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EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN IN Beauty Service WOMEN'S BUREAU BULLETIN 260 • 1956 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, James P. Mitchell, Secretary WOMEN'S BUREAU, Mrs. Alice K Leopold, Ho.260 Director unscc. Grinnell College LIBRARY EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN IN Service WOMEN'S BUREAU BULLETIN NO. 260 • 1956 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, J ames P. Mitchell, Secretary WOMEN'S BUREAU, Mrs. Alice K. Leopold, Director U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1956 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D. C. Price 25 cents FOREWORD Beauty service is a promising occupational field for women, and there is every indication that it will continue to be so. It ranks near the top in number of women employed—fourteenth among 446 census occupational items. It offers good opportunities for part-time work. It also affords opportunity for a woman to establish an independent business. This bulletin is one of a series of Women’s Bureau reports on occupa tional opportunities for women. Like others in the series, it gives infor mation on training, entrance requirements, the kind of work done and conditions on the job, earnings, and advancement in the occupation. New features in this report are discussions of State wage and hour regulations applying to beauty-shop employees, and of matters especially important to the woman who wants to open her own beauty shop. The report is designed to be helpful to women workers of all ages who are thinking of entering beauty service. It will assist counselors of women, both in schools and in employment services. It contains information of value to State officials, both on cosmetology boards and on minimum-wage boards. Alice K. Leopold Director, Women’s Bureau. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Women’s Bureau gratefully acknowledges information furnished from numerous sources, and, in particular, review of the manuscript by authori ties in the Division of Vocational Education, U. S. Office of Education; the District of Columbia Board of Cosmetology; and the Anna Burdick Vocational High School, Washington, D. C. The Bureau also greatly appreciates the pictures furnished by the Zontian of Zonta International, Chicago, 111. (fig. 1); Arkana Beautorium and Ru-Lo Academy, Wash ington, D. C. (fig. 2); the Anna Burdick Vocational High School, Wash ington, D. C. (fig. 4); and Cardozo Sisters, Washington, D. C. (fig. 5). This report was prepared in the Bureau’s Division of Program Planning, Analysis, and Reports, by Mary-Elizabeth Pidgeon and Agnes W. Mitchell. CONTENTS I. OPPORTUNITIES IN BEAUTY SERVICE Beauty culture an expanding field............................................................................................. Reasons for increasing opportunity............................................................................................ Location and variety of opportunity.......................................................................................... Effects of general conditions........................................................................................................ Beauty work for women at various ages................................................................................... Married women as beauty operators....................................................................................... Beauty service as a field for handicapped workers................................ ............................. Number oflicensed beauticians................................................................................................. II. OCCUPATIONS AND ADVANCEMENT IN BEAUTY SERVICE The beauty operator........................................................................................................................ Specializations in the large salon............................................................................................... Lines of advancement for the beautician................................................................................ The beauty-shop owner................................................................................................................. Related occupations in and out of the shop: Sales, teaching, make-up for stage, testing new beauty aids, writing, administering State regulations.............................. III. PREPARING FOR BEAUTY OCCUPATIONS Preliminary education................................................................................................................... Training in beauty-culture schools............................................................................................ Apprentice training.......................................................................................................................... Advanced training for specialties.............................................................................................. Obtaining a license as a beauty operator................................................................................ Licensing requirements for special beauty occupations..................................................... IV. THE BEAUTY OPERATOR ON THE JOB Entering the work............................................................................................................................ The beauty operator’s working hours....................................................................................... Part-time work................................................................................................................................. Earnings of beauticians................................................................................................................. The operator who rents a beauty-shop booth....................................................................... Organizations for beauticians..................................................................................................... V. CHOOSING THE OCCUPATION Who should choose beauty service............................................................................................ “Pros and cons” of the beautician’s job.................................................................................. Finding employment as a beauty operator.......................................................................... ILLUSTRATIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. A beauty-shop owner puts finishing touches on a customer’s coiffure................... —Mature women are in demand as beauty operators........................ -Opportunities for advancement for beauticians................................................. —Beauty students in a public vocational high school in a science class................. Manicuring is one of the first duties assigned to a new operator....................... 1.—A beauty-shop owner puts finishing touches on a customer’s coiffure................................................ 2- Mature women are in demand as beauty operators............................................................... 3- —Opportunities for advancement for beauticians................................................................... 4. —Beauty students in a public vocational high school in a science class..................................................... 5. —Manicuring is one of the first duties assigned to a new operator....................................................... viii 5 n 21 36 v-- ■ ^ 11 21 36 APPENDIX State boards governing cosmetology................................................... Organizations for beauticians........................................................................ Examples of cosmetology training courses.............................................. Beauty-service licenses reported in 1955, by type of license............................................ Beauty operators’ licenses reported in 1950 and 1955, by State..................................... Barbers, beauticians, and manicurists (list of job titles)............................ Selected references ... ............................................................................................................ VI 4j 43 44 47 48 50 cn 50 : Figure 1.—A beauty-shop owner puts finishing touches on a customer’s coiffure. Employment Opportunities for Women in BEAUTY SERVICE I. OPPORTUNITIES IN BEAUTY SERVICE The desire to improve personal appearance is a universal human trait, present among all peoples, in all parts of the world, and in all periods of history. Hair ornaments such as decorated metal hairpins may be seen in museums of bronze-age relics. Soldiers with rows of curled locks are shown on ancient Assyrian stone tablets, and protective metal head cover ings were designed with curls. Even the use of henna is not of recent origin; it was employed in ancient Egypt. The cosmetic arts were associated with medical practice for over 5,000 years, when healing the sick and all forms of personal care were house hold arts carried on by the women of the family. In Egypt and other parts of the ancient world, women were often given beauty care by slave girls. Methods used at home for compounding creams and lotions were described from early times. The Greeks emphasized beauty in every phase of life. Some of their beauticians were personal attendants with spe cialized training who worked under a general director of beauty culture. In the Middle Ages, hairdressing is referred to as one of the trades of women in France. It was not until about 1600 that beauty culture be came distinct from the sphere of medicine. As the newer specialists in coiffure gained prestige, the annals of the times hint that they had lively competition from maids who were accustomed to making expert arrange ments of their ladies’ hair. The preparation and use of cosmetics long continued as a household art, while hairdressing and barbering were devel oping into distinct trades. As occurred in numerous occupations, men were entering what had been almost exclusively a woman’s field. In 1763 it is reported that a hairdressers’ guild was established in France by royal order, an indication that male hairdressers were then predominant. The more modern innovations and inventions were introduced by men, including the marcel wave developed by Marcel Grateau. The perma nent-wave machine was devised by Charles Nessler in 1905, but was not perfected sufficiently to be widely used for some years. By the 1920’s, the popularity of the permanent wave was firmly established and short 379716 0 - 56 -2 1 2 Employment Opportunities for Women hair was coming into vogue. Both these developments in hair styling required professional skill and equipment. Beauty Culture an Expanding Field It was not until very recent times that women received beauty care so generally in commercial shops. 1 he modern beauty-culture business is an extensive and important industry. The total receipts of beauty shops in this country were reported at almost $500 million in 1953, an increase of nearly one-fifth over a 5-year period. At the same time, the majority of individual shops are in the ‘'small business” category, many being owned and operated by one individual. In 1950 the census reported 190,000 women employed in beauty occupations. This total includes beauticians, manicurists, and barbers, as well as managers and proprietors of beauty shops. (See appendix, p. 50, for complete list of jobs covered in the census report.) The growth of the industry over the past 5 years indicates continuing opportunity in this field. The State Board Cosmetology Guide reports an increase of over 16,000 in the number of licenses issued to men and women operators in the States reporting. There were nearly 10,000 more beauty shops in 1955 than in 1950. (See appendix, p. 47.) Several States reported at least 1,000 more shops in 1955 than in 1950 (California, Florida, Ohio, Tennessee, and Texas). The employment trend varies widely among different localities and, of course, the larger cities and more populous States are likely to need more beauticians than smaller places. The number of licenses issued by each State board in 1955 is shown in an appendix table (p. 48). Reasons for Increasing Opportunity The favorable outlook for the beauty-shop business is confirmed by other factors. The growth in population and the increasing employment of women point to a steady flow of customers. There were almost 7 million more adult women in the population in 1955 than there were in 1945. Furthermore, in 1955 there were more women workers than in even the expanded wartime labor force of 1945. Continuation of the demand for beauty services is indicated by the fact that women are increasingly enter ing types of occupations in which their appearance and good grooming are important. Changing hair styles and the development of new beauty processes and methods stimulate the demand for skilled beauty operators. Continual introduction of new cosmetic products also causes more women to use the services of beauty shops. Moreover, women tend to visit beauty shops more frequently as they advance in years, and the average life span of women is longer than it used to be. Beauty Service 3 Location and Variety of Opportunity Beauty culture is not restricted to a limited geographic area. There are beauty shops in all localities, from the smallest shopping center to the largest city, with an accompanying demand for beauty operators, techni cians, and specialists of various kinds in the field of cosmetology. Oper ators work in a variety of settings. The individual may be the only operator in a small shop, or she may work in a beauty salon having 30 to 40 or more operators and assistants. Of the women employed as beauty operators, all but a small number work in beauty shops. Some manicurists work in barber shops. Some beauticians are employed in department-store salons, a few in hotels and resorts, and on ocean liners and transcontinental trains. A very few work for governmental units such as Army posts, mental hospitals, and detention homes and other institutions. Today, as has always been the case, small beauty shops outnumber large shops. The owner-operator frequently works alone, or with the assistance of one to three employees. Most of the larger shops naturally are located where the population is concentrated—in the great cities. The cosmetology board in Michigan reported that the average shop in the State in 1954 was composed of three persons, including the owner. This board considered a shop to be a large salon when it had 10 to 40 “all-round” beauticians, with pos sibly 2 to 5 hair stylists and 1 or 2 facial operators, hair dyers, manicurists, and electrologists in addition. Effects of General Conditions Changes in economic conditions may have a marked effect on beautyshop employment. They influence both the number of women seeking beauty services and the number entering the occupation. Women usu ally attach great importance to beauty services, but if their income is reduced this is likely to be an expense that will soon be cut. On the other hand, when their incomes increase, even moderately, women quickly seek additional beauty care. Many women workers left beauty-shop occupations during World War II, because large numbers of other jobs were available at good pay and, in addition, shortages of supplies and equipment made beauty-shop oper ation difficult. Also, some girls who might have become beauty operators entered other work instead. After the war, some of the girls who might have entered training did not do so, because they found cosmetology classes in some public voca tional schools filled with men veterans—about 37,000 of whom took such training under the GI Bill of Rights. Many of these were not permanent additions to the beauty-service field. When the 1950 census was taken, the figures showed that the number 4 Employment Opportunities for Women of women employed in beauty-service occupations was 8 percent smaller than in 1940. There was a decline of similar proportion among men em ployed as barbers or beauticians. In the same period, total employment of both women and men had increased substantially. The introduction of inexpensive home permanent-wave kits, while it helped women meet the shortage of beauty services, was probably not an important factor in the decline in beauty-shop employment. Later figures reported by State cosmetology boards indicate the employment decline as short-lived. The number of beauty operators’ licenses increased between 1950 and 1955, although not in every State. At present, the proportion of men among beauty operators is small. For example, of those having licenses in an eastern city in 1955, about 3 percent were men, and, in a large midwestern city, 2 percent of the opera tors were reported to be men. For the most part, the men in beauty services are in management or the more highly specialized occupations, for which the cosmetology boards of many States require beauty opera tors’ licenses. Many large and exclusive beauty shops in cities are owned and operated by men, and national chains of beauty shops often employ male hair stylists. Beauty Work for Women at Various Ages A woman at almost any age can be successful in the beauty-service field. In many States a woman must be 18 before she can obtain a beauty opera tor’s license; only 3 percent of the women in the occupation are under 20. In some localities, shops prefer beginning beauticians to be at least 20 years of age, and women up to 50 years of age may enter some schools as beginners. The age distribution of women beauticians is shown in the table that follows: Age distribution of women barbers, beauticians, manicurists, 1950 Age (years ) Under 20........................................................................................................ 20, under 25................................................................................................. 25, under 30................................................................................................. 30, under 35................................................................................................. 35, under 45............................................................................................. 45, under 55...................................................................................... 55, under 65................................................................................................. 65 and over................................................................................. Note: Percents do not add to 100, due to rounding. Source: U. S. Bureau of the Census. Decennial Census of Population. Percent distribution . . 3 . . . 12 . . 15 . . 19 . . 30 . . 14 . . 5 .. 1 1950. There is good prospect that the beauty operator can continue in her occupation as long as she has the ability and desire to work. The trend 5 Beauty Service over the past decade toward an increase in the average age of the total population has been reflected among women beauticians, as among other workers. The midpoint in the age of women beauticians was 35 years in 1950, compared to about 30 years in 1940. Among beauty shop owners the average age is likely to be higher than among employees, since it takes time and experience to establish a busi ness. Many women, in the course of long careers in beauty work, be come shop owners and concern themselves chiefly with managerial duties, employing operators for customer service. An experienced beautician who has been out of this type of work for some years can usually obtain employment without difficulty after a short “brush-up” course in a beauty school. Older women patrons sometimes feel more at ease with an operator who is not conspicuously young, and mature women are in demand in some of the more exclusive beauty shops. A public adult-education school in a western city recently reported that half the women who enrolled for beautician training were 35 years of age or older, the oldest being 52. The majority of the women 35 and over were new to this field of work, and some were new to the labor market. Others were re-entering after Figure 2.—Mature women are in demand as beauty operators. II M : m JH ; 6 Employment Opportunities for Women an intermission in employment. Of the women 35 and over, two-thirds com pleted the 9-month course, and all secured good jobs in a short time. A few of them opened their own beauty shops. Some had to drop out because they were sick or moved away from the city, or for other reasons. Married Women as Beauty Operators THe beauty occupations are a promising field of work for married women, whether or not they were so employed before marriage. More than hall of all women beauty operators are married. The frequent de mand for part-time workers in beauty shops makes this field ideal for women who may be able to devote only part of their time to working. In States that do not prohibit beauty shops in private homes, the mar ried beautician may find part-time work at home satisfactory. The proportion of married and single women among experienced women beauticians, barbers, and manicurists and among women in all occupations is shown in the following table: Percent distribution of— Marital status Married (husband present) Single....................................... Other marital status........... Women barbers, beauticians, and manicurists 56 22 22 Note: Percents may not add to 100, due to rounding. Source: U. S. Bureau of the Census. Decennial Census of Population. Women in all occupations 47 32 22 1950. U npublished data trom a Vi-percent sample. Beauty Service as a Field for Handicapped Workers A person having some types of physical handicap may find difficulty in securing a license as a beauty operator, since most States require beauti cians to complete a full course covering all branches of cosmetology. However, several States grant special licenses to handicapped persons en abling them to engage in limited beauty practice at lower pay. Mani curing can be done by a worker who lacks the strength to stand for long periods, or who has limited arm motion. One eastern State issues licenses for manicuring only” and encourages persons who are handi capped to apply. Once obtained, a license can be renewed in most States by payment of a small annual fee. A handicapped operator can, in some instances, give facial massage or electrology treatments. For example, there are blind persons who are experts in massage, and deaf persons who are specialists in electrology. Local offices of State employment services watch continually for jobs suited to workers who have physical handicaps. Number of Licensed Beauticians A guide published for the trade reports that a total of some 500,000 licenses were issued to women and men beauticians throughout the coun- Beauty Service 7 try in 1955. This probably is considerably larger than the number of persons actually practicing as beauticians, for example, many shop owners, beauty teachers, and persons in other allied occupations must have licenses though they are not working as beauticians in shops. Some beauticians keep up their licenses during periods when, for one reason or another, they are not practicing. The figures from some States also may include duplications when a beautician has to have an addi tional license, for example, as an electrologist. And some operators probably obtain licenses to operate in more than one State. II. OCCUPATIONS AND ADVANCEMENT IN BEAUTY SERVICE The Beauty Operator The great majority of workers in beauty shops are operators who pro vide their customers a variety of services. The larger part of such serv ices are related to care of the hair. Beauty operators improve the appearance of the hair by cutting, styling, shampooing and drying, combing, curling, waving, singeing, bleaching, dyeing, or tinting. In addition, they offer facial and scalp treatments, remove superfluous hair, arch and tint eyebrows, and give manicures and other services. The State boards that regulate the beauty industry designate the oper ator in this occupation by various terms: beautician, cosmetologist, cosmetician, beauty culturist, beauty specialist, hairdresser, or beauty operator. In this study, general use is made of the terms beautician and beauty operator. The following pages describe the various kinds of work ordinarily done by the beauty operator in the shop. They also point out lines of advancement in beauty service and closely allied occupations. In establishments with more than two or three operators some special ization is possible, and one operator may work primarily with the hair while others perform more varied services. The hairdresser works on the hair and scalp exclusively. She cuts and styles the customer s hair and shampoos it. She may also dye, tint, or bleach hair. She gives a finger wave with water or wave solution or winds the hair into pin curls while wet. She gives permanent waves by the hot or cold process. She may curl the hair by the marcel method, though this is now used relatively little because of the development of the permanent wave. She usually dries the hair with a helmet-type electric drier and regulates the temperature; combs out the hair after drying; and dresses it in a becoming style. If a permanent wave is to be given, the hairdresser does the prepara tory winding of the hair, using suitable lotions depending on the kind of wave. If the hot-wave process is used, she places the customer under the permanent-wave machine and operates the machine the required length of time. She takes off the appliances, gives the hair another shampoo, and arranges it. When permanent waves are given by the cold-wave method, the winder, who winds the hair on curlers, and the tearing-down assistant, who removes all paraphernalia from the customer’s hair after the wave has been given, must be highly skilled operators, as these processes require 8 Beauty Service 9 delicate handling and great care to retain the new curls and obtain desirable results. In larger shops the hairdresser often has assistants or helpers to do the simpler tasks, so that she can concentrate on the more skilled operations of cutting and styling the hair. These helpers may be apprentices, if the State cosmetology board permits apprentice training, or they may be newly licensed operators. In a few States they may be junior operators who serve a designated period of from 3 to 12 months after graduation from a beauty school before they are licensed as regular operators. A helper may be a shampooer who washes and rinses the customer’s hair or applies soapless shampoos. A helper may also work as a drier attendant, placing customers under electric driers, regulating the heat, and noting when the hair has become completely dry. The customer’s hands are cared for in the beauty shop by the mani curist, who cleans, shapes, and polishes the nails. She may apply lotion to the hands. After treatment, she cleans and sterilizes the instruments and equipment used and immerses them in an antiseptic solution for future use. This is considered a relatively simple type of work. Usually manicuring in a typical beauty shop is done by an operator who per forms other services also. However, some girls are trained as manicur ists only. They are generally employed in large beauty salons or in barber shops. Specializations in the Large Salon In large beauty salons greater specialization is practiced than in smaller beauty shops, and more attention may be given to hair styling. The hairdresser may, for example, specialize as aJingerwave operator, work ing exclusively with water or hair-wave solution, waving the hair with comb and fingers or metal curlers. Or she may work exclusively as a permanent-wave operator. Some shops also may have a special marcel operator. Hair styling.—The creation of hair styles that are becoming and dis tinctive offers scope for artistic ability. Some hair stylists become em inent artists in the field of beauty culture and command high returns for their services. The hair stylist studies the features, neckline, and head contour of the patron and observes the texture, color, and quantity of the hair. The physical appearance, figure, age of her customer, and cur rent modes of dress are taken into consideration. The customer usually has suggestions to make as to her personal preferences, which must be taken into account. The stylist then selects the most becoming arrange ment, and does the cutting and shaping necessary for the style she is creating. She may do the shampooing and curling, or this may be done by other operators under her direction. She may take over and com379716 0 - 56 -3 10 Employment Opportunities for Women plete the hairdress after shampooing. The successful stylist may demon strate hair styling at fashion shows and at hairdressers’ conferences or act as an instructor in a hair-styling school. A special form of hairdressing is that of the wig-dresser, who arranges wigs according to the customer’s specifications by curling, marcelling, trimming, or setting the hair to produce the desired effect. The wigdresser may render services in a beauty shop, or work for actors and ac tresses in the recreation and amusement field. Customers with abnormally dry or oily hair are given special treat ment by the scalp-treatment operator. She advises on appropriate care and may give steam or other simple treatments by a standard method. She may use various devices, such as therapeutic lights and mechanical vibra tors. If a contagious infection or some other abnormal condition is present, the operator should be able to recognize it and advise the cus tomer to see her physician. Hair coloring.—Another phase of the work that requires special skill is hair coloring, including dyeing and bleaching. It is true that the hair dyer depends largely'on the manufacturer’s directions in the coloring process but, for a successful and natural-looking result, a knowledge of the use of chemicals is desirable. If the hair is dry or unhealthy, the customer is often advised against the use of dyes or bleaches. The cus tomer’s skin should be tested for sensitivity. After application of the liquids, the hair is shampooed to remove excess chemicals. Facial treatments.—The facial operator specializes in improving the condition and appearance of the patron’s complexion. She examines the skin and determines its type and condition—for example, whether dry or oily. She gives facial treatments with creams, lotions, and astrin gents; applies cosmetics; and advises on the most effective use of cosmetics. She may give a series of treatments over a period of several weeks. Electrology.—A few large shops employ a licensed electrologist, whose work is to remove superfluous hair from the face or neck. This is a delicate and skilled process. By a method introduced in the 1870’s, the operator uses multiple needles of platinum iridium and a high-fre quency electric current. Recently, a more rapid radio short-wave has come into use, with a single needle. The electrologist must learn the physiological nature of hair, appraise differences in hair, and develop great patience and exactitude in the work. It was estimated in 1953 that some 3,000 electrologists were practicing, nine-tenths of whom were self-employed and three-fourths of whom were women. Reducing treatments.—Some beauty shops offer reducing treatments, including massage and heat treatments. The attendants performing these services must have specialized training and may need a special license. The reducing machine operator treats certain portions of the 1 1 Beauty Service body with a muscle-vibrating machine to correct maldistribution of weight. She assists the customer, affixes the electric pads, and regulates the current. She applies lotions before and after the treatments. Lines of Advancement for the Beautician The woman who wishes to advance needs to be ready at all times to observe new methods arising in this ever-changing field. Her own keen ness and initiative may help her to become highly expert at a particular specialization, or to enter new avenues. An experienced beauty operator may advance to the position of manager of a large beauty shop or a chain of shops throughout a city or area. Or she may desire to develop a business of her own. On the other hand, if she prefers to continue as an expert all-round operator she may wish to seek some unusual location. A number of other types of related work offer possibilities to a capable person experienced in this field. Experience in a beauty shop and a beauty operator’s license will be of advantage in many of these jobs, though not always required. For example, a beautician may plan to devote her attention primarily to cosmetic sales, either in the shop or elsewhere. Or she may decide to engage in teaching beauty culture, or in some other specialization outside the regular beauty shop. Management and supervision.—After 2 or 3 years of shop experience, the beautician may have an opportunity to undertake the more respon- Figure 3.—Opportunities for advancement for beauticians. OWNER OF SHOP OR CHAIN OF SHOPS SPECIALIST (shop) in:' SHOP MANAGER fSPECIALIST in Hair styling related work Hair coloring Permanent waving Scalp care EXPERIENCED Cosmetics saleswoman GENERAL OPERATOR Beauty-culture teacher Demonstrator Facial treatment Beauty consultant Make-up \ Electrology Manicures . NEWLY LICENSED OPERATOR STUDENT OR APPRENTICE 12 Employment Opportunities for Women sible position of manager or assistant manager in one of the larger beauty shops. The manager handles the shop finances, purchases and distri butes the supplies, keeps the records, supervises the personnel, and may be responsible for interviewing applicants. The manager usually arrives earlier and stays later than the other employees. Courses in accounting, bookkeeping, business English for skill in letter-writing, advertising, and sales promotion are good preparation for this kind of work. While chiefly concerned with the bookkeeping and the financial aspects, the manager in most successfully operated shops, large as well as small, gives beauty treatments part of the time to keep up with changing trends. With her practical experience, she is qualified to discuss beauty service with patrons with regard to their particular needs. In a large shop, some of the duties are delegated to an assistant manager, with a general manager in charge of the entire shop. An experienced operator may become a supervisor for a chain of beauty shops. To maintain uniformity and efficiency among the per sonnel, she inspects the shops in the chain, and may give some instruc tion to the operators. She must be highly competent, have good organ izing ability, and be free to travel. A pleasing manner is an asset, as she meets the executives in hotels, department stores, and other organizations where the beauty shops are located. When she has experience and a good record of accomplishment, this type of worker commands an excel lent salary and usually is provided with an expense account. The Beauty-Shop Owner Beauty service is an occupation in which many workers go into busi ness for themselves. It is a promising field for a woman with some capital to invest, since the great majority of beauty shops are small estab lishments. Four of every ten beauty operators were in business for them selves, according to the census report of occupations in 1950. The majority of owners of beauty shops are licensed operators, and usually they give some beauty treatments to patrons. In about half of the States, however, the law does not require the owner to be a licensed beautician, provided she employs licensed operators. Training advantageous.—The woman who wishes to establish her own business will do well to work as an employee in a beauty shop until she has gained experience. Some States require an operator to have from 1 to 3 years of experience before she can obtain a license for her own shop. It has been suggested that usually at least 5 years are needed to develop the confidence and business experience necessary for making a financial success of a new shop. This gives a woman more time to at tract patrons who prefer her services, and who may become the nucleus of regular customers for her own establishment. Beauty Service 13 For a shop owner, business knowledge and ability are essential for success. A course in business management is therefore of great impor tance for a woman planning to open a beauty shop. Many beauty schools offer courses which cover planning the shop, selecting supplies, equipment, and personnel, salesmanship and advertising, payroll and recordkeeping in the shop, banking, and relationship with patrons. In starting a business, a prospective owner has many decisions to make. Questions she must deal with include the best location for the shop, the cost of both quarters and equipment, effective methods of ad vertising and promotion, and the processes necessary to secure a license and conform to State regulations of various types. Initial costs.—The decision whether to buy or rent quarters depends on the amount of initial capital available, as well as the geographic region, the size of the community, and the section of the city. For ex ample, a ground-floor location usually attracts customers more readily than a shop which must be reached by taking an elevator or climbing stairs. If buying a ground-floor shop requires too much capital, it may be wise to rent one rather than purchase a less accessible location. Some women start by opening a beauty shop in their own homes, but in many places this cannot be done because of State law or because of local zoning or sanitary regulations. A home shop has the advantage of time saving, as the owner can manage her own household during slack hours in the shop; and it requires a minimum of capital. On the other hand, such a shop is likely to draw on a smaller potential customer group than one located in a business section. The necessary equipment may be rented with the shop or purchased outright. If purchased, it may be paid for by a down payment and regular installments. To equip a one-woman shop even on a modest scale probably would require over $2,000 at current prices. Some sav ings may be effected by purchasing used equipment. The new owner should avoid purchasing more equipment than is needed for the efficient operation of the shop. Expenses necessarily will be greater for the shop owner who hires one or more operators in addition to working as an operator herself. More extensive working quarters will be needed; operators must be paid their salaries or commissions regularly; and more equipment will be required. It is estimated that at least $5,000 would be needed for the equipment to open a four-booth shop. Another expense is the purchase of supplies that must be kept current. There also are other regular expenses, as, for example, telephone service and laundry. In addition, enough working capital will be needed to carry on the business until it begins to show a profit. Sometimes two women together (or a married couple) operate a beauty shop as a part 14 Employment Opportunities for Women nership. The partners divide the profits so that each receives an equal share or a share proportionate to her investment. Before opening a shop, it is necessary in most States to obtain a shop owner’s permit from the board of cosmetology. (See list of State boards in appendix, p. 41.) The fee for this is usually higher than for an oper ator’s license. The permit must be renewed at intervals required by the State, annually or biennially, at a renewal fee usually less than that for the initial permit. Health safeguards.—The owner of a beauty shop needs to know the local standards of sanitation and safety, to make certain that she is con forming with the law. Most States have established detailed sanitary codes for beauty shops relating to cleanliness of the shop, sterilization procedures, washroom facilities, and many other phases of the work. Usually the State board of cosmetology provides for a periodic inspec tion. Some cities and counties also have local sanitary and fire-preven tion requirements with which the owner must comply. Administrative duties.—The operator of a one-woman shop has many administrative duties. Besides giving beauty services, she makes appointments, purchases supplies, keeps the financial records, and sells cosmetics. Recordkeeping is required for income-tax and sales-tax pur poses. Insurance of various types is needed in this kind of work. The shop owner who employs assistants has more complicated admin istrative problems. She is expected to observe the many regulations ap plicable to businesses having employees, such as minimum-wage and hour laws, and the furnishing of uniforms, tools, and equipment to workers. In addition to her own income tax and social-security pay ments, she has to make payroll deductions for purposes of income tax and for old-age and unemployment insurance for the employees. If pay ments are made to beauty operators on a commission basis, the varying amounts must be worked out to the satisfaction of both employer and employee. Detailed information on the opening and operation of a beauty shop can be found in a bulletin published by the Department of Commerce, entitled “Establishing and Operating a Beauty Shop,” available in libraries. Related Occupations In and Out of the Shop Sales occupations.—The sale of cosmetics and promotion of sales afford an additional range of occupations for beauticians. Some of these jobs require an operator’s license while others do not, but training and experience as a beautician are an advantage. A cosmetics saleswoman may work in a beauty shop, but more often she is found in a drug or department store. She may be known as a Beauty Service 15 beauty consultant or a beauty counselor, but her principal function is to sell beauty products and to advise customers on the products best suited to their individual requirements. Some beauty shops find the sale of cosmetics profitable. Manufac turers pay the shopowner a commission on sales, up to 10 percent. Cosmetics manufacturers usually lease concessions in large retail stores. The manufacturer employs the cosmetics saleswoman directly and gives her thorough training in the use of his special products. He may prefer to hire a beautician because her experience enables her to advise custom ers on their beauty problems and thus increase the sale of the products. Usually she is paid on the basis of a straight commission on sales. An experienced cometics saleswoman may advance to the position of buyer for the cosmetics section of a store or of a chain of stores. The buyer must have good judgment in purchasing stock for retailing. She must be able to recommend appropriate lines and quantities of cosmetics that can be sold profitably. In order to know developments in the trade, she attends trade shows and demonstrations of new items introduced by cosmetics manufacturers. Successful buyers receive relatively large salaries. Another type of beauty-service occupation is that of demonstrator, also sometimes called manufacturer’s representative. She is, in fact, a cos metics saleswoman who calls attention to the products of her firm by demonstrating their application and, as in the case of the cosmetic sales woman already described, a demonstrator may be called a beauty con sultant, counselor, or adviser. The demonstrator works directly with the public, usually in retail stores. She analyzes the various types of hair, skin, and coloring of cus tomers and recommends her manufacturer’s cosmetics or treatments. Because of restrictions in certain States, the demonstrator may not be permitted to apply any cosmetic product directly to the customer’s skin or hair; she may demonstrate only on herself. A beauty operator’s license is required for such workers in some States. In addition to de partment stores and drug stores, some chain grocery stores and limitedprice stores have installed cosmetics counters, with a licensed beauty demonstrator in charge. The demonstrator must have sales ability and be attractive in appear ance. She may be sent out from the firm’s headquarters to spend most of her time in one place. Or she may travel to local stores or shops in different cities, working in one place for a few days or weeks. Before she begins the work, the company gives her a training course in the use of the products she will demonstrate. She receives a commission on sales, sometimes in addition to a basic salary. The firm usually pays her traveling expenses. 16 Employment Opportunities for Women Differing somewhat from the demonstrator in skill and conditions of work, though sometimes also called a demonstrator, is the trade technician. She may be called also a special representative, or manufacturer’s agent. She works with buyers of cosmetics for stores or shops, including shop owners, largely on a wholesale basis. The importance of such an occu pation is indicated in the new products continually being put on the market by the billion-dollar-a-year cosmetics industry. Such a worker must be well acquainted with the beauty field and be effective as a sales woman. The manufacturer usually requires that she have a beauty operator’s license, because the technician deals to a large extent with people trained in the trade. As in the case of the saleswoman and the demonstrator, the company gives the trade technician a detailed course of training to familiarize her fully with the line of products she is to sell. Usually the trade technician is assigned to a definite territory. She travels throughout this territory, revisiting from time to time the beauty shops and stores in her area to increase sales, introduce new products, and develop new outlets for the company’s business. One such worker, for example, covers seven States for a manufacturer. She is a college graduate with business training, as well as an experienced beauty operator. The worker in this occupation is likely to have irregular working hours. She may visit stores and shops by day and attend conferences by night. She receives a good salary; the company pays her traveling ex penses; and she is given a commission on sales. Such jobs may open a considerable vista of opportunity for the able woman. She advises retailers on the lines of stock needed in the store or shop. She may train classes of sales girls in a retail store, or a group of beauticians in large beauty shops, in the use of her employer’s products. For this type of work the State may require a beauty teacher’s license. She may organize trade shows, prepare exhibits for the company, attend trade conferences, and give demonstrations. She may have opportunity to go to a foreign country to introduce the products of her firm. Trade technicians or special representatives may also sell new equip ment rather than cosmetic products alone. After the sale is made, such a worker may be present at the installation of the new equipment or on receipt of the supplies, to see that their use has a smooth start. If com plaints should arise, they will be referred to her for investigation. For example, a woman now a successful teacher in beamy-culture classes in a public vocational school in the East formerly was a trade technician with an elec tric company, selling equipment to beauty shops. She demonstrated the appara tus at the different shops in her area, and after sales were made she visited the shops to give instructions on the use of the mechanism. Teaching cosmetology.—Opportunities in teaching beauty culture have increased, as States have gradually raised the standards for the Beauty Service 17 training of beauty operators. Teachers who are experienced beauticians are in demand to conduct cosmetology classes in both public and private schools. State requirements for teaching in this field are discussed in chapter III. Teachers of cosmetology, whether in public vocational or private beauty schools, teach the skills involved in hairdressing, haircutting, and other arts of the beautician, and supervise the practice work. In a pub lic vocational school the students have other teachers for the academic work in English, arithmetic, and science. In a private beauty school, if such courses are offered, the cosmetology teacher may be expected to teach some of them. Teachers in public vocational schools receive a regular salary under an annual contract and are not affected by seasonal slumps or rush periods. They have the status of a teacher in the community. In some places the public school system protects the tenure of employment of teachers who meet certain requirements. Another attractive feature—retirement funds for teachers are provided by many public school systems. Large communities also may need the services of a substitute teacher in beauty culture—a good part-time job for a married beautician. In the private beauty-culture school, besides the general teaching staff, teachers may be employed for such specialties as hair styling, hair color ing, hair curling, and make-up services. They are more highly paid than the general teachers. They also may work on a part-time basis. Most private schools operate throughout the year, but they may permit teachers to have 2 or 3 weeks of vacation with pay. Some encourage continuous service by paying a bonus—a percentage of the annual salary. Teachers in private schools may be expected to teach in night school, but their total hours of work usually do not exceed 40 a week. Large private schools may have a supervisor similar to the public school department head who plans the program and oversees the work of teachers. They may have a managing director to handle the financial business of the school and purchase supplies. Such employees must have executive ability and a number of years of practical experience in the industry and usually some management training. In a private school the position of registrar is of great importance and includes a wide range of duties. The registrar must answer the inquiries of applicants as to available courses and carry on correspondence for the school. Her activities are an important feature in the promotion and success of the school, and require a broad knowledge of beauty culture work and opportunities. She is responsible for all records and statistics on attendance. She also aids in the placement of graduates. Make-up for stage, screen or television.—Although many make up artists are not trained beauticians, some beauty operators are em ployed in the recreation and amusement field, assisting actors and ac 18 Employment Opportunities for Women tresses to prepare for stage productions or for television and motion picture work. Make-up artists apply cosmetics to the face and sometimes dress the hair in a style appropriate to the character being portrayed. The effect of artificial lighting is necessarily taken into con sideration in this type of work, and techniques differ considerably for stage and television. An imaginative beautician interested in make-up may work with a photographic studio. As the name implies, the body make-up woman assists actors and ac tresses by applying cosmetics to other parts of the body to match the facial cosmetics in color tone and texture. Testing new beauty aids.—A special type of research laboratory as sistant serves as a liaison between the laboratory, where products are developed, and other departments where they are tested in practical use. For example, one experienced beautician worked for a period of years in the laboratory of an electrical company, aiding in the manufacture of electrical equipment for use in beauty shops by testing the products in practical use. Thus, she carried on experimental work in perfecting the machines. A 40-hour week is customary in this type of work. The standard of pay depends largely on the special job requirements and the expertness of the individual. The laboratory worker may devise original tests for new products. This is a challenging field of work, necessitating keen observation and good judgment in evaluating results. Careful and complete records of proce dures must be kept, and the ability to write clear and accurate reports of the tests and the accomplishments is essential. Outstanding research workers sometimes write papers on experiments for presentation to scien tific or professional societies or for publication in scientific journals. Writing on beauty subjects.—There is a wide field for writers on beauty culture. Not only do research workers write on this subject as a part of their work, but some beauticians who are good writers prepare articles for trade journals or other publications. The writing field for beauty operators includes both editorial comment and promotional writ ing. A beauty-culture magazine may employ an editor and possibly an editorial assistant to prepare articles for the journal. In addition, inde pendent or free-lance writers may prepare articles for sale to publishers. Administering State beauty-culture regulations.—Almost all States have boards of cosmetology, the only exceptions being Delaware and Virginia. The State boards generally are composed of from three to five persons, usually with considerable experience in the trade. In about three-fourths of the States board members are appointed directly by the governor; the remainder are under a department in the State, such as public health or education. (For a list of State boards, see appendix P-41.) Beauty Service 19 The board conducts examinations and grants licenses for all types of operation in the field of beauty culture, supervises inspections of beauty shops to be sure that all operators are licensed and that regulations are observed, and approves beauty-culture schools. Questions on qualifica tions for license, time of examination, available schools, and pertinent labor laws should be directed to the State board of cosmetology. The chairman of the board sometimes is a full-time employee, or the board may employ a full-time secretary. Other board members, possi bly physicians, beauty-shop owners, or others competent in this field, usually are paid on a per diem basis. In some cases it is provided that no person connected with a beauty school may serve on the board. Some times State regulations require that the part-time members must devote at least a minimum number of days a year to the work. To aid in enforcing laws applying to beauty shops, most States employ full-time inspectors who are experienced beauticians, and usually assign them to particular areas. The inspectors visit the beauty shops in the area a specified number of times during the year, make certain that every operator has a valid license on display; inspect sanitary conditions in the shop; and report to the cosmetology board whether all laws relat ing to beauty shops are being observed. The expense of travel and other legitimate disbursements are paid in addition to salaries. State cosmetology boards have examiners to prepare and administer the periodic examinations given for operators and evaluate the results. Fre quently, the examiners are teachers from public or private beauty schools who supervise the written part of the test, and practicing beauticians who test practical skills. They are employed for only short periods in the year, and are paid by the day. III. PREPARING FOR BEAUTY OCCUPATIONS Preliminary Education The majority of the States 1 have minimum educational requirements for the student who wants to take a beauty-school course. In almost a third of the States the cosmetology boards require completion of at least the tenth grade, and in two of these the prospective student must be a high-school graduate. Most of the remaining States require completion of the eighth grade. However, girls considering careers as beauty operators are strongly ad vised to complete high school. Many employers prefer workers who are high-school graduates. If a beautician later wishes to become a teacher in a beauty school, she may find that a high-school certificate is required for instructors. If a beauty operator later decides to open her own shop, she will be at a disadvantage without a high-school education. With beauty occupations in mind, a girl should take courses in chemistry, Eng lish, commercial arithmetic, biology or physiology, and, if possible, health education. Training in Beauty-Culture Schools The girl planning to become a beautician should make certain that she prepares herself with a well-rounded course in an approved beauty-cul ture school. Before choosing a school, she should consult her high-school counselor or some other qualified source, such as the State department of education or the State board of cosmetology. Courses in cosmetology are offered free by public vocational schools and on a tuition basis by private schools. In 1955 some 1,100 schools in large and small communities throughout the country offered cosmetology courses. Usual requirements, in addition to the minimum education mentioned, include an age minimum, a health certificate, and a blood test. This means that in most States the applicant must be at least 16 years of age. As the educational standards in cosmetology become higher, the specifi cations on entry age will become less important—a girl with adequate schooling will be mature enough to give a satisfactory performance in the schoolroom and practice classes. Beauty training in public vocational schools.—In 1955, reports from 33 States show 178 public vocational schools providing training for ' Where States are cited in this report, this general term includes the District of Columbia, and Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. The total is 52; 50 have laws requiring the licensing of beautyshop operators. 20 21 Beauty Service beauty service. The great majority of these schools received aid from the Federal Government. Federally aided schools enrolled over 12,000 women students in courses for beauty operators in 1955. Vocational courses also are given in schools supported solely by State and local governments. As to costs, no tuition is charged for students in public schools, but they must purchase a certain amount of equipment. They usually purchase cosmetic supplies from the school, which buys in quantity and sells at cost to the students. The total outlay may amount to $20 or $30. Stu dents furnish the uniforms and the white shoes and hose worn during the practice periods. They also pay for the physical examination required before admission, unless it is given by the school physician. Programs in public vocational schools usually include cosmetology training in connection with high-school courses lasting from 1 to 4 years, depending on the girl’s previous schooling. Besides learning the skills of the occupation, the students are expected to take academic subjects which lead to a vocational high-school diploma. Flowever, some public vocational schools offer cosmetology courses restricted to the theory and Figure 4.—Beauty students in a public vocational high school in a science class. I i 379716 O -56 -4 |j 4 22 Employment Opportunities for Women practice ot beauty culture, giving only the minimum amount of training prescribed by the State board of cosmetology to qualify for the licensing examination. Some vocational schools also have separate full-time classes with courses similar to those for girls of high-school age, but geared to the needs of adult students. Examples of cosmetology training courses in public vocational schools are shown in the appendix, p. 44. Foi vocational high-school students taking a cosmetology course, the schedule of classes is often arranged so that the classroom work takes half the day and practice work the other half. The classroom training usually includes an introduction to the scien tific basis of cosmetology for example, the applied principles of physi ology , bacteriology, anatomy, and chemistry. Students also study sanita tion, physical therapy, and applied electricity. As many beauticians eventually own and manage their own shops, courses in management and recordkeeping may be given. These usually cover the planning of a shop, selection of equipment and supplies, dispensing of cosmetics, care oftools and equipment, the keeping of an appointment book, principles of advertising, payroll computations, handling of bank accounts, and establishment of good relations with customers and personnel. In practice periods, the work is on the basis of individual instruction to a great extent, and therefore classes are kept small. In some States the law limits to 20 the number of cosmetology pupils per teacher. The students usually practice on each other for the first part of the course, some instructors arranging for a rotation system. Later they may prac tice on girls from other classes or from other schools. In one trade school, for example, a girl who is not a cosmetology student must have perfect attendance with no tardiness for a week in order to be eligible for beauty service. During the latter part of their course, the students give waves and haircuts to customers who pay a fee smaller than commercial rates to cover costs of materials. The students work on these “models,” as they arc called, under close supervision by the instructors. While the stu dents work more slowly than experienced beauticians, the instructors as sert that the final results are satisfactory. Practice is given in hairdress ing, including waving, cutting, and shampooing. Students also are taught how to give cosmetic treatments, manicures, and, in some schools, pedicures. By the time the course is completed, the student is prepared to qualify as an operator by taking the licensing examination given by the State board of cosmetology. She has learned to use some of the elements of science in her practical work; to develop judgment in the use of tools, equipment, and materials; and to take precautions to safeguard her own health and that of her fellow workers and customers. The school also Beauty Service 23 seeks to aid the student in developing desirable personal relationships, so that she can make a satisfactory adjustment when she begins actual work in the beauty-culture field. The program sometimes is slightly altered for the few male students who enter cosmetology courses. They may have more training in hair styling than the women students. Since they often plan to become shop owners, the business courses may be stressed. Many schools operate night classes. Those attending may be former beauty operators who want a “brush-up” course before renewing their licenses, or practicing operators who desire to learn the latest methods, procedures,, and equipment in this fast-changing type of work, or to learn specialties such as hair styling or hair coloring. As soon as these eve ning students learn the skill which interests them, they leave the class. However, some schools provide night classes for beginners employed in other types of work during the day. For a high-school graduate, it takes from 2 to 4 years to complete in night school the full course leading to a beauty license. If not a high-school graduate, a beginner may have to take academic courses in addition to the cosmetology program, thus ex tending the time. Private beauty-culture schools.—There are many more private beauty schools than there are public vocational schools offering courses in beauty culture. Over 900 private schools were reported in 1955. New students are admitted throughout the year; one private school, for instance, admits students each Monday. Private schools usually require full-time daily attendance. Some admit women up to and beyond 50 years of age as beginners. The students in private schools, like those in public schools, work on “dummy” heads or on each other in practice periods until they have acquired sufficient skill to give beauty treatments to the public under the supervision of instructors. The “models” on whom they then practice are charged low rates. The tuition costs in private schools vary considerably, depending on the type of school, prices in the locality, the extent to which equipment is furnished, and number of hours of training required by the State cos metology board. The main objective of private beauty schools usually is to train beau ticians and prepare students for the licensing examination. For this reason they usually omit the academic classes required in most—though not all—public vocational schools. As soon as a student has completed the required practice hours, she is ready to take the examination. For example, in one city where 1,500 clock hours of practice are required for a license, students in private schools complete their courses in 8 to 9 months. In the same area students in vocational schools, which give high-school instruction in ad dition to the beauty training, usually complete the 1,500 hours in 2 years and may Employment Opportunities for Women 24 then take the licensing examination; after obtaining an operator’s license, they can work part time until they have completed the requirements for a high-school diploma. Some private schools have more comprehensive schedules, however. These give instruction in basic and related sciences, with some training in business management and good opportunities in practice work. One such school holds a class in theory for an hour each morning and has an examination period each week to determine the progress being made. Apprentice Training Beauty operators sometimes learn their skills as apprentices. As inex perienced workers they enter a beauty shop and are trained on the job by experienced operators. In about half the States the boards of cos metology accept apprentice training under an approved operator as a qualification for the licensing examination, in lieu of attendance at a beauty-culture school. The period of apprenticeship required varies widely, but usually is longer than the term at a beauty school. For example, the Maryland board requires 9 months (1,500 clock hours) of train ing in a beauty school or an apprenticeship period of 2 years as a qualification for the licensing examination. In Nebraska, the board accepts apprentice training for as little as 8 months. Arizona and Georgia specify 3 years of apprentice training. Wisconsin and Hawaii require 4,000 clock hours of apprenticeship. Missouri re quires 2,000 clock hours of apprenticeship in 1 year; New Hampshire, 2,000 hours in 2 years. In a number of States the apprentice is required to pay for an appren tice permit costing from $1 to $3. Apprentices usually are paid while in training. One State, Wisconsin, registers a substantial number of cosmetology apprentices. In this State, the apprentice may begin with a wage set at 30 to 40 percent of the licensed operator’s wage. This rate is gradually increased as the training progresses. When she is near the end of the training period and has acquired most of the skills of the trade, the trainee may be receiving about 90 percent of the licensed operator’s wage. The success of the apprenticeship method, particularly where specified standards do not exist, depends largely upon the operator who under takes to do the training. In some cases, the operator may be inclined to give time to the apprentice only when she is not busy with her customers, so that the training tends to become somewhat perfunctory. However, some State cosmetology boards have strict regulations for shops that train apprentices and establish standards similar to those for beauty schools. The licensed beauty operator who trains an apprentice may be required to obtain an authorization for this purpose from the board. Details may be prescribed as to the terms and conditions of work and the number of hours of apprentice training necessary for each type of beauty treatment. Beauty Service 25 New Hampshire specifies that a beautician must have 2 years of experi ence before she is permitted to train an apprentice. The apprentice method of training for beauticians is less prevalent than education in a beauty school. As has already been indicated, only about half of the States accept apprentice training as preparation for the licens ing examination. In addition, the number of apprentices may be regu lated to prevent using several apprentices as assistants, merely to lower operation costs. For example, the number of apprentices in a shop may be limited to one, or one to every three operators. No figures are available on the number of apprentice-trained beauty operators in the country as a whole. But, in Michigan, for example, where apprentice training is permitted, the cosmetology board reported that in 1954 somewhat less than 9 percent of the licensed operators had had apprentice training. And Wisconsin, one of the few States that registers cosmetology apprentices under a Federal-State apprentice-train ing program, reported 304 in September 1955; this is in the ratio of 1 apprentice to about 24 licensed beauty operators. Advanced Training for Specialties If a beauty operator wishes to become a specialist in some branch of the work such as hair styling, hair coloring, or scalp or facial treatments, she may need additional training. Both public vocational schools and private schools frequently operate advanced classes for practicing opera tors, usually at night for the convenience of employed beauticians. Simi larly, if the operator seeks an executive position as shop manager, or desires to become a teacher in a beauty school, she will find it of advantage to attend special classes. Some State cosmetology boards have detailed requirements for such jobs; a beauty operator desiring full information should consult the cosmetology board of her State. For the specialized occupation of electrology, instruction frequently is given in regular beauty-culture courses. In addition, a number of schools offer special training. Instruction for this occupation sometimes is given under the apprenticeship system by an electrologist in a beauty shop. A few higher educational institutions offer regular cosmetology courses. For example, the Municipal University of Omaha, Nebr., awards a Cer tificate of Cosmetology Technology after the completion of a 30 semesterhour course. A number of colleges and universities offer summer workshops and in stitutes to help teachers and beauticians who wish to improve their performance. Beauticians find that these workshops raise their per formance to higher levels and influence their careers favorably. 26 Employment Opportunities for Women The pioneer in this field is Clemson College, Clemson, S. C., which holds a 3week workshop in July; 3 semester hours of college credit are given for 2 courses in cosmetic hygiene and teaching of cosmetology. People from many States attend this workshop. Florida requires beauty-culture teachers to attend a 2-week train ing course once in 2 years and offers such courses in its State colleges. Other in stitutions offering summer courses include University of Maryland, Montana State College, and University of Texas. Obtaining a License as a Beauty Operator All States except Delaware and Virginia require a license before a beauty operator can practice. This is obtained from the State cosme tology board, after an examination in both theory and practice. (See appendix, p. 41, for addresses of State boards.) Requirements which a candidate must meet before being admitted to examination for a license vary by State. In general, requirements are likely to cover the following points; Minimum age........... At least 16 years; 18 years in nearly half the States. Training....................... At least 1,000-1,500 clock hours or more in a beauty school; or apprentice training in a shop; or both. Health certificate. . Required by majority of States. In some States this includes a blood test. Licensing fee..............$5 or less in half the States; $10 or more in some States. Experience.................. A few States require employment in a beauty shop for a stated period, as junior operator. If a beauty operator desires to practice in a different State from the one in which she has a license, over three-fourths of the States provide for reciprocity, on payment of the fee, usually without an examination. However, a number of States require an examination of all applicants. Some of these grant a temporary license, pending examination. Some States have reciprocity arrangements only with designated States, some require a period of residence, some specify the necessary training or ex perience, and a few extend privileges to applicants from all States that extend the same courtesy to their operators. Licensing Requirements for Special Beauty Occupations In certain specializations, such as teaching, management, and electrology, there may be special licensing requirements that are not met by the basic beauty-school course and operator’s license. The specifications are subject to change, and the person desiring to enter any of these spe cial occupations should ask the State cosmetology board in advance what the requirements are. Teachers.—In the great majority of States the qualifications of cosme tology teachers are specified by the State Board of Education, the State cosmetology board, or both. In many States the teacher must hold a beauty operator’s license, and, in some, an additional certificate or license Beauty Service 27 to teach is required. Teaching specifications may include an age mini mum higher than that for an operator. About three-fourths of the States require beauty-shop experience, usually at least a year, frequently 3 years or longer, and sometimes, in addition, a designated amount of training in methods of teaching and other courses appropriate to the work. To teach in public trade schools, it is necessary to meet the require ments of the State Board of Education for all teachers of industrial arts or trades and any additional requirements for teachers of beauty culture, either by the State or the school board in the locality where they are to teach. The requirement of a high-school education for a beauty-culture teacher in a public trade school is becoming usual throughout the coun try. A college degree is necessary in some States; elsewhere it is possible to substitute experience as a beauty operator. Requirements for teachers in private beauty schools vary widely. Some States exercise strict control over private beauty schools and set relatively high standards. For example, New York State requires all beauty teachers in private as well as public schools to have 2 years of high school, 2 years’ experience as a licensed beauty operator (based on prior beauty-school training), and an approved teacher-training course. In some States, on the other hand, private schools are allowed to hire able students just graduated, without experience in a commercial shop. Managers.—Qualifications for beauty-shop managers are, on the whole, less rigid than for teachers of beauty courses. Experience as an operator—for a minimum of 1 to 2 years—is the most usual requirement. In about half the States the manager must have a beauty operator’s license; several States require an additional manager’s license based on an examination. The license or examination fees may be higher for the manager than for the general operator. Electrologists.—Many States now have definite requirements for electrology training and examination, in some cases with a license in ad dition to that for beauty operation, although some States include the practice of electrology in the beauty operator’s license. In some States, the electrologist must be licensed by medical authorities rather than cosmetology boards. In a few cases only a licensed physician is permit ted to practice electrology. Other requirements occasionally found are for a period of apprenticeship, or a minimum age which is higher than for beauty operators. IV. THE BEAUTY OPERATOR ON THE JOB Entering the Work After obtaining her license, the girl entering the field of beauty service may work at first in a small shop assisting an experienced operator, or in a large shop where the jobs are more specialized. Her early work is really an extension of her training, perhaps as junior operator or appren tice. If she wishes, she can probably find work near her home. In some cases, the beginning operator may not be allowed to give serv ice to patrons. In fact, several States require by law a preliminary period before she can begin to serve customers. Even then, she may at first be allowed to do only manicures and shampoos. As she acquires confidence and efficiency she will progress to a variety of processes. Beauty operators estimate that in many cases this takes from 3 months to a year of practice on the job. In salons and exclusive shops that fea ture special products or treatments, additional training is usual. As she acquires experience, the beauty operator gradually will increase her clientele and may begin to specialize. The woman who engages in the more advanced specializations must be an outstanding beauty oper ator, expert in her particular type of work, and able to inspire confidence in her skill. The Beauty Operator’s Working Hours 1 he hours worked by the beauty operator are influenced by the re quirements in this type of business, the legal standards that apply, the kind and location of the particular shop, and the customary work hours in the locality. Many customers are employed in industry or business and appointments must be made outside their working hours—frequently in the evening or on Saturday. The peak in demand for beauty services usually comes in the last 2 or 3 days of the week, and many shops are open on Saturdays. However, some shops do not open early on days when evening work is scheduled and others have part-time workers come in for the irregular hours or on Saturdays. For these reasons, the girl who becomes a beauty operator is likely to find her work hours somewhat irregular. She may work longer on some days; she often will work evenings or Saturdays; and she may have to be on the job earlier on some days than others. Her total weekly hours may run normally from 40 to 48, though the shop may be open longer. Type of shop.—The kind and location of the shop affect the work hours. In a beauty shop connected with a department store or other business, operators usually work much the same hours as other employees 28 Beauty Service 29 in the establishment. In small shops with few operators to divide the work load, hours are especially likely to be long and irregular. In onewoman shops, the proprietor who wishes to hold and develop her busi ness is almost certain to have irregular hours and often long workweeks. Legal requirements.—In some States maximum hours of work for the beauty operator are established by law. Minimum-wage provisions sometimes require that the worker be paid at a higher rate for hours worked in excess of a stated weekly maximum. This tends to shorten hours, since it makes overtime costly for employers. However, in a number of States no legal requirements as to either hours or wages apply to beauty shops. Since this is a local industry, it is not governed by Federal laws. Lunch and rest periods.—It frequently is difficult for the beauty-shop operator to take time off for lunch when appointments pile up and serv ice demands are heavy. In some States the law requires time to be allowed for meals and rest periods. Some laws specify 30 minutes for mealtime after 4 or 5 hours of work. Certain States provide for a 10minute rest period every 4 hours. Part-time Work An important feature of beauty-shop operation is that it provides op portunities for part-time work, which may be of great advantage both to the shop and to the operators. The employment of part-time workers enables the shop to serve more customers during the busy hours of the day, to keep open for longer hours, and to take care of the weekend peaks. A homemaker with experience as a beauty operator may be able to take a part-time job to earn funds needed by the family, and have suf ficient time for homemaking responsibilities. A large beauty shop in an eastern city, probably typical of many, is able by the use of part-time workers to give services from 9 a. m. to 9:30 p. m. every day ex cept Monday, when the opening hour is 11 a. m. This is done by operating with two shifts of workers. The first is a full-time shift with an 8-hour day from 9 to 5. Operators on the second shift have a half-day’s work from 5 to 9:30. Many mar ried operators with children prefer this afternoon shift, since the father can look after the children while the mother is at work. In the country as a whole, about 15 percent of beauty-shop operators are part-time workers, according to the Bureau of the Census. In 10 cities surveyed by the Women’s Bureau a few years ago, one-fourth of the women employed in beauty shops were part-time workers. Earnings of Beauticians The earnings in beauty occupations vary widely. They depend to a considerable extent on the type of shop, its location, wage standards in the community, the beautician’s experience, and her ability to give serv 30 Employment Opportunities for Women ice of a high quality and thus develop a large clientele—a group of people that prefer her service. Types of pay.—Most beauty operators working in a shop for an em ployer receive a basic wage and are paid an additional commission based on the total her customers pay for service. Usually, before an operaior is paid a commission she must have a total from her own individual cus tomers amounting to double her basic pay. Her commission is 40 to 50 percent of the gross amount of her “take” above double the amount of her salary. “Half of take beyond double” is the usual formula. How ever, some beauty operators are paid only a salary, and others are paid only on a commission basis. Specialists, demonstrators, teachers, and managers usually have earnings greater than the general operator. The beauty operator’s income is increased by tips paid by the patrons directly to her. In a midwestern city, tips were reported in 1954 to average from $5 to $10 a week for first-class operators. Some States that have established minimum wages for beauty operators (see section on minimum-wage provisions in this chapter) protect the worker’s right to her tips by stipulating that gratuities are the property of the operator, not the employer. Certain larger shops pay a small commission to their beauticians for the sale of cosmetics. Amounts earned.—The new beauty operator usually begins at a rela tively low salary, depending on locality and type of shop. In a year or two the operator may be able to double her earnings by building up her clientele. A midwestern State reported that earnings for the aver age beautician were $35 to $50 weekly in 1950, not including tips. An eastern city reported experienced operators in 1955 as receiving sal aries of $50 a week, plus their commission. Another midwestern State reported that in 1954 beauticians with less than 1 year of experience earned from $50 to $60 per week and that experienced operators made from $75 to $100 per week. Tips were included in these amounts. Very highly skilled beauticians and specialists in exclusive salons may be able to earn $150 or more per week. Earnings of male stylists often are $150 or more. However, the occupation has some seasonal characteris tics and business may be slack in summer, especially in the larger centers. The earnings of the owners of beauty shops vary greatly. At one ex treme is the beautician who works only part time with a clientele of women in the neighborhood and is satisfied with small earnings to sup plement the family income. At the other, is the owner of an exclusive beauty salon in a large center of population, who clears many thousands of dollars yearly. In 1950 the Census Bureau reported on the yearly income of women beauticians, barbers, and manicurists, who were employed in beauty and 31 Beauty Service barber shops in 1949. The average (median) income was found to be $1,417. More than two-thirds of the women had incomes of less than $2,000 in the year, and at the upper end of the scale 4 percent had in comes of $4,000 or more. The generally low annual wages for the majority of these workers may be attributed in part to slack periods and to the high incidence of part time work in the industry. Many women work only when the demand for service is brisk, as in the late afternoons or during the last 3 days of the week. The income range of women and men barbers, beauticians, and mani curists in 1949 was as follows: Average (median) income........................................................................... Range of income Under $1,000 ................................................................................................. $1,000 to $1,999 ............................................................................................. $2,000 to $2,999'............................................................................................. $3,000 $4,000 $5,000 $6,000 to $3,999 ............................................................................................. to $4,999 ............................................................................................. to $5,999 ............................................................................................. and over............................................................................................... Source: U. S. Bureau of Census. sample. Decennial Census of Population. 1950. Women Men $2,370 $1,417 Percent distribution 34 10 26 36 34 20 19 6 2 1 1 6 3 2 Based on a 20-percent Minimum-wage provisions.—Of the 33 States and Territories (includ ing the District of Columbia) having minimum-wage laws to insure pay ment of a living wage, approximately two-thirds 2 have minimum-wage rates applicable to beauty operators, established either by the statute it self or by a wage order issued by the State Labor Department. In addition to the basic minimum wage, some States require overtime pay after a certain number of hours, and some also regulate working condi tions. A few set a higher hourly minimum for part-time workers and some provide that an operator who is called to work on any day must be paid for not less than 4 hours work (in a few States, 3 hours). Some States specifically prohibit counting tips as part of the minimum wage. Other provisions affecting wages.—In addition to the establishment of a minimum wage, other provisions sometimes are made, which in effect add to income. For example, minimum-wage orders issued for beauti cians in some States provide that the employer shall furnish the beauty operator’s work uniform, and provide for laundering. In other States, the employer is directed to sell uniforms at cost to the employee and to provide laundry service or pay the employee in lieu of this service. 2 Jurisdictions with minimum-wage rates applicable to beauty operators as of May 1956: Arkansas, California. Colorado, Connecticut. Idaho, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nevada, New Hamp shire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, South Dakota, Washington, Wisconsin, Wyo ming, District of Columbia, Alaska and Hawaii. 32 Employment Opportunities for Women Miscellaneous requirements either in minimum-wage orders or in regulations of cosmetology boards, often include definite statements as to tools and supplies, specifying which are to be furnished by the beautician and which by the employer. Sometimes the owners must provide the beauty operator with tools and equipment; manicurists generally furnish their own tools. In some States the boards direct beauticians to give each other beauty service when business in the shop is slack. In some shops, 1 week of vacation with pay is permitted after a year of service, and in a few shops 2 weeks of vacation are given. If a beau tician works in a shop located in a department store, or connected with a governmental agency or other organization, she may be permitted to participate in the personnel plan of the organization, including sick and vacation leave and pensions. Social-security coverage is automatically extended to all beauty oper ators working as employees in shops. They are entitled to both old-age and unemployment insurance. Under amendments to the Federal So cial Security Act effective January 1, 1951, self-employed operators whose net yearly earnings are $400 or more also are entitled to qualify for old-age benefits by making the regular payments. In about a third of the States all beauticians can benefit from the Workmen’s Compensation Acts if they are injured while on duty. In the majority of the other States the industry is included in workmen’s compensation, but the law applies only to establishments larger than most beauty shops. In about a fifth of the States the beauty operator if injured has no protection under workmen’s compensation—her only re course is to the courts. The Operator Who Rents a Beauty-Shop Booth A special business arrangement in the cosmetology field is the rental oi lease of a booth in a beauty shop by an individual licensed beautician, who operates to a great extent as an independent contractor. The patron pays the individual operator, who in turn pays the owner of the shop either a rental for the use of the booth or a percentage of her re ceipts. She usually furnishes her own supplies. The owner of the shop has no control over the renter’s working hours or her methods of work. In some shops, the owners employ beauticians and, in addition, have a few booths for rent. In other shops the owners have no employees and receive their entire income from the payments of booth renters. The number of booth renters in the entire country is not known. The system is more common in some localities than in others. In one city that had 3,800 renewal licenses in 1954, 300 booth renters were reported, about 8 percent of the total. In this case the booth renter is licensed on Beauty Service 33 the same basis as an owner-manager and experience of 3 years is re quired before a license can be obtained. This system offers certain advantages for the operator, although in practice it has some serious disadvantages. The booth renter can oper ate virtually as an owner-manager in the business without financing the expense of an individual shop. She can rent a booth in a desirable loca tion in a commercial district of a city for a fraction of the cost of a shop and can arrange her working hours to suit her own convenience and sometimes works as little as 2 days a week. She sets her own rates and uses whatever method of operation she chooses. She is free to build up her own clientele. On the other hand, she does not have the opportunity of the beautician employed in a large shop to serve other patrons when not occupied with her own customers. Another disadvantage to the booth renter is that she lacks the security of a regular employee. There is no way to assure her a regular income and the shop owner does not make social security payments toward the booth renter’s old-age and survivors insurance. However, if her net earnings for the year come to $400 or more, she can obtain credits for the entire year as a self-employed person, by reporting her earnings on her individual income tax return and paying the self-employment tax of 3 percent on earnings up to the maximum of $4,200. The most serious criticism of booth renting is one that affects customers and the public. It is the difficulty of ensuring satisfactory health and sanitary conditions in booths rented by independent operators. In some States the landlord renting out a booth is considered to be an employer responsible under the law for sanitary conditions, wages, and taxes. However, shop owners frequently feel that they should not be held responsible for sanitary conditions in these booths, and when the respon sibility is placed on them, their supervision may be resented by the booth renters. For these reasons, some authorities have sought to restrict or eliminate the system. In an eastern city that has a considerable number of booth renters, the cosmetology board has provided that the shop owner or operator is responsible for sanitation in the shop as a whole, and for seeing that the booth renter is a licensed beauty oper ator. In turn, the operator who rents a booth from the owner is responsible for sanitary conditions “in the total area occupied by such booth.” Organizations for Beauticians Beauticians have formed a number of national organizations. Some of these are made up of shop owners or managers, some are employee unions, some have educational objectives. (See appendix, p. 43.) State beauty culture boards are associated in two organizations, both seeking to improve educational standards. One also maintains a file of 34 Employment Opportunities for Women registered cosmetologists and promotes a wider development than at present of interstate reciprocity. Eight organizations exist for managers or beauticians in general. Largest of these, the National Hairdressers’ and Cosmetologists’ Associa tion, with headquarters in New York, has 37 State branches, and directs a nationwide publicity and public-relations program for the industry. The All-American Beauty-Culture Schools, Associated, cooperates with the NHCA in promoting educational standards and legislation in the beauty-culture field. The National Beauty Culturists’ League and the United Beauty School Owners and Teachers Association devote their ef forts toward raising standards of beauty-culture education and practice for Negro operators. Somewhat smaller groups are the Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America and the American Cosme ticians National Association, each of which has headquarters in Chicago. Two Greek-letter organizations have chapters in schools and work for high standards in education and practice. There are two labor unions for beauticians in the United States. The larger is the Journeymen Barbers, Hairdressers, Cosmetologists and Pro prietors International Union of America. It was organized in the 1880’s, and has been affiliated with the American Federation of Labor. In 1955 it reported a membership of 85,000, of whom about one-tenth were estimated to be women. The Barbers and Beauty Culturists Union of America, affiliated with the Congress of Industrial Organizations, was organized early in the 1940’s. It reported about 5,000 members in 1955, many of them in the New York City area. From 10 to 20 percent of the members (men and women) were believed to be beauticians. Both these organizations hold national conventions periodically. Both have group life insurance coverage available to members. The Journey men Barbers union also has sick benefits for all members and group malpractice insurance for members wishing to participate. V. CHOOSING THE OCCUPATION Who Should Choose Beauty Service? In thinking of beauty service as a career, a girl is likely to ask: “How can I be sure I would like this type of work? How can I know that I could do it well?” One of the first signs of suitability is a real interest in beauty culture. Finger dexterity is important, and can be easily determined through an ap titude test. A sense of the artistic is helpful in determining line, color, and proportion in hair arrangements. If, in addition, a girl enjoys trying new hair styles and giving herself and other girls waves and manicures, she can enter training with confidence in her ability to succeed in this field. Some girls like to imagine, whenever they meet a new person, how she would look with her hair styled differently. A girl who hopes to become a beauty operator should give attention to presenting a well-groomed, neat, and attractive appearance at all times. Actually, she is selling beauty service to the public—and her per sonal appearance offers an example of her skill. The successful beauty operator likes people and enjoys being of service to them. She must be able to cultivate good relationships with others— customers, employers, and fellow workers. The operator needs to be alert to the preferences of her customers and tactful with those who may be tired, nervous, and irritable. She will find it an asset to be friendly and cooperative with her fellow employees. As an employee, she should show a sense of responsibility, have the ability to follow instructions, and give careful attention to details. Good health is basic in this type of work. The beauty operator must be able to keep up with the physical demands of the daily routine. The long hours of standing, much of the time with arms upraised, require energy and endurance. Girls who are planning to enter a beauty-culture school should read as much as possible about cosmetology. A list of selected references which includes trade journals as well as books is given in the appendix (p. 50). Tests sometimes given by schools for entrance to beauty courses in clude vocational interest and finger dexterity. A beginning was made in 1955 in devising a series of special aptitude tests for the beauty operator. The U. S. Employment Service, in cooperation with the Idaho and Min nesota State Employment Services, tried out these tests in eight beauty schools in Idaho and validated them in tests in one high school in Austin, Minn. The areas of competency included: 35 36 Employment Opportunities for Women Figure 5.—Manicuring is one of the first duties assigned to a new operator. Beauty Service 37 Intelligence—to understand instructions while learning to perform the various phases of beauty-culture work, and to reason and make judgments in assisting patrons to decide which of the various treatments should be applied to fit individual needs. Verbal aptitude—necessary for reading comprehension; understanding of notes taken from lecture material; and facility of expression which is needed for greeting patrons, ascertaining services desired, and explaining hair styles and other services. Form perception—to make visual comparisons and discriminations in order to cut and style hair, apply make-up, and perform other duties such as arching eyebrows and shaping nails. Motor coordination—of eyes, hands, and fingers in order to cut, style, and tint hair, give facials, arch eyebrows, and manicure nails. Finger dexterity and manual dexterity—to cut hair, using scissors and razor; to curl hair with the aid of small metal or plastic curlers; to grasp and manipulate hair or equipment; to massage face and scalp; and to clean, polish, and shape nails, using manicuring instruments. A school girl who considers working in a beauty shop in the summer months when school is not in session will find that in most States rules and regulations forbid an unlicensed person to give beauty service to a customer. However, it is possible that she could find vacation employ ment in one of the larger beauty shops at a job that does not require a license or technical knowledge. She could be employed as a cashier, re ceptionist, or appointment clerk, or to assist with sales of cosmetics. This would give her some opportunity to find out at first hand about this type of work and to make friends among persons in the beauty field. She must, of course, be old enough to conform to the minimum work-age requirements of her State. The school counselor can give her informa tion and advice as to the age requirements. “Pros and Cons’’ of the Beautician’s Job Advantages.—The field of cosmetology offers various advantages to women. It is a type of work that exists in all localities, large and small, so that an operator usually can find a job near her home, or she can go elsewhere and continue in her specialty. The time needed for prepara tion is considerably less than for some other occupations and the cost is low in relation to the returns that may be expected by an experienced operator. By cultivating a high quality of workmanship, the operator has a fair chance to build up a clientele that insures a fairly steady income. Beauty-shop work is likely to be satisfactory from the standpoint of surroundings and work conditions. The shops are made as attractive as possible with a view to pleasing the customers; the larger salons are often decorated artistically. The nature of the work requires scrupulously clean surroundings. Many shops are air-conditioned. The occupation affords certain personal satisfactions. The need in this work for the use of judgment and creative ability makes it attractive 38 Employment Opportunities for Women to women with some artistic flair. Some operators particularly enjoy the friendly atmosphere of the shop, where they meet interesting people. While the work may be heavy during busy hours, there are periods of relaxation when business is slack. Jobs can sometimes be found in unusual settings. Government bases in foreign countries need competent beauticians who can give superior service. Beauty shops on cruise ships offer the experienced operator attractive possibilities for travel, and afford employment in the summer months when beauty shops frequently have a slack season. Some hospi tals and other institutions are installing beauty service for patients. For the woman who has obtained experience and wishes to develop an independent business, beauty culture promises unusually good possibil ities with a moderate investment of capital. Experience in this type of work also may open the way to a variety of specialized occupations based on beauty services. The fact that no upper age limit exists also is favorable. Thus the field of beauty culture is excellent as a lifetime occupation. In addition, the possibility of part-time work in a beauty shop, either as an owner or an employee, is attractive to the married woman who wants to augment her income but cannot devote her entire time to the job. Another advantage is the fact that the industry has a good long-range outlook and yields a fairly steady income, so that a capable operator is likely to find permanent employment. Today beauty service has be come a necessity to many women in all localities, although it is like numerous other occupations in being sensitive to any decline in business conditions. Disadvantages.—The frequent irregularity of working hours and the necessity for some work in the evening and on Saturday is probably the phase of beauty-shop employment that is least attractive to a young girl. In common with other industries that provide personal services, beautyshops must to a large extent adjust their working hours to times convenient to the customers. However, the total work hours in the week usually are no longer than in other occupations and sometimes are shorter. For the woman who needs a part-time job, evening or Satur day work may prove an advantage. Beauty-shop operation is subject to some seasonal fluctuation, though this tends to be less marked than in certain industrial jobs. The de mand is heavy in the holiday season in midwinter, in the spring, and at week-end peaks. It tends to fall off in mid-summer and in the early months of the year. The occupational hazards in this type of work are not great for the op erator with training and experience. The beautician must be careful to avoid burns from heated equipment, to handle sharp instruments and Beauty Service 39 electrical equipment with care, and to follow directions in the use of chemical supplies. The sterilization of brushes and instruments is a must in beauty shops. The beauty operator must always guard against contracting or spread ing infection. State and local sanitary regulations are designed to protect both beauticians and customers. During the training period, and as a result of experience, the operator learns to follow the rules of safety and hygiene so that there usually is little danger. The beauty shop must be kept immaculate—instruments sterilized, floors swept, and booths tidied. Unless there is a maid, the operators must share the re sponsibility for these housekeeping duties. A notable instance occurred when the cold-wave process was coming into gen eral use during World War II. At that time the process had not been entirely perfected in the laboratories. The chemicals used caused some beauty operators to suffer from dermatitis. They wore rubber gloves to protect the skin, but espe cially susceptible operators found that the fumes from the chemicals irritated their eyes, throats, and lungs. Occasionally, operators became so allergic to these prep arations that they were forced to discontinue work in beauty shops. Serious hazards are infrequent and proper care by the operator usually can eliminate them almost entirely. However, they sometimes do arise, with results occasionally severe for those with especially susceptible skin. A minor difficulty faced by beauty-shop operators may be skin irrita tion from repeated contact with some of the preparations they use. Re search laboratories have been working steadily to improve beauty products and to eliminate such hazards. Nevertheless, with the continual appear ance of new products, it is possible that occasionally a product is put on the market before final tests are completed, Boards of cosmetology in some States have issued regulations against full-length partitions touching floor and ceiling, in order to assure better ventilation and air circulation, and thus help counteract effects that may result from some preparations used in beauty shops. Schools and beauty shops without air conditioning sometimes use overhead suction fans to freshen the air. The practicing beautician, like workers in numerous other occupations, may be subject to damage suits based upon the claim of malpractice, negligence, or failure to render proper services. Whether or not based on fact, a disgruntled customer may institute a lawsuit, file a small nui sance claim, or give adverse publicity that could affect the reputation of the beautician as an operator. For this reason many beauticians obtain liability insurance, which assures expert handling of legal procedures and thus gives the beautician a feeling of security. The insurance company usually pays any damages, court costs, or legal fees involved. Some of the unions and trade associations in the field of cosmetology also offer 40 Employment Opportunities for Women low-priced group policies for the protection of their members. In a shop which employs one or more operators, the owner may carry liability in surance to cover the entire shop. Finding Employment as a Beauty Operator Most schools, both public and private, offer a placement service for their graduates. Frequently the owner of a beauty shop with a number of employees gives preference in hiring new operators to graduates of the school where she was trained. In some States, the graduate who completes a course in either a public or private beauty school is permitted to work in a commercial beauty shop on a temporary license with the understanding that she will appear for the next licensing examination. A few States require this prelimi nary experience before a full license will be issued. The school usually will help a graduate to find such a job. Some who give satisfaction as working students are retained, after they become licensed beauticians, as permanent employees. There are a number of methods of finding a job. The public employ ment offices may know of immediate job openings, and they charge no fees. They are familiar with demands in the locality and often have counselors to advise applicants. Another method is to examine want ads in the newspapers. This may give some choice as to places that seem desirable, and direct application can be made. When seeking work at a shop, the operator should be well groomed and carry her tools, as she may be asked to demonstrate the kind of work she does. In cities where the trade associations in cosmetology (see appendix, p. 43) have their of fices, the beauty operator may be able to get help from them in finding job openings. . APPENDIX State Boards Governing Cosmetology From State Board Cosmetology Guide, 1955 Edition. State boards are sources of information about schools for cosmetology, licensing require ments, and other legal regulations. Alabama Board of Cosmetology Examiners of Jefferson County 510 Court House Birmingham Alaska Territorial Board of Cosmetology Juneau Arizona Board of Beauty Culturist Examiners 415 Heard Building Phoenix Arkansas Board of Cosmetology 202 Reed Building Little Rock California Board of Cosmetology 1020 N Street—Room 591 Sacramento 14 Colorado Board of Cosmetology 924 Broadway Denver 5 Connecticut Hairdressers and Cosmeticians Com mission State Department of Health 165 Capitol Avenue Hartford Delaware None District of Columbia Board of Cosmetology Department of Occupations and Profes sions 1740 Massachusetts Avenue, NW. Washington 6 Florida Board of Beauty Culture 329-B Caldwell Building Capitol Center Tallahassee Georgia Board of Barber and Hairdresser Examiners 111 State Capitol Atlanta 3 Hawaii Board of Hairdressers, Cosmeticians and Cosmetologists 1157 Fort Street Honolulu 9 Idaho Bureau of Occupational Licenses Department of Law Enforcement P. O. Box 1129 Boise Illinois Beauty Culture Division Department of Registration and Edu cation Capitol Building Springfield' Indiana Board of Beauty Culturist Examiners 301 State House Indianapolis 4 Iowa Division of Cosmetology State Department of Health State Office Building Des Moines Kansas State Board of Cosmetology 201 Crawford Building Topeka 41 42 Employment Opportunities for Women Kentucky Board of Barber and Beautician Examiners 208 Republic Building Louisville Louisiana Board of Control of Cosmetic Therapy 115 Civil District Court Building New Orleans Maine State Board of Barbers and Hair dressers State House Augusta Maryland Board of Hairdressers and Beauty Culturists 102 Park Avenue Baltimore Massachusetts Board of Registration of Hairdressers 15 Ashburton Place Boston 8 Michigan Board of Cosmetology 128 Steven T. Mason Building Lansing 16 Minnesota Board of Hairdressing and Beauty Cul ture Examiners 406 Plymouth Building Minneapolis 3 Mississippi State Board of Cosmetology 520 North President Street Jackson Missouri Division of Cosmetology and Hair dressing State Department of Education 127-8-9 State Capitol Building Jefferson City Montana Examining Board of Beauty Culturists P. O. Box 281 Bozeman Nebraska Board of Cosmetological Examiners Bureau of Examining Boards 1009 State Capitol Building Lincoln Nevada Board of Cosmetology P. O. Box 1814 Reno New Hampshire Board of Registration of Hairdressers 109 State House Annex Concord New Jersey Board of Beauty Culture Control State Department of Health 1 West State Street Trenton New Mexico Board of Cosmetologists P. O. Box 130 Santa Fe New York Cosmetology Advisory Committee Division of Licenses Department of State 95 Central Avenue Albany North Carolina Board of Cosmetic Art 106 Glenwood Avenue Raleigh North Dakota Board of Hairdressers and Cosmetolo gists P. O. Box 1026 Fargo Ohio Board of Cosmetology 21 West Broad Street Wyandotte Building Columbus Oklahoma Board of Cosmetology State Capitol Building Oklahoma City 5 Oregon Board of Cosmetic Therapy Examiners 703 State Office Building 1400 SW. Fifth Avenue Portland 1 Pennsylvania State Board of Cosmetology Bureau of Professional Licensing Department of Public Instruction P. O. Box 911 Harrisburg Beauty Service 43 Puerto Rico Division of Examining Boards Department of State Box 3271 San Juan Rhode Island Board of Hairdressing 319 State Office Building Providence South Carolina Board of Cosmetic Art Examiners 1316 Washington Street Columbia South Dakota Board of Cosmetic Therapy Secretary’s Office Miller Tennessee Board of Cosmetology 317 Cotton States Building Nashville Texas Board of Hairdressers and Cosmetolo gists Tribune Building Austin Utah Board of Examiners for Beauty Culturists Registration Division Department of Business Regulation 314 State Capitol Salt Lake City Vermont Board of Cosmetology 142 Bank Street Burlington Virginia None Washington Department of Licenses Olympia West Virginia Division of Barbers and Beauticians Department of Health Capitol Building Charleston Wisconsin Cosmetology Division State Board of Health 371 State Office Building Madison 2 Wyoming Board of Cosmetology 3315 Central Avenue Cheyenne Organizations for Beauticians Councils of State Boards » Interstate Council of State Boards and Examiners of Hairdressing and Cosmetology, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York 10, N. Y. Has membership from 28 State Boards, works closely with National Hairdressers’ and Cosmetologists’ Association in improving educational standards and influencing legislation in this field. National Council of Boards of Beauty Culture, 17 North State Street, Chicago 2, 111. Or ganized 1927, and has representation from 45 States. Maintains permanent regis tration file for cosmetologists. Encourages higher standards for preliminary education of beauty operators, more uniform hours of training throughout the country. In terested in establishing reciprocity among States for recognition of license. Trade and Educational Organizations All-American Beauty-Culture Schools, Associated, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York 10, N. Y. A national organization of owners, directors, and managers of representative private trade schools. Cooperates with National Hairdressers’ and Cosmetologists’ Association on matters of education and legislation. 44 Employment Opportunities for Women American Cosmeticians Motional Association, 7903 South Calumet Street, Chicago 19, 111. Reports 800 members. Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America, 537 South Dearborn Street, Chicago 5, 111. Reports 280 local chapters, with 7,000 members. Beta Beta Lambda, 17 North State Street, Chicago 2, 111. A national organization of students and graduates of private trade schools, with chapters in the schools. Holds local educational and annual national meetings. Kappa Delta Chi, 400 Milam Street, Shreveport, La. Local chapters in schools, spon sored by the All-American Beauty-Culture Schools Associated. Interested in main taining high standards of preliminary education and professional practice. National Beauty Culturists’ League, 25 Logan Circle, N. W., Washington, D. C. Estab lished 1919. Has 12,000 members in 39 State groups and local organizations in some additional States. Cooperates with public and private schools for Negro beauty op erators toward raising standards of educational preparation, and works to improve ethical practices of members. National Hairdressers’ and Cosmetologists’ Association, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York 10, N. Y. Established 1921, has 25,000 members among shop owners and beauty op erators in 42 States. Local branches exist in five States, also District of Columbia and Hawaii, individual members from other States. Carries on active public-rela tions program, including newspaper articles, radio broadcasts, educational films, speakers’ bureau. United Beauty School Owners and Teachers Association, 4703 South Parkway, Chicago 15, 111. Has 4,200 members in 115 local chapters. Works for betterment of private trade schools for Negro beauticians. Labor Unions Barbers and Beauty Culturists Union of America (CIO), 330 Flatbush Avenue, Brooklyn 17, N. Y. Chartered in 1943, has 5,000 members. In addition to employees, admits as members shop owners with no employees or partners with one apprentice, but not owners with employees. Journeymen Barbers, Hairdressers, Cosmetologists and Proprietors’ International Union of Ameri ca (AFL), 1141 Delaware Street, Indianapolis 7, Ind. Established 1887, reports 85,000 members in 850 locals. Permits apprentices and shop owners with one or more employees to become non-active members without vote. % Examples of Cosmetology Training Courses Vocational Training for Cosmetology (California) Suggested pre-vocational subjects: Chemistry (one year), physiology (basic and ad vanced), biology (especially study of bacteria), business arithmetic, business English, public speaking, office practice (cash and sales), freehand drawing. Vocational course: A minimum of 1,600 hours of training and study covering such branches of the trade as shampooing, scalp treatments, hair cutting, permanent waving, manicuring, hair dressing, hair coloring, facial work, and make-up. Actual practice in manipulative skills is stressed. Related subjects may include a study of personal hy giene, public health, physiology, bacteriology, psychology, shop ethics, and salesman ship. In the public schools, the training may be offered at either the high school or junior college level. A student may not take the State Board examination before she is 18 years of age. Source: California Department of Education. Bureau of Guidance Occupational Brief. and Cosmetician. Hairdresser Beauty Service 45 Cosmetology Course in Public Vocational School (Colorado) The course covers 1,500 hours of instruction in a 9-month period. This includes 350 hours for permanent waving, 250 for finger waving, 200 for manicuring, 150 each for facial treatments, scalp treatments, and hair dyeing, 50 hours each for sterilizing tech niques, housekeeping, shop management, and salesmanship, with 50 hours unassigned. Students begin the day with instruction in theory for 1 to 1 Vi hours, followed by assigned instruction in practice. Afternoons are spent in practice. Source: Women’s Bureau field interviews. Cosmetology Course in Public Vocational School (District of Columbia) This is a 6-semester course designed for the girl who has completed the ninth grade and includes high-school subjects as well as the required hours of cosmetology training. The hours required for a cosmetology license can be completed in 2 years and the senior may work part-time as a beautician. Hours required 1st year 2d year 3d year Semester Semester Semester 1 2 1 2 1 40 40 40 40 40 40 20 20 20 20 20 20 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 2 1 2 1 1 1 5 5 5 Subjects Total hours............................................ English.................................................................. 2 5 1 1 5 2 2 5 5 5 4 Source: Public Schools, District of Columbia. Vocational High School. 4 5 Announcement of Anna Burdick Employment Opportunities for Women 46 Cosmetology Course in Public Vocational School (New York) This course consists of six terms (terms 3 through 8) for students who have completed two terms of high-school work. Instruction is given in techniques for hair styling, safety, sanitation, licensing requirements, minimum-wage and hours regulations, elec trical appliances, shop management, shop ethics, and salesmanship. Following is a detailed list of cosmetology subjects. Term 3. Plain shampoo Plain manicure Sculpture curls and elementary hair styling Hairpressing and straightening Hand and arm massage Scalp massage Hair rinses Term 3. Dry shampoo Hot-oil shampoo Booth manicure Round curling Advanced finger waving Marcelling French braiding Haircutting Hair rinses Egyptian henna pack Term 7. Pedicure Advanced finger waving Croquignoie permanent waving Spiral permanent waving Combination waving Hair rinses Source: Hairdressing and Cosmetology. Term 4. Egg shampoo Oil manicure Bob curling Finger waving Comb waving Blackhead treatment Facial massage Eyebrow shaping Day make-up Evening make-up Treating split hair ends Hair rinses Term 6. Nail repair Use of artificial nails Advanced finger waving Croquignoie marcelling Croquignoie permanent waving Clay face pack Liquid face pack Bleach pack Lip bleach Removal of superfluous hair Hair rinse Liquid and oil bleaches Term 8. Dry-cleaner shampoo Advanced finger waving Cold waving Salt scalp treatment Hair coloring Shampoo tints New York City Board of Education, 1953. 47 Beauty-Service Licenses Reported in 1955, by Type of License 1955 Change since 1950 Number of Number of States1 licenses Number of States1 Change in reporting number of in both licenses years Type of license Beauty shops. .............................................. Operators 2. 3. . .......................................... Teachers........................................................ Private................................................... Public......................................................... Schools........................................................... Private....................................................... Public......................................................... Institutions with classes............................ 48 50 41 50 34 122,036 499,937 2,537 2,344 193 1,099 921 178 119 45 47 36 + 9,806 + 16,402 + 79 48 -27 3 22 —1 1 Includes Territories reporting and District of Columbia. 2 Includes women and men. 3 Reporting in both years, whether or not classes were held. Source: State Board Cosmetology Guide, 1950 and 1955. Milady Publishing Corp., New York, N. Y. 48 Beauty Operators’ Licenses Reported in by State 1950 and 1955, Number of licenses 1 (includes women and men) State Total.......................................................................... 1950 1955 473, 792 499, 937 Change 1950-55 2 16, 402 STATES THAT REPORTED INCREASES Increase Arizona.................................................................................. California.............................................................................. Colorado................................................................................ District of Columbia......................................................... Florida.................................................................................... Kansas.................................................................................... Kentucky............................................................................... Massachusetts...................................................................... Mississippi............................................................................. Missouri................................................................................. Nebraska................................................................................ Nevada................................................................................... New York.............................................................................. Ohio........................................................................................ Oklahoma............................................................................. Pennsylvania........................................................................ Rhode Island....................................................................... South Carolina.................................................................... Texas....................................................................................... 1, 700 49, 537 3, 648 2, 654 10, 000 2, 500 5, 200 3, 000 15,000 4, 500 16, 000 5, 225 650 38, 000 25, 000 5, 777 36, 570 2, 100 3, 000 32, 000 2, 232 56, 384 4, 125 3, 913 13, 000 2 800 5, 500 4, 700 25, 000 5, 892 18, 000 5, 350 680 48, 100 25, 844 7, 008 36, 782 2, 250 3, 200 38, 000 532 6, 847 477 1,259 3, 000 300 300 1, 700 10, 000 1, 392 2, 000 125 30 10, 100 844 1, 231 212 150 200 6, 000 49 Beauty Operators’ Licenses Reported in 1950 and by State—Continued1 2 1955, STATES THAT REPORTED DECREASES Arkansas................................................................................ Georgia.................................................................................. Illinois.................................................................................... Louisiana............................................................................... Maine..................................................................................... Montana........... ................................................................ New Hampshire.................................................................. New Jersey........................................................................... North Carolina................................................................... North Dakota...................................................................... Oregon................................................................................... Utah....................................................................................... Vermont................................................................................ West Virginia....................................................................... Wisconsin.............................................................................. Wyoming............................................................................... 1950 5, 500 13, 000 61, 148 7, 000 2, 838 1, 600 1, 415 12, 500 10, 000 1, 800 2, 850 2, 767 712 1, 979 7, 750 1, 090 1955 4, 968 9, 500 40, 000 6, 653 2, 583 1, 538 1, 311 11, 704 8, 087 1,200 2, 645 2, 661 594 1, 742 7, 432 1,034 Change 1950-55Decrease 532 3, 500 21, 148 347 255 62 104 796 1, 913 600 205 106 118 237 318 56 STATES THAT DID NOT REPORT CHANGES Alabama................................................................................ 1, 500 1, 500 200 200 6, 122 6, 122 15, 000 10, 000 NR 3, 150 22, 015 10, 000 1, 400 NR 1, 590 NR 6, 805 15, 000 10, 000 1, 800 3, 150 22, 015 10, 000 1, 400 1, 143 1, 590 6, 800 6, 805 1 No licenses are issued in Delaware and Virginia, which have no State cosmetology boards. 2 States reporting in both 1950 and 1955. Source: Reports of State Cosmetology Boards in 1950 and 1955 to State Board Cos metology Guide. Milady Publishing Corp., New York, N. Y. 50 Barbers, Beauticians, and Manicurists The following is a list of job titles used by the Bureau of the Census for classification of barbers, beauticians, and manicurists in the 1950 decennial census. Barber Beautician Beauty operator Cosmetician Cosmetologist Electrologist Electrolysis operator Hairdresser Hair specialist Hair stylist Manager—Barber or beauty school Manager—Barbershop Manager—Beauty parlor Manicurist Operator—Barbershop Operator—Beauty parlor Proprietor—Barbershop Proprietor—Beauty shop Scalp-treatment operator Specialist—Beauty shop Stylist Teacher—Barber college Teacher—Beauty school Tonsorial artist Selected References (The following list does not include text books used In training for beauty occupations.) California State Department of Education. Bureau of Guidance. Hairdresser and Cos metician. Sacramento, Calif., the Department, 1954. Mimeographed. Livingston, Helen, and Ann Maroni. Everyday Beauty Culture. Bloomington, 111., McKnight and McKnight, 1945. Louis, M. Napolitan. Six Thousand Years of Hair Styling. New York. N. Y., Poly graphic Co. of America, 1939. Manger, Maryland. How to Develop a Successful Electrology Practice. New York, N. Y., Milady Publishing Corp., 1949. Michigan Employment Security Commission. Beauty Operator. Occupational Guide Number 10. Detroit, Mich., the Commission, 1954. National Council of Boards of Beauty Culture. Report to Council of State Govern ments. Chicago, 111., the Council, 1952. Mimeographed. New York City Board of Education. Hairdressing and Cosmetology for Vocational High Schools. New York, N. Y., the Board, 1953. Ohio State Employment Service, Employment and Selective Placement Counseling Section. Beauty Operator (cosmetologist). Columbus, Ohio, the Service, 1950. Mimeographed. Science Research Associates, Inc. Beauticians. Occupational Brief Number 96. Chicago, 111., Associates, 1950. State Board Cosmetology Guide. 1955. Issued annually by the Milady Publishing Corp., New York, N. Y. Thomas, Gertrude. The Art of Modern Hair Pressing. New York, N. Y., Cosme tology Publishing Co., 1946. U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Estab lishing and Operating a Beauty Shop. Washington, D. C., 1946. (Available only in libraries.) U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Division of Vocational Education. Directory of All-Day Trade and Industrial Programs Qualified for Federal Aid. Washington, D. C., 1954. 51 U. S. Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. Bureau of Employment Security. Dictionary of Occupational Titles, vol. I. Second edition. March 1949. (Revision in process.) Bureau of Labor Statistics. Occupational Outlook Handbook. Bull. 998. 1951. (Revision in process for 1957.) U. S. Employment Service. Job descriptions for Domestic Service and Personal Serv ice Occupations. 1939. Women’s Bureau. Employment Conditions in Beauty Shops. Bull. 133. 1935. Part-time Jobs for Women. Bull. 238. 1951. State Hour Laws for Women. Bull. 250. 1953 and mimeographed supplements. State Minimum-Wage Laws and Orders. Bull. 247. 1953 and mimeographed supplements. Wall, Florence E. Opportunities in Beauty Culture. Guidance Manuals, Inc. New York, N. Y., Vocational 1952. Trade Journals American Hairdresser. MacLean-Hunter Publishing Co., 309 West Jackson Blvd., Chicago, 111. Beauty Culture. Beauty Culture Publishing Corp., 19 West 44 St., New York, N. Y. The Journeyman Barber, Hairdresser, Cosmetologist and Proprietor. Journeyman Barbers International Union of America, AFL, 1141 North Delaware St., Indianapolis 7, Ind. The Master Barber and Beautician Magazine. Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America, 537 South Dearborn St., Chicago o, 111. Modern Beauty Shop. Modern Beauty Shop, Inc., 608 South Dearborn St., Chicago 5, 111. National Cosmetology News. Milady Publishing Corp., 3839 White Plains Ave., New York 67, N. Y. . . , National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists Association Bulletin. National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists’ Association, 404 North Wesley Ave., Mt. Morris, 111. U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1956 O-F—379716
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