924 6,45 4 4 ,24 6 2 ,20 8 4 32 700 1,076 1925 7,35 1 4 ,59 2 2 ,75 9 4 79 900 1,380 1926 7,79 2 4 ,55 1 3,241 679 1,039 1,523 1927 7 ,49 4 4 ,2 8 2 3 ,21 2 667 1,085 1,460 1928 7,18 9 3 ,9 5 6 3,23 3 768 1,068 1 ,39 7 1929 6 ,00 9 2 ,7 4 2 3 ,26 7 934 1,041 1,292 1 930 4 ,2 2 4 1,45 3 2 ,77 1 587 846 1,338 1931 3 ,25 2 1,33 9 1 ,91 3 277 482 1 ,15 4 1932 1,74 5 595 1 ,15 0 99 274 111 1933 1 ,14 9 3 58 791 232 167 392 1 93 4 1,29 9 428 8 71 230 2 04 437 1935 1 ,72 0 821 8 99 180 250 ~ 4 69 1936 2 ,90 1 1 ,38 8 1,51 3 290 3 32 1937 3 ,07 0 1,53 2 1,53 8 468 3 86 8 91 684 1938 2 ,89 8 1,57 5 1 ,32 3 237 282 804 1939 3 ,82 3 2 ,1 7 9 1 ,64 4 277 287 1,080 1940 3 ,98 6 2 ,4 6 3 1,52 3 563 338 622 1941 5,52 0 2 ,8 5 3 2 ,6 6 7 1,754 371 542 1942 4 ,79 8 2 ,79 7 127 2 98 2 ,55 4 1 ,57 6 1 ,09 4 3,22 2 1943 1 ,46 0 1 ,29 0 25 145 1944 1,28 5 542 7 43 533 42 168 1945 1 ,72 2 522 1,20 0 7 89 149 262 1946 4 ,4 0 5 2 ,2 0 2 2 ,20 3 1,008 708 4 87 194 6 6 ,5 5 6 5 ,16 7 1 ,38 9 194 7 7 ,53 8 5 ,84 8 1 ,69 0 1 947 4 ,5 3 1 2 ,7 9 7 1 ,73 4 830 4 06 4 98 194 8 8 ,9 6 9 6 ,98 2 1 ,9 8 7 1948 5 ,35 3 3 ,3 9 3 1,96 0 611 535 814 Source: U. S. Department o f Commerce, Construction and Con struction Materials, Statistical Supplement, May 1949, tables 10, 11, and 12. N ote: Expenditures adjusted to 1939 construction prices are used rather than expenditures without adjustments, to give an approxi mate indication o f changes in physical volume. *Not available. Source: U. S. Department o f Commerce, Construction and Con struction Materials, Statistical Supplement, May 1949, tables 10, 11, and 12. N ote: Expenditures adjusted to 1939 construction prices are used rather than expenditures without adjustments, to give an approxi mate indication o f changes in physical volume. 13 ing apprenticeship. The conditions do mean, however, that contraction is likely to be less rapid and less severe and will probably be cushioned by conditions absent in the past— a solvent mortgage market, a moderately reasonable supply-demand relationship for existing structures, less widespread and less severe disorganization of investment funds from speculative losses, and partial support of consumer purchasing power (including ability to pay rent) through unemployment compen sation and other social security measures. Table 3 .— Average annual employment of ivage and salary workers Year All nonagricultural industries (thousands o f workers) Contract construction (thousands of workers) (percent of non agricultural total) 1929 3 1,0 4 1 1,497 4.8 1930 2 9 ,1 4 3 1,372 4.7 1931 2 6 ,3 8 3 1,214 4.6 1932 2 3,3 7 7 970 4.1 1933 2 3,4 6 6 809 3.4 1 934 2 5 ,6 9 9 862 3 .4 1935 2 6,7 9 2 912 3.4 1936 2 8,8 0 2 1,145 4 .0 1 937 3 0,7 1 8 1,112 3.6 1938 2 8,9 0 2 1,055 3.7 1939 3 0,2 8 7 1,150 3.8 1940 32,0 3 1 1,294 4.0 1941 3 6,1 6 4 1,79 0 4.9 1942 3 9,6 9 7 2 ,17 0 5.5 1943 194 4 4 2,0 4 2 3.7 4 1 ,4 8 0 1,567 1,094 1945 4 0 ,0 6 9 1,132 2.8 4.0 2.6 1946 4 1 ,4 9 4 1,661 1947 4 3 ,9 7 0 1,921 4.4 1948 4 5,1 3 1 2 ,06 0 4.6 increase in total public construction activity (measured in 1939 prices as an approximation of a measure of physical volume) was that from 1935 to 1936. This increase in expenditures was 730 million dollars, a very impressive amount, but less than three-quarters of the predepres sion reduction in private expenditures from 1928 to 1929 and less than two-fifths of the private reduction from 1929 to 1930. The course of public expenditures from 1929 to 1936, shown in table 1, shows that a substantial in crease in public expenditures came a year later than a similar increase in private expenditures. It also shows that public expenditures in 1935 were little more than a tenth greater than in 1933, the bottom of the depression for con struction as a whole, and actually much less than in 1932. It is apparent that expansion of public con struction has been neither prompt enough nor great enough to prevent serious unemployment of construction workers released from private jobs. I f there should be another m ajor con traction of private construction activity, it is likely that the public construction program will be changed in both of these respects and will mitigate unemployment more completely than in the past. Nevertheless for a number of reasons8 public building programs cannot be expected to support construction employ ment fully without interruption. It is most un likely that a situation like that from 1932 through 1935 will be repeated for construction w orkers; but it is at least as unlikely that the present employment situation, wherein most skilled building workers have been in a sellers’ market for their services, will continue per manently. Seasonality of Employment Sources: 1929 to 1944 estimates, U. S. Bureau o f Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review, December 1947, Industrial Employment in War and Peace; 1945 to 1947 estimates, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Pay Rolls Detailed Report, April 1948; 1948 estimates, ibid, Feb. 1949. In a recession there will undoubtedly be at tempts to support construction activity by an expansion of publicly financed construction. This will be helpful in maintaining construc tion employment, but its effect can easily be overestimated. Except for war years and years of war preparation, the greatest year-to-year 14 Seasonal unemployment is a very old prob lem in construction. Much of the work is out doors, where both materials and workmen are affected by the weather. Later indoor work 8 Some of the more important of these reasons are: The time re quired for recognition of a significant drop in private construction activity; the time required after such recognition for the actual start of work; the low percentage of skilled building workers needed in some o f the most important types of public construction, such as highway work; the drastically changed conception of public func tions if the rate o f public residential or nonresidential buildings or both is to be expanded sufficiently to offset completely a really serious drop in private building construction. Space limitations prevent dis cussion o f these reasons. (interior rough carpentry, plastering, finish carpentry, interior painting, etc.) is also affec ted, although usually to a smaller degree, be cause of seasonal variation in the rate at which buildings are ready for these operations. In past years seasonal variation in residential building activity has been increased by a ten dency in many localities to schedule houses and, particularly, apartment buildings, so that they would be completed shortly before one or two annual “ moving days.” The long-range trend is toward some degree of improvement, but there are no indications as yet that seasonal unemployment will be eliminated. An indication of seasonal unemployment is given by estimates of monthly employment. For such comparisons, 1939 is the most satis factory year, because the seasonal pattern of later years was greatly modified by abnormal conditions of the prewar defense period, the military and industrial construction of the early war period, the later period of wartime contraction and limitations, and then the post war expansion. According to Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates of employment in the con tract construction industry, the number of workers employed during the low month o f 1939 (February) was below the average o f the year by 234,000, or 20 percent; the number employed during the peak month (August) was above the year’s average by 161,000, or 14 percent. Thus at the annual peak, 421/2 per cent more workers were employed than at the seasonal low. These estimates include the con tractors’ shop and office employees, for whom seasonal variation is less than for site work ers. Figures for the 6-year period from Janu ary 1939 through December 1944, which took in the prewar and wartime expansion and then the contraction of the later war period, show February employment about 13 percent below the annual average and August employment about 10 percent above. These 6-year averages understate seasonality, however, because they are influenced greatly by the highly abnormal wartime construction program. Monthly employment data for 1939 as re ported in the 1939 Census of Construction, prepared in a different manner from a differ ent type of data, show even greater seasonal variation— employment in the low month of the year 25 percent below, and employment in the peak month 16 percent above, the annual average. In the building field, seasonal varia tion was much greater for builders than for general building contractors because of the desire for completion dates fitting sales and rental seasons and because builders do not com monly undertake alteration and repair jobs. For all general contractors the variation was even greater than for builders because of the inclusion of highway contractors whose work is highly seasonal. Table 4.— Months worked in 1939 by male wage or salary workers in the construction industry Number of workers Percent of total Total........................................... 2,176,483 100.0 Without work in 1939............ 143,458 6.6 Months worked in 1939: Under 3.............................. 3 to 5.................................. 6 to 8................................... 9 to 11................................. 12........... ............................ 98,335 284,364 560,684 457,347 598,639 4.5 13.1 25.8 21.0 27.5 Work not reported................... 33,656 1.5 Months worked Source: 16th Decennial Census, vol. Ill, The Labor Force: Occupa tion, Industry, Employment and Income, Part 1, United States Sum mary, table 89, p. 274. The special trade contractors as a whole differed comparatively little from general build ing contractors, but differed very greatly among themselves by trade. On the whole, employment was most regular in those fields where altera tions, maintenance, and repair work indoors are important— electrical work, plumbing, glazing, and elevator construction. Painting with and without paperhanging and decorat ing were outstanding exceptions. These had the highest percentages of seasonal unemploy ment despite the very great importance of in door redecorating, because the winter months are unpopular for such work. Information presented in the Labor Force portion of the 1940 census for men in the en tire construction industry shows (table 4) that in 1939 little more than a quarter of them were employed throughout the year, and not quite 15 CHART 6 PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYED MALE WORKERS IN CONSTRUCTION Months Worked in 1939 PERCENT 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1------------------- 1-------------------1-------------------1-------------------1------------------- 1-------------------1------------------ 1------------------ T Proprietors, Managers and Officials Electricians Foremen (all trades) Plumbers and Gas and Steam Fitters Roofers and Sheet Metal Workers Structural and Ornamental Metal Workers Carpenters Painters Laborers Masons, Tile Setters and Stone Cutters Plasterers and Cement Finishers _____________ l_____________ l_____________ I_____________ I--------------------- 1---------------------- 1----------------------1_____________ I_____________ I_____________ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 PERCENT 12 Months UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 9 to II Months half of them for as much as 9 months. Almost a quarter were employed for less than 6 months, including those entirely without work during the year. These figures are for the industry, including the “ proprietors, managers, and offi cials” group, office workers, shop workers and foremen, as well as site workers below fore man status. Similar information is given in tables 5 and 6 for certain construction occupations and oc cupational groups; for journeymen, the figures include men working in other industries, such as maintenance painters and maintenance car penters employed by factories, hotels, and 16 KvllcS'l 6 to 8 Months Under 6 Months s o u r c e : u .s . bu reau of the cen su s other nonconstruction establishments. In some trades, particularly carpentry and painting, the tables probably overstate the extent of com plete unemployment during the year and also the extent of employment for very short periods — 3 months or less. The reason for this is that they include persons beyond normal working age and, since the classifications are based on occupations as reported to the enumerators, undoubtedly include many workers below the general standards of skill and competence. Even with allowance for this situation, the tables indicate that in most trades full-time employment was enjoyed by a minority, and Table 5.—Months worked in 1939 by male wage or salary workers in certain construction occupations [ number of workers] Occupation Proprietors, managers, and officials (construction).......... Foremen (construction)........... Carpenters...................... Electricians.................... Masons, tile setters, and stone cutters...... Painters.......................... Plasterers and cement finishers...................... Roofers and sheet metal workers............ Structural and orna mental metal workers....................... Plumbers and gas and steam fitters............... Laborers (construction).......... Total Without work in 1939 Months worked in 1939 Under 3 3 4 and 5 6 to 8 9 to 11 12 Months worked in 1939 not re ported 28,940 660 260 280 560 2,140 3,200 21,500 340 57,320 553,080 188,320 1,420 19,920 6,240 840 21,700 3,320 780 18,760 3,080 2,200 45,700 6,600 7,860 140,820 21,120 12,200 133,620 29,860 31,320 144,360 116,160 700 8,200 1,940 114,100 273,060 5,860 16,040 4,680 12,380 5,480 11,340 12,500 26,600 36,860 77,500 25,220 56,420 21,360 68,140 2,140 4,640 55,280 3,200 2,320 2,380 7,060 18,740 11,940 8,780 860 100,220 4,360 2,820 2,660 5,940 19,620 20,940 42,700 1,180 33,760 1,800 1,420 1,220 3,020 8,300 7,340 10,180 480 149,960 6,120 3,660 3,620 8,140 24,740 28,100 73,520 2,060 771,540 79,020 46,900 35,940 81,340 202,340 146,900 164,620 14,480 Source: 16th Decennial Census, Population, The Labor Force (Sample Statistics), Occupational Characteristics, table 13, pp. 174-175. in some trades by a rather small minority. For “ proprietors, managers, and officials,” which includes superintendents, estimators, and others having major responsibility as well as the officers of incorporated construction firms, only about three-quarters were employed throughout the year and more than an eighth were employed for less than 9 months. For construction foremen as a whole, not greatly over half were employed for all 12 months of the year and little over three-fourths for as much as 9 months. Information for foremen by individual trade is not available. Among journeymen, year-round employment was commonest for electricians, but even so more than a fifth of them were employed for less than 9 months.9 Plumbers, gas fitters,10 and 9 Data obtained in the 1939 construction census indicate that em ployment regularity was probably greater fo r elevator constructors but no separate tabulation for the trade was made for the Labor Force portion o f the population census. 10 Although included by name in the Census table, gas fitters have not ordinarily been regarded as a distinct trade since their combina tion with plumbers a number o f years ago. steam fitters were next in regularity of em ployment, but not quite half of them had fullyear employment, and about a seventh of them were employed for less than 6 months or not employed at all. Most of the occupations or groups included in the table show very large numbers in the classifications of employment for 6 to 8 months and 9 to 11 months. Four skilled groups (masons, tile setters, and stone cutters ; plasterers and cement finishers; paint ers ; and structural and ornamental metal work ers) had large numbers employed for only 4 or 5 months, as well as substantial numbers em ployed for shorter periods. The length of the active construction season differs from one section of the country to an other, depending largely upon climate. In parts of the country where winters are mild, con struction tends to operate on a more even yearround basis. For instance, construction activity in the Pacific and West South Central States is less seasonal than in the West North Central 17 Table 6.— Months worked in 1939— percent distribution of male wage and salary workers in certain construction occupations [ percent of total | Occupation Proprietors, managers, and officials (construction)........................ Foremen (construction).......... Carpenters................................... Electricians................................. Masons, tile setters, and stone cutters.................... Painters....................................... Plasterers and cement finishers................................... Roofers and sheet metal workers......................... Structural and orna mental metal workers.................................... Plumbers and gas and steam fitters............................ Laborers (construction).......... Total Without work in 1939 Months worked in 1939 Under 3 3 4 and 5 6 to 8 9 to 11 12 Months worked in 1939 not re ported 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 2.3 2.5 3.7 3.3 0.9 1.5 4.1 1.8 1.0 1.4 3.5 1.6 1.9 3.8 8.6 3.5 7.4 13.7 26.4 11.2 11.1 21.3 25.1 15.9 74.3 54.6 27.1 61.7 1.2 1.2 1.5 100.0 100.0 5.1 5.9 4.1 4.5 4.8 4.2 11.0 9.7 32.3 28.4 22.1 20.7 18.7 25.0 1.9 1.7 100.0 5.8 4.2 4.3 12.8 33.9 21.6 15.9 1.6 42.6 1.2 30.2 i | 49.0 j 21.3 1.4 100.0- 4.4 2.8 2.7 5.9 19.6 20.9 100.0 5.3 4.2 3.6 8.9 24.6 21.7 100.0 100.0 4.1 10.2 2.4 6.1 2.4 4.7 5.4 10.5 16.5 26.2 18.7 19.0 j 1 | 1.0 1.4 1.9 Source: 16th Decennial Census, Population, The Labor Force (Sample Statistics), Occupational Characteristics, table 14, pp. 195-196. States. According to the 1939 Census of Con struction, construction employment in the West South Central and Pacific States was only 15 percent below the yearly average in the lowest month of the year, compared with 39 percent in the West North Central States. The peak month in the first two geographic divisions was only 8 percent above the 12-month average as compared with a 26 percent increase in the West North Central division. Seasonal fluctuations were also great in the Mountain States—with a low month 37 percent below the average; East North Central, 33 percent; New England, 29; and Middle Atlan tic, 26. Construction in the States farther south — South Atlantic and East South Central— was also subject to seasonal slumps, but not to the same extent as the northern States. In these two geographic divisions, construction employ ment during the low month of the year dropped 23 and 24 percent below the yearly average. Within several of the geographic divisions there are wide variations in climate, and, con 18 sequently, there are differences among the States in the length of the construction season. California is the only one of the three Pacific States with a particularly long construction season. However, since Oregon and Washing ton have a minority of the construction jobs, the division as a whole still stands at the top in the steadiness of construction employment. In the Mountain States there are rigorous winters and a short construction season in Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, and many parts of Colorado. But two of the States— Arizona and New Mexico— have a mild climate. These two States— Arizona in particular— have compara tively little variation in construction activity, as measured by month-to-month employment data in the 1939 construction census. The South Atlantic is another group of States with vary ing climate. In South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, construction activity is fairly steady the year-round, and seasonal fluctuations are greater in the other States— especially West Virginia, Delaware, and Maryland. In the other geographic divisions, the seasonal pattern of construction activity is much the same for all States because the climate is fairly uniform throughout the whole division. Protective measures against bad weather are available and scarcely any type of work can be regarded as impossible even under the most severe conditions. Deeply frozen ground can be excavated; concrete can be poured without danger of freezing in a temperature of 20° below zero; brick can be laid at such tempera tures, when the urgency is sufficiently great. The necessary procedures are quite expensive, however, and labor cost is likewise increased in such weather— work is hindered by the heavy clothing needed, and for some operations there are occasional stops to warm up at a fire. While weather must be regarded as a basic condition, on a long-range basis seasonality seems likely to be alleviated to some degree. Within quite recent years many builders and contractors have demonstrated that it is neither difficult nor expensive to get houses completely enclosed in a much shorter time than formerly had been customary. This means that a fairly brief period of mild winter weather is sufficient to enable a project to get past the state where it is handicapped most severely by winter weather. Once a building is enclosed, weather is much less important. Temporary heat at that stage is much less expensive than earlier, and the journeymen and others can work more productively because they are more comfort able and less burdened with heavy outer cloth ing. Unfinished outdoor work can be performed during stretches of mild weather. On compara tively large buildings, with a fairly long con struction period, the seasons have been less in fluential than on small jobs. On these larger buildings, it is commonly unavoidable that some part of the work occur during winter; the contractors on the whole are much better pre pared to handle winter work; and the size of the jobs makes winter protection a smaller part of total cost. Certain advantages inherent in off-season work have received attention. Ordinarily the supply of materials is better, with little risk of a temporary shortage which may arise dur ing the peak season. There is usually no prob lem of labor shortage at such times, and no need for a guaranty of overtime or payment of premium rates to get a sufficient crew of capable journeymen. The disadvantages as well as the completely artificial nature of aiming the completion of houses and apartments at one or two days of the year have been rather widely recognized. When projects were delayed, there were serious complications for their owners, and commonly there has been substantial unproductive ex pense in overtime and other rush measures to meet the dead line. For the duration of the housing shortage, the time of completion does not affect the prospect of prompt sale or rental. The increased mobility of the population means a greater year-round rental and sales market than in the past, quite apart from that arising from shortage conditions. For apartment build ings there has been a basic change since the previous building boom from speculative to investment operation, without the former need for complete occupancy almost at the instant of completion in order to start payment of outstanding debts. Very commonly these proj ects now consist of a number of buildings scheduled for completion over a period of sev eral weeks or a few months. Complete correction of seasonal unemploy ment cannot be expected from these influences, however. The methods by which some manu facturing establishments have reduced seasonal differences in employment are, for the most part, inapplicable to construction. These in clude production for inventory during the dull sales season, adding products for which the seasonal peak comes during the dull season for original products, in at least one case an informal arrangement for transfer of employ ees between two firms whose seasonal peaks were several months apart, seasonal variation in hours worked with approximately uniform weekly pay and an adjustment at the end of the year, and other procedures. Production for inventory is not reasonably practical for most builders under conditions present thus far, and for contractors proper it is obviously impos sible. Most types of contracting involve little or no shop work, and, in those fields where shop work is important, much of it is done to special design or special dimensions for individ ual buildings. Hence at best transfer of work ers from site work to shop work can give little more than negligible alleviation. The industry. 19 its machinery and equipment, and its labor force, on the whole are not well suited to other products. It is unmistakable that the problem of seasonal unemployment is made more com plicated by the very great changes in annual volume of construction with changing business conditions. A noteworthy direct attack on seasonal un employment was that of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, which a few years ago proposed an annual wage plan under which there would be a substantial re duction in hourly wage rates for those con tractors guaranteeing year-round employment. Comparatively few contractors have accepted this proposal so far. Any plan for spreading employment and earnings throughout the year by means of annual wage agreements or other possible methods faces incomparably greater difficulties than in an industry where the annual output is reasonably stable for the industry as a whole and for individual firms as well. General Characteristics of Employment Construction is active, strenuous work, but physical demands are not excessive. Most of the operations requiring principally musclepower have been taken over largely by ma chinery, and for those where such a change has not yet been practical, such as carrying of heavy plumbing fixtures, custom and work ing agreements usually assign a sufficient num ber of men to prevent undue strain or risk of injury. Nevertheless the physical exertion of handling tools and materials is much greater than in most bench jobs and a greater degree of agility is required. Continuous standing is frequently involved, and from time to time it is necessary to squat, to work in cramped quarters, or to work in uncomfortable positions. For many trades a large part of the work is outdoors, and for almost all trades much work is in unfinished buildings. This means exposure to the weather and low temperatures for some of the indoor work. Artificial heat is commonly provided for indoor winter work after buildings are sufficiently enclosed, but the temperatures maintained are frequently lower than those customary for winter factory work. Since most construction activities last only a few months, and all are regarded as tem 20 porary, the facilities provided are usually rather primitive. On fairly large jobs, drink ing water is provided by portable fountains, but a hose or a bucket and dipper are still in widespread use. On large jobs, particularly in downtown city locations, toilet facilities are provided with standard fixtures connected to supply and waste lines, and sometimes these compare favorably with good factory toilets. Elsewhere toilet facilities are crude, consistingmost commonly of temporary outhouses; on some small outlying jobs, no toilets of any sort are provided. Showers are seldom if ever pro vided except occasionally at the very largest metropolitan projects, or at work camps fo r projects in remote locations. No formal ar rangement for washing before lunch is com mon, but running water is often available at a hose hydrant. A shed is customary for stor age of clothing, lunches, etc., and for overnight storage of overalls and tools, without individual lockers; although locked outside of working hours, these give little protection against burg lary, especially on small jobs not having a watchman. The location of construction work in any area is changing constantly, so that wherever a worker lives he often has to make a fairly long trip to and from work. In cities of moder ate or large size a definite working area is usually established, which generally is the city itself exclusive of the suburbs; for jobs out side of this area, transportation cost is paid by the employer, and the time needed for subur ban transportation is considered and paid for as working time. Comparable arrangements are commonly made for inconveniently located jobs within the designated working area dur ing periods of labor shortage, but not at other times. All skilled workers need tools, the number and total cost depending on the trade. These are owned by the journeymen, except that in the electrical and pipe trades working agree ments frequently provide that all tools are to be provided by the contractors. A set sufficient for most needs is bought during apprenticeship. Later purchases are customary to obtain less common tools and new types of tools, to re place those lost or stolen, and to replace usable tools with improved or better-quality models. Theft of entire tool kits outside of working hours has been troublesome, especially on out lying jobs. Not so many years ago the entire loss, which for a carpenter would be well over $100, was borne by the individual workman. Working agreements now usually provide that at least a large part, and in some cases sub stantially all, of this loss be borne by the em ployer. Employment is predominantly on an hourly basis, with time off for sickness or personal business accompanied by loss of pay. Lost time because of bad weather or other reasons be yond the workers’ control likewise means loss of pay, a serious matter to bricklayers and others doing outdoor work. Holidays are un paid, except that in a very few areas working agreements provide pay for some of the trades on the major public holidays. Standard work ing hours have been established almost every where, most commonly from 8:00 to 4:30 on Monday through Friday; in some trades and localities the standard workday is 7 hours or 6 hours. Usually work at other times is paid for at a premium overtime rate, regardless of whether or not the standard hours have been worked. Employment and lay-off practices are highly informal, in keeping with the flexibility of the construction industry. This informality is made practical by the craft or trade approach in training, whereby a fully trained worker can perform any type of work in his field. Hence, while workers are ordinarily laid off as soon as they are no longer needed, they are hired readily and with scarcely any formality at any project at which additional workers are wanted. Experience and preference within the rather broad field of any trade influences both appli cant and foreman in hiring, but these are not rigid; a carpenter who enjoys the careful workmanshp of “ trimming” (installation of millwork, hardware, finish carpentry in gen eral) would ordinarily seek such work if un employed but, if necessary, would take and be acceptable for other carpentry work; and a foreman having trimming to be done would ordinarily prefer an applicant specializing in such work but, in the absence of such an appli cant, would hire any competent carpenter for the work. i Employment in a given trade is naturally much more stable in any employment area than in the work of a single contractor. Some jobs are starting as others are finishing, and some contractors are hiring workers as others are laying off. Hence, getting a new job is ordinar ily a simple matter when construction is reason ably active, involving little lost time— often none at all. Even in good years, however, there is seasonal unemployment. As the rate of ac tivity goes down seasonally from October to February, workers are being hired for new projects at a slower rate than they are being laid off at projects approaching completion. From late fall until early spring, lost time between lay-offs and new jobs is greater for most workers than in spring, summer, and fall. For most trades migration is a matter of choice, although there are exceptions. When large construction projects are undertaken in small communities or in isolated localities, com paratively few of the workers live within reasonable commuting distance. When employ ment is high, acceptance of such a job is purely voluntary, and, presumably, few of the workers who go to them have strong ties with their home localities. When employment is only fair, men with family responsibilities have to choose between the prospect of intermittent unem ployment at home and of a long, steady job elsewhere. This condition is not unique to con struction but is more prominent in that in dustry than in most manufacturing industries. Permanent migration is possible at most times for construction workers who want to move because of supposedly better long-time prospects in another locality or for any other reason. For union members, such a move in volves transfer of membership. Like other unions, the building trades unions are organ ized through local chapters (known as locals), each having jurisdiction in a designated area. Membership is first and most directly in the local, which confers full rights within its area but not elsewhere. A member moving else where can exchange his membership card for a card in the local at his new vicinity, subject to certain qualifications in the case of some of the trades. Thereafter he is a member in the new but not the old locality; should he wish to return, it is necessary for him to obtain another transfer; in some trades, acceptance of additional members is ordinarily governed by current and prospective employment conditions 21 within the local’s territory. In some cases (par ticularly for electricians and plumbers) moving to another locality makes it necessary to get a journeyman’s license from the local municipal or State licensing board. Choice of a new home locality is much wider for a member of any of the common building trades wishing to migrate for personal reasons than for a member of most occupations in manufacturing. The reason is the wide distribu tion of construction work. This choice is, of course, more restricted in the less common trades— work for which is much more concen trated geographically. The building trades offer certain satisfac tions to the worker. Building work differs from a great many other occupations in the evident relationship between any individual worker’s efforts and tangible, satisfying results. Even on very large jobs, where the work has been carefully organized and specialization is ex tensive, this relationship is apparent; the workers can see the building or other project growing before their eyes. The same is true of those working in early stages, even at un skilled occupations such as hand excavating for concrete footings— although most of the work remains to be done, the relationship be tween the work at hand and the finished build ing is plain and unmistakable. Combined with this are other factors tending to bring a feeling of satisfaction, one of which is independence from any single employer or foreman. Persons having habitual difficulty in dealing with others will of course find their relations with employers, foremen, and fellow workers troublesome in any of the building trades, just as they would elsewhere. But for those whose relations tend to be reasonably harmonious, there is little risk of subjection to a domineering foreman or employer. For journeymen as a whole, their individual futures are tied up with their trades rather than with their employers at any particular time. Com petence in any of the recognized trades is a sufficient asset which need not be (and ordinar ily is not) supplemented by willingness to ac cept unjust or abusive treatment. The build ing trades are the one large field in which a worker can and does change jobs freely and, if the circumstances seem to warrant, can ex press his opinion of his foreman or employer 22 without damaging his prospects for employ ment elsewhere. Outdoor and semioutdoor work and changing locations have their disadvantages, already mentioned, but have the undeniable advantage of tending to prevent any feeling of monotony or confinement. This feature may be unim portant compared with other characteristics of the trades, but, in combination with the notably independent status of individual work men, the variety in types of work commonly done in the course of a year and the direct evidence of accomplishment are ordinarily a source of real satisfaction. Informal Personnel Practices A contractor’s total employment require ments at any particular project are likely to vary fairly rapidly, and his need for workers in a particular occupation varies even more rapidly. Peak requirements lasting only a few days, or even only a day or so, are by no means uncommon. Special trade contractors are able to meet this situation fairly well by transferring work ers from one job to another, since they usually have a number of jobs in some stage of prog ress at a time. Even they, however, are ordinar ily unable to schedule these for continued uni formity of their total employment because their ability to proceed at any job is dependent on the readiness of related work done by the gen eral contractor or other special trade contrac tors. General contractors have less flexibility in this respect because their business usually consists of a smaller number of individually larger jobs11, so that lay-offs are more common for their workers. Hence, employment is on a temporary rather than a permanent basis. It is true that many thousands of journeymen have worked steadily for the same employers for years and that con tractors have no more desire than other em ployers to lay off satisfactory workers unneces sarily. Nevertheless the conditions under which the industry operates have created the general understanding that employment can be ter minated at any time.1 11 Larger as measured by the value of work performed by the con tractor’s own employees, or by the hours worked by those employees. In this sense, any particular building is a much larger job for the general contractor who puts up the basic structure than for any of the special trade contractors. Since work for any given employer is usually temporary, employer-employee relations are traditionally informal and commonly casual. Building workers tend to regard themselves as members of given trades, rather than as employees of given contractors. The permanent asset is competence in a recognized trade, rather than seniority or other preferential status with a given firm. Journeymen are ordinarily hired by the fore man. He selects applicants at the job and often telephones men he knows to offer them work. For some trades in some localities, agreements provide that contractors or foremen shall in form the union office of need for additional workers and shall hire those sent in response, but with the right to dismiss any regarded as unsatisfactory after a brief trial.12 Hiring through the union office is also done in cases where it is not required by working agreements. The foreman also discharges employees, at any time and for any reason— reduction in force, dissatisfaction with work, or merely personal antagonism. A newly hired worker may be discharged after a few hours while hiring in the same trade is still in progress. He is sub ject to lay-off at any time, either permanent (as the work for which he was hired approaches completion) or temporary, with instructions to return at a stated time, because of a tem porary shortage of material, or to allow other trades to complete work which must be done before he can proceed further with his own work. A carpenter discharged from work on concrete forms because he is too painstaking and therefore too slow for that grade of work, may be hired readily by the same foreman at a later stage of the same job for installing millwork, where his careful workmanship is appropriate. The other side of this arrange ment is that a workman is free to quit at any time for any reason— to take a job closer to home, a job likely to continue for several months, a job expected to provide more hours of work weekly because o f greater overtime or better protection from weather interrup tions, a job in a specialty of his trade which he enjoys particularly, or for any other reason. There are no formal employment records, 12 These agreements provide that workers may be hired otherwise, i f the union is unable to provide men within a specified period. They are subject to such pertinent legislation as may be in effect from time to time. in the sense in which these are commonly main tained for factory employment. Workers are hired principally on the basis of apparent abil ity to do the work on hand; they tell the fore man about the work they have done and, if hired, are kept on the job as long as work is available for which they are satisfactory. A contractor whose volume of work permits usually tries to retain a semipermanent nucleus of journeymen who, he has found, can do a good job, expanding this nucleus by hiring others as needed and then laying them off when the peak is over. Along with its undesirable features, this rather loose employment relationship has two very real advantages to journeymen. The first is separation of their own fortunes from those of any single employer. Seniority is not a con sideration in either hiring or lay-off.13 Hence, discontinuance of a firm from death or retire ment of the proprietor, or from bankruptcy or voluntary liquidation, from an employment standpoint is merely an incident to its workers, whereas it is a disaster in those industries having irregular employment along with strict seniority. The second advantage is the personal independence in action and attitude of work ers whose employment is governed by their own competence along with general business conditions rather than by their standing in a single business firm. Opportunities for Advancement On satisfactory completion of apprentice ship, a young man graduates to the status of journeyman, or all-round skilled worker in his trade. If his apprenticeship has been under direction of a joint union-employer committee or other arrangement approved by the union local, he becomes a journeyman member, hav ing the same rights and responsibilities as the other members. If his apprenticeship has been in a program not recognized by the union, he becomes a journeyman eligible for employment on any jobs where union membership is not re quired by working agreements. 18 In a very few areas there have been partial seniority systems for some trades, providing that workers on a particular project shall be laid off in reverse order o f their hiring on that project. This is quite different from a company-wide seniority system; the difference in seniority standing between the lowest and the highest man on the list is seldom more than a few months and, frequently, is only a few weeks. 23 Usually he continues in journeyman status for several years, for the purpose of broaden ing his experience in his own trade, increasing his skill and his detailed familiarity with any particular field in which he is especially inter ested, and increasing his knowledge of the re lated work of other trades and of construc tion as an over-all process. Although this period seldom brings an advance in hourly wage rate over the agreed local scale,14 it brings development in knowledge and skill which will be valuable for the remainder of his working life. During normal employment conditions, with neither labor shortage nor substantial unem ployment, on high-quality jobs journeymen known for unusual skill in any particular part of their field are commonly paid a small pre mium above the agreed scale.15 More important, such men are usually the first to be hired and the last to be laid off. Contractors having fairly continuous work try to retain these men, trans ferring them to successive projects and, when necessary, assigning them to other types of work within their trades. Such premiums are fo r outstanding craftsmanship in finish work (installation of millwork, etc.), for ability to lay out complicated work correctly without detailed instructions or loss of time in wonder ing how to proceed, etc.; they are entirely dis tinct from premiums for excessive, speed. In some cases premiums are paid for pro duction, usually on lower grades of work, even though these are almost universally forbidden by union agreements. These take several forms — direct premiums above the established hourly rates for those meeting a specified production schedule, piecework rather than hourly wage rates, or sometimes piecework disguised as sub contracting (commonly known as “ lumping” ) in which one workman or a small group or ganized as a temporary, informal partnership agree to install specified materials to be pro vided by the contractor in one or more build ings for a stated payment. While not enough is known about incentive payments in construc tion work to justify a comprehensive statement, there is little doubt that the payments for speed 14 Except fo r premiums paid during times o f labor shortage and premiums paid on outlying or inconveniently located jobs. 15 The legality o f these premiums under existing labor legislation is not entirely clear at present. 24 have frequently been unwholesome and un desirable. In many cases they have tended to encourage overwork, excessive hours, inferior workmanship, and a disregard for the related work of other trades and for orderly progress of the entire job. Few o f the incentive payment plans can be regarded as advancement from any standpoint except that of high temporary earnings. The first real promotion a man may expect is to foreman, in charge of his employers’ crew on a small job, or on a large job in charge of a particular crew, under a general foreman or superintendent. Responsibilities of a foreman and the basis on which his selection usually rests, are stated on page 36. On union jobs, foremen are union members having the same status in union affairs as journeymen. They are paid an hourly rate usually 10 percent or more above the journeyman’s rate and, com monly but by no means always, are paid for a full week despite any loss of time from bad weather or other interruptions. A satisfactory foreman is likely to have steadier employment than a journeyman and, if his employer’s work permits, he is transferred from job to job as a matter of course. When work is slack, a good foreman is likely to be offered employment as a journeyman instead of being laid off, some times at a premium rate and occasionally at his full foreman’s rate. There is turn-over among foremen, however, because of the great variation from time to time in the scale of many contractors’ activities. A man may be hired as a foreman by a contractor for whom he has never worked previously, especially by a very large contractor or an out-of-town contractor, but this is unlikely to occur unless he has al ready had experience as a foreman. His original promotion ordinarily comes from a contractor familiar with his abilities. The next step in promotion as an employee is to general foreman or superintendent. Here the situation differs among trades, but in all cases such a man is a full-time management representative of the contractor and does not work with tools or install materials. Payment is ordinarily on a straight salary basis and is commonly 25 to 50 percent above full-time hourly earnings for his trade— the amount de pending on his responsibilities and the size of the operations. A general foreman or superintendent for a general contractor is responsible for the entire job. He directs the work of the general con tractor’s men, ordinarily doing so through the gang foremen, and coordinates the work of the various subcontractors’ crews. He has no au thority over the subcontractors’ foremen and gives them information and comments (his in terpretation of drawings affecting their work, the general progress schedule laid out, con formity of their work to his own or to that of other subcontractors, etc.) but not direct orders. Disagreements which cannot be settled directly are referred to the respective contrac tors. A general foreman of this type is ordin arily a bricklayer or carpenter by trade. A superintendent is commonly a bricklayer or carpenter but on very large jobs is likely to be a civil engineer, an architect, or a man with administrative background. In the special trades (plumbing, electrical work, painting, etc.) general foremen and superintendents are less common than in gen eral contracting. They are responsible only for the work of their own trades and for its direct relation to other work. These men are employed only by the largest of the special trade contractors. In some cases such a man works on an unusually large job, where he is in charge of all of his employers’ gang fore men; in other cases he is in charge of a num ber of jobs, calling at each daily to review progress, any problems that have risen, ex pected material and equipment needs, etc. It is possible for a workman to become a contractor, and many thousands have done so. Sound journeyman knowledge is a great help, but ability to plan work, to foresee needs and problems, to direct others, and to estimate material and time requirements for jobs on which he is preparing bids are much more use ful than unusual craftsmanship skill. Annual earnings vary greatly with a number of fac tors— capital, the current volume of building (which affects both the volume of business available and the profit margin which can be included realistically in bids), ability to plan and direct field work, and business ability. The common belief that contracting is a sure, rapid path to wealth is exaggerated, to say the least. In 1939, 39 percent of all general building con tractors performed work valued at less than $10,000 and more than 32 percent performed work valued at $10,000 up to $25,000; among special trade contractors, almost 78 percent performed work valued at less than $10,000, and 14 percent performed work valued at $10,000 up to $25,000.1S Obviously most of these small contractors must have had comparatively modest earnings; probably earnings for many were less than would have been provided by full-time employment as foremen or even as journeymen at their respective trades. Award of contracts on the basis of competi tive bidding, moderately low requirements for fixed capital, liberal credit arrangements for material purchases, and the possibility of con ducting a fairly substantial business from the properietor’s home, all combine to make it easier to enter small-scale contracting than many other lines of business. These same condi tions mean that there are many firms capable of doing small jobs, so that under normal condi tions competition is quite active. Expansion to larger jobs brings the requirement for more equipment17; in some cases, for a separate office; in some kinds of contracting, for a real shop or a storage yard for job machinery and equipment when not in use; and for larger liquid capital. Resources, financial responsibil ity, and a record of satisfactory performance on previous contracts are considered in the award of large contracts and contracts for highquality work to a greater extent than in the past. Hence, even a man of uncommon ability must expect that a period of several years will elapse before he becomes one of the recognized contractors for such jobs, unless at the time of starting his business he has substantial capital and a notably good reputation. In some cases a contractor must have a State or municipal license, or both, and cannot legally work on his own account until the license is obtained. This is standard for plumbing and for electric wiring but infrequent for other trades. Getting a license is the first step in establish-*1 7 1(r 16th Census: Census of Business, vol. IV : Construction: table 5-A, p. 53. Value o f work performed means work carried out during the year with their own employees, rather than total contracts re ceived or completed during the year; it excludes the value o f those parts of the work sublet to others. Many of the smallest o f the con tractors might perhaps have been regarded as self-employed workmen. 17 Construction machinery and equipment of almost every kind can be rented, but rental is considered by many contractors to be advis able only for those items needed infrequently. 25 ment of a business, under all circumstances where licensing is required. Usually there are periodical examinations by a licensing board, and often a stated period of experience as a journeyman is required for eligibility, although in some cases other experience or advanced technical training is acceptable. In some trades and localities, collective agree ments provide that employers shall not work with tools. Such provision is not a restriction to moderately large and large contractors, whose time would be given to management duties in any case, but make it more difficult for a journeyman or foreman to enter con tracting. He must have more capital than would otherwise be needed because of a larger weekly payroll and must also have a larger volume of business at the outset to meet his own liv ing expenses when he has no earnings as a part-time working foreman. Many small contractors act as working fore man on their jobs, doing as much as possible of their other work (soliciting orders and con tracts, preparing bids, keeping books, decid ing on orders for materials, etc.) in the even ings. This is a wearing schedule, its advantage being reduction of expenses when the business is small and capital is limited. Its disadvantage is that management duties may receive insuffi cient careful thought. For small-scale contract ing, with perhaps no more than half a dozen employees, management duties are usually con siderably less than a full-time job, but con siderably more than can be handled success fully on a spare-time basis. The expense of taking sufficient time during regular working hours for at least a part of the planning of operations, careful scheduling of material re quirements, negotiations with material dealers and others, etc., is likely to be less than losses resulting from errors and neglect when these are compressed into evenings following full days of hard work. Opportunities for Minority Groups Opportunities in the building trades for minority groups (principally Negroes) vary greatly among trades and among localities. On the whole they are best in plastering and brick laying and poorest in the mechanical trades (electrical work, plumbing, pipe fitting). The 26 geographical differences are local rather than regional, with Negro workmen in several trades fully accepted in some of the southern cities. No international union in the Building Trades Department of the American Federa tion of Labor excludes Negroes from member ship by the terms of its charter or its bylaws. However, acceptance of members is by the various locals rather than directly by the inter national union, and the basis for admission is established by each local for its own territory. Acceptance of applicants is frequently by vote of the current members, who are likely to be guided by local customs and attitudes. Hence, Negroes can be effectively excluded from mem bership or given membership subject to serious limitations (such as restriction of employment to a designated geographical area within the local’s territory) without any official bylaw or regulation on the part of the local. Exclusion from union membership is obviously a severe handicap in any area where most of the new construction is done under union conditions. Training for any of the skilled trades means employment as an apprentice— which means getting a job, as well as being accepted by the joint apprenticeship committee for the trade and locality. Getting a job in turn is dependent on the acceptance of Negroes by employers. While there are several thousand Negro con tractors, most of them are comparatively small in volume of business and thus unable to offer the regularity and variety of work meeting standard apprenticeship requirements. There are some indications that the long time trend is toward increased acceptance of Negroes in all of the building trades, although this trend cannot be regarded as unmistakably clear. Even if present, such a trend is unlikely to proceed without interruptions or even tem porary reversals in some localities. At best it is likely to be slow, and full acceptance of Negroes for all trades in all localities cannot be expected for a period of years, at least. Meanwhile, those accepted for formal ap prenticeship have no serious employment hurd les ahead of them; this acceptance is also ac ceptance into the recognized labor force for their trades. Others wishing to enter the build ing trades will, in some cases, be able to do so through the informal methods described in the section “ Training for the Skilled Trades.” Despite the serious drawbacks of these other methods, they can be advantageous for persons who have the necessary aptitudes and who are also restricted in employment opportunities in other industries as well as construction. CHART 7 PERCENT OF NEGROES AMONG EMPLOYED MALE WORKERS IN CONSTRUCTION, 1940 PERCENT 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 --------- 1--------- 1----------1--------- 1----------1--------- 1---------- 1--------- Plasterers and Cement Finishers Masons, Tile Setters and Stonecutters Carpenters Painters, Paperhangers and Glaziers Structural and Ornamental Metal Workers Plumbers and Gas and Steam Fitters Roofers and Sheet Metal Workers Proprietors Foremen Electricians U N ITE D S T A T E S D EP A R T M E N T OF LAB O R BUREAU OF LABOR S T A T IS T IC S Hours and Earnings Hourly wage rates in the construction trades are high as compared to hourly rates in most other occupations requiring comparable skill. Average hourly earnings (gross earnings, divided by the number of hours worked) have traditionally been higher in contract build ing construction than in other industries but currently differ comparatively little from those in coal mining, petroleum drilling and refining, SOURCE: U. S. BUREAU OF THE CEN SUS and newspaper publishing. Annual earnings, however, have been below those for many in dustries with lower hourly wage rates but more regular employment, and have varied more greatly than annual earnings in most industries because of the great variation in the rate of construction activity. Hourly wage rates in a number of large and moderately large cities are given in the sections on the individual trades. It must be 27 recognized that these rates do not apply to all construction workers. In smaller cities and particularly in rural areas distant from metro politan centers, the rates are ordinarily lower. Rates for maintenance journeymen employed in other industries are in most cases below the established scales for the construction industry. Even for new construction in the leading met ropolitan centers, hourly wages rates can be misleading. An established scale of $2.50 per hour for a trade seldom means earnings of $100 per week throughout the year. For many workers there are likely to be weeks in winter with no work and no earnings, and weeks at all times of year with lost time and corres ponding reduction of earnings because of bad weather, lay-offs, sickness, and numerous other reasons. At the present time, union wage rates may be regarded as base rates in their localities for journeymen who are not union members as well as for those who are. Where shortages exist for a given trade, premiums above base rate are likely to be common— their frequency and ex tent depending on the degree of the shortage. Shortages are likewise accompanied by over time work at premium rates, partly to increase hours worked and partly to attract additional workers through high weekly earnings. Generally similar conditions have prevailed during earlier periods of labor shortage, but not at other times; they give an exaggerated pic ture of the earnings that can be expected. Pre miums disappear at once when a labor shortage is overcome, except for jobs at most incon venient locations and for workers having special qualifications; for these latter, the premiums are to retain them because of their individual abilities, rather than merely as additional jour neymen. Overtime is limited to work which CHART 8 UNION WAGE RATES IN BUILDING TRADES JUNE I, 1939 = 100 INDEX UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 28 INDEX as underground utility work; such work was done by union workmen at union wage rates. The other class was houses, “ walk-up” apart ments and small nonresidential buildings (onestory neighborhood stores, etc.), built by other workmen at rates commonly about a third be low the union scale. No forecast is offered of which of these con ditions will predominate 10 years from now. The answer in any given locality will rest on local conditions, subject to whatever pertinent legislation may be in effect at the time. It is merely pointed out that in many localities the present situation differs materially from that which prevailed a few years ago and, hence, that its permanence cannot be assumed offhand. Table 7 shows average hourly earnings, aver age weekly earnings, and average hours worked per week, for all site workers in private con tract building construction from 1934 through cannot be done during the standard working hours and disappears as a means of competing for workers or of increasing the total hours worked. As long as there is a tight labor situation during the active construction season from the middle of spring until late fall, the established union rates are likely to be the minimum hourly rates for all workers on new construction. This condition has not always been present in the past and cannot be predicted with certainty for the future, although in some localities for many years all new construction, except the most trivial, has been performed by union members at the officially established wage scales. In other localities new construction was divided into two classes of work. One class consisted of all nonresidential buildings of any importance, fireresistive (elevator-type) apartment buildings and certain types of other construction such CHART 9 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS IN PRIVATE CONTRACT BUILDING" CONSTRUCT ION 1934 '35 '36 '37 '38 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS *39 '40 '41 '42 '43 '44 '45 '46 '47 1948 -^Covers oil on-site employees on privotely-finonced building projects. 29 1948. The earnings figures are for workers of all occupations and degrees of skill combined, employed by general contractors, builders, and special trade contractors. Hence they show the trend in earnings but not the actual earnings for any specified locality or occupation. The average hourly earnings figures are gross earn ings of all workers on the payroll, divided by total hours worked. Since they include overtime premiums and premiums paid for all other rea sons, they are higher than average wage rates for all site employees. It will be noted that average hourly earnings in the summer and fall of 1948 were about twice the figure for 1939. The most rapid in crease occurred since the beginning of 1946, and it seems rather likely that further increases will occur. When the physical rate of construc tion ceases to expand, overtime and other pre miums will be less important, with a downward effect on average hourly earnings, but it seems likely that periodical increases in hourly wage rates will continue to occur as long as there is an active construction market. CHART 10 AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS IN PRIVATE CONTRACT BUILDING^CONSTRUCTION DOLLARS UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 30 DOLLARS -^COVERS ALL ON-SITE EMPLOYEES ON PRIVATELY - FINANCED BUILDING PROJECTS. Table 7.— Average hourly and weekly earnings and average weekly hours in private contract building construction, 193U-U8 Average Period Hourly earnings Hours per week Weekly earnings 1934, annual average.. $0,795 28.9 $22.97 1935................................ 1936................................ .815 .824 30.1 32.8 24.51 27.01 1937................................ 1938................................ 1939................................ 1940................................ .903 .908 .932 .958 33.4 32.1 32.6 33.1 30.14 29.19 30.39 31.70 1941................................ 1942................................ 1943............................... 1944................................ 1.010 1.148 1.252 1.319 34.8 36.4 38.4 39.6 35.14 41.80 48.13 52.18 1945, annual average.. March........................ June........................... September................. December.................. 1.379 1.363 1.374 1.388 1.395 39.0 40.0 40.4 38.1 37.1 53.73 54.49 55.50 52.94 51.79 1946, annual average.. March........................ June........................... September................. December.................. 1.478 1.411 1.444 1.510 1.569 38.1 37.5 38.2 38.7 38.4 56.24 52.87 55.23 58.49 60.32 1947, annual average . March........................ June........................... September................ December.................. 1.681 1.610 1.661 1.723 1.774 37.6 38.0 37.8 37.9 37.9 63.30 61.23 62.71 65.36 67.31 1948, annual average.. March........................ June........................... September................. December.................. 1.869 1.805 1.858 1.919 1.946 37.3 37.1 37.9 37.5 37.8 69.79 66.89 70.49 72.06 73.44 Source: U. S. Bureau o f Labor Statistics. N otb: A revised series o f estimates o f average hourly and weekly earnings and average weekly hours is available, starting with Janu ary 1948. The revised series is not comparable with that shown above, and the 1948 figures differ slightly from those shown, princi pally because o f inclusion in the new series o f publicly financed projects and some types o f shop workers. It should be noted that the earnings figures are only for those workers who were employed by contractors at the various periods shown in the table and not for the entire construction labor force. The other workers had no earnings from the contract construction industry, al though of course some of them were employed by other industries in maintenance or in forceaccount construction, some were self-employed and some were no doubt employed in noncon struction activities. Table 8 shows average hourly and average weekly earnings of site workers in September 1948 by type of employing contractor. In each case the figures are for all site employees— foremen, journeymen, apprentices, helpers or tenders, laborers, and any others. Both hourly and weekly earnings are higher for special trade contractors as a whole than for general building contractors, in part because of high hourly rates in the special trades and in part because journeymen and foremen make up a larger part of all site workers. Weekly earnings were highest in electrical work, although hourly earnings were below those for plastering and lathing because of a longer average workweek. For plastering and lathing and also for masonry, journeymen’s earnings were substantially higher than the figures of the table because these include the earnings of hodcarriers working with the plas terers and bricklayers. Three of the types of contracting shown (electrical; painting, and decorating; and plumbing, heating, and air con ditioning) are predominantly fields for jour neymen, so that the earnings shown are closer approximations to journeymen’s earnings than are earnings in the other types of contracting. With respect to union wage rates, compari sons over a lengthy period tend to be misleading beause they do not reflect the varying degree to which these rates have been effective. This qualification should be kept in mind in con sideration of table 9. This table, showing wage rates as percentages of corresponding rates paid in 1939, indicates that since that year there has been an unmistakable reduction in the gap between rates for journeymen and those for helpers, tenders, and laborers. The reduction has probably been greater than in dicated by the table, because, prior to the war, wage rates below union scales were probably commoner for semiskilled and unskilled workers than for journeymen. 31 CHART II AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS FOR EMPLOYEES OF SELECTED TYPES OF CONTRACTORS 1948 DOLLARS 0 20 40 60 80 100 G EN ER A L BUILDING CO N TR AC TO RS SP EC IA L T R A D E CONTRACTORS-!/ Electrical Plastering and lathing Plumbing, heating,and air-conditioning Masonry Painting and decorating Carpentry UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS No extensive comparison of hourly wage rates among the trades is presented, because it would have limited usefulness and would be subject to rather serious misunderstanding. On the whole, bricklayers have the highest hourly rates, but because their work is so subject to weather interruptions, they are probably sur passed in annual earnings by several other trades. Hourly wage rates for electricians are, in many localities, below those of a number of other trades, but their annual earnings are probably the highest of any of the large trades.18 Similar considerations affect the sig nificance of the rates for other trades. Further more there is no assurance that the present 32 -^INCLUDES TYPES NOT SHOWN SEPARATELY relationships among trades in this respect are permanent. The differences in hourly rates are at most of minor importance in the choice of a trade, however. A young man choosing a trade for which he has little aptitude, merely because of a high wage scale, in preference to a trade with a lower scale for which he is well suited, is likely to find even the financial reward dis appointing. He is likely to become only a pass able good journeyman, hired by contractors for 18 There are no data on annual earnings by occupation; the state ments on annual earnings of bricklayers and electricians are ex pressed as opinions, based on the conditions under which the work o f these trades is done and on other relevant considerations. their peak requirements and laid off whenever a peak is over. The picture has been considerably less favor able from the standpoint of annual earnings than of hourly or weekly earnings. Annual earnings in the construction industry as a whole and in about 80 other industries and in dustry groups have been estimated by the Com merce Department for 1929 through 1947. A part of these estimates is presented in table 10. It will be noted that earnings in construction were higher than in the other groups shown in the table in only three of the 19 years covered— 1929, 1942, and 1943. From 1931 through 1941, earnings were lower than in the manufacturing group, which includes a number of low-wage industries as well as the high-wage industries producing durable goods. For 1931 through 1936 and also for 1938 and 1939, construction earnings were lower than earnings for “ all Table 8.— Average hourly and weekly earnings in private contract building construction by type of contractor, December 19U8 Average weekly earnings Average hourly earnings All types of building contractors.... $73.44 $1,946 General building contractors.......... 70.47 1.884 Special trade contractors................. 77.41 2.025 Plumbing, heating and air conditioning................................ 81.74 2.026 Painting and decorating.............. 71.73 2.011 Electrical......................................... 89.47 2.207 Masonry........................................... 71.12 2.019 Plastering and lathing................. 81.52 2.291 Carpentering.................................. 68.59 1.856 Roofing and sheet-metal............... 64.80 1.778 Excavating, foundation, grading 66.43 1.767 Type o f Contractor Source: U. S. Bureau o f Labor Statistics. The estimates o f this table correspond to those of table 7, rather than to the revised estimates which include workers on pub licly financed construction. N ote: Table 9.— Index of union hourly wage rates in all building trades, 1907-48 [June 1, 1939=100] All trades Journey men 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 29.3 31.2 32.7 34.0 34.5 29.7 31.6 33.2 34.6 35.2 27.3 28.5 29.5 30.5 30.6 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 35.3 36.1 36.9 37.2 38.4 36.0 36.9 37.7 38.0 39.3 30.9 31.8 32.1 32.4 33.5 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 40.8 45.3 51.9 70.0 71.3 41.5 45.9 52.4 70.1 71.4 36.8 42.6 49.3 71.5 72.2 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 66.9 73.9 79.8 82.9 88.3 67.3 74.2 80.1 83.1 88.7 65.7 69.7 75.4 77.9 84.9 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 91.3 91.9 93.1 97.0 97.3 91.7 92.4 93.6 97.5 97.8 86.4 87.3 88.8 93.3 92.8 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 83.1 80.8 81.4 82.3 85.3 83.6 81.4 81.8 82.8 85.5 79.2 75.7 77.9 78.3 82.9 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 91.2 99.3 100.0 101.6 105.3 91.4 99.3 100.0 101.4 105.0 90.1 99.2 100.0 102.0 106.8 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 111.9 112.7 113.6 116.0 129.3 147.9 163.5 110.9 111.5 112.4 114.4 126.8 144.6 159.4 117.5 118.9 120.3 125.9 146.3 171.1 192.7 Year Helpers and laborers Source: 1907-’47, U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 930, Union Wages and Hours: Building Trades, July 1, 1947, table 1. 1948 indexes, Monthly Labor Review, January 1949, Building Trades: Union Wage Scales in 1948, table 1. 33 industries,” which includes the traditionally low-wage field of farm employment and several low-wage service industries. In fact, average annual earnings in 1933 and 1934 were lower for construction than for Federal work relief. The drop of about 48 percent in annual earn ings from 1929 to 1933 is greater than that for any other industry or industry group for which these estimates were made. As mentioned pre viously, it scarcely seems possible that any future drop in construction activity will be allowed to become an almost total collapse such as occurred from 1928 to 1933; but it is ines capable that annual earnings are more depen dent on a substantial degree of general pros perity than is the case in most other industries. The estimates shown are for the entire con struction industry including office and shop workers as well as workers of all classifications at the construction jobs themselves. Average earnings for journeymen are above the figures for the various years, and average earnings are still higher for journeymen in moderately large and large cities, including their surrounding suburbs, in the north and on the Pacific coast. Earnings in 1948 were substantially higher than in 1947 for many construction workers because of a greater physical volume of con struction combined with generally higher basic wage rates; for the industry as a whole, how ever, the difference between the two years was probably quite moderate because of less exten sive labor shortages with corresponding reduc tion in premiums and a greater seasonal reduc tion in activity during the closing months of the year. CHART 12 THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS AVERAGE ANNUAL EARNINGS PER EQUIVALENT FULL-TIME EMPLOYEE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 34 THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS SOURCE : U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE Table 10.— Average annual earnings 'per fulltime employee for certain industries, 1929-U7 Year Indus tries Contract Con struction Commun ication Manu Mining and public facturing utilities Trans porta tion 1929 1930 $1,421 1,380 $1,674 1,526 $1,474 1,497 $1,543 1,488 $1,526 1,424 $1,642 1,610 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1,292 1,136 1,064 1,109 1,153 1,233 907 869 942 1,027 1,514 1,438 1,351 1,426 1,486 1,369 1,150 1,086 1,153 1,216 1,221 1,016 990 1,108 1,154 1,549 1,373 1,334 1,393 1,492 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1,199 1,270 1,238 1,269 1,306 1,178 1,278 1,193 1,268 1,330 1,522 1,601 1,674 1,692 1,718 1,287 1,376 1,296 1,363 1,432 1,263 1,366 1,282 1,367 1,388 1,582 1,644 1,676 1,723 1,754 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1,450 1,719 1,966 2,121 2,204 1,638 2,194 2,505 2,603 2,599 1,766 1,881 2,075 2,248 2,425 1,653 2,023 2,350 2,517 2,517 1,579 1,795 2,160 2,499 2,621 1,888 2,181 2,491 2,678 2,734 1946 1947 2,365 2,595 2,539 2,840 2,566 2,797 2,512 2,795 2,723 3,112 2,949 3,149 ad Source: U. S. Department o f Commerce, Survey o f Current Busi ness, July 1948 issue, table 26, and July 1947 National Income Sup plement, table 26. Classes or Grades of Workers Cutting across the entire construction field are the three classes of workers by whom con struction is performed: journeymen; tenders and other semiskilled workers; and laborers. While in some respects foremen and appren tices can each be regarded as a separate class, both are grouped with journeymen in most parts of this bulletin because of very great similarities in many important features of their work. Their distinguishing characteristics are stated below for the building trades as a whole rather than separately for the individual trades. Journeymen By far the most important class is that of journeymen or skilled workers. These are the men who operate tools and machines and who process and install materials. As already men tioned, they are divided among numerous trades, each having a designated field in the over-all construction operation. The trades dif fer among themselves in the required skills, knowledge of materials, and knowledge of de sign or lay out. They are alike, however, in that in each case the standard of competence is ability to perform all types of work within the range of the trade, good working knowledge of all of its materials and how they are used, and understanding of the principles on which the work of the trade is based. Some journey men are naturally more capable than others, and in most construction trades, as in other oc cupations, there are difficult or uncommon jobs for which journeymen with unusual dexterity or long experience are preferred. While the kinds of work differ among the separate trades, most of them require a similar degree of skill. Laying out the framing mem bers for a dormer window in a roof is quite dif ferent from laying out the plumbing system for a house, but they call for the same general kind and degree of ability. Each job requires knowl edge of the assembly to be made, knowledge of the materials, and knowledge of what to do as well as how to do it. It is such knowledge, rather than merely facility in the use of tools, that marks a journeyman; skill with tools is neces sary but is only part of the all-round ability required. Foremen in any of the skilled trades are in variably journeymen who have been promoted. Most commonly a foreman is in charge only of the crew for his own trade (usually including any tenders, helpers, or laborers working with the journeymen) but not infrequently he is in charge of all of his employer’s workers. Thus, either a carpenter or a bricklayer might be in charge of a general contractor’s entire gang at a project where several houses are being built. On very large jobs there are frequently fore men for laborers and for some of the semi skilled occupations, but these men have a small er range of responsibilities than do the fore men in the skilled trades. On such jobs there are commonly several foremen in the larger trades, each in charge of the members of his trade working at a particular part of the proj ect, and there may also be subforemen (“ straw bosses,” “ pushers” ) ; there is also a general foreman or superintendent responsible for the coordination of all work, who usually delegates direct supervision of the journeymen to the gang foremen. 35 Foremen are responsible for planning the work in their respective trades, at least broadly if not in detail, and for seeing that it is carried out correctly and quickly. They call attention to any unusual requirements or situations need ing special attention; arrange for delivery of materials as needed; hire, lay off, and discharge workers; represent the contractor in dealings with other contractors or their foremen, the owner, and the architect; interpret the draw ings, if these are not entirely clear, or else ob tain an interpretation from the contractor or the architect; and keep pay-roll records and records of material deliveries, unless the job is large enough to have a timekeeper. In most localities small jobs are run by “ working fore men” who work at their trades along with members of their own crews except when en gaged in supervisory or management duties, while on large jobs the foremen do no actual production work. The general contractor’s foreman, whether a working foreman in charge of three or four men or a general foreman directing several hundred men through trade foremen and sub-foremen, is responsible for coordination of the work of all contractors on the job but has definite authority over the em ployees of the general contractor only. Apprentices are, of course, journeymen in training. Early in the apprenticeship period they do only the simpler work of the trade while starting to build up their familiarity with tools, materials, and principles and, at this stage, work under rather close supervision. As the apprenticeship progresses, they do a wider range of work under decreasing supervision but with explanation of new situations and, in the final months, they are capable of a range of work approaching that of journeymen. Semiskilled workers Semiskilled workers may be divided into three classes: Tenders, helpers, and truck drivers. No formal training is required for any of these. Tenders work with the trowel trades— brick layers, stone setters, plasterers, marble setters, tile setters, terrazzo workers.19 Unlike an ap prentice, a tender is not a learner in the trade. The tenders do not use tools and have no chance to learn the work of the journeymen, except 19 Semiskilled workers fo r marble, tile, and terrazzo are ordinarily called helpers, but their duties are essentially those o f tenders rather than those o f helpers as described in the paragraph below. 36 what they can pick up by watching them. In general, they prepare mortar or plaster, sup ply the journeymen with materials, set up and move portable scaffolding, clean or polish some types of completed work, and remove debris. Helpers, as distinct from tenders, use the commoner tools and perform the simpler opera tions of a trade and in some cases become journeymen in their own right. They are fully recognized in only two trades, elevator con struction for which there is no apprenticeship, and boilermaking as entered through construc tion work.20 In both of these cases the helpers may be regarded as informal apprentices, with out provision for graduation from helper to journeyman at any stipulated date. Helpers have been employed from time to time in num erous other trades— carpentry, painting, elec tric wiring, sheet metal work, plumbing, and steamfitting. In some localities such helpers have been employed in fairly large numbers, and some of them have learned enough to be come accepted as journeymen. For some years, however, they have not been recognized in col lective agreements, and have been employable only on jobs not covered by such agreements. Their status is thus quite risky, and their op portunity to acquire real knowledge and skill in their occupations is ordinarily much inferior to that offered through apprenticeship. The duties of truck drivers in construction work are not basically different from the duties of truck drivers in other industries and cannot be regarded as constituting a separate occupation. Rather, they are merely those truck drivers who at a given time are employed by construction firms. Laborers Laborers are the workers doing those job's for which no formal training is necessary— loading and unloading trucks, carrying mate rials, moving equipment, hand excavating and backfilling, wheeling and placing of concrete, etc. In building work their employment has tended to be less regular than that of journey men and semiskilled workers because many laboring tasks required a large gang for a short 20 In construction boilermaking, helpers showing sufficient apti tude are recognized by the union as being engaged in learning the trade, although their employment status remains that o f a helper until they are able to demonstrate a journeyman level o f knowledge and competence; helpers are also recognized in shop boilermaking, but here their status as semiskilled workers is permanent, and journeyman status is attained through apprenticeship. time— in some cases, for only a few hours; in non-building work their employment has been more regular. The trend in employment op portunities for laborers has been downward in building work and seems likely to continue so. The use o f machinery has grown steadily for several important kinds of work done by labor ers, and future development of machinery, new types of models intended especially for small projects, has been pursued actively by many manufacturers. A few types of laboring work are generally treated as semiskilled and have corresponding wage rates because of hazards, discomforts or the requirement of particular familiarity with working conditions. One such type is under ground excavating under air pressure for tun nels, subways, some types of deep foundations, etc. Another is demolition of old buildings, where experience and familiarity with the risks present are necessary for at least most of the members of any $ang so that workers inex perienced in this hazardous activity can be as signed to the less dangerous tasks. Experience as a laborer is the usual background for enter ing some of the semiskilled occupations such as bricklayers’ or plasterers’ tender. Trades as the Basis of Construction W ork Any construction work except the simplest uses a wide variety of materials, each with its own characteristics and each requiring appro priate tools and methods of handling. Most of these materials appear in many different types of structures, and the job of putting them in place is essentially the same. Thus brickwork is used in houses and apartment buildings, churches, hospitals, factories, in fact buildings of all types, and also in nonbuilding structures like walls or utility manholes. The operations involved in the brickwork are essentially the same for all of these structures and for many m ore; but in any single type of structure, such as a two-story house, the job of building the brick walls and chimney is basically different from the other jobs needing to be done. Hence, construction operations have long been divided among a number of different trades. Some have been recognized as distinct occupations fo r thousands of years, while others arose fairly recently when technical de velopments (electric wiring, elevators, struc tural steel work, and power-operated construc tion machinery, etc.) created types of work clearly outside the fields of the older trades. Technical developments have changed the characteristics of most trades, particularly within the last 25 years, but distinct trades continue to be the basis on which construction operations are organized. The increasing com plexity of buildings and the increasing range of materials and tools, combine to increase rather than diminish the necessity for divi sion of the exceedingly wide construction field. The field of each trade is essentially the pro cessing and installation of a given group o f re lated materials for any type of structure, with use of the appropriate tools and equipment. Until about 50 years ago trade distinctions along these lines were comparatively simple, but new materials and methods have made the distinctions much more complicated. Thus, the traditional materials for carpentry were rough lumber, finished lumber and millwork, plus sup plementary hardware. To these have been added plywood, rigid insulating board, gypsum board, other building board, nonrigid insula tion, “ soft” floors (linoleum, asphalt tile, etc.), cement-asbestos shingles, and many others. Meanwhile metal products have become fairly common for uses where wood had been univer sal— sash and frames, doors and frames, mould ing, movable partitions, floor joists, cabinets, and numerous others. Similar examples could be given for other trades. Developments of this type have meant some degree of turbulence for construction as a whole, have changed the boundaries between trades, and have brought numerous instances of disagreement regarding the trade by which a new material was to be used. Turbulence has been present when there was no jurisdic tional conflict. This is well illustrated by the methods used for fire-resistive protection of structural steel, in building construction. Steel columns and beams were covered with specially shaped tile, laid by bricklayers, for about the first quarter century of fire-resistive steel con struction.21 Then improved knowledge of con21 Brick, terra cotta, and other masonry materials, which had been used for such fireproofing o f cast and wrought iron as was done prior to the development o f steel-frame construction, were also used but were superseded by hollow tile. 37 Crete and improved means for its handling brought a rapid change to covering with poured concrete22, which has been standard for about 30 years. Now a quite new method has ap peared, enclosure of the steelwork with metal lath to which a new type of plaster is applied by plasterers. This use of plaster for fireproof ing is particularly significant as an indication of change, because older types of plaster were used to some degree for the same purpose about 50 years ago and found to be unsatisfactory. The latest method has the great advantage o f a marked saving in weight and seems likely to become a common procedure, if not the standard procedure. Yet the possibility exists that in turn it may be partially or entirely re placed in the future by a still different method. Four skilled trades have been involved in this series of developments— bricklayers who did the tile work, carpenters who built the forms for concrete fireproofing of columns and beams, and lathers and plasterers who carry out the newest fireproofing method. All of these have been necessary trades in the construction industry throughout the period, and all would have been important regardless of whether these developments took place. There will prob ably be numerous comparable changes within the next generation, shifting work from one trade to another as new materials and methods come into use. For any given trade these are likely to bring some gains and some losses in employment opportunities, but the history of construction gives scant basis for fear that any of the trades will become obsolete.23 While distinctions between trades can be carried to extremes, their benefits are so real that on the whole they are observed as fully as is practical for the local volume of construc tion employment. In small communities the amount of building work seldom is sufficient to afford a reasonable income to members of the less common trades. Their types of work are done by other local journeymen, if the lat ter are capable of it, or else by workmen from larger cities. Thus only the commoner trades 22 Although concrete used for fireproofing is quite distinct from reenforced concrete, this change to fireproofing concrete for the steel work was greatly hastened by an accompanying change from flat masonry arches to reenforced concrete for the floors. 23 The only case o f obsolescence o f a recognized trade was that of rubble stone masons, for which the circumstances were quite unique. This is discussed briefly on p. 9. 38 will be found in a village of 1,000 in a fairly prosperous farming area. Ordinary lathing may be done by the carpenters, ordinary glaz ing by the painters and often by the carpen ters, and the bricklayer will do any stone setting that may be wanted; the plasterer and perhaps the bricklayer also will do cement finishing as well. More difficult and larger jobs (setting of plate glass, metal lathing for a plaster cornice or a suspended ceiling, a great number of other jobs arising infrequently in small places) will be performed by journey men of the appropriate trades from a larger city nearby. Training for the Skilled Trades The accepted methods of training for prac tically all of the skilled building trades is through apprenticeship. This is beyond ques tion the most satisfactory course available thus far, even though apprenticeship training pro grams cannot be regarded as beyond the pos sibility of improvement. In addition, however, many thousands of workers have become jour neymen through informal training. After several years of experience as helpers, they acquired enough proficiency to meet local standards for skilled workmen. While still pos sible under some conditions, this path to jour neyman status has many disadvantages and can lead to severe disappointment. Apprenticeship is a period of on-the-job training in which the new worker is made familiar with the materials, tools, skills, and principles of his chosen trade so that at the end he has a balanced knowledge of the entire field and can perform any of its operations capably. Further knowledge and increased skill normally follow in the course of employment as a journeyman, but the apprenticeship gives a full, rounded background for such progress as well as for changes brought about by new materials and methods. An apprentice is an employee— under the terms of a written agreement— working for one contractor or a series of contractors for a stated period. Under standard apprenticeship regulations, a local joint committee represent ing the union and the contractors for the trade at least ratifies the written agreement. Some times the apprentice’s agreement is directly with the committee rather than with any in dividual contractor. In either case, the agree ment provides that the apprentice is to be em ployed with appropriate on-the-job instruc tion and adequate supervision on types of work representing the full normal range of the trade’s operations. A 4-year apprenticeship is most common, but the length of the training period varies. The minimum number of hours of work ex perience in each major type of work is usually specified. During this period the apprentice is pajd at an advancing rate, ordinarily starting at 40 to 50 percent of the journeyman’s current hourly rate and increasing at half-yearly inter vals. In the final 6 months, it is usually about 90 percent of the journeyman’s rate. Rather commonly, although not invariably, advanced apprenticeship standing is given for skill acquired in the armed services and, occa sionally, for skill acquired otherwise. The granting of such credit and its extent are al ways on an individual basis, ordinarily gov erned by demonstration of skill and knowledge. The credit shortens the apprenticeship period and brings an immediate increase in hourly wage rates. For some of the trades, an apprentice ordin arily works for a single contractor throughout the entire training period but is transferred by the committee to another employer if the original contractor is unable to provide con tinuous employment or, because of the special ized nature of contracts he has obtained, can not provide reasonably balanced training. In other trades, where specialization by contrac tors is extensive, it is customary for the joint committee to transfer apprentices at intervals of about 6 months. As an employee, an apprentice works with the tools of the trade, doing work of progres sively increasing difficulty and having progres sively less supervision. It is the responsibility o f the journeymen on the job and the fore man to explain to him the work being done and to show him how different operations are performed and different tools are used. The customary arrangement is that most of this instruction is given by a single journeyman to whom the apprentice is assigned at any par ticular time. Under approved apprenticeship agreements an apprentice also attends school, usually 8 hours per week for 36 weeks of each year. Classes are often conducted by the Board of Education, not infrequently in consultation with the union local and ordinarily with at least endorsement by the local. In some cases the courses are conducted directly by the local. Instruction varies among trades but usually follows a general outline: History of the trade; characteristics of the materials; shop mathe matics as related to the trade’s w ork; rudiments of engineering where appropriate (particularly for pipe work, ventilating and electrical w o rk ); sketching, elementary drafting, interpretation of drawings; and special trade theory such as color harmony for painters, elementary sani tation for plumbing work, etc. In small locali ties, where there may be only one apprentice and half a dozen journeymen in a trade, it is seldom that either the school board or the union local is prepared to offer a course specially de vised for apprentices. Here use is made of cour ses offered in the local high school, such as drafting and interpretation of drawings, shop mathematics, or anything else that is directly serviceable. Gaps may be made up to some de gree through personal instruction by the local journeymen and contractors, or in some cases, by correspondence courses. The kind of apprenticeship described above is provided under joint union-contractor aus pices. In some trades and localities nonunion apprenticeship occurs also. Here the appren tice’s agreement is with a single contractor, and there is no joint committee to supervise the training offered, to adjudicate differences, or to arrange a transfer in cases of personal incompatibility between the apprentice and the contractor. The apprentice’s training de pends to a high degree on the contractor’s fortunes and policies. If the contractor lacks continuous work or has only a restricted type of work, he cannot give continuous, rounded training, however good his intentions may be, although he may be able to transfer or loan the apprentice to another contractor. If he looks upon apprenticeship primarily as a means of getting low-wage workers, the apprentice will probably end his course with ability to perform the commoner operations of his trade rapidly and capably but without thorough knowledge of the trade or of the theory on 39 which the work is based and with little ex perience in the less common types of work. There is no doubt that thousands of workmen have obtained sound training in nonunion ap prenticeships but the conditions present make some precautions quite important. Since there will not be the protection of a joint apprentice ship cpmmittee, before signing any agreement the apprentice should inquire carefully as to the contractor’s responsibility and reputation, both for personal dealings and for reasonably good standards of workmanship. The written apprenticeship agreement should specify clearly the type and extent of training to be received, the starting wage rate, and the schedule of wage advances. Signing an agreement merely to work as an apprentice with the type of train ing and the schedule of wage advances not specified, involves serious risks. If the appren ticeship does not provide for classroom train ing, every effort should be made to obtain re lated instruction in a local night school or trade school or through a correspondence course. A man considering a nonunion appren ticeship should recognize that there is no as surance of his being able to acquire union membership at a later date and that lack of union membership may be a serious handicap. Many journeymen have “ picked up” their trades by working as helpers for several years, and no doubt others are doing so now. Except for elevator constructors and boilermakers, for whom this procedure is recognized, this is a most unpromising course. Under favorable con ditions, including marked aptitude on the part of the worker, it can be successful; but it can also be completely unsuccessful. First, there is danger that the worker may never obtain enough skill and knowledge to rise above the status of helper or handyman. It may be pos sible to get work experience on only the rougher and simpler jobs, and there is, of course, no obligation to provide instruction or explana tion such as those given an apprentice. Hence, night school classes or correspondence school courses are even more important than in a nonunion apprenticeship. Shifting around from one employer to another and perhaps from one locality to another may turn out to be neces sary in order to obtain experience in a wide range of work and to locate employers sym pathetic to the worker’s efforts at self-instruc 40 tion. Any family responsibilities naturally re duce such mobility and make this route to journeyman status particularly difficult. A second and quite different problem for selftrained workers is that of recognition, however capable they may become. Under some circum stances they may be accorded permanent recog nition as journeymen (by union membership, or in other forms) and under other circum stances they may not. In the latter case, they will find themselves limited to employment at wages below standard, except during periods of at least mild labor shortage. There are proprietary trade schools in some localities purporting to give training equivalent to apprenticeship in some of the building trades, within a period of a few weeks or a very few months. These schools vary consider ably in the extent and quality of their instruc tion, but at best they cannot give work experi ence approaching that of even a mediocre ap prenticeship. The poorest of them have been virtually worthless. Classroom training at some such schools has been quite good, and at others there has been none at all. While the pupils at some of these schools obtain training which is good as far as it goes, this is by no means a substitute for apprenticeship. Such courses have little to offer to those persons having the opportunity to enter standard apprenticeships. For persons trying to learn a trade outside of standard apprenticeship, a responsible proprie tary school can give useful classroom training which might otherwise be unobtainable. En rollment in any of the poorer schools of this class is an almost complete waste of time and money under any circumstances. A quite dif ferent type of trade school, in preparation for apprenticeship and conducted thus far for brick laying only, is described briefly in the section on that trade. Graduation from high school is required in some apprenticeship standards and recom mended at least by implication in others. Whether required or not, it is highly desirable. While for some trades it may contribute little or nothing to manual dexterity or to familiar ity with the materials,24 it is most helpful in 24 For example, the shop courses offered in most high schools do not deal with the materials used in bricklaying or plastering, and it is doubtful that they are o f any direct help in acquiring the manual skills o f these trades; but an apprentice in either trade will find a high school education of great benefit. grasping trade theory, in understanding the re lationships between the different parts of a construction job, and in preparing for any training which a journeyman may wish to take at a later time in either the technical or the business aspects of his trade. Completion of high school is especially important to one hop ing to become a foreman or a contractor. For fully a year there have been many cases in which all apprenticeship openings for a given trade in a particular locality have been filled, yet contractors have said that they needed additional skilled workers in the trade. This situation may seem to involve a contradiction, but no real contradiction is present. Beginning apprentices are very different from skilled workers; during the early training period their production can be a good bit less than the loss in production of the journeymen assigned to instruct them. Apprenticeship is a rather per sonal form of training, some of its stages are time-consuming to the journeymen and the fore man and expensive to the contractors, and the number of apprentices who can be absorbed at any time is limited. It is recognized that there may be instances where the present quota of apprentices might be increased, but there can be little doubt that these are a minority; limitations on the number of apprentices have already been relaxed in a very great many cases. Quite apart from con sideration on the effect of the future labor force, limitations on the number of appren tices under training at a particular time can not be removed entirely if the type of training now given is to be continued. The best course for those wishing to enter apprenticeship and finding that all openings are filled, is to determine their place on the waiting list and, if the waiting period is not excessive, to obtain enrollment on the waiting list and then to get as gopd a temporary job as possible. Members of the joint apprentice ship committee or union officials may be able to suggest spare-time study preparatory to the trade during this waiting period, which will not duplicate the classroom training to be re ceived during apprenticeship. 41 PART II TH E INDIVIDUAL CONSTRUCTION TRAD ES This pamphlet deals with those occupations having a large part of their employment in the construction, alteration, and repair of build ings and other structures which are ordinarily built by the contract construction industry. Thus it takes in the occupations working pri marily or extensively at the construction site. Attention is given principally to the skilled oc cupations, with incidental attention to the others. Certain important occupations more or less closely related to construction are omitted because their work is done primarily away from the construction site or outside of the contract construction industry. The principal groups omitted are: the professions (architec ture, all branches of engineering); factory oc cupations in the manufacture of building ma terials, including those where the employing firms are commonly contractors as well as manufacturers (marble sawyers and polishers, modelers and casters in ornamental plaster shops, several oth ers); and occupations (hightension linemen, telephone linemen, a few others) employed in types of construction car ried out predominantly by other industries than the contract construction industry. Occupations employed only on large, remote, or highly spe cialized jobs (blacksmiths, explosives workers, numerous others) are likewise omitted. The sections which follow describe the major construction trades— the nature of their work, trends likely to be influential, any notable characteristics of the training required, the employment outlook, earnings, and working conditions. Some trades are treated at more length than others because of greater variety or complexity in their work, a larger number of journeymen and hence greater importance from an employment standpoint, a high rate of technological development affecting their work, or for other reasons. Trades for which employment is predominantly in other indus tries are mentioned only briefly if at all. 42 As already stated, each trade is centered around a broad class of materials or a broad group of skills. Specialization is common within the more inclusive trades, but this is over whelmingly a matter of preference and apti tude on the part of individual journeymen, and in most cases it requires at least the customary level of journeyman skill and knowledge as its background. It is true that part of the work of some trades is done by semi-journeymen able to do only repetitive and simple operations, but such workers have been declining in import ance and are a very small part of the cpnstruction labor force. The specialty fields cannot be regarded as distinct occupations and are not presented separately in this bulletin; references to them, when made, are in the sections on the various recognized trades. The descriptions of work done by the several trades are approximate and were prepared only for the purpose of giving a general picture o f each of them. They are in no sense exact defini tions of the field of work of any trade. For almost every trade some types of work have been omitted from the descriptions, because they are comparatively unimportant from an employment standpoint, or a clear explanation would have been unduly long, or for other reasons. Furthermore the descriptions are not completely applicable to all localities, because of local differences in customs and agreements regarding the division of work. From time to time in the past there have been transfers o f specific operations or the use of specific ma terials from the field of one trade to that o f another, and similar transfers may occur in the future. These descriptions were prepared without regard for possible use in settlement o f any jurisdictional dispute and are not valid for such a purpose. Exact jurisdictional definitions are quite outside the purpose of this bulletin; they would involve detailed, lengthy statements quite foreign to the purposes of presenting the main characteristics and the employment pros pects for the several trades. In addition, there are some zones in which differences of opinion still exist, as well as zones in which past juris dictional decisions have not been so fully ac ceptable to all parties concerned that they may be regarded as final settlements. Grouping of the occupations is complicated, and there is no arrangement regarded as standard. The commonly used term of “ trowel trades” includes workers as different as brick layers and plasterers. The term “ pipe trades” covers a homogeneous group when used for skilled workers in plumbing, pipe fitting, sprinkler fitting, and refrigeration fitting, but is misleading when extended, as it sometimes is, to include electricians. A serviceable although quite imperfect classi fication is into three groups: structural trades, finishing trades, and mechanical trades. Several of the trades perform work in two of these classifications. Thus many parts of the field of carpentry are unquestionably structural work— all framing operations, laying of sub floors, building of concrete forms, several other types of work. Other parts of the field are just as unquestionably finishing work— installation of millwork and finish hardware, laying of finish floors, other carpentry operations. Simi lar divisions occur in some of the other trades. The recognized skilled building trades are listed below, with a brief indication of the con struction work done by each. Other work is not listed, although in a few cases it provides the great bulk of the trade’s employment. In each case the work includes alterations, repairs, and maintenance, as well as new construction. Structural Trades: Carpenters: Historically, construction operations using wood, but now including many other materials for which wood working tools are appropriate. Bricklayers: Walls, piers, chimneys, and other masonry units, using any material except stone or artificial stone. Stonemasons: Setting of cut stone and artificial stone; other stone masonry. Cement Finishers: Leveling, smoothing, and surfacing of concrete work; installa tion of composition floors and mastic floors; rubbing and surface-patching of concrete after removal of forms. Structural Iron Workers: Erection of steel bridges, towers, etc.; steel frames for buildings; steel floor decking; other struc tural steel work in buildings and elevators. Ornamental Iron Workers: Erection of metal stairways, fire escapes, platforms, and railings; a wide variety of work in steel and other metals. Re-enforcing Iron Workers (Rodm en): Field fabrication and setting of steel bars and mesh for concrete re-enforcement. Riggers: Unloading and moving into position of heavy machinery and equip ment. No separate section on this trade has been prepared. Boilermakers: Site assembly of boilers; erection of some types of tanks. This trade is employed principally in other industries than construction. Operating Engineers: Operation of con struction machinery. Finishing Trades Lathers: Installation ' of wood, metal, and gypsum lath; installation of steel chan nels to support lath (and certain other materials) not directly attached to struc tural members. Plasterers: Application of plaster and stucco to any base; making of artificial marble and ornamental plaster in place; installation of shop-made ornamental plaster. Marble Setters: Installation of marble except where used in block form, as a type of stonemasonry; installation of (interior) structural glass, shop-made terrazzo, and other materials used as alternates to marble. Tile Setters: Setting of floor and wall tile. Terrazzo Workers: Laying of terrazzo floors; installation of terrazzo base and other terrazzo, except shop-made pieces. Painters: All exterior and interior paint ing; filling, staining, and varnishing of woodwork; finishing of hardwood floors. Paperhangers: Hanging of wallpaper and other sheet material (cloth, clothbacked wood veneer, etc.). 43 Soft Floor Layers: Laying of linoleum, asphalt tile, rubber tile, carpeting, and several other materials (exclusive of hard wood flooring and ceramic floor tile) for finish floors and certain other applications. This is a small occupation, recognized as a separate trade in some localities but not in others, for which a separate section has not been prepared. Glaziers: Installation of window glass (sheet glass) and plate glass; installation of the special metalwork holding plate glass; installation of structural glass on building exteriors and of glass block in nonwatertight (interior) panels. Roofers: Installation of roofing— slate, tile, built-up, and some other types; water proofing and damp-proofing of wall sur faces and other surfaces. Asbestos Workers: Installation of pipe covering and covering on boilers, tanks, industrial apparatus, etc., to reduce heat transmission; in some localities, installa tion of general building insulation. Mechanical Trades Plumbers and Pipe Fitters: Installation of systems (including piping, fixtures, boilers, and all supplementary items) for water supply, use, and drainage; for steam and hot-water heating; for piping used in industrial processes; for fire protection; for refrigeration; and for transmission of compressed air and other gases. Electricians: Installation of electric wir ing systems, including control apparatus, electric lighting fixtures, and some other types of current-using apparatus. Sheet Metal Workers: Installation of ventilating systems (including fume-re moval and dust-collecting systems, qnd the ventilating portion of air-conditioning sys tems) ; installation of metal roofing and siding, metal roof flashings, and gutters and downspouts for roof drainage; instal lation of metal partitions and certain other members made of sheet metal; installa tion of warm-air heating systems. Elevator Constructors: Installation of elevators and dumbwaiters (guides, ma chinery, control apparatus, cars, door op erators, e t c .); installation of moving stairways. 44 There is also a brief section on building laborers (unskilled workers), with special men tion of hod carriers. A number of occupations represented in the Building Trades Department of the American Federation of Labor are omitted entirely, be cause their work is overwhelmingly at contrac tors’ shops and other shops, rather than at con struction projects. Among those omitted for this reason are: granite cutters; stonecutters; marble, slate, and stone polishers; marble, slate, and stone sawyers; plaster modelers, model makers, and sculptors; and iron shopmen. Truck drivers are omitted because construction affords a comparatively small part of their em ployment and differs only slightly from other industries in its requirements. Several very small occupations recognized as distinct trades in only a few of the largest cities are likewise omitted; these are properly specialties of larger trades, and are so regarded in all but a few localities. In general, the semiskilled occupa tions are omitted except for incidental discus sion in the sections on the trades with which they work. Carpenters Outlook Summary The outlook for carpenters is excellent for several years and should be good thereafter. Nature of Work Carpentry is the largest single construction trade from the standpoint of the number o f workers and, in some respects, is the most ex tensive in the range of work done. Historically it has dealt with wood, but within recent years many other materials have been added to the carpentry field. Most houses are of frame construction, and here the structure proper above the foundation is entirely or almost entirely the work of car penters. Brick veneer houses, popular in many localities, are of frame construction built by carpenters, covered with an outer layer o f brick. All but a few masonry houses and many other masonry buildings also use wood con struction for floors, roofs, and stairs, and this too is put up by carpenters. All finish wood work (doors, sash, surrounding trim for both, finish floors, cabinets, moldings, etc.) with sup plementary hardware is carpentry. The several kinds of acoustical materials, are in the car pentry field; so are numerous other materials which have come to prominence during the last quarter century. In many localities, the mate rials for general building insulation have been applied to houses by carpenters. For some pur poses the newer materials (plywood, insulating board, gypsum board, hardboard, others) are used extensively, and for general insulation and acoustical treatment new types of materials are used exclusively. “ Soft” floors of linoleum, asphalt tile, and several other materials are laid by carpenters in many localities. Carpenters’ work also includes a wide range of facilities used temporarily in construction operations and then removed. From an employ ment standpoint, the most important of these are the forms or molds into which concrete is poured for buildings, for foundations only, and for other structures, such as bridges and retaining walls. Other temporary facilities are scaffolds and platforms, towers for material hoists, safety barricades, chutes for materials and rubbish, and temporary buildings, like ma terial or tool sheds and contractors’ field offices. A very important classification of work is repairs, alterations, and additions to existing structures. Such jobs differ greatly in extent, from replacement of a few decayed pieces in a porch to complete rearrangement of the in terior of a building; they last from a few hours to several weeks or a few months. Within recent years, modernization of old frame houses, enclosure of porches, and a wide variety of other improvements have become im portant as a source of employment. Carpentry is by far the most important trade in altera tion and repair work, although other trades are commonly needed also and, of course, there are individual alteration jobs where carpentry is a small part of the total. Another branch of the trade deals with heavy timbers for docks, railroad trestles, cribbing and shoring, and similar heavy construction. Strictly speaking, it is the men doing such work who are carpenters, whereas those doing ordinary building work are properly known as joiners, but this historical distinction is seldom observed. A thoroughly trained carpenter can do all of these types of work and others not men tioned, but the field is so broad that many jour neymen confine themselves to selected parts as a matter of preference whenever such work is available. Some are “ trimmers,” installing millwork and finish hardware; others lay hard wood floors; others prefer framing and rough carpentry; others prefer alteration and repair work or the building of forms for concrete. These subdivisions are not trades in themselves, and, for the most part, basic journeyman com petence is essential for competence within the specialty. The differences between individuals in aptitudes are important in specialization. Thus, a man for whom careful, accurate work manship is easy will usually be most advantage ously employed in trimming and will usually prefer such w ork; a man for whom such work manship requires special effort will be more advantageously employed at framing or other rough carpentry. There have been many illus trations, however, that capable journeymen can transfer as needed into even an uncommon specialty. Perhaps as striking as any was in the building of the “ Independent” subway in New York City some years ago, carried out for several miles by excavating from the street rather than by tunneling. Many hundreds of carpenters were hired for heavy timber work to provide a temporary street surface above the excavation for vehicular traffic and to shore (i.e., brace and support) the buildings adjoin ing the excavation. It is exceedingly likely that many, if not most, of these men had no prior experience in heavy timber construction. Specialization is naturally commonest in the large cities. In small communities it is unusual, because the total volume of work is insufficient. Here the carpenters ordinarily do all types of work within their trade, and in rural areas they frequently do some types of work which are performed in larger places by other trades. Where Employed Most carpenters work in the construction industry. A large number are self-employed on repairs, alterations, and quite small new build ings. Not uncommonly these men alternate between wage-employment for contractors and self-employment on small jobs. Some self-em ployed carpenters are able to expand their ac tivity to contracting, hiring other journeymen, and perhaps awarding subcontracts, either oc casionally or regularly. Many thousands of car penters work for “ home improvement” firms 45 on repairs, small alterations, modernization, and miscellaneous improvements. A great many carpenters are employed in other industries, on force-account new construction to some degree but on maintenance work and alterations to a much greater degree. These men are employed in factories of all types for maintenance and repairs, for small alterations, for quite small new work, such as sheds, and for building all sorts of factory equipment which is made of wood— racks, benches, wooden templates, etc. They are similarly employed as “ house carpen ters” in hotels, large office buildings, depart ment stores, and other large establishments. They are employed by firms or individuals with large real estate holdings and by public bodies, such as cities and boards of education. Construction employment is principally, al though by no means entirely, in building work. Most residential building is largely carpentry. In fire-resistive buildings having no woodwork in the structure proper, there is commonly ex tensive finish woodwork and practically always carpentry for concrete forms. Carpentry is least important in some of the specialized industrial buildings, such as oil refineries and steel-mill buildings. In most types of nonbuilding con struction, carpenters are a small minority of total workers, but this employment field is by no means negligible. They are needed for build ing concrete forms for dams, for bridges, for several types of sewer-and-water structures (settling tanks, for example), and in other types of construction. They are needed for crib bing and bracing, in several kinds of under ground construction work. Occasionally these nonbuilding carpentry jobs are very large. Among the most striking have been trestles, some of them several miles long, to support belt conveyors from a gravel pit to a dam. There is no type of project in which carpenters are not employed to at least some degree, and few types in which there are not large carpentry projects at least occasionally. Employment opportunities also exist entirely outside of construction. Carpenters are em ployed in shipbuilding, in mining, and in the production of many kinds of display materials (motion-picture sets, window display and con vention display material, etc.). Building and repairing of railroad cars has declined greatly in importance because of the replacement of 46 wood by metal, but other railroad employment (for maintenance of stations, other buildings, and other wooden structures) is of course per manent. There are many additional types of skilled factory employment, but for the most part these are for cabinetmakers or shop car penters (millmen) rather than for construc tion carpenters. Carpentry may be regarded as the basic building trade, needed in localities of all sizes. Hence, there are carpenters in rural communi ties too small to support journeymen in any of the other trades. Training and Qualifications The trade of carpentry is made up of many elements. A fully qualified man must be skill ful in the use of a wide variety of tools (hand tools of many types, and also several electri cally operated tools) and must know the char acteristics of many materials. He should have an elementary understanding of structural de sign and must be thoroughly familiar with the common systems of frame construction, includ ing the purposes of the various members and the relationships among them. He should know construction practices and standards, such as customary spacing and secure fastening of parts, and of course know the relationship be tween carpentry and the work of other trades. Ability to read blueprints and to compute di mensions for any part of a building are im portant, as well as a knowledge of simple mathematics and facility in using the “ steel square.” 1 Ability to work without drawings (taking measurements as needed) is usually necessary in making repairs or alterations to existing work. In some situations ability to make clear sketches of work to be done is de sirable, and ability to make an accurate, de tailed schedule of needed materials is quite important for any journeyman wanting to work on his own account or to become a fore man. A well-trained carpenter is a highly skilled man, altogether different from a handy man able to do only some of the simpler and easier jobs. The customary way to become a journeyman is through a 4-year apprenticeship, which in all essentials is as described for the building trades as a whole on pages 38-41 inclusive. The1 1A la rg e L -s h a p e d d e v ic e f o r g r a p h ic o f o b li q u e c u t s t o b e m a d e i n l u m b e r . c o m p u t a t io n and m a r k in g training progresses from comparatively simple jobs, such as laying subflooring, to more diffi cult jobs, such as laying out and cutting the members for a dormer. When his manual skill is sufficient, the apprentice works on trim ming. Emphasis in the training is, of course, affected by the types of work which the em ployer has on hand from time to time. Most apprenticeship programs provide 144 hours of classroom work per year, covering such sub jects as Shop arithmetic, simple algebra, draft ing and blueprint reading, and woodworking shop work. Veterans with carpentry experience in the service may be eligible for acceptance by the union as advanced apprentices, or even as jour neymen, if their experience is sufficient and they are able to pass the examination usually given by the union local on completion of ap prenticeship. Provisions for such acceptance are established by each of the locals for its own territory. Many men have learned the trade informally, working as handymen or helpers until they became sufficiently adept to be employable for more exacting work. While this method can be successful, it has many disadvantages and at best is an undependable substitute for ap prenticeship. Outlook The outlook for carpenters is excellent at present and is likely to continue to be vary good. New materials, tools, and methods have changed the detailed operations of carpentry extensively but changed the basic nature of the work less than in several other trades, and current trends in this respect are on the whole favorable. The long-range trend is undoubtedly for higher lumber prices2 because of several reasons, of which the most important is the Nation’s diminishing supply of standing timber, with increasing necessity for cultivating and caring for trees almost as a slow-growing agri cultural crop. This development is unfavor able but not too serious, even though it will probably bring a choice of masonry rather than frame construction for houses and other small buildings in some cases. Such an effect will, o f course, be gradual rather than imme 2 This trend is quite separate from, and also quite consistent with tne short-term downward movement o f lumber prices from their ipostwar high level, which started in late summer o f 1948. diate or sudden. Other developments mentioned below are quite favorable for some types of nonresidential building. It must also be real ized that carpenters already use a number of important products not made from wood, as well as some products that are or can be made from wood scrap, pulpwood, and other forms of wood not directly usable in construction. The lumber and lumber products industries are fully conscious of the significance of dimin ishing timber stands and also of the develop ment work being done with other materials. They have been conducting many industrial re search projects to make the best use of wood, to develop new products, and to reduce mill waste, especially by developing productive uses for scrap and low-grade pieces. The U. S. Forest Service has likewise been active at the Forest Products Laboratory and elsewhere, and a number of universities and other organizations have been active as well. These efforts have increased the usefulness of wood greatly in structural elements, such as trusses, bringing use of wood trusses in numerous wide-span buildings where steel would have been used a few years earlier, and resulted in new elements laminated from wood (arches and “ rigid frame” members, which in structural properties re semble arches to a considerable degree) having marked advantages for some types of build ings. A minor but noteworthy fact bearing on adjustment to decreasing timber supply and high prices is the adoption of a sheet material made from ground wood scrap and a plastic binder, for door panels and other uses, by one of the largest manufacturers of better grade stock millwork; a number of other wood products manufacturers are interested in mak ing somewhat similar materials. Carpentry has been affected by changed methods and changed organization of site work. Electric handsaws, introduced about 25 years ago, were used only by the larger contractors for a number of years, but within the past 10 years they have become standard in most locali ties. Other electric hand tools have been adopt ed, but less extensively. Radial saws were brought out about 10 years ago and were ac cepted much more rapidly on moderately large and large jobs having extensive repetition of individual pieces. Their use is accompanied by division of the construction work between a 47 processing crew, which cuts parts to size, and an erection crew, which installs them. On some jobs the work has been divided further, with six, eight, or even more small erection crews, each doing only designated parts of the work on all buildings (usually houses) in a project. This is a basic change from traditional practice, in which one crew performed all rough car pentry operations on a single house, with sev eral such crews working at once on different houses on a large project. This change reduces the hours of carpentry work per house under favorable conditions, but often the reduction is much less than is potentially possible because any interference with schedule can delay the entire project rather than merely one crew. The change also makes it possible for some of the operations to be done by men having less than all-round journeymen competence, but this practice has not been followed widely. Carpentry is also the trade most directly affected by prefabrication. To date this has not reduced site employment substantially, and it seems unlikely to do so. There may very well be some degree of increase in prefabricated houses as a percentage of the total, but the increase is likely to be moderate. Capably planned and managed site construction methods have been able to compete successfully with prefabrication thus far and seem likely to con tinue so. They offer worthwhile advantages quite comparable to the advantages of prefab rication. More highly processed materials and ma terials designed for easier and faster installa tion have become progressively more important. Examples are doors and sash made to exact size and hence requiring no fitting at the job, partially assembled door-frame-trim combina tions, fully assembled sash-frame combinations, tubular door locks to cut down the time of in stallation, sash balances for quicker installa tion than pulleys and counterweights. From a quality standpoint, many of the more quickly installed materials are fully equal to older types of materials. Some others are not, but still are quite good enough to be suitable for most buildings. Manufacturers are, of course, strongly interested in the sales advantage of products with reduced installation cost, but this interest is not new. There is every reason to expect that development will be gradual in 48 the future just as it has been in the past. Carpentry is by far the largest single con struction trade, although any estimate of the number of carpenters is subject to considerable uncertainty. This is a trade where census fig ures are probably execessive, because of re porting of handymen and other partially trained workers to the census enumerators as journeymen carpenters. The number who may reasonably be called carpenters is probably over 500,000, including many thousands who received their training informally, not all of whom are capable of doing the most exacting types of work. “ Hammer and nails men,” cap able only of simpler and rougher types of work and having little knowledge of the reasons for what they are doing, are not included in this figure. At the end of October 1948, there were about 42,700 carpentry apprentices known to the Bureau of Apprenticeship, plus probably a few thousand others. These figures exclude appren tices for shop carpentry and for cabinet work. On the basis of a 4-year apprenticeship, cur rent replacement is at the rate of not over 2 V2 percent of the trade’s present membership each year. This percentage is not sufficient to maintain the size of the trade under presentday conditions, particularly because of the average age for journeymen of probably about 53 years,8 with correspondingly high loss rate from death and retirement. Unless the replace ment rate is increased, there will be either a continued reduction in the size of the trade or entrance of many thousands of workers trained through other means than formal apprentice ship. Wage Rates Wage rates established by collective bargain ing agreements and in effect on July 1, 1948, are given on page 49 for a number of areas. In each case the rate is for a surrounding area as well as for the city itself. These are minimum union rates for journeymen, and in some cases higher rates are scheduled for specified types of work. In small localities wage rates are, on the3 3 The statement on average age is based on Apprentice Training Service (now Bureau o f Apprenticeship) Technical Bulletin T-121, “ A ge Trends in the Skilled Trades in the Construction Industry, 1900-1940,'* which in turn is based on census data. The change in average (median) age since 1940 was estimated on the basis o f con ditions affecting turnover in the trade since that time. whole, less than in the cities listed, and in rural localities they are likely to be substan tially less most of the time. This difference is more important for carpentry than for some other trades because of its much wider geo graphical distribution. Even in many of the largest cities, there is likely to be a noticeable amount of employment below established wage rates unless in times of labor shortage, in “ home improvement” work. Some of the con tractors for such jobs have high standards of workmanship and pay corresponding wages, while others have much lower standards and pay wages more appropriate for helpers than for journeymen. Area Hourly rate Atlanta, Ga....................................................................$1.77% Baltimore, Md............... ............................................... 1.95 Birmingham, Ala........................................................ 1.80 Boston, Mass................................................................ 2.10 Buffalo, N. Y ................................................................ 2.25 Chicago, 111.................................................. ................. 2.35 Cincinnati, Ohio ......................................................... 2.20 Cleveland, Ohio ........................................................... 2.37% Denver, Colo.................................................................. 2.10 Houston, Tex................................................................ 2.00 Indianapolis, Ind............................ 2.17% Jackson, Miss................................................................ 1.75 Kansas City, Mo.......................................................... 2.05 Little Rock, Ark.......................................................... 1.75 Los Angeles, Calif....................................................... 2.03% Louisville, Ky................................................................ 1.95 Milwaukee, Wis............................................................ 2.00 Minneapolis, Minn...................................................... 2.05 New Haven, Conn........................................................ 2.10 New Orleans, La.......................................................... 1.75 New York, N. Y ........................................................ "2.75 Omaha, Nebr................................................................ 1.95 Philadelphia, Pa.......................................................... 2.25 Pittsburgh, Pa.............................................................. 2.50 Portland, Oreg.............................................................. 1.92% Richmond, Va................................................................ 1.80 St. Louis, Mo................................................................ 2.45 San Francisco, Calif................................................... 2.16 Seattle, Wash..................................................... 2.06% Springfield, Mass......................................................... 1.87% 1 35-hour workweek. Additional Information Additional information on apprenticeship may be obtained from the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, Car penters Building, Indianapolis 4, Ind., or from the Apprenticeship Committee of the Associ ated General Contractors, 1227 Munsey Build ing, Washington 4, D. C. Bricklayers Outlook Summary The outlook for bricklayers is excellent at present and should be very good for several years. Thereafter openings will be primarily for replacements rather than for expansion of the trade. Nature of Work Bricklayers are skilled craftsmen, whose main work is the construction of walls, parti tions, fireplaces, chimneys, and other parts of buildings, from brick and numerous other masonry materials. These latter include struc tural tile, facing tile, terra cotta, the concreteblock family (including cinder block and other lightweight blocks), gypsum block, glass block,4*6 and several less common materials. In large cities, bricklayers do not set natural or artificial stone, except on jobs having only a few scat tered pieces like window sills, but in small places, “ combination men,” doing both stone work and brickwork, are frequent. Bricklayers also build blast furnaces and coke ovens, build power-plant and industrial chimneys (which, unlike ordinary chimneys, are separate struc tures), install the fire-brick linings of kilns and industrial furnaces, build the brick settings for power boilers and large heating boilers, build manholes and catch basins for sewers, and build manholes, cable vaults, and tile con duit lines for underground utility cable. Building brickwork itself covers a wide range. Exterior walls are commonly face brick on the outside backed with common brick, but the backing may be concrete or cinder block or structural tile. Walls entirely of concrete or cinder block are also common. Stone exteriors (set by stonemasons) are ordinarily backed with brick or tile by bricklayers. For houses, brick veneer is popular— this is essentially frame construction (built by carpenters) cov ered on the outside with a single thickness of 4 Mainly in exterior walls; interior panels o f glass block are ordinarily not weather-tight and are set by glaziers. 6 Structural tile having one side or two sides carefully finished and free from imperfections, so that it is satisfactory for a final finish; it may be either glazed or unglazed. This is entirely distinct from wall tile (installed by tile setters rather than bricklayers), a thin material which must be fastened to a self-supporting wall or partition. 49 brick by bricklayers. In several types of com mercial buildings, facing tile5 has become popu lar for exterior and interior surfaces. In fireresistive buildings, vertical passages (stair ways, elevator shafts, etc.) are often enclosed with masonry partitions. In these buildings, the partitions between rooms (unless “ solid plaster,” described under ^plastering)- consist of structural tile, facing tile, or gypsum block, laid by the bricklayers. Bricklaying is careful, accurate work, be cause the inflexible materials must be made to conform to established dimensions of the build ing. The bricklayer or foreman computes the number of courses (layers) of brick and the corresponding thickness of the mortar joints so that the courses come out evenly with sills, the tops of windows and doors, etc., and then must keep the mortar joints close enough to this thickness so that the wall has a uniform appearance, and the courses come to the heights planned. A somewhat similar procedure for horizontal dimensions is followed so that the wall fits the dimensions between windows, be tween a window and a door or a corner, etc., without needless or irregular cutting of brick, which results in a messy appearance. In laying brick or any other masonry unit, a bricklayer first spreads a layer or “ bed” of soft mortar, then sets the brick onto this, and taps it with his trowel to the right position. This is placed with the middle above a vertical mortar joint of the course below. Next he cuts or scrapes off the excess mortar from the bot tom joint and end joint and applies it to the exposed end or back. He keeps the courses lined up by use of a gauge line (tightly stretched cord) as a guide and from time to time checks the vertical and horizontal surfaces for truehess with a mason’s level. As necessary, he cuts (breaks) bricks with his trowel to fit spaces too small for whole bricks. If the wall consists of two or more thicknesses of brick, at regular intervals he lays a “ bond course” to tie thicknesses together. This usually con sists of brick laid crosswise, but several other bond patterns are also used for the same pur pose. If he is working with concrete block, struc tural tile, or other materials, his work differs in a few details but is the same in all essentials. 50 Likewise, on special types of construction (round industrial smokestacks, manholes, re fractory lining of furnaces, etc.), there are differences in detail only from the common types by building brickwork. Bricklayers work ing in any of these special fields are men who entered it and became experienced in it from preference or probably accidental reasons, in many cases, and do not make up a distinct subtrade in any sense. Many of these brick layers work on the common forms of masonry part of the time. Where Employed About 80 percent of the bricklayers work in the construction industry, mainly on new construction. From the nature of masonry, re pair work is comparatively small, consisting largely of “ pointing” of mortar joints (scrap ing out loose mortar near the surface and re filling the jo in ts ); buildings in need of exten sive masonry repairs are usually so generally deteriorated that they are not worth the ex pense. There is a considerable amount of altera tion work, however, especially in larger places — fire-resistive partitions to fit the require ments of new tenants in office buildings, fire walls around stairways and elsewhere in nonresidential buildings to meet new fire regula tions or the regulations for a new type of oc cupancy, store-front and similar work in com mercial modernization, residential moderniza tion, etc. In total, these afford only a small fraction of the employment for bricklayers in the contract construction industry; the bulk of the employment on maintenance and recur ring alterations (such as partition changes, made almost continuously by large real estate firms managing a number of major office build ings) is on a force-account basis. Bricklayers are employed for maintenance work in many industries, particularly those using furnaces, kilns, and other facilities with refractory linings. Such work is extensive in glass factories, coke ovens, blast furnaces, and steel mills, and, to lesser extent, in many other industries. Bricklayers are also employed on force-account for maintenance, alterations, and (to some extent) for new construction by other organizations having extensive property — large industrial firms, railroads and other utilities, large-scale owners or managers of in vestment property, Government agencies, and others. Training and Qualifications A bricklayer needs an eye for straight lines and proportions and a knack for using his hands. Since the other trades must usually fit their work to his, he should be able to picture how the parts of a structure fit together. A fair degree of physical endurance is necessary for handling moderately heavy material hour after hour, at some stages stooping very fre quently to get material. There must also be ability to make rough sketches, to read blue prints, to make measurements, and to lay out the various parts of a building with respect to each other. On small jobs, the bricklayer foreman is fre quently in charge of all work for the general contractor, and, on large jobs, the general fore man is often a bricklayer by trade. For such employment a thorough knowledge of construc tion is necessary,6 including a good working knowledge of the other trades and their re quirements, real facility in reading blueprints and visualizing the work which they indicate, and ability to make all measurements for guide lines and other marks so that proper allowance is made for the space needed by each trade— and thoroughness which detects any discrepan cies in the drawings at the outset, when there can be correction without changing any com pleted work. These abilities go beyond dexterity in handling the tools and materials. Training is ordinarily obtained through a formal apprenticeship of 3 to 4 years, similar in all important respects to apprentice train ing for the other trades. In a number of areas the training program has been aided greatly by trade school courses, in manipulation of the tools and materials, conducted for a few weeks before the start of apprenticeship. These courses have been sponsored by the Structural Clay Products Institute and in each case have been given with the endorsement of locals of the bricklayers union and associations of ma sonry or general contractors. They are intended 6 Commensurate, o f course, with the size and complexity o f the job; a man might be an excellent foreman for a brick house or small store building but be unsuitable as general foreman on a large, com plicated building, such as a 500-bed hospital. to give sufficient skill in handling the tools and materials so that the beginning appren tices will be useful at the very start of the on-the-job training and will also be better prepared to benefit from such training. In some cases, they result in advanced apprenticeship standing. The apprentice training program in many cities calls for related classroom work in the history of the trade, characteristics of the ma terials, masonry as a structural material, the proper ways to make bonds, arches, corbels,7 etc., making and reading working sketches, reading blueprints, making measurements and laying out work, and similar subjects. Where classroom training is not available, instruction in these subjects must be obtained at the job or through correspondence courses. Outlook Opportunities in bricklaying are very good indeed. There is room for expansion of the trade, and every indication that it will con tinue to be almost as important a part of con struction work as in the past, despite continu ing changes in the composition of its field of work. Within the past 60 years, changes in brick layers’ work have been startling. When steelframe and re-enforced concrete construction for buildings was introduced, the exterior walls no longer had to support the floors and roof and became merely a way of enclosing the building. This brought a great reduction in wall thickness for tall buildings and heavyoccupancy buildings. By concentrating the load on quite small columns, these construction sys tems allowed a great increase in window area, and metal sash gave a convenient means of providing almost unlimited window area. Hence, factory and warehouse walls now con sist far more of windows and far less of ma sonry than was formerly possible. At one time, brick was used extensively for sewers and for the lining of tunnels, but it has been replaced for these uses by other materials, although it is still used for manholes and catch basins. Curved and flat arches for the load-bearing floors in fire-resistive buildings were an im 7 A corbel is a masonry projection made by advancing each course from the face o f the wall slightly further than the course beneath it. 51 portant masonry field until about a generation ago, as was masonry fireproofing of structural steel, but these have passed out of use com pletely. Ornamental brickwork, using specially shaped brick for relief ornamentation and, in some localities, using brick of two or more colors laid in geometrical patterns ( “ diaper work” ), was popular a little earlier but now is exceedingly uncommon. The trade has absorbed all of these changes, and will absorb others. A few months ago the 13-story Equitable Savings and Loan Building was completed in Portland, Oregon, with no masonry in the exterior walls above the secondfloor level. This is the first multistory building in the world embodying the long-discussed pro posal of making the exterior walls purely in sulating enclosures, without load-bearing prop erties. On a long-range basis, it seems likely to exercise marked influence on design and material usage in multistory commercial build ings and structurally similar buildings, such as some types of apartment buildings. If so, this will mean a gradual reduction in the employ ment field for bricklayers. A number of attempts have been made to de velop factory-made chimney assemblies for houses, in place of masonry chimneys. Those used in war housing projects were seriously unsatisfactory in many cases, and at some proj ects expensive alterations were made to reduce the fire hazard. Presumably this experience has guided the firms offering chimney units now, and further improvements may reasonably be expected, but the risk of early obsolescence of masonry chimneys seems slight. The perma nence and fire protection of a well-built masonry chimney set very high standards for other con structions intended to be equally satisfactory. The over-all trend is by no means unfavor able, however. Fire-resistive partitions are very old but, until structural tile became readily available, were so heavy and expensive that they were used only in the most massive build ings. Now, made of comparatively light ma terials, they are exceedingly common, and their use is becoming gradually more widespread be cause of stricter fire and safety regulations. Some are made of masonry units with or with out a covering of plaster, and others are “ solid plaster” applied to a core of metal lath or, in some cases, a core of gypsum board. The long- 52 range trend for lumber prices is unquestion ably upward, as stated in the preceding section on carpenters, and this will tend to increase the use of masonry. A new system of dimensions ( “ modular coordination” ) for buildings and cer tain of their parts, including masonry units, re duces the time and cost for almost any specific job of building brickwork but, as it becomes more widely used, is likely to increase the use of masonry and masonry veneer in ordinary houses enough to bring a noticeable net increase in employment. The structural clay products industry has for some years financed a pro gram of industrial research projects, mainly at universities having colleges of ceramic en gineering, for the purpose of improving its products and methods and of developing new products and new uses. This program has al ready brought products tending to increase bricklayers’ employment, and may be expected to bring further accomplishment. Glass block likewise has meant increased employment for bricklayers and, in combination with ventilat ing or air-conditioning systems, it seems likely to be used more extensively than in the past. Transparent block with smooth interior and exterior surfaces is now available, through which occupants of buildings can see the out side without objectionable distortion. This opens a new field of use. Bricklaying is one of the fairly large trades, with current employment of roughly 100,000 in new construction, exclusive of employment (largely on a force-account basis) in main tenance. Because of the age distribution, there is probably a loss of roughly 4,000 per year from death and retirement, and an additional but very much smaller loss from transfer to other occupations, including contracting and promotional building. At the end of October 1948, there were 12,068 apprentices (includ ing those for the combination of bricklaying with stonemasonry) known to the Bureau of Apprenticeship and an unknown but probably rather small number of others. Since the ap prenticeship lasts at least 3 years and in many cases 4 years, this number is at most sufficient to maintain the size of the labor force. If main tained, it will reduce the average age in the course of time, and thereby reduce the average annual rate or death and retirement, but it obviously offers no threat of a surplus of trained workers. Wage Rates Minimum wage rates for journeymen es tablished by collective bargaining are given below for a number of areas as of July 1, 1948. In each case these rates are effective for a surrounding area as well as for the city itself. Area Atlanta, Ga................ Baltimore, Md............ Birmingham, Ala....... Boston, Mass.............. Buffalo, N. Y ............. Chicago, 111................. Cincinnati, Ohio ...... Cleveland, Ohio ........ Denver, Colo............... Houston, Tex.............. Indianapolis, Ind....... Jackson, Miss............. Kansas City, Mo....... Little Rock, Ark......... Los Angeles, Calif. . Louisville, Ky............. Milwaukee, Wis......... Minneapolis, Minn. ... New Haven, Conn. ... New Orleans, La....... New York, N. Y ....... Omaha, Nebr.............. Philadelphia, Pa........ Pittsburgh, Pa............ Portland, Oreg........... Richmond, Va............. St. Louis, Mo.............. San Francisco, Calif. Seattle, Wash............. Springfield, Mass. ... Hourly rate $2.25 2.50 2.25 2.50 2.50 2.40 2.50 2.37% 2.25 2.50 2.40 2.25 2.50 2.50 2.62% 2.50 2.20 2.25 2.40 2.05 '3.20 2.25 ’2.75 2.70 2.50 2.50 2.75 2.81% 2.36% 2.32% 1 35-hour workweek. Annual earnings in bricklaying are lower than the hourly earnings might indicate, be cause of lost time and seasonal unemployment. Most jobs are outdoors and are more subject to weather interruptions than is the work of a number of other trades. Additional Information Additional information on apprenticeship may be obtained from the Bricklayers, Masons, and Plasterer’s International Union of America, 815 Fifteenth Street, NW., Washington 5, D. C., from the Apprenticeship Committee of the Associated General Contractors, 1227 Munsey Building, Washington 4, D. C., and from the Mason Training Promotion Department of the Structural Clay Products Institute, 1520 Eighteenth Street, NW., Washington 6, D. C. Stonemasons Outlook Summary The outlook for stonemasons is good at present but on a long-range basis is only fair. This trade is employed mainly on rather spe cialized types of construction, and its prospects are injured by recent and current trends in architectural style. For “ combination men,” who are both stonemasons and bricklayers, the outlook is fully as good as for bricklayers. Nature of Work The work of stonemasons may be divided into two principal parts: setting of cut stone, mainly on more expensive nonresidential build ings, and rubble stone work in which the mason trims the rough stone to size as he sets it. In some localities, there is an occasional job using field stones in which fitting to dimensions is done by choosing stones of different sizes, with a minimum of trimming. Stonemasons deal strictly with natural stone and with artificial stone (concrete units made to size for an individual building just as is cut stone, and not including ordinary concrete block). In most localities, the greater part of their work is setting of cut stone exteriors for comparatively expensive buildings— office build ings, hotels, university buildings, churches, public buildings of various sorts, and an oc casional residence. There is a small amount of stone veneer work, in which a thin covering of cut stone is applied to the exterior of a house or other building which is basically of frame construction, very much like brick veneer. There are also some buildings with stonework at the principal entrance or other special loca tions but with brick for the remainder of the exposed masonry. In some cases stonemasons set incidental stonework in brick walls, but usually scattered pieces are set by the brick layers. For cut stone work, a mason is guided by a large-scale setting diagram in which each piece 53 is shown to scale and is identified by an individ ual number (in some jobs plain rectangular pieces, known as “ ashlar,” are not numbered individually). A tender, known as a derrickman, locates the pieces to be needed and brings them to the mason. If sufficiently large and heavy, they are set in place by a derrick or crane, but most pieces are picked up and set by hand. The mason prepares a mortar bed, places the stone in the bed, and taps it into position as needed with a wooden mallet until it is in proper alignment. Because of the ex pense, a wall of solid cut stone is exceedingly rare; usually the stone is mainly a rather thin covering on the exposed surface or surfaces, with brick or other less expensive materials used for the remainder of the wall thickness. Sometimes the bricks are laid by the stone masons, but, in cities large enough for the dis tinction between bricklaying and stonemasonry to be observed, they are put in place by brick layers. Stonemasonry is much more exacting than brickwork in the details o f appearance. Surfaces, edges, and mortar joints are much more easily seen and are viewed much more critically; hence, it is necessary that alignment be maintained much more accurately, that joints be uniform, and that minor chipping of the corners be avoided. Rubble stone work was an important struc tural material until superseded by concrete but is now used only for appearance in some houses and other buildings and in some places for a few minor uses, such as low retaining walls at the edge of steeply banked lawns. It uses rough stone, which the mason cuts (breaks) to size as he lays it. He lays the pieces in a bed of mortar but does not maintain uni form horizontal courses or vertical joints such as are used for brickwork. Pieces can be cut and fitted rapidly in this manner by a skilled man, but it is still handwork and correspond ingly expensive; hence, this type of work is uncommon. Where Employed Stonemasons’ employment is principally in the construction industry. There is also em ployment in the larger cities in building of family mausoleums. 54 Training and Qualifications Training is through apprenticeship which in some features is similar to that for bricklay ing. There are also combination apprenticeships preparing for both brickwork and stonework, in localities where there is not enough stone work for reasonably steady employment. Outlook It seems very likely that stonemasonry will continue in use permanently, but there are strong indications that it will be used less ex tensively than in the past. The trend toward simpler lines means less stone ornamentation and less extensive use of moldings and other pieces than plain ashlar. The trend is also toward larger window areas in some kinds of buildings, with less exterior wall area. Gothic is no longer the unchallenged first choice in university architecture. Changed architectural preferences have also appeared in church buildings, and there are some indications that a similar change will come in public buildings within the fairly near future, although perhaps not immediately. These considerations mean likelihood of a gradual decline in employment. This will prob ably be slow enough so that it will not threaten present members of the trade, especially since average age is high, and new workers will cer tainly be needed; but, since this is both a small trade and a contracting trade, the apprentice ship opportunities are limited. Wage Rates The table shows hourly wage rates effective July 1, 1948, as established by collective bar gaining agreements in a number of cities. In each case, these apply to a surrounding area as well. Area Atlanta, Ga.......... Baltimore, Md. ... Birmingham, Ala. Buffalo, N. Y ....... Chicago, 111.......... Cincinnati, Ohio . Cleveland, Ohio ... Denver, Colo......... Houston, Tex........ Indianapolis, Ind. Hourly rate $2.25 2.50 ' 2.25 . 2.50 . 2.40 . 2.50 . 2.37 y2 . 2.25 . 2.50 . 2.40 Hourly rate Area the cement finishers deal. In other cases there is no separate top coating, and the finish Jackson, Miss................................................................ 2.25 Kansas City, Mo.......................................................... 2.25 ers deal with the surface of the main mass of Little Rock, Ark........................................................... 2.50 concrete. In either case they spread the ma Los Angeles, Calif....................................................... 2.62% terial to about the level desired by means of a Louisville, Ky................................................................ 2.50 straightedge, guided by strips which they have Milwaukee, Wis............................................................ 2.20 set to indicate the proper surface, and then Minneapolis, Minn...................................................... 2.25 New Haven, Conn....................................................... 2.40 trowel it a number of times at different stages New Orleans, La......................................................... 2.05 of hardening. Often a level surface is wanted, New York, N. Y ...........................................................>3.20 and in other cases a slope is wanted for water Omaha, Nebr................................................................ 2.25 drainage— toward the floor drains in a garage Philadelphia, Pa.......................................................... 2.40 floor, toward one or more sides of a concrete Pittsburgh, Pa.............................................................. 2.70 Portland, Oreg............................................................... 2.50 roof slab, etc. Provision for this slope is made Richmond, Va................................................ 2.50 in final grading of the ground (for a slab rest St. Louis, Mo................................................................ 2.75 ing on the earth) or in building of the forms, San Francisco, Calif....................................................... 2.81% Seattle, Wash...... ...................................................... 2.36% and in pouring of the rough concrete, but it is the finisher’s job to produce a final top sur Springfield, Mass.......................................................... 2.32% 1 35-hour workweek. Additional Information Additional information, including the address of the nearest union local, may be obtained by writing to the Bricklayers, Masons and Plaster er’s International Union of America, 815 Fifteenth Street, NW., Washington 5, D. C. Cement Finishers Nature of Work The principal work of this trade is the finish ing of the exposed surface of concrete work, with any pitch wanted for water drainage, etc. Other work includes patching the surface o f structural concrete after the forms have been removed, laying of mastic floors, and laying of composition (magnesium cement) floors. Finishing of concrete floors and other con crete members is the most important source of employment. This work is done on sidewalks, driveways, curbs, roofs, stairs, and many other structures or structural members, as well as floors. Pouring of concrete which is to have a trowel-finished surface sometimes proceeds in two stages— first the main mass of material containing gravel or other coarse aggregate, which is leveled off about one-half inch below the final surface, and then a top coating of finer material without gravel, which is spread onto the coarser concrete below. In such cases, it is mainly this fine mixture with which face conforming to that desired. Finishing of curved rather than approximately flat surfaces (street curbs, curbs at the edge of driveways, etc.) is done in a generally similar manner. More similar to plastering (particularly stucco work) is the job of applying an outer covering of fine material to retaining walls and other vertical surfaces. This is done after the forms have been removed, a few days after the main mass of concrete has been poured. The patching work occurs mainly in concreteframe buildings and is done to correct surface defects which are exposed when the forms are removed. Fins protruding where joints in the forms were too wide are chipped off and ground with an abrasive; “ honeycomb” areas, where there had been insufficient spading during plac ing of the concrete, are cleaned, with any loose material removed, and are filled with a cementsand mixture; and similar minor corrections are made for the purpose of improving the ap pearance of concrete which is to be exposed in a completed building. Mastic floors are a layer of fine asphalt mix ture, quite like that used for the top surface of street paving, and are usually laid over con crete. They are used where resistance to acid is necessary — mainly in dairies, ice cream plants, breweries, and other factories in the food-products industry. The material is ap plied hot and is smoothed with heavy hand tools. Composition floors are thin layers made with a type of magnesium cement laid over a rigid base. The operations involved are very similar 55 to those for finishing a concrete floor, but modi fied by differences in the characteristics of the material. At one time these were popular for small commercial buildings, but now they are used mainly for deck surfaces and similar uses in shipbuilding. Finishing of newly poured concrete usually involves overtime work, frequently quite ex tensive overtime, because of the characteristics of the materials. On better-grade jobs, where high standards of workmanship prevail, the finishing operation continues to a final trowel ing when the fine material is fairly rigid, and this is several hours after it has been poured. The setting time depends on the temperature and the type of cement used but is fairly lengthy in any case. For re-enforced floors in buildings, very often pouring is continued until after the normal quitting time in order to reach boundaries where a break in the concrete will not introduce structural weakness; this means that the cement finishers often do not complete their work before 10 and may work until mid night or later. Such hours bring high daily and weekly earnings when they occur, but they are offset by intermittent employment, because it is exceedingly uncommon for pouring of build ing concrete to go on day after day; ordinarily one or a few days of pouring are followed by days of building forms, setting re-enforcing steel, and making other preparations for the next pour. Sidewalk and driveway work is more regular, because many of the contractors for such work are able to obtain a continuous series of moderately small jobs, but on this work the overtime is usually less. The jobs are smaller, there is seldom the engineering neces sity for pouring until a suitable boundary is reached, and pouring often stops earlier in the day. The finishing specifications are also less exacting in many cases, so that troweling can be stopped at an earlier stage of setting. In small localities, many journeymen are both cement finishers and plasterers, and in such places there is apprenticeship for the two trades combined. Where Employed Cement finishers are employed predominant ly in the construction industry. Some work for “ cement contractors” doing mainly small jobs 56 such as sidewalks, driveways, small retaining walls, basement and garage floors, etc.; these men work fairly regularly, except that the vol ume of employment is low in winter, and out door work is postponed for rain. Some work for city paving contractors, mainly on street curbing; this employment is rather similar to that for “ cement contractors.” Some work for general building contractors or for re-enforced concrete contractors on finishing of floor slabs and roof slabs in concrete-frame and steelframe buildings. There are numerous other jobs— on bridges, abutments, and most struc tures where concrete is used. The early con crete highways were finished by hand, but finishing machines have been used for a num ber of years; hand-finishing of highways is confined mainly to curves and irregular areas outside the range for which the finishing ma chine rails are set up, although on most con crete paving crews there are cement finishers to perform smoothing operations supplemen tary to that of the finishing machine. Mastic floors are laid mainly by finishers specializing in such work, who move to successive jobs over a quite wide area; the same is true of compo sition floors. Government units (municipal public works departments particularly), utilities, some manufacturing firms, and a certain number of miscellaneous establishments also hire cement finishers. Outlook The employment outlook at the present time is very good, and it should continue to be good for a number of years, because this is likely to be an expanding trade. Use of concrete in building construction has increased and seems likely to increase further. A comparatively few years ago re-enforced concrete construc tion was almost unknown for apartment build ings below luxury grade, but it has become moderately common in investment housing projects as well as in public housing. Houses without basements, with a concrete floor slab laid on the ground, have come into use, and have been stimulated by their suitability for panel ( “ radiant” ) heating. Other uses have also developed or grown, and further develop ment is very likely. The prospect is for gradual increase in the total volume of employment, but not for a change in its basic characteristics. Nothing evident to date indicates likelihood of substan tially improved regularity of employment or an evening out of the alternation in concrete frame buildings between days with extreme overtime and days o f lay-off. While finishing machines are highly satis factory for paving work, the vastly different conditions for other types of poured-in-place concrete make the use of similar machines un likely. Small machines for finishing floors, etc., have been used for several years and have proved valuable on flat surfaces. These consist of an electrically rotated blade covering an area about 3 feet in diameter which is moved over the floor by the cement finisher. Wage Rates Below are the wage rates established by col lective bargaining agreements and in effect on July 1,1948, in a number of cities. In each case they apply to a surrounding area as well. Additional Information For additional information, or for the ad dress of the union local nearest you, write to the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Finishers International Association, 200 Fidelity Build ing, Cleveland 14, Ohio; or the Bricklayers, Masons, and Plasterer’s International Union of America, 815 Fifteenth Street, NW., Wash ington 5, D. C. Information may also be ob tained from the Apprenticeship Committee o f the Associated General Contractors, 1227 Munsey Building, Washington 4, D. C. Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers Outlook Summary Opportunities are good for at least the next several years for those who want to enter as apprentices. The field for ornamental metal work has increased noticeably within the last two decades, and further increase seems very likely. Nature of Work Structural iron workers erect the steel framework for buildings. Best known are the Atlanta, Ga....................................................................$2.10 Baltimore, Md.............................................................. 2.15 tall buildings common in downtown locations, Birmingham, Ala.......................................................... 2.07% but structural-steel columns and roof framing Boston, Mass....................................................... 2.50 are used frequently in one-story factory build Buffalo, N. Y ................................................................ 2.23 ings and to some extent in other types of build Chicago, 111.................................................................... 2.35 ings. Cincinnati, Ohio ................................. 2.10Factories may also require steelwork for Cleveland, Ohio ........................................ 2.25 crane runways and to support heavy equip Denver, Colo.................................................................. 2.25 ment. The men in this trade also put up steel Houston, Tex................................................................ 2.00 bridges and towers and install or erect certain Indianapolis, Ind.......................................................... 1.95 types of tanks. They install steel floor decking, Jackson, Miss................................................................ 2.00 which has become popular for office buildings Kansas City, Mo.......................................................... 2.05 Little Rock, Ark.......................................................... 2.00 and other buildings having light floor loads. Los Angeles, Calif........................................................ 2.11% In some cases they set structural-steel mem Louisville, Ky......................... 1.95 bers in place when they occur in buildings not Milwaukee, Wis............................................................ 1.95 of steel frame design, such as beams over wide Minneapolis, Minn....................................................... 2.15 doors and windows in masonry walls to sup New Haven, Conn....................................................... 2.40 New Orleans, La.......................................................... 1.75 port the brickwork above. Structural iron New York, N. Y ............................................................ *2.75 workers erect steel scaffolding and sidewalk Omaha, Nebr................................................................ 1.95 canopies for use by other construction trades Philadelphia, Pa.......................................................... 2.25 and for protection of the public, both for new Pittsburgh, Pa.............................................................. 2.50 buildings and repair work. The steel scaffolding Portland, Oreg.............................................................. 2.00 Richmond, Ya............................................................... 1.75 for exterior repairs to a tall building can be a St. Louis, Mo................................................................. 2.37% fairly large job in itself. Other work includes San Francisco, Calif................................................... 2.15 the placing of vault doors with their frames Seattle, Wash................................................................. 2.06% and installing the steel plate work covering* Springfield, Mass......................................................... 2.32% the exterior of burglar-resistive vaults. Struc1 35-hour workweek. Area Hourly rate 57 tural iron workers do rigging (moving of heavy machinery, equipment, etc.), except in those lo calities where rigging is treated as a separate occupation. In erecting a steel framework or structure, the structural iron workers first take the steel shapes already fabricated by other workers and hoist them into place in the proper order. They then connect them temporarily with bolts, ^ accurately align the structure as necessary, and rivet or weld the parts together. Ornamental iron workers typically handle lighter materials, such as those not making up the basic framework of a building. The name “ ornamental iron” is historical and is likely to be misleading. Within recent years a large part of the work, probably more than half, has dealt with other metals than iron and steel— mainly aluminum alloys, brass, and bronze. In some cases the installations are highly decora tive, although along much simpler lines than 20 or 30 years ago, while other installations are strictly utilitarian. Ornamental iron workers install metal stair ways (which are much commoner than they seem, because the treads and platforms are commonly filled with concrete) and the railings and handrails at stairways, balconies, and elsewhere. They install metal floor-gratings, catwalks, and ladders, used extensively in powerhouses and a few types of factories. They put in place solid metal sash and doors and their frames, including the common steel sash used in many kinds of buildings; swinging and re volving metal doors with their frames; and vestibules at the street entrances to office build ings, hotels, etc. Other work done includes doors, grilles, and screens, such as used at bank tellers’ compartments and elsewhere; gratings; metal cabinets of many types, such as display cases and safety deposit boxes; win dow and door guards; and a very wide variety of other installations. cial building, or the addition of window guards to an existing building for burglary protection. There is even a little repair work, despite the durability of the materials — replacement of members weakened by long neglect of painting, replacement of bridge parts damaged by bad traffic accidents, etc. The structural workers do no fabrication of their materials beyond reaming out of mispunched rivet holes and other small corrections of shop errors. In general the ornamental workers likewise do no fabrication, although some of the smallest contractors (especially in small communities) do not distinguish sharp ly between shop crews and field crews. Occa sionally, larger contractors use some of their erecting crews for shop work to handle peak loads, but this practice is not prevalent because of the substantially higher wage scale for the erecting men. Ornamental iron workers are commonly em ployed within commuting distance of home be cause establishments capable of doing a wide variety of work can be maintained on a fairly low volume of business and hence are found in many localities. Ornamental metal for an occasional elaborate building in a small city is likely to be provided by a contractor from a larger city, who ordinarily either sends his own crew or sends a partial crew and hires other workers locally. On the whole, more traveling is involved for structural iron workers, because most locali ties have insufficient structural business to support an erection contractor or local crew. Consequently, workers must be brought in from outside to handle the occasional structural work that occurs, such as a steel-frame office or fac tory building. Workers living in the largest metropolitan centers and preferring employ ment there are likely at times to find that the only vacancies are for out-of-town jobs. Training and Qualifications Where Employed Structural and ornamental iron workers are engaged largely on new construction. They are also employed on alteration work, such as in sertion of a mezzanine floor in steel-frame buildings; installation of steel stairs, during modernization of an old apartment or commer 58 The standard apprenticeship period is 2 years, with provision for another 6 months of training if necessary. Men with several years of experience as helpers sometimes become journeymen, but, as the trade is highly union ized, few enter without serving a formal ap prenticeship. Outlook Employment prospects for the next several years are very good, and, although not many additional workers will be needed thereafter, the outlook will continue to be good for those already at work in the trade. Prospects for structural workers are im proved by developments in the use of steelwork intended for buildings with light floor loads. There has also been increased recognition of advantages of steel construction in some kinds of one-story nonresidential buildings. The pos sibilities of a fairly new type of unconventional design ( “ rigid frames” ) are likely to be real ized much more fully than in the past. For ornamental metal work, prospects are likewise good. It is admirably suited to recent trends in architectural design; there has been steady progress in its fabrication; and it is likely to be used more extensively in buildings where cost is an important consideration, be cause for many uses there is now a fairly wide range of stock and semistock parts (such as extruded mouldings). Strictly utilitarian uses are likely at least to be sustained, if not in creased. For many years ornamental metalwork has been used to some degree as an exterior cover ing on buildings. Within recent years this has consisted mainly of panels for covering the spandrels,8 but the Equitable Savings and Loan Building (mentioned in the section on brick layers) established a precedent in having an exterior of ornamental metal rather than ma sonry above the second-floor level. This is likely to be the forerunner of more extensive use of exterior metalwork, but the effect will be grad ual rather than sudden. So great a departure from conventional practice as that embodied in the Equitable case requires revision of building ordinances and is in a field of strong conflicting interests. Some workers will also be needed to replace those who leave these trades because of death, retirement, or shifting to other kinds of jobs. Wage Rates and Working Conditions Minimum wage rates established by collective bargaining agreements for structural iron 8 A spandrel is that part o f the exterior wall directly above the head o f a window, extending upward to the sill o f the corresponding window on the next story. workers and in effect on July 1, 1948, in a number of areas are given in the table below. In most areas rates for ornamental workers are the same or differ by only a few cents. Area Hourly rate Atlanta, Ga................................................................... $2.00 Baltimore, Md............................................................... 2.40 Birmingham, Ala........................................................ 2.07% Buffalo, N. Y ................................... ............................ 2.40 Chicago, 111.................................................................... 2.40 Cincinnati, Ohio ......................................................... 2.35 Cleveland, Ohio ........................................................... 2.37% Denver, Colo.................................................................. 2.00 Houston, Tex................................................................ 2.12% Indianapolis, Ind.......................................................... 2.32% Jackson, Miss................................................................ 2.00 Kansas City, Mo......................................................... 2.20 Little Rock, Ark.......................................................... 2.00 Los Angeles, Calif....................................................... 2.10 Louisville, Ky................................................................ 2.10 Milwaukee, Wis............................................................ 2.05 Minneapolis, Minn...................................................... 2.17% New Haven, Conn....................................................... 2.50 New Orleans, La......................................................... 2.00 New York, N. Y ......................................................... 3.00 Omaha, Nebr................................................................ 2.05 Philadelphia, Pa........................................................... 2.65 Pittsburgh, Pa.............................................................. 2.50 Portland, Oreg.............................................................. 2.12% Richmond, Va.............................................................. 2.25 St. Louis, Mo................................................................ 2.42% San. Francisco, Calif................................................... 2.40 Seattle, Wash................................................................ 2.26% Springfield, Mass........................................................ 2.30 Workers in the erection crews receive much higher wages than do shop workers. However, structural and ornamental workers in construc tion are not as steadily employed throughout the year as shop workers. Since there is little maintenance and repair work that they can do during the dull building season, annual earnings usually are low relative to the hourly wage rates. Accidents are infrequent but in structural work are likely to be quite serious. Safety stand ards have been greatly improved over those prevalent 25 years ago, and safety measures, such as nets and scaffoldings, are used much more extensively. Nevertheless, it cannot be expected that accidents will be completely pre vented. Men occasionally fall from high places, and that is likely to be fatal unless they are stopped by a safety net; men are also occasion ally hit by falling objects, and once in a long 59 while in past years there has been a catas trophe such as collapse of the structure. Additional Information For further information about apprentice ship for either of these trades, write to the International Association of Bridge, Structural, and Ornamental Iron Workers, Syndicate Trust Building, St. Louis 1, Mo., or regarding struc tural metal work, write to the National Erec tors’ Association, 33 West 42d Street, New York 18, N. Y. Rodmen (Reenforcing Iron Workers) Outlook Summary The employment outlook for rodmen is good and should continue to be good for a number of years because of a prospective increase in the importance of re-enforced concrete work. Nature of Work Rodmen set the re-enforcing steel for re enforced concrete work of all sorts. Most of this is in the form of steel bars, which, by the time of concrete pouring, must be assembled in proper relation to each other and supported in the forms so that each piece is in the posi tion where it gets the intended structural load. Re-enforcing for round columns usually comes assembled from the plant, but collapsed, and is merely spread out to the proper shape, tied, and then placed inside the column forms. Other bar re-enforcing comes as separate bars, cut to length and bent as necessary at the plant, but not assembled. The rodmen are guided by a drawing on which all re-enforcement is in dicated, and the code numbers used for the different pieces are given. They select the pieces, put them together into framelike assem blies for beam or rectangular column re-en forcement, tie all intersections securely with wire, and place these assemblies in the forms on wire supports ( “ chairs” ) as necessary. When occasion arises, they weld the pieces to gether. They assemble the re-enforcing rods for slabs and concrete joists in a somewhat similar manner, but by building up the as sembly in the forms. As necessary, they cut and bend the bars, when the shopwork of cut 60 ting and bending has been done incompletely or incorrectly. Some re-enforcing is in the form of a coarse mesh made of heavy steel wires. The rodmen cut the mesh to the desired size and set it in place with overlapping edges where pieces join. There are of course many structural uses for “ plain” concrete — i.e., concrete without re enforcing steel. These applications provide no employment for rodmen. This is one of the less highly skilled trades, acquired through a 2-year apprenticeship. It requires dexterity, familiarity with established usage in re-enforced concrete construction, and a full realization of the necessity for assembling the bars accurately, and fastening and support ing them securely so that each will in fact bear the structural load for which is was designed. Where Employed Rodmen are employed almost entirely in the contract construction industry. The employers include general contractors for re-enforced con crete buildings, general contractors for other structures (bridges, dams, some types of sewer and water projects, etc.), special trade con tractors for re-enforced concrete work, and (in large cities) special trade contractors for the setting of re-enforcing steel. There is no doubt some force-account employment on new construction, and probably a little employment (for utilities, municipal public works depart ments, etc.) in force-account maintenance, but very few maintenance and repair jobs involve rodmen’s employment. Outlook Because of the increasing use of re-enforced concrete, the outlook for this trade is good. Seasonal variation in employment is important, however, because almost all re-enforced con crete work is done outdoors and is hindered by cold weather. Employment in many cases is intermittent, because setting of re-enforcing is only one of many activities fitted together in the over-all construction process; in a multi story concrete building, the rodmen are finished when a given floor is ready for pouring and often do not start again until pouring is com pleted, column and beam forms for the next floor are completed, and floor forms are almost completed. Of course, the more active con tractors for re-enforcing have several jobs un der way at once and are able to transfer their workers from one to another, but risk of lost time is usually greater in work where many of the jobs last only to a few days, than where jobs last several weeks or a few months. Wage Rates Below are minimum wage rates in effect July 1, 1948, in a number of cities and their sur rounding areas, as established by collective bargaining agreements. Area Hourly rate Atlanta, Ga................................................................... $1.75 Baltimore, Md.............................................................. 2.10 Birmingham, Ala.................................................... 1.82% Boston, Mass................................................................ 2.40 Buffalo, N. Y ................................................................ 2.40 Chicago, 111.................................................................... 2.40 Cincinnati, Ohio ......................................................... 2.20 Cleveland, Ohio ........................................................... 2.37% Denver, Colo.................................................................. 2.00 Houston, Tex................................................................ 2.00 Indianapolis, Ind.......................................................... 2.32% Jackson, Miss................................................................ 1.75 Kansas City, Mo........................................................... 2.07% Little Rock, Ark........................................................... 1.75 Los Angeles, Calif....................................................... 1.97% Louisville, Ky................................................................ 1.90 Milwaukee, Wis............................................................ 1.91% Minneapolis, Minn....................................................... 2.05 New Haven, Conn........................................................ 2.50 New Orleans, La.......................................................... 1.70 New York, N. Y ............................................................ *2.75 Omaha, Nebr................................................................. 2.05 Philadelphia, Pa........................................................... 2.25 Pittsburgh, Pa.............................................................. 2.50 Portland, Oreg.............................................................. 1.92% Richmond, Va.............................................................. 2.00 St. Louis, Mo................................................................ 2.42% San Francisco, Calif.................................................. 2.15 Seattle, Wash............................................................... 2.06% Springfield, Mass......................................................... 2.30 Boilermakers Outlook Summary The short-range outlook for boilermakers is fair only, because of continued reduction in railroad employment, as the replacement of steam locomotives by Diesel locomotives con tinues. The outlook in other employment fields, including construction, is good. Additional journeymen must be trained for this trade be fore many years, but there must be an adjust ment of the number of journeymen to the re duced employment field. Because of the fairly high average age of present journeymen, this adjustment will probably be achieved within a comparatively few years by deaths and retire ments, without the necessity for present jour neymen to transfer to other occupations. Nature of Work Boilermakers constitute mainly a shop rather than a construction occupation and are engaged in the building of ships, barges, etc., and in the manufacture of steam boilers (power, marine, and locomotive, and also low-pressure heating boilers), pressure vessels for industrial uses, some kinds of tanks, and numerous other products. They are employed extensively in maintenance and repair of ships, locomotive and marine boilers, powerhouse boilers, and some kinds of industrial equipment. Construc tion employment consists mainly of the assem bly in place of power boilers too large to be shipped completely assembled, the building of some kinds of tanks, and the building in place of many types of industrial equipment (other than pipe work) operating under pressure or vacuum, particularly for oil refining and other chemical operations, but in other industries as well. Factory manufacture of boilers, tanks, stills, etc. is not regarded as construction em ployment, although the products are to be used in construction. 1 35-hour workweek. Outlook Additional Information For additional information, or for the ad dress of the nearest union local, write to the International Association of Bridge, Structural, and Ornamental Iron Workers, Syndicate Trust Building, St. Louis 1, Mo. The outlook for boilermakers’ employment in construction is good, but for the present this is overshadowed by the quite poor outlook in building and repair of steam locomotives, and by reduced employment in shipbuilding. This trade is basically in active, healthy condition and should be marked by some degree of ex 61 pansion after the necessary adjustments have been made to employment reduction in the rail road and shipbuilding field. Until such adjust ments are well advanced, however, its employ ment prospects are inferior to those of many other trades. Wage Rates Minimum wages rates established by col lective bargaining agreements and in effect on July 1, 1948, in a number of areas are given below. Hourly rate Area Atlanta, Ga...................................................................$2.00 Baltimore, Md.............................................................. 2.25 Boston, Mass................................................................ 2.25 Buffalo, N. Y ................................................................ 2.40 Chicago, 111.................................................................... 2.40 Cincinnati, Ohio ......................................................... 2.15 Cleveland, Ohio ........................................................... 2.30 Denver, Colo................................................................. 2.15 Houston, Tex................................................................ 2.12^ Indianapolis, Ind.......................................................... 2.35 Kansas City, Mo........................................................... 2.15 Los Angeles, Calif....................................................... 2.15 Louisville, Ky............................................................... 2.25 Milwaukee, Wis.......................................................x... 2.20 Minneapolis, Minn....................................................... 2.15 New Orleans, La........................................................... 2.00 New York, N. Y ........................................................... 2.75 Philadelphia, Pa.......................................................... 2.25 Pittsburgh, Pa.............................................................. 2.25 Portland, Oreg............................................................. 2.15 Richmond, Va............................................................... 2.25 St. Louis, Mo............................................................... 2.25 San Francisco, Calif.................................................. 2.15 Seattle, Wash................................................................ 2.15 Additional Information For additional information, write to the In ternational Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, and Helpers, Brotherhood Build ing, Kansas 11, Kans. Operating Engineers (Construction Machinery Operators) Outlook Summary The outlook is for additional job openings for several years, with a trend toward further but probably slow expansion. 62 Nature of Work The types of work vary in their requirements of training and skill probably more for oper ating engineers than for any other trade. These men operate construction machinery of almost all sorts for practically every type of construction: buildings, highways and streets, airfields, sewer and water lines, underground utility work, tunnels and subways, railroad work, bridges, dams, dredging, harbor improve ment, and numerous other types. This machin ery is used for many purposes, including ex cavating, grading, and earth-moving; mixing of concrete and other materials; hoisting; load ing, unloading, and handling materials; pile driving; rolling of earth and pavement; pump ing; and providing of power in the form of compressed air and in other forms. There are many different types of machines. Some are quite complex, requiring coordination of nu merous motions and controls; others are simpler but require constant active attention; and still others are simple in operation and re quire infrequent attention. These differences in a sense break the trade into several levels of skill. Among the machines operated are shovels; pull-shovels; draglines; cranes; derricks; hoists; pile drivers; stationary concrete mixers; paving mixers; bituminous paving mixers and paving machines; numerous types of rollers; trench excavators; elevating graders; “ pans” (tractor-drawn scrapers) ; bulldozers; graders (self-propelled and tractor-drawn); tractors; pumps; and air compressors. In addition, there are many others. For the most part, operators learn their work quite informally and in the course of experience become familiar with a number of kinds of machines; a capable opera tor can ordinarily learn to handle other ma chines of the same general types as those on which he is experienced, within a fairly short time. Differences in requirements for operation of the various types of machines are recognized by differences in wage rates, mentioned later. Operators are often known by titles, based on the machines which they are using, as shovelman, craneman, hoistman, etc., but these titles do not indicate separate occupations. The more experienced and capable operators, able to handle a wide range of machines, frequently prefer one or two types, and work on these when such jobs are available but at other times work on quite different machines. Naturally, the differences in wage rates cause all men who are qualified to confine themselves to the top grade of machines (shovels, cranes, trench ex cavators, paving mixers, a number of others) as much as possible, and men who are employed on machines carrying lower wage rates want to transfer to the more difficult machines as opportunity affords. W here Employed Operating engineers are employed in the con struction industry by general building contrac tors, by special trade contractors (for excavat ing, steel erection, and other special trade fields), by highway contractors, and by heavy construc tion contractors for the remaining kinds of nonbuilding work. They also work for utility companies, government bodies (highway de partments, public works departments, etc.), and other organizations carrying out their own construction. In addition they work in many industries not engaged in construction. In some cases the machines and the duties are about the same in these other industries as in con struction; operation of a crane to unload cars of coal at a factory or a power plant is very similar to operation of a crane to unload cars of sand or gravel for a paving job. In other cases the machines are the same but the duties rather different; manipulation of the controls for handling heavy assemblies by crane at a factory is the same as for handling heavy ob jects by crane at a construction job, but the conditions governing the work are different. Still other kinds of jobs have no close equiva lents between construction and factory employ ment, although the coordination of numerous controls make them the same general kind of job. Wage rates in factory employment are usu ally much less than in construction, but greater regularity of employment is likely to make annual earnings greater in a number of cases. Training and Qualifications In some localities there is a formal appren ticeship for operating engineers, but this ar rangement is not general. For machines oper ated by steam power, it is necessary under most circumstances for the operator to have a sta tionary engineer's license. When all machines of any size were driven by steam, possession of a license tended to distinguish journeymen from others. At this stage there was usually a fireman on the larger machines, and many of these men were able to qualify for licenses and to advance to operating engineers. Re placement of steam power started more than 30 years ago, and has been virtually complete for all but a very few types of machines for almost 20 years, so that this means of entrance to the trade has been almost completely closed. Oilers are employed on the larger machines under some circumstances, and some of these men advance to operating machines under some circumstances, and some of these men advance to operating engineers just as firemen did under earlier circumstances. For the most part, how ever, entrance has been quite informal; a man with aptitude for machinery and often some relevant experience, such as driving a truck, may get a job operating one of the simpler machines (a pump, an air compressor, a tractor without attachments, etc.) and obtain union membership. As opportunity affords, he may get more exacting jobs (on a bulldozer, a trac tor with other power attachments, a roller, various other machines) and then with more experience get a job on one of the top-grade machines. The jobs vary greatly in their requirements. Some are quite easy, while others require con tinuous attention throughout the day, with care ful timing and accurate coordination of numer ous controls. There has been great improve ment in grouping the controls for convenience and in reducing the physical work of moving them, but operation of the more complicated machines is strenuous work. Some machines (particularly bulldozers and some types of scrapers) are physically wearing, because of the shaking and jolting which the operator receives all day long. Pile drivers are the principal machines for which steam is now used, and for which the operator must have a stationary engineer's license in most localities. Outlook The long-range outlook is for an increased 63 use of construction machinery. The construc tion machinery industry started with units which, although basically fairly simple, were large, heavy, expensive, and suited only for big projects. There has been development in different directions. One course has been the design and production of larger, more special ized, and more complex machines, some having constantly increasing output (such as several of those used for earth-moving), and some per forming a group of related operations (such as some machines used in asphalt-paving). An other course has led to smaller and more readily portable machines suited to progressively smaller jobs. Machines for new uses have also been brought out from time to time. These developments have been notably rapid within recent years and show every sign of continu ance; small as well as large companies have been active in increasing the usefulness of their products. Because all construction projects are temporary, the degree of mechanization is necessarily less than in many kinds of factory operation, but the limit of mechanization has by no means been reached as yet. In fact, be cause of continued machine development, no inflexible limit can be foreseen for mechaniza tion of any kind of building work. Wage Rates The wage-rate picture for operating engi neers is quite the most complicated for any construction trade. Hourly rates are established for different types of machines, very commonly with different rates for machines of the same type but of different capacity and, in some cases, with different rates for a given machine depending on the type of construction for which it is used. Classification systems vary greatly among different areas, and machines having the top wage rates in one area do not neces sarily have the top wage rate in all other areas. Space does not permit a detailed presenta tion of wage rates because of the different classification systems used in different localities. Below are minimum wage rates in effect July 1, 1948, in a number of areas as established by collective bargaining for shovel operators (who have the highest rate in most but not all areas) and for bulldozer operators (who have a lower rate in most cities). 64 Hourly Rate Bulldozers Shovels Area Atlanta, Ga............................. ......... $1.80 Baltimore/Md......................... ......... 2.20 Birmingham, Ala................... ......... 2.00 Boston, Mass........................... ......... 2.45 Buffalo, N. Y ......................... ......... 2.40 Chicago, 111............................. ........... 2.35 Cincinnati, Ohio.................... ........... 2.25 Cleveland, Ohio .................... ........... 2.37 y2 Denver, Colo. ........................ ........... 2.15 Houston, Tex.......................... .......... ........ Indianapolis, Ind................... ......... 2.20 Jackson, Miss......................... ......... i.8 7 % Kansas City, Mo.............................. 2.27 y2 Little Rock, Ark.................... ......... 2.00 Los Angeles, Calif................ ......... 2.23% Louisville, Ky......................... ......... 2.15 Milwaukee, Wis..................... ......... 2.35 Minneapolis, Minn................. New Haven, Conn................. ......... 2.10 New Orleans, La................... ......... 1.87% New York, N. Y .................... ......... 3.12% Omaha, Nebr........................... ......... 2.15 Philadelphia, Pa..................... ......... 2.50 Pittsburgh, Pa........................ ........... 2.65 Portland, Oreg....................... ........... 42.00 Richmond, Va......................... ........... 1.87% St. Louis, Mo......................... ........... 2.55 San Francisco, Calif........... ........... 52.52% Seattle, Wash......................... ......... 62.50 Springfield, Mass................... ......... 2.15 *$1.40 1.57% 1.77% 2.07% — 2.05 2.00 2 .12% 2.00 *1.87% 2.20 1.75 2.05 1.75 2.03% 2.15 82.00 2.00 1.70 1.62% — 1.87% 1.87% 2.55 1.75 2.15 1.70 1 40 hp. or over, $1.50. 2 When cutting to finish grade, $2.12%. 3 Over 40 hp., $2.20. 4 1 to 5 cu. yds., $2.10, over 5 cu. yds., $2.35. 5 Over 1 cu. yd., $2.62%. 6 120-B type capacity, $2.80. Additional Information For additional information write to the Inter national Union of Operating Engineers, 1003 K Street, NW, Washington 1, D. C. Lathers Outlook Summary The outlook for lathers is very good at the present time and should continue to be good. This is, however, one of the smaller trades and so can provide comparatively few apprentice ship openings. Nature of Work A lather’s principal work is installing a base to which plaster or stucco is to be applied. In houses, nonfireproof apartment buildings, and many other buildings, this base usually consists of gypsum lath or insulating lath (pieces of perforated gypsum board or perforated insulat ing board) which is nailed to wood members. For more exacting work, he uses metal lath (large pieces of sheet steel which have been slit and “ expanded” to give an over-all mesh pattern) or occasionally a coarse-mesh wire screen similar to hardware cloth. When used in ordinary construction to give greater strength at critical locations only (in bathrooms and elsewhere to give a strong plaster backing for wall tile, at interior corners of walls and ceil ings to prevent cracking, etc.) this is also nailed to supporting wood members. For the most part, however, in a metal lath job the lather first builds a light supporting framework of light steel channels (commonly known as light iron furring), fastened securely to the structure proper, and ties the metal lath to the frame work with wire. This is done for suspended ceilings, which are hung down from the struc tural floor above to allow space for pipes, ven tilating ducts, etc.; it is commonly done at columns, to provide space for pipes, etc., behind the plaster; it is done to provide a base for plaster enclosure of beams, ventilating ducts and other members, protruding downward from the ceiling. In some cases, when a ceiling is to be plastered in concrete joist construction, metal lath is fastened to the bottom of the joists to bridge over the open spaces between them; in other cases, a level bottom surface is obtained by use of structural tile or other material as fillers between the joists. The usual type of solid plaster partition consists of a core of metal lath and metal channels, fastened securely to the floor and the ceiling, and plastered on both sides; a newer and less common type uses sheets of gypsum board as a core, and these are also installed by lathers. If there is to be a plaster cornice, the lather builds out beneath it with channels and metal lath to a rough approxima tion of the profile that is wanted, in order to reduce the thickness and weight of plaster that is needed. Lathers also install corner bead and many other supplementary items. For stucco over wood construction, they nail a large-mesh wire fabric (much coarser than metal lath) onto the wood. Wood lath, the original material, has declined greatly in importance and in many localities is scarcely used when gypsum lath or insulating lath is available. Not all plastering means a job for lathers, however. In fire-resistive construction, parti tions (when not of solid plaster) are structural tile or gypsum block, to which plaster is applied directly. Exterior walls often have what is essentially a tile lining, also plastered directly. In contrast, there can be lathing without plas tering—principally the building of frameworks of metal supporting channels, quite similar to those for suspended plaster ceilings, for instal lation of acoustical tile. The two outstanding requirements to be met by lathers’ work are accuracy and sturdiness. True vertical, horizontal, and curved surfaces must be provided within rather close limits; the lath backing for cornices must be level and accurate in profile. Unless these requirements are met, the plasterers cannot do a presentable job without using an excessive thickness of plaster, and hence an excessive weight, for some parts of their work. Channels must be fastened securely enough to the structure proper so that they withstand the pressure during plastering, and beyond any question will support perma nently the weight of the plaster despite possible vibration of the building, the impact of any heavy objects that may be dropped onto the floor above, and other contingencies. Where Employed Lathers work principally in the construction industry, mainly on new construction but on modernization and alterations to a considerable degree. There is also extensive employment else where, in the lath-backing for display material, scenery, etc., when this is made of plaster. Outlook The outlook for lathers is good, for a number of reasons. Commercial modernization will con tinue to be important, and it often emphasizes types of work (new ceilings, flat, or in many cases curved) for which lathing is needed. Acoustical treatment moved out of the luxury class several years ago and is being increasingly accepted as a standard feature in many types of commercial buildings. Suspended ceilings are probably more common than in the past. A new fireproofing method for structural steel (described briefly in the section on plasterers) consists of enclosing the steel members in a 65 framework of light channels covered with metal lath, to which a particular type of lightweight plaster is applied. This method is likely to be come popular. At the same time, however, the work has been much more seasonal than that of most other trades, and in that respect has been very similar to plastering. W age Rates Minimum wage rates in a number of cities and their surrounding areas, established by collective bargaining agreements and in effect on July 1, 1948, are given below. Area Hourly rate Atlanta, Ga..................................................................$2.00 Baltimore, Md.............................................................. 2.25 Birmingham, Ala.................................................. ....... 2.00 Boston, Mass................................................................ 2.50 Buffalo, N. Y ................................................................ 2.40 Chicago, ill.................................................................... 2.40 Cincinnati, Ohio ......................................................... 2.25 Cleveland, Ohio ........................................................... 2.37% Denver, Colo.................................................................. 2.25 Houston, Tex................................................................ 2.50 Indianapolis, Ind.......................................................... 2.15 Jackson, Miss................................................................ 1.75 Kansas City, Mo.......................................................... 2.20 Los Angeles, Calif.........................................................12.25 Louisville, Ky............................................................... 2.10 Milwaukee, Wis............................................................ 2.25 Minneapolis, Minn...................................................... 2.35 New Orleans, La......................................................... 2.00 New .York, N. Y . ..........................................................*2.75 Omaha, Nebr. ............................................................. 2.15 Philadelphia, Pa.......................................................... 2.50 Pittsburgh, Pa............................................................. *2.62 % Portland, Oreg............................................................ 2.25 Richmond, Va................................................................ 1.87% St. Louis, Mo................................................................ 2.25 San Francisco, Calif................................................. 2.50 Seattle, Wash................................................................ 2.26 % Springfield, Mass. ....................................................... 2.10 1 30-hour workweek. 2 35-hour workweek. 3 Residential— $2.25. Plasterers Outlook Summary Job opportunities for plasterers during the next few years are excellent and additional workers must be trained. Plastering will always be an important part of building construction, as far as can be seen at the present time, al though there will probably be changes in the relative importance of the different kinds of work. Nature of W ork The principal work of plasterers is the appli cation and finishing of several coats of plaster to a suitable base, to produce wall and ceiling surfaces and stucco exterior wall surfaces. In some interior work, they produce textured sur faces which get no further decorative treat ment, and, in more elaborate work, they produce surfaces in imitation of stone, marble, or other materials. In some types of buildings they pro duce curved ceilings and in ornamental work obtain a great variety of architectural effects using cornices, pilasters, vaulted and groined ceilings, arches, and relief ornamentation. This occupational statement includes the work of plasterers only, exclusive of modelers, model makers, casters, and sculptors (engaged mainly in the shop production of relief plaster pieces for building and other uses). While the work is closely related, these are distinct oc cupations. W here Employed Employment is primarily in the construction industry and almost exclusively at the con struction site. Most of this is in new construc tion, but plastering is usually needed in exten sive alterations and has become particularly important as a means of obtaining architectural and lighting effects in commercial moderniza tion. Repairs in old buildings are restricted in both number and size by the durability of plaster. Additional Information For additional information, or for the ad dress of the union local nearest to you, write to the International Union of Wood, Wire and Metal Lathers, 2605 Detroit Avenue, Cleve land 13, Ohio. 66 Training and Qualifications A 4-year apprenticeship, or its equivalent, is needed for qualification as a journeyman. Dur ing this period the apprentice is trained in a wide variety of skills, of which manipulation of the tools is only one part. He must learn the properties and appropriate handling of the dif ferent kinds of materials and the different mix tures; the characteristics of various backing materials or bases to which the plaster is ap plied ; and procedures for getting true vertical and horizontal surfaces. He must also acquire ability to lay out curved, arched, vaulted, and other ornamental work which (when elaborate) presents difficult geometrical problems; he must learn methods of forming cornices and moldings in place, of installing shop-made ornamental pieces and fastening them securely, and of ap plying and forming wet plaster onto ornamental pieces to join them smoothly or to add small repetitive figures which cannot be put on con veniently at the shop. The apprentice should become familiar with the work of other trades and must learn to judge from inspection whether lathing and other preparatory work is satisfactory. Standard apprenticeship includes 144 hours of classroom instruction each year, with par ticular attention to drawing, blueprint reading, and mathematics applicable to lay-out work. Outlook The expected volume of construction will re quire many more plasterers than the number employed just before the war. During recent decades the number of apprentices trained was comparatively small, but more than 7,000 have been registered by the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Finishers’ International Associa tion since the beginning of 1946. The long-range outlook is affected by several conditions, some favorable and others not. Many attemps have been made to get less expensive surfacing materials for ordinary walls and ceilings, and some of the materials made in sheet form have been used widely. It is likely, however, that alleviation of the shortage of plasterers will cut down the use of these other materials to at least some degree. Public taste and architectural usage have changed, so that ornamental plastering in large metropolitan buildings (banks, the lobbies and public rooms of major hotels, the lobbies of leading office buildings, etc.), is used much less extensively than prior to the depression. It was in such buildings, in churches, in movie thea ters, and in larger government buildings, that ornamental plastering had its real market. There is little doubt that such work will always be used to some degree in certain types of buildings, and it seems likely to be used exten sively in a few types, particularly some churches. For nonresidential buildings as a whole, however, the trend toward simpler lines seems to be the desire of owners and architects. While the demand for plastering has been reduced in these directions, it has been in creased in others. Within the past 20 years acoustical treatment has had widespread adop tion, and plastering is one of the means by which such treatment is obtained. During the same period, extensive attention has been given to lighting, including the effect of ceiling design. This has been most pro nounced for retail stores, restaurants, and similar establishments, but by no means con fined to such places. The result here has been a marked trend toward curved ceilings, com monly with recesses for concealed lighting fix tures or with flush fixtures fitting into rather than protruding from the ceiling. This'work obviously required many more man-hours than would an ordinary flat ceiling for a room of the same size. Curved surfaces as a form of archi tectural or decorative treatment, without spe cial consideration for lighting effects, have also come into increasing use. Very recently a new method of fireproofing structural steel members came into use, con sisting of enclosing them in metal lath to which a lightweight gypsum plaster is applied. Tests to date indicate that this method provides satis factory fire protection, and it has the advantage of a great saving in weight over poured con crete, which has been standard for the purpose. Widespread use of this method is likely, with resulting employment for plasterers, although in some places adoption may be delayed until building ordinances are revised. Stucco finish on exterior walls has been used widely in certain parts of the country and used to at least some degree almost everywhere. Greater use may be expected because of an in creased range of finishes and colors that can be provided, suitable to almost any architectural style. W age Rates Minimum wage rates in effect on July 1,1948, 67 as established by collective bargaining agree ments for a number of cities and their surround ing areas, are given below. Area Hourly rate Atlanta, Ga...................................................................$2.25 Baltimore, Md................................ .............................. 2.25 Birmingham, Ala......................................................... 2.20 Boston, Mass................................................................. 2.50 Buffalo, N. Y ................................................................ 2.40 Chicago, 111................................................................... 2.40 Cincinnati, Ohio ......................................................... 2.37% Cleveland, Ohio ......................................................... 2.37% Denver, Colo................................................................. 2.25 Houston, Tex................................................................ 2.50 Indianapolis, Ind......................................................... 2.35 Jackson, Miss.............................................................. 2.00 Kansas City, Mo.......................................................... 2.50 Little Rock, Ark.......................................................... 2.50 Los Angeles, Calif........................................................ *2.25 Louisville, Ky............................................................... 2.25 Milwaukee, Wis........................................................... 2.25 Minneapolis, Minn....................................................... 2.35 New Haven, Conn........................................................ 2.40 New Orleans, La......................................................... 2.00 New York, N. Y ...........................................................J3.00 Omaha, Nebr................................................................ 2.25 Philadelphia, Pa.......................................................... 2.50 Pittsburgh, Pa............................................................. 2.62% Portland, Oreg.............................................................. 2.35 Richmond, Va.............................................................. 2.25 St. Louis, Mo............................................................... 2.50 San Francisco, Calif................................................... *2.25 Seattle, Wash............................................................... 2.36% Springfield, Mass........................................................ 2.32% 1 30-hour workweek. While hourly wage rates have been high, annual earnings prior to the war were com paratively low. In part this was caused by a workday in some cases shorter than was com mon for other trades (in some localities a 6hour day in comparison with an 8-hour day for most of the trades) and in part by seasonal unemployment. Plastering in a small building is a compara tively brief job, and such jobs tend to be sea sonal because of concentrated rental and sales seasons for new apartments and houses. Work on nonresidential buildings is less seasonal and, when these are sufficiently large, the plaster ing extends over several months. Almost threefourths of the plasterers working in 1939 had at least 6 months of work, but only a third had work for 9 months or more during the year. 68 Additional Information If you want the address of a union local which sponsors apprentice training in your locality, write the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Finishers International Association, 200 Fidelity Building, Cleveland 14, Ohio, or to the Bricklayers, Masons, and Plasterer’s Interna tional Union of America, 815 Fifteenth Street, NW, Washington 5, D. C. Information on ap prenticeship may also be obtained from the Contracting Plasterers International Asso ciation, 1327 Majestic Building, Detroit 26, Michigan. Marble Setters, Tile Setters, and Terrazzo Workers Outlook Summary The outlook for marble setters is good; for tile setters, uncertain but probably fairly good; and for terrazzo workers, is decidedly good. Each of these trades is comparatively small, and each is essentially an urban trade. Nature of Work These trades are distinct, although occasion ally combined in small places. The purposes served are broadly similar, but there are fairly sharp differences in the skills required and the detailed character of the work performed. Marble setters install marble, and other ma terials handled in a similar manner, almost entirely in the interior of buildings. These ma terials are used principally in nonresidential buildings (office buildings, banks, public build ings, etc.) but also extensively in hotels, to some degree in elevator-type apartment buildings, and to a small degree elsewhere. The principal uses are for wall surfaces in entrances, lobbies, banking rooms, and other public spaces, for wall surfaces and stall partitions in toilets, for the front and top surfaces of tellers’ counters, for the treads and risers of stairways and in some cases for the railings as well, and for customers’ check desks in banks. There are numerous infrequent uses, such as window and door trim. Marble setters install natural marble, shop-made artificial marble (making of arti ficial marble in place is the work of the plaster ers), shop-made terrazzo in panels or other pieces, some kinds of stone cut into thin pieces and used like marble, and structural glass9 in the interior of a building. (Structural glass used outdoors, as above a store window, is set by glaziers.) The marble setters use materials made to exact size and polished before delivery and do no fabrication beyond what may be needed for minor fitting and for attachment of hardware. They lay out the work carefully to insure ac curate fitting, apply a special plaster mixture to the backing material (a tile or metal lathplaster partition, a brick core for a bank counter, etc.) to hold the marble pieces in the proper position and alignment and to attach them securely, set the pieces in place, and when necessary brace them until the setting plaster has hardened. For toilet partitions, some of the pieces are usually mortised into others, and the setters fit these together and apply the hard ware for supporting and connecting them. Usu ally each setter has a helper. The helpers pre pare plaster, do much of the carrying of the marble (large panels weigh as much as several hundred pounds each), act as general assistants but do not use tools, and clean the surface of the completed work. Tile setters deal with floor and wall tile, which are thin ceramic materials (not self-support ing) used as a final surface over other ma terials. Wall tile comes as separate pieces, han dled individually— plain square or rectangular pieces for the bulk of the work, and specially shaped pieces for the corners, for the base where the wall joins the floor, for the cap at the top edge, and for numerous other uses. Large pieces of floor tile are also handled indi vidually, while small pieces come in sheets of several dozen glued to a paper backing, and as far as possible are handled in sheets. In nonresidential buildings, floor tile is in stalled in the entrances, lobbies, corridors, and toilets, and less frequently in many other places — stair landings, restaurant kitchens, labora tories, operating rooms, and numerous others. In houses, it is frequently used for bathroom floors, but seldom elsewhere, and, in apartment buildings, it is used mainly for bathrooms, en9 Structural glass is a type o f thick, sturdy plate glass, non transparent, polished on one side or both sides, made in a fairly extensive range o f colors. trances, and corridors. Wall tile in residential buildings is used mainly for the wainscot10 in bathrooms, and occasionally elsewhere. In non residential buildings it has many applications, of which the more important is probably in toilets, but it is used extensively in hospitals, in kitchens of well-equipped restaurants, hotels, and institutions, and to a smaller extent in many other places. For almost all of their uses, wall tile and, to a greater extent, floor tile are in active competition with other materials. A tile setter lays out the room in which he is working so that the surfaces will be where intended and all high spots in the rough wall or floor will be covered without any bulges. He applies a backing o f stiff mortar and puts the tile in place so that the pieces and joints will make the desired pattern. As necessary, he cuts pieces of tile to fit the dimensions or to fit around pipes, etc. For a floor he covers the area with a stiff mortar layer and then lays the tile in sheets as far as possible, using partial sheets or individual pieces to fill out the dimensions or to give a border or other pattern different from that of the sheet-mounted pieces. Stand ard practice is that he works with a helper, who mixes the mortar, keeps him supplied with ma terials, sets up portable scaffolding if needed for high work, fills the joints after the setting is finished, and finally cleans the completed work. Terrazzo is essentially a type of ornamental, non-structural concrete, in which marble chips are used as the coarsest ingredient; it is ground and polished after hardening to give a smooth surface in which the marble chips are exposed against a background of other material. Very commonly a colored background is obtained by mixing pigment with the sand and cement, with white sand and white portland cement used as necessary for the lighter colors. Choice o f the type or types of marble chips used obviously governs their color. Shop-made terrazzo is used to varying degrees for wainscoting, toilet stall partitions, stair treads, etc., but such pieces are installed in the same manner as pieces o f marble. A terrazzo floor is usually divided into a number o f distinct areas by means o f thin metal strips to localize and minimize any cracks resulting from settlement of the building. All 10 The wainscot is the lining o f an interior wall, especially o f the lower part when this is different from the upper part. 69 areas may have the same color pattern, but usually there is color contrast at least between the main body of the floor and the border, and in many cases further color contrast is used. Areas of different color are separated by metal strips to obtain sharp distinction. Simple geo metrical patterns, such as squares of alternating color, are the most common, but lettering, sym bols, trade-marks, etc., not involving fine detail, have become fairly popular for retail stores and elsewhere. A terrazzo worker starts by laying a first course of fine, fairly dry concrete, leveling this accurately and tamping it. He then places the metal strips wherever there is to be a joint between panels or a change in color, embedding their bottom edges in this first course. If there is to be lettering or an ornamental figure, he embeds a shop-made mold for this also. Then he mixes the top course, pours it onto the lower course, and levels it ; there is, of course, a sepa rate batch for each color, made with the appro priate kinds of marble chips and pigment, and each is placed inside the strips bounding the areas of that particular color. After a few days of hardening, the floor is ground by abrasive blocks rotated by power, protruding down from a heavy machine which is moved slowly back and forth over the floor. This grinding is con tinued until there is a smooth, level surface slightly below the original top edge of the strips. Installation of a terrazzo base is gener ally similar but differs in detail. In these opera tions, the terrazzo worker is assisted by helpers for mixing and placing the base course but does the leveling himself, places the metal strips, and at least supervises mixing of the top course, which (along with the grinding) governs the final appearance. The grinding is usually done by another worker. Outlook The outlook for marble setters is probably about the same as that for building journey men as a whole. Marble is used less than form erly to give an appearance of luxury to other wise mediocre buildings, and it is much less popular than some years ago for a few applica tions, particularly soda fountains. It is also used much less than formerly in the toilets of nonresidential buildings. Its excellent qualities 70 need no description, however, and it is suitable in buildings of almost any architectural style. In buildings where initial cost is not the first consideration, it seems likely to maintain its present position. Use of structural glass and some other alternate materials does not affect the work of marble setters, although it does reduce the employment of marble shop workers; where these are used as alternates for tile, they actually increase the employment of marble setters. Although tile is a splendid material, greatly improved over a period of years by its manu facturers, the outlook for tile setters is uncer tain because of the active competition of other materials. For floors, it has been replaced to a considerable degree by terrazzo. While the architectural possibilities of tile have been more fully appreciated and more fully developed with in the last quarter century, the same is even more true of terrazzo. Improvements in asphalt tile (laid by soft-floor layers or carpenters) have made it a strong competitor of ceramic floor tile, in buildings where first cost is im portant. For wall surfaces, structural glass has established a definite place for itself, and in creasing use of plastic and plastic-coated wallboard seems likely. Partitions of glazed finish ing tile (described briefly in the section on bricklayers) have been used in some applica tions in place of rough partitions covered with plaster and wall tile. Two fairly large manu facturers have brought out porcelain enameled metal sheets for wall surfaces in house bath rooms, both apparently satisfactory. Each is for use with a specific factory-made assembly of additional house parts, but other firms are known to be contemplating the manufacture of similar products for a more general market. There is no question that tile will continue to be an important material and no question that it has a combination of desirable qualities not fully obtainable otherwise. There is serious questions, however, that it will continue perma nently to be used as extensively as in the past, in view of the active development of competing materials. Terrazzo work is likely to expand, with very good long-range prospects, as recognition of its possibilities continues to increase. From its nature, of course, it will continue to be one of the small trades despite expansion. For tile work and also for terrazzo work and especially for the two in combination, there is probably an opportunity in many of the smaller cities (mainly of 10,000 up to 25,000 popula tion) for a capable journeyman to establish himself as a small contractor, working on the jobs himself. These trades have been practiced mainly in larger places, and use of these ma terials has been hindered in the smaller cities by absence of a local man able to do a competent job and to advise local owners, builders, and contractors on just what can be done with tile and terrazzo. This opportunity does not extend to marble setting, because marble contracting requires a more extensive shop than can be supported by the local volume of work in most small cities. Wage Rates Minimum wage rates in effect July 1, 1948, as established by collective bargaining agree ments for a number of cities and the surround ing areas of each are given below. Hourly rate Area Marble setters Atlanta, Ga..................... .... $2.25 Baltimore, Md................ .... 2.25 Birmingham, Ala........... .... 2.25 Boston, Mass................... .... 2.25 Buffalo, N. Y ........................ 2.35 Chicago, 111.......................... 2.35 Cincinnati, Ohio .......... .... 2.50 Cleveland, Ohio ........... .... 2.25 Denver, Colo.................. .... 2.25 Houston, Tex.................. .... 2.25 Indianapolis, Ind........... .... 2.00 Jackson, Miss................. .... 2.25 Kansas City, Mo........... .... 2.22 y2 Little Rock, Ark............ .... 2.50 Los Angeles, Calif........ .... 2.25 Louisville, Ky................. .... 2.00 Milwaukee, Wis............. ..... 2.10 Minneapolis, Minn.............. 2.25 New Haven, Conn.......... .... 2.40 New Orleans, La............ .... 2.05 New York, N. Y ............ .... 2.75 Omaha, Nebr................... .... 2.10 Philadelphia, Pa................. 2.45 Pittsburgh, Pa................ .... 2.25 Portland, Oreg............... .... 2.00 Richmond, Va................. .... 2.50 St. Louis, Mo.................. .... 2.25 San Francisco, Calif.......... 2.25 Seattle, Wash................. .... 2.26% Springfield, Mass.......... .... 2.32% Tile setters Terrazzo workers $2.25 2.25 2.00 2.25 2.37% 2.35 2.34 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.00 2.25 2.22 % 2.50 2.50 2.00 2.15 1.90 2.40 2.00 2.75 2.10 2.40 2.12 y2 2.12% 2.25 2.17% 2.37% 2.11% 2.32% $2.25 2.25 2.00 2.25 2.37% 2.35 2.34 2.25 2.25 2.25 2,00 2.25 2.22% 2.50 2.40 2.00 2.20 2.15 2.40 2.00 2.75 2.10 2.45 2.50 2.00 2.25 2.30 2.25 2.11% 2.32% Additional Information For additional information about any of these trades, or the address of the nearest union local, write to the Bricklayers, Masons, and Plasterer's International Union of America, 815 Fifteenth Street, NW, Washington 5, D. C. Painters and Paperhangers Outlook Summary Opportunities for new workers are limited in each of these trades, and the outlook is not encouraging. There has seldom been an excess of fully competent men, and there is not an excess at the present time, but property owners’ standards of workmanship have been low in many cases, and both trades have been over crowded with partially trained workers much of the time. Technological developments in paints and finishes, developments in other build ing materials, and the increased extent to which property owners do their own redecorating com bine to lower the employment outlook. Fully competent men will of course be needed, but they will be subject to disadvantages absent in many of the other trades. The brightest part of the outlook is the notable improvement in stand ards for commercial decorating and even greater improvement in standards for industrial painting. Nature of Work Painting and paperhanging are recognized as separate trades, but many men (including the great majority of those doing redecorating) perform both types of work. Painters are skilled workmen who prepare surfaces and then apply paint, varnish, enamel, lacquer, and similar materials, to buildings and other structures. Some work is on the exterior, for protection from the weather as well as for appearance; indoor work is primarily for ap pearance in most cases but may be for protec tion also. Repainting and redecorating houses, apartments, and commercial buildings make up a large part of the work; in such work, painting and paperhanging are usually done by the same men. An important maintenance field is repaint ing for protection of factories, warehouses, etc., and of outdoor structures, such as tanks and 71 bridges. In small places, the painters also do glazing, and “ combination men” skilled in both trades are recognized. The most important part of many painting jobs is preparing the surface, especially in repainting of old work. On high-grade jobs, rough spots must be sandpapered, nail holes and other imperfections filled, dust brushed off and grease washed off, and any loose paint removed by scraping or, if it is in sufficiently bad condi tion, . by heating with a blowtorch and then scraping. Areas scraped down to the wood must be primed to give a suitable surface for the new paint. Then the new paint is applied with a brush or, in some cases, a spray gun. A painter must be able to mix paint of all standard types from the basic ingredients, to match color samples by mixing colored pig ments with either the basic ingredients or with prepared paint, and, of course, to set up safe scaffolding appropriate to whatever working conditions he encounters. He must know the characteristics of all common types of paints and finishes from the standpoint of durability and suitability for different purposes and also from the standpoint of handling and applica tion. He should have a good knowledge of color harmony, because owners and tenants will fre quently want his suggestions on choice of colors. He must be skillful in handling brushes and other tools in inconvenient positions, such as directly overhead, and be able to apply the materials uniformly, thoroughly, and rapidly, to any type of surface. Paperhanging involves trimming off the edges of a sheet of wallpaper; pasting it; fold ing it for temporary storage until several sheets are ready; placing it on the wall or ceiling; cutting it as necessary to fit window trim, etc.; adjusting it until its pattern matches that of the next strip; smoothing it so that it adheres firmly all over; and rolling the joint. In redecor ating work it may be necessary to remove the old paper by soaking or, if there are many layers, by steaming; it is also necessary in many cases to do minor plaster patching in order to get a smooth surface for the paper. Paperhangers also handle other materials calling for generally similar operations — cloth-backed wood veneer, imitation veneer, and some others. 72 W here Employed About 80 percent of the painters as described in this statement work in the construction in dustry, as employees or as self-employed work men. The remaining 20 percent are employed as maintenance painters in almost all industries. Hotels, office buildings, railroad and other utility companies, manufacturing firms, school boards, other government units, and organiza tions of every sort that own extensive property commonly employ maintenance painters. When the interior redecorating involves papering also, as in hotels or apartment buildings, usually the maintenance painters must be able to do paper hanging as well. Some of these maintenance jobs also involve nonconstruction work, such as re finishing of furniture at a hotel or painting window display material at a department store. There is some degree of nonconstruction paint ing requiring full journeyman skill, as in paint ing of large pieces of machinery during manu facture, but most painting of factory products (whether by brushing, dipping, or spraying) is handled as semiskilled work. For paperhangers, the percentage of employ ment in the construction industry is even greater than that of painters. There are many maintenance jobs, but in most cases these re quire competence in painting also; maintenance employment for paperhanging only is much less frequent than for painting only and is likely to be found only at an unusually large hotel, an unusually large apartment group, or some other uncommon type of establishment. Training and Qualifications A 3-year apprenticeship is provided for either of these trades, although less formal training has been fairly common. A number of the union locals have offered special courses by which journeymen competent in one trade could be trained in the other. In some cases, they have accepted into membership applicants without formal training after an oral examination and a demonstration of their ability. Policies in this respect are decided by the locals. While accept ance as a journeyman has been easier for those without formal training than in many of the other trades, it should kept in mind that a high level of competence (which means thorough training) is particularly important for those wishing to be accepted and paid as craftsmen in a field having a large number of mediocre workmen. Outlook There is a great deal of painting to be done in new construction and in repainting and re decorating existing structures. Nevertheless, the employment outlook is comparatively poor, for several related reasons. Painting is a trade in which labor cost usually exceeds material cost. For some of the most important opera tions, in fact, material cost is negligible— washing o f walls preparatory to repainting, scraping or burning off loose or scaly old paint, other preparatory jobs. Any saving in labor cost makes a greater proportionate saving in total cost than in trades where material ex pense is high; thus pressure for saving in labor cost is greater than for most other trades. For the commonest grade of papering, in which cheap wallpaper is used, labor cost is also a high part of the total; this is not the case, however, on the better grades of decorating for which expensive papers are used. In the painting and paperhanging fields, the number of self-employed workmen and small contractors is unusually large, so that ordi narily there is keen competition for work, par ticularly redecorating work. Since owners’ standards of workmanship are frequently low, and for rental property the desire in many cases is merely to give a fresh surface until it is time for another redecorating job, much of the work is done by poorly trained men at correspondingly low wages. While the work manship on such jobs is inferior to that of thoroughly trained journeymen, this kind of work is done in enough cases to cut down the volume of work available for the latter. There seems also to have been a great in crease within recent years in the extent to which property owners and occupants do their own interior decorating. New types of paint intended mainly for such use have been mar keted actively and sold in very great quantity. Other new types of interior paint with im proved “ covering power” (opacity) have made it easier for inexperienced persons to do work meeting their own standards of acceptability; even though these latter products were not brought out primarily for the householder mar ket, they are sold in great quantity through consumer outlets, such as drug stores and hard ware stores. It is probably a safe assumption that workmanship has been poor and final re sults disappointing in many cases of strictly amateur redecorating of this sort, but there are no indications of a decrease in such work. The same conditions of competition from in formally trained workers hold, although prob ably to a smaller extent, for exterior repainting. Competition from property owners doing their own painting is much less. The amount of ex terior repainting done has been cut by two factors, however: improvement in paint ma terials and formulas, so that painting is needed less frequently; and covering of wood exteriors with other materials (asbestos shingles, imita tion brick with or without insulating backing, etc.) which do not need painting, although the time-consuming “ trim” work at door and win dow openings is not reduced thereby. Long-range trends in building design and an unmistakable trend to the use of more com pletely processed material are also unfavorable to the painters to some degree. Many items formerly painted at the building site now come from a factory ready for installation, with at least a priming coat and often with a final, per manent finish. Even prefinished hardwood floor ing has been brought out and has met with a ready acceptance. Aluminum products, requir ing no painting either at the factory or at the job, have been introduced within fairly recent years and made in increasing quantity— garage doors, roof gutters and downspouts, window sash and frames. While these are still luxury items, they are less so than in the past, and ex pansion into a still wider market seems likely. The trend in design has been toward simpler lines and simpler ornamentation, readily noted by comparison of window and door casings popular now with those popular some years ago. This change, simplifying the work of painters and of other trades as well, seems still to be in progress. From an employment standpoint, spray painting is unfavorable but probably less so than is commonly supposed. The painters’ union has accepted spray work, provided methods and equipment protecting the health of the workers are used. Conditions differ greatly from those in painting of factory products, however, and 73 the full timesaving possible in factory work can seldom be realized in construction painting. Commonly, it is necessary to cover nearby areas with masking type or to use other measures to keep the paint off places where it is not wanted. Wind can be a serious hindrance outdoors. A spray outfit is obviously not applicable to pre paring the surface before the paint is applied, and, unless this work is done carefully and thoroughly (especially in repainting of old sur faces), the results will be unsatisfactory, re gardless of how the paint is applied. The situation is not greatly different for paperhangers, despite the fact that in some areas there are only a few thoroughly competent men. Like painting, this field has had the prob lem of a large number of semitrained men who, however, do work good enough to satisfy many property owners. Paperhanging by property owners has always been done to some degree. It may have increased within recent years through use of “ ready pasted” (i.e., adhesivebacked) paper, but it has never been common and it seems unlikely to affect employment pros pects substantially. Much more serious has been the painting of walls by property owners with the new types of interior oil paints and espe cially with water-emulsion paints. The common practice of applying these latter over loose wall paper is a sufficient indication of the low stand ards of redecorating workmanship held by many property owners and their consequent un willingness to pay the prices necessary for care ful, competent work. While the outlook for residential work' has been deteriorating, that for nonresidential work has been improving. The importance of an at tractive interior for retail establishments is recognized as never before. For factories of many types, the standards for interior painting have risen greatly— to obtain better lighting, to improve morale, to increase safety, in some cases to designate trucking lanes and storage spaces, etc. While such improvement is already widespread, the trend toward higher standards still seems to be in effect. All of these considerations mean that paint ing and paperhanging cannot be regarded as expanding trades, but they are not by any means in process of disappearing. Under these conditions there is not only room for addi tional well-trained men but need for them. 74 Such men will, however, find competition much keener than in expanding trades or in trades where inferior work done by property owners and poorly-trained workmen is less acceptable. Real aptitude for the work and through training are more important for a person expecting to be recognized in his locality as a craftsman and to obtain corresponding earnings. Wage Rates Minimum wage rates for painters and paperhangers in a number of cities and their sur rounding areas, as established by collective bar gaining agreements and in effect on July 1,1948, are given in the table below. In many places established rates are higher for some types o f painting— by use of a spray gun, from a swing ing scaffold, and painting of structural steel. These rates should be considered with recogni tion of the high seasonal unemployment to which painting and decorating work has been subject. Wage rates for maintenance painters are ordinarily substantially lower than the estab lished scales paid in new construction. Annual earnings may actually be higher in many cases, however, because of more regular employment. In some cases it is necessary for organizations having their own maintenance painters to con centrate their work within a brief period (school redecorating during the summer vaca tion period, for example), but many establish ments are able to carry on repainting and re decorating work throughout the year. When they can do so conveniently, they usually pre fer to employ one or a few painters continu ously, rather than a larger gang intermittently. Hourly rate Area Painters Atlanta, Ga......................... ................ $1.75 Baltimore, Md..................... ................ i.7 7 y 2 Birmingham, Ala.............. ................. 2.00 Boston, Mass...................... ................ 2.00 Buffalo, N. Y ....................... ................ 2.12 y2 Chicago, Til......................... ................ 2.15 Cincinnati, Ohio ............... ............. 2.00 Cleveland, Ohio ............... ............. 2.12 y2 Denver, Colo....................... ............. 1.92% Houston, Tex..................... ............. 1.87% Indianapolis, Ind............... ............. 2.00 Jackson, Miss..................... ............. 1.75 Kansas City, Mo............... ............. 2.05 Little Rock, Ark................ .............. 1.62% Paperhangers $2.00 1.77%: 2.00 — 2.12% 2.15 2.00 2 .1 2 % 1.92% 1.87%: 2.00 1.75 2 .0 5 1.75 Hourly rate Area Painters Los Angeles, Calif................. .......... 2.00 Louisville, Ky.......................... .......... 1.82 Milwaukee, Wis...................... .......... 1.80 Minneapolis, Minn.................. ........ 1.95 New Haven, Conn.................. .......... 2.00 New Orleans, La..................... .......... 1.62% New York, N. Y ..................... .......... 22.30 Omaha, Nebr............................ ........ 1.75 Philadelphia, Pa...................... ........ 2.05 Pittsburgh, Pa........................ ........ 2.20 Portland, Oreg........................ ........ 1.87% Richmond, Va.......................... ...... 1.62y2 St. Louis, Mo........................... ........ 2.07 San Francisco, Calif........... ........ 22.15 Seattle, Wash.......................... ........ 2.06 y2 Springfield, Mass.................... ........ 1.87% Paperhangers *1.50 1.95 2.00 1.62% 22.30 1.62% 2.05 2.20 2.02% 1.62% 2.07 -2.15 2.06% 1.87% 144-hour workweek. 235-hour workweek. Additional Information For additional information, write to the Bro therhood of Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers of America, Painters and Decorators Building, Lafayette, Indiana, or to the Painting and Decorating Contractors Association of America, 12 South Twelfth Street, Philadelphia 7, Pa. Glaziers Outlook Summary There will be job openings in the next several years for a small increase in the trade, but openings thereafter will be little greater than those needed for replacement. This is one of the smaller trades. Nature of Work Glaziers install all types of glass, although not in all places where glass is used. In many localities the largest single part of their work has been the installation and replacement of plate glass in store windows. They also install ordinary window glass (sheet glass) in the win dows and doors of houses, apartments, and busi ness or factory buildings, put wire-glass in sky lights and fire-resistant doors and windows, set mirrors when these are not already mounted, and install any unusual items, such as pre assembled stained glass or leaded-glass panels. Since it became available about 25 years ago, glaziers have installed structural glass (a non transparent plate glass, usually polished on one surface only, made in a number of colors) as an ornamental surfacing on the exterior of build ings (usually for stores, above and below their display windows). Structural glass used in the interior of buildings is handled by marble set ters. Glaziers install glass blocks under some conditions, but these are used mainly in exterior walls, where they are set in mortar by brick layers. Ordinary glazing work consists of cutting the glass to size (except where stock sizes fit with out cutting, which is commonly the case with steel sash), speading a bed of putty around the edges of the opening, pressing the glass into place, fastening it with wire clips pressed into small holes in steel sash or with triangular metal points driven into the edge of wood sash, and then placing and beveling a strip of putty on the outside to keep out moisture. Plate glass, cut to size at the shop or at the job, is held in a special supplementary frame built into the store front and partially disassembled for the removal and replacement of glass. In many localities the wood sash and doors used in ordinary residential building are glazed at the millwork factory. Factory glazing is much less practical for steel sash, because of greater difficulty in protection during trans portation, handling, and installation. Even when both are glazed at the site, steel sash brings more work for glaziers than wood sash, because of the customary division into a number of small openings. While each of these can be glazed rapidly, in total they require more time than would a two-pane wood window having the same total glass area. In the past, shop glazing has been done mainly by semiskilled factory workers rather than by glaziers, and in most localities such sash have not been used on buildings constructed under collective bargain ing agreements. During 1948 the international union removed its objection to installation of shop-glazed sash, provided the glass was in stalled by its members. This action is likely to mean greatly increased use of shop-glazed sash in numerous localities. Glazing is primarily an urban trade. In large and moderately large cities it is done by men who are strictly glaziers, while in small cities it is frequently done by “ combination men” who also do painting and, in many cases, paper hanging too. In places too small to support an establishment with a stock of plate glass, ordi 75 nary glazing is done as a sideline by painters and often by carpenters or other journeymen, while occasional plate glass or structural glass jobs are handled by a crew from a larger city nearby. Where Employed The great majority of glaziers work in the construction industry as employees of glazing contractors. These men work on new construc tion, on alterations and modernization, and on replacement of broken glass, particularly in store windows. A few are employed in the man ufacture of glass and in various industries as maintenance workers. Some have also been em ployed in millwork factories for shop glazing of sash, doors, etc., but, in the past, most of the men employed for such work were opera tives rather than journeymen. Some have also been employed in factories for shop glazing of cabinets, store fixtures, etc., but much of this work has also been done by operatives. Training and Qualifications Glazing is a skilled craft customarily requir ing 3 years of apprentice training. In most areas the trade can be entered only by way of formal apprenticeship, but in some localities helpers with several years of experience may qualify and be admitted to the trade as journeymen. Outlook The importance of glass in building construc tion, and hence the importance of glazing, show definite signs of increase. There is a trend toward the use of more glass in residential buildings, for which double glass assemblies11 are one of several stimulating influences. Any increase in the extent to which shop-glazed sash are used will bring some reduction in the total work of setting glass, but there may be a small increase in the total employment of gla ziers through their replacement of factory operatives. In recent years there has been a very marked development of the use of glass in commercial1 11 These are assemblies o f two panes o f glass held in a light metal frame, separated by a layer o f dry air, and handled in the same man ner as a single pane o f glass except that they must be ordered in the exact size wanted and cannot be cut satisfactorily after manu facture. Their purpose is to reduce heat loss. 76 buildings, especially retail stores. Store modern ization has often been centered around im proved store windows, which involves a com pletely new glass installation. It is also likely that structural glass will be used more widely than before. Architectural publications indicate a rather strong interest in larger glass areas for oflice buildings and other major downtown buildings. There has been some tendency to design retail buildings almost or completely without windows above the first story, and this was increased for a time following the war time blackouts, but it seems to be temporary and already to be decreasing. Replacement of store windows broken by windstorms or other acci dents is, of course, a year-round employment source for glaziers. There is a present need for additional skilled workmen, because only a few apprentices have been trained within recent years to make up for those who died or retired. In the longer run, a few additional workers may be added to this relatively small occupation, but most of the job openings will be to replace workers who drop out of the trade. Earnings The minimum wage rates established by col lective bargaining agreements as of July 1, 1948, are given in the table below for a number of cities and their surrounding areas. Area Hourly rate Atlanta, Ga.................................................................... $1.75 Baltimore, Md............................................................. 1.92% Birmingham, Ala......................................................... 1.80 Boston, Mass................................................................ 2.00 Buffalo, N. Y ................................................................ 1.90 Chicago, 111.................................................................... 2.45 Cincinnati, Ohio ......................................................... 2.05 Cleveland, Ohio ........................................................... 2.25 Denver, Colo.................................................................. 1.89 Houston, Tex................................................................ 1.87% Indianapolis, Ind.......................................................... 2.00 Jackson, Miss................................................................ 1.25 Kansas City, Mo.......................................................... 2.15 Little Rock, Ark.......................................................... 1.62% Los Angeles, Calif...................................................... 1.96 Milwaukee, Wis............................................................ 2.00 Minneapolis, Minn....................................................... 1.85 New Orleans, La.......................................................... 1.62% New York, N. Y .............................................................*2.75 Omaha, Nebr................................................................. 21.70 Philadelphia, Pa............................................... 2.09 Pittsburgh, Pa.............................................................. 2.00 Portland, Oreg.............................................................. 1.96 Hourly Area rate St. Louis, Mo................................................................. San Francisco, Calif.................................................... Seattle, Wash................................................................ Springfield, Mass.......................................................... 2.25 2.00 1.96 2.00 1 35-hour workweek. 2 $1.40 for shop work. Additional Information For additional information, or for the ad dress of the nearest union local, write to the Brotherhood o f Painters, Decorators, and Paperhangers of America, Painters and Decor ators Building, Lafayette, Indiana. Roofers Outlook Summary The outlook for roofers is substantially the same as that for construction workers as a whole. Their employment is better sustained than that of many other trades during periods of declining construction activity, however, be cause of the importance of maintenance, repair, and re-covering of the roofs of existing build ings particularly large nonresidential and apartment buildings. Nature of Work Roofers’ work includes the application of composition roofing, such as built-up roofing; the installation of roofing tile, roofing slate, and a number of other roofing materials; and the waterproofing and dampproofing of wall sur faces, etc., for buildings and other structures. The first of these is the most important as a source of employment. For built-up roofs, the roofers cover the sur face with strips of asphalt impregnated felt, coating each strip thoroughly with tar, pitch, or other bituminous material. They lap each strip over the preceding strip sufficiently so that all parts are covered with the desired num ber o f thicknesses, and coat each over its entire width before the next strip is laid down. Then they cover the entire exposed surface with bituminous material, and usually with gravel or slag to hold it down and protect it from the elements. Formerly hot tar or hot pitch was used almost exclusively and was applied by mopping. Emulsified asphalts applied without heating are now used also, and the most recent product of this general type can be applied by spraying. Built-up roofs are used mainly on nonresidential buildings and apartment build ings. Within recent years new types of material have been developed, permitting use of builtup roofs on steeper slopes than was formerly practical. There are many types of waterproofing. It is used largely but not entirely below ground level and primarily on nonresidential buildings and some types of nonbuilding structures. While commonly used on large apartment buildings and hotels, it is seldom applied for houses, ex cept where the ground water conditions are unusually bad. Among the locations where it is used are basement and areaway walls, to a smaller degree walls above ground level, floors below ground level, swimming pools and other tanks, and nonbuilding structures (such as cable vaults) below ground level. Waterproof ing of walls is often done by coating them with hot bituminous material, covering this with felt or cloth, and then coating them again. Water proofing of floors (between a lower and an upper layer of concrete) or of a sidewalk above a basement (between the concrete of the base ment roof and the concrete o f the sidewalk itself) is more similar to roofing. Some types of waterproofing are applied by spraying. Dampproofing is a coating applied to interior and exterior surfaces, to prevent penetration of moisture. Ordinarily it is applied by spraying. Use of this treatment has been increasing, and seems likely to increase further. Slate and tile come as separate pieces and are nailed into place individually; they are suitable only for surfaces having at least a fairly steep pitch. Tile roofs are popular for houses in some parts of the country but elsewhere are used mainly on nonresidential buildings having steep roofs— churches, some public buildings, some school and college buildings, etc. They are also used for ornamentation on various types of small retail buildings (gas stations, lunchstands, miscellaneous others), but the total amount of work involved for these is compara tively small. At one time slate roofs were used extensively on good houses but because o f the great improvement in other materials such use has been infrequent for a number o f years in most parts of the country and seems unlikely to increase. Slate is used on the same types of 77 nonresidential buildings as tile. In larger areas the men doing slate and tile roofing are differ ent from those doing composition roofing. In general, slate and tile have been losing ground to other materials. Where Employed Roofers work almost exclusively in the con struction industry on new construction and on maintenance and repairs. For built-up roofing there is a lot of maintenance and repair w ork; while high-quality roofs often last longer than the guarantee period, a great many owners choose lighter, cheaper roofs which usually need repairs after a very few years, and re-covering after a few more years. Waterproofing is usu ally not subject to maintenance and repair w ork; it lasts longer. Slate and tile never wear out, but individual pieces (particularly slate) are sub ject to breakage— by windstorms, by tree limbs, by baseballs and other objects, by being walked upon, and by concentrated stresses resulting from uneven settlement or from sagging of the supporting woodwork. On a nonresidential build ing or an unusually expensive house, the broken pieces are replaced at intervals, but on a good house below luxury grade, if the breakage is extensive, the owner is likely to replace the entire area with some less expensive material such as asphalt shingles. Outlook There is nothing to indicate a noteworthy change in roofers’ employment. The importance of repair work on composition roofs helps to even out seasonal unemployment. There is lost time at all parts of the year because of rain or snow; the principal work that can be done dur ing wet weather is trying to locate leaks that have been baffling at other times. W age Rates Below are wage rates in effect for composi tion roofers and for slate and tile roofers on July 1, 1948, in a number of cities and the surrounding area for each, as established by collective bargaining agreements. 78 Hourly rate Composition Slate and tile roofers roofers Area Atlanta, Ga............................ ............ $1.50 Baltimore, Md....................... ............ 1.65 Birmingham, Ala................... ............ 1.55 Boston, Mass.......................... .......... 2.15 Buffalo, N. Y ........................ .......... 2.15 Chicago, 111............................ ............ 2.40 Cincinnati, Ohio ................. ............ 2.00 Cleveland, Ohio ................... ............ 2.30 Denver, Colo.......................... ............ 2.10 Houston, Tex.......................... - ......... 1.87 y2 Indianapolis, Ind.................. .......... 1.68 Jackson, Miss........................ .......... 1.50 Kansas City, Mo.................. .......... 1.90 Los Angeles, Calif............... .......... 2.00 Louisville, Ky........................ .......... 1.55 Milwaukee, Wis.................... .......... 1.90 Minneapolis, Minn................ .......... 1.90 New Haven, Conn................ .......... 2.25 New Orleans, La.................. .......... 1.62 y2 New York, N. Y ................... .......... 2.75 Omaha, Nebr......................... ........... 1.62 y2 Philadelphia, Pa................... .......... 2.15 Pittsburgh, Pa...................... ............. 2.25 Portland, Oreg................................. 2.00 Richmond, Va........................ ............ 1.80 St. Louis, Mo........................ ............. 2.12 y2 San Francisco, Calif: ........ ............. 2.16 Seattle, Wash..................................... >2.06 y2 Springfield, Mass................. ........... 2.00 $1.50 1.90 1.71 2.15 2.30 2.40 2 .1 2 ^ 2.37 y2 2.10 2.12 y2 1.80 1.50 1.90 2.00 1.85 2.05 1.90 2.50 1.62 y2 2.75 1.82 y2 2.55 2.25 2.00 2.00 2.16 2.15 2.20 1 Composition, steep— $2.15%. Additional Inform ation For additional information, or for the ad dress of the nearest union local, write to the United Slate, Tile, and Composition Roofers, Damp and Waterproof Workers’ Association, 130 North Wells Street, Chicago 6, 111., or to the National Roofing Contractors’ Association, 315 West Madison Street, Chicago 6, 111. Asbestos Workers Outlook Summary The immediate outlook for asbestos workers is very good, and the long-range outlook is above average for the construction trades. Good prospects for refrigeration installation and for industrial pipework (in oil refining, the chem ical industry, some other industries) mean em ployment opportunities for asbestos workers. Nature of W ork Employment is mainly for two principal types of work, plus one minor type. The first of these, around which the trade was originally formed and from which its name is taken, is insulation against heat loss of boilers, pipes, kettles, tanks, and a wide variety of industrial equipment intended to contain steam or other hot substances. Insulation is applied to save fuel, to maintain the desired operating pres sures or temperatures with greater uniformity, to keep down the temperature in the rooms where the equipment is located, and for several less frequent reasons. Straight runs of pipe are usually covered with short sections of prepared material, which are placed around the pipe and fastened. Boilers, tanks, kettles, etc., may be covered with prepared material in sheet form, or with a paste of asbestos mixed with other materials, followed by an outer wrapping of cloth. This last procedure is used for irregular surfaces, which are encountered to some de gree in industrial insulating jobs and in most other jobs also. Insulation is installed in power houses (public utility, and at factories), in the boilerooms of large buildings of many types, on the main steam lines and sometimes on the branch lines of large heating installations (ho tels, department stores, office buildings, large apartment projects, etc.) and, of course, in manufacturing establishments having indus trial processes using steam, hot liquids, or hot gases. The other principal type of work is insula tion against absorption of heat. Some of this is done on the pipework, etc., of refrigeration installations (for cold storage, for freezing or other processing of foods and other commodi ties, for drinking water lines, under some cir cumstances in air-conditioning installations) ; this work is very similar to insulation of hot pipes or vessels against loss of heat. Related to this, although quite different in the materials used and the method of installation, is the in sulation of enclosed cold-storage spaces too large for economical use of factory-made panels such as those from which ordinary “ walk-in” cooling rooms are assembled. This cold-storage lining is applied to the walls, ceiling, and floor of a large space— in some cases an entire build ing. Often there are insulating partitions on the interior also, to permit maintenance of different temperatures in different portions. In many localities a subdivision of this trade installs home insulation. This work is less skill ed than the activities described above and car ries a lower wage scale. W here Employed Employment is mainly in the construction industry, but there is a substantial amount of employment in numerous other industries for alterations and maintenance. Some types of chemical plants and others having extensive steam installations for power and heating are engaged in more or less continuous alteration and maintenance of their insulated pipework and apparatus, and employ asbestos workers for this work. Force-account maintenance em ployment for cold-storage installations is much more limited, and is uncommon unless at the very largest establishments in the major cities. There is also a substantial volume of employ ment at shipyards on new work, maintenance, and repairs. Outlook While asbestos workers will necessarily con stitute one of the smallest trades, the employ ment outlook is good. Their work is closely tied to the increasing importance of pipework and related equipment in industrial plants, and to the increasing importance of refrigeration installations. This includes cold-storage locker buildings and other establishments, smaller than were formerly common, but too large for portable equipment and factory-made assem blies. W age Rates Wage rates in effect on July 1, 1948, in ac cordance with collective bargaining agreements are given in the table below for a number of cities and their surrounding areas. Area Hourly rate Atlanta, Ga..................................................................$1.87^ Baltimore, Md.............................................................. 2.12^ Birmingham, Ala........................................................ 1.90 Boston, Mass................................................................ 2.15 Buffalo, N. Y ................................................................ 2.40 Chicago, 111.................................................................... 2.35 Cincinnati, Ohio ......................................................... 2.20 Cleveland, Ohio ........................................................... 2.25 Denver, Colo.................................................................. 2.15 Houston, Tex................................................................ 2.00 Indianapolis, Ind......................................................... 2.20 79 Hourly Area rate Kansas City, Mo.......................................................... 2.00 Little Rock, Ark.......................................................... 2.00 Los Angeles, Calif.........................................................*2.25 Louisville, Ky............................................................... 2.00 Milwaukee, Wis.................................. ......................... 2.20 Minneapolis, Minn....................................................... 2.25 New Haven, Conn....................................................... 2.25 New Orleans, La...........................................................*2.00 New York, N. Y ............................................................ s2.75 Omaha, Nebr............................................................... 2.15 Philadelphia, Pa............................................................42.50 Pittsburgh, Pa.............................................................. 2.25 Portland, Oreg............................................................. 2.20 Richmond, Va.............................................................. 1.87% St. Louis, Mo............................................................... 2.25 San Francisco, Calif................................................... 1.90 Seattle, Wash................................................................ 2.16% Springfield, Mass......................................................... 2.20 1 Home insulators, $1.75. 2 Home insulators, $1.62 ^ 3 35-hour workweek. 4 Home insulators, $1.45. Additional Information For additional information, write to the In ternational Association o f Heat and Frost In sulators and Asbestos Workers, Ninth Street and Mount Vernon Place, NW., Washington, D. C. Plumbers and Pipe Fitters Outlook Summary The outlook for plumbers and pipe fitters is excellent at present and, on a long-range basis, is very good. There has been a long-continued trend to greater emphasis on plumbing and other pipework, and this is likely to continue. Nature of Work Journeymen in the plumbing and pipe-fitting industry install, alter, and repair the piping systems (including fixtures and similar parts) for household and other water use, and for heating, steam power, refrigeration, fire sprinklers, industrial processing, and numer ous other purposes. This broad field has been divided among several trades, but a few years ago the international union representing all o f them adopted the policy of combining the entire pipe field into a single trade. The carrying out o f this policy in any particular locality is de cided by vote o f the members of the union’s locals there, and in many places (including many large cities) the craft distinctions are 80 observed by journeymen as fully now as in the past. The plumbing field takes in water supply and waste plus the fixtures themselves and their “ trimmings” for houses, for other buildings, and elsewhere (outdoor drinking fountains, for example). It includes many items for special uses, such as hospital plumbing fixtures, res taurant sinks, built-in dishwashers, commer cial and nonportable domestic washing ma chines, etc.; gas piping; the public water-supply lines under streets and elsewhere; and a variety o f infrequent installations (swimming pools, ornamental fountains, etc.). The general pipe-fitting field takes in hotwater and steam heating systems (including vapor and vacuum systems), high-pressure steam plants for power generation and for steam used otherwise (as for heating of ma terials in manufacturing operations), sprinkler systems for fire protection, refrigeration sys tems for processing and storage o f perishables and for air conditioning (but not the ventilat ing work connected with air conditioning), lines for compressed air and industrial gases, and piping for industrial processing. This last type of work is used most extensively in oil’ refineries, chemical plants, and food-processing plants, but occurs to some degree in many other industries. This is a field where adeptness in the use o f tools and in handling of materials, althpugh necessary, is less important than thorough knowledge. A truely skilled workman must be familiar with a wide variety o f materials and an extremely wide variety of fittings and specialties, including their particular uses, their limitations or disadvantages, and the proper methods of handling. He must know the operat ing principles for different kinds o f systems and the operating relationships between the different parts. He must be able to lay out the system so that it fits the building where it is being installed and be able to avoid unneces sary damage to other work in any cutting that is needed. For plumbing, he must know the State laws and city ordinances so that his work will pass inspection. For a major installation, there are separate piping drawings showing where all the pipes are to be placed, with sizes and the location of valves and other special items, thus giving a complete picture of the installation. At the other extreme there may be no more than a verbal statement of the fixtures wanted and their approximate locations. From such infor mation, plus measurement of the building, the journeyman or foreman decides where and how the pipes will go. Then the necessary pieces are cut to length and assembled with necessary fittings, valves, and other parts. At the end o f this “ roughing-in” stage, there is usually an inspection of plumbing by the city or State inspector, including a test under water pres sure. When carpentry, plastering, and the other trades are far enough advanced, the job is finished by installation of the plumbing fix tures with their “ trimmings” (faucets, drains, traps, etc.) or the corresponding parts o f the heating system (radiators, etc.). Examples of changes in the work within re cent years are the rapid adoption of copper pipe with brass fittings for plumbing, the very recent growth of panel (frequently known as radiant) hot-water heating, and, quite inter estingly, the use of copper pipe for some o f the panel-heating installations. The use of welding has grown rapidly since about 1930. Many others could be cited. Even the new kinds of pipe now used (including aluminum, stainless steel, rubber-lined steel, nickel alloy, plastic, copper, and brass) suggest the active develop ment of materials that has occurred. Such changes, combined with the exceedingly wide range in types of work included, give particular importance to over-all knowledge and an un derstanding of principles. There is at all times a considerable amount of alteration and improvement work in addi tion to new construction. This includes home modernization, store and office modernization, alterations and installation of new equipment in industrial plants, and preparation o f busi ness property for new occupants. Soda foun tains, restaurants, even dental offices, use equipment which must be connected to watersupply pipes and waste lines. Since these are usually not at the locations where the equip ment is to be placed, they must be extended. Repairs and replacements are more impor tant in plumbing than in many other types of work and help greatly in providing a sufficient volume of business in small localities. They are the mainstay o f many of the small plumbing establishments. Opportunities for the heating and industrial piping part of the work are more limited geo graphically than opportunities for plumbing. Steam and hot-water heating systems are naturally uncommon in the warmer parts of the country and in the north are most frequent in cities having many apartment buildings and nonresidential buildings. Industrial piping is greatest where the industrial operations in clude processing of fluids but is used to some degree in factories of many other types as well (for steam, compressed air, oil, other sub stances). Refrigeration and fire-sprinkler sys tems are installed in industrial and commercial buildings of many different types. Where Employed A person interested in becoming a journey man should have an interest in and the ability to master elementary physical science and be skillful at using his hands. He must learn to make clear working drawings, to read archi tectural and piping blueprints, and to take measurements for laying out his work. Average physical strength is needed, but no more than for several other trades. As in other building trades, at times it is necessary to work under inconvenient and uncomfortable conditions. Generally, the trade is learned through a 5year apprenticeship. The apprentice signs an agreement, commonly with a joint committee representing the union and the local employers, about training, related school instruction, and Most journeymen work in the construction industry, primarily on buildings but on other construction as well. Others work for munic ipal water departments, other utilities, and in shipbuilding. Commercial and industrial estab lishments also employ plumbers and pipe fit ters for maintenance work and alterations, and some companies in other industries employ them for force-account construction work. They are found in almost every locality; al though they are most numerous in large cities, opportunities have been increasingly good in small places because of rising standards, in vil lage and farm sanitation. Training and Qualifications 81 wages and nours. Under the usual program, all-round training is given on the job, and an apprentice is likely to be transferred to several employers in order to get experience in differ ent kinds of work. At least 144 hours of classroom work are given a year, including elementary mathe matics applicable to pipe work; physics, with special attention to liquids and gases, the ele ments of hydraulics, and heat; mechanical drawing; and theory, which includes materials, sanitation and elements of bacteriology, and piping systems. Also covered in school courses are piping drawing, shop work, and acetylene and electric welding. A new training course covering the entire piping field has been pre pared by the international union. In localities where apprenticeship is for the separate trades (plumbing, steam fitting, sprinkler fitting, re frigeration fitting) rather than for the entire plumbing and pipe-fitting field, the classroom training for any of these usually omits the ma terial dealing almost entirely with the other trades. It seems likely that in localities where the apprenticeship is for the entire pipe field, many of the apprentices on reaching journey men status will prefer to specialize in a par ticular type of work whenever such jobs are available. In some localities a journeyman’s license is required for plumbing work, obtainable after satisfactory completion of apprenticeship. A master’s license is very commonly required for those engaged in plumbing contracting or in self-employment on repairs and other small jobs done directly for property owners. Outlook Prospects for the next several years are ex cellent, and thereafter the outlook for those already in the trade will continue to be good. A larger than usual number of replacements will be needed during the next 5 to 10 years, to fill openings left by those who leave the trade because of death or retirement. A large part of the journeymen plumbers and pipe fitters are in the older groups, where drop-outs for these reasons are frequent. For a considerable number of years plumb ing and other pipe work have been increasing in importance in many types of building con 82 struction. This trend is almost certain to con tinue. It is encouraged by active development of new products and improved products car ried on by a large number of manufacturers. For houses and apartments, mere observa tion shows change in the general standards. Currently the high level of building cost has brought less complete plumbing installations in many houses than would have been used other wise, but this is a temporary departure from the trend; it is not a lowering of the standard regarded as desirable. In addition to the standard bathroom and kitchen fixtures, per manently connected appliances (especially washing machines and dishwashers) have be come popular enough to be regarded as a sig nificant part of the field. Heating is another field showing signs of expansion. For domestic heating, panel ( “ radi ant” ) hot-water installations have been acceted very rapidly. The excellent results ob tainable from a first-class installation seem likely to bring a noticeable increase in the use of hot-water heating. For large buildings meeting even moderately good standards, the heating installation is designed for the lowest annual cost (including fuel expense) rather than the lowest initial cost. This means a more elaborate installation than would otherwise be used and, because of improvements in the specialty products available, a more elaborate installation than would have been used some years ago. Industrial pipe work is far from a new field, but its importance has increased steadily and seems likely to increase further. Chemical plants and others dealing with fluids are the principal users, but it is used in industries of almost all types. Means for reducing the han dling of materials and supplies are emphasized in the design of modern factories, and piping is one of the important means of achieving that purpose. Internal transportation o f liquids through pipes rather than in portable con tainers contribute to good factory housekeep ing, with reduction of the accident hazard and in some cases reduction of the fire hazard as well. The trend toward greater use of refrigera tion equipment is apparent for cold storage, for air conditioning, for processing of foods and other commodities. Sprinkler work is un- likely to increase much in importance but will continue to be needed for protection of the inflammable contents of buildings. Many dis astrous fires have shown that there is no basis for the common belief that a fire cannot occur in a fire-resistive building. Fire-resistive con struction protects the building from structural damage by fire and provides no combustible material to contribute to a fire, but does not remove the fire hazard to the interior finishing materials or the contents, if these are readily combustible. A very few years ago a factory-made plumb ing assembly was brought out, consisting of a frame in which was mounted the basic pipe work for a house, as well as some other equip ment; this was arranged for ready attachment of covering panels and fixtures. Adoption was appreciable, but production and distribution were so greatly hindered by differences in the detailed requirements of local plumbing codes that active marketing has been discontinued, at least temporarily. When greater uniformity in plumbing codes is achieved, it is possible that a similar unit may be brought out by the original manufacturer and perhaps by other firms also. This would reduce site employment but is scarcely a cause for serious concern. Assemblies of this type by their nature are suited to specific parts of the market, rather than the entire market. For large housing projects, it is doubtful whether they offer a saving greater than that potentially possible through a highly efficient site operation. Modernization has been an important field. For domestic plumbing it means replacement of fixtures and often of supply pipes as well; in some cases rearrangement of fixtures; in other cases provision of an additional complete or partial bathroom. This work and also nonresidential modernization of plumbing will con tinue. Modernization of domestic steam or hotwater heating occurs in the case of extensive remodeling and sometimes for the replacement of obtrusive old-fashioned radiators; this latter has been stimulated by the development of baseboard radiators. Installation of automatic firing equipment and automatic controls is also important. Noneresidential heating moderni zation is always present to some degree, for the purpose of saving fuel by converting older systems to take advantage of improved steam specialties. Repair work is traditional for plumbing. Correction of leaks, stoppages, and other mis haps can seldom be postponed, and unless very simple, these jobs are beyond the capacity of most householders and occupants of business property. Repairs are also needed from time to time on heating systems, although less fre quently than for plumbing. Servicing of auto matic firing equipment and refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment has, however, be come an important scource of employment. W age Rates Minimum hourly wage rates for plumbers and steam fitters (pipe fitters) in effect on July 1, 1948, for a number of cities and their sur rounding areas are given below, according to the terms of collective bargaining agreements. Hourly rate Area Plumbers Atlanta, Ga............................ .............. $ 2.5 0 Baltimore, Md...................... ........... 2 .25 Birmingham, Ala................. ........... 2 .25 Boston, Mass......................... ........... 2 .30 Buffalo, N. Y ......................... .............. 2 .40 Chicago, 111............................ .............. 2 .35 Cincinnati, Ohio .................. .............. 2 .35 Cleveland, Ohio .................. .............. 2 .3 7 y2 Denver, Colo.......................... .............. 2 .24 Houston, Tex........................ .............. 2 .3 7 y2 Indianapolis, Ind............................. 2 .30 Jackson, Miss................................... 2 .00 Kansas City, Mo................... ........... 2 . 1 2 y2 Little Rock, Ark................... ........... 2 .00 Los Angeles, Calif............... ........... 2.50 Louisville, Ky................................... 2 .10 Milwaukee, Wis. ................. .......... 2.25 Minneapolis, Minn............... .............. 2 .25 New Haven, Conn............... .......... 2.25 New Orleans, La.................. .......... 2.25 New York, N. Y ................... .... ...... *3.00 Omaha, Nebr.......................... ............. 2.15 Philadelphia, Pa................... ............. 2.50 Pittsburgh, Pa...................... ............. 2 .50 Portland, Oreg...................... ............. 2 .3 7 y2 Richmond, Va........................ ............. 2.00 St. Louis, Mo........................ ............. 2.25 San Francisco, Calif........... ............. 2 .37 y2 Seattle, Wash........................ ............. 2.50 Springfield, Mass................... ............. 2 .20 Steam fitters $ 2.5 0 2 .25 2 .25 2 .30 2 .40 2 .35 2 .35 2 .3 7 y2 2 .24 2 .25 2 .30 2 .00 2 .1 2 % 2 .0 0 2 .20 2 .1 0 2 .25 2 .2 5 2 .25 2 .2 5 *2.75 2 .1 5 2 .5 0 2 .5 0 2 .3 7 % 2 .0 0 2 .25 2 .3 7 % 2 .5 0 2 .2 0 1 35-hour workweek. Although plumbing. work on new construc tion is seasonal, repair and maintenance work makes for more regular year-round employ ment than in most other building trades. Com mercial alterations and modernization are less seasonal than new construction. 83 Additional Information For information on where to apply for ap prenticeship in a given locality, write to the United Association o f Journeymen and Ap prentices of the Plumbing and Pipe-Fitting Industry, Ring Building, Eighteenth and M Streets, NW., Washington 6, D. C .; to the Heating, Piping, and Air Conditioning Con tractors National Association, 1250 Sixth Ave nue, New York 20, N. Y .; or to the National Association o f Master Plumbers, 1105 K Street, NW., Washington 5, D. C. Electricians Outlook Summary The prospects for this trade are good. There are likely to be continued openings for addi tional construction electricians for several years. Nature of Work Construction electricians install electric wir ing and related devices, lighting fixtures, and numerous types of electrical equipment; they make the electrical connections to electrical machinery, equipment, etc., and its control apparatus. On a large job there are drawings showing the various circuits and the approxi mate location of outlets, load centers, panel boards, etc., plus specifications describing the materials to be used. On small jobs the electric outlets may be indicated on the general draw ings, there may be a simple sketch, or there may be merely a verbal statement of what is wanted. Whether the job is large or small, the elec trician must follow the electrical laws of the State and, unless it is in a small community, the municipal electrical ordinances. For ex ample, under most codes he installs metal boxes wherever there is to be an outlet or switch. If a conduit system is used, the wiring is enclosed in metal pipes (or conduits) con necting the metal boxes. Frequently, instead of conduit systems, wires wrapped with a con tinuous strip of steel ( “ BX” ) or with a flame proof fabric are used, but the codes (laws and ordinances) specify that certain minimum re quirements must be met both in the material 84 and the way it is utilized. For a high grade building, the electrical installation is better than the minimum called for by the State or municipal electrical code. Unless there is an electrical drawing showing which outlets are to be on each circuit, the electrician arranges them according to his own judgment so that the loads will be properly distributed and no circuit will have a heavier load than is suit able for the gauge (diameter) of wire used. A somewhat different class o f construction work is heavy electrical installations at power plants, steel mills, and other establishments with unusually large electrical requirements. Such work is done mainly by journeymen with out family responsibilities, who move to suc cessive jobs in different localities. Other types of installations are described briefly in the paragraphs below on Outlook. Remodeling work provides a considerable part of total employment, as does also the installation of additional business or factory equipment in existing buildings. Commercial remodeling usually means substantial changes in the electrical system, especially in store modernization. Residential remodeling and modernization also affect the electric wiring. The installation or shifting of electrical equip ment in stores, restaurants, factories, etc., means extension of existing-circuits or instal lation of new circuits to provide the necessary current and avoid overloading the old circuits. Even the smallest portable items, such as drink mixers at soda fountains, require nearby out lets and, if these are not already in place, they must be provided. Not included among the construction elec tricians are stage and motion-picture electri cians, electrical equipment repairmen, line men, men working on telephone equipment, and many others working with electrical ma terials. Where Employed Construction electricians are principally employed along with the other building trades in the construction of residences, apartment buildings, stores, office buildings, and indus trial plants, and in remodeling work. Some, however, work for electric utility systems, city or Federal Government departments, or work in coal and other metal mines, manu facturing plants, and large buildings, where they install, change, and maintain wiring sys tems and electrical equipment. There are also various types of specialists, such as those who restrict their work to the construction and installation of electric signs. Employment is naturally greatest in densely populated areas, partly because of the large amount of commercial and industrial wiring. However, small cities, towns, villages, and rural areas are offering more new opportun ities than previously; at the end of June 1948 almost 70 percent of all farms had centralstation electric service. Training and Qualifications A 4-year apprenticeship or, in some cases, several years as electrician’s helper, is neces sary to learn the trade. Picking up the trade informally through employment as a helper was fairly common at one time but is much less prevalent nowadays. The union does not recognize helpers; they are, however, still em ployed in some cases on nonunion jobs. In many localities an electrician is required to have a journeyman’s license, for which he must pass an examination showing a wellrounded knowledge of the job and of State and local regulations. In most cities of any size and in many of the States, a man wishing to engage in electrical contracting must have a contractor’s license. Men who held ratings as electricians in the armed forces usually will not qualify as journeymen without further training, but their past experience may afford an opportunity to enter the trade as advanced apprentices. Outlook The outlook for additional workers is good, and at the present time there are about 19,000 apprentices, according to the Bureau o f Ap prenticeship records; probably a considerable number of these will be employed in industries other than construction. This is the newest of the large recognized trades, dealing with a new group of materials and a new type of w ork; the present stage has been reached in about two generations. Devel opment over these two generations has been rapid and almost continuous, standards have changed, and changes are occurring at the present time. Several of these reduce the time needed for specific operations, but separately and in combination they have helped to raise the general standards of electric wiring, have encouraged modernization of obsolete or over loaded wiring in old buildings, and have tended to increase the total volume of electricians’ employment. Flexibility and provision for unforeseeable future needs are of primary importance in nonresidential buildings of almost all types, and the standards of recent years make provi sion for this. For factories, this flexibility is obtained by use of “ bus duct” for power wir ing. Bus duct consists of lengths of metal conductors supported by insulators inside a long sheet metal box, with provision at fre quent intervals for easy, convenient connection of branch circuits, which can be added or changed at any time without change of the basic installation. In better grade office build ings, “ raceways” are installed instead of con duit for wiring; these are fairly large sheet metal passages with closely spaced provision for outlets, installed usually just beneath the floor surface but sometimes in the ceiling or the walls. These provide almost unlimited flex ibility for whatever demands may arise during the life of the building. Modernization of old wiring has been greatly aided by new insu lating materials which need not be so thick as those formerly used. They reduce the over all diameter of insulated wire, and thus make it possible to replace overloaded circuits in old buildings with heavier circuits, merely by replacing the wires in the old conduits. This has given great impetus to improvement o f inadequate wiring systems. The uses of electric current continue to increase. One illustration is the continuous increase in the use of electric ranges and water heaters. These are installed in old as well as new buildings and, in each case, require a special circuit. Permanently installed electric heating panels for individual rooms were put on the market recently. While these seem un likely to become common in the near future, they are significant in illustrating the increase in the range of current-using products avail able. Electrically charged dust collectors are 85 another fairly recent product adapting electric current to a new purpose. The employment out look is good for any trade in which real im provement in the products (as distinct from mere novelty or style change) proceeds rapidly, and electric work is one of the trades in which this condition is met most fully. Since most of the work is indoors, it is rela tively free from interruption by bad weather, although, of course, the volume of new work in progress varies seasonally. Alteration and modernization work are less seasonal, and help to smooth out annual employment. erhood of Electrical Workers of America, 1200 15th St., NW., Washington 5, D. C., or from the National Electrical Contractors Associa tion, Ring Building, 1200 18th St., NW., Wash ington 6, D. C. Sheet Metal Workers Outlook Summary The outlook for sheet metal workers is good; this has been an expanding trade, and its principal type of work is more prominent in building operations now than at any time in the past. Wage Rates Wage rates as of July 1, 1948, established through collective bargaining agreements for a number of cities and their surrounding areas are given in the table below. Area Hourly rate Atlanta, Ga....................................................................$2.00 Baltimore, Md.............................................................. 2.25 Birmingham, Ala........................................................ 2.25 Boston, Mass................................................................. 2.30 Buffalo, N. Y ................................................................ 2.36V2 Chicago, 111.................................................................... 2.35 Cincinnati, Ohio ......................................................... 2.37% Cleveland, Ohio ........................................................... 2.37% Denver, Colo.................................................................. 2.25 Houston, Tex................................................................ 2.37% Indianapolis, Ind.......................................................... 2.30 Jackson, Miss............................................................... 2.00 Kansas City, Mo......................................................... 2.15 Little Rock, Ark........................................................... 1.87% Los Angeles, Calif...................................................... 2.40 Louisville, Ky................................................................ 2.12% Milwaukee, Wis............................................................ 2.00 Minneapolis, Minn....................................................... 2.21 New Haven, Conn....................................................... 2.00 New Orleans, La......................................................... 2.00 New York, N. Y ........................................................... '2.50 Omaha, Nebr................................................................ 2.20 Philadelphia, Pa........................................................... 2.37% Pittsburgh, Pa.............................................................. 2.37% Portland, Oreg.............................................................. 2.00 Richmond, Va................................................................ 2.00 St. Louis, Mo................................................................ 2.25 San Francisco, Calif.................................................. 2.40 Seattle, Wash............................................................... 2.26% Springfield, Mass.......................................................... 2.20 1 30-hour workweek. Additional Information Additional information on apprenticeship may be obtained from the International Broth 86 Nature of Work Sheet metal workers fabricate and install a rather wide variety of building products made from thin metal sheets. The largest field is that of ventilating, with or without heating or air conditioning, but there are many addi tional kinds of work. This is a highly skilled trade, and should not be confused with semi skilled factory occupations in the routine pro duction of articles from sheets or strips of metal by stamping, die-forming or other repe titive methods. A ventilating system consists basically of a system of ducts for the supply of air and the removal of stale air throughout all or certain parts of a building, combined with a blower and other apparatus.12 It is usually but not always combined with a heating system, and frequently with the other apparatus (for cooling, filtering, humidifying and dehumidifying) needed for an air-conditioning system. Sheet metal workers make and install the ducts, the blower, and the other apparatus except that used for heating and cooling. They perform similar work on more restricted airmoving systems, such as for removal of fumes in factories or for collection of shavings or dust at woodworking machines and elsewhere. Hot-air heating systems (furnaces) are in stalled by sheet metal workers. While these are popular for detached houses, most installations are quite simple and the total volume of em ployment afforded is much less than that in 12 A quite different type of ventilating system uses an individual air inlet-blower-radiator combination for each room. These are much less common than duct-type systems; their principal use is in school buildings. ventilating work. The work consists mainly of assembling the furnace in place from fac tory-made parts, installing a blower and air filter if these are to be used, and installing ducts to the hot-air registers in the various rooms and to the return registers. This duct work is far simpler than that for a ventilating system, and a comparatively small range of sizes and shapes is sufficient in most cases. Hence, these are commonly bought ready-made by the contractor, although in other cases they are made in his shop. A recent development is panel-type hot-air heating in which the hot air ducts pass across and heat the ceiling, and the heated air does not enter the rooms. From an employment standpoint this new type of furnace heat is favorable, but of only moderate importance, because hot-air heating systems are a fairly small part of the trade’s total work. Sheet metal workers install metal roofing where this is used, and also metal siding. These usually come as large sheets, corrugated or else grooved for stiffening, and require no further processing beyond such cutting as is needed to fit the building. Sheet metal workers install roof gutters and (unless when soil pipe is used for the purpose) downspouts for drainage of rain water, in conjunction with all types of roofing. They make and install flashings (formed metal strips) at roof valleys, at chim neys, and elsewhere, to prevent seepage of rain or melted snow. They make and install sky lights. Altogether, these roof and exterior ma terials are fairly important as a source of employment. Since they are exposed to the weather, they are subject to deterioration and require repair or replacement from time to time. On expensive buildings, the gutters and downspouts are usually made in the contrac tor’s shop, but for ordinary buildings factorymade parts are frequently used. Stock design skylights, made in advance as a standard item, have become important for industrial and warehouse buildings. For the most part they are made by sheet metal workers rather than factory operatives. Factory-made doors, window sash, frames, partitions, etc., are commonly used in nonresidential buildings. Sheet metal workers frequently install these. They also install some types of concrete forms made of sheet metal, such as those for round columns and conical column heads, but these are a small part of the total work on concrete forms. Other minor fields are commercial signs and the like for theaters, stores, etc. Some contractors make ducts and duct fit tings at the building where they are to be installed, sending out the machines needed for the purpose. Others make them at a permanent shop from the drawings and measurements taken at the building. In either case, however, shop work is a basic part of the trade. Use o f standard factory-made ducts and fittings for a ventilating installation, comparable to stand ard parts frequently used for furnace installa tions, has been entirely impractical to date, and it is difficult to see how this condition can change. The reason is the almost unlimited variation in conditions to be met— dimensions of the building, rate of air movement wanted, space allowed for the ducts, etc. This variation means that each installation of any size must be a specially designed and custom-made job, if it is to fit the building and perform effi ciently. Where Employed Most sheet metal workers are employed in making and installing equipment for new buildings or for new installations in existing buildings. A very small number specialize in repair work. Apart from this work on build ings, sheet metal workers employed in small shops manufacture, often to special order, a variety of kitchen equipment, such as steam tables, dish racks, canopies, sinks, steel or copper kettles, and similar products, for hotels and restaurants. Another specialization is the coppersmith work in constructing vats and stills for breweries and distilleries and hand made fittings for marine work. But the num ber so employed is quite small. Sheet metal workers are also employed in a fairly wide range of manufacturing indus tries, though there are only a comparatively small number in each. Probably the largest number are employed in the machinery indus tries, particularly those making blowers, ex hausts, electrical generating and distributing equipment, food products machinery, and steam engines and turbines. Here they make and 87 assemble sheet-metal parts on an individual order basis— enclosures and parts for special machinery, industrial ovens, and a great many other items. This work requires the same skills, tools, and equipment as does sheet metal work for buildings, and is totally different from repetitive operations found in many factories, where one worker stamps out thousands of identical parts. During the war, the aircraft and shipbuilding industries employed large numbers of men in work with sheet metal. Many of them were trained only for quite spe cific operations, however, and in skill were not comparable to journeymen. Training and Qualifications An apprenticeship of 4 or sometimes 5 years is required, including a minimum of 144 hours per year of classroom instruction in pattern drafting, elementary mathematics, blueprint reading, estimating, basic principles of heating and ventilating, and related subjects. Workers with several years of experience as helpers sometimes become journeymen, or their equiv alent, without serving a formal apprenticeship. While it is necessary to acquire skill in the use of tools and to become adept at working from difficult positions, these qualities alone are not enough to make a person a thoroughly capable workman. This is a trade where rounded knowledge of the work being done and good elementary knowledge of the principles being followed are necessary, particularly for ventilating work. Some knowledge of the characteristics of air flow is necessary for a competent journeyman. While journeyman knowledge is much less technical than engineer ing knowledge, it requires thorough training and cannot be acquired casually. Even for fur nace work, corresponding knowledge is needed. For example, a journeyman should be able to estimate the heat loss from each room of a house and measure the stack temperature (temperature of the combustion gases near the bottom of the chimney) and know what it means regarding heating efficiency of the in stallation. Outlook Prospects for sheet metal workers in con struction are decidedly good. In addition, a 88 number of skilled all-round sheet metal work ers will be needed in the other industries men tioned above. For a number of years, both before and during the war, there were not enough apprentices in training. As a result, the present supply of skilled workers is con siderably below the expected demands, and many new workers must be trained, if these demands are to be met. The use of air conditioning in major build ings has been increasing, and further increase is very likely. It is used for improving the quality of product in manufacturing opera tions. While an installation is expensive and operating cost is substantial, there are many situations in which it brings an over-all saving rather than additional expense. For numerous kinds of factory operations, it improves the quality of the product and cuts down the per centage o f rejects and seconds; for office work and some kinds of factory activities, it in creases the efficiency of workers in hot weather. These advantages are being more widely recognized. Its effectiveness in attract ing and retaining customers in hot weather for retail establishments, restaurants, and amuse ment places is of course already well known. True air conditioning is not on the horizon as a common feature in ordinary houses, how ever, because of the initial cost; “ winter air conditioning,” “ air conditioning heat,” and similar expressions used for domestic heating systems mean merely a hot-air furnace with a blower and frequently with some sort of air filter and rudimentary humidifying appa ratus. Ventilating installations without air condi tioning may increase also, though already widely used. Other parts of the field are un likely to change enough for an important ef fect on total employment. Wage Rates Wage rates established by collective bargain ing agreements for a number of cities and their surrounding areas are given in the table below as of July 1, 1948. Area Hourly Tate Atlanta, Ga...................................................................$1.85 Baltimore, Md.............................................................. 2.25 Birmingham, Ala........................................................ 1.90 Boston, Mass................................................................ 2.15 Buffalo, N. Y ................................................................ 2.25 Chicago, 111.....................................................................— — Cincinnati, Ohio ......................................................... 2.12% Cleveland, Ohio........................................................... 2.25 Denver, Colo........ :....................................................... 2.00 Houston, Tex................................. .............................. 2.37% Indianapolis, Ind.......................................................... 2.12% Jackson, Miss................................................................ 1.60 Kansas City, Mo.......................................................... 2.30 Little Rock, Ark.......................................................... 1.50 Los Angeles, C a lif...................................................... 2.15 Louisville, Ky................................................................ 1.95 Milwaukee, Wis............................................................ 2.00 Minneapolis, Minn...................................................... 2.15 New Haven, Conn....................................................... 2.00 New Orleans, La.......................................................... 1.87% New York, N. Y ........................................................... *2.75 Omaha, Nebr................................................................ 1.87% Philadelphia, Pa.......................................................... 2.50 Pittsburgh, Pa.............................................................. 2.50 Portland, Oreg.............................................................. 1.95 Richmond, Va.............................................................. 1.87% St. Louis, Mo................................................................ 2.50 San Francisco, Calif................................................... 2.12% Seattle, Wash................................................................ 2.21% Springfield, Mass........................................................ 2.20 1 35-hour workweek. Additional Information For additional information about this trade, write to the Sheet Metal Workers’ Interna tional Association, Transportation Building, Washington 6, D. C., or to the Heating, Piping, and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association, 1250 6th Avenue, New York 20, N. Y. Elevator Constructors Outlook Summary The outlook for elevator constructors is, and should continue to be, very good. This is a small trade, however, and so the number of openings for additional workers in a city at any time will be small. Because of mainte nance and modernization work, seasonal regu larity of employment is better than for almost all of the other trades. Nature of Work Elevator work is essentially the assembly in place and adjustment of machines for vertical transportation of passengers and freight, using factory-made subassemblies and parts. These are principally elevators, but include small units for light freight service (dumb waiters), moving stairways, and a number of specialized devices which are useful for specific purposes but not common enough to be im portant as a source of employment. Ordinarily all real fabrication is done at the elevator company’s factory, or (in the case o f some of the smaller companies) at factories from which it buys parts, or at which it has custom shop work performed. The entire installation is treated as a re lated whole and is not divided among several trades on the basis of the materials from which the various parts are made. An elevator job starts with the shaft opening, usually with all adjoining shafts enclosed by a surrounding partition. The work is done by teams, each consisting of an elevator constructor and a helper. They first install the guide rails for the car and the counterweight. They install the car frame and platform, the counterweight, the machine itself, and the control apparatus, and connect the car frame to the counterweight with cables (wire ropes) which pass over the sheaves at the top o f the shaft. Other parts of the installation are the cab body and roof, the cab door, and the control wiring. If there is mechanical operation of doors, the operators and control apparatus are put in by the eleva tor constructors. The job ends with careful adjustment and testing. A moving stairway installation is entirely different in the type of materials and the manner of assembly but is the same in being handled as a whole by a single group of workers. Maintenance and repair work is important. This consists o f thorough inspection, periodical replacement of cables, adjustment of worn parts (brake surfaces, contact surfaces in the control apparatus), and replacement o f worn parts as necessary. Commonly, it includes pe riodical lubrication and adjustment. Modernization of elevator installations has also been important for a number of years, because of the rapid rate of improvement. This is quite similar to a partial new installation, in many cases using the old rails, car frame, platform, and counterweight, but replacing almost everything else. 89 Where Employed Elevator constructors are employed almost entirely in the construction industry, mainly by elevator contractors whose principal busi ness is new installations and modernization. For the most part these firms operate nation ally or regionally, but a number of them are active within smaller territories. Some work ers are employed by small local contractors specializing in maintenance and repair, and in some cases doing an occasional new job. A small amount of maintenance and repair is done on essentially a self-employment basis. There is also a certain amount of employment by city building departments and similar or ganizations as elevator inspector. Forceaccount employment for maintenance is very slight; the work is so specialized that few property owners find it economical to employ a journeyman regularly. Training and Qualifications While this is unquestionably one of the more highly skilled trades, training is comparatively informal and is obtained through employment as a helper for a number of years. Among the principal requirements for a young man wish ing to enter the field are mechanical aptitude and an interest in machinery. Assignments at first are to simple jobs which can be done with out experience and to work done directly with the journeyman. It is necessary to acquire fairly extensive knowledge during this period as a helper— detailed knowledge of the many different kinds of circuits used in present-day and old instal lations, the many different kinds of mechanical arrangements that have been used, the proper sequence of actions in making adjustments, interpretation of symptoms of faulty adjust ment, indications of needed replacements in the parts most subject to wear, and many other subjects. In addition, of course, it is necessary to become adept in the use of tools and in the particular operations involved. Outlook The outlook for elevator constructors is very good and seems likely to remain so. This is probably an expanding trade but from its 90 highly specialized character will never be able to take any large number of entrants at one time. Standards of elevator service have been ris ing steadily, largely as a result of the note worthy improvements made over a period of years by the large companies and by some of the other companies also. Concentrated atten tion has been given to elevators from the standpoint of traffic flow. Architects and prop erty owners recognize that under many condi tions an installation embodying recent im provements is economical over the life of a new building, even though the initial cost is greater than for a simpler installation. These improve ments tend to increase employment in three respects. On the average, new installations are more highly developed (in a sense, more elab orate) than was the case some years ago, re quiring more work for installation and initial adjustment; the improvements over the eleva tors in sound buildings constructed 30 years ago or more (and in many sound buildings constructed more recently) are so great that modernization is greatly encouraged, to bring the buildings up to current standards and in some cases to bring operating economy as w ell; and the maintenance needed is obviously greater for an installation with automatic door operations, automatic leveling at the floors, etc., than in older installations without such features. The market for moving stairways has been increasing also; their value in handling very heavy passenger movement of a few stories without congestion and their low operating cost have been recognized by property owners and architects as offsetting their fairly high initial cost. The early public attitude of doubt about the passengers’ safety, although ground less, was somewhat widespread. This has been succeeded by appreciation of their convenience, so that in many types of buildings they are expected. A very large number have been in stalled within recent years in old buildings— department stores, railroad stations, other buildings. The two largest manufacturers have brought out less expensive models suited to a fairly wide range of conditions, although not to all conditions for which the older models can be used, and another firm has brought out a fairly new line intended for a lower-price market. These are likely to widen the field of use. The trade of elevator constructor is urban but is not confined to the largest cities. One of the elevator companies has offices in about 250 cities, some of which had a 1940 population well below 50,000, and a few o f which were below 25,000. Some of the moderately large re gional companies also have branch offices, and there are many small local firms for mainte nance and repair in cities o f moderate size. The work is almost entirely indoors, and in most cases a particular job continues steadily over a period of at least a few weeks. It is not subject to weather interruptions, and in termittent lost time while other trades perform related work is not a serious matter. Modern ization, repairs, and maintenance smooth out seasonal irregularity of employment very greatly. There are probably a few opportuni ties for self-employment and for establishment of small contracting businesses in maintenance and repair work. Establishment of a contract ing business primarily for new work cannot be termed impossible for a journeyman and has been done successfully in the past— in one case with the most conspicuous success. Never theless, the capital requirements and other considerations make this one of the decidedly difficult contracting fields to enter. Wage Rates Below are wage rates for elevator construc tors and for elevator constructors’ helpers in effect on July 1, 1948, for a number of cities and their surrounding areas, as established by collective bargaining agreements. Hourly rate Elevator con structors Area Atlanta, Ga......................... .............. $2.00 Baltimore, Md.................... .............. 2.18 Birmingham, Ala............................. 2.03 Boston, Mass...................... .............. 2.17 Buffalo, N. Y ................................... 2.41% Chicago, 111......................... .............. 2.38 Cincinnati, Ohio ............. .............. 2.39 Cleveland, Ohio ............... .............. 2.37 Mi Denver, Colo..................................... 2.22 Houston, Tex...................... .............. 2.17% Indianapolis, Ind............... .............. 2 .3 3 % Little Rock, Ark................ .............. 1.87% Los Angeles, Calif............ .............. 2.25 Louisville, Ky.................... .............. 2.16% Elevator con structors’ helpers $1.40 1.53 1.42 1.52 1.69 1.66% 1.67 1.66 1.50 1.52 1.63% 1.31% 1.57 1.51% Hourly rate Area Elevator con structors Wis................... ............... 2 .15 Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Minn.............................. New Haven, Conn.............. ............... New Orleans, La................ ............... New York, N. Y ................. ................ Omaha, Nebr........................................ Philadelphia, Pa.................. ............... Pittsburgh, Pa.................... ............ Portland, Oreg.................... ............ Richmond, Va...................... ............ St. Louis, Mo...................... ............ San Francisco, Calif......... ............... Seattle, Wash....................... ............. Springfield, Mass................ ............ Electric con structors* helpers 1 .5 0 % 2 .21 1.55 2 .41 1.69 2 .0 0 1.40 2 .75 2 .0 3 % 2 .18 1.53 2 .58 1.81 2 .5 6 % 1 .7 9 % 2 .2 4 % 1.59 2 .10 1.47 2 .3 0 2 .3 7 2 .3 2 2.25 1.61 — 1 .6 2 % 1.59 In considering the helpers’ rates, it must be kept in mind that they are in a sense informal apprentices, with the expectation that in time they will advance to journeyman status. Additional Information For additional information, or the address of the nearest union local, write to the Inter national Union of Elevator Constructors, 12 South Twelfth Street, Philadelphia 7, Pa. Building Laborers and Hod Carriers Outlook Summary The outlook for laborers in building con struction is fairly good; in other types of construction their outlook is better, and these are the types likely to be best sustained, or even expanded, during a reduction in private building construction •and general economic activity. The outlook on the whole seems better than that of a few of the skilled trades but not as good as that of the others. In building construction particularly and to a smaller de gree in other construction, laborers’ employ ment has been reduced by developments in machinery and methods. There are some op portunities, however, for advancement to classes of work involving a considerable de gree of skill and having higher wage rates and better employment prospects. The outlook for hod carriers (bricklayers’ tenders and plasterers’ tenders) is probably about equal in each case to that of the trade which they serve. Nature of Work Building laborers and corresponding labor ers on other types of construction (highways, 91 sewer and water projects, engineering con struction, etc.) do work which requires no formal training. Laborers’ work is commonly known as unskilled, but this term can be mis leading. The work covers a wide range in its requirements; in most of the operations exper ience is valuable, in some of them it is neces sary, and experienced laborers have a large fund of knowledge of methods and working conditions. One type of work is hand excavating, for footings, small trenches, and other places where a machine cannot be used or is not economical. This work is a good illustration of the proficiency gained by experience. Any body can dig a hole for a footing, but without experience he will have serious difficulty in preventing excess size and in getting a firm and reasonably level bottom. This is not skilled work; neither is it work which can be done efficiently by a strong but completely inex perienced person. Other work is hand backfill ing and grading, and conveying of materials by carrying or by wheelbarrow, handcart, etc. Laborers move the smaller units of machinery and equipment. They set bracing in place to prevent cave-in of trenches, and drive sheet piling at the sides of excavations, unless a power pile driver is used. Where concrete is mixed at the job, they charge the mixer with ingredients, and in any case place the concrete, spread it out, and spade it to prevent air pockets. They do the general cleaning up and removal of rubbish at successive stages o f the job. In alteration and modernization jobs they tear out the old work and then perform the operations that they would on a new building. In nonbuilding construction laborers do comparable work, and usually form a much larger part of the crew than in most building projects. In highway work and also in heavy engineering work, there are numerous jobs generally similar to those done in building, although not exactly the same. A few examples in concrete highway paving are handling and placing the side forms which also act as rails for the strike-off machine and finishing ma chine; setting up and moving hose lines to supply the mixer with water; covering the new pavement to prevent excessive drying dur ing the curing period. A fairly large volume of employment is cutting through city pave 92 ments for underground utility work, excavat ing for whatever is to be done, backfilling and tamping, and replacing the pavement; there is also extensive employment in track mainte nance for streetcars, where these are used. On the whole, individual jobs last longer than in building construction. The work of masons’ tenders and plasterers’ tenders has already been mentioned in the sections on bricklayers and plasterers. These men serve the journeymen of their respective trades, supplying them with materials, setting up and moving portable scaffolding for them, and providing the other services needed for performance of the journeymen’s work. These duties require familiarity with the work of the journeyman, limited knowledge of the ma terials used, alertness, and some degree of judgment. A number of other types of work are done also, including demolition of ordinary build ings and many other structures, excavation through rock, application of “ gunite” (a ce ment-sand mixture sprayed into place by com pressed air), and all operations carried out under compressed air. These last occur mainly in construction of tunnels and caisson founda tions. These special jobs are almost always regarded as quite distinct from the work of building laborers, require specific on-the-job experience, and carry higher pay rates. The men working under compressed air must pass quite rigid physical examination. They do all the work back of the air lock, including oper ations which would be done by journeymen if located elsewhere; some of these men, such as those doing blasting, have very serious respon sibilities. Where Employed Laborers and tenders are employed primar ily in the construction industry but are also employed in many other industries for forceaccount construction and maintenance. Large numbers are hired by public bodies (public works departments, highway departments, etc.) and by public utility companies. Those in special fields are employed almost exclusive ly by contractors specializing in particular types of work— demolition, tunnel work, etc. Factory laborers are usually regarded as quite distinct from building laborers. Training and Qualifications Training for these occupations is obtained on the job. Laborers enter the construction industry by getting a job, plus obtaining mem bership in the union if they are working on union projects. Contractors naturally prefer experienced workers, and this first job is usu ally on the simplest type of work. Experience as a laborer is the usual background for brick layers’ and plasters’ tenders and for men in other special fields. New workers for jobs done under compressed air (tunnels, caisson foun dations, etc.) are ordinarily chosen from men having experience in above-ground employ ment at similar projects. Outlook In considering the outlook, the range of work done and the range o f individual abilities must be kept in mind. Experienced men are proficient in a wide range of operations, know construction practices, and understand condi tions that they encounter, such as the stability o f types of earth they encounter in hand ex cavating. Such men are, of course, employed more steadily than those with little experience. However, the field of work has been reduced by mechanization, and this process is still go ing on. Unless when there is strong, effective union organization, the labor force is subject to ex pansion during an employment drop in other industries. While not equal to experienced building laborers, these potential workers con stitute an employment threat because there are some jobs that they can do well, and some others for which they can obtain the necessaryexperience within a fairly short time. Hence wage rates for nonunion laborers can drop sharply and rapidly during a period of general unemployment. There is a considerable amount of lost time because much of the work is outdoors, where it is interrupted by bad weather, and because o f the seasonal nature o f many kinds of con struction. There are numerous long jobs for experienced, capable laborers, but there are also many brief jobs. Not uncommonly men are hired for a few days or even a few hours, for pouring of a concrete slab or some other peak requiring more men than the regular crew. Because of the importance of physical strength in many operations, the employment situation is likely to be less favorable for lab orers than for journeymen as they become older. There are, however, a fair number of steady jobs for elderly laborers whose main employment assets are dependability, good judgment, knowledge of construction opera tions, and adeptness at the types of work for which experience is most important. An extreme illustration of reduced employ ment through mechanization is given by the mixing and placing of concrete. Although mix ers had been available for a number of years, concrete was often mixed by hand until about 40 years ago. This work was done by laborers. Since then, hand mixing has decreased greatly in extent and now is seldom used except for very small quantities. When mixers were used, the laborers charged these, measuring the sand and gravel into wheelbarrows and emptying these into the drum or into a loading skip; the work of mixing had been abolished. Then came overhead bins for storage and measurement of aggregates, used on large jobs, and most of the work of charging the mixer on such jobs had been abolished. Then came ready-mixed concrete, and the entire set of mixing opera tions had been abolished. The mixed concrete was transported in wheelbarrows at first, but on jobs of moderate size these were replaced at an early date by buggies (two-wheeled carts) which carried much more and cut down the work involved. Until fairly recently, concrete above ground level for buildings was hoisted in a tower and emptied into a hopper, from which it was wheeled to the places wanted. This hopper was at one side of the building. Now this has been supplanted in many cases by hoisting in a bottom-dump bucket operated by a crane, and when it is at the proper height swung to a location over the floor. This cuts down even the wheeling needed, leaving main ly depositing the concrete, spreading it, and spading it. Employment of bricklayers’ tenders and plasterers’ tenders at any job bears a fairly regular relationship to that of bricklayers or plasterers and does not have the brief peak of many kinds of laboring work. Their types 93 of work and the conditions under which it is done make it much less suitable for further mechanization. It is customary practice for tenders to be transferred from one building to the next along with the journeymen. The situation for laborers in nonbuilding work (paving and most types o f heavy construction) is also better than that of laborers on build ings. Experience as a laborer is the customary background for tenders and for those in special fields such as caisson and tunnel workers. While not a preparation for any of the skilled trades, it may lead to an opportunity for ap prenticeship. Cases are known in which con tractors have operated semiformal training programs, hiring inexperienced young men as laborers, advancing them to helpers, and ulti mately advancing them to journeymen. Wage Rates Below are wage rates for building laborers, bricklayers’ tenders, and plasterers’ tenders established by collective bargaining agree ments, and in effect on July 1, 1948, in a num ber of cities and their surrounding areas. Area Buildinglaborers Atlanta, Ga.................. ....... $0.90 Baltimore, Md............. ....... 1.25 Birmingham, Ala........ ...............95 Boston, Mass............... ....... 1.55 Buffalo, N. Y .............. ....... 1.65 Chicago, 111................... ....... 1.70 Cincinnati, Ohio ....... ....... 1.46 Cleveland, Ohio ......... ....... 1.72% Denver, Colo................ ....... 1.40 94 Hourly rate Brick layers* Plasterers* tenders tenders $1.00 1.35 .95 1.55 1.65 1.70 1.66 1.72% 1.75 $1.00 1.35 1.00 1.70 1.75 1.82 y2 1.66 1.72% 1.75 Hourly rate Brick Building layers* Area laborers tenders Houston, Tex.................... .... 1 .0 7 % 1 .2 7 % Indianapolis, Ind............. ... 1.371/2 1 .5 7 % Jackson, Miss................... ... .80 .90 Kansas City, Mo............. ... 1 .4 7 % Little Rock, Ark.......................... 80 Los Angeles, Calif......... ... 1 .4 8 % Louisville, Ky.................. ... 1.25 Milwaukee, Wis............... ... 1.55 Minneapolis, Minn........... ... 1.45 New Haven, Conn........... ... 1.55 New Orleans, La............ .......... 921/2 New York, N. Y ............. .... *1.95 Omaha, Nebr................... .... 1.20 Philadelphia, Pa............. ... 1.25 Pittsburgh, Pa. ............. .... 1.50 Portland, Oreg..................... 1 .5 2 % Richmond, Va............................ 90 St. Louis, Mo................... .... 1.50 San Francisco, Calif...... .... 1 .5 2 % Seattle, Wash................. .... 1 .6 6 % Springfield, Mass........... .... 1.25 1 .65 Plasterers* tenders 1 .2 7 % 1 .5 7 % .90 1.65 1.25 1.75 2 .2 0 1 .50 1 .50 1.65 1 .8 2 % 1.55 1.95 1.55 1.55 1 .0 2 % *1.95 1.20 1 .1 2 % 22 .1 0 1 .3 2 % 1.25 1 .7 7 % 1.75 1 .75 1 .7 7 % 1.15 1 .7 7 % — 1.80 2 .00 2 .25 32 .1 0 1 .9 1 % 1.50 1 .9 1 % 1.50 1 35-hour workweek. 2 30-hour workweek; $2.40 in Brooklyn. 8 30-hour workweek. Rates for those doing special types of work are higher in most localities, and for the most part these men are recognized as separate occupational groups. The higher rates common for work under compressed air are a reflection of the exacting physical requirements, the dis comforts, and the occupational hazards o f such work. Additional Information For additional information, write to the In ternational Hod Carriers’ , Building and Com mon Laborers’ Union of America, 821 F if teenth Street NW., Washington 5, D. C. PART III TH E GEOGRAPHICAL D ISTRIBUTION OF CONSTRUCTION EM PLOYM ENT It has already been pointed out that total construction employment can be predicted only in relationship to over-all business activity. Prospective employment in construction is even more uncertain for any given locality than for the country as a whole. First of all, the geographical distribution of construction operations is governed by demand on the part of owners1 rather than by fixed plant of the construction industry. The bulk of the industry’s plant and equipment is portable, used at the job, and is at contractors’ ware houses or yards only when not in use. All com mon kinds of construction machinery are widely distributed throughout the country and uncom mon specialized machines are shipped several hundred miles between jobs when necessary. Shop equipment of the special trade contractors remains in their shops, but the products can be and are shipped as far as is necessary. In the case of shop fabrications for which only a few contractors are prepared (because the work is unusually large, or in a highly specialized field, or requires technical or artistic services which only a few leading firms can provide) these contractors operate over a very wide area, fre quently shipping their shop-made materials to jobs as much as 500 to 1,000 miles away. For a comparatively small area it is possible to state what past construction has been, what the current construction rate is, and what the trend for such areas in the same general part of the country seems to be. It is not possible to make a forecast for such an area on any other basis than guessing, because of the great im portance of large individual projects. Within fairly recent years a building project was car ried out in New York City for quite unpre dictable reasons, large enough to have marked influence on total construction employment in 1 This demand includes the expected sales or rental demand for the product o f builders, as well as the known demand o f property owners who authorize contractors to proceed with construction. the entire city. At about the same time there was a similar case in Chicago, entirely unre lated to the New York project. The effect of outstanding individual projects is, of course, proportionately much greater in smaller places. In contrast, there have been announcements of quite definite and exceedingly large building projects for a number of the leading cities, made by financially responsible operators with a background of notable success in less ambi tious undertakings, which have either gone ahead on a far smaller scale than announced or been temporarily abandoned with slight ap parent likelihood of revival. Almost without exception individual projects are unpredictable. Expansion plans of indus trial and commercial establishments and plans for replacement of obsolete buildings are highly elastic, and final decisions are seldom made until shortly before the awarding of contracts. This is well illustrated by the action of a na tionally known manufacturing firm having plants in many parts of the country, which some years ago undertook an expansion program. It contemplated construction of an unusually large building at its home plant, proceeding to the stage of having detailed architectural and engineering drawings prepared and of receiv ing contractors’ bids. Then it changed its pro gram drastically, abandoned this project, modernized a plant several hundred miles away, bought existing plants in distant parts of the country, and remodeled them extensively to fit its own standards of plant lay-out and facilities. While extreme, this instance indicates that expansion of an industry or an individual firm does not necessarily mean construction at a given place. Technical developments in industrial proc esses or in the use of basic materials can have great influence on construction, in part directly through bringing about construction of appro 95 priate industrial facilities, and in larger part indirectly through the economic stimulation of large areas. The rayon industry is one example. Another is the process whereby satisfactory newsprint and other paper can be made from fast-growing types of pine trees in the South. The direct construction and the general stimu lating effect resulting from this treatment for wood pulp are still in process and seem likely to continue for several years. Developments with long-range importance to the geographical distribution of industrial ac tivity and,'hence, of population and construc tion, were announced in late summer of 1948 by the steel industry. The principal of these is a new method in which molten steel is cast directly from the furnace intc& semifinished shapes, ready for the later rolling and finishing stages; the earlier stages of casting the steel into ingots and reducing these to semifinished shapes are omitted. This eliminates need for some of the heaviest and most expensive equip ment and cuts down sharply the investment needed for a steelmaking plant. Industry sources think it likely that over a period of years new plants using this process will be built in several parts of the country distant from the leading steel centers. If so, in each case in dustrial and other developments will be stimu lated over an extensive area, urban population Will increase, and construction activity of al most all types will be accelerated. Conserva tion and development programs likewise have a stimulating effect through increasing the area of land suitable for farming and increasing the extent of industrial development. The increase in construction employment for local journey men may be even greater following completion of a conservation project than during its exe cution. An indication of the sometimes erratic dis tribution of construction may be seen from summaries of urban building activity. A sum mary of the leading places in all construction and in each of several types of 1947 was pre pared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics on the basis of building permits issued and Federal contracts awarded during the year. Eight cities each had a total permit valuation of 50 mil lion dollars or more. As might be expected, these included all 5 cities with 1940 population of 1,000,000 or more; but there were not any S6 of the 9 cities with population of 500,000 up to a million, there were 2 of the 23 with popula tion of 250,000 up to 500,000, and 1 of the 55 with population of 100,000 up to 250,000. This group of leading cities varies from year to year, and in some years does not include even all 5 of the million-or-over cities. For individual types of building, some of the leading places in 1947 are quite surprising. The sixth place in rank for the entire country for the construction of factories and workshops was an unincorporated urban township in New Jersey with 1940 population under 20,000. The third city in rank for office and bank buildings and also the second in rank for public buildings was an inland city in northern Florida of about 16,000 population. Two of the seven leading cities for institutional buildings had 1940 pop ulations of 50,000 up to 100,000, and a third was below 25,000. Obviously all of these small places were in positions of leadership because of a very few remarkably large projects— in most cases, a single project. Such construction is occurring constantly in small places but infrequently in any one place. A single modern hotel is ordi narily all that the market will support in a city of 10,000 to 25,000; once built, it will probably not be replaced for at least 50 years, and a competing hotel is unlikely to be built until advances in design, materials, and equipment have made the existing hotel at least partly ob solete— a matter of decades rather than years. The same is true of other major buildings. This section deals mainly with the general construction prospects for each of the country’s geographic divisions2, with separate material on individual States where these differ substanti ally from the remainder of the regions in char acteristics affecting the construction outlook. For each geographic division there is a very brief statement of its economic background, its recent construction and population trend, and an evaluation of its construction prospects. Re gional forecasts of construction expenditures or construction employment are not offered; nu merical forecasts on a national basis more than 2 Geographic divisions are regions established by the Bureau of the Census, each consisting o f a number of adjoining States. There are numerous other systems of regional classification, each having definite 'advantages from the standpoint of one or more specific in dustries, but the geographic divisions are the most satisfactory for an over-all consideration. a year in advance are regarded as exceedingly tentative by all responsible construction econo mists and statisticians, and from their nature regional forecasts are subject to much greater uncertainty than are national forecasts. Instead, the intention is to present an evaluation of the relative positions in economic development of each of the geographic divisions, the changing status of the divisions, and the conditions by which construction activity within each seems likely to be influenced most strongly. The comment that a particular division has reached a stage of economic maturity and is likely to have a smaller part of national con struction expenditures than in the past means only what it says, and not that construction activity has been almost completed in this part of the country. Construction operations mea sured in dollar value or in physical terms may actually increase, but the increase will be less rapid than in parts of the country which are in a stage of rapid industrial growth. There will be much less need for housing of additional families or for provision of additional indus trial and commercial plants than in rapidly growing parts of the country. There can, how ever, be an exceedingly active market for addi tional housing and improved housing for a relatively stable population, for new industrial facilities to replace older plants which have be come obsolete, for plants to produce new types of products, and for buildings in the nonprofit category (public buildings, hospitals, churches, others) for which ordinarily the standards are highest in mature localities. On the whole, construction employment with in any geographic division is concentrated in and around its larger cities— particularly within its metropolitan districts.3 This does not neces sarily mean that employment prospects are best in such localities, because construction workers are similarly concentrated within them. Where one lives and works is a matter of preference, which can be exercised more freely by construc tion workers than by workers in most other 3 Metropolitan districts are areas defined by the Bureau o f the Census, each consisting o f a central city having 1940 population o f 50,000 or over (in some cases, two or more nearby cities of such population) plus the surrounding places extending outward as far as population density is 150 per square miles or over. They are es sentially tpols for the study o f population, employment, markets, etc., and are not units o f local government. It is reasonably accurate to regard them as containing that part o f the total population which is influenced substantially by the environment o f a large or moder ately large city. fields. There are opportunities in comparatively small cities and in villages. A person preferring living conditions in a large metropolitan center should certainly choose such a locality, but it would be a serious mistake for a young journey man who prefers the particular advantages of a city of 5,000 or a village of 1,000, to attempt to migrate to one of the larger cities just be cause more members of his trade are employed there. He should keep in mind that there are also more members of his trade available for employment in such a city. The very great im provement in rural and, particularly, farm housing conditions, the extension of rural elec trification, the startling increases since 1940 in farm plumbing, mean that there has been an exceedingly active market for the services o f skilled construction workers in small localities. It can be expected confidently that this will continue, unless there should be a serious drop in farm income. Members of the less common trades must, of course, live within commuting distance of a city large enough to have a con tractor in their field. The section on each geographic division is accompanied by a table giving an estimate of expenditures in 1939 and also in 1947 for total construction, for private residential building (nonfarm ), for private nonresidential building (nonfarm), and for total publicly financed con struction, for the geographic division and for each State. It also shows these expenditure figures as a percentage of the corresponding national total. The source of these estimates is the pamphlet “ State Distribution of Construc tion Activity, 1939-47,” published by the Con struction Division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, U. S. Department of Commerce, as a statistical supplement to the June 1948 issue of its monthly publication “ Con struction and Construction Materials.” 4 These tables are in terms of dollar expendi tures in each of the respective years, without adjustment for the increase in construction costs over the period. Such adjustment would be highly desirable but cannot be made because there are no satisfactory regional or State cost indexes for most of the important types of con 4 Estimates o f expenditures by State for 1948 are only partially available; because o f curtailment in the collection of field data, in formation was insufficient for individual estimates of 1948 expendi tures for private residential building (and hence for total construc tion) for 25 o f the 48 States. 97 struction. The generally accepted indexes of construction costs, both national and local, are suited to their intended purposes but not to the adjustment of State construction activity. Expenditure increases from 1939 to 1947 as shown in the tables do not mean a correspond ing increase in the physical volume of construc tion. This is not a serious defect for the com parisons which are made, however, because these are on two bases for which unadjusted figures are reasonably satisfactory: (1) Geo graphic divisions or State expenditures as a percentage of the national total, and (2) per centage increase in geographic division or State expenditures as compared to percentage in crease in national expenditures. It is recognized that estimates of construc tion expenditures of the various States are, by their nature, less reliable than for the United States as a whole. It is also recognized that comparison between two individual years has serious shortcomings and that an apparent trend indicated by such comparison cannot be extended into the future by mere mechanical computation. These estimates are, however, quite the best available and are presented along with other material as an indication of the relative importance of the different parts of the country with respect to construction and of the effect of some of the economic forces men tioned in the text. N EW ENGLAND STATES Summary Employment prospects in construction are fairly good, although less in proportion to popu lation than in newer parts of the country. Activity will probably be greatest in the dur able-goods area (most of Connecticut, western Massachusetts), lower but more stable in the remainder of southern New England, and com paratively small in the three northern States (Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont). Background There are six New England States— Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Con necticut, and Rhode Island. Although the region is commonly referred to as a single homogenous unit, actually the northern States (Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont) follow an economic pattern quite different from that of the three States to the south. The northern States are predominantly agricultural: Lumbering, farm ing, and vacation resorts are the principal in dustries. In contrast, Massachusetts, Connecti cut, and Rhode Island are highly industrialized, with about 40 percent of the labor force en gaged in manufacturing. New England is one of the most highly ur banized sections of the United States. Close to 70 percent of the population is concentrated in metropolitan districts, as compared with 48 percent for the Nation as a whole. The indus trial States are by far the most populous. Mas 98 sachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island, with only 22 percent of the total land area in the region, have approximately 80 percent of the population. All of the metropolitan districts in the region except Portland, Maine, and Man chester, New Hampshire, are located in the industrial States, and Manchester, near the Massachusetts border, may be regarded as the northern tip of industrial New England. Industrial New England may be broken down into two main areas. In the eastern part— from Manchester, New Hampshire, down to Provi dence, Fall River, and New Bedford — soft goods industries predominate. Boston, Massa chusetts— the largest New England city— is an important seaport and a wholesale and retail distribution center. Although manufacturing in and around Boston is quite diversified, the emphasis is on soft goods. Other areas in this section of New England— Fall River-New Bed ford, Providence-Lowell-Haverhill, and Wor cester — are textile and shoe manufacturing centers. In the western part of industrial New Eng land, manufacturing is concentrated on metal products, metal machinery, and other heavy goods. This area extends from Springfield, Massachusetts, southward to New Haven, Bridgeport, and Waterbury, Connecticut. New England at one time was the center of wealth and industry for. the entire Nation. But many years ago, as new areas in other sections of the country were developed, this region ceased to be dominant in population, income, and industry, and New England’s relative im portance has declined gradually. Although the region has continued to grow all along, newer industrial areas— particularly in the South and West — have been growing at a faster rate. Some years ago a considerable part of the re gion’s two most important industries— textiles and shoes — moved to other sections of the country, and the gap has been filled only par tially. Moreover, this migration may not yet be completed. However, the region has been gaining in heavy goods industries while losing soft goods. The metal manufacturing industry, for instance, which has made considerable headway since 1939, has proved to be a very substantial replacement for the drop in con sumer goods industries. Postwar Construction In 1947, new construction expenditures in the New England States amounted to approxi mately 702 million dollars. The three indus trial States accounted for 85 percent of the total regional bill— Massachusetts alone for one-half. New construction in the three rural States combined was valued at only 104 million dollars, and the State of Maine accounted for almost half of this sum. A little over one-third of the total regional construction bill (or about $245,000,000) was spent fo r private nonfarm housing and not much less than a third for private nonresidential building (office build ings, stores, factories, etc.). Approximately one-fifth of the total consisted of various kinds of public construction projects. Construction activity in the New England States is considerably higher now than before the war, as measured in expenditures. The dollar volume of new construction in 1947 was almost twice that of 1939. However, the 1947 construction volume was only 5.0 percent of the national total, whereas in 1939 it was 5.8 percent. Every State in New England showed a relative decrease except Vermont, which re turned to its prewar position. New England’s loss in relative share of con struction is to some extent associated with long-range trends in population and employ ment. Any increase or decrease in population can cause a change in the demand for construc tion and, for New England as a whole, the rate of population increase has been on the decline for a number of years. In the 20-year period 1920 to 1940, New England’s population dropped from 7.0 to 6.4 percent of the national total. Census estimates indicate that in July 1948, civilian population of the region was 10.1 percent above 1940, as compared with a national increase of 10.6 percent. Two States showed increases above the national average— Con necticut (17.6 percent) and New Hampshire (11.2 percent). Inter-State migration and intranstate shifts in population from rural to urban areas cause an immediate change in the tempo o f construc tion activity. New homes, recreation facilities, etc., are needed to accommodate the inflow o f people, and new industrial plant facilities are usually required. Thus, we have a shift in the distribution of construction with the industriali zation and urbanization of heretofore rural areas in the South and West. New England, already highly urban and industrial, does not have the same need for added living space and facilities as the new industrial areas, and so has declined relatively in total new construc tion activity. The Future Prospects are that construction in New England will continue at high levels for at least the next several years. As in the past, construc tion will be concentrated in the industrial States, the bulk of it in Massachusetts— by far the most populous State. Building will be most active in the areas which produce metal products and other durable goods. Connecticut, in particular, should come in for a larger share of construction. In the long-run, soft goods— still the main stay of a good many New England towns— will help to keep business on a relatively even keel. To illustrate, the demand for soft goods is fairly steady; people buy food, clothing, and shoes in bad times as well as good. Conse quently, in a boom period, the region is likely to make less of a spectacular showing than other sections of the country and by the same token it is likely to fare better in depression times. Another factor affecting the volume of con- 99 Table 11.— E stim a ted expen ditu res f o r n ew construction, 19U7 and 193 9 Total new construction Private resi dential building Private nonresidential building Public construction Region and State 1947 1939 1947 1939 1947 1939 1947 1939 136.3 17.6 5.5 7.6 57.4 9.3 38.9 148.2 10.5 8.6 4.6 70.6 14.2 39.7 4.4 .6 .2 .2 1.9 .3 1.3 5.9 .4 .3 .2 2.8 .6 1.6 [Millions of dollars] New England............... Maine......................... New Hampshire...... Vermont.................... Massachusetts......... Rhode Island............ Connecticut............... 701.5 47.0 33.6 23.4 368.1 59.6 169.8 363.9 22.7 20.6 11.2 169.4 33.4 106.6 244.6 10.9 10.9 5.0 136.8 30.3 50.7 105.8 4.2 4.6 2.3 49.3 10.3 35.1 202.5 9.7 7.2 3.4 114.5 12.6 55.1 57.3 2.7 2.7 1.8 26.6 5.0 18.5 [Percent of U.S. total] New England............... Maine......................... New Hampshire...... Vermont.................... Massachusetts......... Rhode Island............ Connecticut............... 5.0 .3 .2 .2 2.6 .4 1.2 5.8 .4 .3 .2 2.7 .5 1.7 4.7 .2 .2 .1 2.6 .6 1.0 5.0 .2 .2 .1 2.3 .5 1.7 6.5 .3 .2 .1 3.7 .4 1.8 7.2 .3 .3 .2 3.4 .6 2.4 Source: U. S. Department o f Commerce, Construction and Construction Materials, Statistical Supplement, June 1948, tables I, II, and III. struction is the relative maturity of the New England region. Although the Nation as a whole has gone a long way toward economic maturity, New England, as the oldest region, is one step ahead of the rest of the country. In the present “ mature” stage of New England’s development there are more jobs in trade, ser vice, professions, etc., than in manufacturing. This kind of situation does not call for a par ticularly large volume of construction since there is relatively little need for new industrial facilities or additional housing to take care of an influx of new workers. On the other hand, the high income and high standard of living that goes with a mature economy tend to create a sustained market. M IDDLE ATLANTIC STATES Summary Construction seems likely to be active but to make up a smaller part of the national total than prior to the war. Diversification of in dustry and some degree of concentration of wealth mean above-average stability. Background The Middle Atlantic States— New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey— have the high est concentration of wealth and population of any section of the country. These three States 100 have more people and more jobs than any other regional group, with the East North Central States as the only close competitor. The bulk of the population lives in the region’s 19 metro politan districts. The New York City-Northeastern New Jersey, Philadelphia-Camden, and Pittsburgh areas account for 60 percent of the population, and the 19 metropolitan dis tricts combined account for over 75 percent. The Middle Atlantic division, as a center of manufacturing, commerce, and finance, has long set the pace for the entire Nation. How ever, like New England, the division is “ old,” and for some years its top position in the Nation’s economic set-up has been less out standing than formerly. Around the beginning of this century its manufacturing activity be gan to shrink in proportion to the Nation’s total. A shift in emphasis to commerce and finance counteracted manufacturing losses to some extent, and the division still holds the largest share of the Nation’s jobs. But from 1930 on, growth in the remainder of the Nation has exceeded that in this region on all counts — total employment, income, and population. The Middle Atlantic division specializes in commercial and financial services. This is par ticularly true of New York City— the Nation’s number one management and financial center. Many of the home offices of national corpora tions are found in New York, as well as large banks, insurance companies, advertising agen cies, commodity and security exchanges, etc. Other than that, New York is the most im portant distribution and importing center in the country. New York City is also a design and management center for construction, with many architectural and engineering offices, and with the main offices of most of the very large contracting firms which operate on a Nation wide or international scale. The principal manufacturing industries in the Middle Atlantic division are apparel, paper and printing, metals, chemicals, machinery, textiles, food, and tobacco. Although manufac turing in most localities is diversified, consumer goods are the most prevalent. New York, Philadelphia and Rochester produce around one half of the Nation’s clothing, and the first two cities handle a good part of the printing and publishing business. Philadelphia, WilkesBarre, and Paterson are important textile producers. In the heavy goods line, there is Buffalo-Niagara Falls, the leading industrial area in upstate New York, and Pittsburgh, the world’s leading production center for iron and steel. Important activities in other fields are ship building (in the Philadelphia-Camden and Newark areas) and coal mining (anthracite in the Scranton-Wilkes-Barre area, extending from Scranton south to Pottsville, Pa.; soft coal in western Pennsylvania in the counties adjacent to Pittsburgh), and petroleum re fining. There are many additional types of manufacturing not mentioned separately, some of them employing more workers than the major industries in some of the other regions. Postwar Construction The 1947 volume of new construction in the Middle Atlantic States amounted to a little over 2.2 billion dollars, with New York State accounting for about 45 percent of the total. By type of construction, the largest component in the construction bill was the 722 million dollars worth of private (nonfarm) residen tial building. About 581 million dollars was spent for private nonresidential building, and close to 583 million dollars for publicly financed construction. The division’s construction activity in 1947 was only 65 percent above prewar, compared with a gain of 122 percent for the United States as a whole. As the division stands now, it has a 15.8 percent share in the Nation’s construc tion, in comparison with 21.2 percent in 1939. Construction has been particularly slack in New York, where the 1947 volume was only 20 percent above prewar. The State’s share of total construction fell from almost 13 percent in 1939 to 7 percent in 1947. The other two States had larger portions of the national total than in 1939. A decrease in the Middle Atlantic’s share of the Nation’s construction was in evidence before the war, as a part of the general trend affecting all phases of the division’s economy. But the boost given to industrial development in the South and West during the war ex aggerated this trend. True, there was con siderable wartime industrial expansion in each of the Middle Atlantic States, but most of the war activity was in or around established in dustrial centers. Consequently, existing indus trial plants and local labor took care of addi tional requirements to a greater deigree than in most other parts of the country. The net result was that the need for additional homes and additional industrial facilities was propor tionately lower here than in sections where industrial development was accelerated by the war. The Future New industrial areas elsewhere are holding on to their recent gains, and it looks as though 101 Table 12.— E stim a ted expen ditu res fo r next) construction, 1 9 U7 and 1989 Total new construction Region and State 1947 1 | 1939 Private resi dential building 1947 1939 Private nonresidential building Public construction 1947 1939 1947 1939 580.5 222.4 159.5 198.6 183.0 113.0 25.4 44.6 582.5 336.4 65.8 180.3 509.3 318.5 70.7 120.1 [Millions of dollars] Middle Atlantic........... New York.................. New Jersey.............. Pennsylvania........... 2205.0 978.1 457.9 769.0 1338.9 813.9 184.8 340.2 721.9 292.2 191.0 238.7 519.0 320.1 70.2 128.7 [Percent of U.S. Total] Middle Atlantic........... New York.................. New Jersey............... Pennsylvania............ 15.8 7.0 3.3 5.5 21.2 12.9 2.9 5.4 13.7 5.6 3.6 4.5 24.5 15.1 3.3 6.1 18.5 7.1 5.1 6.3 23.3 14.4 3.2 5.7 18.9 10.9 2.1 5.8 20.3 12.7 2.8 4.8 Source: U. S. Department o f Commerce, Construction and Construction Materials, Statistical Supplement, June 1948, tables I, II, and III. a considerable part of the wartime shift in the distribution of construction will be permanent. Beyond that, the prewar situation of slower growth than in less urban and less industrial ized parts of the country seems to be continu ing. Population is increasing less rapidly than for the country as a whole, in large measure, at least, because so much of the population is urban. ups and downs with a little better balance than most of the other divisions. For one thing, the division’s high standard of living makes for a comparatively steady market. Then, too, each of the Middle Atlantic States and most of the important localities within these States5 have a large variety of industries. Consequently, losses in one industry are likely to be offset by gains in another. In spite of the gains made by other sections during the war, the Middle Atlantic is still one of the largest construction markets. It ranks third among the regions in the volume of con struction. Two of the Middle Atlantic States— New York and Pennsylvania— are near the top of the list, in third and fourth positions, re spectively. Of a more direct bearing upon the outlook for construction in the division, are the un usually large expenditures for publicly financed construction. The Middle Atlantic States, in fluenced mainly by New York State and New York City, have a larger volume of public nonresidential buildings (educational and recrea tional facilities, hospitals, etc.) than any other division. Construction expenditures of public utility companies are also considerably above average, since this type of construction is most complicated and expensive in thickly populated areas. So far as the immediate outlook is concerned, construction activity in the Middle Atlantic States should continue at its present level for at least the next several years. What happens after that, of course, depends largely upon economic conditions in general. But the Middle Atlantic States should be able to take economic 102 5 Two notable exceptions are Pittsburgh, with its emphasis on steel, and the anthracite coal area around Scranton. GREAT LAKES STATES (E A S T NORTH CENTRAL ST A T E S) Summary Construction prospects are good— better than those of the more mature parts of the older regions and more stable than those of currently growing regions in the South and West. Within the region, stability will be greatest in diversified areas and poorest in the specialized durable goods areas. Background The Great Lakes States— Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin— constitute one of the most highly industrialized regions in the country. The hub of the Nation’s heavy goods industry, the five-State area has more manu facturing jobs than any other region and fol lows closely behind the Middle Atlantic States in total employment. However, intraregional differences in economic make-up are marked. Wisconsin and Indiana, for instance, are big farm producers, whereas Michigan and Ohio are strong on heavy goods manufacturing. In Illinois, industry is most diversified, with ex tensive financing and wholesaling activity as well as manufacturing and farming. But intraregional differences are best illus trated by crossing State boundaries. There is notable concentration of the region’s popula tion and industry in two extended areas along the lakes. One of these runs along the lower end of Lake Michigan from Milwaukee, south to Chicago, and then eastward in northern Indiana. The other is a part of a semi-continuous, concentrated area, which begins at Detroit on Lake St. Clair, continues south to Toledo on Lake Erie, eastward along the lake beyond Cleveland, and then extends past the regional boundary to Erie and Buffalo-Niagara Falls in the Middle Atlantic States. Smaller inter vening cities in this strip include Monroe, Sandusky, Lorain, and Ashtabula. There are other important centers,, such as Indianapolis, Columbus, Dayton, and Cincinnati, and many smaller industrial centers. While the remainder of the region is predominantly agricultural, in Ohio particularly and to a lesser degree else where, relatively small industrial cities are very numerous. The principal manufacturing industries in the region are motor vehicles and parts, iron and steel, machinery, food processing, paper and printing, chemicals, and rubber. Chicago — the leading city— is an important transpor tation and trade center. Moreover, the Chicago area— including nearby industrial cities— is a big producer of iron and steel, machinery, proc essed foods, apparel, and various other prod ucts. Detroit is the automotive capital of the world. It is the focus of a motor vehicle area including a number of other cities— Toledo, Flint, Pontiac, Lansing, Jackson, Saginaw, and many smaller places. The Cleveland metro politan area is one of the country’s biggest steel producers. In addition to the three largest, there are 26 other metropolitan districts in the Great Lakes region. Although the accent on heavy goods is pronounced, industry is fairly well diversified in most of these locali ties. Postwar Construction In the postwar year 1947, total new con struction in the Great Lakes States amounted to a little more than 2.7 billion dollars, or 19.4 percent of the national construction bill. The Great Lakes share of the Nation’s construction was the highest of any regional group. The leading State in the dollar volume of construc tion was Illinois ($753,000,000), with Ohio running a close second. The third State, Michi gan, had 639 million dollars worth of construc tion, while Indiana and Wisconsin each had less than half that much. Private nonfarm building was valued at 1,726 million dollars, or close to 65 percent of total new construction in the region. Private residential building accounted for over 1,055 million dollars, and nonresidential building for more than 670 million dollars. Expenditures for public construction of all kinds totaled about 480 million dollars. As the Great Lakes region stands now, it is in about the same position with respect to total construction as it was before the war. Unlike New England and the Middle Atlantic States, the Great Lakes States were only slightly affected by the wartime shift in con- 103 Table 13.— E stim a ted expen ditu res f o r n ew construction, 1 9 U7 and 193 9 Total new construction Private resi dential building Private nonresi dential building Public construction Region and State 1947 1947 1939 1939 1947 1939 1947 1939 670.4 170.3 85.4 197.7 144.5 72.5 160.7 42.1 19.8 48.3 35.8 14.7 480.2 120.5 49.9 149.4 110.3 50.1 429.1 116.1 53.2 129.2 78.2 52.4 21.4 5.4 2.7 6.3 4.6 2.3 20.5 5.4 2.5 6.2 4.6 1.9 15.6 3.9 1.6 4.8 3.6 1.6 17.1 4.6 2.1 5.2 3.1 2.1 [Millions of dollars] Great Lakes (East North Central).................... Ohio...................................... Indiana................................. Illinois.................................. Michigan.............................. Wisconsin............................. 2706.4 727.9 309.6 753.3 639.3 276.3 1231.8 330.0 143.6 354.0 270.1 134.1 1055.2 279.9 102.3 272.4 301.3 99.3 424.8 125.4 38.7 102.3 118.0 40.4 [Percent ,of U. S. Total] Great Lakes (East North Central)....... ............. Ohio...................................... Indiana................................. Illinois.................................. Michigan.............................. Wisconsin............................. 19.4 5.2 2.2 5.4 4.6 2.0 19.5 5.2 2.3 5.6 4.3 2.1 20.1 5.3 1.9 5.2 5.7 1.9 20.1 5.9 1.8 4.8 5.6 1.9 Source: U. S. Department o f Commerce, Construction and Construction Materials, Statistical Supplement, June 1948, tables I, II, and III. struction activity to the South and West. Al though the Great Lakes States had very little in the way of military and naval construction, the region exceeded all others in the number and value of war plants installed. The increas ing population and urbanization, which went along with wartime industrial expansion, cre ated a greater demand for construction in this region than for the country as a whole. Be tween 1939 and 1946, the region’s share of the Nation’s construction increased from 19.5 per cent to 21 percent. However, a drop in nonresidential private construction in 1947 resulted in a decline in the region’s relative position, bringing it back to its prewar status. The Future The short-run outlook for construction in the Great Lakes States is most favorable. Heavy goods industry—the Great Lakes specialty— fluctuates sharply with ups and downs in the business cycle, and, consequently, the region receives a comparatively big boost in periods of prosperity. In 1947, the dollar volume of construction in the region was only 120 per 104 cent above prewar, just about equal to the national increase. But the 1947 construction volume would have been much higher except for certain postwar difficulties that affected this region more than others. Its relative position seems likely to improve, especially in the private nonresidential con struction field. In any event construction ac tivity will be maintained at a high level in proportion to that of the entire country for at least the next several years. Of course, another depression, like that of the thirties, would be particularly bad for the construction activity in the Great Lakes States. But, barring this eventuality, the long-run out look is fairly good. In fact, this geographic division should retain its position of leadership in the Nation’s construction activity for some years to come. While the region is not exactly a growing one, there is as yet no real indica tion of a decline in proportion to the rest of the country, such as experienced by the Middle Atlantic and New England States. Fractional relative losses in key manufacturing lines oc curred during the war, but they were too small to be considered a sympton of weakness. Within the region, conditions are more stable in some sections than in others. In Illinois (es pecially around Chicago), where industry is varied and slow-moving property income high, the construction market is fairly steady. On the other hand, in Ohio and Michigan, with their heavy or durable goods centers, such as Cleveland and Detroit, construction is more im mediately susceptible to general economic ac tivity. W EST NORTH CENTRAL STATES Summary Little change in construction activity seems likely from that of recent prosperous periods. This region, even to some degree its leading metropolitan centers, is much more dependent on farm prosperity than is the country as a whole. Background The West North Central States— Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas— are the biggest farm producers in the country. Their total farm in come exceeds that of any other region; and they lead in the production of various farm commodities, including livestock, poultry and poultry products, corn, wheat, oats, barley, and rye. Throughout the entire region, farming is the principal way of life. There are more people engaged in agriculture than in any other ac tivity. All the States are more agricultural and less industrial than the national average. About 31 percent of the 1940 population lived in met ropolitan districts.® However, the individual States vary in the extent to which they con form to the over-all regional pattern. Popula tion and industry tend to be concentrated in the eastern part of the region. The Dakotas do not have a single metropolitan district, and in both Kansas and Nebraska the metropolitan districts are located near the eastern border. The three easternmost States— Missouri, Min nesota, and Iowa— are fairly well industrial ized in comparison with the rest of the region. Combined, they account for about 80 percent of the region’s factory jobs. Manufacturing is closely allied with agri culture. Food processing was by far the biggest 6 Within the region are 12 complete metropolitan districts and the Iowa portion o f the Davenport-Rock Island-Moline district. prewar industry, and, since the beginning of the war, industrial growth has followed the prewar pattern. Numerous small poultry-dress ing plants, milk evaporation and dehydration plants, creameries, and canneries have been established since the end of the war. There was no real war production boom in the region. Except for ordnance and explosive plants scat tered here and there, the bulk of the war ac tivity was confined to a few areas such as Wichita and Kansas City (aircraft) and St. Louis and Minneapolis-St. Paul (aircraft, iron and steel). The majority of the cities in the region are trading centers for surrounding farm country and distribution centers for larger areas. In most places, any manufacturing is largely food processing. But this is not true of the three largest metropolitan districts— St. Louis, Minneapolis-St. Paul, and Kansas City. In a num ber of smaller cities there is active manufactur ing outside of the food industry but much less than is commonly found in cities of similar size in the northeastern section of the country. Postwar Construction In 1947, new construction in the West North Central States was valued at a little over 1.2 billion dollars. Missouri, with a construction volume of approximately 278 million dollars, was the leading State, while Minnesota and Iowa followed closely in second and third posi tions, respectively. Construction expenditures were smaller in the more rural States to the west. Kansas and Nebraska had 207 million and 122 million dollars worth of construction, respectively. The two Dakotas combined had not much over 120 million dollars worth. Almost half of the total regional construction bill consisted of nonfarm private building. About 326 million dollars of this went for homes 105 buildings, and other publicly financed construc tion made up about one-fourth of the total. Farm and public utility construction accounted for the remainder. and other residential building, and 235 million dollars for nonresidential buildings (factories, stores, offices, churches, etc.). Highway and sewer construction, hospital and educational Table 14.— Estimated expenditures for new construction, 19U7 and 1939 Private resi dential building Total new construction Private nonresi dential building Public construction Region and State 1947 1939 1947 1939 1947 1939 1947 1939 [Millions of dollars] West North Central................. Minnesota............................... Iowa......................................... Missouri................................. North Dakota........................ South Dakota......................... Nebraska................................ Kansas.................................... 1245.6 263.3 254.1 278.0 56.8 64.2 122.3 206.9 543.2 134.4 112.7 133.3 18.7 22.7 55.8 65.6 326.1 104.2 50.3 73.9 9.3 12.2 31.0 45.2 125.6 38.7 23.7 37.0 2.3 2.5 10.4 11.0 235.0 41.3 67.5 72.3 5.6 4.0 15.2 29.1 52.9 12.0 12.7 15.7 1.2 1.3 3.9 6.1 298.4 56.2 49.2 53.5 18.3 25.2 37.7 58.3 229.3 58.0 42.3 55.1 9.3 13.7 25.6 25.3 7.5 1.3 2.2 2.3 .2 .1 .5 .9 6.7 1.5 1.6 2.0 .2 .2 .5 .8 9.6 1.8 1.6 1.7 .6 .8 1.2 1.9 9.1 2.3 1.7 2.2 .4 .5 [Percent of U. S. total] West North Central................. Minnesota............................... Iowa......................................... Missouri................................. North Dakota........................ South Dakota......................... Nebraska................................ Kansas.................................... 8.9 1.9 1.8 2.0 .4 .5 .9 1.5 8.6 2.1 1.8 2.1 .3 .4 .9 1.0 6.2 2.0 1.0 1.4 .2 .2 .6 .9 5.9 1.8 1.1 1.8 .1 .1 .5 .5 1.0 1.0 Source: U. S. Department o f Commerce, Construction and Construction Materials, Statistical Supplement, June 1948, tables I, II, and III. Since the beginning of the war, the West North Central region has gained but slightly with respect to construction. The 1947 volume of new construction amounted to 8.9 percent of the national total as compared with 8.6 in 1939. Three of the States (North Dokata, South Dakota, and Nebraska), suffered popu lation losses from 1940 to 1948— 12.8, 3.6, and 1.3 percent, respectively. Gains made in Kansas and in the three easternmost States brought the regional average up to an increase of 3.2 percent, but there was not a single State where the rate of population increase was as high as the national average. Although population in the region is still in creasing at a slower rate than in the Nation as a whole, census -estimates for July 1948 show that significant gains have been made in the postwar period. Up to the end of the war, 106 the West North Central States had been losing population through migration for over a de cade. During the drought of the middle 1930’s, thousands of farm workers migrated from the dust-bowl States to California and other Pacific States. After the war began, there was further migration from West North Central farms to war production centers in other parts of the country, but with the coming of peace this trend was reversed. Men began to return to the farm as they were released from military ser vice or as their war jobs came to an end. High farm prices and the end of the drought were encouraging factors. In the interval from 1939 to 1947, any gain or loss among the various States in their share of total construction activity was small, except for Kansas, where there was an increase from 1.0 to 1.5 percent. Here, commercial and manu facturing activities, together with a postwar rise in food processing, created sufficient em ployment opportunities to draw some of the State’s farm population to its cities. A few big aircraft factories in Wichita and Kansas City were converted to the manufacture of light metal products and other consumer goods. Although peacetime employment in these plants is much below the wartime level, it is still con siderably in excess of prewar. Kansas has also benefited from its central geographic location which makes its airports ideal transfer points for airline traffic. Its airports are used as operating offices and maintenance centers for military and commercial aviation. The Future Construction activity in the West North Central States should continue at the present high level for at least the next several years. It is not likely, however, that any new peak will be reached. There is nothing to indicate that the outlook for construction in the region is any better or any worse than the outlook for construction in the Nation as a whole. In fact, in the prewar to postwar shakeup in the distribution of construction, the position of the West North Central States changed but little. The region’s dollar volume of construc tion rose 129 percent from 1939 to 1947 as compared with a national increase of 122 per cent. High farm prices have done the most to bring the region back to its prewar relative position in the construction industry. Other than the boost it has given to the over-all regional economy, high farm income has made it pos sible for the huge farm construction backlog which accumulated from the early thirties to the end of the war to be translated into active demand. Full em ploym ent, high wages, exports under the Marshall Plan, price support for the principal farm products, all point toward a continuation of fairly high farm prices for some time to come. The long-term outlook for agri cultural products is unpredictable, but certainly any major reduction in farm purchasing power would be a severe blow to construction activity in the region. In any event, it is not likely that the West North Central States will increase their share of the Nation’s construction. Since around 1890, the rate of population growth has lagged behind that fo r the Nation as a whole. Popula tion grew at a rapid rate during the early years of settlement, but, during the past 50 years or thereabouts, the region has remained heavily rural while other areas have become industrial ized. It is also likely that farm mechanization, already greater here than in any other part of the country, will continue to reduce farm labor requirements, and that there will be some further migration of surplus farm population to other regions. This will mean a higher per capita income for those remaining on the farm, however, and hence will tend to encourage an active farm construction program of new buildings, modernization, and improvement. Construction will tend to be concentrated in the more populous parts of the region— namely, Missouri, Minnesota, and Iowa, and eastern Kansas and Nebraska. Locally, con struction will be most active in the largest and most highly industrialized areas, such as St. Louis, Minneapolis-St. Paul, and Kansas City. SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES Summary For the region as a whole, the prospects for increased construction activity are good. Ex ceptions are Maryland and Delaware, where future population growth is likely to be rela tively slow. Sound growth is likely in those States where expanding industry has not yet exceeded agriculture in employment— Virginia, West Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. In Florida, active construction is likely during periods of prosperity. For the District of Columbia, long-range prospects are good, with above-average stability in any depression. Background The South Atlantic is a loosely knit region, running along the Atlantic seaboard from Delaware and Maryland all the way down to 107 Florida, and stretching inland to include West Virginia and the District of Columbia. Intraregional differences are very pronounced, es pecially between the northern and southern parts of the region. Delaware and Maryland have much in common with the Middle Atlantic group of States (New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania). Manufacturing is the major activity; population density is high in com parison with the rest of the region. A large part of West Virginia, in the northwestern section of the region, is sparsely populated, mountainous territory. The leading industry is mining, manufacturing is second, and agricul ture is third. Government and trade and ser vice employment provide the bulk of the jobs in the District of Columbia. With the exception of Florida, the States south of the District of Columbia are fairly homogenous. North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Virginia are a part of what is commonly known as the southeast. Although industrial development in recent years has been rapid, this group of States is still primarily agricultural. Cotton and tobacco are the agricul tural specialties. The trend is toward diversifi cation, but much of the farmland in this area is still devoted to these crops. In manufactur ing, too, the emphasis is on a few types of products, such as textiles, lumber, furniture, and foods. Paper making has been an up and coming industry ever since the thirties when processes were developed for making news print and other grades of white paper from southern pine. During the war there was largescale expansion in shipbuilding, aircraft, and ordnance, but there was little permanent gain in these lines. Advances were made, however, in chemical manufacture — particularly in chemicals made from wood pulp and cotton linters. Moreover, textile, wood, food, and other prewar industries employ many more people now than before the war. The last State— Florida— has a character all of its own. It is the least industrialized of all the South Atlantic States, with 12 percent of its working population in manufacturing jobs in 1940. Florida is an important agricultural State. Its subtropical climate makes possible an almost year-round growing season. Fruits and vegetables, the principal crops, are shipped north in large quantities. But the State’s large 108 resort business creates more jobs than any other activity. In 1940, for instance, there were as many people in personal service jobs as in agriculture. Florida’s popularity as a resort area has made it one of the fastest-growing States in the Union. In the States south of the District of Colum bia, much of the manufacturing activity is scattered in small towns and cities. There are numerous textile towns, furniture towns, etc., with the local economy centered on one in dustrial establishment. While this situation is rather precarious for the town, it is consistent with industrialization and its effect on con struction. Larger cities such as Atlanta, Rich mond, Charleston, and Jacksonville have a variety of manufacturing establishments, but they are primarily trading and distribution centers. Shipbuilding, ship repair, and port activities are important in the Norfolk-Portsmouth-Newport News area and in Charleston (S. C.), Savannah, Jacksonville; and other harbor cities. Unlike the situation in the States to the south, manufacturing in Delaware and Maryland is concentrated in two large industrial centers— Wilmington and Baltimore. Wilmington is best known as the location of administrative offices and research units of several large chemical firms. Actual produc tion of chemicals is minor, but research and administrative activities call for a large num ber of professional men, technicians, and whitecollar workers. Other leading industries in and near Wilmington are leather tanning, textiles, food products, iron and steel products, and shipbuilding. There was wartime expansion in shipbuilding, ordnance, metal and machin ery, and other industries. Despite large-scale layoffs after VJ-day, manufacturing employ ment is still well above prewar. Baltimore has a well-balanced economy, with industry, commerce and finance all playing im portant roles. Among the foremost manufactur ing industries are iron and steel, shipbuilding, chemicals, machinery, clothing, food processing, and aircraft. Wartime expansion was very great, but for the most part it was confined to aircraft and shipbuilding. Although manu facturing employment is well in excess of pre war, sharp cuts in aircraft and shipbuilding have brought it down to a level considerably below the wartime peak. In West Virginia, manufacturing is concen trated along the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers, in such indutrial cities as Wheeling, Huntington, Parkersburg, and Charleston. Leading branches of manufacture are iron and steel; stone, clay, and glass; and chemicals and allied products. Because of its vast power resources— coal, natural gas, water power— and its excellent river transportation, West Virginia has a great potential for industrial development. The war brought about a large expansion of manu facturing facilities, particularly in chemicals. Plant additions were also made for the pro duction of steel, synthetic rubber, explosives, and various other goods. When the war ended, manufacturing employment declined sharply, but at the present time all branches of manu facturing are above prewar, with chemicals taking the lead. Postwar Construction In 1947, total new construction activity in the South Atlantic States amounted to over 1.8 billion dollars, or 13.3 percent of the national bill. By far the most active construc tion State was Florida, with over 457 million dollars worth of new construction. Among the other States in the region, the dollar volume ranged from slightly over 26 million dollars in Delaware to nearly 293 million dollars in Vir ginia. The District of Columbia had approxi mately 78 million dollars worth of new con struction, not including adjoining suburban areas in Maryland and Virginia. Privately financed nonfarm building made up over 60 percent of the regional bill, resi dential building alone nearly 43 percent. Public construction— including public nonresidential buildings, publicly financed housing, military and naval installations, highways, conserva tion and development projects, etc.— accounted for only 22 percent of total new construction. The dollar volume of total new construction in the region was 126 percent higher in 1947 than in 1939— compared with 122 percent for the Nation as a whole. Within the region, Florida was the only State to make any signifi cant gain. Florida showed a 23 percent in crease in civilian population from 1940 to 1948. This, in conjunction with a postwar boom in the tourist business, acted as a stimulus to building activity, and Florida’s share of the Nation’s construction rose from 2.1 percent in 1939 to over 3.3 percent in 1947. Four other States— Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and West Virginia— made small increases in their portions of national con struction activity. Although these States lost population to other areas during the war,7 a farm-to-city movement increased their poten tial for residential building, and postwar in vestment in new industrial facilities further encouraged urbanization. No gains were made in the rest of the region. The District of Columbia’s part of the Nation’s construction fell from 1.3 percent in 1939 to 0.6 percent in 1947, Virginia’s from 2.5 to 2.1 percent, and Delaware’s from 0.3 to 0.2 per cent; Maryland’s part was unchanged at 1.6 percent. The District of Columbia is not comparable to any of the States because geographically it is identical with the city of Washington, ex clusive of all surrounding suburbs. From the early thirties to the end of the war, population growth for the Washington metropolitan area greatly exceeded that for the country as a whole, and this growth was most rapid in the Virginia and Maryland suburbs outside of the central city. During most of this period, con struction (mainly Government buildings and private housing) was much above the national rate. This was reflected in the rate for the District, with marked influence on the con struction rate for Virginia and less influence on the rate for Maryland. Contraction of Fed eral employment following the end of the war and a very low level of Federal construction in the Washington area depressed construction in the District of Columbia while it was being stimulated elsewhere. They likewise depressed construction in the adjoining parts of Virginia sufficiently for a downward influence on the State rate and had a similar but smaller effect on Maryland. More recently, private construc tion in the Washington area has expanded. Delaware drew a large number of migrants during the war, but by 1948 civilian popula7 Civilian population gain from 1940-48 was 0.2 percent in Georgia, 0.7 percent in West Virginia, 3.9 percent in South Carolina, and 3.1 percent in North Carolina, as compared with a national increase o f 10.6 percent, indicating out-migration. 109 Table 15.— Estimated expenditures for new construction, 19U7 and 1939 Private resi dential building Total new construction Public construction Private nonresidential building Region and State 1947 1939 1947 1939 1947 1939 1947 1939 369.1 9.0 51.0 18.4 47.5 31.0 61.0 33.1 53.6 64.5 108.5 3.7 13.4 20.9 16.0 8.4 15.7 6.9 12.5 11.0 404.2 4.6 62.0 18.1 65.3 32.8 61.3 42.8 49.1 68.2 313.3 5.5 41.3 24.8 68.4 22.3 46.8 21.1 40.4 42.7 11.8 .3 1.6 .6 1.5 13.8 .5 1.7 2.7 2.0 1.1 2.0 .9 1.6 1.4 [Millions of dollars] South Atlantic......................... Delaware.............................. Maryland.............................. District of Columbia.......... Virginia................................ West Virginia...................... North Carolina.................... South Carolina.................... Georgia................................. Florida.................................. 1,853.2 26.0 225.1 78.1 292.7 148.9 267.7 126.8 230.8 '457.1 818.9 18.1 102.7 84.2 155.3 63.1 114.5 51.4 97.3 132.3 788.7 7.3 84.8 28.1 129.3 38.6 109.2 33.2 78.6 279.6 303.9 7.0 39.1 34.0 53.9 18.8 35.9 16.5 29.2 69.5 , [Percent of U. S. total] South Atlantic......................... Delaware............................... Maryland.............................. District of Columbia.......... Virginia................................ West Virginia...................... North Carolina.................... South Carolina.................... Georgia................................. Florida.................................. 13.3 .2 1.6 .6 2.1 1.1 1.9 .9 1.7 3.3 13.0 .3 1.6 1.3 2.5 1.0 1.8 .8 1.5 2.1 15.0 .1 1.6 .5 2.5 .7 2.1 .6 1.5 5.3 14.4 .3 1.8 1.6 2.5 .9 1.7 .8 1.4 3.3 1.0 1.9 1.1 1.7 2.1 13.1 .1 2.0 .6 2.1 1.1 2.0 1.4 . 1.6 2.2 12.5 .2 1.7 1.0 2.7 .9 1.9 .8 1.6 1.7 Source: U. S. Department o f Commerce, Construction and Construction Materials, Statistical Supplement, June 1948, tables I, II, and III. tion was only 11.6 percent greater than 1940. Practically the entire wartime gain was due to shipbuilding activity in and around Wil mington. After VJ-day, shipbuilding employ ment fell rapidly, and war migrants began to leave the State. The Future Construction activity in the South Atlantic States should continue at a high level for at least the next several years, with probably some increase in the physical volume for the region as a whole. As long as prosperity continues, Florida will maintain its position as the region’s most active construction State. Good business conditions have been a boon to the State’s tourist trade, and this factor alone is enough to keep the construction volume high. Miami, the center of the largest winter resort area, is one of the most active building areas in the 110 country. In 1947, this city ranked sixth in the value of residential building permits issued and eighth in the value of permits for all types of building construction, although it was fortyeighth in rank, according to 1940 population. If a depression should come along, construction activity in Florida— particularly in resort areas— would be more severely affected than almost anywhere else in the country. However, Florida should not be as hard hit by a future depression as it was by the last one. The cur rent building boom is based on established popularity as a resort area, whereas the boom of the twenties was dependent primarily on speculative land values which started to col lapse a few years before the beginning of the general depression. The other States south of the District of Columbia should add to their share of the Nation’s construction. The urbanization that followed industrial expansion in these pre dominantly rural States has given rise to a considerable demand for houses and other build ings to accommodate the increased urban popu lation. Gains made in per capita income since before the war will boost construction indirectly through their effect on the over-all economy. West Virginia is another State that has raised its potential for construction activity by industrialization and urbanization. How ever, in Maryland and Delaware, where manu facturing is concentrated in established manu facturing centers, industrial expansion did not have the same stimulating effect upon build ing activity. It is unlikely that either of these States will improve its relative standing to any marked extent. Construction activity in and near the District of Columbia depends on Government employ ment and on the Federal construction program. The long-range outlook is probably for a fairly high rate of activity. In the event of a depres sion, the area would be in a comparatively favorable position because of steady Govern ment payrolls, and construction would prob ably be stimulated by replacement of temporary and obsolete Federal buildings. Over the long run, the outlook for increased construction activity is very favorable in those States which are developing industrially, al though still primarily dependent upon agricul ture or extractive industries. Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia fall into this category. All have made big industrial gains in recent years, and, in the years to come, they will probably continue to add to the number and variety of their manu facturing establishments. With farm mechani zation becoming more widespread all the time, cities will continue to gain population from surrounding farm areas. Also a more efficient and diversified agricultural system will lead to higher per capita income for a smaller farm population. All this will have a stimulating effect on construction activity, more than com pensating for any out-migration that might take place. Florida has been growing at a much faster rate than the national average for every decade since 1830. It is likely that the State will con tinue to draw migrants from other areas, even though population gains may not be as large as in the past. Consequently, except for set backs caused by fluctuations in general eco nomic activity, construction should be more active in Florida than in the country as a whole. Economically, Delaware and Maryland have reached a stage of comparative maturity. Since neither of these States is likely to experience any relative gain in population, income, or em ployment, it seems likely that the future will mean a smaller share of total construction activity. The outlook in the District of Columbia is for a good, steady volume of construction, with some increase if governmental services expand. EAST SOUTH CENTRAL STATES Summary This region, now developing toward economic maturity, should attain a larger share of the national construction total. Industrial growth and urbanization mean increased construction potentialities in Tennessee and Alabama, and to a smaller degree in Kentucky. Background The East South Central States (Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Mississippi) are all primarily rural, farm States. Cotton is the big money crop throughout the region, except in Kentucky where tobacco is the agricultural specialty. More and more, however, the East South Central States are getting away from the one-crop system. In Kentucky, corn, hay, wheat, and other grains are grown in abun dance, and dairy, poultry, and truck farming are on the increase. Tennessee still grows a lot of cotton, but considerable headway has been made toward all-around farming. In Alabama, too, for a number of years cotton growing has been less dominant. Corn has become an im portant crop, as have hay, oats, peanuts and fruits of various kinds. The fourth State, Mississippi, has kept to the one-crop system 111 more tenaciously than the others and is still predominantly a cotton-growing State. Despite the fact that the East South Central States remain primarily agricultural, they have made rapid industrial development in recent years. Cheap hydroelectric power and the prox imity to raw materials, such as lumber and cotton, have been the principal incentives for the location of new industries in the region. Cheap river transportation, expanding local markets, and the prospect of recruiting an ade quate labor supply from the surplus farm popu lation, are other inducements. Naturally, the greatest gains are being made in industries which need the region’s cheap power and its raw materials. Textile, lumber, and food products industries are already firmly estab lished. More recent gains have been made in manufacture based on wood — paper, wood pulp, building board, and rayon — for which the quick-growing southern timber can now be used. The chemical industry branched out dur ing the war and continued to expand in the postwar period. Tennessee and Alabama have taken the lead in industrial development and account for about 70 percent of the region’s manufacturing jobs. Both States were given an especially big boost by the war. Alabama had the greatest expan sion of war industry facilities, yet Tennessee came out of the war and reconversion periods a little better off in terms of manufacturing employment. Ammunition manufacturing and shipbuilding constituted a good part of war production in Alabama and, of course, both of these activities dropped after the end of active hostilities. Recent growth in Tennessee was more along peacetime lines. New industrial projects for chemicals, rayon, and paper have been initiated in Tennessee since the end of the war. Among the cities in the region, the largest, in order of size, are Louisville, Kentucky; Bir mingham, Alabama; Memphis and Nashville, Tennessee. Birmingham, an iron and steel cen ter, is the most highly industrialized city in the group, with the bulk of the labor force engaged in manufacturing. The other cities are pri marily trading centers and agricultural mar kets. Each has a variety of manufacturing 112 industries, but manufacturing employment is secondary to trade and service.8 Postwar Construction Expenditures for new construction in the East South Central States amounted to a little over 717 million dollars in 1947, or slightly more than 5 percent o f the national total. Tennessee had approximately 232 million dol lars worth, Alabama 187 million dollars, Ken tucky 178 million dollars, and Mississippi 120 million dollars. Private building construction (excluding farm and utility construction) ac counted for about half of the regional bill. Over 191 million dollars was spent for residential building and 153 million dollars for factories, stores, offices, and other nonresidential build ing. Publicly financed construction (public buildings, highways, military and naval con struction, etc.), plus farm and public utility construction, made up the other half of the regional total. During the period from 1939 to 1947, the region’s share of total construction activity fell off to some degree. The regional total was 116 percent above prewar in 1947, compared with a national increase of 122 percent. Sub stantial gains in private building were offset by a drop in the region’s relative share of pub lic construction, bringing about an over-all decrease. Mississippi had a particularly low volume of public construction in comparison with prewar, and it was this State that experi enced the greatest relative loss in total con struction activity. Tennessee fared better than any of the other States. Public construction was more active there. More important is the fact that private nonresidential building was several times that for 1939, although below the level of 1946 when industrial building in the State was greatly expanded by a few un usually large projects. The construction picture for the region does not follow any consistent pattern. Kentucky and Mississippi lost population between 1940 and 1948, and both of these States showed a decrease in their relative shares o f construc tion activity. Because of a postwar decline in manufacturing activity— followed by a popu lation exodus— Alabama also had fewer resi8 Source: USES, Labor Market Information, Area Series. Table 16.— Estimated expenditures for new construction, 191*7 and 1989 Private nonresi dential building Private resi dential building Total new construction Public construction Region and State 1947 1939 1947 1939 1947 1939 1947 1939 lMillions of dollars] East South Central................ Kentucky............................... Tennessee............................. Alabama............................... Mississippi............................ 717.3 177.7 232.2 186.9 120.5 332.0 89.3 90.5 81.0 71.2 191.1 39.7 59.2 60.6 31.6 66.0 19.3 20.9 16.3 9.5 153.2 35.7 53.9 46.4 17.2 30.2 9.7 9.3 8.9 2.3 217.4 54.6 74.7 49.3 38.8 187.5 45.0 48.5 45.4 48.6 4.9 1.1 1.7 1.5 .6 3.8 1.2 1.2 1.1 .3 7.1 1.8 2.4 1.6 1.3 7.5 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.9 [Percent of U. S. total] East South Central................ Kentucky.............................. . Tennessee.............................. Alabama............................... Mississippi............................ 5.1 1.3 1.7 1.3 .9 5.3 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.1 3.6 .8 1.1 1.2 .6 3.1 .9 1.0 .8 .6 Source: U. S. Department o f Commerce, Construction and Construction Materials, Statistical Supplement, June 1948, tables I, II, and III. dents in 1947 than before the war. However, out-migration seems to have been checked once the reconversion period was over. Census esti mates indicate that in July 1948, population in Alabama was a fraction of a percent above 1940. The State’s share of construction activity in 1947 was approximately equal to prewar. Tennessee, which acquired new industries after the war, showed significant population gains in 1947 and 1948 over 1940, although the increase was at a slower rate than for the Nation as a whole. It was the only State in the region to add to its share of total new construction from 1939 (1.4 percent) to 1947 (1.7 percent). The Future The outlook for construction in the East South Central States is very good for at least the next several years. In comparison with the Nation as a whole the region should at least maintain its position if not improve it. This would call for a considerable increase over the present physical volume of construction, but there is plenty of room for expansion. Public construction expenditures in some parts of the region are currently low, and, moreover, there is a sizable backlog of demand for homes, schools, recreation and other facilities in newly created industrial centers. The outlook is most favorable in Tennessee. Although the postwar boom in industrial plant expansion seems to have tapered off (as evi denced by the slump in nonresidential con struction in 1947), the war and postwar rise in urbanization has increased potentialities for residential building activity. Construction prospects in Alabama for the next few years are also good. Substantial gains were made in 1947 over 1946 in both residential and nonresi dential construction, indicating that the transi tion from war to peacetime economy is well on its way toward completion. The outlook is es pecially good in and around the Birmingham area. With the great demand for steel, the Birmingham mills should be kept busy for some time to come. Lately enacted f .o.b. pricing has widened the market for Birmingham steel to include most of the South. In Mississippi— the most heavily rural State in the region— a trend toward a relative decline in construction may continue as surplus tenant farmers emi grate to more industrialized areas in other States. Kentucky is a more populous and indus trialized State than Mississippi, but its war and postwar record do not show strong likeli hood of increased construction activity for the 113 State as a whole. The Louisville area, on the other hand, should be more active. The long-range construction outlook depends upon such factors as the prices of the region’s farm products, the development of a more effi cient agricultural system, and the extent of further industrialization. Farm prices are, of course, unpredictable. But in other respects there are definite probabilities of a brighter future. In the first place, it seems certain that farm mechanization will increase, resulting in a smaller farm population— particularly fewer tenant farmers— but with the higher average family incomes for those remaining. It also seems likely that new industries will continue to move into the region to take advantage of cheap power and abundant raw materials. The recent partial adjustment in freight rates on goods shipped out o f the South to northern areas reduced a long-standing obstruction to southern industrial growth. W E ST SOUTH CENTRAL STATES Summary This is one of the most active construction regions in the country, mainly because of one State— Texas. The outlook is for continuing industrial development, and hence the pros pects for increased construction activity are much better here than in older and more indus trially mature regions. Background The four West South Central States— Ar kansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas— cover a vast but sparsely populated area, with 30 persons per square mile in 1940, as com pared with an average of 44 for the Nation as a whole. Texas, by far the largest State, ac counts for three-fifths of the land area and about one-half of the population. In spite of its wide open spaces, the Lone Star State was the most urban State in the region in 1940. Because of subsequent population changes, it seems likely that about half of the State’s population, if not more, now lives in urban places. Of the sixteen metropolitan districts in the region, eleven are located in Texas. Although the West South Central States are becoming more industrialized all the time, they are still mainly producers of raw materials. The region is rich in natural resources, such as petroleum, natural gas, salt, sulphur, and baux ite (aluminum ore). It is also one of the Na tion’s biggest farm producers. Cotton, wheat, grain sorghum, rice, citrus fruits, vegetables, and livestock are among the products that come from southwestern farms and ranches. 114 For many years cotton held first place in the region’s economic set-up. But, in the thir ties, increased attention was given to other agricultural activities, and the raising of live stock and feed for livestock reached new im portance. By this time, petroleum extraction and refining had become important industries. Texas now supplies more oil than any other State in the country. Dallas, Tulsa, Oklahoma City, Houston, and some of the smaller south western cities benefited tremendously from the oil bonanza. Not only did petroleum itself bring spectacular fortunes but other products proved profitable as well. Natural gas, for instance, greatly increased the region’s resources, and products of petroleum refining were an attrac tion for the synthetic chemical industry. Although this is still far from being a great manufacturing region, its industrial develop ment has been rapid in recent years. It got off to a slow start at the beginning of the prewar defense program. Most of the early industrial expansion took place in established centers o f production on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. But after this country entered the war, the West South Central States came in for a very large share of war industry. The abundance of raw materials and the comparative safety of its geographic location made the region an ideal place for the establishment of war plants. In the inland areas there were aircraft and synthetic rubber factories and bauxite and ordnance plants. And the deep-water ports— New Orleans, Houston, and Galveston— were busy with shipbuilding and ship repair. Natur ally, at war’s end many of these activities to 11.3 percent of the national bill was second only to that of the Pacific States. However, Texas was chiefly responsible for the regional gain. From 1939 to 1947, Texas rose from sixth to second place in State ranking of construction activity. The spectacular construction gain made by the West South Central States and Texas in particular was caused to a large degree by an intraregional movement from farm to city. A large-scale farm exodus had begun some years before the war, as cotton production declined and southwestern farms became more mech anized. In those days most of the displaced tenant farmers migrated to other parts of the country. But once the war began, the surplus farm labor moved to the region’s cities where they were quickly absorbed by newly expand ing industries. The swelling city population created a serious need for additional houses and also for community facilities, both com mercial and noncommercial— stores, schools, churches, recreational buildings, etc. Thus, a very favorable construction situation devel oped, even though from 1940 to 1948 the re gion’s population increased at a slower rate than that of the Nation. In fact, one of the States, Arkansas, experienced an actual decline in population and at the same time added to its share o f construction. slowed down or came to an abrupt halt. But the region emerged from the reconversion period much better off than before the war. Private enterprise has taken over many of the Govern ment-financed plants. Some of the aircraft fac tories built during the war are still running on a fairly active schedule. Important peace time industries (such as apparel, centered in Dallas) are providing more jobs than ever before. Postwar Construction In 1947, new construction in the West South Central States was valued at over a billion and a, half dollars. Texas accounted for almost twothirds of the total— more than 1 billion dollars worth. Next was Oklahoma, with new con struction valued at 262 million dollars, whereas Louisiana and Arkansas had 188 million and 152 million dollars, respectively. Nonfarm private building made up about three-fifths of the regional construction bill; residential build ing alone, almost 40 percent. The remainder consisted of farm and public utility building, plus the various public construction projects. The West South Central States were one of the two regions to increase their share o f the Nation’s construction substantially over the period 1939 to 1947. Their advance from 8.5 Table 17.— Estimated, expenditures for new construction, 19U7 and 1939 Total new construction Private resi dential building Private nonresidential building Public construction Region and State 1947 1989 1947 1939 1939 1947 1939 318.5 . 20.1 40.9 25.3 232.2 62.1 6.3 9.9 4.6 41.3 314.7 33.5 43.7 63.0 174.5 225.0 19.9 59.8 27.4 117.9 10.2 .6 1.3 .8 7.4 7.9 .8 1.3 .6 5.3 10.2 1.1 1.4 2.0 5.7 9.0 .8 2.4 1.1 4.7 1947 [Millions of dollars] West South Central............... 1585.6 151.5 Arkansas.............................. 188.4 Louisiana.............................. Oklahoma............................. 226.2 Texas................................... ,. 1019.5 538.7 45.0 104.6 71.8 317.3 616.9 51.7 60.9 75.6 428.7 150.7 7.6 24.3 22.6 96.2 [Percent of U. S. total] West South Central................ Arkansas.............................. Louisiana.............................. Oklahoma............................. Texas..................................... 11.3 1.1 1.3 1.6 7.3 8.5 .7 1.7 1.1 5.0 11.7 1.0 1.2 1.4 8.2 7.2 .4 1.2 1.1 4.6 Source: U. S. Department o f Commerce, Construction and Construction Materials, Statistical Supplement, June 1948, tables I, II, and III. 115 Construction activity increased most in Texas, primarily for two reasons. First, the State had a greater wartime industrial expan sion than any of the other States. Second, it was here that the farm-to-city movement was strongest. Louisiana was the only State to show a relative construction decline; but this was principally because public expenditures in the State had not picked up by the postwar year 1947 to anywhere near their prewar rela tive position. The Future The outlook for construction in the West South Central States is one o f continuing growth in the long run as well as in the more immediate future. Of course, even with re cent gains, the region’s construction market is comparatively small. It ranks fifth among the nine regions in the country. However, prospects for an increase over the present construction level are much more favorable here than in the older and more settled regions. Construction in the West South Central States— as elsewhere— should be very active for at least the next several years. Moreover, this region’s record should be better than the national average. In 1947, construction in the West South Central States was 194 percent above prewar, as compared with a 122 percent national gain, and the region may further outdo the Nation in the future. It is likely that its 1947 construction volume will be surpassed when postwar readjustments are completed. Within the region, Texas will continue to ac count for the bulk of the construction activity. The State has done better than the other three on almost all counts — industrial expansion, population, and income gain, etc. Its favorable climate and highly developed agriculture are also in its favor. The most active construction areas in the region are Houston and Dallas-Fort Worth— both centers of oil activity as well as various other industries. Other principal cities are San Antonio, Oklahoma City, Tulsa, and New Orleans. Of course, quite a bit o f the residential construction in this predominantly rural re gion will be scattered around the numerous small cities and villages. Construction in Texas will tend to be concentrated in urban centers to a greater extent than in the other States. M OUNTAIN STATES Summary The immediate and long-range outlook for construction employment is good, although the dollar value of construction expenditures will be low because of the sparse population. For most journeymen within these States, conser vation and development projects are more im portant for their stimulation to the region’s economy (with resulting construction) than for the construction employment immediately afforded. Background The eight Mountain States (Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada) cover almost 858,000 square miles of land area— well over one-fourth of the United States total and approximately 350,000 square miles more than the next largest geo graphic division. The climate is arid and much 116 of the land is mountainous, so that the popu lation is small. Even though regional growth has well exceeded the national average for every decade, save one, since 1850, the popula tion was only a little over 4 million in 1940— slightly more than 3 percent of the national total. Only one State, Colorado, had over a million people; no other was as large as 550,000, and two were below 500,000. The 1940 population represented a density of not quite 5 persons per square mile as compared with a national average of 44. There were about 11 persons per square mile in Colorado, 6 to 7 in Idaho and Utah, and less than 5 in all the other States. In 1940, almost 43 percent of the inhabitants of the Mountain States lived in towns and cities of 2,500 or more0, but there were few 9 This percentage (o f urbanization) is below those of New England and the Middle Atlantic, East North Central, West North Central, and Pacific States but above those o f the South Atlantic, East South Central, and West South Central States. large cities. Only four in 1940 had a population o f 50,000 or over — Denver, Colorado (322,000) ; Salt Lake City, Utah (150,000); Phoe nix, Arizona (65,000); and Pueblo, Colorado (52,000). Seven others were in the range from 25,000 up to 50,000. Two States in the region (Wyoming and Nevada) had no cities as large as 25,000. Manufacturing plays a relatively small part in this sparsely populated region. Most, but not all, o f the industrial development that has taken place is related to processing o f basic materials— food, lumber, coal, oil, nonferrous metals (smelting operations), iron ore (steel manufacturing). In the beginning, the key to the region’s growth was its mineral wealth. Gold, silver, copper, coal, and other minerals are still extracted in large quantities, but min ing is now second to agriculture. Although the climate is very dry throughout most of the region, much of the land is fertile and, under irrigation, produces an abundance of grains, fruits, vegetables, and other crops. Grazing lands are extensive and in some sections live stock raising is on a par with crop farming. Another source of regional wealth is petroleum, which has come into prominence within recent years. The climate and scenic beauty of some parts of the region have given rise to a very lucrative tourist business. In these areas, tour ist expenditures for accommodations and serv ices o f various kinds are very high in ordinary times. The war had less permanent effect on the regional economic pattern here, than on the Pacific coast or some parts of the South, even though some of the Mountain States came in for a good share of war production activity. There was considerable wartime expansion of industrial facilities, such as aircraft, nonfer rous metal, steel, and chemical plants, and some o f these plants are being used for the produc tion of peacetime goods. But to a considerable degree the boost was temporary. Except for a few large installations, such as the steel plants in Utah, there is not much evidence of increased industrial capacity suited to peacetime needs. Postwar Construction In 1947, the dollar volume of total new con struction activity in this region amounted to approximately 574 million dollars, or 4.1 per cent of the national bill. Colorado, the leading State, had a little over 139 million dollars worth of construction; Arizona was second with 101 million dollars, and New Mexico third with 69 million dollars. Among the five remaining States, new construction expenditures ranged from 36 million dollars in Nevada to a little over 66 million dollars in Utah. About 65 percent of the regional construc tion bill went for privately financed construc tion. About 158 million dollars of this was spent for residential building, 87 million dol lars for factories, stores, offices, and the like, and the rest for farm and public utility con struction. Public construction expenditures accounted for a much smaller percentage of the total than they normally do. In 1947, only slightly more than 34 percent of the new con struction put in place was publicly financed, as compared with about 57 percent in 1939. From 1939 to 1947 the Mountain States’ share of the Nation’s construction went down from 4.6 percent to 4.1 percent, but this is not an indication of a permanent loss. Relative gains were made in private residential and nonresidential building, but publicly financed construction was low in comparison with pre war. The region’s share of national expendi tures for conservation and development fell from 21 percent in 1939 to 18 percent in 1947. Such projects are much more extensive in the Mountain States than in other parts of the country, except for the Pacific States; and, because of the small population, their effect on total construction activity is much greater in this region than elsewhere. The Future The immediate outlook for construction in the Mountain States is very favorable; 1948 will probably turn out to be a much better con struction year for the region than 1947. Ex penditures for conservation and development projects began to pick up considerably in 1947, as compared with the previous year, and fur ther gains should be made in this type of construction. A booming tourist business is acting as a fillip to the whole regional economy, as well as a direct stimulus to construction ac tivity; and, because of population increase, the demand for residential building is good. As elsewhere, the volume of construction activity 117 Table 18.— Estimated expenditures for new construction, 19U7 and 19S9 Total new construction Private resi dential building Private nonresidential building 1947 1947 Total public construction Region and State 1947 1939 1939 Conservation and development 1939 1947 1939 18.2 2.2 1.2 1.8 4.4 1.8 2.6 2.4 1.8 196.2 24.0 19.0 22.5 44.0 22.1 39.2 15.1 10.3 165.7 33.7 9.8 14.8 36.7 17.7 28.3 14.9 9.8 70.1 10.6 9.0 9.3 16.3 4.0 15.8 2.6 2.5 65.1 19.6 1.3 6.4 8.4 7.6 13.9 3.2 4.7 2.3 .3 .2 .2 .6 .2 .3 .3 .2 6.3 .8 .6 .7 1.4 .7 1.3 .5 .3 6.6 1.3 .4 .6 1.5 .7 1.1 .6 .4 17.7 2.7 2.3 2.3 4.1 21.0 6.3 .4 2.1 2.7 2.5 4.5 1947 1939 [Millions of dollars] Mountain.................................. Montana............................... Idaho ..................................... Wyoming.............................. Colorado............................... New Mexico......................... Arizona................................. Utah...................................... Nevada .................................. 574.3 64.0 59.0 40.6 139.0 68.7 100.9 66.4 35.7 289.3 48.0 23.4 27.9 66.1 32.1 41.6 33.1 17.1 157.9 10.3 14.8 5.9 42.2 19.6 21.8 26.4 16.9 54.0 4.9 4.9 3.6 14.6 5.1 7.0 9.9 4.0 86.5 9.2 8.4 2.3 21.2 10.2 18.0 12.4 4.8 [Percent of U. S. total] Mountain.................................. Montana............................... Idaho.... ................................ Wyoming............................ . Colorado............................... New Mexico......................... Arizona................................. U tah...................................... Nevada ................................. 4.1 .5 .4 .3 4.6 .8 .4 .4 1.0 1.0 .5 .7 .5 .3 .5 .7 .5 .3 3.0 .2 .3 .1 .8 .4 .4 .5 .3 2.6 .2 .2 .2 .7 .2 .3 .5 .2 2.7 .3 .3 .1 ,7 .3 .6 4 .2 1.0 4.0 .7 .6 1.0 1.5 Source: U. S. Department o f Commerce, Construction and Construction Materials, Statistical* Supplement, June 1948, tables I, II, and III- is heavily dependent upon national prosperity. In the event of a depression and the slump in demand for heavy goods which inevitably goes with it, the region’s mining industry and its expanded steel industry would be especially hard hit. Although the dollar volume of construction in the Mountain States is relatively small and will be for some time to come, the long-range outlook is one of continued expansion. The re gion is the nearest approach to a frontier in this country and is still in a primary state of industrial development. The basic industries are agriculture and the extractive industries— mining of metal and coal, lumbering, and oil drilling. Further development of oil and coal resources may be expected. Manufacturing be yond the primary processing of raw materials is not extensive, and most of the more highly manufactured goods consumed in the region are made elsewhere. Consequently, in the years to come, the Mountain States should increase their share of the Nation’s population, income, 118 employment, and construction, in contrast to the highly industrialized States which have already reached full maturity and begun to decline in relative importance. In the long run, conservation and develop ment projects will give an indirect boost to con struction through their effect on the over-all regional economy. Extensive irrigation, power, and flood control projects are now under way and others are certain to follow, although the timing for these latter is unpredictable more than a short time in the future. As these projects come about, economic life of all sorts will be stimulated: more land will be made available for farming; more manufacturing will come into the region; population and con struction activity will increase. It should be noted, however, that conservation and develop ment projects are less significant than their size might indicate, from the standpoint of direct employment of people living near them or even within the region. Since such jobs are usually in sparsely populated localities, a work camp is customary and most o f the workers must come from elsewhere. The labor force on such a project commonly includes a high per centage of unattached persons from distant parts of the country. Journeymen living beyond commuting distance of the project and having family responsibilities ordinarily prefer to work on small jobs near their homes. Their employment prospect may be improved, how ever, by migration of other local journeymen to the project. PACIFIC STATES Summary Prospects for the volume of construction employment in the near future are excellent and, on a long-range basis, are much better than for the Nation as a whole. Until the in migrants of recent years are fairly well assimi lated, construction employment will be depend ent on a high general level o f prosperity to a considerably greater degree in this region than elsewhere. Background The three Pacific States— California, Wash ington, and Oregon— constitute a closely inte grated region, with a favorable climate, many resources, and a highly developed agricultural economy. For many years population in the West Coast States (particularly California) has been growing at a much faster rate than in the Nation as a whole. The region’ s wellirrigated farms, expanding oil production, its lumber and its young industries have attracted a continuous stream of migrants. In-migration was especially heavy during the drought of the middle thirties when thousands moved in from “ Dust Bowl” areas between the Mississippi and the Rockies. From 1930 to 1940 there was a regional population increase of 19 percent. But a greater wave of migration took place during and following the war. Population grew by leaps and bounds as newcomers came into the region to work in its aircraft plants, ship yards and other war industries, and in its army camps and naval bases; the influx has continued to the present. It is estimated that in July 1948 civilian population in the Pacific States was 44.4 percent above 1940, compared with a national increase of 10.6 percent. No other regional group even approached this record. The increases were over 40 percent for each State— 44.3 for California, 49.3 for Ore gon, and 41.6 for Washington. California accounts for about one-half of the region’s land area, over 70 percent o f its popu lation, and approximately the same proportion of its factory jobs. Its population in 1940 represented a density of 44 persons per square mile, compared with a concentration o f 30 persons per square mile in Washington and 11 in Oregon. However, regional differences are more accurately presented when State boun daries are ignored. The bulk of California’s population and industry are concentrated in the southern and central parts, extending from the Mexican border north as far as San Fran cisco Bay and Sacramento. This section in cludes the Imperial Valley and other noted fruit-growing and truck-farming areas. Northern California, Washington, and Oregon are much alike. Although there are good fruit growing, farming, and grazing tracts in some sections, a large part of this country is covered with thick forests. This is the Nation’s source of several important kinds of lumber (Douglas fir, western pine, redwood, and others) and of softwood plywood. It is also the leading source of some kinds of sea food. The bulk of the wartime migration was to the region’s four leading metropolitan districts, each of which was an important war produc tion center. The Los Angeles metropolitan area, the largest, had a population of over 3 million in 1940, the San Francisco-Oakland area had about a million and a half, and Seattle, Wash ington, and Portland, Oregon, had a little over 400,000 people each. Undoubtedly these are much larger now. Although there were whole sale lay-offs in aircraft and shipbuilding, the transition to a peacetime economy was fairly smooth. Instead of the expected large-scale exodus of workers, further in-migration took place after the war was over. 119 Although factory employment and total em ployment in the region are below the wartime peak, they are nevertheless considerably above prewar. Peacetime industries are offering more jobs than before, and many of the war plants are being used for the production of consumer goods. Trade and service establishments— an important segment of the region’s economy— were particularly short-handed during the war and began hiring as soon as workers were re leased from war industries. Also, when the war ended, the tourist trade began to get back on its feet, and private homebuilders got back to business in a big way. Food production, lumber and oil production, major peacetime industries which expanded during the war, continued to find ready markets. Among the war-created plants, iron and steel, nonferrous metal, ma chine tool and electrical equipment factories have been converted to the manufacture of peacetime products. Aluminum manufacturing continues to be active, and the metal industry in general seems t© have been permanently stimulated by the war. Not only is there more manufacturing than before the war but there has also been an increase in the volume of manufacturing for Nation-wide markets and of assembling or manufacturing for the western markets in branch plants of national firms. Women’s clothing manufactured in and near Los Angeles is now distributed throughout the country. Doors and other stock millwork items from the northwestern part of the region are important older manufactures for the national market. Postwar Construction In 1947, expenditures for all types of new construction in the Pacific States amounted to almost 2.4 billion dollars. The region was sec ond only to the East North Central States in total dollar volume o f new construction; and California, with over 1.8 billion dollars, ranked first among all States. The other Pacific States, Washington and Oregon, had 358 million and 196 million dollars, respectively. The region led all others in the value of non farm residential building. Almost half of the total regional bill (or about 1.2 billion dollars) went for this type of building. A little over 515 million dollars was spent for nonresidential buildings (factories, stores, offices, etc.). In nonresidential building, the Pacific States, as a group, were outranked by both the East North Central and Middle Atlantic States; but California led all other States individually. Over the period from 1939 to 1947, the Pa cific States made greater construction gains than any other region. The three States com bined increased their portion of construction activity from 13.5 to 17.1 percent of the na- Table 19.— Estimated, expenditures fo r new construction, 19U7 and 1989 Private nonresi dential building Private resi dential building Total new construction Public construction Region and State 1947 1939 1947 1939 1947 1939 1947 1939 515.3 50.7 49.0 415.6 11 2.1 454.1 119.3 43.4 291.4 291.6 71.4 32.0 188.2 lMillions of dollars] Pacific........................... ........... Washington............. ........... Oregon...................... ........... California................. ........... 2388.1 358.0 195.7 1834.4 850.3 12 1.0 62.0 667.3 1157.9 125.0 79.0 953.9 364.2 24.9 14.4 324.9 11.4 6.8 93.9 [Percent of U. S. total] Pacific................................. Washington.............. ..... Oregon................................. California.................... 17 i 2 6 13.5 1.9 14 1.0 13 1 10 .6 2 2 .0 17.2 16.0 2.4 1.5 18.1 1.2 1.6 .7 15.4 1.5 12.9 14.3 1.5 .9 12 .0 14.7 3.9 1.4 9.4 11.7 2.9 1.3 7.5 Source: U. S. Department of Commerce, Construction and Construction Materials, Statistical Supplement, June 1948, tables I, II, and 120 in. tional total. The region was one of the two that came out of the war and the initial impact of reconversion with a significant advance in the relative volume of construction. All other regions, except the West South Central States, either lost in relative standing or at most made slight gains. Among the Pacific States, Califor nia increased its share of the country’s total construction from 10.6 percent in 1939 to 13.1 percent in 1947, the largest relative gain regis tered by any State. Washington and Oregon likewise substantially increased their portions of the national total. The exceedingly high construction rate re flects the huge accumulated demand for addi tional houses, stores, and community facilities created by a decade of in-migration. The hous ing shortage has been especially acute in and around the major West Coast cities. Los Ange les is the most active construction area in the United States. To illustrate, in 1947, Los An geles led all cities in the country in the value of building permits issued. The city was at the top in residential construction, stores and other mercantile buildings, office and bank buildings, and public buildings. The Future As long as prosperity continues, the building industry will be more active in the Pacific States than anywhere else in the country. Be cause of expanding population, it is there that building needs (residential building in parti cular) are most acute. The accumulated back log is large enough to keep the volume of building high for some time to come. But the translation of this need into active demand (and hence the continuation of the building boom) is heavily dependent upon national prosperity. Over the long run, it is likely that construc tion in the Pacific Coast States will continue to operate at a higher level than in the Nation as a whole. Still a comparatively young, growing region, the Pacific States are becoming more industrialized. The war hastened this proc ess and brought a permanent advance in the region’s economy. However, despite favorable long-range prospects, construction will prob ably be more susceptible to business ups and downs in this part of the country than else where. Formerly, the West Coast seemed to have had some immunity against depression— especially short-lived recessions. The slowmoving property income of the wealthy and the fixed income o f retired people acted as a cushion against fluctuations in business activ ity. But— principally because of gains made in factory employment since the beginning o f the war— these stabilizing influences are less sig nificant than in the past. Moreover, wages will become an increasingly important part of re gional income as industrial development con tinues. The large wartime influx of population is another unstabilizing influence. As a result of large-scale in-migration, a much greater proportion of the working population is now dependent upon a full-employment, high-wage economy. This is probably more true in a region with so many recent migrants than in older industrialized parts of the country where the industrial population has more firmly estab lished personal ties. # U . 8. G O V E R N M E N T P R IN T IN G O F F I C E : 1949— 840165 121
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