Full text of Economic Report of the President : 1997
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Transmitted to the Congress
February 1997
Economic Report
of the President
Transmitted to the Congress
February 1997
TOGETHER WITH
THE ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISERS
ISBN 0-16-048928-8
C O N T E N T S
Page
ECONOMIC REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT
1
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC
ADVISERS*
7
CHAPTER 1. GROWTH AND OPPORTUNITY: CREATING A NEW
ECONOMIC ORDER
17
CHAPTER 2. MACROECONOMIC POLICY AND PERFORMANCE
43
CHAPTER 3. ECONOMIC CHALLENGES OF AN AGING POPULATION
93
CHAPTER 4. THE LABOR MARKET
139
CHAPTER 5. INEQUALITY AND ECONOMIC REWARDS
163
CHAPTER 6. REFINING THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN THE
U.S. MARKET ECONOMY
189
CHAPTER 7. AMERICAN LEADERSHIP IN THE EMERGING GLOBAL ECONOMY
235
APPENDIX A. REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT ON THE ACTIVITIES
OF THE COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISERS DURING 1996
281
APPENDIX B. STATISTICAL TABLES RELATING TO INCOME, EMPLOYMENT, AND PRODUCTION
293
*For a detailed table of contents of the Council's Report, see page 11.
(iii)
ECONOMIC REPORT
OF THE PRESIDENT
ECONOMIC REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT
To the Congress of the United States:
Four years ago, we began a journey to change the course of the
American economy. We wanted this country to go into the 21st century as a Nation in which every American who was willing to work
for it could have a chance—not a guarantee, but a real chance—
at the American dream. We have worked hard to achieve that goal,
and today our economy is stronger than it has been in decades.
THE ECONOMIC RECORD
The challenge we faced in January 1993 was to put the economy
on a new course of fiscal responsibility while continuing to invest
in our future. In the last 4 years, the unemployment rate has come
down by nearly a third: from 7.5 percent to 5.4 percent. The economy has created 11.2 million new jobs, and over two-thirds of recent employment growth has been in industry/occupation groups
paying above-median wages. Over the past 4 years inflation has
averaged 2.8 percent, lower than in any Administration since John
F. Kennedy was President. The combination of unemployment and
inflation is the lowest it has been in three decades. And business
investment has grown more than 11 percent per year—its fastest
pace since the early 1960s.
As the economy has grown, the fruits of that growth are being
shared more equitably among all Americans. Between 1993 and
1995 the poverty rate fell from 15.1 percent to 13.8 percent—the
largest 2-year drop in over 20 years. Poverty rates among the elderly and among African-Americans are at the lowest level since
these data were first collected in 1959. And real median family income has risen by $1,600—the largest growth rate since the Administration of President Johnson.
THE ECONOMIC AGENDA
Our comprehensive economic agenda has helped put America's
economy back on the right track. This agenda includes:
• Historic Deficit Reduction. Since the 1992 fiscal year, the Federal budget deficit has been cut by 63 percent—from $290 billion to $107 billion in fiscal 1996. As a percentage of the Nation's gross domestic product, the deficit has fallen over the
same period from 4.7 percent to 1.4 percent, and it is now the
lowest it has been in more than 20 years. In 1992 the budget
deficit for all levels of government was larger in relation to our
economy than those of Japan and Germany were to theirs.
Now the deficit is smaller by that same measure than in any
other major industrialized economy. And this Administration
has proposed a plan that balances the budget by 2002, while
protecting critical investments in America's future.
• Investments in Education and Technology. Deficit reduction remains a priority, but it is not an end in itself. Balancing the
budget by cutting investments in education, or by failing to
give adequate support to science and technology, could actually
slow economic growth. To succeed in the new global economy,
our children must receive a world-class education. Every child
in America should be able to read by the age of 8, log onto the
Internet by the age of 12, and receive at least 14 years of quality education: 2 years of college should become as universal as
high school is today. And we must make sure that every child
who wants to go to college has the resources to do so.
• Expanding Markets. We have aggressively sought to expand
exports and open markets abroad. In the past 4 years we have
achieved two major trade agreements: the North American
Free Trade Agreement and the Uruguay Round accord of the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, which established
the World Trade Organization. Members of the Asia-Pacific
Economic Cooperation forum and the proposed Free Trade
Area of the Americas have committed to establishing free trade
among themselves by 2020 and 2005, respectively. And we
have opened new markets abroad by signing more than 200
other important trade agreements. As a result, U.S. exports
have boomed, which means higher wages for American workers
in export industries—often 13 to 16 percent higher than the
rest of the workforce.
• Reforming Government. The strength of the American economy
lies in the energy, creativity, and determination of our citizens.
Over the past 4 years we have worked hard to create an environment in which business can flourish. And as the private
sector has expanded, the Federal Government has improved its
efficiency and cost-effectiveness. We have energetically reformed regulations in key sectors of the economy, including
telecommunications, electricity, and banking, as well as environmental regulation. And we have reduced the size of the
Federal Government as a percentage of the workforce to the
smallest it has been since the 1930s.
CONTINUING TO CREATE AN ECONOMY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY
America's workers are back at work and our factories are humming. Once again, America leads the world in automobile manufacturing. Our high-technology industries are the most competitive in
the world. Poverty is down and real wages are at last beginning to
rise. And we have laid the foundations for future long-term economic growth by reducing the deficit and investing in education.
During the past 4 years, we have worked to prepare all Americans for the challenges and opportunities of the new global economy of the 21st century. We have worked to restore fiscal discipline
in our government, to expand opportunities for education and
training for our children and workers, to reform welfare and encourage work, and to expand the frontiers of free trade. But there
is more work to be done. We must continue to provide our citizens
with the tools to make the most of their own lives so that the
American dream is within the reach of every American.
THE WHITE HOUSE
FEBRUARY 10, 1997
THE ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISERS
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISERS,
Washington, B.C., February 10, 1997.
MR. PRESIDENT:
The Council of Economic Advisers herewith submits its 1997 Annual Report in accordance with the provisions of the Employment
Act of 1946 as amended by the Full Employment and Balanced
Growth Act of 1978.
Sincerely,
Joseph E. Stiglitz
Chairman
Alicia H. Munnell
Member
Jeffrey A. Frankel
Member-Nominee
C O N T E N T S
Page
CHAPTER 1. GROWTH AND OPPORTUNITY: CREATING A NEW
ECONOMIC ORDER
An Economic Philosophy
The New Vision
Government's Core Economic Mission
An International Vision
The Economic Record
The Achievements
The Reasons
The Economic Agenda
Growth
Opportunity and Individual Responsibility
Conclusion
CHAPTER 2. MACROECONOMIC POLICY AND PERFORMANCE
The NAIRU and its Evolution
Predicting Changes in Inflation
Changes in the NAIRU
The Economic Consequences of Inflation
The Effect of Inflation on Output
The Effect of Inflation on the Distribution of Income
Risks in Macroeconomic Policy
The Financial Condition of Households
Trends in Consumer Credit
Impact on Households
Possible Effects on Lending Institutions and
Consumer Spending
Inflation-Indexed Securities
How Inflation-Indexed Securities Work
Benefits of Indexed Securities
Experience in Other Countries
Measurement Issues
The Consumer Price Index
Income- and Product-Side Measures of Output
Review and Outlook
Overview of 1996
Outlook and Forecast
CHAPTER 3. ECONOMIC CHALLENGES OF AN AGING POPULATION
The Aging of the Population
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Page
The Impact of Demographics on National Saving
The Impact of Demographics on the Budget
Social Security
The Size of the Problem
Recommendations of the Quadrennial Advisory
Council
Issues for Further Study
Conclusion
Medicare
Sources of the Financing Problems
Short-Term Options
Long-Run Options
Conclusion
Medicaid Financing of Long-term Care
Conclusion
CHAPTER 4. THE LABOR MARKET
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133
134
137
139
Traditional Labor Market Indicators
The Quality of New Jobs
Job Growth Within Service-Producing Industries
Economy-wide Job Growth
Full7Time Versus Part-Time Jobs
The Level of Wages
Trends in Wages
Wages Versus Total Compensation
Job Loss
Trends in the Rate of Job Loss
The Costs of Job Loss
Job Stability
Worker Anxiety
Public Opinion Polls
Quit Behavior
Policies to Mitigate the Costs of Economic Change
Unemployment Insurance
Advance Notice
Reforming Training and Reemployment Services
Portability of Pension and Health Care Benefits
Conclusions
CHAPTER 5. INEQUALITY AND ECONOMIC REWARDS
Recent Trends in Inequality
Earnings Inequality
Documenting Trends in Earnings Inequality
Between-Group Inequality
Within-Group Inequality
Earnings Inequality Among Women
Explanations for Increasing Earnings Inequality
Income Inequality
Documenting the Increase in Income Inequality
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Explanations for Increasing Income Inequality
Alternative Measures of Inequality
Consumption Inequality
Wealth Inequality
Mobility
Government Policy and Inequality
Assessing the Impact of Government Policy
Additional Policies to Reduce Inequality
Conclusion
CHAPTER 6. REFINING THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN THE
U.S. MARKET ECONOMY
Markets, Governments, and Complementarity
The Advantages of Markets
Why Have Government At All?
Markets and Public Policy as Complements
Using Public Policy to Bring Competition to Regulated
Industries
Reasons for the Delay in Deregulating Electricity
and Telephone Service
The Telecommunications Act of 1996
Expanding Competition in Electricity: Federal Orders and State Initiatives
Markets Complementing Governments
Emissions Trading: Applications to Air Pollution
Spectrum Auctions
Natural Resource Policy Reform
Disposal of Surplus Defense Properties
Changes in Farm Policy
Limits on Bringing Markets into the Public Sector
Conclusion
CHAPTER 7. AMERICAN LEADERSHIP IN THE EMERGING GLOBAL ECONOMY
Three Sweeping Changes
The End of the Cold War
Industrialization and Growth Come to the Developing World
Increased Globalization
Achievements and Opportunities
Explaining the Benefits of Integration
U.S. Policy on Trade with Developing Countries
Patterns of Foreign Investment in Developing and
Transition Economies
Other Aspects of U.S. Policy Toward Emerging Market
Economies
Integrating the Transition Economies into the World
Economic System
A Framework for Future Leadership
13
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Page
International Economic Cooperation
International Peace and Order
Environmental Issues
Basic Research
Conclusion
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APPENDIXES
A. Report to the President on the Activities of the Council of Economic Advisers During 1996
B. Statistical Tables Relating to Income, Employment,
and Production
281
293
LIST OF TABLES
2-1. Growth in Consumer Credit Outstanding
2-2. Average Increase in Rate of Return When Inflation
Rises by 1 Percentage Point
2-3. Accounting for Growth in Real GDP, 1960-2003
2-4. Administration Forecast
5-1. Earnings Ratios for Male High School Graduates and
25- to 34-Year-Old-Male Full-Time, Year-Round
Workers
6-1. The Interconnection Debate
6-2. Examples of Mining Patents Issued Since 1994
6-3. Miles of Streams Polluted by Hardrock Mine Wastes
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204
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LIST OF CHARTS
The "Misery Index"
Federal Budget Deficit
Actual and Trend Labor Productivity
Federal Government Employment
Unemployment and the Probability of Inflation
Changes in Core Inflation and the NAIRU
Delinquency Rates
Alternative Measures of Productivity
Growth in Real GDP
Consumer Price Inflation
Civilian Unemployment Rate
Wealth and Saving
Yields on Treasury Securities
Bond Yield Spreads
Unemployment and the NAIRU
Inflation and Trend Unit Labor Costs
Total Fertility Rate
Life Expectancy at Age 65
Dependency Ratio of the Aged
Growth in Entitlement Spending
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1-1.
1-2.
1-3.
1-4.
2-1.
2-2.
2-3.
2-4.
2-5.
2-6.
2-7.
2-8.
2-9.
2-10.
2-11.
2-12.
3-1.
3-2.
3-3.
3-4.
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Page
LIST OF CHARTS—CONTINUED
3-5. Growth in Per-Enrollee Costs of Health Care
3-6. Self-Described Health Status of Medicare Enrollees ..
3-7. Projected Lifetime Nursing Home Use by Current 65Year-Olds
4-1. Unemployment Rate
4-2. Employment-to-Population Ratio
4-3. Part-Time Employment for Economic Reasons
4-4. Measures of Annualized Real Wage and Earnings
Growth Since 1982
4-5. Alternative Inflation Adjustments to Wages
4-6. Real Compensation and Labor Productivity
4-7. Displacement Rate Among Long-Tenure Workers
4-8. Permanent Job Losers Unemployed Less Than 5
Weeks
4-9. Median Job Duration for Males by Selected Age
4-10. Job Leavers Unemployed Less Than 5 Weeks
5-1. Real Household Income Growth by Quintile from
1993 to 1995
5-2. Earnings Ratios for Male Full-Time, Year-Round
Workers
5-3. Male Full-Time, Year-Round Workers by Real Earnings Range
5-4. College/High School Median Earnings Ratio for Male
Full-Time, Full-Year Workers
5-5. Ratio of Median Earnings of Males Age 45-54 to
Those of Males Age 25-34
5-6. Increase in Inequality Due to Supply Shifts
5-7. Increase in Inequality Due to Demand Shifts
5-8. Change in Share of Income Received by Each Quintile from 1979 to 1995
5-9. Share of Households by Real Income Range
5-10. Poverty Rates
5-11. One-Year and Five-Year Mobility Rates
6-1. Economic Activity Attributable to National Forest
System Programs
7-1. GDP Per Capita in the "Four Tigers"
7-2. GDP Per Capita in Four Other Asian Economies
7-3. Real GDP Growth in Latin America
7-4. Growth in World Output and Trade
7-5. Shares of World Trade
7-6. U.S. Exports of Goods by Destination
7-7. Net Capital Flows to Developing Countries
7-8. Stock of U.S. Direct Investment Abroad
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Page
LIST OF BOXES
1-1.
2-1.
2-2.
2-3.
2-4.
2-5.
2-6.
2-7.
3-1.
4-1.
4-2.
4-3.
4r-4.
5-1.
5-2.
5-3.
5-4.
5-5.
6-1.
6-2.
6-3.
6-4.
6-5.
6-6.
6-7.
6-8.
6-9.
7—1.
7-2.
7-3.
7-4.
7-5.
Explaining the Productivity Slowdown
Unemployment and Changes in Inflation
Securitization of Consumer Loans
Nonbusiness Bankruptcy: Trends and Causes
Profitability of Credit Card Operations
Tax Treatment of Indexed Securities
How Indexed Securities Reduce Inflation Risk
Estimates and Recommendations of the Advisory
Commission to Study the Consumer Price Index ....
The Problem of Adverse Selection
Effects of the Redesign of the Current Population
Survey
The Influence of Inflation Adjustments on Measured
Real Wages and Incomes
Sources of Wage Data
Trends in Employer Health Care Costs
Executive Compensation
Earnings Inequality and the Winner-Take-All Society
The Experts' Consensus on Earnings Inequality
Shortcomings of Household Income Measures
Intergenerational Mobility
The Benefits of Deregulaton
The Role of Copyright in an Electronic Global Economy
The Economics of Federalism in Regulation
Telecommunications Policy Is Not Just for Telephone
Companies
Why Were the Regional Bell Operating Companies
Kept Out of Other Markets?
Mergers During the Transition to Competition
Bringing the Government to the People via the
Internet
Taxing Pollution Versus Giving Away Emissions
Trading Permits Versus Auctioning
Spectrum Auctions: A $22 Billion Economic Idea
Trade Adjustment Measures
How Educating Foreign Students Promotes Markets
and Democracy
Foreign Aid and U.S. Public Opinion
Reducing the Debt Burden of Developing Countries ..
Tied-Aid Agreements
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CHAPTER 1
Growth and Opportunity: Creating a
New Economic Order
THE AMERICAN ECONOMY TODAY is the healthiest it has
been in three decades. But just as important as the economy's current performance is the foundation being laid for its future health
and strength. Like its predecessors, this Economic Report of the
President, the last of this President's first Administration, summarizes the present state of the economy and the accomplishments of
the past 4 years. But it also sets forth the economic legacy this Administration hopes to leave. That legacy includes a vibrant and
evolving set of public institutions, investments that will provide the
basis for continued growth, and an economic philosophy of government and markets that will help to guide these institutions and investments. Together these will constitute a bequest to future generations, contributing to rising living standards, expanded opportunities, and a greater sense of community.
The real measure of the success of any Administration's economic
policies is not just today's economic statistics, but also the strength
of the Nation's economy in 10 or 20 years' time. Today's economic
policies will be judged favorably if, as a result, growth is stronger,
the environment cleaner, and the number of children growing up
in poverty fewer. History will pronounce these efforts a success if,
a generation from now, opportunity has been expanded in our
cities, tomorrow's senior citizens are at least as economically secure
as today's, and all our citizens have the education they need not
just to cope with but to profit from the challenges of a changing
world. If we can look back upon a record of such accomplishments,
we will know that the last years of the 20th century laid a solid
foundation for the 21st.
No Administration starts with a clean slate: each must work
with the assets and the liabilities it has inherited, and each Administration that follows will to some degree reshape and revise
what this one has built. We are constrained and enabled not just
by our physical and our fiscal inheritance, but also by our intellectual inheritance—by prevailing modes of thought and by the ways
in which we and our contemporaries view and approach the world.
Consequently, it is hard enough in the present to formulate the
17
policies that will guide us toward a more prosperous future, harder
still to assess today their impact decades hence.
For more than two decades America has faced several serious
problems: productivity growth has been slower than in the past, income inequality has increased, and poverty has persisted. In addition, serious challenges loom for the future, such as the aging of
the baby boom, which threatens to create severe fiscal strains in
the next century. In the last 4 years the Administration has taken
important steps to respond to these challenges. Only if we maintain
and extend these initiatives will we leave a strong legacy for the
future.
This chapter begins by describing what will perhaps be viewed
as this Administration's most enduring contribution, the formulation and implementation of an economic philosophy for the 21st
century. The economic record, which reflects the policies articulated
by this philosophy—policies that have mitigated or reversed many
of the undesirable economic trends of the 1980s and early 1990s—
is the second subject of this chapter. But the task of preparing for
the future is far from complete. The third section of this chapter
therefore focuses on the Administration's agenda for promoting the
three complementary goals of growth, opportunity, and responsibility.
AN ECONOMIC PHILOSOPHY
At the center of the U.S. economy is the market: vibrant competition among profit-maximizing firms has enhanced economic efficiency and generated innovation, giving the United States one of
the highest standards of living in the world. Within this marketbased economy, government plays a limited, yet critical, role. It is
essential to understand the proper role of government if the economy's strong performance is to continue and to improve.
In the past, two opposing visions of the American economy have
vied for dominance. To put it starkly, one is a Panglossian view of
an America of vigorous, self-sufficient individualism, the other of a
world in which government is primarily responsible for our wellbeing. The first view is one of Horatio Algers making their way on
their own, of self-reliant entrepreneurs creating wealth from which
everyone eventually benefits. In this vision the main job of government is to keep out of the way, to do no harm. This economic
worldview has its roots in the writings of Adam Smith, was refined
into the classical liberalism of the 19th century, and has persisted
into contemporary times in the rhetoric of the Reagan Presidency
and its supporters.
The second vision is one that distrusts markets. At its extreme,
this is a vision of an America full of monopolistic firms despoiling
18
the environment and exploiting the masses of workers to earn huge
profits for a handful of managers and shareholders. It sees pervasive market failures producing dire consequences, such as farmers
and workers precluded from earning a decent living, and large
parts of society—particularly in the inner cities and impoverished
rural areas—simply left behind. The hero of this vision is government, endowed with both the omniscience and the omnipotence to
cure these ills through active intervention in the market. The New
Deal crystallized these currents into a new kind of liberalism, in
some ways antithetical to the old.
THE NEW VISION
Over the past 4 years, this Administration has promoted a third
vision, one that synthesizes and transcends these two polar
worldviews. This vision puts individuals at its center, but it emphasizes that individuals live within and draw strength from communities. It recognizes that many have been left behind by the changing economy and may need government assistance, but that the
role for government is limited: it can and should promote opportunity, not dependence.
This new vision includes a renewed conception of government—
one in which government recognizes both the market's efficiencies
and its imperfections. The government can sometimes make markets work better, but it is seldom in a position to replace them.
Government has its strengths and its limitations. We need to understand those limitations and, where possible, work to improve
government's performance. The government cannot ignore the role
of market forces in its own programs: it needs to take advantage
of the power of incentives to accomplish its objectives.
Critics of government often pose a false dilemma: which can do
the job better, the government or the market? Yet the question is
seldom whether government should replace the market, but rather
whether government can usefully complement the market. On this
question a consensus holds that, in many particular circumstances,
the answer is clearly yes. In the trough of the Great Depression,
for example, one out of four workers was without a job—clearly the
market was not performing well. It was that harrowing experience
that led to enactment of the Employment Act of 1946 (the same
legislation that established the Council of Economic Advisers),
which assigned to the Federal Government the responsibility to
"promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing
power."
Over the years, economists have identified the various circumstances in which markets fail to produce desirable outcomes,
and in which selective government intervention can complement
markets. Competition may be imperfect, market participants may
19
lack needed information, or markets may be missing. Would-be
innovators and entrepreneurs may fail to capture enough of the
benefits of their activity to justify their effort, or the users of resources, such as clean air and water, may escape the full costs of
their use, degrading the resources for all. Although such problems
may occur throughout the economy, it is important for the government to focus on those that are particularly severe. Like any successful enterprise, it must identify a core mission and pursue it.
GOVERNMENT'S CORE ECONOMIC MISSION
Government's presence in the economy has become so pervasive
that we can easily lose sight of its core mission. A few simple principles can serve as a guide to rediscovering that core mission.
The criterion for government involvement in any activity should
not be how essential that activity is to the economy, or how many
jobs it generates, or how much it contributes to the trade balance.
In the overwhelming number of cases, the government cannot hope
to surpass private firms at generating output, jobs, and exports.
The proper question in circumstances where a choice between government and the market arises is whether any reason exists not to
rely on markets. Is there—in the language of economists—a market
failure?
The government should focus its attention on those areas in
which markets will not perform adequately on their own, in which
individual responsibility is insufficient to produce desirable results,
and in which collective action through government is the most effective remedy. Americans are better off in a society in which individuals are encouraged to exercise as much responsibility as possible. But both economic theory and historical evidence indicate
that, left to themselves, individuals and firms will produce too little
of some goods like basic scientific research, and too much of others,
such as pollution and toxic wastes. We also know that, without government assistance, many children from disadvantaged backgrounds may not be able to realize their full potential. Government
social insurance programs have enabled individuals to make provision for risks that almost all individuals face and that, at the time
the programs were launched, markets did not—and still largely do
not—address effectively. Among them are programs that provide
some insurance against unemployment, retirement benefits secured
against the risk of inflation, and medical care for the aged.
It is essential to remember, whenever evaluating an existing government program or contemplating a new one, that the government
cannot direct resources to someone without taking resources away
from someone else. In a full-employment economy such as the Nation enjoys today and hopes to maintain, misguided subsidies pull
resources away from more productive sectors and divert them to-
20
ward less productive ones. Some individuals gain, but society as a
whole suffers a net loss.
To prepare the economy, and the government, for the 21st century, we need to rethink and revitalize our policies to respond to
the new challenges. We also need to strip away outmoded programs
that respond primarily to problems of the past.
AN INTERNATIONAL VISION
In international just as in domestic economic policy, two fundamentally different visions have long dominated the debate. At
one extreme, countries interact atomistically in an undifferentiated
world of free trade abroad and free markets at home. In this view,
international economic relations are just a matter of opening markets. The other perspective harks back to 18th-century mercantilism, often supplemented with metaphors from the Cold War. It replaces ideological competition with economic competition, and sees
the gains on one side of the border coming at the expense of losses
on the other. The trade deficit, in this view, replaces the missile
gap as the measure of our national inadequacy.
Here, too, this Administration has sought to carve a new path.
It recognizes the benefits of free trade, but also the existence of
international public goods, not just in the trade arena but in other
dimensions of international affairs as well. This new vision does
not split the difference between these two views; rather, it recognizes that the vision of trade as war is profoundly wrong. Trade is
not a zero-sum game. It does not merely create a winner for every
loser: all countries can gain. As America's trading partners grow,
they buy more U.S. goods and services. As the U.S. economy grows,
we buy more of theirs, so that trade can play a catalytic role in a
virtuous cycle of ever-higher levels of growth and living standards.
The opposite is also true: attempts by many countries in the 1930s
to escape from the Great Depression by pursuing beggar-thy-neighbor policies only made everyone worse off.
Defenders of free trade can do it a disservice by promoting it as
a way to create more jobs or to reduce bilateral trade deficits. Jobs,
the unemployment rate, and the overall balance of payments are
ultimately a consequence of macroeconomic policies, not of trade
barriers. The real objective of free trade is to raise living standards
by ensuring that more Americans are working in areas where the
United States is comparatively more productive than its trading
partners. In a full-employment economy, trade has more impact on
the distribution of jobs than on the quantity of jobs.
The new philosophy recognizes that unfettered global markets
are not, by themselves, sufficient. Markets function best within an
institutional environment that makes rules to promote free competition while facilitating the cooperation necessary for a stable
21
world economy. What is required is general understanding of the
issues and difficulties in international trade and mutual commitments, of the kind embodied in the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade and the World Trade Organization (WTO), not to allow
the pleadings of special interests to interfere with the gains that
all enjoy from free international trade.
The new philosophy also recognizes that just as domestic public
goods will be underprovided by free markets at home, so a decentralized trading system is insufficient to supply public goods that
benefit people around the globe. An important example of an international public good is economic cooperation, including that essential to maintaining free trade. Basic research and a clean environment are other examples of international public goods in which cooperation can provide benefits to the United States, while also
helping other countries. In making these international public goods
available, we need to combine competition in the international
marketplace with cooperation in establishing the rules of the game.
THE ECONOMIC RECORD
In 1992, against a backdrop of an uncertain and jobless recovery
and rising budget deficits, the then-Governor of Arkansas, campaigning for President, set two basic goals for economic performance in his first term: to establish an economic environment in
which more than 8 million jobs would be created, and to cut the
Federal budget deficit in half. Both these goals have been surpassed.
THE ACHIEVEMENTS
In 1992 the national unemployment rate averaged 7.5 percent.
Almost 10 million people were looking for work. Over the last 4
years the unemployment rate has come down to 5.4 percent. Not
only has the economy created more than 11 million new jobs, over
3 million more than promised, but the new jobs are mostly good
jobs: two-thirds of recent employment growth has been in industry/
occupation groups paying wages above the median.
Meanwhile underlying inflationary pressures have subsided. In
1992, inflation as measured by the core consumer price index (the
core CPI excludes the volatile food and energy components) was 3.7
percent. In 1996 core inflation was only 2.7 percent. The combination of low unemployment and stable inflation has given the United
States the lowest "misery index" since the 1960s (Chart 1-1). Some
of the key factors contributing to the economy's increased ability to
maintain both stable prices and low unemployment are analyzed in
Chapter 2. Among the important ingredients are increasing competition and greater openness to the rest of the world economy.
22
Economic growth has been strong and sustainable. The economic
expansion has been marked by a healthy balance among the components of demand. Private, not public, demand has been the engine of growth. The Administration's initiative to reinvent government has slowed the growth of the public sector. Private sector demand, by contrast, has grown at a 3.2 percent annual rate since
the beginning of this Administration, up from 2.4 percent over the
previous 12 years. It is particularly heartening to note that investment and exports have led the expansion. Investment is booming:
real spending on producers' durable equipment has grown a stunning 11 percent per year since 1993. Not only has investment been
the strongest component of demand for the past 4 years, but the
new structures and equipment that it represents will remain part
of the Nation's capital stock, promoting growth and productivity for
years to come. The second-strongest component of growth has been
exports, which have increased by 7 percent per year since this Administration took office.
Chart 1-1 The "Misery Index"
The combination of a low unemployment rate and stable inflation has produced the lowest
"misery index" since the 1960s.
Index points
25
20
15
10
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
Note: The "misery index" is the sum of the unemployment rate and CPI inflation.
Source: Council of Economic Advisers based on Department of Labor data.
Just as important as today's conjuncture of growth, unemployment, and inflation is the question of whether the economy can
continue to grow, with low unemployment and stable inflation. In
terms of sustainability and sound fundamentals, this expansion is
23
one of the strongest in recent memory. In contrast, much of the
growth of the 1980s and early 1990s was fueled by large deficits
and a quadrupling of the national debt. This path of growth fueled
by government spending could not have continued indefinitely. No
less important, over that period changes in the tax system created
perverse incentives that led to overbuilding of commercial real estate and high vacancy rates. Although investment rates were high,
much of this investment did not enhance the long-run productive
potential of the economy. Another factor that bodes well for this expansion to continue is the health of the financial system, which has
finally recovered from the debacle of the late 1980s, caused in part
by lax regulatory oversight.
Not only has the economy grown rapidly and sustainably, but the
fruits of that growth have begun to be shared more equitably. Between 1993 and 1995, the most recent year for which data are
available, the poverty rate fell from 15.1 percent to 13.8 percent—
the largest 2 year drop in over 20 years. Poverty rates for elderly
and for black Americans reached their lowest levels since these
data began to be collected in 1959. Not only have the incomes of
every quintile of the income distribution increased, but the largest
percentage increase has been seen by the poorest in American society. Median real household income rose 2.7 percent in 1995—and
more if, as some believe, the CPI has been overstating actual inflation. Chapter 5 provides more details on trends in household income and the factors that may account for the recent decrease in
inequality, which appears to be larger than the normal cyclical improvement.
THE REASONS
Since 1993 this Administration has developed a comprehensive
agenda that has contributed to the Nation's current economic
health and strength. The key elements of this agenda are reducing
the deficit, opening markets at home and abroad, and restoring
prudence to macroeconomic management.
Reducing the Deficit
The Administration's most important economic policy accomplishment has been a substantial reduction in the Federal budget deficit. Since the 1992 fiscal year the deficit has been cut, not just in
half as the President promised, but by 63 percent—from $290 billion in 1992 to $107 billion in fiscal 1996 (Chart 1-2). As a share
of gross domestic product (GDP), the deficit has fallen over the
same period from 4.7 percent to 1.4 percent—its lowest level in
more than 20 years. In 1992 the U.S. general-government deficit
(the combined deficit for all levels of government) was larger in relation to the economy than the deficits of Japan or Germany were
24
to theirs; today it is a smaller fraction of GDP than in any other
major industrialized economy.
Chart 1-2 Federal Budget Deficit
Since fiscal year 1992, the Federal budget deficit has been cut by 63 percent
Billions of current dollars
700
600
500
["
Pre-OBRA93 estimate
400
300
With OBRA93 and
FY 1998 Administration budget
200
100
0
-100
j_
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Fiscal years
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Source: Office of Management and Budget.
The dramatic decline in the deficit over the past 4 years is the
result of many factors. By far the most important are the fiscal policy changes adopted in the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of
1993 (OBRA93) and the stronger economic performance to which it
contributed. Under the policies in place when this Administration
took office, the 1996 deficit was projected to rise to $298 billion,
even though the projection assumed 5 years of robust expansion.
Lower spending and increased revenues resulting from OBRA93
and subsequent legislation were responsible for more than $100 billion of deficit reduction in the fiscal year that ended in September
1996. The remaining budget savings are due to a combination of
higher-than-expected tax revenues and lower-than-expected spending, which resulted from the stronger economy and a variety of
technical factors unrelated to legislative changes. Many of these
economic and technical factors are also the product, although less
directly, of the Administration's policies—including the policy of
deficit reduction itself. Even though the Administration felt confident that its policies would significantly improve the economy, it
continued to use conservative forecasts for budgetary purposes:
25
growth in every year of this Administration has turned out to exceed these budgetary forecasts.
It is difficult to say with confidence what would have happened
had the Administration not put deficit reduction at the top of its
economic agenda and pushed through OBRA93. A controlled experiment on the entire macroeconomy is obviously impossible, but a
simple analysis can provide some insights. We can say, first of all,
that if deficits had continued at the levels projected in 1992, the
Federal debt today would be half a trillion dollars higher than the
$3.7 trillion currently held by the public. With so much more accumulated debt, and with higher deficits continuing, interest rates
would certainly be higher than they are today. The more restrained
fiscal policy helped create conditions that enabled the Federal Reserve to maintain a more expansionary stance—that is, lower
short-term interest rates—than it might have otherwise. It is hard
to imagine that the rapid expansion of investment in producers* durable equipment that has supported this expansion could have happened in an environment of higher interest rates.
The effect of deficit reduction on business confidence has been
less tangible, but no less important. Business confidence was weak
in 1992: business leaders felt genuine concern about the mounting
deficits and the political system's evident inability to address the
underlying issues. Such anxieties are bad for investment. After 12
years of budgetary excess, however, this government has finally
showed that it can bring its own finances under control. But confidence is something that has to be continually renewed. That is
why this Administration is committed to continuing to reduce the
deficit to zero.
In short, had the Administration not put deficit reduction at the
top of its economic agenda, the Nation's debt would surely be much
larger, and its economic future bleaker, than they are today. And
it is unlikely that the economy would have experienced as healthy
an expansion as it has.
Opening Markets at Home
Another cornerstone of the Administration's economic strategy
has been an aggressive policy of reforming regulatory structures in
key sectors of the economy, including telecommunications, electricity, and banking. In reforming electricity and telecommunications regulation, the Administration's belief was that the proper
regulatory structure would enhance competition, which would lead
to valuable new services and lower prices. Recent financial reforms
have provided greater incentives for competition and innovation, in
ways that have reduced the overall cost of regulation to both the
government and the banking sector itself while preserving and enhancing the safety and soundness of the Nation's banks. On the environmental front, the Administration has shown that regulatory
26
policies that recognize the importance of incentives can be both
cheaper and more effective than traditional regulatory controls.
Tradable permits for sulfur dioxide emissions are a prime example.
The full import of these and other regulatory changes will not be
felt for years to come.
Opening Markets Abroad
The third element of the Administration's economic policy has
been an aggressive effort to increase exports through the opening
of markets abroad. Two major trade agreements—the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Uruguay Round accord of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, which established the World Trade Organization—were enacted during the
President's first term. The first major fruits of the WTO are now
on the horizon, with the December 1996 agreement in Singapore to
reduce tariffs on a wide variety of information technology products
to zero. The United States will certainly gain, both as a major exporter of information technology and as an importer, as American
industries take advantage of new foreign technologies that will
lower their costs and increase their productivity. In addition, the
value of NAFTA to U.S. exports was proved during Mexico's 1995
financial crisis. Despite Mexico's sharp economic contraction,
NAFTA ensured that Mexico kept its markets open to U.S. products, in sharp contrast to the restrictive policies that had followed
Mexico's 1982 financial crisis. As a result, U.S. exports were maintained, and by 1996 they had risen to new records. Mexico also
benefited because NAFTA prevented any potential recourse to insular and protectionist policies; partly as a result, by the second half
of 1995 the Mexican economy had started to recover.
Two other major regional groupings—our Pacific Rim trading
partners in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum and our
Western Hemisphere neighbors engaged in talks toward a Free
Trade Area of the Americas—have made commitments toward free
trade among their members by 2020 and 2005, respectively. More
than 200 other trade agreements have been completed since the beginning of this Administration.
As already noted, U.S. exports have boomed, especially in those
areas where trade agreements have been reached. Increased trade
allows the United States—and its trading partners—to exploit comparative advantage. These gains from trade are reflected in the fact
that wages in jobs supported by goods exports are 13 to 16 percent
higher than the national average. Some critics suggest that the
growth in exports was simply a matter of exchange rates tilting in
favor of the United States. Over the last 4 years, however, the
trade-weighted exchange rate of the dollar (a standard measure of
exchange rates with all of the United States' principal trading partners) changed by only about 2 percent.
27
Restoring Confidence in Economic Policymaking
Americans now have more confidence in their government's handling of the economy. Polls show that more Americans rated the
conduct of economic policy favorably in November 1996 than at any
time in the previous decade. This vote of confidence was the result
of a number of factors. First, the government was putting into
practice an economic philosophy that not only seemed to be working, but was in accord with the country's basic values. That economic philosophy, as enunciated above, understands both that neither the market nor the government can correct all the shortcomings in American society. Government has a place, but government has to know its place. The initiatives outlined above—from
getting the deficit under control to securing the long-overdue passage of a new telecommunications bill—were proof that this philosophy could work.
Not only was the substance of economic policy viewed as a success; so was the process of policy development. The establishment
of a National Economic Council (NEC) to oversee that process ensured that the economy would get the same attention within the
White House that foreign affairs had gotten since the National Security Council was established nearly 50 years earlier. The NEC
has effectively coordinated the inputs of the many Federal agencies, to ensure that the President receives the best options and advice, without setting agency against agency in wasteful internal
turf battles. Also, the public differences between the Federal Reserve and the executive branch that had sometimes characterized
earlier Administrations were replaced with a respect for the central
bank's independence.
THE ECONOMIC AGENDA
The United States still faces major economic challenges. American technology, the economy, and society are all changing rapidly.
Instead of ignoring or lamenting these changes, the Nation must
embrace them, transforming problems into opportunities. We can
do this only if we set a coherent economic agenda. This Administration has already accomplished much with the policies of the last 4
years. In the next 4 years the Administration will continue to build
on those policies, holding fast to its new vision of the government's
role in the economy as the basis for an agenda to promote growth,
opportunity, and responsibility.
GROWTH
Productivity growth has been slow since the early 1970s. Since
1973, annual rises in productivity in nonfarm businesses have
averaged 1.1 percent, a drastic decline from the 2.8 percent annual
28
average that the Nation enjoyed between 1960 and 1973 (Chart 13). Biases in the methods used to calculate these numbers may exaggerate the slowdown (a question taken up in Chapter 2), but
something has undoubtedly happened to slow the pace at which
output per hour increases (Box 1-1). Slower productivity growth
has the direct consequence of retarding increases in the Nation's
standard of living. It also places obstacles in the way of solving
some of the Nation's other challenges. Americans may be less supportive of freer trade when trade liberalization has been associated,
however spuriously, with slower growth. It will be harder to balance the budget over the long term, especially while supporting a
growing aged population, when productivity growth is slow. And
workers are more reluctant to share their resources with those who
are worse off when they feel that their own wages are stagnant.
Chart 1 -3 Actual and Trend Labor Productivity
Labor productivity has grown at a 1.1 percent average annual rate since 1973.
Index, 1992 » 100 (ratio scale)
110
100
Trend
90
80
Trend »1.1% (annual rate)
(1973:Q4to1996:Q3)
.r
''
Actual
\
70
60 r
'•'
Trend « 2.8% (annual rate)
(1960:Q2 to 1973:Q4)
50
i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
Note: Data are for the nonfarm business sector.
Source: Department of Labor.
The sources of economic growth can be grouped under three
headings: increases in physical capital, improvements in human
capital, and increases in the overall efficiency of the economy—the
amount of output per unit of input. The Administration's economic
agenda is based on strengthening each of these three pillars of economic growth.
29
Box 1-1.—Explaining the Productivity Slowdown
The framework that economists use to decompose growth
into contributions of physical capital, human capital, and their
efficiency can be used to understand the causes of the productivity slowdown, This slowdown, which began around 1973,
was similar in its timing and magnitude in all the advanced
industrial economies. Consequently, it cannot be explained by
purely domestic factors,
Slower growth of inputs—physical capital and human capital—is not a major cause of the slowdown. The capital-labor
ratio has grown a bit more slowly since 1973, but only enough
to account for 0.2 percentage point of the approximately 2~percentage-point decrease in productivity growth. And the rate of
increase of human capital—the education and experience of
workers—has actually increased sinte the 1950s and 1960s.
Human capital growth now accounts for not only a larger share
of productivity growth (27 percent from 1973 to 1994, compared with 3 percent from 1960 to 1973}f but a larger absolute
amount as well (0*3 percentage point versus 0.1 percentage
point)* Policies to increase investment* education* and training,
however tmportatrt for otlier reasons, do not address the tinderlyingearner of &&$sloWdowiL .' .;',; ' "-'' - ; \- . ' ' - :
Firom a& ae^
e&tire slowdown
is attnbmtablt to a <fefcr&a|e in timltifaetor prddtictivity growth,
that is^ the ^fficJtaey with which capital and labor are used.
Although the causes are murky, some insight comes from the
explanation of the productivity speedup of the 1950s and
1960s, S#f£e of that era's abnormally rapid productivity growth
resulted from the private sector's use for civilian purposes of
the burst of innovation—largely government funded—inspired
by the war effort in the 1940s. Some important examples are
the digital computer, other advances in electronics, and the development of nuclear energy* Thus, although we may not fully
understand the causes of the slowdown, policies aimed at increased support for science and technology are obviously strong
candidates to be part of the solution.
Increasing Physical Capital
The first pillar of economic growth is increases in physical capital, which enable workers to produce more goods and services. Because it reduces the government's borrowing, deficit reduction will
remain the key to how much of national saving is available for private investment in physical capital. The Nation has made great
30
progress in bringing down the deficit in the last 4 years, but this
ground will be lost unless we address the strains that some of the
major entitlement programs will place on the budget over the long
term. As the population ages, expenditures on Social Security are
expected to grow from an estimated 4.7 percent of GDP in 1996 to
around 6.4 percent in 2030, then stabilize. A much more serious
challenge is posed by Medicare and Medicaid. If nothing is done to
reform these programs, their outlays are projected to grow from an
estimated 3.9 percent of GDP in 1996 to 13.0 percent in 2050.
Their projected growth is due not just to the aging of the population, as in the case of Social Security, but also to the expectation
that the volume and intensity of medical services consumed will
continue their rapid rise. Chapter 3 analyzes the factors underlying
these projections and some of their implications for the future of
these programs.
Assuming Federal tax revenues remain at their historically constant level of around 18 percent of GDP, the projected increase in
entitlements, especially Medicare and Medicaid, will have one of
two effects: either it will balloon the budget deficit, or it will all but
crowd out other vital government expenditures, including those
necessary to sustain long-term economic growth, such as education
and research and development. The deficit reduction of the last 4
years, however, has put the Nation in a position to address these
long-term issues in a manner that preserves the important achievements of Medicare, Medicaid, and Social Security.
When the government runs a smaller deficit, it absorbs less private saving and frees up resources for private sector investment.
But public investments in infrastructure, such as roads, schools,
and airports, are also important. It is false economy to release
funds for investment in one area by cutting back in another where
the need and the return are just as great. Entrepreneurs will be
reluctant to build new factories, homes, and offices if the highways
and bridges that link them are inadequate for the new traffic they
generate.
To be sure, government must take pains to see that every dollar
it invests, like every other government dollar, is well spent. We
have to think hard about how to put into place incentives that
make such outcomes more likely. And we have to think carefully
about which public investments should be the responsibility of the
Federal Government and which the responsibility of States and localities. But fear of misdirected investment should not lead to
underinvestment, because too little investment is costly to future
growth. In short, we should not create an infrastructure deficit
while attempting to improve the budget deficit.
31
Improving Human Capital
The second pillar of economic growth is improvements in what
economists call human capital: the knowledge, experience, and
skills of the workforce. As the economy has changed, the demands
imposed on the brainpower of the American workforce have increased enormously. As Chapter 5 reveals, the returns to education, as measured by the difference in incomes between college
and high school graduates, have risen sharply in the last 20 years.
Much of this difference probably reflects the increasing importance
of computer skills in the workplace.
Many American schools do a superb job of human capital formation, but some are failing at the task. Standardized test scores reflect only part of the learning that goes on in schools, yet the fact
that American children perform less well on standard science and
mathematics tests than many of their foreign counterparts is a continuing source of concern. There is no easy answer.
Recognizing the challenge that these changes pose, the President
has set ambitious goals for the Nation's education system: every 8year-old should be able to read, every 12-year-old should be able to
log onto the Internet, every 18-year-old should be able to go to college, and every classroom and library in America should be linked
to the Internet.
An array of policies, current and proposed, are directed toward
achieving these goals. The America Reads initiative, working
through the National Service program, will call on thousands of
people to mobilize an army of a million volunteer tutors, dedicated
to ensuring that every child in America can read by the age of 8.
A good education in the early years of a child's life is necessary,
but hardly sufficient to endow that child with the skills that our
technological society demands. Therefore, in addition to early-education programs, we need to promote technology in the classroom
and encourage young people to take more years of college.
Although the returns to additional years of education are substantial—between 5 percent and 15 percent—without government
involvement many students would find it difficult to borrow for college. Not only do they lack a credit history, but they cannot borrow
against expected future earnings—human capital cannot be
pledged as collateral. The result is a classic market failure: markets by themselves do not provide all the education for which the
benefits exceed the costs, even when the benefits are measured
only in narrow economic terms. Since the G.I. Bill was passed in
the 1940s, the Federal Government has had an acknowledged role
in making higher education more affordable. Policies already implemented by this Administration are bringing us much closer to the
day when every American who wants to will be able to attend at
least 2 years of college. Under the new direct student loan pro-
32
gram, for example, individuals can borrow money for college directly from the Federal Government and tailor their repayments to
suit their own financial circumstances. Seeking to build on the success of this program, the President has also proposed tuition tax
credits, to support those seeking higher education, and penalty-free
withdrawals from individual retirement accounts, to encourage
them to save for it themselves.
Meanwhile the Technology and Literacy Challenge initiative is
bringing advanced computer technology into every classroom in the
Nation. It is making significant progress toward ensuring that all
American students are computer literate, equipped with the skills
they will need in the 21st century. Under this initiative, 20 percent
of all the schools in California have already been wired to the
Internet—a good example of government and the private sector
complementing each other. The Federal Government served as entrepreneur for this initiative, but much of the work was done by
50,000 volunteers, with many of the Nation's leading high-technology firms donating equipment. The initiative also stresses the
development of educational software and the training of teachers to
harness the potential of these new technologies.
Other steps are important in preparing the Nation's educational
system for the 21st century. Recent reports have documented the
extent to which America's public schools have become dilapidated.
Schools with leaky and collapsing roofs have had to be closed. Because students need a more conducive environment in which to
learn, the President has proposed $5 billion in Federal funding to
support a program, administered by the States, that would spend
$20 billion for school construction and renovation. Additional efforts are focused on enhancing resources for those communities facing the hardest problems (e.g., those with disproportionate numbers of disadvantaged children), improving standards through the
Goals 2000 program, and promoting new approaches through the
charter school movement.
Education does not end with college. That is why this Administration has consistently emphasized lifelong learning and employability security, to boost economic growth and reduce the adjustment costs associated with a vibrant economy. Unfortunately, the
legacy of past efforts in this sphere has left workers facing a complicated maze of dozens of government-assisted training programs,
each with its own rules, regulations, and restrictions. The President has proposed replacing this complex system with a single
choice-based system for adults. This system should use a marketoriented approach, relying on training vouchers or grants to empower people directly to seek the training that will help them the
most.
33
Research and Development
The third pillar of growth is greater economic efficiency—learning to produce more output with fewer inputs. Additions to the Nation's technological arsenal through research and development are
an important contributor to efficiency: private industry invests over
$100 billion in research and development each year. This is a huge
sum, but it may not be enough: history and economic theory suggest that, left to their own devices, private firms will not invest sufficiently in improving technology, because they themselves do not
realize the full benefit therefrom. Even though the patent system
encourages invention by guaranteeing that inventors retain property rights to their innovations, many very useful ideas developed
in more basic scientific research cannot (and should not) be patented.
The Federal Government has long played a critical role in promoting research and development. It has financed growth in telecommunications, for instance, from that industry's inception, with
the first Baltimore-to-Washington telegraph line, to its latest major
development, the Internet. In agriculture, government-funded research provided the basis for enormous improvements in productivity that today allow less than 3 percent of the workforce to feed the
entire Nation, and have made the United States one of the world's
leading agricultural exporters.
Detractors of government support for research have often distorted the issue. Some have posed a false dichotomy between basic
research, for which public support is almost universal, and technology, which they say should remain the province of the private
sector. Yet many areas of technology have huge spillover benefits
and therefore would be underprovided without government support. Critics have also accused government of trying to "pick winners"—of seeking to supplant the market at one of the things it
does best. But government support of technology is not aimed at
outguessing the market. Rather, it is focused on setting up partnerships and other structures to identify, together with the private
sector, those areas in which large benefits to society are not likely
to be produced by the market alone.
In the spirit of the Administration's new vision for the economy,
the Federal Government has placed public-private partnerships at
the center of its research and development policy. The Advanced
Technology Program (ATP), expanded substantially under this Administration, is a good example. ATP awards matching funds to industry, on a competitive basis, to conduct research on cutting-edge
technologies and processes that, despite their great economic potential, might otherwise not have been pursued. The firms themselves
set much of the research agenda, but this pairing has been an effective way to leverage government funding into larger increases in
34
research and development. The record shows that the success rate
of this and similar programs is indeed formidable.
Increasing Competition
Improving the efficiency of the economy is not just a matter of
improving technology. How the economy is organized plays just as
important a role in creating incentives for firms to use their capital
and labor as efficiently as possible. If the market economy is to deliver on its promise of growth and prosperity, markets have to be
competitive, because it is competition that drives firms to be efficient and innovative. Firms, however, often find it easier to increase profits by reducing competition than by improving efficiency
in response to competition. Monopolies and oligopolies not only can
charge inefficiently high prices and restrict output, but may also
have a diminished drive to innovate.
The traditional way to increase competition is to prevent the
growth of monopoly power in the first place. This Administration
has restored vigor to the enforcement of the antitrust laws, blocking anticompetitive mergers and, where warranted, prosecuting alleged violators. But competition is not viable in some industries,
namely, those called natural monopolies. Antitrust enforcement
may be of little help in these areas; instead government regulation
can help to ensure that monopoly power is not abused.
The extent and the form of competition are constantly changing.
Joseph Schumpeter, one of the 20th century's great economists, described capitalism as a process of creative destruction. New industries constantly come into existence as old industries are destroyed.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the transformation of
the economy from a mostly agricultural to a mostly industrial one.
Today services and information are assuming the lead position,
while at the same time demand for U.S. goods is increasingly coming from abroad. Sometimes analysts focus on manufacturing as if
it still represented the core of the economy. Manufacturing is important—it is the Nation's largest investor in research and development and its leading exporter—but manufacturing employment
today represents'only 15 percent of total employment, and service
industries also produce many of our important exports, for example
in telecommunications, financial services, and other intellectual
property.
Today, new technologies have expanded the scope for competition
in many sectors that have historically been highly regulated, such
as telecommunications and electric power. Traditional regulatory
structures, however, with their rigid categories of regulation versus
deregulation, and competition versus monopoly, have become increasingly unhelpful in guiding policy in these areas. These new
technologies do not call for wholesale deregulation because not all
parts of these industries are adequately competitive. Instead they
35
call for appropriate changes in regulatory structure to meet the
new challenges. Such changes must recognize the existence of hybrid areas of the economy, some parts of which are more suited to
competition, while others are more vulnerable to domination by a
few. Market power in one part of a regulated industry cannot be
allowed to maneuver itself into a stranglehold over other parts, or
else economic efficiency may be severely compromised. The Administration's regulatory reforms in the telecommunications and electric power industries have attempted to achieve competitive balance.
Even as these changes have intensified competition in some
parts of the economy, it remains limited in others. In particular,
where goods and services are locally provided, and where transportation costs are high, consumers in some areas may have too little
choice, even if providers in the country as a whole are numerous.
In parts of the country, for example, a single hospital may be the
only one serving a large rural area. In the health care sector, new
guidelines for antitrust enforcement were recently issued in response to concerns such as these, and the Administration has resisted attempts to scale back antitrust enforcement in this area.
The benefits of competition can be seen in our university system,
where competition remains keen—and perhaps partly accounts for
the dominant position American universities hold in the world of
higher education.
Expanding Trade
The third source of increasing efficiency in the economy is moreopen markets abroad. Like the freeing up of domestic markets,
opening of foreign markets shifts resources into relatively more
productive areas. The Administration will continue to pursue its
outward-oriented, protrade agenda through multilateral, regional,
and bilateral means, expanding on and bringing to fruition initiatives like the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation group and the proposed Free Trade Area of the Americas.
The global economy, like the domestic economy, is evolving, and
its change brings with it new challenges. A clean environment, a
safe workplace, and competitive markets are important to us internationally just as they are at home. Trade liberalization can complement these goals in many ways. Anticompetitive practices
abroad, for example, frequently cohabit with restrictions on trade
and may forestall entry of American firms into foreign markets.
Liberalizing trade in agriculture can lead to a more environmentally sound international allocation of farming activity. The
side agreements to NAFTA, on which the Administration conditioned its approval of the agreement, demonstrate that safeguarding a shared environment, promoting better working conditions,
and liberalizing trade are not mutually exclusive goods to be traded
36
off against each other. Pursuing these goals in the multilateral
framework of the WTO will be increasingly important. At the same
time, it is important that countries not allow domestic regulation
to become a pretext for nontariff trade barriers whose real purpose
is to restrict competition.
Some of the fastest-growing economies are the emerging markets
of the developing world, many of them in East and Southeast Asia.
To grasp fully the opportunities that these new markets offer, the
United States needs to strengthen economic relations with these
countries. Chapter 7 sets forth some of the principles on which
these new relations will have to be built.
Improving Public Sector Efficiency
The fourth and final way to increase the overall efficiency of the
economy is by improving the efficiency with which the government
itself does its job. By freeing up resources for potentially more productive uses in other sectors, and by reducing the cost of regulation, government reform can raise economy-wide productivity. The
Vice President's reinventing government initiative has been doing
just that. Thousands of pages of Federal regulations have been
eliminated, and thousands more are being streamlined or improved
in other ways. Hundreds of obsolete Federal programs have been
eliminated, and red tape has been reduced dramatically. The Federal civilian workforce has been cut by more than 250,000, and as
a percentage of the Nation's total employment it is now smaller
than at any time since the early 1930s (Chart 1-4).
OPPORTUNITY AND INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY
America cannot reach its full economic potential if any of its assets—including its human resources—do not live up to theirs. Just
as the productivity slowdown since 1973 poses a challenge for
growth, so the persistence of income inequality and the entrenchment of poverty of the past two decades make it more difficult to
ensure that all Americans have the opportunity to make the most
of their lives.
Americans of all incomes participated in the economic growth of
the 1950s and 1960s. But in the two decades that followed, not only
was overall growth slower, but these shrunken gains were reaped
disproportionately by those at the top of the income distribution. As
already noted, some evidence suggests that this trend may have
begun to reverse itself in the past few years. Chapter 5 discusses
trends in inequality and shows that an important contributing factor is the increasing wage gap between educated and uneducated
workers.
Another major problem is the persistence in some areas of pockets of poverty. The nationwide poverty rate has hovered between
10 and 15 percent for the past 30 years, but the burdens of poverty
37
Chart 1 -4 Federal Government Employment
The Federal workforce as a percentage of total employment was smaller in 1996
than at any time since the early 1930s.
Percent of nonfarm payroll employment
7
1930
I
I
1936
1942
I
1948
1954
1960
1966
1972
1978
i
I
1984
1990
1996
Note: Excludes Postal Service.
Source: Department of Labor.
have been spread very unevenly throughout American society. The
poverty rate for blacks fell to its lowest level in 1995, yet over 40
percent of black children still grow up in poor homes. Poverty
seems particularly entrenched—with poverty rates in some cases
exceeding 50 percent—in the inner cities and in certain remote
rural areas. The gap between rich and poor has a variety of origins.
Changes in technology inevitably confer advantages on some parts
of the country more than others, and citizens and governments in
some places have more effectively seized upon the opportunities offered. Vestiges of discrimination, directed at the large share of minority members in many communities, may also have played a role
in the geographic entrenchment of poverty.
Government programs have had much success in reducing inequality and poverty. Government cash transfers lifted over 21 million people out of poverty in 1995, lowering the poverty rate from
21.9 percent to 13.8 percent. If the effect of all taxes, the earned
income tax credit (EITC), and the valuation of noncash transfers
were included, the poverty rate would be still lower, at 10.3 percent. All told, more than half of all those who are reckoned poor
on a before-tax-and-transfers basis escaped poverty with the help
of government policies.
We must never allow the Nation's social safety net to become tattered, but it is also imperative to design policies in ways that will
38
fully integrate our lagging communities into the American economy. The Administration's approach is based on four principles:
providing people with opportunities to find work, making sure they
have the right incentives to avail themselves of those opportunities,
strengthening communities, and easing the transition between jobs
for dislocated workers. Education, discussed above in the context of
economic growth, also plays an important role in enhancing opportunities.
Work Opportunity
One of the most important contributions that any Administration
can make to the Nation's economy is to ensure that every American
seeking work can find it. The decline in the unemployment rate
from over 7 percent in 1992 to below 5V2 percent in 1996 was a
major step forward not only for growth, but also for opportunity.
But moving welfare recipients into jobs takes more than just creating job openings. Access to transportation, child care, and other infrastructure support will be needed. Many job seekers will also
need to acquire the critical "soft skills"—a habit of punctuality, low
absenteeism, and so forth—that will make them effective members
of the labor force.
Jobs, skills, and infrastructure are all important, but discrimination and its legacy can still place obstacles in the way of some
Americans. Some employers continue to deny employment or advancement on the basis of race or sex. This is illegal as well as economically irrational, and the Administration is committed to the
vigorous enforcement of equal opportunity laws. But this may not
be enough; affirmative action programs, based not on quotas but on
principles of advancing opportunity, are also called for.
Incentives
Few individuals consciously choose a life of dependency, whether
on public welfare or private charity. True, the environment into
which a child is born, and the opportunities he or she is afforded,
strongly influence whether that child matures into a productive
member of society or becomes dependent on the state. But most
economists believe that incentives also play a role in determining
that outcome. When a worker earns little more from a minimum
wage job than what he or she could get by going on welfare and
accepting food stamps and free public housing, the incentive to
work is not strong. In the past, the availability of welfare made the
effective wage for many low-wage workers (i.e., the addition to income from an extra hour of work) not the advertised $4 or $5 an
hour, but half of that or less.
Over the past 4 years this Administration has increased the returns to work relative to welfare in several ways. The expansion
of the EITC and the recently legislated increases in the minimum
39
wage have together increased the return to work for low-wage
workers, to the point where a full-time, year-round minimum wage
worker with two children will receive more income than ever before, even after adjusting for inflation. And the reforms of the welfare system, including the imposition of work requirements and
time limits on benefits, may provide further incentives.
Incentives are not only important for individuals, but need to be
designed with businesses in mind as well. The President has taken
the first step in reforming welfare. As important as the public sector's role in creating opportunity is, however, the private sector
must also participate if welfare reform is to result in better lives
for those who have depended on support in the past. This Administration challenges the private sector to work with government to
help welfare recipients move into the mainstream of work and opportunity. The welfare-to-work tax credit proposed by the President
last summer is one example of how the government can help create
the incentive for businesses to hire long-term welfare recipients.
Community
Many of the themes of this Administration's economic strategy
are drawn together in policies that work not just with and for individuals, but with and for the communities in which they live. Part
of any sensible economic strategy for reducing poverty involves concentrating on those areas where, as already noted, poverty is most
entrenched. The Federal Government, however, cannot and should
not be solely responsible for revitalizing these communities; rather,
the most effective strategy is to provide local communities with the
resources and tools they need to realize their full potential.
The Empowerment Zone/Enterprise Community initiative incorporates an entirely new approach to community revitalization.
Rather than imposing restrictive Federal mandates on America's
distressed central cities and rural areas, this effort begins from the
premise that local residents know best how to solve their communities' problems. To be considered for an Empowerment Zone or
Enterprise Community designation, communities have to meet eligibility criteria, be nominated by their State or local government,
and submit a strategic plan that describes the community's vision
for its future. This competition for designation provides an incentive for community leaders to develop innovative strategies to address their problems. The designated communities are then provided with access to a combination of flexible grants, tax incentives, and special assistance in removing bureaucratic red tape.
The Administration plans to expand the Empowerment Zone/Enterprise Community initiative. The Community Empowerment Act,
which was introduced in the 104th Congress, embodies the Administration's proposal for a second round of zones and communities.
This act would designate an additional 20 zones and 80 commu-
40
nities to receive, over 3 years, $1 billion in tax incentives and $1
billion in discretionary funds. The Administration will work with
the 105th Congress in securing passage of this extension.
Dislocated Workers
It is a subject of some debate whether the pace of change today
is such that individuals are more likely than in the past to lose
their jobs. Chapter 4 discusses both the evidence concerning
changes in the incidence of job dislocation and its economic consequences. But even if the risk of job loss is no greater than in the
recent past, dislocation is still hard on workers and their families.
The market does not provide insurance against job loss, which is
understandably a source of anxiety for workers. Economists generally endorse the virtues of Schumpeter's creative destruction. But
for individual workers and their families the costs of a changing
economy are far more apparent than the broader benefits to society
from an economy that is better able to adapt to changing technology and markets.
In a variety of ways, government can help individuals make the
transition between jobs, and in the process help make the economy
more supple, able to respond quickly to changes in markets and
technology. Unemployment insurance has long been the most important system of support for dislocated workers. This Administration considers it one of its special responsibilities to help those in
transition between jobs. One of the harshest ironies of an economy
in which employers provide most health insurance is the fact workers typically lose their health benefits when they lose their jobs—
precisely the time when they can least afford to purchase health
insurance on their own. The Administration has proposed providing
unemployed workers with 6 months of health insurance through
the existing unemployment insurance system. At the same time, it
is important to help the unemployed find new jobs through job retraining programs and "one-stop shopping" career centers to cushion and facilitate the transition for those hurt by economic change.
Finally, the Administration has worked to make benefits more
portable between jobs. For instance, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (the Kassebaum-Kennedy
bill) ensures that as many as 25 million workers will not be denied
health insurance, including coverage of preexisting conditions, at
their new jobs. Similarly, pension simplification and improved portability also make it easier to maintain crucial benefits when changing jobs.
CONCLUSION
The American economy is dynamic. This Administration's economic philosophy recognizes that American workers and enter-
41
prises, interacting through markets, are the source of that dynamism. The strength of this economy is its ability to adapt to
change; at the same time, its dynamism sets further change in motion, ultimately enriching the lives and raising the living standards
of all Americans.
Government has a limited but essential role in maintaining this
dynamism. It creates an economic climate in which individuals and
firms can flourish. It promotes competition. It seeks to ensure that
all individuals have an opportunity to make the most of their talents. It protects our environment, our health, and our safety. This
government's focus embodies elements both of continuity and of
change. Many of its basic economic duties—such as enforcing property rights, maintaining a stable currency, and granting patents—
are enduring, and the government's role in them is well established. As important as these areas are, this Report focuses on
those other areas where the government's role is being, and needs
to be, redefined.
Government must both adapt to and foster change. The past 4
years have demonstrated that the Federal Government is up to this
challenge. And the private sector has more than amply demonstrated that it, too, can fulfill its part in this ever-evolving partnership.
The process is never-ending. Most of the challenges the Nation
faces have deep roots in the past. Just as the productivity slowdown and the increase in inequality have no single, simple cause,
neither do they have any single, simple solution. No magic policy
wand can transport us back to the income distribution or the productivity growth America enjoyed in the 1960s. It takes time to respond effectively to, and even more time to reverse, trends that
have been two decades in the making. To take just one example
among myriad: the purely economic benefits of Head Start take 15
years or more to ripen—the time it takes for a Head Start child to
grow up and join the labor force.
Our assessment of the success of government programs must
therefore go beyond their impact on this year's or next year's GDP.
Success will be measured by the kinds of lives that all Americans
will live in the future. That success will be enhanced by the legacies we leave: not only investments in people, in the tools of production, and in technology that will increase our productivity, but
also a philosophy of markets and of government that will guide us
in the difficult choices we must make as we reach out toward the
21st century and beyond.
42
CHAPTER 2
Macroeconomic Policy and
Performance
MACROECONOMIC PERFORMANCE over the past 4 years has
demonstrated the soundness of this Administration's policies. It
has also confirmed the economic analysis presented in the past
three Economic Reports of the President, refuting critics who predicted the Administration's policies would not work.
In 1993 the President submitted to the Congress a package of
measures to reduce the Federal budget deficit that cut Federal
spending and raised income tax rates for the roughly 1.2 percent
of taxpayers with the highest incomes. At the time, some critics
said that these higher tax rates could hurt the economy by
blunting incentives to work and to save. Adherents of supply-side
theory went further, arguing that a combination of weaker economic performance and increased tax avoidance would result in little or no additional revenue from these higher tax rates. The 1994
Report explored this issue and concluded that the proposed increases in tax rates for high-income taxpayers would increase tax
revenue without adversely affecting the economy. Three years later
this conclusion has been justified. Between 1993 and 1994, households with adjusted gross incomes of $100,000 or more saw those
incomes increase by an average of 9.0 percent while their income
tax liability increased by 8.9 percent.
Although only a minority of economists shared the specific concerns of the supply-siders, the more general economic effects of deficit reduction have been an ongoing issue. Both the 1994 and the
1995 Reports analyzed the short- and long-run consequences of deficit reduction. They argued that, in the short run, deficit reduction
should not cause growth to slow, provided the reduction is credible,
financial markets are forward looking, and the Federal Reserve responds with an appropriately accommodative monetary policy.
Under these conditions deficit reduction should contribute to lower
real interest rates, stimulating interest-sensitive sectors of the
economy. Indeed, for the most part, this prediction has been borne
out over the past 4 years, with durable goods consumption and private nonresidential and residential investment supporting the expansion. Over the longer run, the Reports argued, this policy would
43
increase saving and investment, thereby augmenting the Nation's
stock of productive capital.
In 1996, with the economy growing and the deficit coming down,
the question became whether the expansion, then almost 5 years
old, was in danger of coming to a halt. That year's Report analyzed
the reasons why past expansions had ended. It found that expansions do not die of old age. Instead they are brought to an end by
specific (if unpredictable) factors, such as a runup of inflation followed by tight monetary policy; weak financial institutions and
lack of credit; or a buildup of inventories. The combination of tame
inflation, a healthy financial system, and lean inventory-to-sales
ratios then prevailing augured well for the expansion to continue—
as it did.
This Report continues the analysis of salient macroeconomic issues that inform current policy decisions. A number of these relate
to inflation. One of the most striking macroeconomic developments
of the last few years is the combination of low unemployment with
steady inflation. We therefore examine whether changes in the
structure of the economy have lowered the unemployment rate that
is achievable without risking a rise in inflation—the so-called nonaccelerating-inflation rate of unemployment, or NAIRU. Complementing this discussion is an analysis of the costs of inflation
in the current economic environment of low and stable inflation
and its implications for the conduct of macroeconomic policy.
The chapter then returns to last year's theme of the factors that
cause expansions to end, focusing this time on the financial condition of households. We conclude that—notwithstanding recent increases in consumer indebtedness, credit card delinquencies, and
personal bankruptcies—the overall financial condition of households poses no obvious threat to the current expansion. Households
will also be helped by the recent decision by the Treasury to issue
inflation-indexed government securities, discussed in the following
section. This innovation will allow the private sector to broaden the
array of assets available to households for longer range financial
planning, providing greater financial security in retirement.
Economists' understanding of the economy and policymakers'
ability to make sound economic and budget decisions are greatly affected by the quality of available economic statistics. This chapter
addresses two important measurement issues: the identification of
biases in measuring inflation, and the difference between incomeand product-side measures of national output. We analyze the extent to which official measures may overstate inflation while understating growth in output, productivity, and the Nation's material standard of living.
Drawing on these analyses, the chapter concludes with a review
of the macroeconomic highlights of 1996 and a look ahead, which
44
suggests that all signs point to continued stable growth. The final
section describes the economic outlook and presents the Administration's economic forecast.
THE NAIRU AND ITS EVOLUTION
The nonaccelerating-inflation rate of unemployment is a useful
concept for thinking about the state of the macroeconomy. The
NAIRU (also called the natural rate of unemployment) is defined
as the rate of unemployment consistent with a stable inflation rate.
Inflationary pressure tends to increase when unemployment is
below the NAIRU, and decrease when unemployment is above the
NAIRU. A number of explanations for this phenomenon have been
proposed, but one plausible story is that, when unemployment is
low, firms have to offer higher wages to attract, retain, and motivate new workers than they do when unemployment is high. Nominal wage growth is passed on to purchasers in the form of faster
growth of prices.
PREDICTING CHANGES IN INFLATION
The unemployment rate provides useful information about the
future course of inflation. This can be seen in its simplest form by
comparing the direction of the change in inflation—as measured by
the core consumer price index (CPI), which excludes the volatile
food and energy components—with the demographically adjusted
unemployment rate. Some groups such as new labor market entrants may have higher "normal" unemployment rates than others.
The demographically adjusted unemployment rate weights the actual unemployment rates for different demographic groups by their
labor force shares in a given base year, in this case 1993. Inflation
rose in the 12 months following 28 of the 32 quarters since 1958
in which the demographically adjusted unemployment rate was
below 5 percent, and fell in 26 of the 32 quarters when it was
above 7 percent. This empirical regularity is not only strong but
also statistically significant (Box 2-1 and Chart 2-1). It shows that
the NAIRU appears to have been contained between 5 and 7 percent for the period from 1958 to the present.
More typically, models of the relationship between unemployment and inflation do not just predict whether inflation will rise
or fall, but also give some indication of the likely magnitude of this
change. The usual result is that the further the unemployment rate
is below the NAIRU, the more inflation tends to rise. In Chart 22 the demographically adjusted unemployment rate at the beginning of the year is plotted on the horizontal axis, and the change
in core inflation over the course of that year on the vertical axis.
The downward-sloping line (the regression line) in the chart depicts
45
Box 2-1.—-Unemployment and Changes in Inflation
Very few economists haire empirically tested the NA1H0 hy~
pothesis itself: that inflation rises when unemployment is
below the NAIKU, and falls when it is alwre the NMBP, the
advantage, of this basic hypothesis over more structured theories is that it is amenable to tests that are nonparametric, that
is, that do not require as many assumptions about how the
economy functions. These tests are therefore less sensitive to
precise specification.
The relationship between the demographkally assisted unemployment rate and the probability of & rise in inflation is
shown in Chart 2-1, For a given range of the unemployment
rate, the fraction of quarters in which the core CPI inflation
rate rose over the following 12 months is shown in the solid
line. The dashed lime is the best statistical fit for these data,
estimated using a procedure called logit This relationship tap^
ports the simple NAIRU hypothesis: when unemployment is
low* inflation is more likely to rise. Further, inflation is about
as Mkely to rise as to fall when unemployment is in the middle
range of about 5 to 7 pedant.
Chart 2-1 Unemployment and the Probability of Inflation
At very low unemployment rates, the probability that inflation will increase is high.
But at higher unemployment rates, it becomes more likely that inflation will fall.
Probability of an increase in inflation, percent
100
Actual
(percent of quarters
in which inflation rose)
80
60
40
Statistical relationship
20
3.2
3.6
4.0
J
4.4
L
4.8
5.2
5.6 6.0 6.4 6.8 7.2 7.6
Unemployment rate, percent
8.0
Sources: Department of Labor and calculations by Council of Economic Advisers.
46
8.4
8.8
9.2
9.6 10.0
the statistical relationship; it shows that increasing the unemployment rate by 1 percentage point lowers the rate of inflation by
around 0.6 percentage point.
Chart 2-2 Changes in Core Inflation and the NAIRU
Each 1-percentage-point rise in the unemployment rate tends to lower inflation
by 0.6 percentage point over the following year.
Four-quarter percent change in core CPI less percent change in previous four quarters
8
-6
4
6
8
10
Demographically adjusted unemployment rate (percent)
12
Note: Unemployment rate adjusted using 1993 labor force weights.
Source: Department of Labor.
Chart 2-2 illustrates by implication another point: other factors
besides unemployment also affect inflation. If the unemployment
rate were the only factor affecting inflation, all the points would lie
exactly on the regression line (assuming also that this is the correct specification). Instead, some points represent periods when unemployment was low but inflation was falling, and others periods
when unemployment was high but inflation was rising. These
changes would have escaped any forecaster relying on the unemployment rate alone to predict inflation.
Three extensions to the approach embodied in Chart 2-2 are
helpful. First, the NAIRU need not be viewed as an unchanging
constant, but instead can be thought of as evolving with changes
in the economy. We need to understand how it evolves in order to
determine the current level of the NAIRU and thus be able to predict future inflation. This issue is explored in the next section. Second, economic slack is a general concept that is unlikely to be perfectly captured by any single measure/Accordingly, it is useful to
employ other measures of slack, such as capacity utilization or job
47
vacancy rates, in conjunction with the unemployment rate in explaining and predicting changes in inflation. Third, other factors
also affect the inflation rate; these are usually grouped under the
collective heading of supply shocks. For example, the only two periods of double-digit inflation since the immediate aftermath of
World War II occurred in 1974 and in 1979-81; both coincided with
large increases in the price of oil. An analyst focusing exclusively
on unemployment would not have predicted the severity of these
inflations.
CHANGES IN THE NAIRU
The natural rate hypothesis was originally interpreted as implying a single, unchanging NAIRU. Today, however, it is recognized
that the evidence is more consistent with a NAIRU that evolves
over time. Accepting this time-varying NAIRU raises a number of
questions: is it possible to explain why the NAIRU changed in the
past, predict how it might change in the future, and perhaps even
identify policies that might influence it?
A few years ago, typical estimates of the NAIRU were in the
neighborhood of 6 percent. If the same natural rate prevailed
today, the fact that the economy achieved below-6-percent unemployment from September 1994 through the end of 1996 should
have increased inflation. To calculate the rough magnitude of the
expected increase, assume for the sake of argument that the
NAIRU is 6.0 percent and that a year in which the unemployment
rate is a percentage point below the NAIRU raises inflation by
about V2 percentage point. Then the average unemployment rate of
5.5 percent over the roughly 2-year period from September 1994 to
December 1996 should have led to about a V2-percentage-point increase in the inflation rate. Instead, inflation, as measured by the
12-month change in the core CPI, fell from 3.0 percent to 2.6 percent. In contrast to previous experience with unemployment below
6 percent, inflation has fallen rather than risen.
Through 1995 and 1996, inflationary pressures were milder than
in previous periods when unemployment was this low—a point discussed in greater detail later in this chapter. Although potentially
transitory factors, such as a slowdown in the rise of employee
health benefit costs and declining import prices, partly explain why
inflation is subdued, the underlying reason is probably that the
NAIRU has fallen substantially. The three main forces driving this
decline are the changing demographics of the labor force, the delayed alignment of workers' real wage expectations with productivity growth, and increased competition in labor and product markets.
48
Changing Demographic Structure
Each demographic group can be thought of as having its own
natural rate of unemployment: higher for teenagers than for adults,
higher for women than for men, and so on. Even if these individual
natural rates were constant, the overall NAIRU would change in
response to changes in the proportions of these different groups in
the labor force. If it is assumed that demographic changes had
about the same effect on the NAIRU as they have had on observed
unemployment, then about 0.5 percentage point of the decline in
the NAIRU since the early 1980s can be attributed to demographic
changes. The single most important demographic change is the
aging of the baby-boom generation: the United States now has a
more mature labor force, with smaller representation of age groups
that traditionally have higher unemployment rates.
Productivity Growth and the Wage Aspiration Effect
The second explanation for the decline of the NAIRU can be
called the wage aspiration effect. Neither the level nor the rate of
change in productivity seems to have any long-run effect on the unemployment rate: the average unemployment rate in different periods has been approximately unchanged despite a century of massive productivity growth and shifts in its trend. Nevertheless,
changes in productivity growth can have temporary effects on the
natural rate. Workers' demands for increased real wages may depend on past increases, possibly because people get accustomed to
a certain rate of increase in their standard of living. But in the
long run, real wage growth tracks productivity increases. Thus,
after a fall in the productivity growth rate, workers may initially
demand wage growth that is faster than increases in productivity
can justify. This puts upward pressure on the inflation rate and requires a higher level of unemployment to stabilize the rate of inflation. But this increase in the NAIRU is only temporary, either because the productivity slowdown itself is temporary, or because
workers eventually moderate their demands in response to permanently lower productivity growth. Either way, the NAIRU eventually returns to its level before productivity slowed.
This wage aspiration effect raised the NAIRU after productivity
slowed beginning in 1973, and its level remained elevated for some
time. However, workers have now had time to lower their aspirations for real wage growth to reflect the slower productivity growth,
which has helped the NAIRU return to its earlier, lower rate. Altogether, estimates of this effect show it lowering the NAIRU by a
meaningful amount since the early 1980s.
49
Increased Competition: The Changing Structure of Labor and
Product Markets
Many of the likely suspects for the remaining decline in the
NAIRU fall under the heading of increased competition in product
and labor markets. This is partly the consequence of opening of
markets at home and abroad through regulatory reform and trade
agreements. Although imports meet only a small fraction—around
13 percent—of total demand, the fact that much of the U.S. manufacturing sector faces potential import competition may provide significant wage restraint. Changes in labor market institutions and
practices may also have had some salutary effects on inflation,
whatever their other impacts. Quantifying these general notions of
increased competition and the institutional structure of the labor
market is extremely difficult; however, they can plausibly explain
much of the decline in the NAIRU that is not accounted for by demography or the wage aspiration effect.
Beneficial Effects of Persistently Low Unemployment
It has been argued that Europe's sustained high level of unemployment has raised the natural rate of unemployment there, in a
process called hysteresis. High and sustained unemployment
causes the skills of the unemployed to atrophy, limiting their ability to compete for employment. Attempts by the smaller number of
employed workers to maintain their wages reinforce this mechanism, also perpetuating high unemployment. The opposite phenomenon may be at work in the U.S. labor market today. With the
lower unemployment of the past few years, previously unemployed
workers have acquired new skills from on-the-job training. Research has not shown that "reverse" hysteresis has acted to lower
the NAIRU in the American economy. But if it has, it means that
sustained high unemployment is even more damaging than we
thought, because it can raise the NAIRU, and sustained lower unemployment is even more beneficial than we thought, because it
can reduce the NAIRU.
Future Evolution of the NAIRU
A number of factors may continue to reduce the NAIRU in the
future. Demographic change will probably continue to lower the
natural rate of unemployment as the current bulge of workers in
the 25- to 54-year-old age bracket moves into the 55-plus age
bracket, where the unemployment rate is typically lower. And if
hysteresis is operative in the United States, the current spell of low
unemployment may help generate a lower NAIRU in the next few
years. The other two factors affecting the natural rate are harder
to predict, although competition in the economy seems likely to increase with liberalization of international trade and continued regulatory reform.
50
THE ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF INFLATION
If our growing understanding of the empirical relationship between unemployment and inflation is to inform policy choices—in
particular the appropriate stance of macroeconomic policy—it needs
to be combined with an analysis of the costs and benefits of inflation and unemployment.
Policies to lower the inflation rate generally cause temporarily
higher unemployment. The costs of this unemployment are
straightforward: involuntary unemployment imposes substantial
hardship on individuals without jobs and represents wasted resources that could be used in production. According to Okun's law,
a well-known empirical regularity in economics, every percentagepoint reduction in the unemployment rate corresponds to an increase in output relative to potential of about 2 percent. The 2-percentage-point reduction in the unemployment rate since the end of
1992, for instance, corresponds to an increase in annual output of
about 4 percent—roughly $300 billion in total, or $3,000 for every
American household.
Accounting for the costs imposed by high levels of inflation is less
straightforward. Inflation is often described as if it were inherently
harmful, but this is misleading. People care about the purchasing
power of their wages, not about the price level itself. If, for example, the dollar value of everything doubled—including goods prices,
salaries, the money in peoples' pockets, bank accounts, and debt—
almost no one would be worse off; everyone could buy just as much
as before. This general doubling of nominal prices and account balances in the economy would impose one direct cost: the value of the
time, effort, and materials that goes into reprinting catalogs, account statements, menus, and the like to reflect the new prices.
These costs are minor, however. Instead the potential damage inflation does is for the most part indirect, through its effect on the
level and distribution of output. In the example just given, if prices
and wages doubled but cash and bank accounts did not, the burst
of inflation would redistribute resources away from people who
held wealth and would thus be very costly to them, whereas debtors would find themselves better off. Inflation also has complicated
links to the level and growth rate of output. Although "costs of inflation" is an acceptable shorthand for these links, it is the consequences of inflation, not inflation itself, that are the real concern.
THE EFFECT OF INFLATION ON OUTPUT
A number of economists argue that the current relatively low
rate of inflation has substantial adverse effects and that lowering
the inflation rate by approximately 2 percentage points, to achieve
a situation in which the cost of living is constant (on average),
51
would bring large benefits. One cost they cite is that taxation of
nominal interest income and nominal capital gains distorts saving
and investment decisions in an inflationary environment, although
in some cases these distortions may offset others elsewhere in the
tax system. Other commonly cited costs of inflation, although lower
when the level of inflation is lower, would remain significant, in
the view of these economists. Whenever any inflation exists, people
have trouble distinguishing relative price changes from general inflation; inflation thus creates noise in the price system, interfering
with its role in allocating resources efficiently. And although higher
levels of inflation are associated with greater variability of inflation, even at low levels some risks from its variation exist. The welfare of individuals is lowered, both directly and indirectly, as they
take steps to mitigate these risks. These costs may sound small,
but some economists argue that they can be quite substantial.
More important, even if the gains from eliminating inflation are
small for any given year, they can be large when aggregated over
time, provided they are permanent.
Although all these costs exist in theory, several studies suggest
that, in practice, the benefits of eliminating inflation in a low-inflation country such as the United States are not likely to be large.
The argument for zero inflation assumes that the elimination of inefficiencies associated with inflation will raise the level or the
growth rate of gross domestic product (GDP), yet studies mostly
find a weak link, or none, between the level or the rate of growth
of GDP and the level of inflation in low-inflation countries. Because
statistical techniques cannot disentangle the many factors that influence growth, however, these studies may have failed to detect
small but economically meaningful effects of low inflation. Also, no
one doubts that very high inflation rates adversely affect growth.
On the other hand, maintaining price stability might impose its
own costs. Some intriguing new research suggests that price stability might lead to a permanent increase in unemployment and a corresponding decrease in the level of GDP. Some evidence suggests,
for example, that workers are more resistant to nominal wage cuts
than to an equivalent erosion in their real wages due to inflation.
If this were the case, then in a moderate-inflation environment,
firms could adjust to shocks by letting real wages erode without resorting to layoffs. In a zero-inflation world, layoffs would be more
common.
Another potential cost of price stability is that unemployment
and output might fluctuate more over the course of the business
cycle. At low levels of inflation, policymakers' tools for stabilizing
demand would become less effective. For example, zero inflation
would preclude using negative real interest rates (i.e., nominal interest rates below the rate of inflation) to stimulate the economy
52
out of recession. Although monetary policy can affect the economy
through other channels, including changing the quantity of credit,
establishing a floor under real interest rates could make stabilization more difficult.
THE EFFECT OF INFLATION ON THE DISTRIBUTION
OF INCOME
The distributional consequences of achieving zero inflation are
not widely recognized. The unemployment required to achieve, and
possibly even that to maintain, zero inflation would place a disproportionate burden on the less well off. The winners from zero
inflation are harder to characterize precisely. The immediate transition to lower inflation would benefit holders of nominal claims
and people on fixed incomes (e.g., unindexed pensions) while increasing the burden on debtors. In the long run as the lower inflation becomes built into expectations, interest rates would fall, and
it would have no added effects on debtors or creditors. Zero inflation would, however, be a permanent boon to people with large
cash holdings—many of whom live abroad or are engaged in illegal
activities. In summary, reaching zero inflation might require the
less advantaged to take on a disproportionate amount of the burden of achieving benefits whose size and distribution are uncertain.
RISKS IN MACROECONOMIC POLICY
The previous discussion identified the uncertainties associated
with estimating the changing level of the NAIRU. There are also
other uncertainties facing policymakers. This Administration has a
record of forecasting accurately—but conservatively—output, inflation, and unemployment. But no forecast is without uncertainty.
The long and variable lags in all policies, from the initial decision
through implementation to the realization of the full effects, create
uncertainty about what the right policy should be. Not only do we
lack precise knowledge about where the economy will be in, say, 6
months' time, when the effects of today's policy decisions may be
felt; often it is hard to know with precision where the economy is
today. Good policymaking recognizes this uncertainty and weighs
carefully the risks of alternative courses of action. An added advantage of the stable macroeconomic environment achieved over the
past 4 years is that those risks are far smaller than they would be
in a more volatile environment.
The preceding discussion of the NAIRU and analyses in recent
Reports set the stage for an evaluation of these risks. On the one
hand, expansionary policies that lead to unemployment below the
NAIRU may result in a slight increase in inflation, with an accompanying risk of higher unemployment later as the economy returns
to its lower inflation level. On the other hand, policies that lead to
53
unemployment above the NAIRU result in a decrease in inflation,
but also a waste of the economy's productive potential, slower
growth, and unnecessary suffering, as workers who are able and
willing to work cannot find it. Evaluating the risk of more expansionary policies raises several key issues. How high are the costs
of a slight increase in inflation? Does the economy stand at a precipice, such that once inflation increases, it is likely to accelerate
quickly? How high is the cost of disinflating should the economy
overshoot?
Recent research lends support to those who advocate a cautiously
expansionary policy: as the preceding discussion suggested, given
the United States' recent history of low and stable inflation, slight
increases in inflation do not seem to be associated with large costs.
And last year's Report indicated that the economy does not stand
at a precipice: at least in today's stable environment, runaway inflation is not a threat. Moreover, econometric evidence suggests
that the relationship between the level of unemployment and inflation is such that the "extra" cost of disinflating—of wringing out inflation by temporarily increasing unemployment above the
NAIRU—is no greater than the increased output resulting from the
unintended lowering of unemployment below the NAIRU through
cautiously expansionary policies. Moreover, the earlier discussion
suggested that, in the current environment of low and stable inflation, the benefits of reducing inflation may be lower and those of
reducing unemployment higher than had previously been thought.
THE FINANCIAL CONDITION OF HOUSEHOLDS
As 1996 ended, economic fundamentals appeared quite strong.
Almost none of the economic symptoms that often precede a downturn, such as financial imbalances or inflationary pressures, were
evident at the end of the year. The exceptions to this positive outlook were potentially worrisome trends in consumer indebtedness,
credit card delinquencies, and personal bankruptcies. But upon
analysis they do not seem to reflect dangerous financial imbalances
or presage banking sector troubles. Indeed, at the beginning of
1997 the overall financial condition of households was sound and
the banking system was very healthy.
TRENDS IN CONSUMER CREDIT
The past few years have been marked by a rapid rise in
consumer credit (which does not include residential mortgage
loans) and a subsequent worsening of some indicators of household
financial condition. The runup in consumer credit had slowed considerably by the end of 1996, following more than 2 years of double-digit credit growth. Even in 1996, however, consumer credit ap-
54
pears to have grown faster than disposable income. Reflecting this
rise, total required debt-service payments of households (including
payments on mortgage debt) have also risen as a share of disposable income.
The largest and fastest-growing type of consumer credit is revolving credit, which consists primarily of credit card accounts (Table
2-1). Banks hold the largest share of consumer credit: almost half
of the total outstanding, or about three times the shares held by
finance companies and credit unions. Other holders include savings
institutions, retailers, and gasoline companies. A large and rapidly
rising share of consumer loans is held in securitized pools: loans
are packaged by the originator and securities issued against them,
which are then sold to investors (Box 2-2).
TABLE 2-1.—Growth in Consumer Credit Outstanding
[Percent change; simple annual ratesl]
Period
1993
1994
1995
1996:1
II
III
October
November
Revolving
Total
7.5
14.5
14.2
11.9
7.2
6.9
6.6
7.5
11.3
18.2
22.0
16.8
12.8
9.3
3.7
8.4
Automobile
8.8
13.4
10.6
8.9
10.2
9.2
3.2
1.6
Other
Addendum:
Disposable
personal
income
2.7
11.8
9.3
9.0
-2.7
1.4
14.3
12.4
3.0
3.6
5.5
3.5
6.7
4.4
.8
6.0
Level, November 1996 (billions of dollars)
1,190.6
460.0
377.7 |
352.8
2
5,690.6
1
2
Calculated from published levels.
Annual rate.
Note.—Annual percent changes are for December to December; quarterly, for last month in quarter to last month in
quarter. Data are seasonally adjusted.
Sources: Department of Commerce and Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
The rapid growth in consumer debt in recent years reflects both
demand and supply factors. On the demand side, the strong economic expansion and the consequent decline in unemployment and
rise in consumer confidence are likely to have increased households' willingness to borrow. Borrowing may also have been boosted
by the increases in household wealth generated primarily by higher
stock prices. Refinancing of residential mortgages has cut household interest burdens, increasing the amount of consumer debt that
households can support. At the same time, a desired rebound in
spending on durable goods following the 1990-91 recession may
well have stimulated the demand for consumer credit.
On the supply side, the recovery of the banking system following
the substantial losses and capital pressures of the late 1980s and
early 1990s may have encouraged banks to try to increase lending
55
Box 2~2.-~Seeuritization of Consumer Loans
In recent years lender have financed an increasing share of
consumer loans by selling them to investors in the form of
asset-backed securities. These securities allow investors to purchase a claim on the interest and principal payments gen*
erated by a pool of consumer loans* The first sales of such securities occurred only in 1985, but by 1996 more than 20 percent of outstanding consumer loans had been securitized and
sold* The largest issuers are the finance subsidiaries of automobile manufacturers, credit card banks, and nonbank credit
card issuers. The structure of consumer loan-backed securities
varies, reflecting the types ojf loans being securitised and the
needs of the seller. Hie securities are sold to a variety of investors, including insurance companies, pension funds, and mutual funds.
Automobile loans were the first type of consumer loans to be
seeuritbed. More recently, however, credit card loans have become the largest class of securitized consumer loan* .In large
part this shift reflects heavy securitkation by banks, virtually
all of which represents sales of credit can! loans. A recent Federal Reserve survey of senior loan officers at large banks found
two main reasons for the increase in securitfeation: rapid
growth in credit card lending had outstripped banks* willingness to hold such loans on their books, and banks had gained
experience in arranging securitizations* In addition, the banks
pointed to the capital market's greater receptiveness to
securitked loans, and the rising costs of carrying loans on theif*
own balance sheets.
Host securities backed by consumer loans have what are
known as credit enhancements, which can substantially reduce
default risk, These features include third-party guarantees;
*set-asides"* in which either the lender puts up money at the
time of the sale to cover possibFe losses, or a portion of the interest paid on the securitized loans is accumulated in a fund
for the same purpose; and the sale of a subordinated class of
securities that are paid only after payments on the senior securities have been made- As a result, the securities generally obtain top ratings from independent rating agencies. When losses
on consumer loans were high during and after the 1990-91 re* cession, these enhancements proved quite robust: none of the
securities missed a payment.
56
by easing their standards and terms. Simultaneously, three other
changes may have reduced the apparent risk of consumer lending
relative to other types of loans. First, improvements in computerization and credit scoring may have improved banks' ability to
measure and manage consumer lending risk. Second, the development of a market for securitized consumer loans, especially credit
card loans, allowed banks to shift some of the risk of these loans
to security holders. Third, consolidation in the banking industry
may have improved the geographical diversification of banks'
consumer loans. Reflecting these trends, Federal Reserve surveys
of senior loan officers between 1991 and 1995 consistently showed
a net increase in willingness to provide consumer installment
loans.
Other supply and demand factors also contributed to the particularly rapid growth in revolving credit. On the household side this
rise may reflect, at least in part, increased convenience use of credit cards, as more nontraditional outlets such as grocery stores
began accepting credit card payments. This sort of card use also reflects supply-side factors. Card issuers have offered incentives, such
as frequent-flyer miles, to cardholders to encourage them to make
purchases with their cards. In addition, lenders have aggressively
pursued new credit card customers, with extensive promotions including widespread mailings of preapproved applications, and an
increased willingness to provide card accounts to riskier customers.
Data from the 1995 Survey of Consumer Finances by the Federal
Reserve show that the share of lower income households with credit card debt has increased somewhat in recent years. However, the
survey also shows that the largest increases in consumer credit use
are not among low-income households, but rather among those
with incomes of $50,000 to $100,000. The expansion in bank credit
card activity, in turn, has been driven by the high profitability of
credit card lending.
IMPACT ON HOUSEHOLDS
Measures of consumer loan delinquencies and increased losses on
bank consumer loans, as measured by net charge-offs, suggest that
at least some households are facing significant financial strains.
The rise in the charge-off rate over the past 2 years has brought
it back to near its 1991 peak. Consumer loan delinquency rates,
however, remain well below their previous peak (Chart 2-3).
But both of these patterns need to be put into proper context. In
the case of both delinquencies and charge-offs the recent deterioration has been more dramatic for credit card loans than for other
consumer loans. For residential mortgages, the other major type of
household loan, delinquency rates have declined recently and are
near their lowest level in almost two decades. The number of non-
57
Chart 2-3 Delinquency Rates
In contrast to the rise in consumer loan delinquencies, the mortgage delinquency
rate has dropped.
Percent
5
Consumer loans
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
Note: The mortgage delinquency rate is the percentage of all loans 60 days or more past due. The consumer
loan delinquency rate is the percentage of loan balances that are 30 days or more past due or nonaccruing.
Sources: Mortgage Bankers Association of America and Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
business bankruptcies, which reached their highest quarterly level
ever (more than 290,000) in the third quarter of 1996, represents
another possible sign of distress among some households. As discussed in Box 2-3, however, this rise is probably at least partly the
result of such factors as changes in bankruptcy law and a number
of broader societal changes, which have increased the willingness
of households to file for bankruptcy. Nonetheless, the pickup in
bankruptcies has surprised many lenders.
One problem in assessing the implications of recent movements
in bankruptcies and delinquencies is distinguishing between longterm trends and normal cyclical variations. Normally, as the economy goes into an expansion, bankruptcy and delinquency rates
might be expected to decline at first and then rise. Since economic
turnarounds are hard to predict, at the beginning of a recovery a
large number of firms and households will do better than expected.
As a result, delinquency rates will turn out lower than expected.
Moreover, the pace of lending increases during recoveries, which
may subsequently depress delinquency and loss rates because the
new loans are unlikely to become delinquent soon after they are extended. Eventually, however, as banks lower their lending standards in response to their greater optimism about the economy and
their own improved financial position, delinquencies and bankruptcies increase.
58
Box 2-3.—Nonbusiness Bankruptcy: Trends and Causes
The recent rise in nonbusiness bankruptcies is probably the
result of changes in bankruptcy law and a number of broader
societal changes, in addition to economic conditions* Indeed the
trend has been evident for many years. The number of nonbusiness bankruptcy filings was fairly stable between the late
1960s and the late 1970s, but it has grown steadily since from
about 200,000 a year in the late 1970s to more than 1 million
for the 12 months ending in September 1996,
In recent years about two4hirds of nonbusiness bankruptcies
have been filed under Chapter 7 of the U*S. Bankruptcy Code.
Under Chapter 7, assets of the petitioner in excess of the State
exemption level (if any) are liquidated, and the proceeds are
distributed to the creditors. In return, most remaining unsecured debts of the petitioner are "discharged," that is, forgiven.
Virtually all other nonbusiness bankruptcies are filed under
Chapter 13. Those filing under Chapter 13 are not required to
give up any assets but must instead provide a plan under
which they will repay a portion of their debts from future income, generally over several years.
Researchers generally attribute much of the teeimse ;iii
bankruptcies since the late 1970s to effects oftibiaBankruptcy
Reform Act of 1978, This act increased the pwte^oiiir i*Ml*
able to petitioners and established Federal asset exemption
levels that were quite generous jbompared with State fetx%p&£*
tion levels. However, the act also allowed States to override tine
Federal exemption levels, and many did so* The Federal exemption levels were doubled in the Bankruptcy Reform Act of
1994, which may have given further impetus to the rise in
bankruptcy filings in 1995 and 1996*
Other economic and social factors may have contributed to
the recent rise in bankruptcies. Improvements in the supply of
consumer credit likely increased borrowing by households with
lower levels of wealth and income, and such households seem
more likely than others to file for bankruptcy after a financial
shock* Bankruptcies may also have been boosted by a reduction
in the social stigma attached to bankruptcy, The increase in
the number of divorces may also have contributed* Finally, ad*
vertising by lawyers, which became legal in 1977, may have
made households more aware of bankruptcy as an option.
59
As asset quality declines, banks are led to reassess their lending
strategies. Recent Federal Reserve surveys have found that about
half the banks had tightened their standards for approving new
credit card accounts, and a significant share had also tightened
some terms on these accounts. About a quarter of the banks reported having tightened lending standards for non-credit card
consumer loans. More generally, surveys since the middle of 1996
have indicated that, on balance, banks have become slightly less
willing to extend consumer loans.
POSSIBLE EFFECTS ON LENDING INSTITUTIONS AND
CONSUMER SPENDING
Increased delinquency rates and loan losses could put the financial position of lending institutions in jeopardy, or they could depress consumer spending and thus adversely affect the economic
expansion. Neither outcome appears likely at present.
Today, banks are in sound financial condition. Bank capital and
reserve ratios are robust relative to their levels in the mid-1980s,
and bank profitability is near record levels. Moreover, despite the
rise in delinquency and charge-off rates on consumer loans, overall
bank asset quality remains high: measures of business and real estate loan quality are near their best levels in recent years. Finally,
credit card loans, which have shown the greatest deterioration, account for only about 5 percent of bank assets. Thus, bank regulators can react in a graduated manner to lending excesses at some
banks. Indeed, Federal banking regulators, while continuing to
monitor banks' consumer lending activities, have not taken any
broad regulatory actions.
Households' spending could be adversely affected by their financial position either directly, because they become unwilling to borrow further to finance continued purchases, especially purchases of
consumer durables, or indirectly, because banks become unwilling
to lend to them. It seems unlikely that banks will pull back from
consumer lending by enough to affect consumer spending on durable goods substantially. Because their condition is healthy, banks
can respond to higher losses in a measured way, without drastic reductions in consumer lending. As already noted, the bulk of the
loan quality problem appears to be in the credit card sector, where
some banks may have eased standards excessively in earlier efforts
to gain market share. Nonetheless, profitability among the largest
credit card banks, although not as high as it was a few years ago,
remains high relative to profits at other banks (Box 2-4).
Banks are also likely to pull back selectively, because rising delinquencies and losses on credit card loans may reflect the behavior
of a relatively small group of riskier borrowers who have been able
to obtain card accounts in recent years; the fact that other meas-
60
Box 2-4.-—Profitability of Credit Card Operations
The credit card operations of large banks appear to have
been far more profitable than other bank activities in recent
years* However, competitive pressures and higher loan losses
have eroded this difference since the early 1990s*
The profits of the large credit card banks significantly exceeded those of the banking industry as a whole through the
late 1980s and early 1990s. In 1993 and 1994, before-tax profits at these banks, which account for about two-thirds of the
banking industry's credit card loans outstanding, were roughly
4 percent of outstanding balances. By contrast, banking industry profits, before taxes, were only about 1.7 percent of assets
in those 2 years. Since then this large gap has narrowed. Before-tax profits at large credit card banks fell to just 2.7 percent in 1995, and to just 2.1 percent in the first half of 1996.
Over the same period, profits for the industry as a whole have
increased slightly, to more than 1.8 percent of assets. The relative decline in profits at large credit card banks reflects a rise
in loan losses, a reduction in fee income, and narrower interest
spreads. Nonetheless, because of rising levels of securitkation,
returns on assets and equity at these banks remain quite high
relative to returns for the industry as a whole.
ures of household financial strength have not deteriorated to the
same degree supports this notion. Even the rise in the delinquency
rate on non-credit card consumer loans at banks may be an overstatement: these loans include loans for automobiles, the delinquency rate for which may have been boosted in recent years by
the shift of many relatively low risk customers to lease financing.
Finally, banks may find it difficult to limit credit card lending in
the short run, because unused lines of credit are currently more
than three times the dollar volume of credit card loans outstanding, and these lines have been growing rapidly.
The high level of indebtedness is also unlikely to affect consumer
spending significantly. Indeed, standard theoretical models of
consumer spending indicate that indebtedness has no independent
effect; consumer spending is determined by income patterns over
people's lifetimes. Some research suggests that high levels of indebtedness may have an adverse effect. But in the current situation this effect should be offset by other influences. The ratio of
households' net worth to disposable income is as high now as it has
been in three decades. Historically, high levels of aggregate net
worth relative to disposable income have been associated with high
levels of consumer spending. In addition, high levels of consumer
confidence should help to bolster consumer spending.
171-714 - 97 - 3
61
INFLATION-INDEXED SECURITIES
In September 1996 the Treasury announced that it would issue
inflation-indexed debt securities starting in early 1997. Inflation-indexed securities provide two main benefits. First, they offer investors an asset that is protected against unexpected inflation. No
other financial asset offers the same degree of protection against
both credit risk and the risk of inflation. Moreover, financial firms
may use indexed securities to provide other assets valued by households, such as indexed annuities. Second, since investors should be
willing to accept a lower average yield on securities that provide
such a hedge against inflation, a shift from conventional securities
to indexed securities of the same maturity is likely to reduce the
Treasury's average borrowing costs. Indexed securities offer other
benefits as well: the spread that emerges in the market between
rates on indexed and on comparable conventional securities will
provide better information than is now available about investors'
expectations of future inflation, which should prove useful in formulating monetary policy; and indexed securities could reduce the
sensitivity of the Federal budget to unexpected fluctuations in real
interest rates, by allowing the Treasury to lock in real financing
costs over a relatively long horizon.
HOW INFLATION-INDEXED SECURITIES WORK
The first indexed securities issued carry a 10-year maturity. In
the future the Treasury will issue indexed securities once each
quarter. As with the current 2- and 5-year Treasury notes, the
sales are single-price auctions in which all successful bidders receive the same return. Investors can make noncompetitive tenders
so that they are assured of receiving securities at the rate determined in the auction. Indexed securities are available in denominations as small as $1,000, to encourage demand from small savers.
The securities can also be stripped, that is, the interest component
separated from the principal component to suit the needs of different investors for differing income streams. The Treasury expects
to issue one other maturity of indexed security within a year. In
addition, the Treasury intends to sell, starting in about a year, inflation-protected savings bonds that pay rates based on those on
marketable indexed securities. Conventional EE savings bonds,
which are not indexed, will continue to be available.
The principal of indexed Treasury securities is protected from inflation because its value is adjusted periodically (indexed) in line
with changes in the consumer price index. The version of the CPI
used for these calculations is the CPI for all items for urban consumers (CPI-U), without seasonal adjustment. Investors will receive semiannual interest (coupon) payments based on the indexed
62
value of the principal. At maturity the indexed value of the principal or the par value, whichever is larger, is repaid. Because the
coupon payments are based on the inflation-adjusted principal,
both they and the principal of indexed securities are protected
against increases in the general price level. The fact that the value
of the principal can increase before it is repaid raises special issues
of tax treatment, which are discussed in Box 2-5.
Box 2-5.—Tax Treatment of Indexed Securities
Before the first indexed securities were issued, the Internal
Revenue Service proposed regulations on their tax treatment
Interest payments on indexed securities will be taxable as current income, as are those on conventional Treasury securities.
However, increases in the inflation-indexed principal will also
be taxable as interest income. If the CPMJ declines, the result*
ing reduction in the indexed principal may be used (subject to
some limitations) to offset taxation of interest payments on the
indexed securities.
Because holders of indexed securities receive the increase in
the inflation-indexed principal only at maturity, in periods of
high inflation the income tax they owe on the interest plus
that on the increase in principal could exceed the interest payment received. The inflation rate at which this occurs depends
on the interest rate on the indexed securities and the investor's
marginal tax rate. With a real interest rate of 8 percent on indexed securities, for a taxpayer in the 28 percent tax bracket,
taxes will e&ceed interest received if inflation exceeds about 8
percent. Investors in this position could cover the tax payment
by selling a portion of their indexed securities Holders of conventtonal.*fn*wxb* do not face this problem becaui^ inflation
automatically truces the real value of their |dnej^il,
Of wtime* mmy hm®i^W$ will invest im taidtorf a^uriti^
through^ tax^eferwd ac&mnte such as te||^uai ir^tirement
am^untf pni 401^) plans. For these invei^
ment of^intoted sa^itttiis wfll generally be
'unless
tiiey niAt a tanU»*aity i^tMrnwai
0f insavings bonds (as opposed $o
]&.
will *& pay taxes on tot^t i^rfv^i until
'
*
'
BENEFITS OF INDEXED SECURITIES
Indexed securities provide households with a savings vehicle that
automatically adjusts to compensate for the effects of inflation. History suggests that the returns on most assets do not fully reflect
63
changes in the inflation rate. Among financial assets, Treasury
bills have provided the best protection against inflation (Table 22). Stocks and long-term government bonds have not provided such
protection. Investments in new homes, and to an even greater degree in existing homes, have provided protection against inflation,
but real estate investments are not liquid. Thus, families looking
for a flexible and low-cost way to save for future expenditures such
as retirement or a child's education should find inflation-indexed
securities a valuable new option (Box 2-6). The availability of indexed Treasury securities may also allow private firms to develop
other desirable financial instruments, such as inflation-indexed
mutual funds and annuities, or to hedge pension liabilities. Indeed,
at least one mutual fund manager has already filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission to offer a mutual fund investing
primarily in indexed securities.
TABLE 2-2.—:Average Increase in Rate of Return When Inflation Rises
by 1 Percentage Point
[Percentage points, annuatized]
Holding period
3 months
1 year
5 years
Financial assets:
Equities . . . .
Long-term government bonds
Treasury bills .
... .
-1.74
-97
.53
-1.34
-79
65
-0.54
-11
69
.17
.95
26
.78
.80
1.16
Nonfinancial assets:
New homes (median sales price)
Existing homes (median sales once)
Note.—Data shown are the slope coefficients on the inflation rate taken from regressions of each rate of return on a
constant and CPI inflation over the corresponding holding period.
Returns on financial assets are from Ibbotson Associates; equity returns are for the S&P 500 index.
Data for financial assets begin in 1955; for new home prices, in 1963; and for existing home prices, in 1968.
Sources: Council of Economic Advisers, based on data from Ibbotson Associates, National Association of Realtors, Department of Commerce, and Department of Labor.
Much of the attention surrounding the introduction of indexed
securities has focused on their likely impact on households, but indexed securities also raise two important issues for the Treasury.
First, many economists believe that the Treasury now pays an inflation risk premium on its intermediate- and long-term conventional securities. In other words, investors require a higher interest
rate on these securities to compensate them for the possibility that
higher-than-expected inflation will erode the real value of future
interest payments and principal repayments received on the security. One recent study concluded that investor concerns about inflation risk might add as much as Vfe to 1 percentage point to the required yield on some Treasury securities. Thus, by issuing indexed
securities, the Treasury may be able to reduce average borrowing
costs.
64
2-6.—How Indexed Securities Reduce Inflation Bisk
The table below illustrates how indexed bonds can reduce
the risk of meeting a future expenditure* In this case the expense is the cost of a year of college for a child who is 8 years
old today and will be attending college in 10 years* If the cost
of a year of college rises at the same rate as the CPI, an indexed security guarantees the parents enough money to cover
that cost, no matter how high the inflation rate in the inter*
veiling years*
Note that although the indexed security reduces risk, it may
underperform the conventional security. In the example shown,
if inflation turns out to be only 1 percent, the holder of the conventional security will end up with a larger net return than
the holder of the indexed security* However, if inflation turns*
out to be 5 percent, the holder of the conventional security will
end up with a smaller net return and will be unable to meet
the cost of college with the security and its accumulated interest.
Savings Outcomes After 10 Years Under Different
Assumptions
Inflation
l investment of $10$)0; expected inflation of 3 percent!
if inflation
turns out & be:
Conventional bond
{Subject to inflation risk)
Indexed bond
(Not subject to inflation risk)
1 percent
Investment outcome:
College cost:
Het
$18,771 Investment outcome:
14,728 College cost:
4,043 Net
$14,845
14,728
It?
5 percent
Investment outcome:
College cost:
Net
$18,771 Investment outcome:
21,718 College cost:
-2,947 Net
$21,891
2U18
173
Hote: Seal rate of return of 3 percent on indexed bond; nominal rate of return of 8,5 percent on conventional
bond (3 percent real rate of return plus 0.5 percent inflation rish premium plus 3 percent expected inflation);
current college cost of $13,333, assumed to grow at trie same rate as the CM; returns are assumed to accumulate tax free.
Source: Council of Economic Advisers calculations.
The second issue for the Treasury is the effect of the indexed securities on the riskiness of Treasury payments: indexed securities
increase the risk to the Treasury of having to meet high interest
payments if inflation is high. This uncertainty, however, is about
the nominal payments that the Treasury will make; indexed securities actually reduce uncertainty about the real value of those payments. Fixed real payments on at least a portion of the Treasury's
debt may be desirable, since an increase in inflation would increase
nominal interest costs but would also be expected to increase nominal GDP and thus tax revenues. This effect of indexed securities
on payments made by the Treasury can be seen in the example of
65
household savings in Box 2-6. Since indexed securities provide for
less variation in the real value of the household's savings, they
must also provide for less variation in the real value of payments
by the Treasury. Thus, indexed securities reduce real uncertainty
not only for investors, but also for the Treasury.
Indexed securities may also have implications for monetary policy. Some economists have worried that substantial issuance of indexed securities could reduce the political pressure on the Federal
Reserve to keep inflation low, because holders of Treasury securities would become, as a group, less anxious about inflation. On the
other hand, indexed securities may increase the government's incentive to fight inflation, because it would not be possible to inflate
away the value of inflation-indexed debt.
Whatever the effect on incentives, indexed securities could also
provide the Federal Reserve with useful information about real interest rates and investors' expectations of future inflation rates. At
present this information can only be inferred from nominal interest
rates and survey data on expected inflation. Once a substantial
market for indexed securities has developed, policymakers will be
able to decompose interest rates for a given maturity into real and
inflation-related components. Changes over time in these components may provide useful insights into the working of the economy
that can be used in formulating monetary policy.
EXPERIENCE IN OTHER COUNTRIES
A number of other countries already issue indexed securities. The
largest issuer is the United Kingdom, which began issuing nonmarketable indexed securities in the mid-1970s and marketable
ones in 1981. Currently, indexed securities account for about $60
billion of U.K. marketable debt, about a sixth of the total. The indexed security market in Israel accounts for more than 85 percent
of that country's marketable debt, probably because past periods of
very high inflation there have made indexed securities more attractive. Australia issued indexed securities as early as 1985, as did
Canada, New Zealand, and Sweden, starting in the 1990s. In these
countries the share of debt that is indexed remains well below that
in the United Kingdom.
Because the issuance of indexed securities in countries with financial systems similar to ours is so recent, one cannot yet use
these experiences to evaluate the likely impact of indexed securities
in the United States. The relative real returns on conventional and
indexed securities (and therefore the relative real payments by the
government) depend on the happenstance of inflation, especially
unexpected inflation, following the issuance of the securities. As a
result, relatively long periods are needed to evaluate their relative
returns with any confidence.
66
Finally, the experience in other countries does suggest that the
market for indexed securities may be relatively illiquid. In the
United Kingdom, where the indexed security market is largest, indexed securities are traded much less often than conventional securities. Purchasers, who are often pension funds and insurance companies, apparently buy these securities to hold in their portfolios
rather than trade them. This pattern suggests that indexed securities satisfy a real need in the market, but the reduced liquidity
might raise the return demanded by investors concerned about
their ability to sell the securities on short notice at reasonable cost.
This "liquidity premium" may offset to some degree the elimination
of the inflation risk premium, at least until the new market becomes well established.
MEASUREMENT ISSUES
The quality of economic statistics affects the assessment of economic performance and the formulation of economic policy. The issues of possible bias in the measurement of consumer price inflation and the difference between income- and product-side measures
of national output provide two important illustrations.
THE CONSUMER PRICE INDEX
Many researchers have argued that the CPI overstates increases
in the cost of living. Much of this research comes from the Bureau
of Labor Statistics (BLS), which produces the CPI. This research
has identified several possible sources of bias; the degree of consensus on the importance of each varies.
Substitution Bias
The CPI prices a fixed market basket of commodities. Shares of
these commodities in the basket are based on spending patterns observed in a base period. But consumers do not buy the same basket
of goods from year to year. When the prices of some goods rise
more quickly than those of other goods, consumers often substitute
away from those that have become relatively expensive and toward
others that have become relatively cheap. Increases in the CPI
measure how much additional income a typical consumer would
need to buy the base-period market basket at the new prices. In
contrast, a true cost-of-living index would measure how much more
income a consumer needs to maintain the same level of economic
well-being, taking into account the ability to substitute among
goods. By ignoring substitution, the CPI overstates increases in the
cost of living.
Substitution bias takes place at two levels, given the way the
CPI is constructed. At the "upper" level, substitution occurs among
the basic categories that make up the CPFs market basket—for ex-
67
ample, when consumers switch from apples to oranges (2 of the 207
categories). But these 207 categories are themselves made up of
numerous individual items. For example, the apples category consists of a sample of Delicious, Granny Smith, Macintosh, and other
varieties. Thus a second, "lower" level of substitution takes place
within categories when the price of, say, Delicious apples rises and
consumers shift to other varieties.
The market basket is divided into categories, and each category's
weight is determined by its share in total consumption as measured by the Consumer Expenditure Survey. (Data for this survey
are collected by the Bureau of the Census under contract with the
BLS.) The current categorization is based on 1982-84 data; an updated categorization based on 1993-95 data will go into effect in
1998. The category weights are fixed for approximately 10 years.
Within categories, the component weights are updated every 5
years on a rolling basis.
Certain other price indexes, called superlative indexes, take into
account consumers' ability to substitute, and hence are not subject
to substitution bias. Unlike fixed-weight indexes, superlative indexes use information about consumer purchases, both at the beginning and at the end of the period over which inflation is measured. Using a superlative index to aggregate the 207 expenditure
categories, BLS researchers calculated that, on average, annual inflation was 0.14 percentage point per year lower than the change
in the official CPI from 1988 to 1995.
Replacement of the CPI with a superlative index might seem an
easy fix. But these indexes cannot be constructed in a timely fashion because the required data on spending patterns are compiled
almost a year after the corresponding price data. Users would have
to accommodate themselves to the inevitable lag or else accept a
provisional forecast, to be revised when complete data became
available. In contrast, one of the strengths of the current CPI is
that it is up-to-date and virtually never revised. Because price indexes are used for several purposes, such as macroeconomic management, adjusting tax brackets, and Social Security payments, it
may be desirable to have more than one index: a timely one that
is sufficiently accurate for macroeconomic management, and a more
accurate but less timely one for other purposes.
Substitution bias within categories is parallel to bias between
categories: the current procedure for combining the price increases
of individual items in a category is appropriate only if consumers
do not make substitutions. Unfortunately, superlative indexes can
be used neither to estimate the magnitude of the bias within categories, nor to redress it, because the necessary data on spending
patterns are not available at the level of individual items. Instead,
researchers have estimated this bias by comparing a geometric
68
index with the fixed-market-basket index, on the grounds that a
geometric index approximates a cost-of-living index if goods are
moderately substitutable. (A geometric index, like a fixed-marketbasket index, requires only beginning-of-period expenditure
shares.) The BLS has estimated that a geometric index measures
about 0.25 percentage point per year less inflation than the CPI
does at the within-category level.
It is open to debate whether all or only part of this 0.25-percentage-point difference reflects actual substitution patterns, because
the conditions under which a geometric index actually approximates a cost-of-living index may not hold. These conditions are
likely to apply to the more narrow categories in the CPI, such as
apples and oranges, where consumers can easily shift their purchases. However, they may not hold for broad categories such as
prescription drugs, where purchases are based on doctor's orders
and are little affected by prices. A similar problem occurs in categories like "toys, hobbies, and music equipment," which includes
dolls, stamps, guitar picks, and grand pianos—items so different
that they cannot plausibly substitute for one another. Another obstacle to substitution occurs where goods are normally used together—such as washers and dryers in the laundry equipment category or carburetors and air filters in the "other automobile parts
and equipment" category. For these categories the fixed-marketbasket index may only slightly overstate inflation and thus come
closer to the truth than the geometric mean.
Even for the narrow categories, the bias from using a fixed market basket may be limited. Within these categories (such as between two varieties of apples) commodities may be highly substitutable. But some evidence suggests that for these categories relative price changes are small.
Quality Adjustment
Measuring inflation properly requires distinguishing between
changes in the underlying price and changes in quality. The BLS
measures quality changes when it can. Some are easy to measure,
for example when bakers double the size of their chocolate chip
cookies. Others are more difficult but straightforward: for example,
optional automobile equipment that later becomes standard, such
as air bags or antilock brakes, can be quality-adjusted by its price
when it was sold as an option. Quality adjustments generally have
a significant effect on price increases as measured by the CPI. For
example, the BLS estimates that in 1995 quality adjustment reduced the increase in the CPI by 2 percentage points compared
with what it would have been based on listed prices.
The BLS does not adjust for other, more difficult problems because the agency cannot make direct quality adjustments in the absence of quantifiable data. For example, televisions are less likely
69
to need repair than they were a decade ago, and some surgical procedures are more likely to be successful today than in the past. But
repair rates for televisions and success rates for surgery cannot be
computed until years after the purchase. Several studies on quality
adjustment are available; most suggest that BLS methods fail to
capture a wide range of quality changes. However, these studies
focus on a relatively few categories of the CPI—possibly those
where the quality bias is presumed largest—making it difficult to
assess the magnitude of the overall quality bias in the CPI.
New Products
New products, such as air conditioners in the 1950s or videocassette recorders in the 1980s, usually decline sharply in price
during the first years they are available for sale. But these products are not usually included in the CPI basket until years after
their introduction, and so the CPI never records their initial price
declines.
Outlet Substitution
Over time, consumers may change their shopping patterns, shifting from high-priced to low-priced outlets, where the quality of
service is often lower. Current methods assume that all of the difference in price between high- and low-priced outlets reflects differences in the quality of service. To the extent this assumption is
not appropriate, current methods overlook one source of price decline.
To sum up, recent research has identified several possible
sources of bias in the CPI. A commission appointed by the Senate
Finance Committee recently reported on these sources of bias (Box
2-7). The magnitudes of some of these biases are based on hard estimates around which there is broad agreement. On the magnitudes of other biases, however, consensus has yet to emerge.
Implications of CPI Bias for Other Economic Statistics
The CPI is used as an input for calculating many other economic
statistics, and therefore the potential biases in its measurement
have consequences beyond our view of inflation. The accuracy of
many economic measures is critically dependent on how well we
measure price changes. Most of the individual consumption items
used in calculating real GDP are deflated by component-level price
indexes from the CPI. Most of the biases in the CPI result in an
overdeflation of GDP, biasing real output growth downward. (Between-category substitution, however, is handled properly in the
national income and product accounts.) Productivity is also calculated from real GDP, so overestimates of CPI inflation would
lead us to underestimate productivity growth. The accuracy of
many other statistics, such as real median household income and
70
Box 2-7.—Estimates and Recommendations of the Advisory
Commission to Study the Consumer Price Index
An advisory commission appointed by the Senate Finance
Committee has estimated that the current CPI overstates inflation by 1,1 percentage points per year. Their estimate of bias
is the Bum of the following parts:
Source of bias
Substitution
Upf&f level (betweeft-categofy)
lower level {witNfl-categoiy} ..««
New pf&ducts 3*nJ quality change
Switching to new outlets
Total
Hattsitsle ran«e
,
Estimate of bias {percentage points)
.
,
,
,
015
25
60
.10
11
.8-1.6
The commission made several recommendations based on its
findings. It proposed that the BLS establish a cost-of-living
index as its objective in measuring consumer prices. It recommended that the BLS develop two indexes: one to be published monthly and the other annually, with historical revision
to the annual index. The annual measure should use a superlative index for aggregation at the between-category level and
a geometric index at the within-category level. The monthly
index would be called the CPI and should move toward geometric weighting at both levels, with the weights kept as up
to date as possible.
The commission also recommended that the Congress provide additional resources to expand the surveys upon which
the CPI is based. It further advised that the President and the
Congress should reevaluate the indexing provisions in various
Federal programs and features of the tax code in light of the
commission's estimated bias in the CPI.
real earnings, that are directly converted from nominal values by
the CPI would also be affected.
Although removing CPI bias would change some of the details of
our views of productivity and income trends, it would not radically
alter our views on such fundamental issues as the productivity
slowdown that began around 1973 or the increase in income inequality over the past two decades. Although bias in the CPI would
mean that real growth and productivity have been higher recently
than official measures indicate, that bias would also apply to longer
term measures of growth and productivity. To explain away the decrease in productivity growth, the CPI would have to be not merely
71
biased but increasingly biased over time. It is certainly plausible
that the increased share of the service sector in the economy has
made it harder to measure quality, with the consequence that the
approximately 2-percentage-point estimate of the slowdown in productivity overestimates the true reduction. Yet it would require an
implausibly large increase in CPI bias to explain away the entire
slowdown as an artifact of mismeasurement.
Similarly, CPI bias might be depressing measures of real wages,
but that does not change the fact that real wages today are growing more slowly than in the 1950s and 1960s. Also, the increase in
income inequality described in Chapter 5 is one widely discussed
phenomenon that is completely unaffected by CPI measurement:
inequality is measured by comparing income between groups; converting to real values is irrelevant, and in any case any bias in the
deflator would affect all of the groups equally.
INCOME- AND PRODUCT-SIDE MEASURES OF OUTPUT
Another measurement issue that has a large effect on our assessment of the economy is the difference between two key measures
of national output: gross domestic product and gross domestic income. The size of the economy can be measured by adding up either all the output produced (GDP) or all the income generated in
producing that output (GDI). In theory these measures should yield
the same result, but in practice they differ because of measurement
error; this difference is called the statistical discrepancy. Over
eight consecutive recent quarters, for example, measured real GDI
grew faster than measured real GDP: 3.1 percent versus 2.1 percent at an annual rate from the third quarter of 1994 to the third
quarter of 1996.
Which Is More Accurate?
Measurement problems exist on both sides of the accounts. A significant share of the published national income and product accounts estimates consist of extrapolations based on various indicators and trends until the full annual revision, when most of these
projections are replaced with more complete and consistent source
data. The latest year to have passed through the usual annual revision process is 1994.
The major problem on the output side is the measurement of
services consumption, where about 30 percent of reported output is
based on projections until the annual revision, and State and local
purchases, where the figure is about 25 percent. The measurement
problems in services consumption may be getting worse, as sales in
such new and rapidly growing areas as casino gambling, cellular
telephone service, and on-line services are not fully measured.
On the income side, estimates of several components of nonwage
income, especially proprietors' income, are on shaky ground. Unlike
72
the projections on the product side, which are for the most part replaced with more complete source data during the annual revision,
the income projections are replaced only with a very long lag or,
in some cases, never. For example, the problems with proprietors'
income may persist, as such income is chronically underreported,
and the correction for underreporting is based on an out-of-date
(1988) taxpayer compliance study that has been discontinued.
In several ways the recent behavior of the economy is more consistent with the strength shown on the income side. Several economic relationships are currently misbehaving. Although the errors
in each of these relationships are within their historical ranges, together they add up to a suspicion that the product-side measure of
GDP is understating real growth:
• According to Okun's law, the unemployment rate is stable
when GDP is growing at its potential rate, and falls when GDP
is growing faster than its potential. Through the middle of
1994, potential output appeared to be growing a bit over 2 percent per year. Thus the 2.1 percent per year growth between
the third quarter of 1994 and the third quarter of 1996 should
have resulted in a stable unemployment rate. Instead, the unemployment rate dropped almost 0.4 percentage point per year.
The drop in the unemployment rate is, however, perfectly consistent with the growth rate of real GDI over these 2 years (3.1
percent).
• Personal income tax payments in 1996 for the 1995 tax year
were far higher than expected by the Treasury or the Congressional Budget Office, yet these estimates were calibrated to the
relatively high income^side estimates—suggesting that even
more income may have been generated than the official estimates of the Bureau of Economic Analysis indicate.
• The real product wage (hourly compensation deflated by the
prices received by producers) usually rises at the same rate as
labor productivity growth. But over the last 2 years the real
product wage has grown at a 1.8 percent annual rate—much
faster than the official measure of productivity, which has
grown at only a 0.3 percent annual rate. However, income-side
productivity (discussed below) has grown at a more compatible
1.6 percent annual rate over this period.
Implications for Recent Productivity Growth
Nonfarm business productivity can be measured using either an
income- or a product-side measure of real output. The BLS formerly measured productivity on the income side (except for the advance estimate). Then, in February 1996, the agency changed to a
product-side measure, in part to minimize revisions between their
advance and their final estimates.
73
The recent difference between the two measures of productivity
growth is dramatic. According to the official (product-side) measure, productivity growth has slowed to only a 0.3 percent annual
rate over the past 2 years. In contrast, the income-side measure
shows a 1.6 percent annual rate of growth over the same period.
Similarly, over the 6 years since the last business-cycle peak, productivity has grown at a 0.9 percent annual rate by the official
measure but at a 1.2 percent annual rate on the income-side measure.
The difference between the income- and the product-side measures of output obscures our view of recent productivity growth. The
best guess is that productivity has been trending upward at about
a 1.1 percent annual rate during the current business cycle. This
rate is no different from that measured over the entire post-1973
period (Chart 2-4).
Chart 2-4 Alternative Measures of Productivity
Growth in the official measure of nonfarm productivity has been below trend recently,
but growth in the income-side measure has been above trend.
Index, 1990:Q3 = 100 (ratio scale)
110
108
Product side (official)
106
104
102
\
Trend = 1.1
(73:Q4 to 96:Q3)
\
j-..j/zt**
\
Income side (unofficial)
100
j
i
I
i
I
90:Q3
91:Q3
92:Q3
93:Q3
94:Q3
95:Q3
96:Q3
Sources: Department of Labor. Department of Commerce, and Council of Economic Advisers.
REVIEW AND OUTLOOK
OVERVIEW OF 1996
Economic growth exceeded expectations in 1996. In February
1996 the Administration had forecast that real GDP would grow
2.2 percent over the four quarters of 1996. This forecast was in line
74
with private forecasts at the time. As growth picked up in the first
half, that forecast was revised upward to 2.6 percent in July 1996.
The consensus of private forecasters now indicates that real GDP
expanded 2.8 percent in 1996.
Growth over the last several quarters has been solid, but has
fluctuated. Chart 2-5 shows that real growth was weak in the
fourth quarter of 1995 and recovered slightly in the first quarter
of 1996. Several transitory factors account for that sluggishness:
the dispute between the President and the Congress over the budget, which led to two partial Federal Government shutdowns in the
fall of 1995 and the following winter; unusually severe weather in
January; and a March strike at a major automobile manufacturer.
Much of the strong growth in the second quarter of 1996 was directly traceable to the rebound from these factors. Growth moderated in the third quarter to a 2.1 percent annual rate. However,
as discussed above, the product- and income-side measures of output diverged: whereas real GDP was estimated to have increased
at only a 2.1 percent annual rate in the third quarter, real GDI
grew at a 4.2 percent annual rate. Estimates of fourth-quarter GDP
are unavailable as this Report goes to press, but other data indicate
that growth was robust.
Chart 2-5 Growth in Real GDP
Despite some fluctuations from quarter to quarter, growth has been solid.
Percent change from preceding quarter
6
5
-
4
-
3
-
1993
1994
1995
Note: Changes are at annual rates.
Source: Department of Commerce.
75
1996
After holding fast at around 5.6 percent for all of 1995, the unemployment rate edged down about 0.3 percentage point over the
12 months of 1996. As measured by the Current Employment Statistics survey of the BUS, nonfarm employment grew at a brisk
pace of 240,000 per month during the first 8 months of the year.
But reflecting the deceleration in output in the second half, employment growth moderated to 162,000 per month over the last 4
months of 1996. Since January 1993, payroll employment has increased by 11.2 million.
Inflation, as measured by the 12-month change in the CPI, rose
in 1996 (Chart 2-6). All of the increase, however, was attributable
to the acceleration in food and energy prices. An acceleration in
these prices was anticipated in the Administration's forecast. The
core CPI, which excludes these volatile components, moved down
0.4 percentage point from its year-earlier pace to 2.6 percent for
the 12 months ending in December 1996. This deceleration was
somewhat surprising given the decline in the unemployment rate
(Chart 2-7) and the strong growth over the first half of the year.
But as the earlier discussion of the NAIRU showed, the ability of
the economy to sustain low unemployment and low inflation is the
best it has been in years.
Chart 2-6 Consumer Price Inflation
Excluding the volatile food and energy components, consumer price inflation edged
lower in 1996.
12-month percent change in CR
6
j
I
1991
1992
1993
1994
Source: Department of Labor.
76
1995
1996
Chart 2-7 Civilian Unemployment Rate
Unemployment fell below 5.5 percent in the first half of 1996 and remained low.
Percent
8.0
7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Source: Department of Labor.
Solid growth was achieved in 1996 despite a fiscal policy that has
been very restrictive. The standardized-employment deficit (that
which would result if the economy were at full employment) as a
share of potential nominal GDP has fallen in each of the past 4
years, for a cumulative total of 2.1 percent of potential GDP. As a
result, the Federal budget deficit in the 1996 fiscal year fell to only
1.4 percent of actual GDP on a unified-budget basis. Both the
President and the Congress are committed to eliminating the deficit; hence fiscal policy should continue to tighten in the intermediate term. In 1997, however, the standardized-employment deficit as
a share of potential GDP is expected to rise slightly from 1996.
With inflation contained and the economy expanding at a sustainable pace, the Federal Reserve kept the Federal funds rate flat
after lowering it in January 1996. Over the course of the year,
long-term interest rates ebbed and flowed with the pace of economic activity, rising from early in the year through the summer,
declining in the fall, and then rising again toward the end of the
year.
Private Domestic Spending
Consumption expenditures grew at a 3.4 percent annual rate in
the first half of 1996, with growth concentrated in durable goods,
which expanded at nearly a 10 percent pace. Purchases of new
automobiles grew rapidly in the first quarter, and expenditures on
77
other durable goods also picked up substantially in the first half.
Spending on durables was probably stimulated not only by lower
interest rates, but also by the rise in household wealth due in part
to the very substantial increase in stock prices. The high level of
mortgage refinancing activity last winter may also have contributed to the pickup by reducing households' mortgage payments.
Consumer spending growth slowed substantially in the third
quarter. Again the effect was most dramatic for consumer durable
goods, partly reflecting the effects of higher intermediate- and longterm interest rates. In addition, higher debt burdens and rising delinquency rates on consumer loans may have led some households
to limit spending and some banks to tighten lending standards.
However, the discussion of the financial condition of households
earlier in this chapter suggests that concerns about consumer distress may have been exaggerated. Consumer fundamentals remain
positive: consumer confidence is high, income growth is healthy
(real disposable personal income expanded at a better than 3 percent rate over the four quarters ending in the third quarter of
1996), and the growth in household liabilities has been offset by
rapid growth of assets. Moreover, as Chart 2-8 shows, the saving
rate tends to be low when the ratio of net worth to income is
high—at least over long periods; this ratio is at its highest level
since 1969. Thus, it is likely that the third-quarter slowdown in
consumption will prove largely temporary. Indeed, advance retail
sales for the fourth quarter indicate a pickup.
The general soundness of the household sector is affirmed by the
market for new homes. Residential investment expanded rapidly
through the first half of 1996 despite harsh winter weather early
in the year and rising long-term interest rates through the late
winter and spring. In part, the effect of higher rates may have been
offset by a substantial shift of purchasers to adjustable-rate mortgages, which offer considerable upfront savings. Moreover, despite
the rise in rates, measures of housing affordability were the highest they have been since the 1970s. Residential investment did fall
in the third quarter, perhaps reflecting the continued rise in interest rates over the summer. However, residential construction appears to have rebounded in the fourth quarter: new home sales
were well maintained through November, and inventories of unsold
new homes were low relative to sales. Long-term interest rates declined in the fall, with the rate on conventional mortgages retracing about half of its rise earlier in the year. Housing starts, after
declining in September and October, increased sharply in November, although they fell back again in December.
As it has been over most of the expansion, private fixed investment was a bright spot in 1996. Investment in producers' durable
equipment was particularly robust, growing at a better than 13
78
Chart 2-8 Wealth and Saving
The saving rate tends to fail when the ratio of net worth to income rises,
but 1995 and 1996 did not conform to this pattern.
Percent
Ratio
10
5.4
Ratio of net worth
to disposable income
/ (left scale)
5.2
5.0
4.8
4.6
4.4
4.2
Saving rate
(right scale)
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
\/
1995
Note: Data for 1996 are for third quarter, household net worth estimated by Council of Economic Advisers.
Sources: Department of Commerce and Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
(unpublished data).
percent annual rate through the third quarter, with computer investment especially strong. In part this strength is likely to have
reflected firms' efforts to upgrade their equipment in a period of increasing demand, substantial profits, and rapid technological
change.
In contrast, business investment in structures rose more modestly in the first three quarters of 1996, as this sector continued
to grow out from under the large excess supply resulting from overbuilding in the 1980s. Construction in the office segment rebounded
in the second and third quarters following declines in late 1995 and
early 1996. Construction of industrial buildings fell off in early
1996, although it rebounded late in the year.
Investment in nonfann business inventories declined in late 1995
as firms took steps to work off excess stocks. This effort continued
into 1996, and with the March auto workers' strike cutting automobile inventories sharply, overall inventories declined in the first
quarter. Inventory investment remained low in the second quarter,
probably reflecting the unexpected strength in demand and, perhaps, further efforts by some firms to limit stocks. Inventory investment picked up in the third quarter, however, as final sales
slowed and some firms may have moved to replenish stocks. Yet
despite the third-quarter rise, inventory-to-sales ratios remained
79
historically lean, suggesting that the increase should not cause a
drag on production into 1997.
International Influences
The Nation's trade deficit expanded in the first three quarters of
1996, riding a combination of strong domestic demand and weaker
activity in foreign markets. In real terms the deficit on trade in
goods and services (on a national accounts basis) reached a 2-year
low in the fourth quarter of 1995. The deficit expanded in each of
the three subsequent quarters. This increase reflected a large rise
in imports. Real imports of goods and services over the first three
quarters rose at a 10.0 percent annual rate, while exports increased at only a 2.2 percent rate. In 1996, slower growth in economic activity in our major foreign markets negatively affected
U.S. exports. Although weak growth in our trading partners was
the main cause of the increased deficit, the strength of the dollar
against the yen and the major continental European currencies
may also have played a small role.
In Canada, our largest export market, growth has been slowing
for the last 2 years: the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development estimates growth for 1996 at 1.5 percent, down from
2.3 percent in 1995 and 4.1 percent in 1994. This slowdown, which
was partly due to slower growth in government spending, was partly responsible for slower growth of U.S. exports to Canada: merchandise exports grew by only 3 percent in the first half of 1996,
down from 11 percent in 1995. The Canadian economy picked up
in the third quarter, and U.S. exports rose substantially from 1995
levels.
In the European Union, our second-largest export market, GDP
growth slowed to an estimated 1.6 percent in 1996, about a percentage point lower than in 1995. Among the major EU countries,
investment spending was weak in France and Germany, while government consumption expenditures contracted in Italy. Low
consumer confidence also held back aggregate demand in Continental Eiirope. As a result of this weaker economic performance,
growth in U.S. exports to the European Union slowed sharply in
the first 11 months of 1996.
Growth is estimated to have slowed in Singapore and South
Korea, because of oversupply in the market for certain electronic
goods, and to have stayed virtually unchanged in Hong Kong and
Taiwan. U.S. exports to these four markets expanded only 2 percent in the first 11 months of 1996, after growing at a rapid pace
in 1995.
Activity in some other key export markets picked up in 1996.
Japan saw substantial growth for the first time since 1991, although it was concentrated in the first quarter. Growth for all of
1996 is estimated to have been 3.6 percent, after 4 years of annual
80
growth averaging less than 1 percent. U.S. exports to Japan expanded by a healthy 6 percent in the first 11 months of 1996, although this was below the strong pace in 1995. This partially reflects fluctuations in the value of the yen, which peaked at about
80 to the dollar in April 1995 and has since depreciated over 40
percent, making imports from the United States more expensive for
Japanese residents.
Mexico pulled out of its severe 1995 recession last year, with estimated growth of 4.0 percent following a 6.9 percent contraction in
1995. Reflecting this turnaround, U.S. merchandise exports to Mexico expanded 21 percent in the first 11 months of 1996, after contracting sharply in 1995.
Although the growth rates of our trading partners have probably
been the more important determinant of our trade balance, the
level of the dollar might have had an influence as well. The dollar,
measured against the currencies of the other major industrialized
countries, fell to its lowest levels in almost 3 years in mid-1995.
Since then it has appreciated by around 33 percent against the yen
and around 11 percent against the deutsche mark. This pattern of
depreciation followed by appreciation may explain part of the slowing in imports in late 1995 and the increase in 1996. However, exchange-rate movements were probably not the dominant cause of
recent increases in the trade deficit for three reasons. First, although the dollar has moved against some currencies, its effective
exchange-rate index, when weighted according to trade shares, has
appreciated only 6 percent in real terms since mid-1995. Second, a
lag of 2 or more years generally is seen before an import price
change has its full effect on volumes. Third, the initial effect of an
appreciation is generally to lower import prices, and therefore
lower the dollar value of import spending (the valuation, or Jcurve, effect), not to raise it.
Fiscal Policy
The Federal Government budget deficit for fiscal 1996 was $107
billion, a reduction of $57 billion from 1995. The deficit has now
declined in each of the last 4 years, for the first time since the
1940s. Last year's unified deficit was just 1.4 percent of GDP, the
smallest deficit by this measure since 1974. The U.S. general-government (combined Federal, State, and local) deficit was the smallest among the large industrialized countries. Moreover, the budget
last year showed a primary surplus (defined as revenues less outlays other than net interest) of $134 billion, the largest ever, and
the largest as a share of GDP since the 1950s. Indeed, the budget
would have been in balance last year were it not for the interest
due on the debt run up between 1981 and 1992. The low level of
the budget deficit in recent years is reflected in the ratio of publicly
81
held Federal debt to GDP, which has stabilized since 1993, after
nearly doubling over the previous 12 years.
Part of this improvement in the deficit reflects the economic expansion. As output and employment grow, tax revenues are boosted
and some types of expenditures, especially transfers to low-income
households, decline. But policy changes have been important as
well. As already noted, the standardized-employment deficit, as a
share of potential GDP, which is measured holding the level of economic activity constant, has fallen for 4 straight years and was
lower last year than it has been since 1974.
The recent progress on the deficit reflects in large part the increases in revenue and reductions in government spending due to
the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993. The Administration has worked hard to increase the efficiency of government and
has reduced the Federal workforce substantially. By October 1996,
Federal civilian employment (excluding the Postal Service) had declined by more than 250,000 since January 1993. The Federal
workforce is smaller than it has been in 30 years, and smaller as
a share of the total workforce than it has been since the 1930s.
As a result of disagreements between the White House and the
Congress over the budget, two partial Federal Government shutdowns occurred in late 1995 and early 1996. Although these closures temporarily interrupted the disbursement of some Federal
spending, the overall stance of fiscal policy was largely unaffected
because most of the spending was later restored. The shutdowns
did, however, have a small, temporary effect on the level of real
GDP because a large proportion of Federal workers did not work
during the shutdowns. A related disagreement over passage of an
extended increase in the debt ceiling on Federal borrowing authority forced the Secretary of the Treasury to take a number of extraordinary actions to ensure that the United States did not default
on its debt obligations for the first time in its history. The debt ceiling bill was not passed until March, and the final spending bills
for fiscal 1996 were not passed until April, more than 6 months
after the start of the fiscal year.
Monetary Policy and Interest Rates
Monetary policy changed little during 1996. The Federal Reserve
cut the Federal funds rate by one-quarter percentage point at the
end of January 1996. This cut, following a similar-size cut in December 1995, brought the funds rate down to about 5.25 percent,
where it remained for the rest of the year. Other short-term market rates declined with the Federal funds rate early in the year but
drifted slightly higher over the late spring and summer. Evidently
the pickup in economic growth was seen in the markets as eliminating the possibility of further policy easing, and later led many
investors to expect tighter monetary policy. Indeed, the minutes of
82
the Federal Open Market Committee meetings held in the summer
and fall show that, although the committee chose to leave policy
unchanged, the members did see the risks as skewed toward an intensification of inflation pressures, to which they would have had
to react with tighter policy. However, expectations of Federal Reserve action subsided as economic growth moderated without a
change in monetary policy and as new data continued to show few
signs of a pickup in inflation. As a result, short-term rates retraced
some of their earlier rise. By year's end, expected future Federal
funds rates, as measured by prices in the Federal funds futures
market, were about flat, suggesting that market participants no
longer thought that policy was likely to change in the near term.
Intermediate- and long-term rates followed the same general pattern as short-term rates over the course of the year, but the movements were considerably larger (Chart 2-9). By late February,
intermediate- and long-term rates began to rise, and throughout
the spring and early summer stronger-than-expected economic data
pushed rates higher. By July the yield on 30-year Treasury bonds
had risen more than a percentage point from its January low.
Later in the year, when economic growth moderated and concerns
about possible Federal Reserve policy action eased, longer term
rates fell; they rebounded, however, to finish 1996 more than half
a percentage point higher than at the start of the year.
Chart 2-9 Yields on Treasury
Intermediate- and long-term interest rates fluctuated with the pace of economic activity, rising
between February and September, easing somewhat in the fall, but then picking up again.
Percent per year
7.5
7.0
30-year
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
July 95
Oct95
Jan96
Mar 96
Source: Department of the Tre
83
Jun96
Nov96
Rates on corporate bonds followed those on Treasury securities,
as risk spreads remained quite narrow (Chart 2-10). The average
spread between the rate on Baa-rated corporate bonds and that on
30-year Treasury bonds changed little over the course of the year,
ending up at about 1.35 percentage points, fairly narrow by historical standards. The spread between rates on the high-yield bonds issued by riskier firms and those on comparable Treasury securities
narrowed considerably in early 1996, following a steady increase in
1995. This spread, which was about 3.5 percentage points at year's
end, is also quite narrow by historical standards. Similarly, spreads
between rates on bank loans to businesses and market rates remained narrow as banks reported heavy competition from other
banks and, to a lesser extent, nonbank lenders.
Chart 2-10 Bond Yield Spreads
Risk spreads between corporate bonds and Treasury securities remained narrow in 1996.
Percentage points
12
10
High-yield bond spread
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
Note: Baa spread is the difference between yields on Baa-rated corporate bonds and 30-year Treasuries. High-yield
spread is the difference between yields on the Merrill Lynch High-Yield Master II index and 10-year Treasuries.
Sources: Department of the Treasury, Moody's Investors Service, and Merrill Lynch.
These narrow spreads suggest that the markets believe the risk
of corporate default to be unusually low, reflecting in part the robust profits enjoyed by U.S. firms in 1996. Indeed, in contrast to
some measures of household stress, measures of business financial
difficulties remain quiescent. Delinquency and charge-off rates for
business loans at banks are near their recent lows and well below
their levels in the mid-1980s. Similarly, the number of business
bankruptcies remains quite low.
84
Strong profitability helped boost broad stock market indexes to
successive record highs over the course of the year despite the rise
in longer term interest rates. Indeed, the rise in stock prices outran
corporate profits, so that the ratio of stock prices to recent earnings
was elevated at year's end, but still below its 1992 and 1993 peaks.
The runup in stock prices could reflect a number of factors. Investors may anticipate further rapid growth in earnings and dividends, or a decline in real interest rates as further progress is
made in reducing the budget deficit. Investors may also have
gradually reduced the compensation they demand for bearing the
risk associated with holding stocks, because they expect the current, more stable, low-inflation environment to persist, or because
of the influence of well-publicized research showing that equities
have consistently outperformed other financial investments over
long holding periods. The rise in stock prices may also reflect the
impact of financial market innovations that have led to an unprecedented channeling of savings into the equity market through pension and mutual funds.
OUTLOOK AND FORECAST
One way to project the future is to extrapolate the recent past.
For such a calculation it matters how fast real GDP has grown during the current expansion. Measured on the product side, real output has grown at a 2.0 percent annual rate since the business-cycle
peak in the third quarter of 1990, while the income-side measure
has grown at a 2.3 percent annual rate (Table 2-3, line 13). As already discussed, it seems that the truth is likely to be closer to the
income-side measure.
Components of Long-Term Growth
It is useful to begin the discussion of the long-term outlook with
the components of aggregate supply. Whether one considers
income- or product-side measurement more accurate, it remains
true that real output has decelerated during the current business
cycle from its pace between the business-cycle peaks in 1973 and
1990. The deceleration is more than explained by the slowing of
both of the two components of labor force growth, the working-age
population and the labor force participation rate.
Since 1989 the participation rate has been virtually flat, in sharp
contrast to the rising participation rates of the 1970s and 1980s.
This stalling of the overall participation rate is due mainly to a deceleration in the participation rate for women; the participation
rate for men has fallen no faster than in earlier years. The flattening of the female participation rate is probably the result of longterm demographic trends. The child dependency ratio (the number
of children per woman aged 20 to 54) fell between the late 1960s
and the early 1980s, echoing the earlier pattern in the birth rate.
85
TABLE 2-3.—Accounting for Growth in Real GDP, 1960-2003
[Average annual percent change]
1960 II
to
1973 IV
Item
1973 IV
to
1990 III
1990 III
to
1996 III
1996 III
to
2003
1) Civilian nonmstitutiona! population aged 16 and over
2) PLUS- Civilian labor force participation rate J
1.8
2
1.5
5
1.0
0
1.0
1
3) EQUALS.- Civilian labor force »
4) PLUS- Civilian employment rate1
2.0
0
2.0
-1
1.0
1
1.1
0
2.0
1.9
1.0
1.1
.1
1
3
.1
21
-.4
20
-.3
13
1
1.6
2.8
4.5
.3
4.2
1.7
1.1
2.8
.1
2.7
14
.9
2.3
.3
(1.2)
(2.7)
3 U)
12
.0
12
1.2
2.4
.1
(2.3)
2.3
5) EQUALS.- Civilian employment 1
6) PLUS: Nonfarm business employment
as a share of
civilian employment1 2
7) EQUALS- Nonfarm business employment
8) PLUS: Average weekly hours (nonfarm business)
9) EQUALS: Hours of all persons (nonfarm business)
. . .
10) PLUS: Output per hour (productivity, nonfarm business) ....
11) EQUALS; Nonfarm business output
12) LESS: Nonfarm business output as a share of real GDP4 ..
13) EQUALS: Real GDP
1
Adjusted for 1994 revision of the Current
2
Line 6 translates the civilian employment
3
Income-side definition.
4
2.0
3
3
3
Population Survey.
growth rate into the nonfarm business employment growth rate.
Line 12 translates nonfarm business output back into output for all sectors (GDP), which includes the output of farms
and general government.
Note.—Detail may not add to totals because of rounding.
Except for 1996, time periods are from business-cycle peak to business-cycle peak to avoid cyclical variation.
Sources: Council of Economic Advisers, Department of Commerce, and the Department of Labor.
The decline in this ratio allowed an increasing fraction of women
to enter the labor force between the mid-1970s and the mid-1980s,
but its subsequent flattening in the late 1980s has limited further
increases in participation.
The participation rate rose 0.15 percentage point in 1996, an acceleration from its recent stagnation, but below its pace in the
1970s and 1980s. Both male and female participation rates contributed to the acceleration in 1996. The male participation rate flattened out, after years of decline, while female participation rose
0.32 percentage point—faster than its recent pace but more slowly
than in earlier decades.
Table 2-3 shows the contributions of population, labor force participation, and productivity growth to output growth, both historically and as projected. In the past, the contributions of these supply-side factors have varied substantially across time periods, and
in ways that have tended to be offsetting. During the 1960-73 period, output growth was fueled by a rapid increase in both the
working-age population and productivity. When productivity slowed
after 1973, the slowdown was partially offset by an increasing rate
of labor force participation. Growth in the working-age population
was dramatically slower after 1990, but this slowdown was partly
countered by stabilization in the length of the workweek.
The last column of Table 2-3 illustrates how the Administration's forecast of 2.3 percent average annual GDP growth for the
86
next 7 years is consistent with projections of 1.0 percent growth in
population, 0.1 percent growth in participation, and 1.2 percent
growth in productivity.
As noted, the participation rate has turned up in the past year
and may even rise faster to the extent that the recently enacted
welfare reform legislation moves greater numbers of former recipients into the paid labor force. Measured productivity is expected to
grow a bit faster than in the recent past, as further deficit reduction boosts investment, and as planned adjustments to the CPI,
which will affect the measurement of productivity, are implemented.
As of December 1996 the current expansion had lasted 69
months, making it the third longest in the postwar record. There
is no foreseeable reason why this expansion cannot continue. As
last year's Report argued, expansions do not die of old age. Rather,
most recent expansions have ended because of rising inflation, financial imbalances, or inventory overhangs. None of these conditions exists at present. As discussed earlier in the chapter, the financial condition of households is sound, inventories remain lean,
and inflation remains under control.
Inflation Considerations
The unemployment rate has fallen during the past 6 months, although it remains within a range that most economists would view
as consistent with stable prices (Chart 2-11). The chart shows the
band of uncertainty about the natural rate, and this band is wide.
Despite the recent decline in unemployment, inflation remains stable, and economists are gradually revising down their consensus estimate of the natural rate.
Some have pointed to the acceleration in wages and salaries over
the past year as proof that labor markets are tight enough for inflation to begin rising. However, wages and salaries are only one
part of labor costs; the other component, hourly benefits, has
slowed dramatically over the past few years. Most of the slowing
has been in health insurance premiums. As a result, total hourly
compensation for private industry workers as measured by the employment cost index (ECI) increased only 2.9 percent during the 12
months ending in September 1996—not much different from its
rate during the previous 2 years. This pace for hourly compensation, less the 1.1 percent trend for productivity growth, implies that
trend unit labor costs are increasing at a 1.8 percent annual rate.
As this is far below the pace of recent price inflation, labor costs
are not putting any upward pressure on prices (Chart 2-12).
This reduction in the rise of employers' health premiums may be
temporary. Therefore it is worth entertaining the notion that wages
and salaries are the best measure of the trend in compensation. In
this case, trend unit labor costs would increase by the 3.3 percent
87
Chart 2-11 Unemployment and the NAIRU
For the past 3 years, the unemployment rate has been within the (wide) band of
reasonable estimates of the NAIRU.
Percent
8.0
Unemployment rate
7.5
7.0
6.5
95% confidence band
for the NAIRU
6.0
5.5
5.0
i
1987
1988
i
1989
. 1990
i
1991
1992
i
1993
i
1994
i
1995
1996
Source: Calculations based on Department of Labor data
Chart 2-12 Inflation and Trend Unit Labor Costs
Inflation has been held down recently by low increases in trend unit labor costs.
Percent change from previous year
5.0
4.5
4.0
ECI compensation less
trend productivity growth
(1.1 percent per year)
3.5
3.0
GDP price index
2.5
2.0
1.5
i
1990
i
1991
1992
1993
Sources: Department of Commerce and Department of Labor.
88
1994
1995
rate of ECI wage growth seen recently, less the 1.1 percent trend
rate of productivity growth discussed earlier, resulting in an estimate of 2.2 percent. This differs little from the recent rate of inflation as measured by the price index for GDP (which is lower than
CPI inflation). Wage increases are thus high enough so that workers share in productivity increases, but low enough that they do
not put upward pressure on inflation.
But the case against a near-term outbreak of inflation is stronger. First, as already noted, slow growth in hourly benefits has been
holding down labor costs and may continue to do so. Second, corporate profits are very high; profits as a share of GDP during the
first three quarters of 1996 were higher than for any three-quarter
period since the 1960s. Thus, profits could be a temporary buffer
preventing accelerating wages from being immediately passed
through to accelerating prices. In sum, with continued growth of
productivity, with sustainable wage growth and with high profits
as a buffer, the U.S. economy has room for a sustained increase in
real wages—without rising inflation.
The rate of inflation in 1996 has been elevated by rapid increases
in food and energy prices. These prices are not expected to grow
any faster than other prices over the next year, and so the rate of
increase in the CPI is expected to edge lower. Also holding down
measured inflation over the next 2 years, by about 0.3 percentage
point per year, are methodological changes that are already under
way. The BLS estimates that by fixing a problem encountered
when new stores are rotated into the sample, CPI inflation will be
lowered by 0.1 percentage point. (This fix was completed in July
1996.) The forecast assumes that new procedures for calculating
the hospital services price index will lower CPI inflation by about
another 0.1 percentage point. Beginning in 1997, the BLS will collect transaction prices where available rather than list prices for
hospital services, and will reorganize their categories so that inpatient and outpatient surgery might be substitutable. Finally, in
1998 the BLS will also replace its current market basket, based on
1982-84 data, with one based on 1993-95 data. Usually the items
with the smallest price increases receive the largest increase in
weights. The forecast assumes that the incorporation of the new
market basket will lower CPI inflation by 0.1 percentage point. The
importance of information-processing equipment alone will rise by
enough to. lower CPI growth by 0.02 percentage point per year, assuming prices for such goods continue to fall at a 10 percent annual rate as they have recently.
The Near-Term Outlook
With inflation not a problem, the economy can continue to move
forward at a sustainable rate. Aggregate demand is likely to be sufficient. Consumption, which is two-thirds of the economy, should be
89
supported by a combination of high income growth, high consumer
confidence, and a high level of household net worth relative to income. Business investment in equipment probably will continue to
react to the rapid improvements in technology—especially in computers and telecommunications equipment. However, it seems likely that equipment investment will not continue to grow at the torrid rate of the past few years. The market for business structures
should remain on track as vacancy rates continue to decline. Finally, net exports were a drag on economic growth in 1996, as
growth in many of our trading partners lagged behind our own.
But there are signs that foreign growth is picking up, and exports
should soon reflect this.
TABLE 2-4.—Administration Forecast
Actual
Item
1997
1995
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
1996
Percent change, fourth quarter to fourth quarter
Nominal GDP
3.8
»5.0
4.6
4.7
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
Real GDP (chain-type)
1.3
12.8
2.0
2.0
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
GDP price index (chain-type)
2.5
!2.2
2.5
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
Consumer price index (CPI-U)
2.7
3.2
2.6
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
Calendar year average
Unemployment rate (percent)
5.6
5.4
5.3
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
Interest rate, 91-day Treasury
bills (percent)
5.5
5.0
5.0
4.7
4.4
4.2
4.0
4.0
4.0
Interest rate, 10-year Treasury notes (percent)
6.6
6.4
6.1
5.9
5.5
5.3
5.1
5.1
5.1
Nonfarm payroll employment
(millions)
117.2
119.5
121.1
122.4
123.9
125.6
127.4
129.1
130.8
1
Estimates.
Sources: Council of Economic Advisers, Department of Commerce, Department of Labor, Department of the Treasury, and
Office of Management and Budget.
In 1997 and 1998 the Administration projects a 2.0 percent increase in output (Table 2-4), slightly below the potential pace, but
in line with the consensus. The balance of the Administration's
forecast is built around a 2.3 percent growth rate of potential output. The Administration does not think that 2.3 percent real
growth in the long term is the best the United States can do. This
projected pace reflects a conservative estimate of the effects of Administration policies to promote education and investment and to
balance the budget. The outcome could be even better. But the Administration's forecast is used for a very important purpose: to
project Federal revenues, outlays, and the Federal deficit. For this
purpose the most important virtues are credibility and conservatism, and the Administration has remained close to mainstream
90
thinking on these issues. The Administration's forecasting record is
good, and the projections here are close to the consensus of private
forecasters.
91
CHAPTER 3
Economic Challenges of an Aging
Population
IN 1993 THE ADMINISTRATION'S first job was to get the economy moving. The deficit reduction package enacted that year
helped to reduce interest rates and restore business confidence.
Since then the Federal deficit has been cut by more than half, and
the economy has expanded robustly. The next task is to complete
the work of deficit reduction. In 1995 and 1996 the Administration
and the Congress both put forward plans to balance the Federal
budget, but could not reach agreement at that time. The Administration is now submitting another proposal to balance the budget
while protecting important national priorities. Legislation should
be enacted this year to accomplish this goal.
Balancing the budget in the medium term, however, is not the
end of the story. The United States faces two important economic
challenges new and after the turn of the century. First, without
changes in current policy, as the baby-boom generation retires, entitlement spending, particularly for health care, will rise rapidly
and budget deficits will increase. Second, the Nation needs to raise
its overall rate of saving to improve long-term economic growth.
These two issues are closely related. The President believes that
action on these issues can come about only from a carefully considered, bipartisan process. This chapter discusses these challenges.
THE AGING OF THE POPULATION
The proportion of the elderly in the U.S. population will rise
sharply in coming decades. This aging of the population is the inevitable result of a long-term decline in fertility rates and an enormous improvement in life expectancy.
Over two centuries, the fertility rate—the number of children
that an average woman will bear over her lifetime—has declined
fairly persistently, from 7.0 in 1800, to 3.6 in 1900, to roughly 2.0
today (Chart 3-1). The post-World War II baby boom and the immediately preceding baby bust, associated with the Great Depression and World War II, were temporary aberrations in a long-run
trend of declining fertility. As the baby boom ended, the fertility
93
rate resumed its decline, reaching a low point of 1.7 in 1976 before
rebounding to roughly 2.0 in recent years.
Chart 3-1 Total Fertility Rate
The total fertility rate has been falling steadily over time, with the exception of
the post-World War II baby boom.
Births per woman
8
Projection
1810 1830 1850
1870
1890
1910 1930
1950
1970 1990 2010 2030 2050 2070
Note: The total fertility rate is the average number of births per woman during childbearing years. Data prior
to 1920 are for whites only.
Sources: Data prior to 1920: Coale. A. and M. Zelnick (1963). "New Estimates of Fertility and Population in the U.S.;"
1920-1969: Department of Health and Human Services; 1970-2070: Social Security Administration.
The sequence of baby bust and baby boom thus has no impact
on the elderly dependency ratio (the ratio of elderly Americans to
those of working age) projected for 2070 and beyond; it does, however, alter the path to that ultimate ratio, and this has important
implications for the medium term. The baby bust will produce a
relatively constant ratio of retirees to workers over the next 15
years, as the small cohort born in the 1930s and 1940s reaches retirement, but the baby boom will produce a rapid swelling of the
ranks of retirees after about 2010, as the large cohort born in the
period from 1946 through 1964 retires.
Gains in life expectancy have been just as dramatic as the decline in fertility but have shown less fluctuation over time. In 1935,
when Social Security was enacted and the retirement age was set
at 65, life expectancy at 65 was about 12 years for men and 13
years for women (Chart 3-2). Today those figures are 15 years and
19 years, respectively, and by 2070 they are projected to be 18 and
22. The probability that a young adult just entering the workforce
will survive to collect benefits has also risen dramatically. In the
mid-1980s the probability of a 20-year-old man surviving to age 65
was only 58 percent, and that for a woman 66 percent. By the mid-
94
1990s these fractions had increased to 77 percent and 87 percent,
respectively, and by 2070 they are projected to rise to 86 percent
and 92 percent.
Chart 3-2 Life Expectancy at Age 65
Life expectancy has risen steadily and substantially throughout the 20th century. This rise
is expected to continue.
Years of life remaining
22
20
18
16
14
12
1910
1930
1950
1970
1990
2010
2030
2050
2070
Sources: Data prior to 1995: Department of Health and Human Services; 1995-2070: Social Security
Administration.
Declining fertility and mortality together produce a permanent
increase in the elderly dependency ratio (Chart 3-3). Most of the
increase in this ratio occurs by the time the last of the babyboomers retires around 2030; the ratio drifts only slightly higher
thereafter.
THE IMPACT OF DEMOGRAPHICS ON NATIONAL
SAVING
Demographics can affect future national saving through effects
on personal saving and on public saving. The first effect is captured
in the simple life-cycle model. In this model younger people are expected to save some of their income in anticipation of retirement,
and older people are expected to dissave—that is, to spend more
than their income. According to this theory, the shift in the elderly
dependency ratio should produce a dramatic increase in dissavers
relative to savers, substantially reducing national saving. Even if
the elderly do not dissave but only save at a lower rate than the
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Chart 3-3 Dependency Ratio of the Aged
The ratio of retirees to individuals of working age will remain roughly constant through 2010,
rise rapidly until 2030, and then increase slightly thereafter.
Ratio
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Projection
0.1
j
i
I
I
|
I
i
i
|
i
i
i
I
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
2060
2070
Note: The dependency ratio is population age 65 and over divided by population age 20-64.
Source: Social Security Administration.
working-age population, these demographics would be expected to
affect national saving.
Given the already low U.S. saving rate, this prediction of the lifecycle model is a source of concern. The evidence, however, suggests
that demographics may not be as important a determinant of saving patterns as the theory suggests. For example, several studies
of individual behavior have been unable to document dissaving
among the elderly. And during the 1980s the aggregate saving rate
was quite low, even though the life-cycle model says that it should
have risen because the increase in the proportion of the population
in its prime saving years swamped the increase in the proportion
that was old. Some simulations predicted that the personal saving
rate should have been as high as 12.8 percent in the 1980s; instead
it averaged 4.3 percent. Economists have been at a loss to explain
much of the behavior of personal saving during the 1980s. (In fact,
it is difficult enough to explain variation among households at a
given point in time. One study using a variety of variables and
models was able to explain only 7 percent of the total variation in
the level of saving among households reported in the Federal Reserve's Survey of Consumer Finances.)
However uncertain the impact of demographics on private saving,
its likely impact on public saving—unless significant changes are
made in programs for the elderly—is clear. Growing deficits in the
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Social Security program and the increasing costs of Medicare and
Medicaid will tend to raise Federal outlays—that is, they will reduce government saving for any given level of revenue. Some
economists have argued that lower government saving might cause
an offsetting rise in private saving, as individuals anticipate an
eventual rise in taxes due to the government's chronic failure to
save. However, evidence for such a large offset is lacking. Thus, the
most likely effect of demographically driven expenditure increases
would be a net reduction in national saving.
THE IMPACT OF DEMOGRAPHICS ON THE BUDGET
Without changes in policy, the costs of government programs
that provide the elderly with retirement income and insure their
health and nursing home care will rise rapidly as the number of
elderly increases. In addition, social insurance taxes and contributions are likely to be pinched somewhat, because the number of
people working—and paying taxes—will be growing more slowly.
The largest increases in programs benefiting the elderly are projected to be for Medicare and Medicaid. The Trustees of the Medicare program project spending to increase from 2.7 percent of gross
domestic product (GDP) in 1996 to 8.1 percent in 2050. The Office
of Management and Budget projects that under current policy Federal Medicaid outlays will rise from 1.2 percent of GDP to 4.9 percent over the same period. And the Social Security Trustees estimate that spending will grow from 4.7 percent of GDP to 6.3 percent between 1996 and 2050. This is a smaller increase, both absolutely and relative to current levels, than that projected for the
health programs. Nevertheless, in combination, these forecasts suggest a more than doubling of expenditures on these key programs,
from under 9 percent of GDP to roughly 19 percent in 2050 (Chart
3-4). By 2070 expenditures for the three programs are expected to
reach 22 percent of GDP.
By contrast, Federal revenues have historically been around 18
percent of GDP. Hence, absent any changes, expenditures on Social
Security, Medicare, and Medicaid could consume all government
revenues by 2050 and exceed them thereafter.
The effect of these rising expenditures on the unified Federal deficit—the broadest measure of the deficit, which includes these programs and all other revenues and spending—is even more powerful
than these numbers suggest: deficits in the early years must be
funded with borrowing, and the interest on that borrowing will require even larger outlays in later years. Most long-term budget projections based on current policy show the deficit mounting to
around 20 percent of GDP by 2050, while the debt held by the public reaches a level somewhere between two and three times GDP.
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Chart 3-4 Growth in Entitlement Spending
Federal expenditures on Medicare and Medicaid are projected to increase rapidly over time
as a percent of GDP, with slower projected growth in Social Security spending.
Percent of GDP
25
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
2060
2070
Note: Medicaid expenditures after 2060 are projected by the Council of Economic Advisers.
Sources: Social Security Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Management
and Budget, and Council of Economic Advisers.
In fact, no one believes that the economy could withstand such
large deficits and increases in debt, with their adverse effects on
interest rates and growth. Something will be done before the deficits and debt reach these levels. The only questions are what will
be done, and when. Delay has two consequences. First, as already
noted, borrowing to cover shortfalls in the near term boosts later
deficits as interest charges accumulate. Second, any reform that is
adequate to the problem will need to be phased in gradually, to
allow citizens time to adjust their personal financing plans accordingly. Thus, the most useful exercise is to examine the financial situation of each individual program separately and explore the various approaches to restoring balance.
SOCIAL SECURITY
Of the several financing problems to be solved, that of Social Security is the most tractable. Without changing current law in any
way, Social Security can pay full benefits well into the next century. Thereafter, without any changes in the structure of the program, funding will be sufficient to cover about 70 percent of benefits even 75 years from now. Nevertheless, the program faces a
funding gap over the 75-year projection period and permanent imbalance after 75 years. The challenge is to restore balance to the
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program, raise national saving, and allow Social Security to continue to fulfill its many missions.
For almost 60 years, Social Security has provided elderly Americans with a basic level of retirement security. Currently, about 90
percent of "aged units"—married couples one of whom is aged 65
or older, and nonmarried persons aged 65 and over—get Social Security benefits. These benefits are the only form of retirement pension for about half of these households. Social Security is particularly important for the low-income elderly. For example, more than
three-quarters of the money income (which includes earnings from
work and interest, as well as retirement benefits) of households in
the bottom two income quintiles comes from Social Security benefits. The comparable shares are about a quarter for the highest income quintile and about half for the second-highest.
Social Security benefits keep some 15 million people above the
poverty line and millions more from near poverty. As recently as
1959, when these data began to be collected, the poverty rate
among the elderly was more than twice that for the rest of the
adult population. Since then this rate has trended lower and is now
slightly below that for other adults. Social Security has been a key
factor behind this drop. Moreover, although the benefit schedule is
progressive and some benefits are subject to partial taxation, Social
Security benefits are not subject to an explicit means test. The lack
of means testing allows many people to add other resources to their
Social Security benefits and achieve a level of income not too far
below that when they were working.
Social Security also provides protection against loss of family income due to disability or death. Roughly 5 million disabled adults
and 3 million children receive monthly benefits; about half the children receiving benefits have lost one or both parents. In short, Social Security is an extremely valuable program that has raised the
living standards of millions of Americans and markedly increased
their sense of economic security by providing fully indexed annuities in the event of retirement, disability, or death of a breadwinner.
THE SIZE OF THE PROBLEM
In their annual report, the Trustees of the Social Security system
publish projections of the system's revenues and outlays for the
next 75 years. Three sets of projections are made, corresponding to
three sets of assumptions about future levels of system costs. The
intermediate cost projections in the 1996 report show that, from
now through 2011, the Social Security system will bring in more
money than it pays out. That is, payroll tax receipts plus receipts
from income taxation of Social Security benefits will exceed outlays.
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By that time the baby-boomers will have begun to retire, and
growth in the labor force will slow, reflecting the decline in the fertility rate that occurred after 1960. The resulting increase in the
ratio of retirees to workers will cause the outlays of the system to
rise above taxes. In the relatively short period from 2012 through
2018, the annual interest income on assets in the Social Security
trust funds will, together with tax receipts, produce enough revenues to cover benefit payments. After that, if no action is taken,
total income will fall short of benefit payments, but the shortfall
can be covered by drawing down trust fund assets until the funds
are exhausted in 2029. Of course, the exhaustion of the trust funds
does not mean the end of Social Security benefits. Even if no
changes are made on the tax or the benefit side of the equation,
payroll and benefit taxation at current rates will provide enough
money to cover 75 percent of promised benefits in 2040 and nearly
70 percent in 2070.
The financing of Social Security is projected to put increasing
pressure on the Federal budget before the trust fund balances are
exhausted, however. In the near term, Social Security reduces the
annual unified budget deficit. The amount of that reduction and
the number of years it encompasses depend on the budgetary treatment of interest payments from the Treasury to the Social Security
trust funds. For example, Social Security income, excluding interest, exceeded Social Security outlays by $30 billion in fiscal year
1996. Thus, the effect of Social Security's current operations was to
lower the deficit by $30 billion. This operating surplus remains at
about that level for about a decade, then drops sharply. As noted
earlier, by 2012 Social Security outlays exceed taxes. However, in
1996 the Treasury also paid more than $36 billion in interest to the
Social Security trust funds, and this interest can be viewed as payments that the Treasury would have had to make to the public
were it not for past Social Security surpluses. If they are included
in the calculation, one can say that the current and past operations
of the Social Security system shaved $66 billion from the unified
budget deficit in fiscal year 1996. By this measure, the deficit-reducing effect of Social Security is projected to rise to more than
$100 billion in less than a decade, remain above that level for more
than 10 years, and then drop rapidly. Regardless of the treatment
of intragovernmental transfers, by 2019 outgo exceeds income. Between 2019 and 2029, the subsequent shortfalls can be met by
drawing down the investments in the trust funds, but this puts
pressure on the unified deficit. This pressure gets progressively
worse over time. Using the broader measure of Social Security's
contribution to the unified deficit, Social Security currently reduces
the deficit by nearly 1 percent of GDP, but by the time the trust
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funds are exhausted in 2029 it will boost the deficit by nearly 1.5
percent of GDP.
When the Social Security surpluses in the early years are combined with the deficits in the later years, projected income falls
short of projected benefit payments over the 75-year forecast period
as a whole. Projecting the size of this shortfall over such a long horizon is very difficult. One measure provided by the Social Security
Trustees, based on their intermediate assumptions, is that the 75year deficit amounts to 2.19 percent of taxable payroll over that period. One way to think about a deficit of this magnitude is in terms
of the hypothetical tax increase that would be required to eliminate
it. That is, if the gap over the next 75 years were to be financed
solely by raising taxes, today's combined employee-employer tax
rate of 12.4 percent would have to be raised to 14.6 percent right
away. No one proposes to meet the deficit in this way, but it provides a way to think about the solvency problem.
Social Security's long-term financing problem is somewhat more
complicated than just described. Under current law the tax rate is
fixed while costs as a percentage of payroll are rising, and this pattern produces surpluses now and large deficits in the future. As a
result of this profile, each passing year adds another year with a
large projected deficit to the 75-year projection period. Assuming
nothing else changes, this phenomenon increases the projected 75year deficit slightly (by 0.08 percent of taxable payroll with today's
projected deficits) each year.
How Reliable Are the Projections?
Projecting costs for the next 75 years is necessarily an uncertain
exercise. Imagine actuaries and economists in the Harding Administration trying to project fertility rates, life expectancies, wages,
and so on from 1922 until the present. They would have had no
idea about the coming Great Depression, World War II, or a host
of other demographic, economic, and social developments. Nevertheless, such long-range planning is a useful exercise. Precisely because Social Security is such a long-run program, major demographic trends are important factors in its solvency. Short-run fluctuations in, say, fertility or mortality rates will not fundamentally
alter the long-run financial picture. The usefulness of the exercise
depends crucially, however, on the reasonableness of the underlying assumptions and on the ability to modify them as new information becomes available. The actuaries' calculations involve numerous variables, but two demographic assumptions and one economic
relationship are key.
On the demographic side the primary issues are fertility and
mortality; fluctuations in immigration and emigration are expected
to have only modest effects. Fertility tells us how many people will
be in the labor force paying taxes, and mortality how many people
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will be receiving benefits and for how long. As already noted, the
total fertility rate is currently about 2.0 children over a woman's
lifetime. Demographers generally believe that U.S. fertility rates,
like those in most other industrialized nations, will remain low.
The intermediate estimates in the 1996 Trustees' report are based
on the assumption that the total fertility rate in the next 75 years
will be 1.9 children per woman, slightly below its recent level. The
consensus is that mortality will continue to decrease; the question
is how fast. For the 75-year projection, life expectancy at 65 is projected to reach 18.4 years for men by 2070 and 22.2 years for
women.
On the economic side the important variables relate to changes
in wages and prices. The system operates more or less on a payas-you-go basis, whereby taxes currently received from workers are
used to pay old-age, survivors, and disability insurance (OASDI)
benefits to current beneficiaries. In 1997, workers and their employers each pay taxes of 6.2 percent on the first $65,400 of earnings. Benefits are calculated by applying a progressive benefit formula to an average of the beneficiary's historical earnings, which
have been indexed to reflect overall increases in average wages.
After benefits are awarded, they are adjusted annually to keep up
with inflation. In this type of pay-as-you-go system, a key relationship is the difference between the rate at which tax revenues rise
(which, assuming no change in tax rates, is equivalent to growth
in covered wages) and the rate at which benefits increase after retirement or disability (that is, the rate of increase in the consumer
price index, or CPI). This difference is called the real-wage differential.
The assumption about the size of the real-wage differential is
often viewed as the most controversial in Social Security forecasting, as the actual value has varied dramatically over time. During
the 20-year period before 1973, when productivity growth was high,
the real-wage differential averaged 2.2 percentage points. From
1973 to the present, however, it has averaged 0.3 percentage point.
The question is how much weight to put on recent years as compared with the pre-1973 period. The Trustees have roughly split
the difference and adopted a long-run assumption of 1.0 percentage
point. What if they are wrong? By how much would a real-wage differential of 0.6 percentage point (the average for the 1980s and
1990s), rather than the assumed 1.0 percentage point, raise the 75year deficit? Sensitivity analysis shows that such a miscalculation
would increase the 75-year deficit by roughly 0.5 percent of taxable
payroll. In other words, a relatively large error in this assumption,
taken in isolation, would worsen long-term Social Security financing by a relatively modest amount during the next 75 years.
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Of course, if a large number of assumptions all turn out optimistic, or all pessimistic, their cumulative effect could be quite large.
The Trustees' reports show the results for two extreme cases: a
"high-cost" alternative in which all of the main assumptions take
pessimistic values, and a "low-cost" projection that assumes optimistic values. According to the 1996 report, under the high-cost alternative, the 75-year balance is in deficit by 5.67 percent of taxable payroll, more than twice the 2.19 percent deficit under the intermediate assumptions. In contrast, the balance under the lowcost assumptions is a small surplus of 0.46 percent of taxable payroll.
These two projections give a sense of the level of uncertainty
about the long-term projections. Nonetheless, a 1994-95 Technical
Panel to the Quadrennial Advisory Council on Social Security evaluated each individual assumption and concluded that, "The 'intermediate' projection . . . for the OASDI program provide[s] a reasonable evaluation of the financial status. Although the Panel suggests
that modifications be considered in various specific assumptions,
the overall effect of those suggestions would not significantly
change the financial status evaluation."
In 1983 the Congress enacted legislation based on the recommendations of the National Commission on Social Security Reform. The Commission's reforms were intended to keep the Social
Security system solvent for 75 years, with positive trust fund balances through 2060. Only a year later, however, the Trustees
began to project a small deficit. The projected deficit has grown
more or less steadily since then, to its current level of 2.19 percent
of taxable payroll. How did this happen?
Three factors account for most of the projected increase in longrange costs. The first one was discussed earlier. That is, as time
passes, the 75-year valuation period ends in a later year, so that
more of the higher cost outyears are included in the projections. Including more deficit years raises the 75-year deficit. The second is
that the disability caseload grew much faster than anticipated, primarily because of legislative, regulatory, and judicial action that
made it easier for individuals to qualify for disability benefits. The
third source of the post-1983 deficit reflects the net effect of oneshot changes in the methodology used in the projections.
Changes in economic and demographic assumptions are not on
balance responsible for the reemergence of the deficit since 1983.
Most of the discussion of Social Security's financing problems is
couched in terms of the demographic shifts that will occur as the
baby boom ages. Indeed, the numbers are impressive: whereas
today 3.3 workers support each retiree, by 2040 that number drops
to 2.0; it stabilizes around 1.8 in 2070. The problem with this story
is that the projected decrease in the ratio of workers to retirees,
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frequently cited as the cause of the emerging deficit, is little
changed from 1983. This decrease was fully incorporated in the estimates at that time. Demographic developments since 1983 have
been, if anything, positive—at least from the program's perspective.
Life expectancy is lower and birth rates have been higher than
were assumed in 1983, thereby reducing long-range costs. The positive impact on long-range costs from changing demographic assumptions was roughly offset, however, by changing economic assumptions. In particular, the Trustees gradually lowered the assumed rate of real wage growth as it became clear that the slower
trend in productivity growth was likely to continue. On balance,
the economic and demographic changes have roughly offset one another.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE QUADRENNIAL
ADVISORY COUNCIL
The Quadrennial Advisory Council on Social Security was
charged in 1994 with finding ways to eliminate the current deficit
in the OASDI program. It released its report in January 1997 after
more than 2 years of deliberations. Instead of offering a single set
of consensus recommendations, this 13-person panel split and presented three very different visions for the future of the Social Security system.
All three are designed to restore 75-year balance, stabilize the
trust funds in the 76th year, and address the decline in the rate
of return to Social Security contributions that has occurred as the
system has matured. It is important to remember that, although
the Advisory Council distilled these three specific sets of options,
many alternatives are possible. The report characterizes the three
alternatives as the "Maintenance of Benefits," "Individual Accounts," and "Personal Security Accounts" proposals. The following
descriptions are summaries of the three proposals and should not
be viewed as endorsements of particular approaches.
The Maintenance of Benefits Proposal
The Maintenance of Benefits (MB) plan is designed to eliminate
the Social Security deficit without altering the basic nature of the
program. Roughly half the savings comes from long-discussed—but
never accepted—proposals. These include extending coverage to
State and local government employees hired after 1997 who under
current law would not be covered by Social Security; making Social
Security benefits taxable to the extent that they exceed worker contributions (this would make the program comparable in that respect to other contributory defined-benefit plans); lengthening the
averaging period for the Social Security benefit calculation from 35
years to 38 years; and incorporating technical corrections in the
CPI made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1995 and 1996,
104
which reduced the upward bias in measured inflation by about 0.2
percentage point per year. These proposals are expected to eliminate about half of the 75-year deficit.
To reduce the rest of the financing gap MB proponents suggest
three new proposals. The first is to explore the possibility of investing 40 percent of trust fund assets in corporate equities on a graduated basis beginning in 2000. The implications of such a change
are discussed in greater detail below. Second, the plan would redirect into the OASDI fund the share of revenues from the taxation
of Social Security benefits that are currently paid into the Medicare
hospital insurance trust fund, phasing in the change between 2010
and 2019. Finally, to correct the tendency of the fund to drift out
of balance, this plan would, if necessary, increase the payroll tax
by 0.8 percentage point each on employers and employees starting
in 2045.
The Individual Accounts Proposal
The Individual Accounts (IA) plan has two components: it would
make certain changes to balance the existing program, and it
would create a system of supplementary required savings accounts
for all participants. The first part of the plan begins with three proposals that are also in the MB plan: coverage of newly hired State
and local government employees, taxation of benefits that exceed
contributions, and incorporation of the CPI changes. In addition,
the IA plan would raise the normal retirement age to 67 faster
than under current law and index it to longevity thereafter. Finally, benefits for middle- and upper-income recipients would be
cut by roughly 20 percent to allow the current 12.4 percent payroll
tax rate to cover the program's 75-year cost.
The mandatory savings portion of the IA plan would increase the
employee's payroll contribution by 1.6 percentage points to fund
government-administered individual accounts, beginning in 1998.
Proponents of the IA proposal recommend that the funds in these
accounts be allocated by workers to a relatively small number of
government-managed index funds, which would provide a variety of
investment alternatives at low cost. At retirement, the savings
would be paid out as an annuity, with payouts adjusted for inflation, and added to the regular Social Security benefit. Total retirement benefits would thus depend on the returns achieved by the
savings accounts.
Supporters of the IA plan argue that it would directly boost funding for retirement (although they acknowledge that individuals
might reduce their non-Social Security saving to some extent). In
terms of national saving, they view it as superior to increased funding through the Social Security trust funds because they fear that
annual surpluses in the trust funds would simply be used to cover
deficits in the non-Social Security part of the budget. They also be-
105
lieve that adding an individual account component is a way to introduce equity investments without raising all the issues associated
with direct investment of Social Security in stocks, as suggested in
the MB plan. It should be noted that under the proposal the accounts would be held by the government, and the government
would constrain the range of investment alternatives in the individual accounts.
The Personal Security Account Proposal
The Personal Security Account (PSA) plan calls for a more extensive change in the structure of the system, phased in over a period
of time. It would divert 5 percentage points of the 12.4 percent payroll tax into mandatory "personal security accounts." Unlike the individual savings accounts described above, which would be held by
the government and annuitized upon retirement, these accounts
could be placed with private investment companies, and individuals
would have broader choice over how the savings are paid out during retirement. The remaining 7.4 percentage points of the payroll
tax would pay for a flat retirement benefit for full-career workers
equivalent to $410 a month in 1996 (and indexed for future wage
growth beginning in 1998) and for reduced disability and survivor
benefits. The $410 flat benefit by itself would provide an income
about one-third below the poverty line for an elderly person living
alone; the proceeds of the personal accounts would supplement the
flat benefit.
The plan also would reduce the financing gap through many of
the same features as the MB and IA proposals: it would expand
coverage to newly hired State and local government workers, alter
the taxation of benefits, speed up the increase in retirement age
and index it to longevity (as in the IA proposal), and incorporate
adjustments made to the CPI.
Social Security has, for the most part, operated on a pay-as-yougo basis, with benefits coming from workers' current contributions
rather than from accumulated trust fund savings. Therefore moving to personal accounts to the extent provided for in the PSA plan
would require the handling of substantial transition costs. Today's
younger workers not only would have to support those already retired or nearing retirement, but would also have to contribute to
a savings account for themselves. The PSA plan spreads these costs
over 72 years, paying for them with a tax equal to 1.52 percent of
payroll during this period. Because a level tax rate is used to finance the transition, the plan is underfunded in the early years
and overfunded in the later years. This smoothing of the transition
costs requires that the trust funds borrow roughly $2 trillion in
1995 dollars from the Treasury between now and 2035, repaying
this debt with the proceeds of the 1.52 percent tax thereafter.
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Supporters of the PSA proposal claim three main advantages
over the others. First, their proposal would lead to greater national
saving and investment by fully funding in advance a major component of the Social Security system. Second, it would avoid the potential for politicizing the investment decisions that they believe
could arise with direct trust fund investment in equities. Third,
they believe that private accounts would increase confidence in the
system.
ISSUES FOR FURTHER STUDY
The Advisory Council's three proposals differ on a variety of dimensions and raise a host of issues that need to be considered.
These issues include:
• the social insurance that Social Security provides in addition
to retirement benefits
• the issue of defined benefits versus defined contributions
• the effect of Social Security on national saving
• the desirability of further changes in the normal retirement
age
• the rate of return on Social Security contributions (the "money's worth" issue), especially for younger workers
• the risks and benefits of investing a part of the Social Security
trust funds in equities
• the relative importance of other structural features of the Social Security system, and
• other considerations.
Social Insurance
Social Security plays an important role not only in providing retirement pensions but also in offering social insurance features
that are of great value to both individual households and the Nation. The design of the reforms will determine the extent to which
the system can continue to provide progressive benefits and other
social insurance components.
At the beginning of our careers none of us know whether we will
be financially successful or will have to struggle to make ends
meet, or whether we will die early and leave behind a family, or
become disabled, or live long into retirement. Social Security has
an important redistributive dimension, whereby those with low lifetime incomes receive higher returns on their contributions than
their higher paid counterparts. Social Security was intended to free
the elderly from poverty, and in that it has made great progress
(see Chapter 5). Social Security also offers protections against other
risks. For example, it provides income for disabled workers and
benefits to deceased workers' families. Public attitudes toward
maintaining these protections will play an important role in evaluating the Advisory Council's proposals and other options.
107
Defined Benefits Versus Defined Contributions
The current Social Security system is a defined-benefit plan,
whereby the insurer—in this case the government—guarantees a
benefit based on a prescribed formula. Under the MB proposal Social Security would continue to be a defined-benefit plan, but under
the IA plan, and to an even larger degree under the PSA plan, a
portion of Social Security would become a defined-contribution
plan. A defined-contribution plan is one in which the insurer prescribes periodic contributions, and the size of the benefit depends
on the size of the contributions and the returns they earn.
Proponents of a move toward a defined-contribution arrangement
cite several possible advantages. First, they assert individuals
would be more directly involved in the investment of their funds,
which may allow them to make investment choices that more closely match their preferences for risk and other investment features.
Second, they believe that by creating a more direct link between
contributions and benefits, defined-contribution plans may alleviate
some labor market distortions of the current system. Finally, proponents argue that giving workers ownership rights over their contributions reduces political uncertainty surrounding the future
level of benefits.
Critics of this approach claim that the primary result of a shift
toward defined-contribution plans would be to transfer risk from
the government to the individual. Payments under this system
would depend on the performance of the investments selected. Individuals might opt for all low-yielding investments and end up with
much less than anticipated, or load up with high-risk assets and
be forced to claim benefits at a market low. In addition, critics
claim that returns on contributions would be hurt by relatively
high administrative costs: the Advisory Council estimates that administrative costs for PSAs would be about 1 percent of invested
assets annually, as opposed to just 0.1 percent for the LA plan accounts and less than 0.01 percent for the MB plan. Some critics are
also concerned that, if participants are not required to annuitize
their withdrawals, some might underestimate the amount of money
they need over their retirement years and use the funds for other
purposes. Private annuities should help alleviate this problem, but
so far the market is underdeveloped, in part because of adverse selection problems (see Box 3-1 later in this chapter). Finally, one of
the major arguments cited in favor of defined-contribution plans in
the private sector is portability, but Social Security already follows
workers from employer to employer.
The Effect of Social Security on National Saving
When thinking about the impact of the Social Security system on
national saving, it is useful to consider three time periods: the system's startup phase, the current mature system, and the future.
108
The Startup. The Congress enacted the Social Security legislation
in 1935. Payroll taxes were first collected in 1937, and the first
monthly benefits were paid in 1940. In 1939 the Congress made a
series of decisions that slowed the buildup of reserves, and the system has operated mostly on a pay-as-you-go basis since then.
This meant that the first generation of retirees received benefits
far in excess of their tax payments. According to the life-cycle
model, whereby individuals or households plan to consume all their
income and wealth over their expected lifetimes, such an increment
to lifetime income would increase consumption and reduce saving.
That is, workers would perceive that they have received a wage increase in the form of a future annuity, and they would choose to
consume part of that increase in the present. To increase their current consumption, they would have to either reduce saving or increase borrowing. Lower personal saving, without any offsetting accumulation of reserves within the Social Security system, would be
expected to reduce national saving and leave future generations
with a lower capital stock than they otherwise would have had.
A great many other things were happening in the economy at the
same time Social Security was introduced; therefore isolating the
program's effect on national saving is a daunting task. This might
explain in part why a thorough review of the literature shows no
compelling evidence of a sharp decline in saving in the wake of the
introduction of Social Security. On the other hand, several plausible explanations are possible for the lack of any impact on saving.
The first is that Social Security may have changed retirement expectations at the same time that it increased lifetime income. That
is, before Social Security workers may have expected to work until
they died, but after Social Security was enacted retirement at age
65 became the norm. To the extent that Social Security encouraged
people to retire earlier, they may have chosen to save over a shorter working life for a longer retirement. This retirement effect would
have increased personal saving. Similarly, before Social Security
most elderly people lived with their children; after Social Security
they were in a position to maintain their own households. The increased demand for independent living in old age could also have
increased saving. Finally, many individuals save little or nothing
at all, with or without Social Security. The only way they could
have increased current consumption in response to the program's
introduction would have been through borrowing. But these same
individuals are likely to have had low or moderate incomes; as
such, they may have been unable to borrow enough to achieve their
ideal distribution of consumption over time. For such individuals,
the introduction of Social Security would have left savings unaffected, dampening the effect on aggregate saving.
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The Mature Pay-As-You-Go System. The existence of a mature
pay-as-you-go Social Security system is one of many factors influencing the national saving rate. The permanent effect of a pay-asyou-go system on saving is determined primarily by its initial impact on saving and the capital stock; that impact then tends to be
perpetuated through time. The permanent effect on the saving rate
is thus likely to be small if the initial effect was small; similarly,
the permanent effect is likely to be substantial if the initial effect
was large. In addition, there is no reason to believe that the effect—whatever its size—will be exacerbated over time. Of course,
it is still the case that a transition from a pay-as-you-go to a funded system could be expected to lead to some increase in the national saving rate and the capital stock.
The Future. Although the introduction of a pay-as-you-go Social
Security system may not have had a discernible effect on national
saving or the capital stock because of a variety of mitigating factors, moving toward a funded system could increase saving. This
increase would reflect the lowered consumption of workers in 1fae^
"transition generation," who pay the taxes to support benefits for
the elderly while also saving for their own retirement. Even though
the resulting increase in the saving rate is temporary, the higher
capital stock is permanent. Once the transition to a fully funded
system is complete, the saving rate is likely to drop back to near
its level before the shift.
Prior to the question of whether particular changes in the Social
Security system will increase national saving, however, is a more
basic question: is this the best way to raise saving, or should it be
done through other means—for example, through reductions in the
non-Social Security budget deficit? Even if it is determined that
changes to the Social Security system are the best way to boost national saving, that decision does not resolve the issue of how best
to structure the program. The effect on national saving results
from shifting Social Security further from a pay-as-you-go toward
a funded system. This can be done through the trust funds—net of
any offsetting effect on the non-Social Security portion of the Federal budget—or through individual accounts.
Raising the Retirement Age
Under current law, the normal retirement age is scheduled to increase in two steps from 65 to 67 years. It will rise gradually to
age 66 for workers who attain age 62 in 2005, remain at age 66
for 11 years, and then start rising again to 67 for workers who
reach 62 in 2022. Two of the Advisory Council's three proposals
would raise the normal retirement age to 67 more quickly than
scheduled under current law and then index it for increases in longevity thereafter.
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The rationale for this change is that, since life expectancy has increased, so should the length of the work life. As was noted earlier,
since Social Security was enacted in 1935, life expectancy at age 65
has increased by 3 years for men and 6 years for women. Moreover,
these life expectancies are projected to rise by a further 3 years for
both men and women by 2070. Proponents of a more rapid rise and
indexation of the normal retirement age argue that a portion of
these increases in longevity should be matched by additional years
in the workforce. Increasing the retirement age would ease the
pressure on Social Security financing by offsetting some of the increase in the elderly dependency ratio caused by the aging of the
population.
Opponents of raising the retirement age offer two main arguments. First, greater longevity has not so far been accompanied by
an increase in years worked; indeed, people are retiring earlier and
earlier. Therefore, we should wait to see how people accept the currently scheduled increase to age 67. Second, opponents are concerned that accelerating the change in the retirement age would
hurt those who are forced by poor health or lack of employment opportunities to retire before 65. The law already provides for an actuarial reduction in benefits of 20 percent for those who retire at
age 62; this reduction will rise gradually to 30 percent with the
scheduled increase in the normal retirement age to 67. Increasing
the retirement age beyond 67 would reduce the age-62 benefit further still.
Two key issues emerge here. The first is empirical: how many
people who retire at age 62 would find it a serious hardship to extend their work life? A preliminary analysis of early retirees shows
them falling into two groups. One consists of relatively prosperous
individuals with some wealth, who tend to be in good health. The
other is made up of less wealthy, less healthy individuals, some of
whom have irregular preretirement work histories. Raising the retirement age for the first group creates few problems; raising it for
the second may well produce hardship. The second issue, therefore,
is how to protect low-income individuals with no work possibilities.
Those who cannot work because of physical disability might be eligible for disability insurance. Of course, a shift of early retirees to
the disability insurance program would reduce the savings realized
from the higher normal retirement age. A variety of options are
possible, but any proposal to increase the retirement age should
consider those unable to work the additional years.
The Rate-of-Return Issue
All three of the Advisory Council's proposals rejected an increase
in current and future tax rates sufficient to establish long-term balance. In part this alternative was rejected because it would increase the costs of the program for current workers relative to the
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benefits that they will receive. Current workers already face the
prospect of making greater Social Security contributions relative to
their lifetime earnings than was required of workers in the past
without a fully compensating increase in their benefits. The consequent decline in the ratio of benefits to costs (commonly referred
to as the "money's worth" ratio) is primarily the consequence of the
maturation of a pay-as-you-go system. Workers retiring early in the
program's history had only a few years of wages subject to the Social Security payroll tax. Over time, new retirees had more and
more years of wages subject to taxation, and the additional tax
payments sharply reduced the rate of return. The situation is actually somewhat more complicated in that benefit levels were raised
several times over the period. Analytically, these increases in benefits can be seen as introducing new pay-as-you-go programs on top
of the old, temporarily boosting returns. But the essence of the
story is the maturation of a pay-as-you-go system.
In a mature pay-as-you-go system financed by a fixed tax rate on
wages, the rate of return on payroll tax contributions depends on
the rate of growth of aggregate real wages. Slower growth in aggregate real wage income, owing to slower population and productivity
growth, has reduced the return that can be obtained from a mature
pay-as-you-go system. Looking forward, with a constant or slowgrowing working-age population, the rate of growth of aggregate
wages will depend primarily on the rate of growth of productivity.
To address the problem of declining rates of return, all three
plans at least consider allowing individuals to have some of their
Social Security contributions invested in equities. Proponents of the
Maintenance of Benefits approach suggest further study and evaluation of having the Social Security trust funds invest directly in
equities. In the Individual Accounts proposal equity investments
would be done through newly created private accounts, and the assets would be held by the government. In the Personal Security Account proposal individuals could invest in equities through individually owned and privately managed accounts. Because equities on
average earn higher returns than other financial assets, proposals
that produce the largest equity holdings yield the highest projected
returns on Social Security contributions. Investment in equities
also raises concerns about risk, as noted in the discussion of defined-benefit versus defined-contribution plans above, and in the
following section.
Investing the Trust Fund in Equities
Proponents of the MB proposal suggest giving serious consideration to investing a share of the trust funds in equities. They argue
that such investments are necessary to increase the return on the
funds, which are currently invested entirely in Treasury securities.
Both private pension plans and many State and local systems in-
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vest a substantial portion of their assets in stocks. The Advisory
Council estimates that investing 40 percent of the trust funds in
equities could raise the ultimate projected return on trust fund assets from 2.3 percent to 4.2 percent. Proponents note that, if the
higher returns on equities over long holding periods that have prevailed in the past continue, the change in investment strategy
would extend the life of the trust funds, perhaps substantially.
Critics point out that investing a portion of the trust funds in equities would increase risk as well. Eight times in the last 70 years,
a broad index of equity returns has declined by more than 10 percent over 1 calendar year; on three occasions the drop over a year
or two was more than 35 percent. Such declines could cause anxiety among both retirees and those nearing retirement, undermine
public confidence in the system, and possibly even lead to pressure
to divest equities after a substantial drop. Proponents respond to
this concern by arguing that, at least based on historical experience, the Social Security system is in a good position to wait out
fluctuations in market value, particularly as the trust funds increase in size. Critics argue that the past may not be prelude and
just as the last 15 years have seen an eightfold increase in the
market, it is conceivable that the market could experience a dramatic multiyear decline. (For example, a broad index of Japanese
stock prices fell more than 50 percent during the 1990-92 period.)
Any proposal for equity investment must consider the consequences
when markets fall.
Another criticism of allowing the trust funds to invest in equities
is that such investments would primarily represent a reallocation
of assets between those held in the trust funds and those held—
either directly or indirectly—by households. It could improve the financial position of the trust funds, because of equities' historically
higher average returns, but for a given level of saving it would not
increase the returns for the Nation as a whole. Investing a portion
of the trust funds in equities would raise the price and lower the
return on equities, and lower the price and raise the return on
Treasury securities. Higher Treasury yields would raise Federal interest costs and, all else equal, the non-Social Security portion of
the deficit. No one can say with any certainty by how much interest rates on Treasuries would rise, and therefore what would be
the likely impact on the deficit. (It should be noted that the MB
plan incorporates other measures that do increase national saving;
as a result, the net effect of that plan on the interest rates paid
by the Treasury is ambiguous.) The analysis is complicated because
the initial effects on rates of return could be moderated as corporations restructured their finances to take advantage of cheaper equity financing, and as international buyers increased their purchases of now-higher-yielding Treasury securities. The size of these
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feedback effects is an important issue that would have to be explored in a thorough assessment of any equity investment proposal.
An additional set of issues involves the practical operation of the
trust funds. For example, critics claim that political interference in
investment decisions could hurt returns. Proponents argue, however, that this problem could be addressed by having the trust
funds hold a broad portfolio whose performance mimics an index of
the overall market. They suggest that an expert board could select,
through competitive bidding, one or more private sector managers
to achieve this end. An obvious concern, however, is that although
such an arrangement could be implemented as part of a reform
package, changes could be made later that would allow much political influence on investment policies. Another issue is how the government should vote the shares it holds. Proponents of the MB
plan suggest that once the portfolio shift was complete, the trust
funds' equity holdings would still be less than 5 percent of the market, but such projections are uncertain, and the actual share could
well be higher. In any case, advocates of equity investments contend that so long as legislation provided that government shares
were either not voted, or voted in the same pattern as other common shareholders, government ownership could be structured so as
to not affect private control. Critics respond that, because this policy could be changed in the future, government-owned shares could
allow the government to influence firms regardless of the protections in existing law. It is clear that the administrative aspects of
investing in equities would require solving some tough problems.
Investing a portion of the Social Security trust funds in equities
would be a dramatic departure from current procedure. All the considerations discussed above demonstrate that such a proposal
would require careful scrutiny.
Structural Issues
Although the Advisory Council focused most of its attention on
the financing aspects of the Social Security system, it recognized
that the structure of the program also raises some equity and efficiency issues.
Household Composition. Under current law, Social Security benefits for spouses are equal to either the amount that they could receive on their own, or 50 percent of the benefits of the primary
earner, whichever is greater. When the primary earner dies, the
surviving spouse receives 100 percent of the primary earner's benefit. Married couples with a single earner do better under this system than unmarried single earners or two-earner married couples
with similar earnings. The spouse's benefit was introduced at a
time when most wives stayed home and cared for children; today,
however, married couples in which both husband and wife work
make up the majority of families. The Advisory Council's LA and
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PSA proposals include reductions in benefits for nonworking
spouses and increases in survivors' benefits when one member of
a couple dies.
Effect on Labor Supply. As already noted, some Advisory Council
proposals would increase the retirement age, but in general, issues
of labor supply were not a focus. Social Security is thought to have
little effect on the labor supply of younger workers for two reasons.
First, although economists profess a range of views, most believe
that labor supply generally is not very sensitive to changes in
after-tax wages. Thus, to the extent that Social Security is viewed
as a tax, the substitution effect, by which the lower after-tax wage
discourages work in favor of leisure, is roughly offset by the income
effect, whereby lower after-tax wages require individuals to work
more to maintain their consumption. Second, to the extent that individuals view their Social Security taxes as a form of forced saving, those taxes exert even less of the modest disincentive effects
usually associated with a tax.
It is possible that Social Security, in combination with private
pensions and nonpension wealth, encourages retirement at age 62,
the age of first eligibility. Economists remain divided, however,
concerning the size of this effect. Most previous research has found
little evidence to suggest that even substantial changes in the
structure of Social Security would have much effect on the average
retirement age as long as benefits continued to be available at age
62. Critics of this research argue, however, that it is difficult to
capture the impact of large benefit changes with existing models.
They also cite the increased generosity of Social Security benefits
and the expansion of private pension benefits as a major reason for
the shift toward age-62 retirement.
One Social Security provision that formerly provided an incentive
to withdraw from the labor force was the sharp decline in the lifetime value of benefits for those who retire after age 65 as compared
with the lifetime value for those retiring at age 65 or earlier. Although benefits have long been fully actuarially reduced for retirement before age 65, until 1983 no parallel provision was made for
retirement after 65. The 1983 amendments will eventually raise
the delayed retirement credit to a full actuarial adjustment of 8
percent a year for each year benefits are postponed after age 65;
that credit will be phased in completely by 2008. Although the increase in the credit will increase the system's costs somewhat, it
will remove a disincentive for postponing retirement beyond 65.
Other Considerations
The economic analysis presented earlier makes it clear that the
impact of the Advisory Council's three proposals on national saving
depends primarily on how benefits and contributions are changed.
That is, the impact depends on how far the proposal would move
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Social Security from a pay-as-you-go toward a funded system.
Whether the accumulated reserves are held by Social Security trust
funds or by individuals should, according to economic theory, have
little impact on overall national saving. Therefore, the economics
alone cannot explain why proponents of the various positions argue
their cases so vehemently. Although the Economic Report of the
President generally focuses on the economic aspects of issues, in
this case some additional considerations raised in the Advisory
Council's report need to be noted in order to understand the debate.
Proponents of individual accounts argue that economics is only
half the story. They contend that "The IA plan provides...new saving and the MB plan does not." Since the MB plan does boost funding, this argument must be based on the assumption that either
the public is unwilling to see large surpluses build up in the public
sector or, if such surpluses emerge, they would be used to cover
deficits in the rest of the budget. This has occurred since 1983, and
IA supporters may view it as likely to continue in the future.
Therefore, they conclude, the only way to increase national saving
is to fund retirement saving through individual accounts.
Supporters of the PSA proposal also contend that investing the
Social Security trust funds in equities would be harmful to the
economy: "We believe that with the accumulation of such vast equity holdings...the pressures to use the funds for socially or politically 'desirable goals' would be tremendous, putting at risk not only
workers' taxes and retirees' benefits, but also the allocation of capital in the economy."
Proponents of the MB proposal put much less weight on these arguments and instead focus on what they see as the dangers of moving toward individual accounts. First, in addition to the economic
arguments advanced above, they foresee a good chance that funds
in the IA and PSA accounts will not be held until retirement: "If
the money is seen as belonging to the individual as it builds up
during the worker's career, he or she will feel aggrieved if access
to the funds is denied." They believe that "[Exceptions will undoubtedly be sanctioned, and in many cases the individual's PSA
funds will have been reduced or exhausted before retirement, with
the individual left to rely on the low-level flat benefit." Second,
they contend that even the more modest IA proposal contains the
"seeds of dissolution": M...[A]s the plan developed over time, with
beneficiaries doing less and less well under the reduced Social Security plan compared to individual accounts (at least those of the
more successful investors), there would be every reason for many
average and above-average earners, particularly, to press for further reductions in contributions to Social Security in order to make
more available for their individual accounts. Thus, the IA plan is
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inherently unstable, and could lead to the unraveling of the redistributional provisions that are so integral to Social Security and so
crucial to its effectiveness."
Whatever weight one assigns to these political economy considerations, they help explain the strength of feeling about the future
direction of Social Security.
CONCLUSION
Social Security retirement and disability benefits now equal 4.7
percent of GDP. According to the intermediate assumptions in the
1996 Trustees' report, outlays will amount to 6.6 percent of GDP
in 2070. Although this is a substantial increase, it can be explained
entirely by the growth in the elderly as a share of the total population. With no changes to current law, the Social Security system
will be able to meet all of its obligations well into the next century,
and a large portion of those obligations indefinitely. Nonetheless,
the Social Security program is running a deficit over a 75-year projection period and faces a permanent imbalance thereafter. These
long-term challenges to Social Security need to be addressed in a
bipartisan manner, as was done in 1983. A variety of approaches
should be considered, but any possible changes must also ensure
that the benefits of reduced poverty and increased economic security for the aged and disabled are not put at risk.
MEDICARE
Medicare is the largest public health program in the United
States. It covers virtually all Americans age 65 and older and most
recipients of Social Security disability benefits. Since its enactment
in 1965 it has contributed substantially to the health and wellbeing of older and disabled Americans. Medicare operates with relatively low administrative costs and enjoys widespread public support. Today, however, Medicare faces serious financing problems
and continues to have important gaps in coverage. This Administration has taken significant first steps to address Medicare's
short-term financing and has proposed additional reforms to
strengthen Medicare's trust fund to 2007. This will provide more
than enough time to establish a bipartisan process to develop additional reforms to guarantee the strength of the program for future
generations.
Medicare presents a much greater challenge than Social Security, both in the magnitude of the projected deficits and in the complexity of the issues. Unlike with Social Security, reform involves
not simply selecting among a list of plausible options, but rather
figuring out how to control long-run costs and ensure the efficient
117
delivery of quality care in one component of a very complicated
health care system.
Medicare is composed of two parts. Part A (hospital insurance)
covers inpatient hospital services, care at skilled nursing facilities,
home health care, and hospice care. Part B covers primarily physician and outpatient hospital services. Part A is financed by a 2.9
percent payroll tax, shared equally by employers and employees.
Like their Social Security counterparts, the Medicare Trustees
project the status of the hospital insurance trust fund over a 75year period. These projections are highly uncertain given the time
horizon and the difficulty in estimating future medical costs. Nevertheless, they constitute the best available estimate of the status
of the Part A portion of Medicare. The projected 75-year deficit in
Part A is more than twice the Social Security deficit in absolute
terms, and many times larger relative to the size of the program.
As a fraction of GDP, Part A expenditures are projected to triple
over the next 75 years, from 1.7 percent in 1996 to about 5 percent
in 2070.
Medicare Part A is also facing a pressing short-term problem. If
no action is taken, the Part A trust fund is projected to be exhausted by 2001, and the gap between revenues and benefit payments widens very rapidly thereafter. Medicare reforms proposed
by this Administration would extend the life of the Part A trust
fund well into the next decade. Enacting these reforms is an absolutely necessary first step, but none of the current proposals completely solves the long-run problem.
Medicare Part B is financed primarily from general revenues and
enrollee premiums. In 1996, premiums contributed about 25 percent of Part B income, with most of the remainder from general
revenues. Although spending from this fund has grown rapidly, insolvency is not an issue, since general revenues are required to
cover any shortfalls. However, the growth in Part B spending increases Federal expenditures and contributes directly to the unified
deficit.
Reforming Medicare will require slowing the growth in health
care prices and utilization. Since either Medicare or private insurance pays for most health care expenditures for the elderly, individuals have little incentive to seek out the most cost-effective delivery of medical care. Moreover, fee-for-service payment still dominates the Medicare market. Approximately 90 percent of Medicare
beneficiaries have fee-for-service care, compared with fewer than 30
percent of the nonelderly. Hence, some Medicare providers may
have an incentive to supply costly services that offer uncertain
medical benefits. This potential misalignment of incentives is reinforced by the fact that the relative effectiveness of alternative
118
treatments is often poorly understood, and consumers generally
rely on providers' recommendations.
For the nonelderly, any tendency toward overuse of medical services is increasingly kept in check by employers and their insurers.
The dramatic movement toward managed care (discussed below)
reflects determined efforts to ensure that health care is delivered
in a cost-effective manner. Some working individuals may also
have incentives to keep costs down because they face substantial
out-of-pocket payments. These incentives may be muted for retirees, who frequently have virtually complete insurance coverage on
a fee-for-service basis for an array of services.
In short, incentive issues are likely to be more important for
Medicare than for Social Security. Any changes in incentives, however, must recognize the system's important advantages, such as
the wide array of choices available to beneficiaries and their ability
to continue longstanding relationships with physicians and other
providers.
Moreover, altering incentives is not a call to reduce benefits. Discussions of Medicare are often framed as if the program were excessively generous and the problem one of cutting back. In fact,
Medicare's coverage is less comprehensive in some ways than much
private sector insurance. For example, Medicare does not cover prescription drugs and provides only very limited mental health benefits. Nor does Medicare place an upper bound on cost-sharing responsibilities for hospital stays, skilled nursing care, or physician
services. As a result, participants who have long and complicated
illnesses and lack insurance (called medigap insurance) to cover
what Medicare does not may incur tens of thousands of dollars of
out-of-pocket expenses. Thus, the challenge is not only to control
the costs of the benefits currently provided by Medicare, but also
to create some room for improvement in the benefit package.
SOURCES OF THE FINANCING PROBLEMS
The easiest way to understand the nature of Medicare's financing
problems is to contrast Social Security with Medicare. Both programs provide a defined benefit—the one cash, the other insurance
for a package of medical services—to roughly the same population:
the aged and disabled. In recent years the Congress has not
changed significantly either the population covered or the benefits
provided under either program. (The 1988 Medicare Catastrophic
Coverage Act added a drug benefit, limits on out-of-pocket expenditures, and an income-related premium to the program, but those
provisions were repealed shortly after enactment.) Yet whereas Social Security is expected to remain solvent for more than 30 years
and faces a relatively modest 75-year deficit, Medicare's hospital
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insurance trust fund, as already noted, is projected to be exhausted
in 2001 and to deteriorate rapidly thereafter, if no action is taken.
This very different outlook can be explained by two factors. First,
whereas the cost of Social Security is precisely defined by the benefit provided, the cost of Medicare's bundle of health services depends on health care prices in the economy at large and the volume
and intensity of services used by Medicare beneficiaries. Thus, even
though the types of services reimbursed by Medicare have remained substantially unchanged, outlays have soared, as overall
health care costs per capita (not just those paid for by the government) have risen at twice the rate of inflation. Second, as a result
of these accelerating costs, Medicare financing has been aimed at
staving off short-term insolvencies; Social Security, in contrast, was
put in projected long-run actuarial balance in 1983. As a result, Social Security tax rates were set taking into account the upcoming
retirement of the baby-boomers, while Medicare's Part A tax rates
were set only to cover short-range outlays, and no prefinancing is
provided for Medicare Part B. The result is that the demographic
shifts looming after the turn of the century, when the baby-boom
generation retires, have a much more profound impact on the longrun outlook for Medicare than for Social Security.
For most of Medicare's history, the increase in outlays per capita
reflected the general rise in health care prices and a general increase in the volume and intensity of health services, rather than
a particular problem with Medicare. As Chart 3-5 shows, Medicare
and private health insurance costs per enrollee have tracked each
other closely since the early 1970s, despite considerable year-toyear fluctuations. On a per-beneficiary basis, Medicare's average
annual growth rate was actually lower than that of the private
health insurance market between 1969 and 1994 (10.9 percent versus 12.2 percent).
For the last few years, however, health spending per capita in
the private sector has slowed. One reason is rapidly increasing enrollments in managed care plans, but the slowdown is not limited
to these plans. The growth of expenditures in private fee-for-service
plans has also declined, as these providers have responded to the
greater competition from the managed care segment of the market.
Medicare spending has not slowed commensurately, in part because the current system for setting managed care payments probably raises rather than lowers program costs. Program costs have
also been pulled up by rapid growth in services such as home
health care that private insurance often does not cover.
Two other factors complicate Medicare reform. First, more players are involved than with Social Security. Social Security has two
main stakeholders: taxpayers and current beneficiaries. Besides
these two groups, Medicare must deal with health care providers—
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Chart 3-5 Growth in Per-Enrollee Costs of Health Care
Since the early 1970s, health care costs per enrollee have generally risen at similar rates
for Medicare beneficiares and persons with private health insurance plans.
Percent change in costs
25
20
15
"
.
.
.
Private health insurance enrollees
10
Medicare enrollees
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
Source: Department of HeeJft and Humw Services.
doctors and hospitals—and, to some extent, the private insurance
industry. More players mean more decisionmakers and more sets
of incentives and disincentives to consider.
Second, adverse selection plays a far more important role in the
Medicare program than it does in Social Security (Box 3-1). For
any structure of premiums, insurers have a strong incentive to
cherry-pick the healthiest individuals. Healthy beneficiaries also
have an incentive to opt for low-cost programs, since they pay a low
price and still get all the health care they need. Although government can reduce adverse selection through risk-adjustment mechanisms, which peg the payment made by the government to the
health status of the individual, risk adjustment is currently, and
is likely to remain, very imperfect. Any proposed reform, therefore,
must limit the extent to which insurers can cherry-pick and to
which individuals can select health plans based on their health status.
SHORT-TERM OPTIONS
As explained above, until recently Medicare's short-run problems
were caused mostly by the same factors that were increasing
health expenditures in the private sector. The long-run problem,
discussed in the next section, is driven both by the projected continuing rise in expenditures per capita and by demographic factors
121
S-l.—The Problem of Adverse Selection
Adverse selection is a potentially serious problem for many
types of insurance markets. It commonly occurs when the purchasers of insurance have more information about their risks
than do insurance companies* Those who expect to incur losses
are more likely to buy insurance than those who do not. This
raises average expenses per beneficiary and forces insurance
companies to raise premiums. Higher premiums discourage
persons with lower risks from buying insurance. A cycle of increasing insurance pmmiums and decreasing participation
could ultimately make the insurance unavailable. This is one
justification for public provision of some types of insurance.
Adverse selection problems $re likely to be particularly severe for health insurance^ and there they may take several
forms. When employers offer a number of different insurance
plans, healthier workers are likely to choose less generous
plans than workers who expect to require more health care.
Similarly, if public health insurance programs such as Medicare offer more than one type of coverage, with rebates going
to those choosing lower cost plans, sicker individuals (or households) will probably choose policies with more comprehensive
coverage, whereas those with lower anticipated risks are likely
to select less generous plans. As a result, those with higher
risks will incur higher costs or may lose coverage altogether.
Conversely, if the total premium expense is the same for all
types of insurance, plans will have strong incentives to seek
out those individuals expected to have relatively low health expenditures. Plans that are less able to select beneficiaries with
low expected costs are then likely to be left with those with
high average expenses. Adverse selection may also occur over
time. For instance, individuals may select a relatively low cost
insurance plan with limited coverage when they are healthy,
but then to switch into a more comprehensive plan when they
get sick.
Adverse selection can be eliminated if all individuals are
placed into a common insurance pool. However, doing so reduces or eliminates choice and, under some circumstances, may
reduce incentives for plans to operate efficiently. Alternatively,
the problem could be avoided by risk-adjustment mechanisms
that take into account all differences 1151 risk that are known by
the individual. However, mechanisms with the required degree
of precision do not currently exist and are likely to be extremely difficult to develop.
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that will increase the number of beneficiaries. When the demographics kick in, a broad array of options, including changes in eligibility and benefit design, are likely to be considered in a bipartisan context to resolve the program's financing problems. Short-run
changes are required immediately, however, to extend the solvency
of the hospital insurance trust fund. These changes, which are likely to focus mainly on reimbursement rates and policies, will also
help balance the Federal budget. The Administration proposed a
set of reforms along these lines last year and has submitted similar
reform proposals in its current budget.
Controlling Provider Payments
Medicare's major tool for controlling short-run costs is adjusting
payments to providers. Indeed, this represents the primary source
of Medicare savings in the 1980s and 1990s. The two important
payment innovations during this period were the prospective payment system for inpatient hospital care and the relative value scale
for physician services. The prospective payment system substantially altered the incentives of hospitals by providing a fixed payment for an entire episode of care. Since hospitals no longer received additional revenue for additional services, they had a strong
incentive to limit lengths of stay and unnecessary procedures. The
reform in physician payments based on relative value scales tied
physician payments to a schedule, which placed additional limits
on the amount they could charge.
These innovations have helped control inpatient costs and physician prices, but they have not succeeded in curbing total Medicare
spending, because they have little effect on the volume and intensity of certain services and because the types of services provided
change rapidly. Also, spending on the portions of the Medicare program not yet subject to reform—outpatient services, skilled nursing
facilities, and home health care—has risen at a rapid pace. Several
factors may explain this outcome. First, many of these services,
particularly home health care, differ from traditional medical services in ways that may make demand for them more sensitive to
price and raise uncertainty regarding the medically appropriate
level of care. Moreover, the supply of home health care providers
is virtually limitless given that they do not require extensive training as do doctors and other medical personnel. Second, improvements in technology have made it easier to substitute outpatient
care for hospitalization. Finally, spending controls on physician and
inpatient hospital services create incentives for providers to substitute other types of services in order to maintain their incomes.
As noted above, most previous efforts to hold down price increases have been aimed at inpatient hospital care and physician
services. Partly as a result, these are now the two slowest-growing
components of Medicare. Some additional savings are achievable in
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these areas, but squeezing down on prices has its limits. If prices
become too low, physicians and hospitals might eventually become
less willing to accept Medicare patients. Moreover, as already
noted, it is hard to curb expenditures by focusing on prices alone.
For example, the introduction of the Medicare fee schedule in 1992
placed additional limits on the reimbursements physicians could receive for services to Medicare beneficiaries. Yet until the last year
or so Part B spending continued to increase markedly, in part because of higher volumes and new technologies.
The limit to how much Medicare can save by controlling payments to hospitals and physicians is likely to be determined by
what happens in the private sector. Historically, Medicare payment-to-cost ratios have been well below those of private payers.
However, as employers have turned to managed care in order to
constrain costs, this gap has narrowed considerably: between 1991
and 1994, the private insurer-Medicare differential for hospitals fell
from 48 percent to 28 percent. The reduction in the gap between
public and private sector payments makes providing care to Medicare beneficiaries relatively more attractive than in the past. On
the other hand, even if Medicare were able to hold down fees, total
expenditures could rise if the volume of services provided increased. Moreover, if Medicare remains the primary insurer of feefor-service care, cost containment efforts in the private sector may
tempt providers to supply extra services to Medicare enrollees in
order to maintain their incomes.
Expanding Prospective Payment—Getting Providers to
Control Costs
Medicare has paid for inpatient hospital care on a prospective
basis since 1983. Acute care hospitals receive a fixed fee for most
inpatient episodes, regardless of how long the patient stays or how
many services are performed. The fixed payment encourages hospitals to control the costs of treatment and has been credited with
reducing Medicare inpatient costs. Despite concerns that prospective payment might lead to too little treatment, evidence suggests
that hospitals have not compromised quality in their efforts to reduce costs. However, the prospective payment system may encourage hospitals to transfer patients quickly out of the acute care hospital and into a skilled nursing facility or long-term care hospital,
which continue to be paid on a fee-for-service basis. This incentive
could be contributing to the high growth rates of Medicare spending in these areas.
Some have suggested bundling more services together as a method of combating these perverse incentives and controlling costs. In
general, the broader the set of services in the bundle, the stronger
the incentive to reduce costs and the greater the scope for trading
off treatment alternatives in a cost-effective manner. Some ana-
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lysts advocate, for example, incorporating services for care following hospitalization into the fixed amount provided under the prospective payment system. Hospitals would be paid a fee for both
the hospital stay and for all related medical services for a limited
period of time thereafter. This might lower costs by preventing premature discharges that move patients from prospective payment
hospitals into fee-for-service facilities. Bundling acute and
postacute care, however, raises a number of challenges. For instance, it may be more difficult to set the reimbursement rate appropriately when a more diverse set of services is covered. Also, the
need for postacute care may depend on factors beyond the hospital's control, such as the quality of care available at home, and
this may place some hospitals at financial risk, unless appropriate
adjustments can be made in the payment rate.
An alternative to bundling is to extend some type of prospective
payment to those areas of Medicare where costs are increasing
most rapidly. As already discussed, prospective payment reduces or
removes the financial incentive for providers to supply additional
services, and so may reduce costs. The Administration has proposed significantly expanding the use of prospective payment for
Medicare services. New long-term care hospitals (defined as those
with average stays of more than 25 days), which are currently paid
on a fee-for-service basis, would become subject to the hospital prospective payment system. Skilled nursing facilities would also be
moved quickly to prospective payment. Similarly, a prospective
payment system would be established for home health services, one
of the fastest growing areas of Medicare expenditure. Finally, a
prospective payment system for hospital outpatient services is proposed, with implementation around the turn of the century. One
challenge associated with reimbursing these services prospectively
is that the episode of care, on which the fixed payment is based,
may be harder to define than for hospital visits.
Improving Medicare Managed Care
The dominant form of Medicare managed care is the health
maintenance organization (HMO), which receives a fixed payment
for each covered beneficiary. The government's payment to a Medicare HMO is 95 percent of fee-for-service Medicare spending per
capita in the same county, adjusted for a limited number of risk
factors. Only about 10 percent of Medicare beneficiaries are enrolled in managed care plans, compared with 74 percent of workers
in large companies, and the evidence suggests that those Medicare
beneficiaries who do switch to managed care probably cost, rather
than save, the program money. Part of the reason is flaws in the
reimbursement formula, which exacerbate the problem of adverse
selection, and part relates to the inherent difficulty of preventing
adverse selection.
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HMOs tend to enroll relatively healthy people at low risk of requiring expensive care (Chart 3-6). The payment made to HMOs
for Medicare patients should reflect the lower costs associated with
serving this relatively healthy population. To the extent it does not,
Medicare payments may be higher than if the patients were in feefor-service plans. Previous health history is a good indicator of future health expenditures, and one study indicates that the medical
expenses of seniors shifting into HMOs were 25 to 30 percent lower
than those of the average Medicare enrollee in the year or so immediately prior to their enrollment in the plan. Another analysis
estimates that the introduction of managed care has increased
Medicare costs by 7 percent per HMO beneficiary.
Chart 3-6 Self-Described Health Status of Medicare Enrollees
Medicare beneficiaries in managed care plans typically report better health
than those in the traditional fee-for-service program.
Percent of enrollees
60
Excellent/Very Good
Good
Fair/Poor
Fee-for-service Q Managed care
Source: Department of Health and Human Services.
The selection problem is exacerbated by two additional factors.
First, if healthier individuals migrate into managed care, average
costs in the fee-for-service sector will rise. Since the reimbursement
rate for managed care is based upon fee-for-service costs, this will
drive up the HMO per capita payment. Second, HMOs have an incentive to offer coverage in counties with high reimbursement rates
and to avoid counties in which the per capita payment is low. The
current reimbursement formula results in payments that are almost four times larger in some counties than in others. By con-
126
trast, local input prices (labor and supply costs) vary by only a factor of two.
HMOs' incentives to cut costs may be limited somewhat because
they are not allowed to earn higher profit margins on plans covering Medicare beneficiaries than on those for their private sector enrollees. In cases where the allowed per capita payment would generate a higher rate of profit, the HMO has the option of providing
coverage not normally included in Medicare, such as for prescription drugs, or waiving some or all of the premium that it could otherwise charge. Thus, profit margins will not directly increase if
HMOs develop or implement more cost-effective methods of providing care for Medicare beneficiaries. However, total profits may increase because of larger numbers of plan participants or economies
of scale that raise profits on private sector enrollees.
To address selection bias, the Administration has proposed reducing the size of local variations in per capita payments, testing
new risk-adjustment methodologies aimed at linking reimbursements more closely to predicted expenses, and making the reimbursement formula less generous. The use of more-uniform payment rates should lessen the tendency of HMOs to locate mainly
in high-cost areas. But the likelihood of identifying risk-adjustment
mechanisms accurate enough to eliminate the remaining selection
bias is poor. The best currently available risk-adjustment mechanisms are likely to account for only a fraction of the variation in
annual health care spending that individuals or insurers can anticipate. A less generous reimbursement formula further recognizes
and attempts to take account of the remaining tendency of HMOs
to enroll relatively health people.
To provide better incentives for cost reduction, the Administration has proposed some experimentation with competitive price setting and with the creation of partial payments, whereby plans
would be paid on a fee-for-service basis but would also share in any
cost savings achieved beyond some minimum threshold. The Administration has also proposed to broaden the range of managed
care plans available to Medicare beneficiaries by adding options for
coverage by preferred provider organizations, provider service networks, and for expanded availability of point-of-service plans, all of
which are increasingly popular in the private sector. The goal in offering these new plans is both to expand the choices available to
beneficiaries and to encourage plans to compete on the basis of
quality of care rather than risk selection.
Increasing Part B Premiums
When Medicare was enacted, Medicare enrollees were required to
pay a premium equal to 50 percent of the costs of Part B. The costs
of physician services rose so quickly, however, that legislation in
1972 limited premium increases to inflation. As Medicare costs
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soared, the premium dropped rapidly to 25 percent, and would
have fallen further had legislation not been enacted to maintain
this level. Most Medicare beneficiaries also pay a premium for their
supplemental medigap policies. These premiums plus copayments
and deductibles bring total out-of-pocket expenses to about 20 percent of family income for the typical elderly household and cover
about 40 percent of their total costs of medical care. Proposals to
increase Part B premiums have included both across-the-board increases and income-related options.
Shifting the Financing of Home Health Care
Since 1981 home health care has been financed under Medicare
Part A. The rapidly increasing expenditures for these services are
therefore contributing to the deteriorating financial condition of the
hospital insurance (Part A) trust fund. The Administration proposes to continue reimbursing under Part A the first 100 visits following a hospital stay of 3 days or more, but shift the payment for
all other home health care services to Part B. This change is consistent with the notion that Part A should be dedicated to hospitalrelated services, and Part B to expenditures for ambulatory care.
Although this shift would not reduce total Medicare spending, it
would extend the life of the hospital insurance trust fund, without
excessive reductions in payments for hospitals, physicians, or other
providers, and would restore the apportionment of home health
care payments between Part A and Part B to that existing in law
before 1980. It would not affect the Part B premium.
Global Budget Caps and Medical Savings Accounts
Two options sometimes considered for reforming Medicare are
global budget caps and medical savings accounts (MSAs). In a global target system, the budget cap would limit total Medicare spending per enrollee at a congressionally mandated amount. Typically,
separate spending targets would be established for HMO and feefor-service Medicare expenditures. Projected spending (for example,
in the fee-for-service category) would then be calculated by using
estimated services and allowable prices. If total spending exceeded
the sector target, prices for all services in the sector would be reduced proportionately to achieve the target level of spending.
MSAs combine a high-deductible insurance policy with a tax-advantaged savings account to cover expenditures below the deductible. A fixed dollar amount would be allocated to each beneficiary,
out of which Medicare would then pay the premium for the highdeductible insurance policy and deposit any remaining funds into
the beneficiary's savings account. Withdrawals from this account
could be made for qualified medical expenses on a tax-free basis—
or for other types of consumption as taxable income. Since individuals covered by MSAs would be responsible for all medical ex-
128
penses up to the deductible, MSA proponents say they would have
incentives to avoid care in circumstances where the costs exceed
the benefits.
Global targets, and MSAs have some attraction, but both also
have potentially serious problems. In particular, unless risk-adjustment methodologies become much more sophisticated, selection
bias could create grave difficulties under either approach, especially (for the former) if a separate budget cap were established for
fee-for-service and managed care plans. If relatively healthy persons enrolled in managed care in disproportionate numbers, and
the risk-adjustment methods failed to capture fully the differences
in expected costs, fee-for-service spending per capita would rise relative to that in managed care. The fee-for-service budget cap would
likely be reached, leading to relatively large reductions in prices.
Pressure on providers would be likely to lead to lower quality of
service and would encourage more beneficiaries to enroll in managed care. This process could continue in a vicious cycle, until only
the sickest individuals remained in the traditional Medicare program, and the allotted prices might then be far too low to address
their medical needs. The end result could be, in effect, more limited
choice for most individuals and, if prices were too low, queuing for
some types of medical care, as some providers became less willing
to provide services to Medicare enrollees.
MSAs have a similar problem. Relatively healthy individuals
may have a strong incentive to opt for the MSA, since payments
into their savings accounts would exceed their expected medical
costs. This would leave the less healthy in the fee-for-service part
of Medicare, raising costs there. Higher costs might encourage further shifts to MSAs and could set up a dynamic similar to that created by the global caps. In addition, individuals in MSAs who fell
ill might want to switch back into the fee-for-service program.
Thus, Medicare would be likely to pay higher costs for the healthy
individuals who accept the MSA option than it would if they stayed
in fee-for-service, but the program would still have to pay the high
expenses of sicker individuals. For example, in 1996 the Congressional Budget Office projected that one Medicare MSA proposal
would have increased Medicare spending by $5 billion over 7 years.
LONG-RUN OPTIONS
Incremental changes in Medicare such as those outlined earlier
can provide substantial budget savings in the short term, create incentives for more efficient delivery of health care, and extend the
life of the hospital insurance trust fund. Nonetheless, in the long
run, the combination of demographic developments and continued
cost pressures resulting from improvements in medical technology
and increased volume of services will require additional reforms.
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The President has proposed policies to address Medicare's shortterm financing and has called for a bipartisan process to develop
solutions for Medicare's long-run challenges.
The remainder of this section briefly reviews some of the approaches that analysts outside this Administration have proposed
to improve the long-term financing of Medicare. None of them is a
magic bullet; claims of spectacular benefit from any single approach should be viewed with skepticism. Some combination of
policies is likely to be needed to meet the long-run challenges. All
raise issues that must be examined and resolved in a bipartisan
fashion.
Increasing the Age of Eligibility
Some have suggested raising the age of first eligibility for Medicare in order to reduce the number of beneficiaries and cut expenses. Retirees are now eligible for Medicare benefits at age 65;
some have suggested raising this to 67 to reflect the scheduled increase in Social Security's normal retirement age. As with Social
Security, this is likely to pose few problems for those persons who
retire early because they have considerable wealth, good pensions,
and retiree health insurance from their former employers. Others,
however, have low incomes, poor job prospects, and poor health.
Denying health care coverage to this latter group could produce
considerable hardship, because some elderly people may not have
access to any protection other than Medicare. Unless other measures were taken in tandem, raising the eligibility age would probably increase the number of uninsured, and at least some of those
losing coverage would be likely to have high medical costs. To reduce these problems, persons retiring before the age of 67 would
have to be guaranteed some way of getting health insurance. One
possibility would be to extend existing continuation-of-coverage provisions, whereby individuals who leave jobs are able to purchase
group health insurance through their previous employer for a limited period. This could allow persons retiring at age 62 or later to
maintain continuous coverage until they become eligible for Medicare. However, since individuals using this option would pay the
full coverage premium plus a small administrative charge, the
costs of obtaining health insurance might be quite high. Employer
health expenses would also rise if older and less healthy individuals were added to the insurance pool.
Alternatively, some have suggested that Social Security beneficiaries between the ages of 62 and 67 could be allowed to buy
Medicare coverage at unsubsidized rates. Although this would improve access to insurance, Medicare might still lose money on these
beneficiaries, since persons in poor health would have particularly
strong incentives to enroll. Some provision would also have to be
made to reduce the burden on low-income individuals, probably
130
through Medicaid, which might reduce the financial savings and introduce other complexities.
Increasing Cost Sharing
The annual Medicare deductible for physician services is $100,
whereas that for inpatient hospital care is $736. The former is relatively low by historical and private sector standards, but the latter is relatively high, especially when combined with substantial
copayments for lengthy hospital stays. Home health care coverage
has no deductibles or copayments of any kind. This means that
Medicare has very high cost sharing on those services where inappropriate use is unlikely—namely, inpatient hospital services—and
very low cost sharing where individuals have a lot of discretion—
namely, physician visits and home health care. Since one goal of
cost sharing is to give individuals the incentive to use services
carefully, the current structure might at first glance seem in need
of immediate reform.
The difficulty is that Medicare does not operate in isolation. Approximately three-quarters of senior citizens have some type of
medigap coverage, either provided by their former or current employer or purchased directly. Medigap insurance pays for some or
all of the cost-sharing requirements of Medicare and often covers
services not included in Medicare, such as prescription drugs or
preventive care. In addition, some 13 percent of enrollees with low
incomes have secondary coverage through Medicaid. For those individuals with the lowest incomes, Medicaid covers all Medicare copayments and deductibles, as well as the entire Part B premium.
Those with slightly higher incomes can also have their Part B premiums paid through Medicaid but are responsible for the other
types of cost sharing.
Since so many beneficiaries have secondary sources of insurance,
changes in Medicare cost-sharing arrangements may be unlikely to
reduce total medical expenditures unless accompanied by changes
in the structure of the supplemental coverage. The most likely effect would be merely to shift some of the expense away from the
Federal Government and onto individuals (in the form of higher
medigap insurance premiums) or State governments (in the form of
higher Medicaid expenses).
Secondary Insurance Reform
Because medigap policies and Medicaid provide first-dollar coverage for most services, they shield individuals from the incentive
effects of cost sharing. When individuals are not responsible for
any of the costs, they tend to consume more health care and incur
higher expenses. Thus, medigap policies and Medicaid coverage are
likely to raise Medicare costs.
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Several reforms have been suggested to avoid the problems associated with current medigap policies. One possibility would be to
require any medigap policy to cover Medicare's basic package as
well as any supplemental coverage. The insurance company would
receive a payment from Medicare equal to the expected costs of the
basic package and would bear any additional cost caused by incentives for overuse. This approach is quite similar to that currently
used in Medicare's managed care plans, which frequently combine
Part A and Part B coverage with additional insurance, and is fully
consistent with efforts to increase the use of managed care arrangements. However, adverse selection may again be a problem
since the health plans would have incentives to cherry-pick the
healthiest beneficiaries.
Alternatively, some have argued that medigap policies could continue to be used as a supplement to Medicare but with a payment
assessed to compensate for the overuse caused by first-dollar coverage, or with restrictions to prevent the policies from covering the
initial copayments or deductibles for some types of services. Were
this done, new types of medigap policies would presumably emerge
that would mitigate the adverse incentives in the current system
while providing some of the types of protection found in current
policies. The challenge would be to find the right balance between
incentives and protection.
Others have suggested that Medicare require at least some cost
sharing for Medicare beneficiaries who also receive Medicaid. They
argue that even modest deductibles are associated with significant
reductions in health expenditures for individuals with average incomes. Deductibles and copayments for Medicaid beneficiaries
could perhaps be set at levels considerably below those faced by
other Medicare enrollees. Even low levels of cost sharing may be
sufficient to induce more careful use of services among those with
limited incomes. But they also might place some persons with low
incomes at additional financial risk or deter them from seeking
medically necessary care.
Switching from a Defined-Benefit to a Defined-Contribution
Plan
Medicare currently offers a defined package of services to all enrollees. This places the government at significant risk for any rise
in the cost of these services, whether it is related to changes in
technology, prices, or volumes. Some have suggested that the government could limit future expenses by guaranteeing a specified
contribution toward health insurance expenses for the elderly,
while leaving the choice of the specific insurance plan to the individual.
For such a proposal to have any chance of being viable, the size
of the fixed payment would have to be carefully determined. If the
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amount were set in a base year and simply indexed thereafter, it
could quickly become inadequate (if, for example, technological improvements led health expenditures per capita to rise faster than
the rate of inflation) and place the elderly seriously at risk. To surmount this problem, some advocates have proposed asking health
plans in a given geographical market to bid on the cost of insuring
a minimum package of services and then using the average of the
bids to set the dollar payment for each Medicare beneficiary in that
market. Beneficiaries who wanted lower deductibles or copayments
could then use their own money to buy more expensive policies,
whereas those who wished to save money could join cheaper plans
and receive the difference between the fixed payment and their
premium contribution. The competitive bidding process is likely to
tie the average payment somewhat more closely to costs. Success,
however, would depend crucially on defining the market appropriately: defining it too large might result in considerable heterogeneity in medical costs within the region, whereas defining it too
small could lead to inadequate competition in the bidding process.
Switching to a defined-contribution system has a number of other
potential problems, the most serious of which is selection bias. Unless sophisticated risk-adjustment methods, which currently do not
exist, could be used to vary the government payment rate with the
level of expected medical expenses, market forces would put those
in poor health at particular risk. Healthy individuals would have
incentives to take policies with low premiums and limited coverage,
which would drive up costs in the more comprehensive plans favored by less healthy persons. Better risk-adjustment mechanisms
are needed. But solutions should be constructed with an understanding that our ability to adjust for risk is currently quite poor
and may be inherently limited.
CONCLUSION
The conclusion that emerges from this brief overview of Medicare's financing problems is that, whereas short-term savings are
currently achievable, long-run viability will require consideration of
innovative reforms that will need to be agreed upon in a bipartisan
process. Bold but thoughtful efforts to solve some of the issues
raised here could lay the foundation for addressing one of America's greatest long-run challenges.
The most constructive approach would be to implement the structural reforms and savings proposals included in the President's
budget and to continue the Administration's use of demonstration
projects to explore different approaches to reining in costs and ensuring protection. Efforts are also needed to develop risk-adjustment mechanisms to alleviate the adverse selection problems. The
Administration's proposals to extend the life of the Part A trust
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fund and to control Part B spending should buy enough time to
allow careful evaluation of a range of alternatives in a bipartisan
process. With more evidence under its belt, the Nation will be able
to proceed with more confidence.
MEDICAID FINANCING OF LONG-TERM CARE
Medicaid was enacted, along with Medicare, in 1965 to provide
health and custodial care for people with extremely low incomes.
It continues to finance much of the medical care for the worst off
in our society. Medicaid also pays for nursing home care for those
who have low incomes and few assets. Since nursing home residents are typically quite old, the program provides significant financial support to the sick elderly. In 1995 roughly one-third of
total Medicaid expenditures went to those aged 65 and over; the remaining two-thirds were split about equally between people with
disabilities and the nonelderly, nondisabled poor. About half of all
nursing home expenditures are paid for by Medicaid.
Medicaid expenditures have been growing rapidly over time, as
a result of rising numbers of beneficiaries combined with higher
costs for each. The nursing home component of Medicaid has also
increased rapidly over the last 25 years, although at a slightly
slower pace than other program expenses.
The aging of the population will significantly increase the number of people needing long-term care assistance. Not only will the
number of older people increase, but so will the average age of
those over 65. People over 85 made up about 10 percent of the elderly population in 1994; the Census Bureau projects that by 2050
this figure will be almost 24 percent. The very old are much more
likely to reside in nursing homes: in 1993, about 25 percent of
those 85 and older were in nursing homes, compared with just 5
percent of the general population over 65. If this rate of nursing
home utilization is maintained, population aging will bring significant increases in the nursing home population and in expenditures
on long-term care.
Some analysts suggest that one way to hold down future Medicaid nursing home outlays is to shift the financing of long-term care
to some form of insurance. By its nature, insurance is particularly
desirable for events that are rare but expensive. A majority of persons reaching age 65 can expect never to receive care in a nursing
home. Of the rest, most are likely to stay a relatively short time.
Only 9 percent will spend more than 5 years in a nursing home
(Chart 3-7). With the cost of skilled nursing home care averaging
over $35,000 per year and rising over time, a lengthy stay can be
extremely expensive. Therefore the need for long-term nursing
home care is an event for which insurance may be appropriate.
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Chart 3-7 Projected Lifetime Nursing Home Use by Current 65-Year-Olds
Only a small fraction of the aged will have an extended stay in a nursing home.
None
Less than 1 year
1-5 years
5 years or more
Note: Data projected for persons who reached age 65 in 1990.
Source: New England Journal of Medicine.
Yet even though nursing home stays are relatively rare, and the
costs high, the market for private nursing home insurance is underdeveloped. Just 3 percent of nursing home expenditures were
paid by private insurance in 1994. Several factors are likely to account for the limited importance of private long-term care policies.
First, Medicaid pays the long-term care expenses of persons who
have no financial assets or who spend down their assets after entering a nursing home. To the extent that people think government
will pick up the tab, they have less incentive either to engage in
precautionary saving or to purchase insurance for long-term care.
Second, premiums for private insurance are relatively high. One
reason is that the vast majority of long-term care policies are individual rather than group policies, and individual policies have
higher administrative costs. Another is that those who do purchase
long-term care insurance, especially when they are older, may be
less healthy than others their age, and this will be reflected in premiums. This is another example of the familiar problem of adverse
selection, discussed above. Finally, premiums will be higher to the
extent that people with insurance use nursing home care in situations where they would not if they had to pay the full cost at the
time of use.
Third, many disabled elderly persons are currently cared for by
family members. Senior citizens who consider nursing homes less
135
desirable than living with family might not be interested in purchasing insurance that reduces out-of-pocket nursing home expenses if, as evidence suggests, this makes their families less willing to care for them.
A limited private insurance market means that most people
reaching age 65 remain vulnerable to catastrophic nursing home
costs that could potentially wipe out their assets. It also means
that Medicaid outlays are larger than they would be if the private
insurance market were more extensive. Medicaid outlays are also
higher to the extent that seniors needing long-term care are able
to find ways to transfer assets to family members, despite provisions in current law designed to prevent this, rather than spend
them on nursing home care before becoming eligible for the program.
The proportion of the elderly with long-term care insurance could
be increased in a number of ways, although all raise serious issues.
One possibility would be for the government to require universal
coverage, either directly through Medicare or indirectly through the
purchase of private insurance (ideally at a young age and possibly
through one's employer). Alternatively, individuals could be provided with stronger incentives to buy insurance within the current
voluntary system. To a large degree, the recently enacted Kassebaum-Kennedy legislation (the Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act of 1996) does so by offering tax advantages for
some long-term care insurance expenses similar to (and in some
ways more generous than) those previously provided for other medical costs or health insurance premiums. A third possibility would
be to increase the ability of individuals to exempt some of their assets from the "spend-down" requirements of Medicaid if they purchase sufficient amounts of long-term care insurance.
Insurance of nursing home care for individuals with a lifetime of
low income is a good example of a program that the private sector
is unable or unwilling to supply. However, the presence of a safety
net for the poor may also reduce the incentives for those who are
better off to save for nursing home expenses. Unless people can be
encouraged to put aside more money for this purpose, the aging of
the baby boom is likely to put an increasing burden on the Medicaid system—and thus on the finances of the Federal Government
and the States.
CONCLUSION
Each of the government programs for the elderly discussed in
this chapter poses different policy challenges. The costs of providing Social Security benefits are going to increase as the population
ages. Although this trend has largely been taken into account
136
through 75-year budgeting, the system needs additional revenue or
benefit changes to restore long-run balance. A range of options has
already been described and proposed.
The problems facing Medicare, and those facing Medicaid's financing of long-term care, are more complicated and the solutions
more elusive. Unless action is taken, the Part A trust fund is projected to be exhausted by 2001, and to face growing deficits thereafter. Adequate provisions have not yet been made for Part B
spending increases, or for future Medicaid nursing home outlays.
Innovative approaches are needed to provide quality health and
nursing care to an increasing number of elderly Americans.
Many of the key elements of any solution are already known. We
must improve the incentives for individuals to seek and providers
to supply quality care in a cost-effective manner. Better risk-adjustment mechanisms are needed to mitigate adverse selection.
Where possible, market-oriented approaches should be used to help
determine the size and form of third-party payments.
The various government programs supporting our elderly represent different ways in which each generation of taxpayers offers
assistance to its parents. In combination, these intergenerational
transfers limit the resources available for other worthwhile purposes. Historically, Federal revenues have averaged around 18 percent of GDP. In 1970, Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid expenditures were equivalent to 4 percent of GDP; in 1996 they stood
at about 9 percent; they are projected to grow to roughly 19 percent
of GDP in 2050. These programs as currently structured ultimately
could crowd out virtually all other government spending.
Examining how society distributes its resources between the
aged and the rest of the population provides one lens through
which to view these programs. Economics cannot answer how the
allocation should be made, but it does offer the fundamental lesson
that society faces choices. The choices are often difficult because
the tradeoffs are between two or more worthy objectives. Economics
can help illuminate the nature of the choices and provide theoretical arguments and empirical evidence about the impacts of alternative policies. Armed with this information, we must then make
the hard decisions within a bipartisan process and with full awareness of the difficult tradeoffs they imply. The choices we make will
say a great deal about the kind of society we are and the kind of
society we aspire to become.
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CHAPTER 4
The Labor Market
THE RECENT STRENGTH OF THE ECONOMY has created a
large number of new jobs, and the unemployment rate is low by
historical standards. Between January 1993 and December 1996,
economic growth produced 11 million new jobs. At the end of 1996
the unemployment rate was 5.3 percent. Jobholding increased dramatically even among groups whose members traditionally have
difficulty finding employment.
Economic progress has greatly benefited many American workers, but it poses important challenges as well. New technologies
have led to explosive growth in some industries, but to the decline
of others. With deregulation and expanding international trade,
firms that once enjoyed market power and could share the resulting economic rents with their workers are now forced to compete
more aggressively in the marketplace. Technological change and
greater competition have eliminated the jobs of some workers, but
many others have found new jobs in industries that these same
powerful forces are causing to expand. Yet some workers may discover a mismatch between the skills they needed for their old jobs
and those required in the newly expanding sectors. These workers
are at risk of significant unemployment and may have to accept
lower wages when they finally do find work. The benefits that come
from an economy that has been strengthened by technological
progress and more intense competition should be tempered by the
recognition that these same changes may have hurt some working
Americans.
To what extent have structural changes in the labor market reduced the well-being of American workers? Some analysts claim
that a fundamental change in the nature of employment has taken
place. While acknowledging the robust growth in the number of
jobs, they maintain that this growth is concentrated in low-paying
jobs, that wages overall are falling, that layoffs are increasing despite a growing economy, and that the promise of long-term employment on which many American workers rely can no longer be
kept.
Recent studies suggest that these claims are exaggerated. Although it is true, as some critics point out, that the number of lowpaying jobs has increased, that of high-paying jobs has increased
even more rapidly. It is the jobs in the middle, the ones offering
139
wages close to the median, that have become somewhat scarcer.
Layoffs, meanwhile, are not rising: the rate of job loss has actually
declined somewhat, although it does appear that certain categories
of workers previously less affected by job loss are now more at risk.
Real, inflation-adjusted wages have generally been stagnant over
the longer term, but standard methods of adjusting wages for inflation may have masked a real rise, and total compensation, including fringe benefits, has increased. Finally, some evidence indicates
that the high level of average job tenure first identified in the early
1970s has changed little since then, although other recent research
disputes this claim. This chapter examines these and other labor
market trends in some detail, describes how workers have responded to these changes, and discusses policy alternatives to address some of the real problems that exist.
TRADITIONAL LABOR MARKET INDICATORS
Traditional indicators of labor market performance point to substantial improvement in the last few years. Perhaps the single
most important indicator, the unemployment rate, is as low today
as it has been at virtually any time in the last 20 years—and lower
than it was through most of the economic expansions of the late
1970s and the mid- to late 1980s (Chart 4-1). The unemployment
rate for the whole of 1996, at 5.4 percent, was below the rate for
any full year since 1973, except for 1989 when the rate was 5.3
percent. And not only is the overall unemployment rate low, but
groups that traditionally have experienced greater difficulty in
finding jobs are doing better as well. For example, the unemployment rate for blacks in both 1995 and 1996 was almost a full percentage point lower than in any of the last 20 years.
The unemployment rate measures unemployment as a percentage of the labor force, not of the entire working-age population. It
would be little cause for celebration if the unemployment rate has
fallen merely because some jobless workers have become discouraged and have stopped seeking work, thus removing- themselves
from the labor force altogether. Recent data, however, strongly reject this explanation of today's low unemployment picture. Employment gains have been strong over the last 4 years: the employment-to-population ratio indicates that almost as large a share of
the population is working now as at any time since annual statistics began to be collected (Chart 4-2).
THE QUALITY OF NEW JOBS
A large number of new jobs have been created over the past 4
years, but concerns have been expressed about the quality of these
140
Chart 4-1 Unemployment Rate
The unemployment rate in 1996 was as low as it has been at virtually any time
since the early 1970s.
Percent of labor force
12
10
I
i
i
1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995
Source: Department of Labor.
Chart 4-2 Employment-to-Population Ratio
The percentage of the population employed was near a record high in 1996.
Percent
64
62
60
58
56
I
I
I
I
l
I
I
I
_L
1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995
Note: Data adjusted for the Current Population Survey redesign.
Sources: Department of Labor and Council of Economic Advisers.
141
jobs. Recent research finds that most of the new positions created
in the 1990s are "good" jobs. The number of lower paying jobs also
increased, however, as employment in the middle of the earnings
distribution fell.
JOB GROWTH WITHIN SERVICE-PRODUCING
INDUSTRIES
A disproportionate share of employment growth in the current
expansion has occurred in service-producing industries. But contrary to the popular notion that service jobs are primarily low-paid
positions, jobs in these industries are actually quite diverse, including many high-wage positions in such industries as financial services, health care, and computer and accounting services. For this
reason it is important to determine at which end of the wage spectrum the employment growth within services has mainly occurred.
The evidence indicates that managerial and professional occupations have been the main contributors to recent job growth within
service-producing industries, accounting for most of the net increase in employment in this sector occurring between February
1994 and February 1996 (1994 is chosen as the base year because
the Current Population Survey, or CPS, underwent a major redesign that makes comparisons before and after 1994 difficult; see
Box 4-1). Managerial and professional occupations within serviceproducing industries have been large contributors to employment
growth in each of the past three major expansions. But gains in
these occupations have been even more important in the current
expansion. Employment increases in these generally higher paying
occupations may not necessarily translate into high pay for workers
immediately, but the greater opportunities for advancement in
these jobs promise higher wages in the future.
ECONOMY-WIDE JOB GROWTH
A more detailed picture of recent job creation emerges from an
examination of changes in employment within specific industry and
occupational categories. A study conducted by the Council of Economic Advisers and the Department of Labor compared full-time
employment in February 1994 with that in February 1996 in 45
specific occupations in each of 22 major industries, for a total of almost 1,000 industry/occupation "cells." For each of the 287 cells in
which employment was large enough to provide reasonably reliable
within-cell wage levels, median weekly earnings as of February
1994 were determined, along with the median wage across all cells
in that month. Employment growth between February 1994 and
February 1996 in high-wage job cells, defined as those in which
median earnings were above the overall median, was then compared with overall employment growth. The study found that 68
142
Box 4-1.—Effects of the Redesign of the Current Population
Survey
.
The Current Population Survey (CPS), conducted monthly by
the Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Statistics
(BLS), is a major source of data regarding the US, labor market, including the monthly unemployment rate. In January
1994 the BIS revised the questionnaire to adjust for changes
in work patterns and implemented computer-assisted inter*
viewing to improve the quality of data collected.
The BLS estimates that the overall unemployment rate was
not significantly affected by the redesign. This finding is contrary to early reports that the new survey produced a slight
rise in measured unemployment. The new survey did change
the measured composition of unemployment, however. For example, measured unemployment among 55- to 64-year-old
workers and workers 65 and older increased by about 12 and
50 percent, respectively.
The breakdown of reported reasons for unemployment was
also affected by the redesign, Whereas the old survey asked directly whether the unemployment spell began because of a quit
or a lost job, now respondents must first report that they were
working just prior to their unemployment spell before that
question is asked* Evidently, asking the question directly induced some workers to report that their unemployment spell
began for one of these reasons, because the number of workers
classified as job losers or job leavers declined using the new
survey. In addition, expanding the definition of previous work
experience to include part-time work led to more workers being
classified as reentrants rather than as new entrants.
The redesign also affected reported unemployment derations,
because oomputer-assisted interviewing allows the interviewer
to check whether a respondent's answers are consistent from
month to month* Respondents used to oyei^estimate short-term
and underestimate long-term unemployment spells. These
changes increased the proportion of spells longer than 14
weekp ai|d decreased that of spells shorter than 5 weeks,
Qther labor market indicators were also affected. Both the
labor force participation rate and the employment-to-population ratio are about .half a percentage point higher when
measured using the new techniques.
.
143
percent of the net growth in full-time employment over this period
occurred in these higher paying job categories.
The results of this research were similar to those reported in a
BLS study that divided employment into 90 industry/occupation
categories and then identified jobs in these categories as either
high-, middle-, or low-paying. Between 1989 and 1995, employment
in the high-paying and low-paying categories increased by 13 percent and 7 percent, respectively, while employment in the in-between category fell by about 3 percent.
An alternative disaggregation of jobs into extremely detailed occupational categories (also by the BLS) supports these findings.
The BLS compiles responses from a full year of CPS data to examine wages and employment growth for almost 500 occupational categories. Between 1994 and 1995, some of the categories with the
largest employment gains included sales supervisors and proprietors, electricians, marketing and advertising managers, and electrical and electronic engineers. Consistent with the Council's calculations, occupations in the top half of the wage distribution accounted for 70 percent of net employment growth.
FULL-TIME VERSUS PART-TIME JOBS
Even if today's new jobs are more likely than before to be in the
higher paying sectors of the labor market, not all of these jobs provide workers with full-time employment. Data from the CPS provide an opportunity to explore trends in part-time employment.
Chart 4-3 depicts the proportions of employed persons reporting
that they work part-time for "economic" reasons (i.e., who would
prefer a full-time job but cannot find one). Most of those who work
part-time seem to do so by choice; moreover, the proportion of parttime workers who do so for "economic" reasons has been declining.
THE LEVEL OF WAGES
The economic growth of the 1980s produced only small real wage
gains for workers. Moreover, real wages, when adjusted for inflation by consumer prices, have failed to keep pace with worker productivity since about 1983—a clear departure from the pattern of
preceding years. (See Box 4-2 for a discussion of potential biases
introduced in measuring consumer price inflation.) Although productivity growth has slowed, from around 2.8 percent per year before 1973 to 1.1 percent per year since, it has not stagnated; it
therefore cannot explain these wage trends. After documenting the
trends, the following discussion explores two possible explanations
for them: changes in the relationship between the consumer price
indexes, used for measuring real wages from the worker's perspective, and overall price indexes used for measuring real wages from
144
Chart 4-3 Part-Time Employment for Economic Reasons
The share of part-time workers who work part time for economic reasons and the
level of such employment have declined recently.
Percent of total employment
Percent of part-time workers
10
30
Share of part-time workers
(right scale) \
25
20
15
10
Share of total employment
(left scale)
j
1976
I
1978
I
1980
I
1982
I
1984
I
1986
I
1988
I
1990
L
1992
1994
1996
Note: Data adjusted for the Current Population Survey redesign.
Sources: Department of Labor and Council of Economic Advisers.
the producer's perspective; and changes in the relationship between
wages and total compensation, which includes fringe benefits as
well as wages.
on Measured
'
, , .
''
• , ,; Standard . analyses of wage and income . trends use the CPI
to adjust for inflation. But the CPI is at biased measure of the
cost of living because it does not adjust for substitution be*
^^^^f^, i^,m$y^ nM felly wmt^t &*3biti^^ tit*te^
quality—problems that are described more fully in Chapter 2,
To the extent that the CPI overstates inflation, adjustments to
' wages and income using the CPI will understate actual growth
. . - ^,,-, ^ , >
, -;;,
..^
.
Chart 4^5 displays trends in wages from the ECIt adjusted :
by f^';dne|ftl 'QW^»d' , ai^pted &y: CSPI infiite^B t^^ftS. ,^wv ,
centage point. If the CPI overstates inflation by % percentage
point, real ;EOI $%®m h*V^ artt^ttty;i^i by itoost if^it^mt "
atoi^ tht «rly/i^a. Tmiidls to i^al imecmia, de^ril^f In iha
following chapter, show the same sensitivity to bias in inflation
145
TRENDS IN WAGES
Chart 4-4 shows annualized real changes in wages and earnings
over the past decade and a half using five different data sources
(Box 4-3) adjusted for inflation by the consumer price index (CPI).
For three of the sources, wages were virtually unchanged over the
period. Changes in median real weekly and annual earnings for
full-time workers, estimated from the monthly CPS and the annual
March CPS, were similar to those from the employment cost index
(ECI) despite several differences in methodology: the ECI data
measure mean rather than median wage changes, compute hourly
wages rather than weekly or annual earnings, and include parttime as well as full-time workers. Of the five series, only average
hourly earnings, as measured in the BLS's Current Employment
Statistics (CES) program, fell noticeably over this period. Unlike
the other series, the CES covers only production and nonsupervisory workers, who suffered relative wage declines in the
1980s.
Chart 4-4 Measures of Annualized Real Wage and Earnings Growth Since 1982
Most indicators show that real wages have remained relatively flat over the past 15 years.
Average annual percent change
1.0
0.5
-0.5
-1.0
Note: Series deflated by CPI-U-X1 .
Sources: Department of Commerce, Department of Labor, and Council of Economic Advisers.
An interesting feature of wage trends is that they display no apparent pattern over the business cycle. Economic theory does not
offer a clear prediction of how real wages should move over the
146
Chart 4-5 Alternative Inflation Adjustments to Wages
Real wage trends are understated if the CPI overstates inflation.
Index, 1982.100
115
Adjusted with CPI inflation
less 0.5 percentage point
110
Y...-105
t
f
t
^
Adjusted with
official CPI
100
95
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
Note: Wage data are from the employment cost index.
Sources: Department of Labor and Council of Economic Advisers.
cycle. On the one hand, we might expect the greater demand for
labor during an expansion to lead to real wage increases. On the
other hand, as the economy expands, it puts into production its less
efficient capital stock. To induce firms to do this, prices of the
goods they sell must rise relative to wages, which means that real
wages must fall. Empirically, the fact that aggregate measures of
the real wage show little cyclically may indicate that these two effects are offsetting.
A difficulty in identifying changes in wages over the business
cycle, however, is that the pool of employed workers changes. During recessions, lower skilled and less experienced workers are more
likely than others to lose their jobs. When the economy recovers,
these same workers become reemployed. Therefore, during an expansion the labor force is likely to include more low-paid workers;
this depresses the average wage. Research shows that once the
composition of the pool of employed workers is controlled for, the
wages of male workers are considerably more procyclical than the
aggregate wage statistics indicate.
WAGES VERSUS TOTAL COMPENSATION
The discussion so far has mainly focused on wages. However, for
many purposes total compensation, which includes fringe benefits,
may be a more useful measure. Although real wages have changed
147
Box 4-3.—Sources of Wage Data
Several data sources can be used to track trends in wages.
Five commonly used sources are the following:
* The March GPS, conducted by the Bureau of the Census,
reports median annual earnings for full-time, year-round
workers for the preceding calendar year.
* The monthly CPS, conducted by the Census Bureau for
the BLS, asks one-quarter of all respondents about their
"usual" weekly earnings and hours worked on their main
job, in order to estimate the median wage for all fulltime workers. Earnings data from this source are reported quarterly.
* The employment cost index, produced by the BLS, is
based on a survey of wages, salaries, and benefits in approximately 4,700 establishments in the private sector.
Firms surveyed are chosen so as to maintain a constant
industry and occupational mix of workers, to eliminate
the effects of employment shifts between industries and
occupations,
* The Current Employment Statistics survey, conducted by
the BLS, obtains data from nearly 400,000 establishments in private nonagricultural industries regarding
earnings and hours worked for all production and nonsupervisory employees. The data can be used to construct a measure of average hourly earnings.
* The wage data in the national income ami product accounts^ produced by the Bureau of Economic Analysis,
are based on quarterly earnings records for workers covered by State unemployment insurance. Data on the
number of paid hours from the Current Employment
Statistics survey are used to translate these quarterly
data into mean hourly wage measures, and these data
are supplemented by imputation for those workers not
represented in that survey.
little in the last decade and a half, total compensation has risen
modestly since the mid-1980s. Meanwhile fringe benefits, which
comprise roughly 30 percent of total compensation, have risen
sharply. This rise is driven primarily by rapid increases in the cost
of employer-provided health benefits, which increased over 20 percent in real terms between 1982 and 1994. However, employer
health costs have stabilized since 1994, reflecting some combination of slower increases in the prices of medical care services, a
148
shift toward managed care, increased premium cost sharing with
employees, and a reduction in the share of the workforce with employer-paid health insurance (Box 4-4). In competitive labor markets, a rise in one component of compensation might be expected
to lead firms to reduce another component, so as to keep total compensation in line with worker productivity. This may have happened during the 1980s and early 1990s, as wages remained relatively stagnant to compensate for sharply rising health benefit
costs.
Even so, total compensation has risen more slowly than have increases in productivity, when nominal compensation is adjusted for
changes in the prices of consumer goods. A possible explanation is
that producer prices have fallen relative to consumer prices, largely
as a result of the decline in the prices of many industrial goods,
such as computers. From the perspective of firms, prices for all output, including investment goods, offer a better method of adjusting
trends in compensation. Because firms hire an additional employee
only if the cost of doing so is less than or equal to the value of that
employee's output, a more appropriate measure to compare with
productivity may be compensation adjusted for all output prices. As
can be seen in Chart 4—6, changes in real compensation, when deflated by output prices, have tracked changes in total productivity
more closely since the mid-1980s than when consumer prices are
used for the adjustment.
JOB LOSS
The threat of losing one's job engenders justifiable anxiety, because job loss can result in a lengthy spell of unemployment and
a long-lasting reduction in earnings even after a new job is found.
Economic expansion creates dynamism in the labor market, with
reallocation of workers across sectors, and in such periods growth
in new jobs typically is sufficient not only to lower the aggregate
unemployment rate and to create jobs for new entrants into the
labor force, but also to accommodate those workers displaced from
their old ones. Historically, the highest rates of job loss tend to
occur during recessions. Some have claimed that it is high today
for an expanding economy.
TRENDS IN THE RATE OF JOB LOSS
The Displaced Workers Survey, published by the BLS since 1984
as a biennial supplement to the Current Population Survey, has become an important source of data on job loss. This survey identifies
workers who have lost jobs within the 3 to 5 years before the survey date, either because their plant closed or moved, because their
position or shift was abolished, or because of insufficient work. The
149
Box 4-4.—Trends in Employer Health Care Costs
The cost to employers of providing health insurant to their
employees rose more rapidly than inflation throughout the
1980s and early 1990s* Since then, however, this trend has re*
versed; in the past few years firms* health insurance costs have
actually fallen in real terms. This turnaround is the result of
a combination of factors including slower growth in medical expenditures, employers switching to lower cost managed care
plans, declining health coverage of retirees* and, possibly, mod*
est cost shifting to employees,
Slower Growth in M$dw&l Spending. Overall private medical
expenditures are increasing much more slowly than in the
past. Premiums (employer and employee) at medium-sisse and
large firms rose by about 11 percent in 1991 and 1992, but
only 2*1 percent in 1995 and 0*8 percent in 1996. The move to
managed care may help explain why growth in health costs
has moderated so sharply. Not only are managed care plans
cheaper, but their expansion may also be forcing the competing
traditional plans to become more efficient;
Coverage Trends. Over the past 15 years, employers have re*
duced the number of workers for whom they provide health insurance coverage. But most of that reduction tKJcurred before
the recent slowing in health benefit costs. However, employers
have continued to decrease the share of their retirees eligible
for health benefits,
Cosl Shifting. Employers have tried to hold down rising
health benefit costs by shifting more responsibility for premiums and other expenses onto employees, But this trend has
moderated recently. Since 1992, the percentage of workers
whose employers fully finance their health insurance has
changed little, Nor has the average premium contribution that
firms-require their employees to make been modified much in
recent years. Deductible and out-of-pocket spending have increased little in the same period. One reason is that coverage
has shifted dramatically into managed care plans/ which typically have low eopaymente and deductible^.
survey, which is conducted in January or February of every evennumbered year, can be used to examine trends in displacement
rates, the characteristics of dislocated workers, and the costs associated with permanent job loss. Most of the results reported in the
survey, and all those reported here, reflect job displacement for socalled long-tenure workers: those who were employed in their previous job for 3 or more years. The rationale for this focus is that
150
Chart 4-6 Real Compensation and Labor Productivity
Real hourly compensation when deflated by output prices has risen at the same
rate as productivity.
Index, 1979= 100
130
120
110
Real hourly compensation
using output prices
100
90
Labor productivity
Real hourly compensation
consumption prices
^
using
80
70
60
50
i i i i I I I i i i I i i i i i i i i i i i I i i i I i I i i i I i i i I
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
Note: Series refer to nonfarm business sector. Compensation measures are deflated by the consumption
deflator for the real consumption wage and by the nonfarm business deflator for the real output wage.
Sources: Department of Commerce, Department of Labor, and Council of Economic Advisers.
individuals with lengthy job tenure are likely to have the most severe adjustment problems when displaced.
Chart 4-7 shows trends in the rate of job displacement among
long-tenure workers since the early 1980s. As one might have expected from the deep recession of 1981-82, job dislocation rates
were high during this period. As the economy recovered in the mid1980s, displacement rates fell. The recession of the early 1990s
again saw increasing rates of displacement: job loss in 1991-92 was
as prevalent as it had been in 1981-82, even though the earlier recession was much more severe. Although displacement statistics
from the 1993-94 period are calculated from unpublished data and
may not be directly comparable to earlier years, displacement rates
appear to have subsided to the level that prevailed for most of the
late 1980s. Displacement rates were quite a bit lower, however, in
1987-88, even though the unemployment rate in those years was
close to that in 1993-94. One may infer from these data that some
of the problems of job loss are persisting even in the face of a
healthy economic expansion.
Other measures, such as the monthly GPS, indicate that the rate
of job loss has fallen significantly in recent years. The monthly CPS
obtains information not only on labor market status, but also on
the reasons why an unemployed worker began looking for work and
the length of time spent looking. Job losers who are not on layoff
151
Chart 4-7 Displacement Rate Among Long-Tenure Workers
The rate of job displacement in 1993-94 was roughly comparable to that in most of the mid-1980s
except for the 1987-88 period, when it was much lower.
Percent of long-tenure employment
4
2
-
1
-
0
1981-82
1983-84
1985-86
1987-88
1989-90
1991-92
1993-94
Note: Data after 1989-90 are adjusted for nonresponse and are not strictly comparable with data from
earlier years.
Sources: Through 1991-92, Department of Labor. Calculations for 1993-94 are by H. Farber,
Princeton University, using Department of Labor data and unpublished data.
may be thought of as "permanent" job losers, even though they may
have been fired for cause or have some chance of eventually being
recalled. The number of these job losers unemployed for less than
5 weeks is an indicator of the number experiencing permanent job
loss. These data are valuable because the CPS is the standard survey of labor market behavior and because the data are available on
a regular basis. However, displaced workers who find a new job
without an intervening spell of unemployment are not captured by
this measure. Chart 4-8 shows that job loss by this measure has
declined over the last few years and is currently comparable to the
rates observed throughout much of the late 1980s.
Initial unemployment insurance (UI) claims provide another
measure of job loss. Initial UI claims have declined throughout the
current expansion: weekly claims have fallen by about one-third
since the 1990-91 recession. Although the share of unemployment
spells that are compensated has declined over time, recent trends
fairly accurately reflect changes in the number of workers who
have lost jobs or been laid off. These data are obtained from the
administrative records of the UI system and represent a complete
count of layoff activity that leads to a UI claim, rather than a sample. The weaknesses of these data are that they include temporary
as well as permanent job loss and that they do not capture job
losses that do not lead to a UI claim.
152
Chart 4-8 Permanent Job Losers Unemployed Less Than 5 Weeks
The percentage of unemployed workers who recently experienced a permanent job
loss was low in the mid-1990s.
Percent of labor force
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
I
1976
1978
|
1980
I
1982
I
1984
I
1986
I
1988
|
1990
I
I
1992
1994
1996
Note: Data adjusted for the Current Population Survey redesign.
Sources: Department of Labor and Council of Economic Advisers.
The distribution of job displacements has apparently changed
over time. Workers in service-producing industries and white-collar
occupations have become more vulnerable to job displacement,
whereas blue-collar and manufacturing workers have become relatively less prone to lose their jobs. Thus, whereas service-producing industries accounted for about a third of all long-tenure displaced workers in the 1979-84 period, this sector's share has recently climbed to over one-half. Similarly, white-collar workers represented about 40 percent of those displaced in the early 1980s but
now constitute more than half of job losers. Older and more educated workers also are exposed to greater risk of displacement than
in the past. The bottom line is that the risk of job loss is now
spread over a wider cross section of employees.
THE COSTS OF JOB LOSS
The costs of losing one's job include lost wages during any subsequent unemployment and any wage reduction or loss of fringe benefits that results when a new job is obtained. Displaced workers
are now finding new jobs more quickly than in the past, thus reducing the first of these costs. Among workers displaced in the
1979-83 and 1981-85 periods, 60 percent and 67 percent were reemployed by 1984 and 1986, respectively. In contrast, 68 percent
and 74 percent of workers displaced in the 1991-93 and 1993-95
153
periods were reemployed by 1994 and 1996, respectively, even
though the shorter time period should have produced lower reemployment rates. The shift in the composition of displacement, from
less educated to more educated workers, may explain some of the
increase in reemployment probabilities, as more schooling generally
helps ease workers' adjustment into alternative career paths.
Dislocated workers who find new full-time jobs often suffer a lingering decline in real earnings. Some evidence indicates that 6 or
more years after displacement, the median displaced worker's earnings remain roughly 10 percent below what that worker might otherwise have expected to earn. That figure does not appear to have
changed much over time. More educated workers appear to face
smaller displacement costs, as their earnings losses are smaller
than those of less educated workers. Furthermore, currently almost
15 percent of reemployed workers who had health insurance at
their old jobs receive no such coverage from their new employers.
However, this represents a considerable improvement from the
early 1980s, when over one-quarter of previously insured displaced
workers did not receive health insurance at their new jobs. Nevertheless, the costs of displacement are substantial for a large number of workers.
Taken as a whole, these results suggest that any sense of greater
vulnerability to job loss is likely to be the result of a broadening
of the risk of job displacement to groups of workers who had been
relatively immune. Among those who do lose their jobs, the adjustment difficulties that follow job displacement are actually modestly
less than in previous years.
JOB STABILITY
A number of prominent U.S. firms that used to maintain policies
of "lifetime employment" for their workers have recently abandoned
those policies. These well-publicized reversals may have led to the
widespread perception that jobs in general are less stable than they
used to be. However, jobs at these firms probably never comprised
more than a very small share of national employment. To arrive at
a more accurate picture of job stability in the United States, one
needs to examine the evidence for the labor market as a whole.
One well-known study that explored job duration in the 1970s
found that many workers could reasonably look forward to "lifetime
jobs." A significant proportion of workers held their jobs for 20
years or more. A more recent investigation shows that lifetime jobs
are just as prevalent in the 1990s as they were during the 1970s.
For instance, in 1993 the median 45- to 54-year-old male worker
and the median 55- to 64-year-old male worker had been employed
at their current jobs for about 12 and 14 years, respectively, and
154
over one-quarter of both groups had held their jobs for 20 years or
more. These statistics are virtually identical to those obtained in
several different surveys throughout the 1970s and 1980s (Chart
4-9), refuting the notion of a widespread reduction in employment
stability.
Chart 4-9 Median Job Duration for Males by Selected Age
Job attachment between firms and workers has changed little over time.
Years
20
18
55- to 64-year-olds
16
14
45-to 54-year-olds
12
10
j
1963
I
I
1966
1969
I
1972
I
1975
I
1978
i
1981
I
1984
I
1987
1990
I
1993
Source: Unpublished calculations by H. Farber, Princeton University.
Job durations have changed for certain demographic groups,
however. In particular, the trend toward greater female labor force
participation is likely to have contributed to greater job tenure
among currently employed women. Conversely, employment stability appears to have declined for high school dropouts.
A study conducted by the National Commission on Employment
Policy, however, reported potentially contradictory evidence regarding job stability for the workforce as a whole. Using a method similar to the study just discussed, this study also found no change in
employment stability. It also implemented an alternative method,
using longitudinal data for each year of the 1970s and 1980s and
examining respondents' answers to the question, "Did you have another main employer during the previous 12 months?" It found that
the share of workers reporting having had another main employer
two or more times in that period had increased between the two
decades. Because these data pertain to other main jobs, they do not
155
necessarily provide direct evidence for job stability on the first job
when workers hold multiple jobs.
WORKER ANXIETY
How have workers responded to the changes facing them in the
labor market? Press reports suggest that a prevailing general sense
of economic uncertainty has led workers to worry about their own
prospects in the labor market. Researchers can get a reading of
workers' anxiety over their economic circumstances in at least two
ways. Public opinion polling directed at workers' sense of job security is one approach. Another is to examine aspects of worker behavior that are linked to feelings of security.
PUBLIC OPINION POLLS
For more than two decades, a leading nationwide opinion research organization has been asking workers, "How likely is it that
you will lose your job over the next 12 months?" The proportion of
respondents who believed that they were "not at all likely" to lose
their jobs was lower in 1996 (51 percent) than in 1991 (about 60
percent), even though the economy was suffering through a recession in the earlier year. In fact, the low proportion of workers with
this strong sense of job security in 1996 is similar to the unusually
low level reached in 1983, shortly after the unemployment rate
peaked at nearly 11 percent during the worst recession since World
War II. However, the decline in the share of respondents who considered job loss "not at all likely" has been mirrored by an increase
in the share saying that it was "not too likely." The share saying
that it was "very or fairly likely" that they would lose their jobs
has changed little. Accordingly, these polls suggest that more people than before are feeling a moderate, but not a high, risk of job
loss.
At the same time, workers also express a perception that jobs are
readily available. For many years a national business association
has surveyed individuals about their views on the availability of
jobs. The pattern of their responses has closely matched trends in
unemployment. Another survey of consumer sentiment, conducted
by the University of Michigan, also shows that consumer perceptions about the job market are consistent with economic conditions
prevailing at the time. Appropriately, the current low level of unemployment is reflected in recent results from both these surveys,
which indicate that workers are not overly concerned about job
availability.
156
QUIT BEHAVIOR
Workers do appear to have changed their behavior in ways that
are consistent with feelings of increased anxiety about their jobs.
In particular, workers have become more reluctant to quit their
jobs. Typically* during periods of prosperity, workers employed in
jobs they feel are a bad match for them often quit to look for new
work for which their skills would be more appropriate. Quits generally fall during recessions, when new jobs are harder to find. For
any two comparable points in the business cycle, a lower overall
quit rate may indicate greater worker anxiety, because it suggests
that workers fear they will not be able to find or keep a new job
if they quit their current one.
One measure of how many workers are quitting their jobs to look
for new work is provided by the CPS, which reports the percentage
of the labor force that has become unemployed within the previous
5 weeks because of having quit. Chart 4-10, which plots this measure, shows the expected strong cyclical pattern to quit behavior.
The current expansion is no exception, although the rise is less
sharp than that in the previous expansion, and quits fell slightly
last year. Five years into the current expansion, quits are still considerably less prevalent than in the 1970s or 1980s—a finding that
is consistent with lingering worker anxiety.
Chart 4-10 Job Leavers Unemployed Less Than 5 Weeks
The percentage of unemployed workers who quit their jobs in the last 5 weeks was
relatively low in the mid-1990s given the length of the expansion.
Percent of labor force
0.32
0.30
0.28
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20
I
1976
I
1978
|
1980
|
1982
|
1984
I
1986
I
1988
Note: Data adjusted for the Current Population Survey redesign.
Sources: Department of Labor and Council of Economic Advisers.
157
I
1990
1992
I
l
1994
1996
I
POLICIES TO MITIGATE THE COSTS OF
ECONOMIC CHANGE
The Federal Government has many policies and programs at its
disposal to reduce the costs that economic growth and change impose on some workers. The main policy instrument that addresses
some of the immediate needs of workers who lose their jobs is the
unemployment insurance system. Other policies, such as mandatory advance notice of layoffs, may provide short-term benefits as
well. Still other policies, including education and training programs, are vital for improving the longer term fortunes of those
hurt by economic change. These are discussed briefly here and in
more detail in Chapter 5.
UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE
Created in 1935 as part of the Social Security Act, the UI system
has two main goals: to work as an economic stabilizer, expanding
consumer spending during periods of heavy job loss, and to provide
economic security for workers through income maintenance. The
Federal Government maintains control over the broad design of the
UI system, but States have considerable autonomy in tailoring the
program's features within their jurisdictions. UI provides weekly
benefits to workers who have been laid off or who have lost their
jobs for reasons other than misconduct or a labor dispute. Only
workers with a sufficiently long employment history (usually two
calendar quarters of significant employment) are eligible. Benefits
are a fraction of average weekly earnings on the job that was lost,
up to a maximum dollar amount, and paid up to 26 weeks in most
States. This fraction, called the replacement rate, is typically between 50 and 70 percent. Benefits are financed, in most States, by
a payroll tax levied on firms.
UI benefits help workers weather periods of unemployment, since
the benefits allow workers to maintain consumption patterns closer
to those observed prior to the job loss. Another potential benefit of
the UI system is that it may improve the match between workers
and firms upon reemployment: UI may provide individuals the financial resources to prolong their job search until they receive an
offer appropriate to their skills. However, little empirical evidence
supports the proposition that longer search periods translate into
better job matches, as measured by higher future earnings.
Although the UI system has benefited millions of workers over
the years, these benefits do not come without costs. In particular,
a significant body of evidence supports the contention that higher
UI benefits lead to longer unemployment spells. Providing benefits
to unemployed workers reduces their incentive to search intensively for a new job. Research suggests that a 10-percentage-point
158
increase in the replacement rate of UI benefits leads to an additional 1 to 1.5 weeks of unemployment, when an insured unemployment spell typically lasts roughly 15 weeks. Job-finding rates also
increase somewhat as the exhaustion of benefits approaches.
Some States and the U.S. Department of Labor have investigated
whether changes in the UI program can reduce unemployment durations and improve subsequent employment outcomes in a cost-effective manner. The research was undertaken in the form of controlled experiments. Workers were randomly assigned to treatment
and control groups; those in the control groups received benefits
under the rules of the existing program, while treatment-group
participants were subject to an alternative, experimental set of
rules. With random assignment, members of the different groups
can be assumed to have similar characteristics, so that any differences in outcomes can be attributed specifically to the difference
in policy.
The first set of experimental policies included job search assistance. Treatment-group members were eligible for services such as
instruction in how to find a job, and for periodic meetings with employment counselors. These programs were generally found effective both in reducing unemployment durations and in increasing
earnings during the first year or two following reemployment. One
difficulty in interpreting the results, however, is that one cannot be
sure whether the favorable effect was caused by the job search
services themselves or by the more rigorous monitoring of worker
search activities that accompanied them. Nevertheless, the apparent success of these experiments led the Congress to pass a law in
1993 requiring States to institute job search assistance for workers
identified as likely to be hard to place.
States have also experimented with paying reemployment bonuses to workers who find jobs within a certain period after filing
a UI claim; self-employment assistance programs with UI payments as support; and training programs targeted at dislocated
workers. Of these, only the self-employment assistance programs
yielded generally positive results. The proportion of unemployed
workers starting their own businesses roughly doubled, although it
remains quite low. Over an 18-month follow-up period, failure rates
for these businesses were no different from those observed for businesses started by control-group members.
The reemployment bonus experiments yielded mixed results: in
some but not all cases the savings in reduced UI benefits exceeded
the costs of bonus payments and additional administrative expenses. It is also possible, however, that a more widespread use of
bonuses would increase the share of workers filing UI claims.
Short-term training programs generally have not been as successful as other policies in improving the labor market outcomes of
159
dislocated workers—a result that contrasts with the findings of
similar programs targeted at low-income, low-skilled workers. Programs to support longer term training—for example, those that
provide funding for higher education—may yield significant benefits, but no formal, controlled experiment has so far examined such
programs.
Changes in the economy have also had profound effects on the
UI system. Most notably, the share of unemployed workers who received UI benefits has fallen dramatically since the early 1980s.
This reduction has been attributed to demographic shifts in the
workforce, a reduction in union membership, regional shifts in employment, and tightened State eligibility requirements. Payment of
extended benefits during recessions (beyond the regular maximum
duration) has been less likely, because the trigger that starts these
payments is tied to an insured unemployment rate that now is a
less reliable indicator of economic conditions. As a consequence,
during the last two recessions the Congress authorized temporary
emergency programs that did not depend on the extended benefits
triggers. Such ad hoc adjustments may not be well timed to the beginnings and ends of recessions. The question of which is the correct trigger to use for this program has resulted in changes in the
law, which now authorize States to adopt a total unemployment
rate trigger for the extended benefits program if they so desire.
In addition, inflation has significantly eroded the value of the
taxable wage base, upon which UI taxes are imposed. The Federal
wage base, currently set at $7,000, is not indexed for inflation and
has fallen dramatically in real terms. (Although many States have
a higher base, it is less than $10,000 in most larger States.) Early
in the life of the UI system, in the late 1930s, the taxable wage
base was set at $3,000 (over $35,000 in 1996 dollars), and only relatively small, infrequent adjustments have been made since then.
' Such a low base makes the UI tax similar to a head tax that is
disproportionally levied on firms that employ low-wage workers.
The nominally rigid taxable wage base, combined with the fact that
UI benefits are indexed in many States and increased regularly in
others, requires periodic adjustments in State UI tax rates.
ADVANCE NOTICE
Another way to reduce the costs of job loss is to require firms to
give advance notice to workers about to be displaced.
Prenotification has a variety of potential benefits. It gives individuals time to search for a new position while still working, which
may shorten unemployment spells or prevent them altogether.
Other types of adjustment assistance (e.g., job counseling, skills retraining, or outplacement assistance) may also be more effective
and easier to administer if individuals are still reporting for work.
160
Finally, if the notice is given sufficiently far in advance, workers
may be able to switch their human capital toward skills that are
likely to be useful to their future employers. Although legislation
requiring advance notice has been enacted, a variety of exemptions
limit the number of firms required to provide notice. It is unclear
whether the legislation has increased the share of workers who are
actually notified.
For those displaced workers who receive it, advance notice does
appear to reduce adjustment problems. Recent studies suggest that
individuals receiving at least 2 months of advance notice are out
of work up to 1 week less and earn around 10 percent more in their
new jobs than do those receiving no notice. Despite only modest reductions in joblessness, pay might increase through at least two
mechanisms. First, employers who provide advance notice may also
tend to provide other forms of readjustment assistance that might
lead to wage gains upon reemployment. Second, notified workers
remain jobless almost as long as other workers, but may find new
jobs that better match their skills and qualifications. The available
evidence lends support to both of these possibilities.
REFORMING TRAINING AND REEMPLOYMENT
SERVICES
Both the Administration and the Congress have proposed consolidating many of the roughly 100 separate education and training
programs now administered by the Departments of Labor and Education and reforming the overall system. Some of the proposed reforms are intended to help dislocated workers. A crucial element is
the establishment of one-stop career centers where workers can
find out about employment opportunities and training programs
and apply for unemployment benefits. These centers are already
being established in many States.
PORTABILITY OF PENSION AND HEALTH CARE
BENEFITS
The costs of job transition are higher than they need to be in
part because of the frictions involved in transferring pension and
health care benefits. This is a significant cause of "job lock," in
which workers are reluctant to leave their current jobs because
they fear they will not be able to transfer their benefits. Many of
these frictions can be eliminated, and recently some important
strides down this path have been made. The minimum wage legislation passed in August 1996 contained a pension simplification
initiative aimed at making portable pensions more available. New
Internal Revenue Service regulations seek to do the same. Another
recent success is the enactment of the Health Insurance Portability
and Accountability Act of 1996 (the Kassebaum-Kennedy bill),
161
which ensures continued health care coverage for workers with preexisting conditions who lose or change their jobs. The Administration has also proposed continuing health insurance for unemployed
workers. Such a policy would further the goal of reducing the frictions associated with changing jobs.
CONCLUSIONS
Over the long run, sound economic policies that lead to low levels
of unemployment and high rates of economic growth are likely to
produce gains for most workers. Technological change and an increasingly competitive marketplace also help promote the conditions necessary for such growth. Most of the available evidence suggests that the U.S. labor market is quite robust, with significant
job growth in the higher paying sectors, some evidence of reduced
job loss, and a level of job stability that probably is no different
today from what it was 20 years ago.
Nevertheless, some costs have been incurred. Government has a
role in lessening the burden that economic growth causes for some
workers. Some policies have been put in place, and others have
been proposed, that should help reduce these costs without sacrificing growth in the economy.
One important potential cost of economic growth that this chapter has not addressed is increased inequality: the danger that those
at the bottom of the earnings distribution will find themselves falling ever further behind the rest. Chapter 5 explores issues of inequality in far greater detail.
162
CHAPTER 5
Inequality and Economic Rewards
IT WAS OVER 30 YEARS AGO that President John F. Kennedy
said, "A rising tide lifts all the boats." The decade preceding his
Presidency and the decade thereafter supported this optimism. Tremendous economic growth raised the incomes of American families
at all levels, including the poor, and income inequality fell dramatically. Beginning in the late 1970s, however, this broad tide of
equalizing growth turned, and inequality began to increase. The
gap between rich and poor continued to widen through the 1980s
and into the early 1990s, regardless of economic conditions. In the
last few years some signs have begun to emerge that inequality
may be stabilizing and perhaps even declining slightly, but the gap
in economic rewards between rich and poor is still much larger
than it was 20 years ago.
Economic inequality has several different dimensions. We begin
by looking at trends in earnings inequality across and among workers as grouped by age, sex, and level of education. Earnings inequality is an important indicator in its own right, because it helps
characterize the structure of the labor market. It is also an important contributor to inequality in household incomes, a broader
measure of economic well-being that aggregates the resources of all
household members and incorporates other income flows besides
earnings. Finally, we consider some alternative measures of inequality that may better address differences in lifetime income
across households.
Concerns with inequality are inseparable from concerns about
the well-being of the poor, but a rise in inequality does not necessarily mean the poor are worse off. A rise in inequality is consistent with a scenario in which the circumstances of the poorest are
improving, but the richest are experiencing even greater gains.
Such a state of affairs is less troubling than one in which those at
the top prosper while the living standards of those at the bottom
stagnate or decline. It makes a profound difference to our understanding and to our policies which of these depictions of rising inequality is the correct one. Therefore, in addition to documenting
trends in inequality, this chapter will focus specifically on the wellbeing of those at the bottom of the distribution.
163
RECENT TRENDS IN INEQUALITY
Before addressing longer term trends in inequality, we briefly explore the record of the recent past. Although it is too soon to tell
whether a break in the long-term trend toward greater income inequality has occurred, income statistics over the past few years do
show some reduction. From 1993 to 1995, income gains were observed throughout the income distribution, but the percentage increases were the largest for low-income households. One way to
view these changes is to separate households into five equal groups
based on their income (called quintiles) and estimate the increase
in income received by each quintile. Chart 5-1 displays the results
of such an analysis for the 1993-95 period. It shows that this period
has seen gains for each quintile, which were largest for the lowest
quintile and smallest for the highest.
Chart 5-1 Real Household Income Growth by Quintile from 1993 to 1995
Poor households experienced the largest Jncome gains from 1993 to 1995.
Average annual percent change
3.5
Quintite2
Quintile 3
Quintile 4
Quintile 5
Note: Household income adjusted by CR-U.
Source: Department of Commerce.
The "rising tide" theory might have predicted such results, given
the ongoing economic expansion. Yet recent historical experience
indicates that expansions do not always reduce inequality. Consider, for example, three years—1979, 1987, and 1995—when economic performance was similar: in all three years gross domestic
product (GDP) grew by about 2 to 3 percent, the unemployment
164
rate was about 6 percent, and the economy had been expanding for
a few consecutive years. Yet whereas the percentage of the population living in poverty (i.e., the poverty rate) fell by 0.7 percentage
point in 1995, it actually rose by 0.3 percentage point in 1979 and
fell by only 0.2 percentage point in 1987. The Gini index of household income inequality (which ranges from 0, indicating perfect
equality across income quintiles, to 1, which would indicate that all
income is going to the top quintile) rose in both 1979 and 1987, but
fell in 1995. Recent data show that inequality has been reduced beyond what would have been predicted by cyclical factors.
Although these results are encouraging, it is too soon to tell
whether the longer term trends of increasing inequality have been
reversed. The remainder of this chapter focuses on these longer
term trends.
EARNINGS INEQUALITY
The incomes of most people consist mainly of earnings from
labor. A large component of income differentials across households
can be attributed to differences in the earnings of individuals. An
examination of earnings is also facilitated by the individual nature
of the measure: it is not necessary to adjust for the changes in
household composition that so complicate discussions of household
income. This section documents trends in earnings inequality in
general, trends across workers with different characteristics, and
trends across workers with similar characteristics, before attempting to identify the factors that can help explain the observed rise
in inequality over time.
DOCUMENTING TRENDS IN EARNINGS INEQUALITY
Because earnings are a function of both the wage rate and the
number of hours worked, we concentrate here on full-time, yearround workers so as to abstract from any biases due to changes in
working hours over time. Men's earnings are the focus of this analysis, because the increasing labor force participation of women over
time may have altered the composition of the female workforce in
ways that might distort the results. For instance, if women with
higher earnings potential have entered the labor market at a faster
rate in recent years, measured inequality would appear to have increased, even if the underlying distribution of wages for women
continuously employed has remained unchanged. After examining
earnings inequality among men, we briefly examine trends among
women.
For male workers we examine two ratios that compare earnings
between workers at different points in the earnings distribution.
One of these is the ratio of the earnings of a male worker at the
165
90th percentile (i.e., one whose wages exceed those of 90 percent
of all male workers) to those of a male worker at the 50th percentile (i.e., the median male worker). This ratio is called the 90/50
earnings ratio. The other ratio, called the 50/10 earnings ratio, is
that between the median worker and a worker who earns more
than only 10 percent of workers. Estimating both these ratios is
more useful than the common alternative of estimating the 90/10
ratio alone, because the 50/10 ratio provides more information on
the well-being of those at the bottom of the distribution. Because
the median male worker's wages have fallen somewhat in real
terms, an increase in the earnings ratio between the 50th and the
10th percentiles indicates a larger reduction among those with low
earnings. In 1995, annual earnings at the 10th, 50th, and 90th percentiles were $12,920, $31,497, and $70,314. (Note that the 90thpercentile figure is well below the huge salaries paid to top corporate executives; see Box 5-1.)
Trends in the 90/50 and the 50/10 earnings ratios for full-time,
year-round male workers are shown in Chart 5-2. These data reveal that the male worker at the middle of the earnings distribution earned about 2.4 times the wages of the worker at the 10th
percentile in 1995, compared with 2.2 times in 1979. The 90/50
earnings ratio rose by a similar amount, from about 1.9 in 1979 to
2.2 in 1995. The overall trend in both ratios is upward over most
of this period, indicating increasing inequality across the wage
spectrum.
Another way to document increasing wage inequality is to calculate the percentages of the workforce falling in each of several
different earnings categories at different points in time. Chart 53 shows that a larger proportion of workers earned less than
$15,000 in 1995 than in 1979 (when earnings are measured in constant 1995 dollars); at the other end of the distribution, a larger
share of the workforce earned in excess of $75,000 in 1995 than in
1979. (The consumer price index, or CPI, is used in both calculations to adjust for inflation; potential biases introduced by using
this index are described in Chapter 2.) These increases at the top
and bottom of the distribution are offset by a reduction in the share
of workers earning between $35,000 and $75,000.
BETWEEN-GROUP INEQUALITY
The trend in inequality may be better understood by first grouping workers according to certain key characteristics (educational attainment and age are two that are commonly used) and then separating observed wage differentials into two components: the differential observed between workers so grouped (between-group inequality) and the differential observed among workers in the same
group (within-group inequality). Taking first the education dimen-
166
Box 5-1."—Executive Compensation
One much-publicized aspect of earnings Inequality has bee;
the extraordinarily high level of compensation of top corporate
executives. In 1995 the average compensation package for chief
executive officers (CEOs) in a sample of 362 of the largest 500
U.S. firms was- $1.5 million, and some CEOs received more
than $10 million that year. Defenders of current corporate pay
scales argue that today's executive compensation packages,
with their moderate base pay and generous stock options, encourage high-level management to act in the shareholders' interests by providing greater rewards for good long-run perform
ance. Critics respond that it is unclear in practice how much
executive compensation is even designed to be "performancebased.* For example, compensation in the form of stock options
rewards exect*tihr«$ i$r share price increases even when these
are attributable to market-wide price gains rather than the ex
ecutives* own actions, In addition, such compensation practices
may have adverse eff«ts on worker morale, when, for instance,
a firm pays its top management^ . .very
^ high salaries at the same
time that it
However :*Mir,
comt
tiny
tags
tfa0 effect of high executive
throughout the
represent only a
~l*w in Chart 5-2, earnwhen measured by the
whose compensation is the
tevel of earnings that
Be, and therefore even
,$io impact on trends in
have no influbeen increasing as
*
90/50 earnings
a do ubling
this
ence at
well.
sion. Chiron V-4 <M>W,S tin? treed in the ratio of the earnings of the
median male c<niege graduate to that of the median male high
school graduate, The chart reveals that returns to education grew
tremendously during the 1980s and early 1990s. In 1980 the median male college graduate earned roughly one-third more than the
median male high school graduate, but this wage premium grew to
over 70 percent by 1993, Since then that trend has slowed, and the
ratio even declined slightly in 1995,
Experience on the job is another important dimension in studying inequality. The premium paid to more experienced workers has
also been increasing over the past two decades or so. As shown in
167
Chart 5-2 Earnings Ratios for Mate Full-Time, Year-Round Workers
Two measures show that earnings inequality for men has risen since the late 1970s.
Ratio
2.6
2.4
50/10 earnings ratio
v,.
2.2
2.0
1.8
j_
I
1967 1969 1971 1973
J_
1975 1977
I
I
I
l
1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995
Source: Council of Economic Advisers tabulations of the March Current Population Survey.
Chart 5-3 Male Full-Time, Year-Round Workers by Real Earnings Range
The share of male workers earning $15,000 and under increased dramatically
between 1979 and 1995.
$15,000 and under
$15,001 - $35,000
$35,001 - $75,000
More than $75,000
B 1979 £2 1995
Note: Earnings in 1995 dollars, adjusted by CR-U-X1.
Source: Council of Economic Advisers tabulations of the March Current Population Survey.
168
Chart 5-4 College/High School Median Earnings Ratio for Male Full-Time, Full-Year Workers
The earnings premium associated with college attendance has risen dramatically for men
since the late 1970s.
Ratio
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
I
1967
I
1969
I
1971
I
1973
I
1975
I
1977
I
1979
I
1981
I
1983
I
1985
I
1987
I
1989
I
1991
I
1993
I
1995
Source: Council of Economic Advisers tabulations of the March Current Population Survey.
Chart 5-5, the median 45- to 54-year-old male worker earned
roughly 50 percent more than the median 25- to 34-year-old worker
in 1995, compared with a difference of less than 20 percent in
1979. The main reason for the increase is that young workers were
paid less in 1995, not that older workers were paid more.
WITHIN-GROUP INEQUALITY
Within-group inequality is also on the rise and in fact accounts
for about two-thirds of the total increase in earnings inequality.
For instance, among male high school graduates both the 90/50 and
the 50/10 earnings ratios have risen since about 1970 (Table 5-1).
Although the upward trend in the 50/10 ratio apparently stopped
in the late 1980s, that of the 90/50 ratio continues. Similar findings
emerge for groupings of workers by age. Table 5-1 also shows the
90/50 and 50/10 ratios for 25- to 34-year-old full-time, year-round
male workers. Within this group, the 90/50 ratio increased from
about 1.6 to about 1.9 between 1979 and 1995.
EARNINGS INEQUALITY AMONG WOMEN
Women have experienced increases in earnings inequality similar
to those of men. The 90/50 and 50/10 ratios of earnings for women
working full-time, year-round began rising in the late 1970s and
have continued upward through the 1980s and 1990s, as have
169
Chart 5-5 Ratio of Median Earnings of Males Age 45-54 to Those of Males Age 25-34
The wage advantage of a 45- to 54-year-old man relative to a 25- to 34-year-old man has
increased virtually continuously, particularly since the mid-1970s.
Ratio
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
I
1967
1969 1971 1973
1975
I
1977
I
I
I
1979
1981
1983
I
1985
I
I
I
1987 1989 1991 1993
1995
Source: Council of Economic Advisers tabulations of the March Current Population Survey.
those for men. The results presented in Charts 5-2 through 5-5
and Table 5-1 for men, with respect to overall, between-group, and
within-group inequality, generally find parallels in the patterns for
women. For instance, the wage premium received by college-educated women roughly doubled between 1978 and 1995, from 38 percent to 70 percent.
EXPLANATIONS FOR INCREASING EARNINGS
INEQUALITY
Alternative explanations for the observed increase in earnings inequality can be categorized into three broad groups: supply-side
factors, demand-side factors, and institutional factors. (A provocative alternative hypothesis is presented in Box 5-2.) Although no
clear consensus has emerged regarding the relative strength of
these alternatives, demand-side explanations play a large role.
A simple model of the labor market for more skilled, usually
higher paid workers and for relatively low paid, less skilled workers will help clarify the role of supply- and demand-side factors.
Supply-side factors can increase inequality if they cause the supply
curve in the market for less skilled workers to shift outward by relatively more than the supply curve in the market for more skilled
workers. As shown in Chart 5-6, such shifts would lead wages to
fall by a greater amount in the less skilled labor market than in
170
TABLE 5-1.— Earnings Ratios for Male High School Graduates
and 25- to 34-Year-Old Male Full-Time, Year-Round Workers
Year
25- to 34-year-old male
workers
Male high school
graduates
90/50 ratio
1967
1968
1969
1.62
1.57
1.61
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
50/10 ratio
90/50 ratio
50/10 ratio
1.89
1.86
1.76
1.64
1.58
1.64
2.03
2.01
1.84
1.61
1.64
1.62
1.66
1.68
1.80
1.85
1.91
1.90
1.94
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.66
1.81
1.85
1.91
1.92
1.97
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1.62
1.59
1.62
1.61
1.60
1.89
1.89
1.99
2.02
1.98
1.64
1.65
1.63
1.64
1.65
1.82
1.83
1.98
1.94
1.94
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1.62
1.63
1.69
1.69
1.69
2.00
2.02
2.08
2.12
2.13
1.68
1.68
1.72
1.73
1.72
1.88
1.98
1.98
2.03
2.10
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1.74
1.73
1.71
1.71
1.79
2.16
2.22
2.21
2.17
2.18
1.81
1.83
1.81
1.84
1.87
2.09
2.08
2.12
2.15
2.11
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1.79
1.77
1.78
1.87
1.88
2.15
2.19
2.19
2.11
2.17
1.83
1.84
1.91
1.96
1.96
2.16
2.17
2.16
2.13
2.14
1995
1.83
2.16
1.93
2.16
Source: Council of Economic Advisers tabulations of the March Current Population Survey.
the more skilled labor market, increasing inequality. What might
cause such an asymmetry? The increasing numbers of immigrants
in the labor market, and the increasing labor force participation
rates of women, who tend to have less work experience, could have
led to a disproportionate supply shift in the market for less skilled
workers.
In analogous fashion, demand-side factors could have influenced
the relative wages of more and less skilled workers if they caused
the demand curve in the market for more skilled workers to shift
outward by more than that in the market for less skilled workers,
or (especially) if the demand curve in the latter shifted inward. As
shown in Chart 5-7, these changes would increase wages in the
more skilled labor market and reduce them in the less skilled labor
market, increasing inequality. Technological developments favoring
skilled workers (called skill-biased technological change) could have
led to such shifts. The integration of new production technologies
may have increased firms' demand for workers capable of using
these technologies. Evidence indicates, for instance, that workers
171
Box 5-2.—Earnings Inequality and the Winner-Take-All Society
One provocative hypothesis offered to explain part of the increase in ^^m^^l^^^UB^y is the expansion of "winnertake-alT m&£Jb$bt»^y^gm top performers reap far greater rewards than d$-MJiftn%lta$e ability is only slightly inferior. For
example, It is not uncommon tb see a star professional athlete
making miKi«& ^ ^ttaars a year while another, only slightly
less talented athlete earns far less. It has been argued that
markets s&eh *M 'fl&te have become more pervasive in the
American economy* tlph the result that ours is increasingly a
winner4aka^fl society.
Huge wage premiums for small differences in performance
may now be observed it* law, medicine, investment banking,
academics* and other professions. Windfalls to the top producers in these fields have become increasingly common as computing and telecommunications technology have advanced, facilitating the flow "ijjf tarnation, and as transportation costs
have been i^iie^^ ift&r^siiig mobility. These factors increase
competition to M*0 $& best performers, increasing their wages*
How large a share 0fthe observed increase in earnings inequality may be rtWbiiMi to the expansion of winner-take-all
markets remains unknown.
who use a computer on the job earn significantly more than those
who do not.
The expansion of international trade could also have produced
the hypothesized shifts in demand curves. Because import industries tend to employ relatively less skilled workers, it is argued
that the wages of less skilled American workers are coming under
pressure either from direct job loss or from more intense wage bargaining with their own employers, who are now forced to compete
internationally. Of course, the demand and supply shifts just described may occur simultaneously, compounding the effect on earnings inequality.
Within this framework, demand shifts appear to play the larger
role in explaining growing inequality. Trends in the returns to education provide perhaps the most accessible evidence of the influence
of demand shifts, if the assumption is valid that more education
translates into higher levels of skill. The returns to a college education rose throughout the 1980s, as noted earlier, even though the
college enrollment rate among recent high school graduates grew
dramatically over this period. If relative demand for more and less
skilled workers had remained constant, the greater supply of college-educated workers should have led to a decline in the college
wage premium. The fact that the college wage premium instead
172
Chart 5-6 Increase in Inequality Due to Supply Shifts
Increasing inequality may occur because of shifts in the supply curve
in the less-skilled and more-skilled labor markets.
Less-Skilled Labor Market
More-Skilled Labor Market
Wage
Wage
Supply
W
W
W
W
Demand
Employment
Employment
Source: Council of Economic Advisers.
Chart 5-7 Increase in Inequality Due to Demand Shifts
Increasing inequality may occur because of shifts in the demand curve
in the less-skilled and more-skilled labor markets.
Less-Skilled Labor Market
More-Skilled Labor Market
Wage
Wage
Supply
W
W
W
Employment
Employment
Source: Council of Economic Advisers.
173
rose sharply suggests that demand shifts must have more than outweighed any concurrent supply shock. This framework is useful in
explaining within-group inequality as well, because skill differentials will remain within broad demographic categories.
Evidence shows that skill-biased technological change is probably
the main contributor to these demand shifts (many experts support
this view; see Box 5-3). Some evidence suggests that international
trade may be responsible for only a relatively small share of the
increase in inequality. For example, even manufacturing firms
whose products face little foreign competition have reduced their
demand for less skilled workers. Nevertheless, direct evidence of
the importance of skill-biased technological change in explaining
trends in within-group inequality is difficult to come by. Some
studies avoid this difficulty by treating technological change as a
residual, attributing rising inequality to this factor when their findings have excluded all other likely candidates.
A final set of explanations suggests that changes in institutional
arrangements in the labor market, such as the declining influence
of unions and a reduction in the real value of the minimum wage,
have led to lower returns for workers in the lower tail of the earnings distribution. Unions have long provided wage premiums to
such workers. But the share of employed workers belonging to
unions has eroded from a peak of roughly 30 percent through much
of the 1950s and 1960s to about 15 percent in 1995. Although research indicates that the decline of unions may indeed have played
some role in increased earnings inequality, it probably can explain
only a small share of the increase. This finding is consistent with
the fact that inequality also increased among groups of workers,
such as college graduates, who are unlikely to belong to unions.
The eroding value of the minimum wage also could contribute to
earnings inequality. A minimum wage truncates the earnings distribution at its lower end. If more than 10 percent of workers receive the minimum wage, inequality on such measures as the 507
10 earnings ratio will be less than it would be otherwise. Inequality
on this measure could even be reduced if the fraction receiving the
minimum were less than 10 percent, if "ripple effects" exist whereby workers who would otherwise earn slightly over the minimum
instead receive higher wages because of greater competition for
their labor. The decline in the real value of the minimum wage
through the 1980s is similar in its timing to that of the increase
in inequality. It is unlikely to be a leading explanation of rising inequality, however, because inequality also increased within groups
of workers, such as older workers, who are unlikely to be affected
by the minimum wage.
174
Box 5-3.—The Experts* Consensus on Earnings Inequality
Possible explanations for the observed rise in earnings inequality during the 1980s and early 1990s include skill-biased
technological change, trade liberalization, demographic shifts,
declining unionization, and rising immigration. Although the
relative importance of each of these is difficult to determine
precisely, some leading economists generally agree as to which
are the main culprits. Participants at a recent colloquium on
this topic at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York—a group
that included many prominent labor economists—viewed technological change as the strongest contributor.
Average percent contribution
50
Sowed: Federal RewwveBw* of Now Yortc
INCOME INEQUALITY
Household income is a broader measure of economic well-being
than individual earnings, because it aggregates the incomes of all
household members and incorporates other flows of income besides
earnings. Although labor earnings are typically its largest component, household income also includes interest and dividend receipts, cash transfer receipts, and rental payments. Household size
and composition are clearly important factors in determining observed household income. In this section we document the increase
in inequality since the late 1970s and explore its possible causes.
175
DOCUMENTING THE INCREASE IN INCOME
INEQUALITY
One way to trace changes in income inequality is to separate
households into income quintiles and estimate the share of income
received by each quintile. (Box 5-4 discusses some problems in income measurement.) Increasing inequality would be manifested by
a fall in the share of income going to the lowest quintile and a corresponding rise in the share going to the highest quintile. Chart 58 shows just such a pattern in household income quintiles for 1979
and 1995: since 1979 the shares going to the bottom four quintiles
have declined, while the share going to the highest quintile has increased.
Changes in income shares over time may mask how well those
at the bottom of the income distribution are doing. For instance, if
the richest quintile is getting richer but the incomes of all other
quintiles are holding constant, the shares of total income received
by the lower quintiles would fall, misleadingly suggesting that they
are becoming worse off. An alternative approach to documenting
changes in the distribution of income, one that examines levels of
income for those in different segments of the distribution, may
prove beneficial.
Chart 5-9 displays this sort of information for 1979 and 1995.
Households are divided into four categories: those with incomes
less than $15,000, those between $15,000 and $35,000 (roughly the
median in 1995), those between $35,000 and $75,000, and those
over $75,000. Incomes are converted into 1995 dollars using the
CPI. The chart shows that the share of households in the highest
income bracket increased from 10.9 percent to 14.8 percent between 1979 and 1995, while the share in the lowest income bracket
remained unchanged. These statistics suggest that some middle-income households have moved up into the higher income categories,
but the number of households toward the bottom of the income distribution has remained nearly constant.
This approach may be misleading, however, because the unit of
analysis is the household, not the individual. Because household
composition has been changing over time, the observation of an unchanged number of households lying below a particular income cutoff may overlook the reality that more people are residing in these
households.
One way to focus more directly on the well-being of individuals
near the bottom of the income distribution is to examine trends in
the poverty rate. Throughout the 1960s and early 1970s the poverty rate fell dramatically, from 22.2 percent in 1960 to 11.1 percent in 1973. (Chart 5-10 shows the trend since 1967.) It remained
low throughout the 1970s, ranging from 11.1 percent to 12.6 percent over the decade. In the 1980s the poverty rate rose dramati-
176
Box 5-4.—Shortcomings of Household Income Measures
Household income is a useful indicator of economic wellbeing because it is relatively easy to measure and interpret. It
has its shortcomings, however. For instance, it does not incorporate taxes or payments made in kind, such as food stamps
and housing subsidies. To the extent that the tax system is
progressive and that in-kind transfers are means-tested, use of
an after-tax-and-transfer definition of income would reduce the
measured level of inequality. Although some analysts have
adapted the standard income-based measures to include the
value of in-Mad income, economists have not agreed on the
best method for doing so, Some value in-kind benefits according to the cost of providing them, and others according to what
an individual would be witting to pay to receive the benefit, In
any case, research incorporating taxes and in-kind payments
shows trends m inequality that are similar to those reported
by standard measures.
Another problem is that differences in household size will
lead to different assessments of the economic well-being of individuals witb the same household income. Attempts to abstract from differences to household size have proceeded by developing "equivalence scales* that adjust household income for
the number of household members, Other approaches scale the
incomes of larger households by progressively smaller amounts
for each additional member. Even after making these adjustments for differences in household size, however, income inequality appears to be increasing.
Despite these obstacles, alternative measures of income are
being tested by the Bureau of the Census, and others have
been proposed by the National Academy of Sciences (MAS). The
Census Bureau produces a series of 17 experimental estimates
of income in an attempt to gauge the effects of various noncash
government benefits and taxes on income levels and on poverty. The NAS proposes another definition of income to be used
in the measurement of poverty that adds noncash benefits to
money income and subtracts taxes, some work expenses, some
child care expenses, child support payments, and medical outof-pocket expenses. It would also adjust the equivalence scale
currently used in poverty calculations. Measures such as the
Census experimental series and those proposed by the NAS are
intended to reflect the effects of government policy initiatives.
Nevertheless, no clear consensus exists regarding certain complex methodological issues, including valuation of some benefits such as medical and child care.
177
Chart 5-8 Change in Share of Income Received by Each Quintile from 1979 to 1995
The share of money income going to the top 20 percent of all households increased
between 1979 and 1995 at the expense of all other households.
Percent change
15
Quintile 1
Quintile 2
Quintile 3
Quintile 4
Quintile 5
Source: Department of Commerce.
Chart 5-9 Share of Households by Real Income Range
In 1995, a larger proportion of households had incomes over $75,000 (in 1995 dollars)
than in 1979.
Percent of households
40
Less than $15,000
$15,000-$35,000
•
1979
Note: Income adjusted by CPMJ-X1.
Source: Department of Commerce.
178
$35,000-$75,000
I 1995
More than $75,000
cally and has fallen below 13 percent only once since then, in 1989
following 6 years of economic expansion.
The composition of the impoverished population has also changed
over time, especially with respect to age. The percentage of children living in poverty rose from 14.4 percent in 1973 to 22.7 percent in 1993, but has fallen somewhat since then. On the other
hand, the poverty rate for those over 65 used to be considerably
higher than that for the population as a whole (24.6 percent compared with 12.6 percent in 1970), but mainly because of the Social
Security system, poverty among this group has actually fallen
below the overall poverty rate since 1982. The elderly poverty rate
reached an all-time low of 10.5 percent in 1995, falling significantly
below that for the 18- to 64-year-old population for the first time
ever.
Chart 5-10 Poverty Rates
The overall increase in poverty since the 1970s comprises an increase in poverty
among children but a decrease in poverty among those age 65 and older.
Percent
30
25 r
"
"-•.
Under age 18
\
\ Age 65 and over
20
\ .'
15
All persons
'
10
I
1967
I
1969
I
1971
I
1973
1
1975
I
1977
I
1979
I
1981
I
1983
I
1985
I
1987
I
1989
I
1991
I
1993
I
1995
Source: Department of Commerce.
The transition from a poverty population that is
disproportionally elderly to one that is more heavily weighted toward households with children suggests that the household size of
the low-income population has increased over time. This is consistent with the coexistence of a rising share of low-income individuals
and a constant share of low-income households. The effect of
179
changes in household composition on income inequality is explored
more fully below.
EXPLANATIONS FOR INCREASING INCOME
INEQUALITY
Because measurements of income inequality incorporate all
sources of a household's income, including labor market earnings,
it should come as no surprise that a major contributor to increasing
income inequality across households is rising earnings inequality
across workers. In fact, about half of the increased inequality in
household incomes over the 1980s can be explained by trends in
earnings inequality among men.
Part of the remaining share can be attributed to changes in
household composition and, in particular, to the increase in femaleheaded households. The share of family households headed by
women has risen rapidly, from just over 10 percent in 1970 to
about 18 percent in 1995. These households are more likely to receive lower incomes because they lack a second wage earner, because women earn less on average than men, and because some of
these women do not work at all. Therefore the growing share of
this type of household has worsened income inequality. In fact, the
rise in the percentage of children in poverty over the past 25 years
is strictly due to the increase in the number of children residing
in female-headed households, whose poverty rates are higher than
those for children living in other circumstances. The poverty rate
among children in female-headed households has actually decreased over time.
Research suggests that the rapid rise in female labor force participation has also contributed to growing inequality. This finding
is not obvious, however, because in some ways a rise in the number
of working women serves to reduce inequality. For instance, the
distribution of women's earnings is more compressed than that of
men, so that increasing female labor force participation should reduce overall earnings inequality. If all men and women lived alone,
this reduction in earnings inequality and the reduction in the number of people with zero earnings (because of increased employment)
would also reduce income inequality.
Inequality may nonetheless increase in response to greater female labor force participation because people tend to marry persons
whose earnings potential is similar to their own. For example,
more educated men may be more likely to marry more educated
women. The increase in employment among married women could
therefore increase household inequality in one of two ways. First,
if women in high-income households are joining the labor force in
greater numbers than women from low-income households, their
earnings will push their household incomes even further beyond
180
the middle of the distribution, and income inequality will increase.
This hypothesis is not supported by the data, however, as labor
force participation rates for women have risen roughly equally
across households ranked by the husband's earnings level. Second,
for working couples, rising earnings inequality will be compounded
at the household level if men with high earnings are married to
women with high earnings. Taken as a whole, the evidence suggests that women's increasing labor force participation has contributed somewhat to growing income inequality during the 1980s.
Income inequality can also be affected by changes in unearned
income across households. The source of the unearned income determines whether or not it increases or decreases the income inequality that would occur from earnings alone. For example, property income is more likely to be received by individuals with higher
earnings, and therefore an increase in property income would tend
to worsen inequality. Transfer payments are more likely to go to
individuals with lower earnings, and an increase in transfers would
therefore tend to reduce inequality. Research suggests that, on balance, nonlabor income tended to increase inequality during the
1980s. The effect of these changes is still significantly less than
that caused by growing earnings inequality, however.
ALTERNATIVE MEASURES OF INEQUALITY
This discussion, like much of the economic literature on inequality, has focused on inequality in annual earnings and household income. However, appropriate borrowing and saving behavior can
smooth year-to-year fluctuations in income, making consumption
less variable, provided households have appropriate access to credit
markets. Therefore differences in lifetime income across households
may offer a more valuable perspective on differences in well-being.
Of course, one cannot reliably measure lifetime income when
much of that income has yet to be received. Lifetime income is thus
an inherently unmeasurable concept, and analysts must resort to
using related measures as a basis for estimating it. One such measure is consumption, on the theory that households set consumption
levels according to their own assessments of their lifetime income.
A potential problem here is that a household may have large asset
holdings, indicating the potential to raise its consumption in the future, but choose to limit its consumption for the present. Therefore,
another indicator used to examine lifetime income inequality across
households is household wealth.
Another way to address differences in lifetime income across
households is to examine income mobility—the extent to which
households move across the income distribution over time. Increasing annual income inequality is more meaningful as an indicator
181
of lifetime income differences across households if income mobility
does not increase as well.
CONSUMPTION INEQUALITY
If consumption decisions are based on households' assessments of
their lifetime income, then inequality in consumption can be used
as a proxy for inequality in lifetime income. For example, a middleincome household that suffers a brief spell of reduced income will
not change its consumption habits much, whereas a household with
regularly low income will consume considerably less. Therefore we
can expect to see less inequality in consumption than in annual income.
Some evidence supports this proposition: studies have found that
the distribution of consumption is more concentrated than that of
income. In other words, individuals do appear to prefer to smooth
their consumption levels across their lifetimes through borrowing
and saving. One difficulty in comparing the distributions of income
and of consumption is that income is measured before taxes and inkind transfers, whereas consumption is based on after-tax income
and includes in-kind transfers. To the extent that taxes and in-kind
transfers reduce inequality (an issue that is discussed below), one
would expect consumption inequality to be less than income inequality. During the 1980s, consumption inequality rose along with
income inequality, but in the early 1990s the two diverged. Between 1989 and 1993, consumption inequality leveled off while income inequality continued to rise. Some demographic groups, particularly households headed by a high school graduate or dropout,
experienced large declines in consumption inequality over the period. No obvious explanation for the timing of the turnaround in
consumption inequality or its comparison to income inequality exists.
WEALTH INEQUALITY
Another shortcoming in using annual income as a measure of differences in economic well-being is that it does not capture the purchasing power of a household's asset holdings. Therefore differences
across households in terms of net wealth (which consists of cash
savings, financial assets, and the value of physical assets such as
a house or a car, less any outstanding debt) provide an alternative
indicator of inequality.
Data on wealth are limited, but one source, the Survey of
Consumer Finances, sponsored by the Federal Reserve Board does
provide comparable data for 1983, 1989, and 1992. Over these
years median family net wealth (estimated at $52,000 in 1992) has
been fairly stable. Wealth is concentrated in the hands of a small
number of families, and the degree of that concentration has re-
182
mained fairly constant. The wealthiest 10 percent of families have
owned roughly 67 percent of total net wealth since the early 1980s.
The top 1 percent of families did increase their wealth holdings
from around 30 percent of total net wealth in 1983 to 37 percent
in 1989, but their share fell back to 30 percent by 1992. The stock
market boom of the 1980s might have led one to predict increasing
concentration, but stock ownership has become more widespread
over time. In addition, home values increased over the period, and
home ownership is far more common than stock ownership.
MOBILITY
If a household's income varies widely from year to year, annual
measures of inequality may provide a very inaccurate picture of
lifetime inequality. If the increase in annually measured income inequality over the past 20 years or so has been accompanied by an
increase in income fluctuations, it is possible that lifetime incomes
have been unaffected. For instance, if new labor market entrants
make less than previous entrants, but their wages grow more rapidly as they gain experience, then annual measures of income inequality will be greater, as will income mobility, but lifetime income may be unchanged. Therefore the degree of mobility through
the income distribution is another means of examining the difference between annual and lifetime income. (A related issue of mobility between parents and children is explored in Box 5-5.)
Studies of mobility have compared household incomes over varying periods, such as 1 year, 5 years, and 10 years. One-year
changes in income are likely to reflect short-term changes, such as
temporary job loss, as well as measurement errors in reported income that are not perfectly correlated between years. Longer term
changes will also incorporate these events but are more likely to
identify more permanent changes in incomes, which are particularly large among younger households. Therefore one might expect
mobility over longer periods to be greater than that from year to
year.
A standard approach in estimating income mobility is to rank
households by their income in each of two years, separate them
into quintiles in each year according to their rank, and then see to
what extent households have moved from quintile to quintile between the two years. Results from these studies indicate a reasonably high degree of mobility over time. One study finds that about
3 out of every 10 households move between quintiles from one year
to the next. As one would expect, mobility is greater over longer periods: almost two-thirds of households change income quintiles over
10 years. These mobility rates do not appear to be increasing over
time. The probabilities of making a transition between income
quintiles over periods of varying lengths have remained roughly
183
Box S-5.-Intergenerational Mobility
/ «*-•*',-' :f; ^v>$f^''''"'/ ' ' • \
Another issue relating to income mobility is the extent to
which income is transferred between parents and children. If,
the correlation between parents' income and their children's in- come as adttlte;ls;:i^^?^ii a child is likely to experience a
level of economic well-being similar to that of his or her parents (te,f i&terg^^^
will be low). If the two
generations' incomes are not correlated, children will have no
greater probability of ending up in one income quintile than in
another* Early ^^fes found a low correlation:
intergenerational mobility was quite high. The son of a highincome father would have the same probability as anyone else
of residing at any given point -in the income distribution after ,
only two ^nwfati®m.. \%\ '' ^ ,
An important problem with these studies, however, is that
they ignored me^iwfetffet error in reported income. If re*
ported levels of toc^ia^ tf either the father, the son, or both
were inaccurate, the resulting estimates of the correlation in
income would be biased toward zero. More recent studies have
paid careful attention to the measurement error issue and the
bias it introduces. These studies found a considerably higher
correlation and thus a considerably smaller degree of
intergenerational mobility than did previous work* Their results indicate that it would take four generations before the
son of a high-income father had a roughly equal probability of
residing at any point in the income distribution.
steady through the 1970s and 1980s. The evidence thus does not
appear to support the proposition that rising income inequality has
been offset by increasing income mobility.
One issue in interpreting these studies is that transitions over
time between income quintiles may occur because of changes in the
flow of income (mainly earnings) or changes in household composition. A person who marries is likely to experience a significant increase in household income if his or her spouse works, even if that
person's earnings remain constant.
An alternative approach that some researchers have taken in examining mobility is to focus exclusively on individuals' earnings
and transitions that occur between earnings quintiles over time.
Again, mobility rates are reasonably high, with higher transition
rates over longer time periods. Roughly 3 in 10 individuals change
earnings quintiles between one year and the next, and almost half
make such a transition over 5 years, according to one study. As
184
Chart 5-11 One-Year and Five-Year Mobility Rates
Mobility through the earnings distribution has not changed much over time.
Percent
50
45
Probability of changing
quintiles over 5 years
40
35
Probability of changing
quintiles over 1 year
x
.^•w
30
25
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
Source: Unpublished calculations by R. Burkhauser. D. Holtz-Eakin, and S. Rhody, Syracuse University.
with income mobility, no trend over time is apparent in earnings
mobility (Chart 5-11).
GOVERNMENT POLICY AND INEQUALITY
Without government intervention, the distribution of income
would be even more dispersed than it is. A progressive Federal income tax and a variety of Federal and State transfer programs
have for decades worked to reduce inequality. More recently, several new policies have been put in place to reduce inequality further, particularly by improving the conditions of those toward the
bottom of the income distribution.
ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF GOVERNMENT POLICY
Incorporating the effect of tax and in-kind transfer policies into
income measures poses two challenges. First, a household's tax
burden and the value of noncash benefits such as food stamps and
Medicaid need to be calculated, and this calculation is subject to
ambiguities (Box 5-4). Second, calculating income in the absence of
government as conventionally measured income less transfers assumes that the availability of the transfers has no impact on recipients' other income. Still, after taxes and transfers have been taken
into account to the extent possible, government policy is shown to
185
reduce inequality significantly. The progressivity of the Federal individual income tax system, together with all payroll taxes and
State income taxes, reduces the Gini index by about 5 percent.
Transfer payments account for an even larger reduction in the Gini
index, of around 20 percent. The program that contributes perhaps
the most to reducing inequality is Social Security, as one might expect from the relatively low poverty rate among older Americans.
The incidence of poverty is similarly affected by government policies. The officially reported poverty rate of 13.8 percent in 1995
would have been 21.9 percent if cash transfers were not included
in income. Moreover, when incomes are measured according to the
most comprehensive measure, which includes all taxes and the
earned income tax credit (EITC) as well as the valuation of in-kind
transfers, the poverty rate is estimated to be only 10.3 percent.
ADDITIONAL POLICIES TO REDUCE INEQUALITY
Both short-run and long-run policies are needed to help reduce
income inequality. In the short run, the EITC can help raise the
incomes of workers with low earnings. The EITC is a refundable
tax credit of up to 40 percent of earnings, depending on family size.
The credit was expanded in both 1990 and 1993, with both an increase in its value and a broadening of the covered population to
include very low wage workers who do not reside with children.
The number of families receiving the credit rose from 12.6 million
in 1990 to an estimated 18 million in 1996. Between 1990 and 1996
the average credit per family more than doubled, from $601 to an
estimated $1,400. In 1995 almost 3.3 million people were lifted out
of poverty by the EITC, more than twice as many as only a few
years before.
The recent increase in the minimum wage may also play a part
in reducing inequality. Between 1981 and April 1990, the minimum
wage remained constant at $3.35 per hour even as inflation eroded
its value by 44 percent. The 27 percent increase in the minimum
wage in April 1990, to $4.25 an hour, did not restore it to its real
1981 level. Inflation then eroded the value of the minimum wage
another 23 percent up to October 1996, when it was increased to
$4.75; that increase is to be followed in September 1997 with a further increase to $5.15.
Although even these raises will not restore the purchasing power
of the minimum wage to its 1981 level, the minimum wage and the
EITC together do more to reduce inequality today than they did
then. For example, a single parent with two children earning $5.15
per hour for 40 hours per week, 50 weeks per year in 1998 would
make $9,775 (in 1996 dollars) before the EITC and $13,343 including the EITC. Without the 1996-97 minimum wage increases, this
family's income including the EITC would have been only $11,294.
186
The combination of the recent rise in the minimum wage with the
expansion of the EITC makes the returns to work for minimum
wage workers greater than in 1981, when the minimum wage was
higher in real terms. In that year the same family, with the parent
working the same hours but earning the minimum wage of $3.35,
would have received $11,336 (in 1996 dollars) before the EITC and
$12,034 including the less generous EITC available at that time.
In the long run, greater access to education and training programs should reduce inequality by reducing the wage premium associated with additional training. In terms of the simple labor market model presented above, as more workers obtain additional education, the supply of more highly skilled workers shifts outward
and that of less skilled workers shifts inward (again assuming that
more education translates into higher levels of marketable skill).
These shifts increase the wages of the less skilled relative to those
of the more skilled, reducing inequality between the two groups.
Improved access to education and training can also reduce inequality if it allows individuals from lower income households to
make investments in their human capital that they could not make
otherwise. Programs such as Head Start can provide disadvantaged
preschoolers the opportunity to begin formal schooling with the intellectual tools they need to flourish. The recently inaugurated Federal direct student loan program has also provided benefits to students and schools. The Federal Government now issues loans directly to students through the financial aid offices of their colleges,
rather than through commercial financial intermediaries, and offers four different repayment options, including an income-contingent payment plan. In the 1996/97 academic year, 1.9 million students will have participated in the program, which is widely viewed
as successful in providing more timely, flexible, and accessible service to both students and universities.
CONCLUSION
Income inequality in the United States has risen over the past
two decades. Its very persistence means that this trend will be difficult to change. Even recognizing the reversal when it does occur
will be difficult enough, because statistical analysis cannot easily
distinguish a decisive turnaround in inequality from a relatively
brief pause in its rise. It is still too soon to tell whether the promising statistics reported in the past few years represent a true reversal or just such a pause.
Because of this uncertainty, continued vigilance is required to
find ways to help alleviate inequality, particularly to the extent
that it can reduce hardship for those at the bottom of the economic
ladder. Some changes have already been instituted, such as the in-
187
crease in the minimum wage and the expansion of the EITC. Improved access to education and training is also essential. Although
these represent useful first steps, much remains to be done.
188
CHAPTER 6
Refining the Role of Government in
the U.S. Market Economy
WHAT IS THE APPROPRIATE ROLE, IF ANY, of government
in regulating the manufacture, distribution, prices, and quality of
products in the U.S. economy? Much of the 20th century has seen
an expansion of the role of government as regulator. But since the
late 1970s the regulatory tide has ebbed in many important respects.
The first major deregulatory efforts were in industries such as
airlines, railroads, trucking, banking, and natural gas. (Box 6-1 illustrates some of the benefits of deregulation.) Deregulating the
traditional utilities, particularly telephones and electricity, has
taken a slower course. However, both of those industries have been
the object of significant procompetitive policy initiatives in the past
year. On February 8, 1996, the President signed into law the longawaited Telecommunications Act of 1996. Two and a half months
later the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) issued its
Orders No. 888 and No. 889, which set rules for opening up interstate transmission networks to all generators and resellers of electricity.
These two enormous steps toward bringing competition into the
utilities sector represent a sea change in the traditional relationship between public policy and private enterprise. During most of
the 20th century, government and markets were typically viewed
as substitutes. Citizens and policymakers had to choose between
government mandate and market forces. As the 21st century approaches, we see that market forces and public policy are less often
substitutes than complements. The Telecommunications Act, the
FERC's Order No. 888, and the ongoing Federal and State efforts
to implement their principles and mandates show how judiciously
crafted public policy can increase rather than decrease the role and
effectiveness of market forces in the economy, and thereby improve
the economic and social prospects for the American people.
Complementarity between markets and government extends in
the other direction as well. Just as well-crafted government policy
can make markets work better, so the introduction of market mechanisms into the regulatory process can help government achieve society's goals. For example, to ensure that wireless technologies best
189
meet the public's demand for communication sendees, the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) has turned to auctioning off
portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. These auctions not only
have been enormously successful in getting licenses quickly into
the hands of those who can use them most efficiently, but have
raised over $20 billion for the U.S. Treasury in the process. A second success story has been the use of market forces to provide
greater flexibility in meeting environmental goals (e.g., tradable
permits for sulfur dioxide emissions). Last but not least, market
forces can help improve the management, use, and disposal of public lands.
Box6-l.—The Benefits of Deregulation
That deregulation produces economic benefits when it leads
to effective competition is not merely a theoretical
Data from the field bear this assertion out as
ment by a Brookings Institution scholar finds
•not only has braught conriderable ;&9^n$;
ing markets work better, but also has led to
eratfiig* Innovations ''i&afc;£*^
long run. The table below gi^es soMe
Airlines
24 percent decline Jn costs
per unit of output
30-35 percent decline in
operating costs per mile
Railroads .
50 percent dectim in costs
per ton-mifer 141 percent
increase In productivity
Better contracts
MARKETS, GOVERNMENTS, AND
COMPLEMENTARITY
As a prelude to discussing the potential for complementarity between private markets and the public sector, we review the purposes each serves in a primarily market-driven economy.
190
THE ADVANTAGES OF MARKETS
The argument in favor of deferring to markets typically relies on
the efficiency of their outcomes. If markets are competitive and
function smoothly, they will lead to prices at which the amount
sellers want to supply equals the amount buyers demand. Moreover, the price in any market will simultaneously equal the benefit
that buyers get from the last unit consumed (the marginal benefit)
and the cost of producing the last unit supplied (the marginal cost).
These two conditions ensure efficiency: when they hold in all markets, the Nation's labor and resources are allocated to producing a
particular good or service if and only if consumers would not be
willing to pay more to have those resources employed elsewhere.
This familiar story is profound and important, yet it understates
the role of private markets in making economies work. Since at
least the 1930s, economists have noted that in theory the government could reach efficient outcomes without relying on markets, if
government officials had sufficient information and the right incentives. But it is markets' superior information-processing ability and
preservation of individual incentives that explain their general superiority to government management of the economy. Markets
allow transactions to be decentralized to the level where decisions
are made by those most affected by them, in direct response to
budget constraints and tradeoffs. Market participants themselves
then have powerful incentives to generate and gather information
and make the deals that best serve their interests.
Information
An insufficiently appreciated property of markets is their ability
to collect and distribute information on costs and benefits in a way
that enables buyers and sellers to make effective, responsive decisions. Because market prices measure the marginal benefits of
goods and services to consumers, firms that maximize their profits
simultaneously maximize the difference between benefits and costs.
Similarly, consumers look to market prices to decide which goods
and services to purchase, and how to use their labor, resources, and
financial wealth to generate the income to pay for them. As tastes,
technology, and resource availability change, market prices will
change in corresponding ways, to direct resources to the newly valued ends and away from obsolete means. It is simply impossible for
governments to duplicate and utilize the massive amount of information exchanged and acted upon daily by the millions of participants in the marketplace.
That markets normally process all of this information so well and
so rapidly tends to be taken for granted. In light of all the investments, hires, plans, purchases, marketing efforts, sales, contracts,
and exchanges necessary to bring goods to market, the fact that the
price system normally works as well as it does—for instance, that
191
the products consumers want are usually on the shelves—ought to
be regarded as astounding. Instead, it's literally business as usual.
Incentives
Even if the public sector could gather and quickly respond to all
available information on changing consumer tastes and production
technologies, private markets would still have the advantage of
preserving the incentive to produce efficient outcomes. In private
markets, buyers and sellers directly reap the benefits and bear the
costs of their demand and supply decisions. Each makes decisions
aimed at achieving the greatest benefit, or economic return, net of
cost. These incentives not only affect how resources are used today,
but also lead to innovations that will increase the efficiency with
which resources are deployed in the future and result in new products that raise living standards.
In contrast, the links between the government and the individuals who reap the benefits and who bear the costs of its decisions
are frequently weak. The nature of day-to-day legislative, executive, judicial, and regulatory proceedings runs a risk of favoring organized, established interests rather than the public at large. Accordingly, government's role in the operation of the private economy must be limited and judicious. Initiatives to increase our
economy's reliance on markets, and to improve the efficiency of regulation through market mechanisms, reflect an awareness of the
tremendous benefits that market forces can bring to bear by employing private incentives to achieve social goals.
WHY HAVE GOVERNMENT AT ALL?
If markets generally outperform government, why not leave everything to the market? To begin with, it is useful to remember
that markets and governments can and do work together. For markets to function effectively, deals must be enforced and fraud discouraged. Without a governmental legal system to guarantee property rights and enforce contracts, corporate organization and market exchange would be virtually impossible. Anarchy and the free
market are not synonymous. (Box 6-2 discusses the role of government in protecting property rights in information in an era of electronic, global markets.)
But government has other roles beyond refereeing private transactions. Markets left to themselves sometimes produce inefficient
outcomes. For example, markets efficiently transmit information
and provide proper incentives only when sellers compete with
enough intensity to drive prices down to cost. But in some circumstances, firms can impede the forces of competition by agreeing
among themselves to maintain high prices, or by merging to the
point where individual production decisions substantially affect
prices. The antitrust laws are the public policy instrument for pre-
192
Box 0~&—Th& Role of Copyright in an E lectronic Global
Economy
The growth of telecommunications, computing power, and
their joint progeny, the Internet, is revolutionising the way in
which information is created and shared. Whether by satellite
or by fiber-optic cable, electronic telecommunications networks
today transmit vast amounts of scientific and commercial information, and entertainment, around the globe in a heartbeat.
Since the 18th century, markets for the products of creative
expression and technical innovation have been supported
through copyright and patent laws, which extend private property rights to intellectual property, These laws have historically attempted to strike a balance between enhancing economic incentives to create and promoting widespread use of
the thing created. By preventing unauthorized copying, intellectual property laws allow creators and innovators to profit
from their original works and inventions.
Strong copyright and patent protection can help provide the
appropriate incentives to create, by allowing creators to capture a greater share of the marginal benefit of their efforts.
The cost of strong protection, however, is that prices to use
copyrighted works or patents may remain high for some period
of time, Ironically, because patents and copyrights build on the
work of others, overly strong intellectual property protection
today could discourage innovation and creativity in the future.
An increasingly important policy question is whether these
traditional legal means for striking the balance between incentives to create and incentives to use will continue to apply in
a global information-based economy. Difficult issues to resolve
include:
* rights to display copyrighted information on computer
screens
* the applicability of copyright to electronic data bases
* "fair use" rights and other traditional exceptions for the
educational and research community, and
* competition within broad-based collective copyright licensing organizations.
The need to coordinate our efforts with other nations makes
the resolution of these crucial questions even more complex.
venting such anticompetitive collusion and mergers. Public antitrust enforcement complements market forces by supporting conditions conducive to competition. A second important means of promoting competition in U.S. markets is the reduction of trade bar-
193
riers and other distortions that deter entry by foreign providers of
goods and services. There may also be a role for government when
large firms have cost advantages that discourage entry by other
firms and thus make sustained competition impossible. For instance, the government may directly regulate prices as a substitute
for market forces in such circumstances.
Markets also produce inefficient outcomes when the prices that
buyers and sellers agree on do not take account of benefits and
costs falling on third parties. The result is called an externality, a
textbook example of which is air pollution. It would be prohibitively
costly to define and enforce property rights to the use of clean air.
Therefore, unless polluters can be made to pay a compensatory tax,
purchase emission permits, comply with regulations, or face liabilities imposed by environmental or tort law, they do not take the
cost of their pollution into account. This leads to excessive levels
of undesirable emissions—a negative externality. Externalities can
be positive as well as negative, conferring benefits rather than imposing costs on third parties. For example, inoculations not only
protect those who receive them from contagious disease, but may
prevent its spread through the rest of the population.
An important example of a public good with positive spillovers is
basic scientific research, whose benefits can far exceed those realized by the firm or institution undertaking the research. In such
cases, targeted Federal support can more than pay for itself
through the technological innovations and product improvements
bestowed upon the economy overall. Investments in transportation
and communications infrastructure are another example. Numerous recent initiatives, such as the Department of Transportation's
programs to provide and leverage financing for public highways
and private toll roads, can generate widespread benefits by promoting regional economic development.
Information asymmetries, where one party to a transaction
knows more than the others, can also undercut market efficiency.
Health insurance offers an instructive example. If consumers of
health insurance know better than providers the chances of their
falling ill in a given year, only those who know they are more likely
to get sick might purchase insurance. As premiums rise to reflect
the higher risk of the those buying insurance, the healthier among
them—for whom the insurance costs now exceed their expected
care needs—drop out of the market. This process of adverse selection can repeat itself to the point where the market collapses. One
reason why the government, rather than private insurers, provides
health insurance for the elderly through Medicare is that the elderly may have more knowledge regarding their health status than
any private insurer, giving rise to an adverse selection problem (see
194
Box 3-1 in Chapter 3). Maintaining a population-wide risk pool
eliminates the problem.
Finally, the efficiency standard is not the only basis for judging
the performance of an economy. Probably the most frequent indictment laid against markets is that they can be consistent with significant inequality of opportunities and outcomes. Progressive income taxation, free public education, and numerous transfer programs—all acts of government—moderate some of the inequality in
our market-based economy. Civil rights laws prohibit discrimination that market forces may fail to eliminate. In addition, because
markets are driven by the pursuit of personal, not collective, interests, market transactions may not fully support our shared social
values. Prohibitions on child labor, laws to preserve habitats for endangered species, and public support for the arts exemplify ways
in which government seeks to give our important social values
their due.
This list of potential limitations to the market is not meant to
be exhaustive. And markets, of course, often can and do respond
to these and other imperfections on their own. If a market is not
competitive, firms may enter that market or buyers may begin production in-house rather than continue to deal with a monopolist.
Markets may internalize externalities in cases where it is possible
to define property rights or to bring within the same organization
all those who reap the benefits and bear the costs. In some cases,
warranties and independent testing agencies can mitigate adverse
selection and other problems resulting from imperfect information.
The pursuit of goals other than efficiency, such as alleviating inequitable distributions of wealth, is of paramount importance.
Chapter 5 of this Report discusses an array of policies for addressing inequality, from transfer payments to progressive taxation to
the earned income tax credit. Because reducing inequality is so
vital a concern, we need to recognize that few strictly regulatory
decisions will have much of an effect on the distribution of wealth
or income. The controlled pricing of telephone service, electricity, or
other products of regulated firms may promote other social objectives, but it is unlikely to have much effect on the prevalence and
intensity of poverty. Efforts to reduce inequality will be more effective if directed at wages, taxes, and other determinants of disposable income, rather than at prices for particular products, especially those that make up only a small fraction of household budgets. However, firm and even-handed enforcement of broad public
health, environmental, and other regulatory protections can help to
ensure that low-income and minority communities are not disproportionately affected by pollution and other activities that generate harmful spillovers.
195
MARKETS AND PUBLIC POLICY AS
COMPLEMENTS
The conventional emphasis on markets and governments as substitutes, rather than complements, has often led well-meaning,
thoughtful people to take extreme positions on the role of the public sector in the economy. Proponents of a strong government role
frequently compare real market failures with an idealized vision of
a government possessing unlimited information and purely beneficent objectives. Opponents of government often fall prey to the opposite fallacy, contrasting the qualities of an ideal market with the
behavior of real governments, which must act upon limited information and often with distorted incentives. Both institutions have
limitations; neither measures up to the ideal.
A more useful approach is to compare real markets with real policy effects, to understand when and where lines between the public
and the private sectors should be drawn. Finding this boundary is
difficult; reasonable people can and do differ on its location. Comparing the actual performance of markets and governments also
helps us see how public policies can make private markets work
better, and how using market incentives can improve the performance of the government.
Nineteen ninety-six saw the realization of major initiatives to establish and extend competition in two markets where it had long
been absent: local telephone service and electricity generation. Last
year's Economic Report of the President examined the future of deregulation of those two industries in detail. When that Report was
written, these initiatives were optimistic prospects. Now the complex task of implementing the visions behind them has begun. Policymakers are working to devise ways to bring about competition
while protecting against the undue exercise of market power. Much
of the responsibility for maximizing competition in electricity sales
and telephone service falls to State government. As we report
below, the States have not shied from the task.
Markets also help the government do its job. A profound innovation of the last few years has been the use of market mechanisms
to help the government achieve its goals at least cost to consumers
and taxpayers. Even where the case for government intervention is
persuasive, policymakers have been able to exploit the advantages
of the market so that public policies generate greater benefits at
lower cost.
Three examples of that success are especially noteworthy. The
first is the use of tradable emission permit programs, in which the
government distributes rights to emit some pollutant and then allows firms to allocate those rights across their plants and to buy
and sell them among themselves. Programs such as these encour-
196
age abatement of pollution at least cost. The second example is
spectrum auctions. Here the policy goals are twofold: get spectrum
into the hands of communications service providers who can generate the greatest economic benefit from it, and raise funds to reduce the need for taxes to cover government expenses. The third
example is the use of market-based prices to lead to more efficient
use of public lands for mining, grazing, timber, and water supply,
while protecting their environmental value. The remainder of this
chapter discusses all three examples and concludes by looking at
the limits to transferring public responsibilities to the private sector.
USING PUBLIC POLICY TO BRING COMPETITION
TO REGULATED INDUSTRIES
In light of the Federal Government's success in introducing competition into airlines, banking, trucking, and natural gas, its delay
in deregulating the telephone and electricity industries may be
puzzling. The reasons for the delay explain why government is likely to be a complement to the development of competitive markets
in these industries for some time to come.
REASONS FOR THE DELAY IN DEREGULATING
ELECTRICITY AND TELEPHONE SERVICE
Jurisdictional issues have made it legally and politically more
difficult for the Federal Government to deregulate electric and telephone utilities than other industries. Much of the regulation of
these industries takes place at the State level, through public utility commissions. The Federal Government generally regulates only
those portions that involve interstate commerce. (Box 6-3 discusses
some of the economic issues involved in assessing whether regulation should take place at the State or the Federal level.) In the
telephone industry the FCC has traditionally asserted authority
over long-distance calling between States, wireless services, and
interstate access services that local telephone companies provide to
long-distance carriers. In electricity, the FERC's jurisdiction covers
wholesale power sales, the transmission of electricity for resale to
final customers, and (it asserts) transmission service to retail buyers where such transmission service is unbundled from the power
itself.
A more fundamental difficulty is the widespread presence of substantial economies of scale, which create natural monopolies. A natural monopoly occurs when a good or service can be provided at
lower cost by one firm than by two or more. With a few exceptions,
the industries first deregulated in the 1970s (e.g., trucking and the
airlines) were not natural monopolies. This choice was by design.
197
Box 6-3.—The Economics of Federalism in Regulation
Historically, responsibility for regulating electricity mid telephone service has been divided between the States and the
Federal Government. As a legal matter, the scope of Federal
authority depends upon interpretations of the commerce clause
of the Constitution, which says (Article I, Section 8), 'The Congress shall have Power * . . [t]o regulate Commerce . . . among
the several States . . . " Economics, however, can inform these
interpretations by examining a variety of factors, including:
• Economic effects that cross State lines. When problems
are local, solutions in general should be locaL The case
for leaving matters of economic regulation or policy to
the States is stronger if a State's policy choices do not
impose costs on residents of other States* For example,
if a State chooses to regulate in ways that raise prices,
the strength of the Federal interest should depend on
whether consumers in other States are affected by those
high prices as ^1L A seco&d iin|wtant example tarohres
environment ejects that cross State betters, sueh as /
airborne pollutants; A State ipay fail to impose sulfictent
pollution controls on ptote witttti its horde*s ijf thotel; to
- other States intair ttoe damages, / " """ = . ,-;.y/'\ . / ^'i'ji-'
* Economies of scale in ri^fation* Just ari tte e^OTf
gains by luavtog firms compete |n the markttplfc^, it
may ato gato by having government jurisdlcttew com^
pete in the form and Content of their regulatibtt^ In
some cases, however, affective regulation may retire
the devotion of considerable resources and specialized
expertise to gathering and providing information, assess*
ing costs, evaluating the state of competition, estimating
environmental effects, and overseeing compliance. It
may be more efficient for one entity—the Federal Government—4o undertake these responsibilities than to
have them divided among the 50 States, the District of
Columbia* and other jurisdictions* The ease for Federal
regulation is stronger if considerations determining the
* best way to regulate vary little from Stote Ste%;
* Comparative perfwrnatiM of gommm^
Public testftutionB may have taeentives to act im
with special interests rather than those of the public at
large, When this problem is more prevalent at the State
teyel* the Federal level is litely to be the better veniie
in which to vest regulatory authority.
198
In both electricity and telephones the most important natural monopoly was the local distribution network. It was believed wasteful
to lay a parallel set of electric cables or telephone lines through
cities and towns to enable different sellers to compete for customers. The value of having everyone on the same network further
argued at the time for a local telephone monopoly.
Accordingly, electricity and telephone service used to be provided
by companies that managed virtually every important aspect of the
industry from top to bottom. Telephone service was largely the
province of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co. (AT&T),
which provided most local networks, long-distance service, and telephone equipment. The electricity industry was more complex, but
the dominant form of organization was the vertically integrated investor-owned utility. These utilities generated power and transmitted it over high-voltage lines to their local distribution networks,
which in turn delivered it to homes, offices, and factories.
Technological change and new forms of organization in the last
two decades have eroded the natural monopoly characteristics of
both these industries. Combined-cycle gas turbine generators reduced the scale necessary to produce electricity at low cost, increasing the potential for competition in power production. The telephone industry has seen the development of wireless technologies,
along with reductions in the cost of fiber-optic transmission lines
and of the computers and software that may someday route telephone calls over alternative pathways such as cable television systems. These innovations have encouraged some to believe that
entry into local telephone service, the last telecommunications monopoly, may soon take place on a massive scale, but such entry has
not yet occurred to a substantial degree outside of specialized mobile and business services.
Elimination of natural monopoly in the physical distribution and
transmission of electricity may take longer. It remains generally
uneconomical to build overlapping sets of power lines for the local
delivery of electricity. Long-distance power transmission also has
monopoly characteristics. Because directing electricity along a particular transmission path is prohibitively costly, current supplied
into a grid will take all available paths between two points and
therefore affect power loads and congestion on many lines. Consequently, the interconnection of independently owned transmission lines—a practice to promote reliability of the system as a
whole—tends to convert the separate grids into a single entity.
Experience with structural change in these industries has complemented these technological developments in opening utility markets to competition. In electricity, public policies that have created
an independent power producing industry, mostly to promote cogeneration (production of electricity by factories as a by-product of
199
manufacturing) and renewable technology, had the side effect of
demonstrating the feasibility of relying on nonutility generators for
power supply. The analogues in telephones were the "equal access"
rules, imposed on the local telephone companies created in 1984 by
the AT&T divestiture, to give all long-distance carriers equivalent
technical interconnection, telephone numbering, customer subscription, and billing arrangements. The divestiture created distinct
local and long-distance companies, and compliance with the equal
access rules provided valuable experience in how to interconnect
separately owned and managed facilities. Interconnection is, as we
discuss below, a crucial prerequisite for competition in local telephone service and in electric power generation.
THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS ACT OF 1996
The Telecommunications Act of 1996 outlines the route that competition and deregulation in the telecommunications industry will
follow. It first takes on the challenge of facilitating competition in
local telephone service. New competitors may fall into any of three
categories: providers with facilities offering all aspects of local telephone service; partial facilities-based carriers that would purchase
unbundled network elements, such as switching capacity, from the
incumbent local carrier; and resellers that would purchase local
service at wholesale and resell it at retail, often as part of a "onestop shopping" package of local and long-distance telephone service.
(Box 6-4 discusses some other aspects of the Telecommunications
Act.)
The Telecommunications Act requires each incumbent local telephone company to allow facilities-based competitors to interconnect
with its networks so that customers on both networks can call each
other. Responsibility for interconnection rests initially with the carriers themselves, who can negotiate nondiscriminatory terms and
conditions, subject to State Government mediation and arbitration.
Incumbent local telephone companies must make network elements
and wholesale local service available to competitors. To eliminate
unnecessary entry barriers, they must also adopt technology to permit customers to keep their phone numbers when switching carriers, and must provide information necessary for network interoperability. The Telecommunications Act also charges the States
and the FCC with devising competitively neutral policies to promote universal service, that is, to ensure that telephone service is
reasonably available to all income groups and geographic areas in
the United States.
The Telecommunications Act also eliminates court-imposed rules
keeping the regional Bell operating companies (RBOCs, the regional telephone companies created by AT&T's breakup) out of
other communications businesses, most notably long-distance tele-
200
Box 6-4.—Telecommunications Policy Is Not Just for
Telephone Companies
The Telecommunications Act covers much more than the current set of firms in the telephone industry. It also expands the
number of radio and television stations a single firm may own,
simplifies license procedures, and sets policies applicable if the
FCC grants existing broadcasters rights to additional spectrum
for tomorrow's advanced'digital television services (while giving the FCC the power to reclaim those additional rights or
even those that broadcasters currently have). But because the
act also loosens FCC rules on concentration of radio and television station ownership, such concentration may raise antitrust concerns. Increasingly, radio and broadcasting mergers
are now being scrutinized by the Antitrust Division of the UJSL
Department of Justice.
The Telecommunications Act also reduces price regulation of
some cable television systems, while maintaining for 3 years
regulations on cable systems that do not face .effective competition. Cable television shares the wire-based network characteristics that have made local telephone and electricity service
natural monopolies, but it arguably faces greater competition
from other video media such as broadcast television, videocassettes, and direct broadcast satellite service. To encourage
telephone companies to compete with cable operators, the Telecommunications Act establishes a common-carrier "open video
systems* framework that local telephone companies can use to
provide cable television service with substantially less regulation. In addition, the act amends the Public Utility Holding
Company Act of 1935 to permit public utility holding companies to acquire or maintain an interest in "exempt telecommunications companies'* (ETCs), which could provide telecommunications or information services in competition with incumbent providers. Since the act was passed, the FCC has approved a number of petitions for determination of ETC status.
Other major provisions of the act seek to control the availability of obscene and indecent material to minors via the
Internet and require that televisions with screen sizes exceeding 13 inches include a so-called V-chip, which when activated
blocks programs with ratings designed to inform parents of
sexual, violent, or indecent content that their children might
see. As of this writing, several Federal courts have ruled that
the content provisions regarding indecency on the Internet violate freedom of speech.
201
phone service (Box 6-5). The act replaced these rules with a longdistance entry approval procedure administered by the FCC. For
an RBOC to receive FCC authorization to provide long-distance
service to its local service customers, it must have an approved
interconnection agreement with a facilities-based competitor, or, if
no competitor has made a good-faith request for interconnection or
network elements within a specified time, it must have an approved statement of terms and conditions under which it will provide interconnection. In either case the RBOC must offer interconnection under terms and conditions that meet a 14-point statutory checklist. The FCC then must determine whether granting the
RBOC's application to provide long-distance service "is consistent
with the public interest." In making its determinations, the FCC is
required to consult the regulatory commissions of the relevant
States to verify compliance with the checklist, and to solicit and
grant substantial weight to the Department of Justice's evaluation
of the application. The Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice has long experience in competition analysis, and thus has the
expertise to judge the effects of an RBOC's provision of long-distance service.
Similar prohibitions against manufacturing of telecommunications equipment by the RBOCs are repealed, effective when the
company obtains approval to provide long-distance service. The
Telecommunications Act prohibits RBOCs from discriminating
against competitors in areas such as procurement and access to
technical network information. To protect against anticompetitive
discrimination and the possibility that local telephone customers
will end up paying for the RBOCs' ventures into long-distance service, manufacturing, and other new enterprises, these offerings must
be provided by separate subsidiaries for a minimum of 3 years.
Yet creating competition is not simply a matter of legislative declaration; controversies regarding market power and dominance will
persist for some time. Exemplifying both the complexity of the issues and the case for regulatory oversight is the FCC's First Report
and Order implementing the local competition provisions of the
Telecommunications Act. Table 6-1 summarizes some of the controversy and the FCC's decisions.
As of this writing, the 8th Circuit Court of Appeals has stayed
implementation of parts of the order, holding that the FCC went
beyond its jurisdiction in prescribing prices and pricing methods for
network elements and wholesale telephone service. While the
courts consider these issues, State regulators continue to mediate,
arbitrate, and approve interconnection negotiations between incumbent local telephone companies and new entrants. The FCC will
still have to make decisions regarding whether the RBOCs have
met the prescribed conditions for being allowed to offer long-dis-
202
Box 6-5.—Why Were the Regional Bell Operating Companies
Kept Out of Other Markets?
The RBOCs are the local service companies spun off by
AT&T in 1984 as part of the settlement of the antitrust case
brought against it by the Department of Justice. Hie divestiture was premised on the economic harm created when a regulated monopoly can evade controls on "prices and profits by operating businesses in other unregulated (or less tightly regulated) markets. In U.S. v. AT&T, the regulated monopolies in
question were AT&*F& local service companies, *and the relatively unregulated businesses were its long-distance .service
and its telecommunications equipment manufacturing subsidiary* The leading concerns were:
* Anticompetitive discrimination. A regulated local telephone monopolist that also provides long-distance service might, for example, provide delayed or inferior connections to other long-distance competitors. If long-distance companies can only complete calls through the
local network, those competitors cannot turn elsewhere
for adequate connections, This boosts demand for the
monopolist's own long-distance service, allowing it to
raise long-distance prices,
* Cro$$~$ub$idizati0n. A regulated local telephone company might purchase equipment and labor to provide
long-distance service and record these purchases as costs
of providing local service. It could then cite these added
costs to justify to its regulator an increase in its local
telephone rates. Because it has a local service monopoly,
customers cannot turn elsewhere and must pay the higher rates. The profits show up on the books of the unregulated long-distance service.
In the 1970s and early 1980s the local telephone monopoly
appeared permanent and regulatory approaches ineffective.
The Department of Justice's Antitrust Division therefore
pressed AT&T to divest its local operations, creating the
RBOCs* To prevent anticompetitive discrimination and crosssubsidization from recurring, the RBOCs were kept out of longdistance service and other markets. Enacted 12 years after
that divestiture, the Telecommunications Act of 1996 reflects
technical change that has made the prospect of local competition more realistic, and gives the RBOCs a reasonable opportunity to meet conditions under which their provision of longdistance service would promote rather than inhibit competi-
203
TABLE 6-1.—The Interconnection Debate
Entry method
Entrant side
Incumbent side
FCC policy
(absent a
negotiated agreement
between the parties)
Facility-based total
service providers
Incumbent would preserve
monopoly by refusing
to interconnect.
Act left interconnection to Set basic rules for interbilateral negotiation;
connection between
FCC intervention will
existing local telephone
give too little weight to
companies and new
local market considerend-to-end
ations.
providers.
Purchase of "network
elements"
Incumbent would offer too
few elements at too
high a price.
Entrants demand ineffiDetermine the "network
cient slicing of netelements" (loops,
work; rates based on
switches, other compoforward-looking costs
nents) incumbent
will not provide enough
carriers should make
revenue to pay for past
available; specify costinvestments.
based methods for setting their prices.
Resell incumbent's
service at retail; own no
facilities
Wholesale discounts
Resellers should not get
below retail rates are
service at prices
discounted from retail
necessary for profitable
retail competition.
rates that, because of
regulation, are below
the cost of providing
service.
Set a default wholesale
discount of 17-25
percent below retail,
based on estimates of
incumbents' costs
related to retailing
that incumbents would
avoid.
Source: Council of Economic Advisers, based on Federal Communications Commission interconnection «rder.
tance service, in accord with the checklist and the "public interest"
standard in the Telecommunications Act.
While the interconnection issue is pending, the Joint Board of
FCC and State Public Utility Commissioners has adopted recommendations for funding universal service subsidies for telephone
service to low-income or high-cost (generally rural) areas through
competitively neutral contributions from interstate telecommunications service providers. The proposal defines universal service as
including basic voice telephone service and ancillary services. The
current practice of subsidizing universal service through "access
charges" (fees that long-distance companies pay the local incumbent to originate and terminate calls) is neither transparent nor
likely to be sustainable in a competitive environment, as the entry
of new telephone companies fosters bypass of the payment system.
In December 1996 the FCC initiated proceedings to reform access
charges. It is proposing to prescribe specific changes in access
charges and/or to grant a local telephone company different degrees
of pricing flexibility depending upon whether it faces potential
entry, actual competition, or substantial competition.
One question in addressing universal service and access charges
is whether, after deregulation, the earnings of incumbent telephone
companies will suffice to cover the infrastructure costs mandated
under prior regulatory regimes. As last year's Economic Report of
the President argued in the context of "stranded costs" of electric
utilities (which are discussed further below), recovery of costs le-
204
utilities (which are discussed further below), recovery of costs legitimately incurred pursuant to regulatory obligations would be
warranted. Such recovery should be limited, however, to investment expenses not already recovered through past earnings. It is
also crucial that any such recovery be accomplished in a manner
that is competitively neutral—for example, creating neither artificial price nor cost advantages for the incumbent carrier.
The years of debate that preceded passage of the Telecommunications Act are likely to presage additional years of regulation and
litigation to realize its goals. These complex issues will require active policy oversight to ensure a proper outcome.
EXPANDING COMPETITION IN ELECTRICITY:
FEDERAL ORDERS AND STATE INITIATIVES
Telecommunications was not the only industry during the past
year to be the object of procompetitive policy initiatives. Major regulatory decisions by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission,
along with ambitious State initiatives, are already opening markets
in electric power generation to competition. Legislation to increase
competition in electric power markets is under active consideration
by the Congress and the Administration. (Box 6-6 discusses the
important role of merger enforcement during the transition to competition in the electricity and telephone industries.)
The 1992 Energy Policy Act authorized the FERC to order a
transmission-owning utility to provide wholesale transmission service. This enabled generators owned by the transmission utility, by
other utilities, or by independent power producers to compete to
sell power to local distribution companies or anyone else engaged
in the resale of electricity. Opening up wholesale markets and
interstate transmission networks to the panoply of generating companies should lower prices and will be necessary for effective retail
competition. State regulators are now determining the extent to
which competition in electricity may extend to retail markets.
The key provisions of the FERC's Order No. 888, issued April 24,
1996, require public utilities to file nondiscriminatory "open access"
tariffs for the interstate transmission of electricity sold at wholesale. Order No. 888 also requires "functional unbundling" by utilities of generation from transmission, with separate rates for wholesale power, transmission service, and other ancillary services.
These tariffs are intended to ensure that the utility treats nonaffiliated power companies the same way it treats its own generators
in terms of prices and service options. To implement these procedures, Order No. 889 mandates the creation of Open Access SameTime Information Systems (OASIS) to provide all generators with
up-to-the-minute data regarding power flows and congestion in the
transmission network. The thrust behind these two orders is the
205
Box 6-6.—Mergers During the Transition to Competition
At the same time that the FERC, the FCC, and State governments are engaged in designing regulations to facilitate
competition in telephone and electricity markets, these industries are seeing considerable merger activity. Mergers may enable firms to exploit economies of scale, but they can also engender concerns that competition will be reduced* The "Horizontal Merger Guidelines promulgated by the Department of
Justice and the Federal Trade Commission point out that
mergers can lessen competition by making it easier for firms
to collude and, in some cases, by giving monopoly~Iike power
to the merging parties,
A crucial consideration in evaluating mergers is what antitrust experts call market definition: identifying who is in the
market and who is not All else being equal, the more sellers
that remain in the in&rket after a merger, the less likely it is
that the merger will reduce competition* As the industries have
been structured up to now, mergers between local telephone
companies, or between electric utilities, might have little anticompetitive effect, because the two would by law and economics be in separate markets* Following the Telecommunications
Act of 1996 and Order No* 888, however, the concern is that
these mergers might reduce potential competition in the ftxture* The effects of a merger in these industries depend on how
those initiatives are implemented and how the industries respond* We do not yet know how the markets will turn out—
whether two, three, or ten companies will compete to provide
electricity or local telephone service to customers in any particular area. Moreover, the mergers themselves may reflect the
firms* belief that they should merge now before authorities can
prove that the mergers would reduce competition.
In principle, mergers can be a way for firms to reduce costs
and improve their ability to compete. However, efforts to block
anticompetitive mergers are crucial if legislative and regulatory efforts at all levels of government to promote competition are to realize their full potential*
creation of institutional arrangements that will support greater
competition in the industry.
Among the many complex issues to be resolved in managing the
transition from regulation to competition in electric power generation, two stand out. One is the degree to which more stringent
forms of separation between generation and transmission will be
necessary to prevent discrimination. Order No. 888 did not require
206
strict corporate separation between transmission companies and
generators. A widely discussed alternative is to create so-called
independent system operators (ISOs). An ISO would operate (but
not own) a transmission grid, keep power supply equal to use, and
manage responses to emergencies and blackouts. The FERC recognizes the need to prohibit conflicts of interest between ISOs and
power providers and has set forth principles that ISOs must satisfy. However, the agency has left the development and implementation of ISOs to the utilities and the States.
A second major issue involves what are known in the electricity
industry as stranded costs. As discussed in last year's Economic
Report of the President, electric utilities facing competition from
new, low-cost power suppliers may be unlikely to recover substantial amounts of their undepreciated investments in high-cost power
plants. A second source of stranded costs is long-term contracts
with high-cost renewable power suppliers. Such contracts were
mandated by Federal laws intended to promote purchases of such
power by utilities at their avoided costs of new plant construction.
Over time, however, those contract prices have probably turned out
to be higher than the projected cost of power under deregulation.
Allowing utilities to recover prudently incurred investment and
contract costs is important. Investors in regulated enterprises need
to be reasonably confident that the government will not renege on
its commitments by arbitrarily denying the investors any opportunity to recover their upfront costs. At the same time, however,
regulated firms may engage in wasteful investments if recovery is
guaranteed unconditionally. To avoid creating this incentive, a presumption in favor of cost recovery should apply only for costs incurred to comply with specific regulatory mandates or before competition became a significant prospect.
In its recent Order No. 888, the FERC granted utilities the right
to seek recovery of costs stranded when a former wholesale customer purchases power from new suppliers. The FERC's rule only
covers contracts established prior to July 11, 1994, the day the
agency published its stranded cost rulemaking in the Federal Register. It served notice that it would not consider a request for
wholesale stranded cost recovery for contracts entered into after
that date. Much of the potentially stranded costs, perhaps over 90
percent, fall under State jurisdiction, however, and are being resolved by the various States in different ways.
States across the country are also expanding competition in electricity. New Hampshire has already undertaken a pilot program in
which 16,000 randomly selected customers were allowed to choose
their electric company. In response, over 30 power companies have
offered a variety of flat rates and usage discounts, rebates and
other inducements, and promises of environmental sensitivity. In
207
February 1996 the Wisconsin Public Service Commission submitted
a proposal to the State legislature describing a 32-step plan to
bring retail competition to consumers there by 2001. In September
1996 California enacted a plan that would offer consumers a choice
of power providers as early as January 1998, with deregulation of
retail power prices by 2002. These initiatives illustrate how
complementarity between public policy and private markets holds
at the State level as well as for Federal regulation.
The existing statutory and regulatory framework may make it
difficult to resolve the complex issues, such as ensuring system reliability, that are sure to arise as competition in electricity evolves.
Accordingly, the Administration is considering a variety of legislative proposals to modify existing regulatory frameworks. Such legislation could promote competition and efficiency in the electricity
industry by permitting more flexible industry structures and clarifying the jurisdictional boundaries between State and Federal Governments.
MARKETS COMPLEMENTING GOVERNMENTS
The Telecommunications Act, the FERC's open access orders, and
State and Federal actions to implement them illustrate how government policy can facilitate the development of responsive, competitive markets. The street goes both ways, however. Recent policy
developments regarding pollution control, spectrum management,
and land use show how government can use market forces to help
achieve important social objectives. (Box 6-7 indicates how advances in telecommunications are making the government more accessible to the public.)
EMISSIONS TRADING: APPLICATIONS TO AIR
POLLUTION
Concerns about environmental degradation and resource depletion have led to an intensified search for innovative, cost-effective
solutions. One fairly new approach is emissions permit trading.
Proposed at least as long ago as the 1971 Economic Report of the
President, emissions trading is now often regarded as the preferred
policy approach to a range of environmental problems. By giving
polluters a financial incentive to reduce emissions in the least expensive possible way, emissions trading reduces the costs of environmental protection. Firms with high abatement costs can purchase permits from firms with low abatement costs, which thus
find it profitable to reduce their emissions and sell their surplus
permits. As a result, greater responsibility for reducing emissions
is allocated to those firms that can do so at least expense.
208
Box 6-7»— Bringing the Government to the People via the
Internet
An important advance in the use of telecommunications technology to promote democracy is the expanding availability of
government information via the World Wide Web on the
Internet, Any citizen with access to a computer and a telephone line at home, work, or the public library can now search
this vast hoard of information.
To get to these sources of information, one enters a website
address (formally called a uniform resource locator, or URL) in
a World Wide Web browser program. The URL usually takes
the form:
http;//www,name.g0v/
where in place of "name" the user specifies the site. Same of
the leading government websites are:
Library of Congress
White House
Department of Agriculture
Department of Commerce
Department of Education
Department of Energy
Department of Health and Human Services
Department of the Interior
Department of Justice
.
- .
Department of Labor
, -, '
Department of State
- ,
'
Department of Transportation
'
\
*
'
Department of Veterans Affairs ' ,
Environmental Protection Agency
'
,<
. ' .
loc
whitehouse
usda
doc
eel
doe
dhhs
doi
usdoj
~ -.
dol
*
state ,
dot
/":V
'
< ,
':
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
'
;
:
'
va
, $$&
fee
''
nasa
Withhi ihf Ltbimty *£ Gm$$$m website^ a u^ful mn&& of
information on the Congress and on Federal legislation is the
data base. From the White House website, one can use
^htteractfw 0tttonsf Handbook^ to find websites fcr other
Executive Office agencies, including that of the Council of Economic Advisers, which includes an electronic edition of this
209
Emissions Trading in Practice
Much of the enthusiasm for emissions trading is due to its success in attaining mandated reductions in sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions from electric utilities, at lower-than-expected costs. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) implemented emissions trading
as part of its Acid Rain Program. That program, instituted under
the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, called for major reductions
of atmospheric SO2 and nitrogen oxides (NOX), the pollutants that
cause acid rain. To hold SO2 emissions to a targeted maximum
total level, the EPA issued each polluter a number of permits based
on fossil-fuel usage in the mid-1980s. (Box 6-8 discusses the relative merits of giving away emissions permits, auctioning them to
the highest bidder, and charging emissions fees.) After the initial
distribution, permitholders were allowed to buy or sell permits or
use them to offset excess pollution in other parts of their own operations.
During the debate over the Clean Air Act in the 1980s, utilities
warned that annual compliance costs could exceed $4 billion by the
year 2000, and SO2 pollution allowances were predicted to trade at
prices ranging from $170 to almost $1,000 per ton of emissions. By
the end of 1995, however, the price of SO2 permits was around $80
per ton. Some preliminary analyses suggest that several factors—
deregulation that reduced the cost of shipping Western low-sulfur
coal by rail, improvements in fuel blending technology, and subsidies for the installation of equipment (called "scrubbers') to filter
out emissions from smokestacks—reduced demand for and thus the
price of SO2 permits. The flexibility provided by the emissions trading system, however, is credited with promoting competition in coal
markets and encouraging innovation that led, at least in part, to
these cost reductions. Whatever the linkage, as market-based
methods reduce the costs of abatement, more stringent environmental standards become easier to justify.
The first phase of SO2 emissions trading, affecting 110 plants,
began January 1, 1995. Phase II of the Acid Rain Program is slated
to begin in 2000, when an additional 700 fossil fuel-burning plants
will be subject to emissions caps. Moreover, analysts expect that
permit trading will play a greater role in other ways as the market
expands. The EPA is examining ways to respond to increased competition following the FERC's Order No. 888, which according to
the EPA's analysis will increase the market share of relatively high
emission coal-fired plants. A trading system for NOX is a strong
contender.
Emissions Trading and Climate Change Policy
In July 1996 the Administration announced that the United
States would support an international effort to set reasonable and
attainable, binding emissions-reduction targets for greenhouse
210
Box 6-8.—Taxing Pollution Versus Giving Away Emissions
Trading Permits Versus Auctioning
The first emission permits under the EPA's Acid Bain Program were issued to utilities without charge. But handing out
tradable emissions permits for free is not the only way to introduce markets into environmental protection. Other policy options include placing fees on emissions, and auctioning rather
than giving away permits. By changing relative prices, and
therefore incentives, all of these policies seek to improve upon
traditional command-and-control methods that specify pollution limits for each plant and, in some cases, even the technologies to be used to achieve those limits: Market-based incentive policies tend to increase efficiency by imposing a marginal
cost on firms for polluting, through either paying more fees,
purchasing more permits, or forgoing the opportunity to sell
permits to someone else. Facing these costs gives firms the incentive to reduce pollution moat at plants where it costs the
least to do so, and by developing and using less expensive
abatement technologies.
Economically, the choice between fees and marketable per*
mifei isof secondary imjmrtanee* If it is crucial to set some absolute limit on the quantity of pollution introduced into the environment, permits together with stringent enforcement can
ensure that that limit is not exceeded. If the incremental social
cost from adding pollutants is known to be relatively constant,
the theoretically better approach would be to set fees equal to
that cost. Collecting emissions fees, and auctioning rather than
giving away permits* also raise revenue that can be used for
deficit reduction or to cut other, more distortionary taxes*
Whether regulators give away permits, auction them off, or
impose pollution fees, anything that forces firms to abate pollution or cut back output is sure to raise the cost of supplying
the goods and services those firms produce* These higher costs
translate into higher product prices. Higher prices, however,
lead consumers to take pollution costs into account when making their own purchasing decisions*
gases—the gases whose emission is believed to cause global warming. The possible effects of global warming include risks to coastal
areas from rises in sea level; changes in rainfall and agricultural
productivity; and increased incidence of diseases such as malaria,
yellow fever, and cholera. Combustion of fossil fuels, primarily coal
and oil, is the main source of elevated levels of carbon dioxide, the
most prevalent of the greenhouse gases.
211
The United States has called for flexible and market-based approaches for reducing these emissions, one of which may be domestic and international greenhouse gas emissions trading systems.
Extending trading internationally is especially intriguing. An international trading system would be able to take advantage of greenhouse gas reductions in those participating nations where the marginal cost of reducing emissions is relatively low.
Other Implementation Issues
Determining the initial distribution of emission permits can be
contentious. The alternative to allocating permits through the market by auctioning them is to rely on a formula, which may be based
on past and current pollution. Such formulas can be controversial
because recipients of permits are given a scarce and valuable resource. Moreover, companies anticipating an allocation based on
current practices have an incentive to delay actions to limit pollution or other environmentally harmful activities, in order to qualify
for more permits. This incentive can be partially neutralized by
linking reductions to some prior historical baseline. However, this
approach can make the choice of allocation formula more difficult,
since participants will realize that a distribution of permits based
on historical practices penalizes those who were the first to undertake actions to improve the environment.
In cases where the incremental harm from emissions is relatively
constant over time, the efficiency of emissions trading can be enhanced, at least in the short run, by allowing polluters to bank and
borrow permits. Under such a system, polluters could defer their
use of a permit, or borrow against future allowances, as their costs
dictate. Where workable, this can allow the emissions trading market to allocate reductions over time in a more efficient manner.
Timing flexibility can reduce compliance costs through better coordination of emissions reductions when replacing old facilities
with less polluting technology. In the first year of the EPA's 862
trading program, emissions reductions were about 40 percent
greater than the target level, as utilities "banked" allowances for
future yeai-s.
A problem can arise when the damages from emissions are not
distributed evenly over the geographic area in which firms can
trade permits. If polluters with high abatement costs—the ones
most likely to buy permits—are geographically concentrated, a "hot
spot" area that is persistently in serious noncompliance may result.
Hot spots are a potential problem with SC>2, but they may be more
serious with regard to NOX. Better market mechanisms for dealing
with hot spots should be developed.
Despite these and other complications, interest in emissions trading remains strong, primarily because of the potential cost savings
and efficiency gains. The EPA estimates that meeting possible 862,
212
NOX, and mercury targets through an emissions trading program
with banking would reduce abatement costs in 2005 by almost twothirds compared with a traditional command-and-control approach.
Researchers at the Stanford Energy Modelling Forum have predicted that international emissions trading for carbon dioxide could
reduce costs as much as 50 percent below the minimum achievable
using purely domestic programs—and as much as 80 percent if
flexibility in the timing of emissions reductions is allowed. These
cost savings do not conflict with considerations of intergenerational
equity, because they take place within a program designed to ensure that concentrations of carbon dioxide never exceed critical target levels in any year.
SPECTRUM AUCTIONS
Auctions of rights to use publicly owned resources can allocate
those resources efficiently, as well as generate revenues to help
cover the costs of government programs. The chief example in 1996
was the FCC's auctions of rights to use parts of the radio spectrum
for personal communications systems (PCS). By virtually all accounts, this was an enormously successful example of using market
forces to complement the public sector.
Auctions can be designed in numerous ways. Some feature onetime sealed bids, whereas others feature repeated open bids. Rights
or permits to be auctioned can be offered together or one at a time.
Winning bidders may pay the bid they offer or, to limit strategic
incentives to underbid, they may pay the second-highest bid offered. The winner can be determined either as the last to make an
offer higher than all preceding offers, or as the first to speak up
as an auctioneer offers a succession of declining sales prices. Regardless of the method, the goals are the same: to get assets into
the hands of those who will derive the greatest economic value
from them, and to do so rapidly and efficiently. How best to design
the auction depends on a variety of strategic considerations. A primary factor in the PCS auctions (Box 6-9) was to enable bidders
to pursue collections of licenses and preserve their options when
strategies needed revision. This added flexibility is likely to have
increased firms' willingness to bid, allowing the government to capture some of the economic benefits created by making it easier for
firms to place bids for one license based on their beliefs about
whether they will win others.
Spectrum auctions have particular advantages over earlier methods of issuing spectrum licenses. Comparative hearings, in which
the FCC attempted to distinguish among prospective licensees on
noneconomic grounds, generated enormous delay and expensive
litigation with little if any public benefit. Using lotteries to distribute licenses randomly to applicants eliminated the need for the
213
Box 6-9.—Spectrum Auctions: A $22 Billion Economic Idea
As a mechanism for capturing the value of the electromagnetic spectrum for the public, and for getting spectrum
quickly into the hands of service providers, auctioning has
been spectacularly successful,, The most dramatic examples
have been, the auctions of spectrum for broadband personal
communications systems (PCS), Broadband PCS might be
thought of an advanced form of wireless mobile telephone, fax,
and data service, akin to cellular radio.
To understand the success of WCS auctions, it is important
to understand how they work. The FCC first defines spectrum
blocks, each consisting of a range of frequencies and a geographic area over which a winning bidder may use these frequencies. In the first broadband PCS auctions, concluded in
early 1995, two 30-megahertz blocks (designated A and B) were
assigned to each of 51 "major trading areas." These auctions
were open to all firms, subject to ownership restrictions to promote competition. In the second PCS auction, which took place
in 1996, an additional 30-megahertz block (designated C) was
offered in each of 493 "basic trading areas" across the United
States. Bidding in that auction was restricted to smaller "entrepreneur" firms, with discounts built in to promote participation by the smallest (those with less than $40 million in annual revenue).
A key innovation was to allow bidding to continue for all
areas until no one wanted to place a higher bid on any particular area. This allowed firms to bid in an effort to combine PCS
licenses so as to provide services over broad territories. These
innovative auctions, designed by the FCC with the help of experts in auction theory, achieved the FCC's goals in outstanding fashion. Bids on the A and B blocks fetched $7.7 billion,
and those on the C blocks over $10 billion more. The FCC's recently completed auctions of its D, E, and F blocks for PCS
service raised more than $2.5 billion. This same method had
already raised over $1 billion in 1994, in auctions for
narrowband PCS services—useful for paging and voice message services.
When the less complicated auctions for interactive video and
data services and direct broadcast satellite licenses are included, auctions so far have raised over $22 billion and, more
important, rapidly promoted the use of innovative, advanced
telecommunications technologies throughout the economy.
214
FCC to determine which firm would be a better service provider.
Unfortunately, they also created a cumbersome and expensive
mechanism for collecting and processing vast numbers of applications, many from those with no motive other than to sell their
"winning ticket" to an actual service provider. Instead of the government collecting revenues to cover the costs of public programs,
a few lucky winners got windfalls. Moreover, the cellular lotteries
did nothing to eliminate delays in the efficient aggregation of licenses, whereas the PCS auctions incorporated such aggregations
into the bidding mechanism.
Auctions eliminate the need for arbitrary comparisons and the
cost of filing and processing speculative applications. The winner is
presumably the firm that believes it can make the greatest profit
in markets for telecommunications services for which the license
can be used. If it fails, it can generally sell its license, just as firms
throughout the economy that overestimate the profits they expected can sell their plant and equipment to other entrepreneurs.
Auctions need not be inconsistent with achieving important noneconomic objectives associated with spectrum use. Providers can
bid for licenses that include, for example, designated public service
obligations. But auctions are no panacea:
• If spectrum uses are specified in advance, auctions may not
lead to efficient outcomes. The economic value of spectrum, and
thus the revenue to the government, are greater when bidders
have more flexibility in how they can use the spectrum. To promote these goals and implement recent legislation, the FCC is
proposing a new wireless communication service, with licenses
to be auctioned during 1997. Licensees would have considerable flexibility to lease portions of either their spectrum or
their geographic coverage to other providers.
• If auctions are regarded primarily as a revenue-raising device,
the government may have an incentive to restrict the spectrum
available for any particular service. We need to recognize, however, that a tax on any good or service has the effect of reducing its supply. In that regard, the potential output effect of
using spectrum auctions specifically as a means for raising revenue for the government would not be unique.
• A dominant firm might outbid potential entrants simply to preserve its market power. Antitrust oversight and restrictions on
bidders may be necessary to preserve competition in spectrumrelated services.
• The incentive to develop new spectrum uses might be diminished if auctions take place only after developers of those uses
disclose their innovations. If disclosure of the new idea is what
leads to the auction, innovators will have to bid for spectrum
made valuable only because of that idea. This could reduce the
215
incentive to innovate in the first place. An approach sometimes
used to deal with this problem is to grant "pioneer preferences"
in spectrum auctions to innovators. A better long-run policy
might be to commit to auction useful portions of the spectrum
up front, rather than make auctions contingent on public disclosure by innovators of their ideas.
NATURAL RESOURCE POLICY REFORM
America's natural environment is an important part of our national heritage and has contributed to the development of our economy. Federal agencies, including the Bureau of Land Management
(BLM) and the National Park Service of the Department of the Interior and the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) of the Department of Agriculture, manage large tracts of land, particularly in the Western
United States. Indeed, the majority of land in several Western
States is regulated by these agencies. The Bureau of Reclamation
of the Department of the Interior and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers also influence the quality of many of the Nation's aquatic
ecosystems through their construction and operation of numerous
diversion, flood control, hydropower, and navigation projects.
Federal public lands are used for a number of purposes, including recreational use and resource extraction. Historically, three industries have dominated the extractive use of public lands: livestock grazing, mining, and timber harvesting. All these activities
continue today: grazing, for example is permitted on over 240 million acres of Federal rangeland. Policies for management of the Nation's public lands and aquatic resources have evolved over time as
the result of legislation and its interpretation by other branches of
government. The Administration is committed to ensuring that natural resource policies reflect today's realities and balance the diverse and sometimes competing objectives of all who derive benefits
from the natural environment.
Current Policies
Current policies toward natural resource use are mainly rooted
in past legislation intended to stimulate the economies of the West
and encourage settlement of the region. These policies facilitate the
development and exploitation of natural resources.
Subsidized Use of Federal Public Lands. Most uses of Federal
public land are currently subsidized in one of at least three possible ways. First, a subsidy can exist when the price to the user
is less than the government's cost of overseeing the activity. Second, a subsidy may exist when users of Federal lands pay the government a price below that paid for the similar use of comparable
privately owned lands. Finally, resource users may receive a subsidy if they pay the government less than the opportunity cost of
the land's use, which is defined as the value of the highest alter-
216
native use of the resource. The type and amount of subsidy offered
on Federal lands vary with the nature of the activity and with the
location of the land.
Public grazing fees are almost always below private fees and may
not even cover the government's cost of administering the grazing
program. The amount of the subsidy varies widely by location. The
Public Rangeland Improvement Act of 1978 dictates that grazing
fees be determined as a function of aggregate livestock market conditions, including a forage value index, the price of beef cattle, and
an index of prices paid by farmers; because the formula disregards
local factors, public grazing fees are the same everywhere. Private
grazing fees, by contrast, differ widely and systematically throughout the West, depending upon the quality of local forage and regional livestock market conditions. A recent study concluded that
average private grazing fees between 1965 and 1992 were $12.75
per animal unit month (AUM) in Montana, $7.80 per AUM in Arizona, and $11.20 per AUM across the 11 contiguous Western
States. Public grazing fees, by contrast, averaged $1.20 per AUM
during this same period. Although these figures do not account for
the higher quality of forage often found on private land, or for the
value of private landlord services, they nevertheless represent a
significant subsidy for grazing domestic stock on public land.
The subsidy offered to ranchers is small, however, compared with
that given to miners taking hardrock minerals such as gold, copper,
silver, and uranium: miners do not pay the government any significant revenue or fee for hardrock minerals extracted from Federal
public lands. This policy, established in the 1872 General Mining
Law, bestows a large subsidy on private mining companies. In
1994, for example, a mining company patented a claim in northern
Nevada with a gross mineral value of $10 billion, for which the Department of the Interior collected only $9,765. Although this was
the largest single transfer of public mineral assets in recent years,
it is not the only such case (Table 6-2). Between May 1994 and
September 1996 the Federal Government was forced by the General Mining Law to give away over $15.3 billion worth of minerals,
in return for which taxpayers received only $19,190.
Timber extraction from Federal public lands is also subsidized,
although the subsidy is more subtle than those for mining and
grazing. Generally, the USFS subsidizes timber extraction from
public lands by collecting less in timber sale revenues than it
spends on timber program costs. In 1995, for example, the USFS
collected $616 million in timber receipts but spent over $850 million on timber management, reforestation, construction of logging
roads, payments to States, and other program costs. Closer analysis of this negative cash flow reveals that the losses vary by region.
In seven of the nine National Forest System regions, annual cash
217
TABLE 6-2.—Examples of Mining Patents Issued Since 1994
Location of patent
Date
Mineral
Mineral value
Paid to
United States
Eureka and Elko Counties Nevada
5/1994
Gold
$10000000000
$9765
Clark County, Idaho
9/1995
Travertine limestone
1.000,000,000
275
Gold
1,200.000,000
3,585
Copper and silver
2,900,000,000
1.745
Humboldt County, Nevada;.
Imperial County, California
3-6/1995
Pima County, Arizona
12/1995
Eureka County Nevada
9/1995
Gold
68 000 000
Mohave County, Arizona
4/1996
Gypsum
85,000,000
100
Seward Peninsula, Alaska
9/1996
Gold
38,600,000
2.680
Pinal County, Arizona
9/1996
Copper
Total
56,000,000
15,348,000,000
540
500
19.190
Source: Department of the Interior.
receipts from timber harvesting have consistently failed to cover
the USFS' annual expenditures. This problem is particularly severe
in the Rocky Mountain, Northern, and Intermountain regions,
where expenditures have exceeded receipts from timber sales by a
ratio of 3 to 1 over the past decade.
Federal water projects constructed and managed by the Bureau
of Reclamation, the Army Corps of Engineers, and the Natural Resource Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
are all highly subsidized. For example, projects constructed by the
Bureau of Reclamation embody a number of different subsidies.
These include interest-free repayment for capital invested in irrigation facilities, limitation on repayment associated with "ability to
pay" guidelines that do not necessarily reflect changing economic or
market conditions or individuals' income, and the repayment of
costs above an irrigator's estimated ability to pay by using hydropower revenues far in the future. The length of the repayment period is also important in determining the overall magnitude of the
subsidy. Subsidy amounts vary by project depending on date of construction, repayment terms, and interest rates, but on many
projects the subsidy is significant. Moreover, even when farmers
and other users pay some portion of the true cost of delivering
water, they pay nothing additional for the value of the water itself.
Recreational use of Federal public lands is also heavily subsidized: in many areas fees paid by recreational users do not cover
the costs of maintaining the resource for recreation. The Park Service spends around $250 million annually to provide visitor services
at its 374 parks, monuments, and historic sites. Entrance fees raise
only $80 million annually.
The National Park Service is currently implementing new fees in
accordance with the demonstration projects authorized in Public
Law 104-134. Fees for the recreational use of USFS and BLM land
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are charged sporadically. The revenues are far smaller than for National Park lands and are well below costs. These agencies are also
implementing selective fee increases.
Environmental Damage. Grazing, mining, timber harvesting, and
water project development have all placed heavy burdens on the
Nation's natural resources. Streams and rivers in the Western
States are particularly affected.
Ever since the first European settlement of the West, rangeland
vegetation there has been affected by the introduction of livestock
grazing and related changes in the occurrence of fire. Livestock
grazing has reduced native grasses and palatable shrubs in upland
communities, exposing bare ground and increasing soil erosion.
More important, however, is the damage done by grazing to the riparian (river-related) areas upon which all fish and nearly all terrestrial species depend. Whereas the condition of uplands has improved since rangeland management began in the 1930s, riparian
areas in the Western United States have continued to decline
under the impact of grazing and are considered to be in their worst
condition in history.
Mining operations have also caused significant environmental
damage. Although problems of acid drainage have been reduced by
the Clean Water Act, and dangerous mining of mercury and asbestos has been curtailed, mining operations still pose serious environmental risks. Groundwater infiltration of abandoned mine sites and
cyanide contamination of streams and aquifers from gold extraction
are serious concerns (Table 6-3). The mining industry and State
and Federal regulators have taken steps to reduce the ongoing
damage, but much remains to be done.
TABLE 6-3.— Miles of Streams Polluted by Hardrock Mine Wastes
State
Miles
Arizona
200
California
578
Colorado
1298
Montana
1 118
69
New Mexico
Utah
. . ..
83
3.346
Total
Source: Western Governors' Association.
Federally sponsored water projects inflict significant damage on
our aquatic resources. Dams can inhibit the spawning of migratory
fish such as salmon and steelhead. The vast Columbia River basin
is in many respects the most affected by water project develop-
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ment. The Columbia River watershed now contains, by one count,
79 hydroelectric projects; 30 of these are Federal projects that provide subsidized power. The basin holds 450 major dams, if those for
irrigation are included, many of which have no fish passage facilities. Diversion of water to farms and cities for crop irrigation and
drinking reduces the quantity of water in rivers and streams; return flows are often warmer than desirable and may contain agricultural chemicals and other pollutants that lower water quality.
Timber harvesting, mining, and ranching have also degraded Western fisheries by inundating spawning habitat with silt and debris.
Use Restrictions. Use restrictions are one tool by which Federal
agencies coordinate activities on public lands. The fact that the
price of resource extraction and recreation is often subsidized
places more emphasis on such nonprice policies for controlling the
use of public lands.
Those extracting resources from Federal public land often have
exclusive rights in a given area for the activity in which they are
engaged; this is one sense in which public lands have already been
partially privatized. For example, the General Mining Law of 1872
provides for exclusive possession as against other miners, even
while prospecting. Similarly, the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 grants
an exclusive grazing right to a single permitholder in a given area
of BLM-managed land. This provision of grazing law was created
largely to avoid the "tragedy of the commons" that had afflicted
these public rangelands. With open access, each rancher has an incentive to introduce additional animals to the range until the average benefit equals the marginal cost. In this way, open access can
dissipate the overall economic benefits from grazing.
Use-it-or-lose-it provisions are another type of use restriction on
extractive activities. Under these provisions, whoever holds the
right to extract a given amount of a resource in a certain time period must extract the resource as specified or face the possibility
of losing the right. For example, grazing permits issued by the
USFS require that a rancher graze close to the maximum permissible number of cattle or face termination of the permit (temporary
exemptions are available, however). Similar provisions apply to
timber harvesting permits and to water diversion rights. These provisions were intended to promote the utilization of public lands; in
practice, however, they limit the transferability of extraction rights
by reducing the incentives for conservation interests to obtain
them.
Changing Conditions in the West
Current Federal resource policies are thus characterized by subsidized extraction and use restrictions that limit the transferability
of extraction rights. These policies have resulted in overextraction
and significant environmental damage. Changing economic condi-
220
tions in the Western States and increasing recognition of environmental values suggest that many of the original motivations for
these policies no longer apply. The Western regional economy is
now prosperous and diverse, and extractive activities there provide
far less income and employment in the aggregate than do recreation, tourism, manufacturing, and finance.
Less Reliance on Resource Extraction. The economy of the Western States has become highly diversified. Total employment in the
West was more than 22 million in 1982. This figure had increased
by nearly 50 percent to over 33 million by 1990. Industries in
which employment has increased as a share of total employment
include services, finance, insurance, real estate, construction, and
retail trade. The Western regional economy produced more than $1
trillion worth of goods and services in 1982, and $1.35 trillion in
1990 (both figures are in 1993 dollars). Industries whose income
has increased as a share of total regional product include services,
manufacturing, and retail trade. In many respects these changes in
employment and income generation mirror broader trends in the
Nation's economy, with the result that the West does not look as
different from the East as it did in the 19th century. Extractive industries now make up only a small and declining fraction of economic activity.
Agriculture (including timber extraction) and mining together
provided only 6.3 percent of income and 5.3 percent of employment
in these States in 1990, and their importance is declining. Their
share of employment in the Western States fell by 21 percent between 1982 and 1990, during which time their share of regional income fell by 15 percent.
A declining number of Western families rely solely on income
from ranching, mining, timber extraction,-or farming. For example,
ranch families in Arizona have, on average, two people employed
off the ranch, who together contribute 53 percent of household income. In part this trend reflects the maturation of the regional
economy. More jobs in the region translate into more opportunities
for outside employment. This trend also implies that the incomes
of families with a member employed in the resource extraction sector are also affected by public policies that strengthen the nonagricultural economy.
Nor should one overestimate the importance of extraction from
Federal public lands to the livestock and timber industries as a
whole. Permitted use on Federal lands accounts for only about 7
percent of beef cattle forage and about 2 percent of the total feed
consumed by beef cattle in the 48 contiguous States. Similarly, less
than 15 percent of the national timber harvest is from Federal
lands.
221
The small contribution of extractive industries to economic activity in the Western States and the small contribution of public lands
to total national cattle and timber production should not, however,
obscure the fact that many rural communities and individual businesses in the West currently depend on Federal public lands for
their economic well-being. Moreover, participants in the traditional
Western industries represent, in the Department of the Interior's
words, "a significant part of the world's image of America and
America's image of itself." The unique cultural institutions of the
West are valuable, and their preservation should factor into the debate about the nature of economically desirable natural resource
policies.
Increasing Value Placed on the Environment. The American public places more importance on a healthy environment today than at
any other time in our history. This change in values is revealed in
several ways. Public interest groups play an increasingly prominent role in the debate over public lands policy and have prompted
various Federal agencies to enact important changes in policy. In
recent years the Congress has enacted historic legislation designed
to enhance the quality of the Nation's environment. To the extent
that legislation reflects social preferences, these laws reveal an increasing value placed on environmental quality and a recognition
of resource scarcity.
Recreational use of public lands is also increasing rapidly. On
USFS lands, for example, such use increased by over 20 percent between 1991 and 1995, from 279 million to 345 million visitor-days.
This rate of increase far outstrips the rate of population and income growth during this time period and may well reflect a change
in preferences when compared with changes in other determinants
of recreation demand.
A recent USFS study shows that recreation on National Forest
System lands produces far more income and jobs than do traditional extractive industries. The agency calculated that recreation
on these lands (including hunting, fishing, and wildlife viewing)
contributed over $105 billion to GDP in 1993, or nearly 85 percent
of the total Forest System contribution to GDP (Chart 6-1), and resulted in over 2.7 million jobs. Grazing, timber harvesting, and
mining together contributed less than one-seventh as much income
and employment as did recreation. The USFS projects that, by
2045, recreation will generate an even larger share of the economic
benefits from the Forest System, particularly if environmental
quality improves.
Changing National Fiscal Priorities. Finally, it is important to
consider Federal natural resource policy in the context of Federal
deficit reduction. Deficit reduction produces numerous public bene-
222
Chart 6-1 Economic Activity Attributable to National Forest System Programs
Recreation use of the National Forest System contributes by far the largest share of
the $125 billion in annual income produced by these public lands.
Grazing
Note: Data shown are for 1993. Wildlife includes activities such as hunting, fishing, and bird-watching.
Source: Department of Agriculture.
fits, detailed elsewhere in this Report. Reducing the Federal deficit
is a prime economic policy objective of this Administration.
With this emphasis on deficit reduction, all public spending, including subsidies on public land use, is under closer scrutiny than
in the past. Economic principles suggest that the marginal benefits
of all government expenditures should be equal when the government is making maximal use of its fiscal resources. This means we
must compare the value of an additional dollar spent subsidizing
timber extraction or grazing—or on environmental restoration—
with the value of a dollar spent on providing school lunches or job
placement assistance or supporting basic research. If these marginal values are not equal, then an optimal allocation of public
funds requires reducing some expenditures that provide lower marginal benefit while increasing others with higher marginal benefit.
New Foundations of Natural Resource Policy
These changing economic and social conditions—the maturation
of Western economies, the emphasis on deficit reduction, and the
increasing value placed by the public on environmental quality—
motivate a new set of objectives for Federal natural resource policy.
Market Incentives. Users of Federal public lands should be more
exposed to market signals, so that their decisions will help maximize economic welfare for all. Economics teaches that subsidizing
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the use of public lands affects economic behavior in ways that may
prove costly. By encouraging overinvestment and overproduction in
the livestock, mining, and timber industries, subsidies attract resources away from other, more productive sectors of the economy
and reduce overall economic well-being. Reducing subsidies can improve economic performance by giving producers better information
about the true cost of using public land.
Increasing the transferability of extraction rights is another market-oriented reform that may increase aggregate economic welfare.
Some rights to extract resources from public lands are currently
tradable in a limited sense. For example, Federal grazing permits
are often transferred with the sale of a ranch to othar qualified
ranchers. One possibly beneficial reform would be to allow conservation interests to compete for extraction rights on an equal
basis with other interests. For example, environmental groups
could acquire grazing permits and use the land to introduce native
plant species and improve wildlife habitat, or acquire permits for
the use of timberland and permanently retire that land from commercial harvesting. Such voluntary transactions can provide value
to the seller as well as to the buyer, and thereby maximize the
value received by all elements of society from the stock of public
land. Environmental groups already have acquired grazing permits
at the State level.
Not everyone favors the trading of extraction rights. Rural communities sometimes assert that allowing conservation interests to
acquire permits reduces the number of extractive businesses, thereby threatening the livelihood of their suppliers and possibly raising
input costs to those producers who remain. Although some rural
communities have indeed suffered from the loss of input supply
businesses, it is important to recall the backdrop against which
changes in public land policy are taking place: a maturing and diversifying Western economy. It is possible that these businesses
would fail in any case, as the economy shifts away from natural resource-based industries, and jobs lost as a consequence are increasingly likely to be replaced by others within the community or region.
Another objection comes from resource managers who argue that
grazing and timber cutting in particular play a key role in managing biological activity on public lands. For example, grazing of livestock and thinning of timber can reduce the danger of destructive
fire. However, conservation interests have many of the same incentives as the government—and perhaps even greater incentive—to
preserve resources in good condition. These groups may, for example, allow grazing, but at a low level of intensity.
Contribution to Deficit Reduction. Reducing subsidies can contribute to deficit reduction. For example, requiring royalty and bonus
224
payments for hardrock mineral extraction, as many private landowners do and as the Federal Government itself does for oil and
gas, could provide additional revenues. The Department of the Interior has calculated that an 8 percent net income royalty on
hardrock minerals extracted from Federal public lands would generate at least $275 million for the Treasury over the next 5 years.
Reducing subsidies for timber extraction, grazing, water deliveries,
hydropower, and recreation would have beneficial fiscal impacts as
well.
Increasing reliance on market mechanisms can also support deficit reduction. For example, grazing permits could be allocated
through competitive auctions (much like the successful spectrum
auctions described earlier in this chapter); it is quite possible that
such a reform would raise more money for the government than
the grazing fee increases proposed in 1994. Similarly, the current
patenting process for mineral extraction could be replaced with a
system of royalties and competitive bidding on bonus payments to
the government. Such a system, already used for other minerals
and by numerous other landowners, is likely to raise more revenues than a simple royalty payment as envisaged in current reform
attempts. However, replacing the current patenting system with a
leasing-competitive bidding regime might raise difficult policy and
administrative issues.
Timber contracts are currently allocated competitively. However,
the bidding process could be fine-tuned to the benefit of taxpayers
by incorporating a larger share of road and overhead expenses in
the minimum acceptable bid. This adjustment would reduce continuing Federal losses from many timber sales and would give logging interests more accurate price signals about the true resource
cost of timber extraction.
Environmental Stewardship and Efficient Land Use. Reducing or
eliminating resource subsidies can improve environmental quality
on Federal public lands. To the extent that environmental damage
is related to the level of production, reducing subsidies reduces the
incentives for production and thereby reduces environmental damage.
Of course, the environmental impact of resource extraction is not
just a question of production levels; technique is also important.
For example, the environmental damage from grazing may be due
both to the number of livestock grazed and to the way in which
grazing is managed: where animals are permitted to graze and for
how long. Similarly, the impact of mining on water quality depends
not only on the volume of minerals produced; control technologies
and reclamation practices also have important effects. Direct use
restrictions and reclamation requirements can help correct for the
environmental damage done. For example, the government can ex-
225
elude riparian areas from grazing. It can also place more environmentally sensitive lands off-limits to mineral location and production. Without environmental taxes to provide price incentives, direct controls can be an important way to improve environmental
quality and achieve an efficient resource allocation.
Subsidizing the price of environmentally friendly extraction technology may also be consistent with increasing efficiency. Reducing
the price of such technology increases the likelihood that it will be
adopted. Such a subsidy can be implemented in a number of ways.
Public investment in agricultural research and development is one
approach that has generally paid impressive returns. Land-grant
universities and the cooperative extension system have helped
farmers increase productivity and, more recently, cope with environmental problems. Increased funding of land-grant research, development, and outreach directed at public lands management is
one way to encourage the adoption of more benign, and more productive, extraction technologies.
Transferability of extraction rights can also be consistent with
environmental stewardship in at least two ways. Trading can allow
conservation interests and various levels of government to acquire
the resources they value the most at prices that compensate willing
sellers. For example, the Department of the Interior has initiated
innovative willing-seller programs to reallocate water from agriculture and enhance instream flows in the San Francisco Bay/Delta
estuary and Nevada's Truckee River basin. As the government excludes more resources from extraction, trading among the remaining permitholders can also help mitigate the industry's economic
losses by allocating extraction rights to those entities that can use
them most profitably. At the same time, trading can lead to a more
efficient economy-wide allocation of resources, effectively allowing
us to produce more with fewer resources.
Reconfiguring the Public Land Base. The Federal Government
owns a substantial share of the Nation's natural resources. It owns
about one-third of all the land in the United States, including 29
percent of forestlands and 43 percent of rangeland. State and local
governments and American Indian Nations own another 8 percent
of U.S. lands. Over 10 percent of the U.S. population receives water
from Federal diversion projects.
Sound economic reasons argue for the government keeping such
a large share of our natural resources in its possession. Most goods
in our economy are private property, traded in markets that appropriately determine prices and quantities. But many natural resources possess characteristics that make them unsuitable for private market control. The most important of these is the fact that
many natural resources are public goods.
226
A public good is anything that can be used or enjoyed by one person without detracting from the use or enjoyment of others, and to
which it is difficult to restrict access. For example, suppose that
the land comprising Yosemite Valley were subject to being bought
and sold in a market. A developer thinking of purchasing the land
might consider only how to maximize the individual returns from
owning it: he or she might weigh the potential profits earned from
preserving the land for tourist use against, say, developing a housing tract or a shopping mall on the site. There is no guarantee that
preservation would win out, even if Americans would value that
outcome more highly in the aggregate. Even if concerned citizens
established a fund to preserve the land, the money collected might
well fall short of the actual value the Nation places on preserving
this important site. Each potential contributor would have an incentive to wait, hoping that someone else would make the necessary donation to prevent development. In this case the public
good character of the natural resource leads to a failure of the market to reflect collective values, and society is better off if the government manages the asset.
This discussion suggests another principle for resource policy reform that should receive serious attention. Federal public lands
that private owners could manage efficiently, in a manner that protects the public interest, should be considered for privatization.
Conversely, many lands currently in private hands have certain
characteristics of public goods, and thus might be more efficiently
owned and managed by the Federal Government. Achieving the
most efficient mix of public and private lands may require reconfiguring the public land base, adding to it in some places and divesting in others. The Administration is currently working on several
exchanges that are consistent with this general principle: for example, the Federal Government is in the process of acquiring the
Headwaters forest in Northern California and the New World Mine
adjacent to Yellowstone National Park in exchange for surplus
properties elsewhere.
Reconfiguring could be accomplished directly through swaps of
public for desired private lands, as is most common today, or public
lands could be sold and the proceeds put into an account for land
purchases elsewhere. Economists have long recognized that the
swap option is limited by the "double coincidence of wants" problem. It is often hard to find a swap partner who both owns an asset
the government wishes to acquire and places a similar value on an
asset the government wishes to sell. For this reason, a land purchase fund that decouples buying and selling land assets is superior to direct swaps.
227
DISPOSAL OF SURPLUS DEFENSE PROPERTIES
The closing of military bases offers a good illustration of the principle that land no longer needed by the Federal Government can
be turned over to local authorities or to the private sector. In four
rounds of defense base reductions beginning in 1988, independent
base closure commissions performed the difficult task of determining which bases would be closed. Nearly 100 major installations
have been selected for closure.
Disposition of these properties has not been easy. A number of
objectives have to be taken into account, including local economic
redevelopment, savings for the Federal budget, and the needs of
the homeless. Recognizing the complexity of this task, the law provides for a 6-year period from the initial closure decision to actual
closure, to determine how best to meet these goals.
Until recently, the disposal of surplus military bases—one of the
most significant divestitures of Federal real property—reflected the
hierarchical approach embodied in the Federal Property Act. Other
Federal agencies had first call on the land, followed in order by
State and local governments, and finally the private sector. Specific
national priorities, such as the provision of shelter for the homeless, enjoyed privileged status.
Recognizing that government downsizing represents both a major
economic dislocation and an opportunity to stimulate new economic
activity, the Administration has taken several important steps to
smooth adjustment and promote economic development in these situations. The President's five-part Program to Revitalize Base Closure Communities, supported in 1993 by new statutory tools, institutionalized economic revitalization as a priority. In 1994 the Administration secured further legislation that gave communities and
providers of assistance to the homeless increased flexibility to meet
the needs of the homeless either with specific buildings or other
surplus government property, or with the proceeds from sale of
these assets, applied in ways that make the most sense in the local
setting. The base closure and redevelopment process illustrates
that increased flexibility in the disposal of surplus Federal land enhances both the speed of disposition and the economic value of
reuse.
A remarkable set of alliances has developed to put these sites
into productive reuse, to support residual defense activities along
with those of other Federal and State agencies, and, most important, local communities and the private sector. Throughout the Nation, economic revitalization from all of these sources is well under
way in affected communities. New uses range from airports and
manufacturing to college campuses and affordable housing. As a result, numerous new jobs have been created. At the 40 major closed
installations, nearly half of the civilian jobs lost have already been
228
replaced, and more are being created every day. Most communities
affected by closure expect to regain or exceed previous civilian employment levels.
The steps described here represent vast improvements over the
hierarchical manner in which surplus base closures have been handled in the past. Continued flexibility and innovation will be required to achieve the program's objectives.
Even where the Defense Department has retained installations,
it is looking for ways to maximize their economic benefit. This can
include introducing multiple uses for vast weapons and training
ranges, such as mining, recreation, and preservation of wildlife
habitat. To minimize the need for Federal land and to spread operating expenses, the Defense Department is actively attracting compatible Federal activities, other State and local government functions, and private business activity. Privatization of some government functions, such as military family housing, is another example of this trend.
As the Federal Government increasingly adopts private sector
management methods and privatizes its functions, exclusively Federal use of its real estate is likely to diminish, and the value of that
real estate to the local and national economy is likely to increase.
CHANGES IN FARM POLICY
The Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform (FAIR) Act of
1996 makes important changes to American farm policy. Most significantly, the legislation increases market influence in planting
decisions and reduces the distortions in resource use caused by previous commodity programs. Under Title I of the new law, eligible
producers of grains, cotton, and rice can enter into 7-year production flexibility contracts, receive a series of predetermined annual
payments, and have almost complete flexibility to plant any crop
on any land. Contract commodities may be planted on any acreage,
and any commodity except fruits and vegetables may be planted on
contract acreage. It is unlikely that there will be large changes in
land allocation or prices as a result of the act, at least in the short
run. Under the 1990 Farm Act, growers were given planting flexibility on up to 25 percent of their base acres but actually used, on
average, only about one-fourth of that flexibility to plant alternative crops.
The amounts paid to farmers during the 7 years covered by the
1996 Farm Act are large—almost as large as during the past 7
years under previous law. Furthermore, the new payments are well
above the amounts that would have been expected if the previous
law had been extended. Under the old law, deficiency payments increased when prices were low relative to the target price set by the
law, and decreased or fell to zero as prices rose toward the target
229
price. Under an extension of the previous system to 2002, deficiency payments would have provided little cash support, because
prices received by producers in 1995 and 1996 were high relative
to the old target prices, and prices are expected to remain high for
the next several years. However, once the 7-year payments run out,
they are not expected to be renewed. At that time farmers will become subject to market forces.
The act's impact on conservation is also significant. The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) is reauthorized through 2002,
with up to 36.4 million acres enrolled at any time. Under the CRP
the government contracts with farmers to convert highly erodible
or otherwise environmentally sensitive cropland to approved conservation uses for 10 to 15 years. In exchange, farmers are paid an
annual rent and a share of the cost of converting and maintaining
the land. The Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP) provides payment
and cost sharing to farmers who grant permanent or long-term
easements (over 30 years) that restore farmlands to a wetland environment. The landowner is allowed certain economic uses of the
restored wetland, which may reduce the cost of the easement. The
WRP is reauthorized through 2002 for a maximum of 975,000
acres. Finally, the Environmental Quality Incentives Program
(EQIP) combines and replaces several earlier programs. One of its
objectives is to encourage farmers and ranchers to adopt practices
that reduce environmental and resource problems through targeted
5- to 10-year contracts providing educational, technical, and financial assistance.
More is known about the budgetary and economic costs of these
programs than about their benefits. Further, the benefits are
multidimensional, as decisions about how to use farmland affect
soil loss, water quality, wildlife habitat, and other environmental
characteristics. Thus, to maximize overall benefits, the CRP and
other programs must be managed to achieve multiple objectives,
recognizing the tradeoffs among policy goals.
The conservation programs of the 1996 Farm Act have the potential to enhance social welfare, but they are also expensive. The
CRP alone retires up to 10 percent of the Nation's stock of cultivated cropland and raises prices received by farmers overall. Impacts on particular commodities will depend on the extent to which
farmers vary cropping patterns in response to price changes. Since
there are few restrictions on cropping decisions under the new law,
market prices will allocate land left out of the CRP to the highestvalued uses. Legislation and administration have increasingly reflected concern for more careful management of conservation programs. The 1990 act encouraged the Department of Agriculture to
improve the cost-effectiveness of the CRP. In response, the department actively targeted subsequent CRP signups to land that would
230
best contribute to conservation reserve goals by using a national
ranking of applications based on costs and an environmental benefits index. The 1996 act encouraged targeting of priority areas for
the CRP, the WRP, and the EQIP and specifically called for the
EQIP to maximize the environmental benefits per dollar expended.
LIMITS ON BRINGING MARKETS INTO THE
PUBLIC SECTOR
The success of spectrum auctions and emissions permit trading
programs again raises the question of whether we might not leave
all government service provision to the market. For example, if airport landing rights can be sold, why not sell the right to operate
the air traffic control system as well? Recently proposed legislation
would lead to the privatization of the Patent and Trademark Office.
And the National Aeronautics and Space Administration recently
signed a $7 billion contract with a joint venture between two leading aerospace companies to run the space shuttle program. In principle, more might be done. The Federal Government might contract
out or privatize virtually every one of its operations, from law enforcement to Medicare administration, from the Census Bureau to
the Army. Where, if at all, should we draw the line?
It is worth noting that the U.S. economy is already in private
hands to a greater degree than the economies of most other industrial countries. In many countries, services provided privately in
the United States—including telephone service, electric power,
broadcasting, health care, and air transportation—are nationalized.
In the United States, most goods and services except for the mail,
the public schools, local mass transit, intercity passenger rail, and
some local utilities, are already provided in the private sector.
Moreover, in those sectors where the public sector is the dominant
service provider, as well as in the rest of the government, many
day-to-day operations such as food service, transportation, and
cleaning are supplied by private firms under contract. Indeed, the
increasing scope of privatization in the rest of the world is a response to its demonstrated success in the U.S. economy.
But contracting out has important limits in the public sector, just
as it does in the private economy. Firms exist because internal production of goods and control of services are often less expensive
than going to the market every day to procure employees, equipment, and supplies. Outside procurement, especially under longterm contract, is especially problematic when assets and services
are specialized to a particular enterprise, leaving one party or both
vulnerable to opportunistic threats to breach the agreement. One
way the government can avoid the costs of using the market and
its exposure to such opportunism is to undertake specialized, long-
231
term activities in-house rather than to contract out for them. This,
too, is consistent with the Administration's policy to imitate effective private sector activities in providing public services. Private
firms, after all, organize themselves the way they do in large measure to realize savings from producing goods and services in-house
rather than purchasing them from others.
A second reason for limiting the scope of privatization of public
services stems from the fact that the justification of many of these
services is on other than economic grounds. Privatization works
best when the goals of an activity are well defined, performance at
meeting those goals can be accurately assessed, and the primary
objective is to ensure that they are met at least cost. These conditions are often met, but in many cases it is hard to define goals
explicitly or to monitor private providers to ensure that the public's
goals are being met. Many times, service providers themselves
have to judge how best to meet publicly designated objectives. In
those cases it may then be more efficient to keep those service providers within the government. Agencies could then hire personnel
who already understand and share their objectives. Where such a
professional ethic is important to achieve the public sector's goals,
delegation to private, profit-maximizing entities may be an inefficient way to promote the public good.
CONCLUSION
Markets have undeniably significant advantages over the public
sector in processing and transmiting enormous quantities of information about the costs and benefits of goods and services. They
also allow millions of individuals and businesses to act in such a
way that they directly reap the benefits and bear the costs of their
actions. When insufficient competition, incomplete markets, imperfect information, or noneconomic goals complicate the picture, however, markets may not lead to efficient or socially desirable outcomes. On the other hand, as both academic research and practical
experience point out, the public sector is not always the perfect alternative when markets fail to meet theoretical ideals.
Too much of the debate about the virtues and vices of government involvement in the economy is predicated on an artificial dichotomy between government and markets, usually understating
the deficiencies of one and overstating those of the other. With a
careful, pragmatic balance of the costs and benefits of public intervention in the economy, however, we have seen that markets and
governments need not be regarded as substitutes, but as highly effective complements. The passage and implementation of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the promotion of electric power competition through the FERC's Orders No. 888 and No. 889, the intro-
232
duction of emissions trading and spectrum auctions, and the reform
of land management policies all exemplify this principle. Public policy can help markets perform better, and market mechanisms can
help the government better serve the public while reducing burdens on taxpayers and the economy as a whole.
233
CHAPTER 7
American Leadership in the
Emerging Global Economy
SEVENTY-EIGHT YEARS AGO, after the end of World War I,
an isolationist America made a tragic mistake by retreating from
international engagement. The punitive economic conditions imposed on Germany in the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, along with protectionist pressures culminating in the Trade Act of 1930 in the
United States (the origin of the infamous Smoot-Hawley tariff) and
other measures elsewhere, destabilized the international economy
and deepened the Great Depression. These events in turn are widely believed to have contributed to political instability in Europe,
thus helping bring on World War II.
After that war the United States, determined to get it right this
time, did pursue a policy of international engagement. American
leadership fostered the creation of a stable and predictable international economic environment and of international institutions,
such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), to promote cooperation on economic matters. The United States also played a
key role in designing the postwar multilateral trading system. Mutually agreed rules, formulated under the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT), underpinned the development of a trading regime in which countries could prosper. All these efforts greatly enhanced America's well-being, economically as well as politically. In the Cold War years, the United States led an economic
partnership with other industrial democracies in Europe, North
America, and the Pacific Rim. These countries flourished as economic cooperation took root.
The Cold War era also saw the decolonization of much of Africa,
Asia, the Middle East, the Pacific, and the Caribbean. The new
countries that emerged, together with the already independent
lower and middle-income countries of Latin America, became
known collectively as the developing world. Through its own direct
assistance and through institutions such as the World Bank, the
United States led the international coordination of aid and lending
to these countries and, more recently, to the countries in transition
from central planning.
Now a new era is beginning. Fundamental changes have reshaped the world economy. One of the previous central motivations
235
for U.S. leadership, that of superpower competition with the Soviet
Union, is gone. Yet the United States and other countries continue
to benefit from U.S. leadership in international economic policy.
U.S. economic leadership must move forward with a renewed vision, adapted to these changed political and economic realities.
This chapter examines how the world economy has changed, and
how U.S. leadership remains necessary in international economic
relationships. A policy of economic openness and engagement, supporting the kind of international economic system the United
States has worked hard to establish over the past half century, will
continue to yield great benefits to the Nation, through access to
new markets and through enhanced international stability and cooperation. In this area some of the current policies on which the
Administration places priority are:
• facilitating economic reform in the transition economies and
their integration into world markets, including their accession
to the World Trade Organization (WTO)
• providing adequate resources for multilateral development efforts, including full funding of U.S. commitments to the World
Bank's International Development Association (IDA)
• supporting the rules-based international trading system centered on the WTO
• continuing a wide variety of efforts to open foreign markets to
U.S. exports, encouraging U.S. companies to take advantage of
these opportunities, and working with the Congress to negotiate further international market opening
• furthering U.S. efforts toward greater economic linkages within the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum and
the proposed Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) agreement
• strengthening the international financial system and increasing the capacity of international financial institutions to respond to crises.
• fostering cooperation on common challenges in the Group of
Seven at the summit of heads of state that the President will
host in Denver in June 1997.
THREE SWEEPING CHANGES
At the core of the international economic system that emerged
after World War II was what came to be called the liberal international trading system. It was liberal in the sense that it worked
to free the flow of goods and capital from the restrictions that had
often characterized the interwar regime. A few widely shared, basic
premises underlay this system.
236
Just as competitive markets within economies had helped deliver
remarkable increases in standards of living in the industrial world,
so competition between economies could help sustain and enhance
these increases. The economic principles underlying this belief were
long established. One was that international trade allows countries
to find their comparative advantage, concentrating their production
on those goods in which they have the largest cost advantage over
others. Another was that bigger markets spell greater scope for the
gains that come from specialization.
The trading system had other, noneconomic purposes as well.
The Western democracies believed that prosperity was the best insurance against the spread of Communism. Indeed, trade liberalization is a natural corollary of the paradigm of democratic market
capitalism, which won an important intellectual and strategic victory in the Cold War.
Three recent changes have had a profound effect on the international economic environment: the end of the Cold War, the emergence of growing markets among the developing countries of East
Asia and Latin America, and the increasing globalization of the
international economy. These changes have also created important
opportunities for the United States. Understanding these changes
helps us see where the international economy is headed in the future, so that we can more effectively respond to these challenges,
fulfill our responsibilities, and take advantage of these opportunities.
THE END OF THE COLD WAR
In 1989 the Soviet Union relaxed its control over the Eastern European countries that had suffered its domination for over 40 years.
These countries immediately seized the opportunity to throw off
authoritarian Communist rule. Two years later the Soviet Union itself underwent a political and ideological upheaval, which quickly
led to its breakup into 15 independent states. Most of these and the
other formerly centrally planned economies are now, to varying degrees, engaged in a process of transition from central planning and
state ownership to market forces and private ownership.
An essential part of the West's victory in the Cold War was that
it decided once and for all the contest between two radically different approaches to organizing political and economic life. The industrial democracies had allowed markets to guide most economic
decisions. The Communist countries had relied on central planning,
in which state-owned producers acted on instructions handed down
from government ministries. By the 1980s the success of the market democracies stood in sharp contrast with the evident stagnation of the Communist economies that had stuck by central planning.
237
This triumph of democracy and markets was as much an intellectual victory as a political and economic one. The idea that state
planners could effectively guide every aspect of production in an
entire economy was thoroughly discredited. The amount of information required for planning to work far exceeded the planners' ability to gather and process it. In any case, without private property,
hard budget constraints, and competition both from other domestic
firms and from abroad, the managers of socialist enterprises lacked
incentives to streamline production or to innovate. Consumers in
these countries had to make do with increasingly shoddy products.
Industrial productivity fell far short of that in the industrial democracies. Lacking a system of flexible, market-determined prices
to convey information about relative scarcities, and lacking decentralized decisionmakers with the freedom and incentives to act on
that information and allocate resources accordingly, the centrally
planned economies fell far behind the West.
The Communist countries made another major blunder: as a
matter of policy, they insulated themselves from the world economy
and ignored the opportunities that international trade offers to
raise living standards. This is not to say that the Communist countries did not trade. They did, but mostly with each other. In 1989,
for example, Czechoslovakia, despite its location adjacent to affluent Western Europe, conducted 54 percent of its trade with its fellow Communist countries, and almost 60 percent of that trade was
with the Soviet Union. Given these countries' other economic
handicaps, such limited trade failed to reap many of the potential
gains of comparative advantage or of expanded competition. Trade
became just another misguided planning decision, and was often
undertaken merely for political reasons as well.
INDUSTRIALIZATION AND GROWTH COME TO THE
DEVELOPING WORLD
The second great change of recent years has been the rapid industrialization and economic growth of a number of developing
countries in several parts of the world. The first of these emerging
markets were the four Asian "tigers": Hong Kong, Singapore, South
Korea, and Taiwan. Now Malaysia, Thailand, and some other
Asian countries are following in their footsteps, and some of the
Latin American countries, having overcome the debt crisis of the
1980s and undertaken economic and political reforms, have also
begun to see faster, more sustained growth.
The success of these countries offers valuable insights into the
necessary ingredients for successful development. It has implications for U.S. international economic policy as well. Again, because
trade, and economic relations more generally, are a positive-sum
enterprise, the rise of these countries also brings opportunities for
238
the United States and the other established economies. As a major
exporter of capital goods—the tools of development—and of agricultural products, consumer goods, and commercial services, the United States is especially well poised to benefit from these economies'
growing demand.
The Success of East and Southeast Asia
From 1960 to 1993, 8 of the world's 10 fastest-growing economies
were all in the same region: East and Southeast Asia. Japan's
gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, adjusted for differences in
relative prices, grew from 30 percent of that of the United States
in 1960 to 82 percent in 1994, and South Korea's from 9 percent
to 40 percent. The four "tigers" experienced growth in GDP per
capita averaging over 6 percent per year, during a period in which
U.S. income per capita grew less than 2 percent per year (Chart
7-1). Malaysia's growth has averaged over 4 percent a year, and
Indonesia's only slightly less (Chart 7-2). China, the world's most
populous country with more than a billion inhabitants, has seen
phenomenal growth in GDP per capita, averaging 8.1 percent per
year since 1978. Although still under Communist rule, China has
begun to recognize the tenets of market economics, including the
importance of incentives and entrepreneurship, which have awakened the country's vast potential.
Chart 7-1 GDP Per Capita in the "Four Tigers"
Since 1960, real GDP in each of the four East Asian "tigers" has grown by
more than 6 percent per year.
Thousands of 1987 dollars (ratio scale)
20.0
Hong Kong
10.0
-/^xV'"
Singapore
5.0
2.0 -
..' .
:-:£
*~*~"'
^
.*'
yr~"
/
/
World
/
/"""
1.0
0.5
0.2
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
Source: World Bank.
239
1980
1984
1988
1992
Chart 7-2 GDP Per Capita in Four Other Asian Economies
Although still below that of the "tigers," real GDP in several other East and Southeast Asian
economies has also grown quickly.
Thousands of 1987 dollars (ratio scale)
5.00
World
2.00
Thailand
1.00
0.50
Indonesia
0.20
China
0.10 '
0.05
0.02
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
Source: World Bank.
Although their approaches to development have differed in various ways, the success of these economies teaches important lessons on the elements of a sound development strategy. These include attention to human and physical capital, a limited role for
government, and export-oriented policies. Another lesson is that
rapid development need not be accompanied by large income disparities.
The development of human capital has made a critical contribution to Asia's success. The region's successful economies have invested in nearly universal primary and secondary education, while
at the same time developing their scientific and engineering capabilities. This has given them a labor force equipped to work with
increasingly complex production processes, and has permitted them
to move to increasingly sophisticated technologies over time. A particularly noteworthy aspect of their educational strategy has been
its emphasis on female as well as male education.
Investment in physical capital has also contributed greatly. In
the successful economies, most of this investment has been financed domestically, thanks to relatively high domestic saving
rates. Some East Asian economies have achieved gross saving rates
of more than 30 percent of GDP.
The role of government in many successful East Asian economies
has generally been to complement markets and make them work
240
better, rather than to replace them. Governments made it their
first responsibility to keep their fiscal affairs in order. Deficits were
small, and some governments actually ran surpluses. Government
expenditure focused on investment, both in people and in infrastructure. Governments also took charge of maintaining macroeconomic stability, avoiding extremes of high inflation and high unemployment.
The successful East Asian economies also adopted policies of outward orientation. Firms were expected to compete in export markets, where they would have to adopt international standards and
best practices. Engagement in the international economy also facilitated the increase of technological capacity. Empirical evidence indicates that economies in East Asia and elsewhere that adopted
such outward-oriented strategies enjoyed superior performance in
terms of exports, overall growth, and employment. One study found
that, during the 1970s and 1980s, the more open economies in a
large sample of developing countries grew on average by 4.5 percent per year, compared with only 0.7 percent for more closed
economies. Not a single open developing economy in the survey
grew at less than 2 percent per year during this period. Of course,
some of the observed correlation between openness and growth may
be due to reverse causality: countries tend to liberalize trade as
they develop. But even when one isolates exogenous differences in
trade levels across countries (e.g., due to geography), it appears
that trade leads to faster growth.
The East and Southeast Asian economies recognized the importance of exports to their economic growth, but they were not always
as receptive to imports. Although they avoided the extremes of protracted import substitution policies (discussed below), which insulated the industries of many other countries behind walls of protection, they did erect a variety of barriers to trade, which were
distortionary and may have impeded growth at home and abroad.
The East Asian experience upset the conventional wisdom on the
relationship between growth and income equality. The established
theories held that inequality was necessary to promote economic
growth, because growth requires saving, and the wealthy tend to
save more than the nonwealthy. Theory also held that inequality
increased in the early stages of growth, as an income gap emerged
between workers in the new industrial sector and those left behind
in the traditional agrarian sector. The poor would eventually benefit from the growth in national prosperity, in this view.
Confounding these theories, several East Asian economies succeeded in growing rapidly while not only maintaining a more even
income distribution than many other countries but actually reducing inequality. More-equal distribution of income contributed to
rapid growth through several channels. For instance, it facilitated
241
the accumulation of human capital, as more households could afford to pay for their children's education. Land reform in Taiwan
and some other economies after World War II both improved equality and enhanced peasants' incentives, stimulating growth.
The Revival of Growth in Latin America
For many economies in Latin America the 1980s were a "lost decade." After growing robustly in the 1960s and 1970s (Chart 7-3),
these countries took on large foreign debts in the late 1970s and
early 1980s. They pursued inward-oriented economic policies, developing their industries to supply domestic demand behind high
trade barriers that reduced competition and distorted prices. These
policies left them ill equipped to service this mounting debt, much
of which financed consumption rather than productive investment.
In 1981-82, high dollar interest rates pushed these countries' debtservice requirements upward, a deep recession in the United States
lowered demand for their exports, and prices for their export commodities declined. Debt-service payments thus rose sharply in relation to export earnings. When these problems erupted into a crisis
in Mexico in August 1982, a number of countries were forced to
suspend these payments. Many were compelled to make painful adjustments to continue debt payments, while investors remained reluctant to extend new financing. Through cooperative efforts led by
the United States with other industrialized creditor countries and
the IMF and the World Bank, many Latin American countries reformed their economies and restructured their debts, and by the
early 1990s the crisis had unwound.
Most of these countries have resumed growth in the 1990s. Their
governments now intervene less in their economies, and they have
adopted more outward-oriented policies. The star performer has
been Chile, whose relatively open, liberal economy has seen growth
averaging more than 6 percent per year since 1983 while moving
more than a third of the country's poor above the poverty line.
Other economies have also expanded. Since 1993, real growth in
Brazil, Latin America's largest economy, has averaged over 4 percent per year. Brazil has also quashed inflation after more than a
decade of extreme price instability. Argentina's economy, which
contracted by 1 percent per year during the 1980s, has seen an
even more striking recovery.
The reentry of a dynamic Latin America into the international
economy offers especially great opportunities for the United States.
Our historical ties with that region as well as our geographical
proximity make it likely that the United States will benefit greatly
from Latin America's resurgence.
242
Chart 7-3 Real GDP Growth in Latin America
Growth has revived for some Latin American countries in the 1990s.
Average annual percent change
10
1960 to 1970
1970 to 1980
Argentina
0
1980 to 1990
Brazil
Chile
1990 to 1996
Mexico
Note: 1995-96 data projected by the International Monetary Fund.
Sources: International Monetary Fund and World Bank.
INCREASED GLOBALIZATION
The third major change in the international economic environment is even more sweeping than the first two. National economies
are becoming steadily more integrated. Technological barriers have
fallen as transportation and communication costs have plummeted.
Man-made barriers have also fallen, as tariffs have been drastically
reduced in a series of multilateral trade negotiations since World
War II, and as efforts to reduce nontariff barriers have gathered
speed.
Some numbers help illustrate the shrinking economic distance
between countries. Advances in shipping technology have reduced
average ocean freight charges per short ton from $95 in 1920 to
$29 in 1990 (these figures are for U.S. trade only and are in 1990
dollars). Between 1930 and 1990, average air transport revenue per
passenger-mile fell from 68 cents to 11 cents, and the cost of a 3minute phone call from New York to London dropped from $244.65
to $3.32 (again in 1990 dollars).
Trade has increased faster than output in the postwar era. In
1960, total world exports amounted to $629 billion (in 1995 dollars). By 1995 they had risen to over $5 trillion. In real terms,
world exports have grown at an annual rate of 6.1 percent per year
since 1960, while world output grew at 3.8 percent (Chart 7-4).
243
This growth of trade has led to wider competition, allowing countries to benefit from their comparative advantage and raising living
standards everywhere.
Chart 7-4 Growth in World Output and Trade
Trade has expanded much faster than output, especially since the early 1970s.
Index, 1960=100
700
600
500
400
300
\
Output
200
100
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
Sources: International Monetary Fund and World Bank.
Globalization has made great strides but still has a long way to
go. The physical and information costs of international trade are
still substantial, although current trends and the history of economic and technological advancement suggest that these costs will
continue to shrink. As they do, however, other barriers to trade will
take on greater importance.
The Evolution of International Institutions
A number of international institutions have evolved under strong
U.S. encouragement to handle the challenges posed by increased
global integration. Two that are central are the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, both created at the Bretton
Woods conference at the end of World War II. The World Bank's
first task was to finance Western Europe's postwar reconstruction.
It has since become a major financier of infrastructure and other
projects and programs in developing countries—and now transition
economies as well—around the world. On its successful model, regional multilateral development banks have also been set up for Af-
244
rica, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, and most recently for
Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union.
The IMF was designed to provide temporary financing to countries with balance of payments shortfalls, as a means of supporting
the international system of fixed exchange rates that the Bretton
Woods conference also established. That system pegged members'
currencies to the dollar, which in turn was made convertible into
gold for foreign governments. Since the fixed exchange rate system
collapsed in the early 1970s, the IMF has taken on several other
important roles, including financing structural adjustment programs in developing and transition economies. These programs, in
conjunction with funding for structural adjustment reforms by the
World Bank and other multilateral development banks, involve a
negotiated set of economic reforms designed to stabilize the domestic economy and facilitate the development of institutions and markets that will maximize future growth.
The architects of the Bretton Woods system also sought to create
a new order in international trade, to reduce friction between trading partners and prevent a return to the beggar-thy-neighbor policies of the 1930s, in which countries imposed tariffs and devalued
their currencies in an ultimately futile effort to increase domestic
employment at foreigners' expense. The Bretton Woods proposal for
an International Trade Organization was never ratified, but the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, an accord originally intended as a precursor to the ITO, was concluded in 1947. Subsequent negotiations under the GATTs auspices have done much to
liberalize trade. The code of conduct that it embodies introduced
two important principles to trade relations: first, that countries
should eventually renounce import quotas and similar quantitative
restrictions on trade, and second, that they should adopt a policy
of nondiscrimination, opening their markets to all participating
countries equally.
The GATT has provided a framework for countries to negotiate
large reductions in tariffs and, more recently, in nontariff barriers.
Successive GATT negotiating rounds have achieved reductions of
over 90 percent in tariffs on industrial products traded between the
major industrial countries. The GATTs Uruguay Round, completed
in 1993, made landmark reductions in nontariff barriers in textiles
and apparel, product standards, and intellectual property, among
other areas. It also extended GATT principles both to agriculture,
where certain nontariff barriers were converted to tariffs, later to
be progressively reduced, and to services.
A key outcome of the 1993 Uruguay Round agreement was to set
up an international trade body along the lines envisioned at
Bretton Woods nearly 50 years earlier. The establishment of this
body, the World Trade Organization, recognizes the need for a
245
forum for discussion, negotiation, and liberalization. The WTO also
encompasses a system for the impartial and expeditious adjudication of trade disputes, to help ensure that countries operate fairly
in international trade. The WTO's dispute settlement system applies in integrated fashion to the whole range of Uruguay Round
agreements.
The WTO system respects national sovereignty. Each country retains ultimate authority for making and implementing national
policy. But decades of GATT negotiations have resulted in a set of
internationally accepted rules of the game. A country that is found
to be engaging in an unfair trade practice has a choice: it can either desist from that practice or face appropriate retaliation from
the injured country. Within the WTO, judgments are reached in a
quasi-judicial framework on the consistency of countries' trade
practices with WTO obligations. Section 301 of U.S. trade law has
in fact always required the United States to use GATT (and now
WTO) dispute settlement mechanisms where available. A problem
under the former GATT system was that many restrictions and distortions of international trade did not violate any specific GATT obligation, and thus were not subject to treatment under GATT dispute settlement mechanisms. Given the success of the Uruguay
Round and the resulting broader scope of the WTO, this problem
has been significantly lessened, though not eliminated, for the
United States and other countries. Section 301 also provides a
mechanism for addressing unfair trade practices not covered by the
WTO.
The WTO benefits its members individually by establishing
clearer multilateral trading rules and a more effective means of enforcement. Its presence makes the international trading system
more predictable, thereby facilitating trade and the advantages
that derive from it.
Under U.S. leadership, the industrial countries have also created
procedures to coordinate their bilateral assistance to developing
countries. The primary mechanism for this coordination is the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), run under the auspices of
the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD), whose members include most of the world's richest and a
growing number of upper-middle-income countries.
The major industrial countries have developed some other, less
formal mechanisms to manage economic issues. The annual summit meetings of the Group of Seven major industrial economies
(Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and
the United States) offer an opportunity for heads of government
and their senior ministers to deal with issues of mutual importance, such as appropriate macroeconomic policies. The United
States will host this year's meeting in Denver in June. Group of
246
Seven finance ministers and central bank governors also meet several times a year to address these issues.
The Increasing Openness of Developing Economies
Aided by policies that have opened developing-country markets,
globalization has increased the involvement of developing countries
in world trade and investment flows. The share of the developing
countries and today's transition economies in world trade has increased dramatically over the last 30 years. These economies accounted for 27 percent of total world exports in 1965; by 1995 their
share of a many-times-larger world export market had grown to 33
percent (Chart 7-5). Within this growing share, that of the Asian
developing economies more than doubled, from 8 percent to 19 percent of total world trade; meanwhile the shares of the African and
Latin American countries fell considerably.
Chart 7-5 Shares of World Trade
The share of Asian developing countries in international trade has risen greatly since 1980,
increasing the overall importance of developing countries in world trade.
1965
1980
Japan
Eastern
Europe
Latin
America
Eastern
Europe
Latin
Amenca
1995
Middle
East
Africa
Asian
developing
Middle
Asian
developing
East
Eastern
Europe
Latin
America
Middle
East
Africa
Note: Eastern Europe includes the (former) Soviet Union.
Source: International Monetary Fund.
The developing world's strategy toward trade and development
has undergone a remarkable change. In the 1950s and 1960s many
developing countries adopted policies of import-substitution industrialization: countries would build their economies by making for
themselves the manufactured goods that they were used to importing. Infant-industry protection was a corollary to this argument,
combining protection of new domestic industries from foreign com-
247
petitors with state support. The import substitution approach seldom succeeded, however, in encouraging the development of internationally competitive manufactures. Once granted protection,
firms tended to settle comfortably into home-grown monopolies
rather than strive to duplicate world standards of technology and
productivity.
In the 1980s, engulfed by the debt crisis, many of these countries
responded at first by further raising trade barriers. But as the crisis deepened, they were forced to change direction. Dismantling of
trade barriers was one of the cornerstones of the structural adjustment policies many countries adopted as part of their debt-restructuring packages. Trade liberalization not only helped establish
powerful, direct linkages between their domestic economies and the
world system, but also compelled action on other promised reforms
under the pressures of international competition. Meanwhile governments scaled back the scope of their activities, privatizing state
enterprises they had set up in steel, chemicals, and other heavy industries.
ACHIEVEMENTS AND OPPORTUNITIES
A cornerstone of this Administration's economic policies has been
to position the United States to benefit from the global changes described above. The United States has worked hard, through the negotiation of bilateral, regional, and multilateral agreements, to
open foreign markets to American products. The past 4 years have
seen perhaps the most rapid progress ever in this area, including
the completion of the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA), the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of the GATT, and
over 200 trade agreements in all (see Economic Report of the President 1995 and 1996 for details of some of these agreements). The
Nation has reaped huge benefits from these policies and has experienced strong export growth, leading to strong job and income
growth as well. One of the many economic successes of the last 4
years has been a surge in exports, which have grown by 42 percent—over $185 billion. By one reckoning, exports account for almost a third of the Nation's strong overall growth. Exports are critical to creating high-wage, high-tech jobs, because they allow the
United States to expand production in those high-productivity sectors in which we have comparative advantage. Since 1992, the
number of high-wage, export-related jobs in the U.S. economy has
increased by 1.5 million. These jobs pay more—13 to 16 percent
more on average—than the average job.
Implemented in 1994, NAFTA joins the U.S. and Canadian
economies in a free-trade area with that of Mexico. In the first 3
years since NAFTA went into effect, trade between the United
248
States and its NAFTA partners, which are our largest and thirdlargest trading partners, has grown by about 33 percent. NAFTA's
value was proved during Mexico's 1995 financial crisis. Despite the
extreme adjustments and the sharp economic contraction that the
crisis forced upon Mexico, the agreement ensured that Mexico
would keep its markets open to U.S. products. The result was in
sharp contrast to the restrictive policies that followed Mexico's
1982 financial crisis. In 1996 U.S. exports to Mexico rose to record
highs. This forestalling of any potential reversion to insular and
protectionist policies also benefited Mexico.
The United States is actively pursuing further market opening in
the Western Hemisphere, building on NAFTA through ongoing
talks toward a Free Trade Area of the Americas. Under the proposed FTAA, 34 Western Hemisphere countries will be linked in a
free-trade area by 2005. Trade with countries in this hemisphere
(including Canada and Mexico) accounted for over $170 billion in
U.S. exports—well over a third of the total—in the first three quarters of 1996. A useful first step toward this goal would be completion of a free-trade agreement with Chile.
The United States is also benefiting from market opening and expanded trade with the other Pacific Rim countries. Progress within
the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum has been rapid. At
the 1996 leaders' summit at Subic Bay in the Philippines, the 18
APEC members—which include both industrial and developing
economies and account for over half of world income—committed
themselves to take the initial steps toward free and open trade and
investment and a free-trade area by 2020. In addition, the Information Technology Agreement (ITA), a U.S. initiative that would liberalize trade in semiconductors, computer and telecommunications
equipment, and software exports, was broadly embraced by the
APEC nations at the December summit.
With strong support within APEC, completion of the ITA was a
centerpiece of U.S. efforts at the WTO's first ministerial meeting,
held in Singapore a few weeks later. There 28 countries endorsed
the agreement, including almost all the industrial countries, several developing economies in East and Southeast Asia, and Turkey.
The agreement would cover products accounting for some $500 billion in annual world trade and over $90 billion in annual U.S. exports.
One of this Administration's first initiatives was the establishment of the Trade Promotion Coordinating Committee (TPCC),
which coordinates government policies affecting U.S. exports across
agencies. In September 1993 the TPCC unveiled the National Export Strategy, which laid out 65 concrete recommendations for
leveraging export promotion resources and removing governmentimposed obstacles to exporting. The Administration quickly imple-
249
mented the strategy, which includes opening export assistance centers around the country, providing "one-stop shopping" for new exporters, leveling the playing field for U.S. companies by countering
the advocacy efforts of foreign governments, and eliminating unnecessary export controls and licenses. The National Export Strategy
also includes specific initiatives for each of the "big emerging markets".
As early initiatives are successfully implemented, the National
Export Strategy continues to evolve through the identification of
new areas and the development of initiatives by the TPCC. For example, the TPCC concluded that the use of illegitimate practices
such as bribery was far more widespread than previously known.
The TPCC was able to identify $11 billion in contracts lost to U.S.
exporters over a 2-year period because of bribery by foreign firms.
Last year's report on the National Export Strategy contained a
blueprint for government-wide action to combat bribery. And this
year the TPCC is developing a strategy against the use of product
standards as barriers to U.S. exports.
At the same time, the United States has continued to take steps
to ensure that globalization lifts living standards in all countries,
through a serious commitment to promoting labor standards
throughout the world. In its efforts within international organizations, the Administration has sought to establish a framework for
multilateral discussion on how best to promote core labor standards: freedom of association, the right to organize and bargain collectively, nondiscrimination in the workplace, prohibition of forced
labor, and elimination of exploitative child labor.
EXPLAINING THE BENEFITS OF INTEGRATION
Virtually all economists agree that international trade and economic integration raise the living standards of U.S. residents overall, while also increasing economic well-being in other countries.
The benefits of international trade have become increasingly apparent as it has fueled growth over recent years. When unemployment
is significant, as it was in 1993, an expansion of exports raises demand for U.S. goods and services and therefore increases employment. Even as the economy approaches full employment, the benefits of trade continue to manifest themselves in the form of higher
incomes, and continue to influence the pattern of job creation and
change.
The effects of trade opening are similar to a major technological
innovation: both may require economic restructuring. It is also
widely acknowledged that some companies and workers may be
hurt by the opening of markets as they adjust to increased foreign
competition. The U.S. Government undertakes various measures to
assist workers and companies injured by trade (Box 7-1). Moreover
250
the core of this Administration's education policies is to ensure that
all Americans have the tools they need to compete and succeed in
the international economy.
Box 7-1.—Trade Adjustment Measures ; /-*/,
.....
•.
; -
*
as the trmsitioBal adjustment
<TAA) help workers adversely affected by trade
train and take advantage of the economic opportunities trade
offers* The NAFTA-TAA program provides a short-term safety
net in the form of an a4justme&t allowance for workers who
suffer from a shifk of production to or increased imports from
: Mexico or Canada (whether or not related to NAFTA); it also
provides employment services and training to help them acquire the skills they need to enter new jobs, In fiscal year
1998, over 2,000 workers entered training under this program,
and almost 1*400 began receiving adjustment allowances* Also
important to a^jm^tnieiit is the phasing in of trade liberalisation over time* Chingte|f the rales gradually gives import-cornpetiiig Itidtistoes time to acjjiist to new competition* However,
such delays niust not f>ecdi$te a device
' to postpone agreed
' Hber*
'
Are trade deficits a source of concern? As last year's Economic
Report of the President emphasized, trade deficits and surpluses
are primarily determined by macroeconomic factors, in particular
the balance between domestic saving and investment. Trade barriers have little lasting influence on the Nation's overall trade balance, although they may have marked effects on bilateral deficits,
and they do affect the extent to which countries can reap the benefits of trade. It is even an oversimplification to think that deficits
are necessarily bad, and surpluses necessarily good. A current account deficit merely means that a country is, on balance, borrowing
from the rest of the world; a surplus means it is a net lender to
the world. Whether such borrowing or lending is proper depends,
as it would for any individual or company, on what the borrowing
is used for or why the country is lending.
The United States has run trade and current account deficits
every year since 1982. In the 1980s these deficits were a red flag
that the United States was failing to save enough. The budget deficits run up during those years generated vast government dissaving: the economy was living beyond its means. In the last 4 years,
however, this Administration has successfully worked with the
Congress to reduce the government budget deficit and increase national saving. Nonetheless, trade deficits have persisted, although
they are much smaller in proportion to GDP than in the peak years
251
of the 1980s. But in contrast to the surge in the trade deficit in the
1980s, this most recent increase appears to be financing a surge in
U.S. investment, particularly in business equipment. The implication is that the improving economy will continue to grow and will
generate the resources necessary to repay our net borrowing from
the rest of the world. (The national saving rate is still low, however. The most effective way to raise it is to continue efforts to reduce the budget deficit.)
Investment, like trade, yields benefits to both sides of the transaction. Capital goes to those who are best able to make productive
use of it, and the suppliers of that capital receive a higher return,
for a given level of risk, than they could get elsewhere. These mutual benefits may be particularly pronounced in the case of foreign
direct investment (FDI). FBI occurs when a foreign investor either
sets up an enterprise in another country or obtains a large enough
share in an existing enterprise to give the investor effective influence over its management. FDI benefits the country receiving it in
many ways: besides the funds themselves, direct investors bring
managerial, technical, and marketing know-how, which often spills
over to other parts of the economy.
FDI by American companies can open the way for U.S. exports,
both as inputs to foreign production and as consumer goods to supply foreign demand. It also offers U.S. companies a toehold in foreign markets from which they can further expand sales. In many
cases, investment in distribution and other essential services increases a supplier's ability to export into a market. Trade between
firms and their foreign affiliates (intrafirm trade) can be an efficient means of international trade, particularly when problems of
imperfect information exist. Over a third of U.S. exports and twofifths of U.S. imports are estimated to be intrafirm. Worldwide,
about a third of trade is intrafirm trade.
In short, whatever the short-run effects on the economy and the
trade deficit, over longer periods increased globalization increases
incomes both in the United States and abroad. Globalization produces greater gains from trade, through specialization according to
comparative advantage and through realization of scale economies
in production. And by allowing capital to flow across borders, it
lowers the cost of financing investment in the recipient country,
and increases the return to saving and allows for portfolio diversification in the country providing the funds.
U.S. POLICY ON TRADE WITH DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
Much of our strong recent export growth is due to demand from
developing countries. During the 1990s U.S. exports to other industrial countries have grown at a satisfying rate of 5 percent per year
252
in real terms—but U.S. exports to developing countries have grown
at almost twice that rate (Chart 7-6). U.S. exports to Latin America have been particularly strong, rising from 0.9 percent of U.S.
GDP in 1990 to 1.4 percent in the first three quarters of 1996. Exports to other developing and transition economies rose from 1.6
percent to 2.2 percent of GDP.
Chart 7-6 U.S. Exports of Goods by Destination
U.S. exports to developing countries have grown faster than exports to markets
in industrialized countries.
Percent of U.S. GDP
10
1993
1994
n Canada
1995
Qindustrial
j
Note: Data for 1996 are estimated using 12 months of data ending in November.
Source: Department of Commerce.
The United States is committed to encouraging the involvement
and integration of developing countries in the global trading system. To this end, a number of policies have been put in place that
not only benefit U.S. consumers, but also provide special encouragement for developing countries to expand and diversify their exports. By encouraging openness and economic growth, our policies
also promote democracy and stability.
One of the main U.S. programs for promoting trade with developing countries is the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP).
Under the GSP, instituted in 1976, roughly 4,600 products from
148 beneficiary countries and territories are eligible for duty-free
entry into the United States. In 1995 the United States imported
$18.3 billion in duty-free goods under the program, accounting for
16 percent of total U.S. imports from GSP beneficiaries. Over twothirds of all GSP imports in that year originated in six countries:
253
Brazil, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand.
As countries develop they are graduated from the program, to allow
lower income countries to take better advantage of available preferences. (Malaysia, for example, graduated January 1, 1997.) The
President intends to seek a renewal of the GSP arrangement beyond its presently scheduled expiration in May 1997.
Implemented in 1984, the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery
Act provides preferential access to the U.S. market for 24 Caribbean countries and territories. In 1991 the United States implemented a similar program under the Andean Trade Preferences Act
for four South American countries. This program is a centerpiece
of U.S. efforts to encourage these countries to reduce their production and exports of cocaine. These two programs help support
growth and development in some of the hemisphere's less developed nations, which in turn have become better customers for U.S.
products.
PATTERNS OF FOREIGN INVESTMENT IN
DEVELOPING AND TRANSITION ECONOMIES
Developing countries tend to be importers of capital: their investment needs are massive and the potential returns large. But in the
1980s, as already noted, the debt crisis reduced and in some cases
reversed the net flow of capital into these countries. At the same
time, relatively large public sector deficits in the high-income countries absorbed private saving, increasing competition for international investment funds.
During the 1990s, private investment in developing countries has
undergone a marked revival. Those that have restored economic
and political stability have been rewarded with greatly increased
access to international capital. The significant and continuing restructuring of developing countries' external public debt has greatly
aided their mobilization of external private capital, by lowering the
risk perceived by investors. Long-term net private capital flows to
developing countries have nearly quadrupled in the 1990s, reaching
$167 billion in 1995 (Chart 7-7). Most of this growth occurred in
East Asia and the Pacific, where net resource flows rose from $35
billion in 1991 to over $100 billion in 1995. Flows to Eastern Europe rose sharply, too, from $6 billion in 1992 to $24 billion in
1995.
International private capital flows take three forms: FDI, portfolio investment in securities, and bank lending. FDI in developing
countries has grown without interruption over the last decade. Cumulative FDI flows during the 1990-95 period totaled $345 billion.
Developing countries' share of global FDI has risen rapidly, from
12 percent in 1990 to 38 percent in 1995. But the bulk of FDI into
developing countries has gone to a small number of countries. In
254
Chart 7-7 Net Capital Flows to Developing Countries
Led by large increases in foreign direct investment and portfolio equity investment,
investment in emerging markets has boomed in the 1990s.
Billions of 1995 doHars
200
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Note: Series adjusted by CPI-U.
Source: World Bank.
1994, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Mexico accounted for almost 60 percent of total FBI flows into developing countries (excluding the
transition economies). East Asia has done relatively well this decade in attracting FDI, while the share of FDI going to Latin America has declined.
Only 6 years ago, less than one-quarter of the stock of U.S. outward FDI was in the world's poorer countries, a smaller share than
in 1970 (Chart 7-8). Since 1990, however, in keeping with the general trend of global capital flows discussed above, U.S. investment
in emerging markets has boomed. The stock of U.S. investment in
these economies increased to 27 percent of all U.S. external investment. While total U.S. investment abroad rose 65 percent between
1990 and 1995, investment in developing countries nearly doubled.
The surge in FDI in the 1990s may have resulted in part from
the improvements in the economic structure of developing countries
already mentioned. Economic stabilization and reforms that have
reduced external indebtedness and lowered the risk of balance of
payments crises have also reduced transfer risk—the danger that
host countries would block the remittance of earnings to the parent
companies. In addition, reform of legal and regulatory regimes and
the adoption of outward-oriented economic policies have probably
reduced other risks perceived by foreign investors.
255
Chart 7-8 Stock of U.S. Direct Investment Abroad
Investment of U.S. companies in developing countries is still well below the stock of U.S. direct
investment in other industrialized countries, but it has increased rapidly in the 1990s.
Percent of U.S. GNP
8
Developed countries
Latin America
•
Asian developing
Other developing
and transition
1970 |$ 1990 £j 1995
Source: Department of Commerce.
Portfolio investment—the acquisition of bonds or corporate equity
in the absence of a significant ownership stake in the enterprise—
has grown dramatically. Portfolio investment gives firms that are
already up and running the extra finance they need to increase
performance. Portfolio equity flows to developing countries have
been highly volatile. After increasing 12-fold during 1990-93, they
fell 23 percent in 1994 and another 37 percent in 1995, to $22 billion. The sharp drop in 1994-95 was partly a reaction to events
surrounding the Mexican crisis. It also reflected higher U.S. and
European interest rates and concerns about possible overheating in
some Asian economies.
Corporate bond flows have grown more steadily, from $3 billion
at the beginning of the decade to $34 billion in 1995. In keeping
with their rapid growth and history of macroeconomic stability,
East Asian borrowers enjoyed maturities three times longer than
those of Latin American borrowers. Average spreads (differences in
interest rates) over government bonds in the United States and
other major industrial countries were one-half of those for Latin
American debt.
Finally, commercial bank lending has been highly volatile, jumping from less than $2 billion in 1990 to nearly $14 billion in 1993,
then reversing course to a $5 billion net outflow the following year.
256
By 1995, commercial bank debt inflows in developing countries had
risen again to $17 billion.
OTHER ASPECTS OF U.S. POLICY TOWARD
EMERGING MARKET ECONOMIES
The U.S. economy no longer dominates the world economy by its
sheer size, but even so the United States carries a disproportionate
weight in world economic affairs. We are looked to for leadership
in part because our economy remains the largest in the world, and
in part because we are the sole remaining superpower. How do we
intend to exercise that leadership? Among the most important objectives of U.S. economic policy are to ensure that the United
States itself benefits fully from the integration of these emerging
markets into a globalized economy; to guarantee that the former
Communist countries make a successful transition to the market
and become integrated into the international trading system; and
to help developing countries in their quest for growth and development, by fostering both their economic institutions and their
human resources.
INTEGRATING THE TRANSITION ECONOMIES INTO
THE WORLD ECONOMIC SYSTEM
One way in which the United States has led the pursuit of these
objectives has been by promoting an international economic system
that reflects our values of openness, competition, and private enterprise. A key challenge in this regard, as already noted, is to ensure
that economies that are newly embracing these values undertake
reforms and are assisted in integrating into this system. This will
ensure that these emerging economies have a stake in preserving
the system that U.S. leadership has helped create. History teaches
that outcasts can make trouble.
The task of transition is daunting, especially in the newly independent republics of the former Soviet Union, where Communism
had its deepest roots. By far the most important element of a successful transition is market-oriented economic and political reforms. In addition, these countries will need generous support from
the established market economies through the international financial institutions, as well as private investment. Foreign assistance
can help encourage the development of the political and social institutions that will allow markets and democratic principles to
flourish in the countries of the former Soviet bloc. The United
States has led efforts here: it has provided direct assistance to
these countries (as discussed below) and has worked within the
IMF and the World Bank to assist the transition. In particular, the
United States has strongly supported a major focus of the inter-
257
national financial institutions on building a foundation for marketdriven growth through the sale of state-owned enterprises, sweeping legal and regulatory reform, financial sector modernization, and
comprehensive redesign of social safety nets.
If these countries are to benefit fully from their conversion to
market economics, they must also be able to put their comparative
advantage to work. Just as it is also in the best interests of the
transition economies to play by the rules of the international marketplace, so too is it in the best interests of the established industrial economies to apply the trading rules fairly to the economies
in transition. The markets of the established industrial economies
must remain open to trade and investment opportunities with the
transition economies. Consumers—as well as producers buying inputs—will gain from lower prices, and other producers will gain
from exporting back to these new market economies and from increased opportunities for investment. In addition, all peoples will
benefit from a more stable world as the transition economies successfully leave their Communist past behind.
Russia and the United States have rapidly deepened relations
since Russia reemerged as an independent state at the end of the
Cold War. At a series of meetings in Vancouver, Tokyo, Moscow,
and Washington, the President and his Russian counterpart laid
the basis for a lasting U.S.-Russian partnership. In the economic
sphere, a commission headed by the Vice President and the Russian Prime Minister has worked to advance bilateral cooperation
through eight working committees covering health, space, energy
policy, agribusiness, defense conversion, business development, the
environment, and science and technology. The commission last met
in Moscow in July 1996 and is scheduled to meet in Washington
in February 1997. In the area of trade, a Partnership for Economic
Cooperation, signed by the two presidents at their September 1994
summit in Washington, serves as a framework for reducing barriers to expanded economic cooperation. A number of U.S. agencies—in particular, the Overseas Private Investment Corporation,
the Export-Import Bank, the Trade and Development Agency, and
the Department of Commerce—have programs in place aimed at facilitating trade and investment in Russia. The United States is also
actively supporting the transformation of Russia from a centrally
planned to a market economy. Since 1992 the U.S. Agency for
International Development (USAID), which coordinates U.S. bilateral foreign development assistance, has devoted approximately $2
billion in assistance under the Freedom Support Act to helping
Russia develop democratic and market institutions.
Meanwhile significant developments in the security sphere have
reduced the threat of military confrontation in the post-Cold War
era, while also providing economic benefits for the United States.
258
Most recently, Russia and the United States signed an agreement
that will transfer substantial amounts of Russia's supplies of highly enriched uranium from Russian warheads to U.S. energy facilities—a real-life example of turning swords into plowshares. The
Administration has been working to develop institutional arrangements to ensure that these mutually advantageous transactions, an
effective part of our policy to prevent nuclear proliferation, continue.
Both China and Russia are currently negotiating accession to the
WTO. Their successful integration into the multilateral trading
system requires that they continue their market reforms, agree to
provide mutually beneficial access to their markets, and abide by
multilateral rules and obligations. Likewise, by keeping open our
markets and those of our traditional allies to these new economic
powers, we can increase the stake they have in maintaining the
international rules-based economic system.
China and the United States together account for almost 16 percent of global trade and 30 percent of global output. Whether we
meet regional and global goals for freer and more open trade—
among the APEC countries and among all the members of the
WTO—depends in part on the strength of the bilateral relationship
between China and the United States. Recognizing this, the Administration is committed to pursuing a regular and intensive dialogue with China. Significant progress was made with the beginning of a dialogue between China's State Planning Commission and
the Council of Economic Advisers in August 1996. Progress continued at the September 1996 meeting of the Joint Commission on
Commerce and Trade, with the establishment of a consultative
group on business operational issues and with commitments to engage in further discussions on export controls and commercial law.
In the November 1996 session of the U.S.-China Joint Economic
Committee, China and the United States pledged further cooperation in the areas of customs, tax collection, and financial sector reform.
With the end of the Cold War, an important rationale for foreign
aid—to cement alliances with the world's poorer countries against
the threat of Communism—has disappeared. But there are other
important rationales. Beginning with the Marshall Plan after
World War II, foreign assistance has been part of a broad effort by
the United States and the other industrial democracies to foster a
world order based on freedom, prosperity, and stability. In an increasingly interdependent world, these ideals retain enormous relevance.
Some foreign aid is purely an expression of our sense of humanity: Americans find it difficult to turn their backs on children starving during a famine or left homeless after an earthquake. But just
259
as we believe, as a matter of domestic policy, that it is better to
extend a helping hand up than a handout, so we believe it is better
to create the economic conditions that will enable countries abroad
to stand on their own feet.
For half a century the United States has used its international
influence to spread democratic and market institutions. U.S. higher
education has also promoted markets and democracy overseas (Box
7-2). Aid, although much less important than trade economically,
is nevertheless an essential instrument by which the United States
and the other industrial democracies help less developed economies
become stronger and more self-reliant. We also believe—and not
without evidence—that countries with higher living standards are
likely to be politically more stable, especially when improvements
in living standards are spread widely within a population. By contributing to the world's political stability, these improvements in
living standards contribute to America's security.
Box 7-2.
Wivtotagt In
The tJnited
er
ing
of echft^
;
eir Jkjp^lbig dft'tuH^
|IJ&;ek*
wheat, our two l&rg&rt
deiits j^tam Kda% they take
-beii^flits of'an opeavm5ciet3r.aiid
tt/tt^v«cba<c^e;^
U*S, syitem of higher eftiica{ioii IM done M^db fo i a d ouf
rallies thi^mghowt the w<>rfd, todiudteg
'our
''
,
,
""""" ? "'"''"""'"""'"'"""
This is one example of how the United States itself benefits from
aid given to others. But we realize important economic benefits as
well. When our aid helps countries grow, we benefit from increased
exports. For example, 20 countries have achieved a sufficient level
of development to graduate from lending programs of the Inter-
260
national Development Association (the World Bank affiliate that
lends to the poorest countries on a concessional basis). These countries bought $61 billion in U.S. exports in 1995, or 6.3 percent of
our total exports. And by deepening our economic relationship with
developing countries through aid, we also make it more likely that
they will turn to U.S. firms for products in the future. More broadly, U.S. assistance in setting up legal and commercial institutions
in developing countries leads to foreign business environments that
are transparent, open, and predictable. This makes it easier for
U.S. exporters and investors to operate in these markets. Familiarity breeds trade.
How developing countries treat their environment is increasingly
relevant to Americans. The decimation of a rainforest, or the use
of inefficient coal-burning power plants, may affect the climate of
the entire globe. The explosion at Chernobyl brought home forcefully that badly designed nuclear reactors in one country can have
far-ranging effects. We all share the same planet. But poor countries may have difficulty raising the resources to do what is necessary to help preserve the global commons. Financial aid is one
way we can pursue these objectives.
To respond to these varied rationales, USAID has spelled out five
goals for its work: encouraging broad-based growth, protecting the
environment, building democracy, helping to stabilize world population growth, and providing relief through humanitarian assistance. The web of international institutions created under U.S. leadership also plays a key role. The World Bank, together with the
several regional development banks, lend on both a concessional
and a nonconcessional basis, depending on the income of the borrowing country. Other international organizations also provide
lending and technical assistance. The United States contributes to
the capital of these institutions and to their special concessional
lending funds, but the impact of these institutions is many times
the level of U.S. contributions. They therefore provide an efficient
means for the United States to leverage its international leadership.
A Brief History of Aid
The targets and strategies of foreign assistance have undergone
a steady evolution since the end of World War II. Immediate postwar assistance was focused on countries hard hit by the war. The
Marshall Plan channeled assistance to Western Europe on a vast
scale, to promote economic recovery while preserving social stability and democracy. In the Marshall Plan years of 1949-52 the
United States gave $18.6 billion in aid, equivalent to 1.5 percent
of our gross national product (GNP) in those years. As a percentage
of our output, the aid we send overseas today is far smaller than
it was then.
261
The United States and the other industrial countries provided
relatively little assistance to what are now the developing countries
before the early 1960s, and what was offered usually came in the
form of specific technical assistance. It was widely assumed that
the income gap between these countries and ours would close over
time, without much special effort on our part. In addition, many of
what are now high-income countries were still well behind the
United States, so that concern was not focused exclusively on the
developing world.
In the early 1960s, under the leadership of President Kennedy,
the United States greatly increased the resources devoted to assisting developing countries. U.S. foreign economic assistance rose
from $13 billion in 1958 (in 1996 dollars) to $22 billion by 1962.
The United States accounted for the great bulk of official development assistance throughout the 1960s. Apart from providing direct
assistance ourselves, the United States also led efforts to coordinate bilateral assistance from other countries. In 1961 the DAC,
the primary mechanism for coordinating aid among the OECD
countries (see above), was established. The United States also led
the way in providing development assistance and nonconcessional
development finance through the multilateral development banks.
The IDA was organized in 1960 to provide concessional financing
to the poorest countries. The first two regional development banks,
the Asian Development Bank and the Inter-American Development
Bank, began operations in the 1960s, with the United States as a
founding member of both.
U.S. development assistance has contributed to many successes
since the 1960s. Some of the world's fastest-growing countries
today have been major recipients. Targeted programs have
achieved particular success. During the 1960s and 1970s, for example, USAID assistance to India for higher education and agricultural research was instrumental in the rapid growth in cereal production in that country—the so-called Green Revolution. In various
countries, USAID programs have helped reduce infant mortality
and population growth rates and improved basic education programs.
Over time, the intellectual focus of development assistance
changed. By the early 1960s it was clear that most developing
countries were not catching up with the United States as fast as
Western Europe and Japan were. It was assumed that a shortage
of investment resources was behind this lack of growth. Long-term
growth models developed in the 1950s posited a direct relationship
between a country's investment level and growth of its GDP. Countries unable to generate enough resources to fund high investment
levels would fail to generate rapid growth. The role of aid was to
alleviate bottlenecks to growth, by filling the gap between the de-
262
sired level of investment and the saving and private foreign capital
available to finance it. The idea that resource transfers were an important determinant of growth was in keeping with our successful
experience with the Marshall Plan.
In the 1970s the focus of assistance shifted to the direct alleviation of poverty. Although rapid economic growth held the promise
of alleviating poverty over the long term, it was feared that poverty
could actually worsen in the initial stages of development. Aid increasingly was allocated to projects directly designed to meet basic
needs of the poorest populations in developing countries. These efforts were focused on measures targeted to population control,
health, education, and rural development.
The growth rates of developing countries began to diverge widely
in the 1970s, with the Asian and Latin American countries generally growing steadily and many African countries beginning to
stagnate. Investment bottlenecks were not the only factor inhibiting development. How investment was used, and the environment
in which it was made, were also important. The focus of development broadened to include the need to develop agriculture, exports,
and human resources, as well as industry and infrastructure.
As it became clear that no simple causal relationship existed between the quantity of assistance, rates of economic growth, and
changes in poverty, the policy focus in the 1980s changed once
again, this time to the influence of a country's domestic economic
and social policies on development and growth. The quantity of aid,
which had been the focus of the earlier models, came to be seen as
just one of many factors influencing development. Aid was seen as
having an impact on a country's growth only if sound domestic policies were in place. Those concerned about poverty also focused on
the policy environment. Growth did not necessarily cause poverty
to worsen; in fact, the East Asian experience showed that growth
was the most effective antidote to poverty and that egalitarian policies could facilitate growth.
This view led to an increased emphasis on conditionality: aid
would only be given if a country agreed to a specific set of reforms,
which generally included fiscal discipline, open capital and trade
flows, deregulation and reform of public enterprises, the establishment of efficient banking systems, legal reforms, and the liberalization of prices, exchange rates, and interest rates. The IMF and the
World Bank led the way in negotiating the structural adjustment
programs that embodied these reforms, establishing them as a condition for providing funds to developing countries, many of which
had been hard hit by the debt crisis that began in 1982. Several
empirical studies during this period confirmed that reforms of this
kind were a necessary, though not a sufficient, condition for economic growth.
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The United States' dominance in foreign assistance diminished in
the 1970s and 1980s, as other industrial countries channeled increasing resources toward this purpose, in line with their increased
economic capacity. In the 1950s and most of the 1960s the United
States had accounted for over half of all official development assistance provided by the market democracies. Since that time, other
industrialized countries have shouldered an increased share of the
burden, rising to 55 percent in 1970, 72 percent in 1980, and 88
percent in 1995.
Most of the industrial countries have reduced their bilateral assistance, and the resources of the multilateral institutions and regional development banks are coming under increased strain. The
end of the Cold War has led to an increased demand for assistance
to the transition economies as well, stretching development resources ever thinner. Political support for development assistance
has eroded, as the need to battle Communism in the developing
countries has virtually disappeared and as donor-country budgets
have been squeezed. Yet the need for development assistance has
continued. Countries without the social, economic, and political
bases for development, in Africa and elsewhere, are likely to be left
behind as other developing countries experience rapid growth.
Official development assistance from the 21 DAC members has
declined by almost 6 percent in real terms since 1991 (12 percent
when accounting for exchange rate fluctuations), to $59 billion, or
only 0.27 percent of their aggregate GNP in 1995. Bilateral disbursements accounted for about two-thirds of the total in 1995;
multilateral sources provided the remainder.
Patterns of U.S. Aid Today
In 1996, the Congress authorized $6.7 billion for foreign assistance spending. That amounts to 0.1 percent of GDP, or a per capita
expenditure of $27. Contrary to conventional wisdom, evidence indicates that American public attitudes are sufficiently supportive of
foreign assistance to justify a modest increase (Box 7-3). The Administration has requested an increase of 10 percent in its budget
request for fiscal year 1998. If approved, that would restore spending to fiscal 1988 levels in real terms.
Over 1993-95, 30 percent of U.S. non-military bilateral aid was
allocated to Egypt and Israel. Other major allocations went to Ethiopia, Haiti, India, Peru, Russia, South Africa, Turkey, and
Ukraine. The share of U.S. aid going to the sub-Saharan African
countries has grown in recent years, while the share to Latin
America and East and South Asia has diminished. A special initiative to assist the transition to democracy in South Africa allocated
over $600 million, to be disbursed over 1995-97. During the 1990s
the United States and other donors have also developed assistance
programs for the transition economies. U.S. aid has supported a
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Box 7-3.—Foreign Aid and U.S. Public Opinion
Most Americans thtek the XX3. Goverameut spends for too
mmch on foreign aid, to the neglect of domestic needs. Yet a
number of surveys and polls haw found that this widespread
attitude toward aid is based on false premises. In one surrey
the median respondent guessed that the United States protides 40 percent of all aid to developing countries; the true figjure, according to the QECD, is 12 percent. Likewise, most of
those surveyed believe that the United States spends a latter
percentage of its GDP on aid than other industrial countries,
whereas in fact we spend the smallest. Those surveyed estimated that 18 percent of the Federal budget goes to foreign
aid; the true figure is well below 1 perce&t The median respondent (before being told the actual level of aid) would raise
the amount of aid provided to 20 percent of all international
aid and 5 percent of the Federal budget. Focus groups and
polls have found that Americans, in general, retain some sense
of moral obligation to help those in need*
wide range of projects, including privatization programs in the
Czech Republic and Russia; legal reform in Kazakstan, the Kyrgyz
Republic, and Russia; public health programs in Russia and
Ukraine; and humanitarian assistance in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
A large portion of U.S. aid goes to social infrastructure such as
health and education; less than 6 percent of U.S. bilateral development assistance is spent on economic infrastructure—in sharp contrast with Japan, which expends almost one quarter of its aid on
the promotion of transport and communications alone. An increasing amount of aid from the United States and other countries is absorbed by crises and humanitarian relief.
In addition to providing bilateral aid, the Administration strongly supports the international financial institutions which provide
multilateral aid. In its 1998 budget request, the Administration
has asked that funding for multilateral development banks be restored to fiscal 1990 levels of more than $1.4 billion.
As already noted, in addition to their regular nonconcessional
lending the international financial institutions provide concessional
financing for the poorest countries that lack access to alternative
financing. Funds for these "soft" loans come from contributions by
the wealthier countries and income earned from past projects. The
World Bank's IDA remains the single most important source of
such funding, having approved an annual average of $6 billion in
concessional lending over the past 5 years. It is therefore vitally
important that the United States deliver in full on its outstanding
commitments to the IDA. The IMF's Enhanced Structural Adjust-
265
ment Facility (ESAF), established in 1987 to provide concessional
financing to low-income countries experiencing balance of payments
problems, has been enlarged to $15 billion—roughly double its
original size. Thus far, over 40 countries have borrowed from the
ESAF; in return for these funds they agree to undertake 3-year
structural adjustment programs. Recently the United States, together with the World Bank and the IMF, spearheaded a new initiative to reduce debt burdens for highly indebted low-income countries (Box 7-4).
A FRAMEWORK FOR FUTURE LEADERSHIP
For half a century the Cold War defined the principal objective
of U.S. international policies: contain Communism. As we have
seen, with the end of the Cold War the United States has had to
rethink its objectives. We can all agree that the government should
seek to increase economic growth, raise living standards, protect
the environment, and enhance security in all its dimensions. But
in this Report we have tried to be more precise: What are the special roles of the Federal Government? And how have these roles
changed as the environment we face has changed—with the end of
the Cold War, the emergence of new economic powers, and the
globalization of the world economy? Markets, individual responsibility, community—all are essential to the society that we have
created and are creating still.
Some guidance here is provided by the theory of international
public goods. Pure public goods have two properties. First, they are
nonrival in consumption. That is, their consumption by one person
does not diminish the benefit another person derives from consuming them. Another way of putting this is that the cost of providing
the good to the second person, given that it has already been provided to the first, is zero. The second feature of public goods is that
they are nonexcludable. That is, it is difficult or impossible to prevent someone from enjoying the good, regardless of whether he or
she has paid for it. Classic examples of such goods are national defense and basic scientific research.
It has long been recognized that the market, if left to itself, will
tend to underproduce public goods. As discussed in Chapter 6, this
creates a rationale for government action to provide public goods
for the benefit of the entire community. The efficient provision of
such services is essential to long-term growth, and without the government they would be inefficiently underproduced.
Some public goods are local in nature; they affect people only in
a limited geographic area. Examples include police protection and
urban parks. Other public goods are national, such as the defense
of a country. Still other public goods are international, benefiting
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Box 7-4.—Reducing the Debt Burden of Developing Countries
Heavy debt burdens have severely constrained the economies
of many developing countries for well over a decade. At the end
of 1995, thg total external debt of developing countries was estimated at over $2 trillion, equivalent to 150 percent of their
annual exports. The debt-burden varies dramatically across re-'
gions: the sub-Saharan African countries faced an average
debt40~exports ratio of 270 'percent in 1995, whereas in East
Asia the ratio was only 83 percent. The successful reduction of
commercial bank debt combined with economic policy reforms
in the first half of the 1990s has helped launch many middleincome developing countries on a path of sustainable growth,
For many low-income countries, however, debt remains a barrier to growth and development*
The tX3, Government has actively pursued several multilateral and bilateral Initiatives to reduce the debt burden of the
poorest developing countries, In mid-December 1994 the Paris
Club of creditor countries (including the United States) agreed
on more-generous debt reduction terms—called Naples
terms**—which would lower the debts of heairily indebted poor
countries by up to 67 percent, During the 19S6 fiscal year, the
United States entered into debt-induction agreements with
seven countries under Naples terms. In Febntaiy 1996 the
Congress authorised a pilot debt buybaek and swap initiative
for lower income Latin American and Caribbean countries that
are actively engaged in eeonoink reforms, particularly investment reforms, Countries must also meet certain political criteria: they must have democratic governments and not have an
egregious record in the areas of human rights, narcotics, and
terrorism,
The Uiiited States has taken a leadership role in developing
the newest multilateral debt initiative with the World Bank,
the IMF, and the Paris Club. The Heavily Indebted Poorest
Countries (HIPC) debt initiative would enable heavily indebted
poor countries with a strong record of policy reform to achieve
sustainable debt btirdens, by offering them comprehensive debt
relief from all creditors, including the international financial
institutions. The HIPC focuses on those economies that adopt
programs of adjustment and reform supported by the IMF and
World Bank, but still face an unsustainable debt situation even
after the full application of current debt-relief measures. Eligibility will be deteimined on a ease~by~ease basis*
267
people across the globe. Four important types of international public goods are international economic cooperation, international
peace and order, some forms of environmental protection, and basic
scientific knowledge. In all these areas the United States can benefit itself and other countries by promoting international cooperation.
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC COOPERATION
All countries can benefit from economic cooperation. But as with
all public goods, countries have an incentive to free-ride on the cooperative efforts of other countries, deriving satisfaction from the
existence of public goods but letting others bear the costs. They
also have an incentive to take actions to serve their own interests,
which may turn out to be short-sighted. Despite these inherent obstacles, the United States has led the international community to
many notable successes in economic cooperation. One important
success has been the coordination of macroeconomic policies among
the major industrial countries through the annual Group of Seven
summits. All nations gain from the increased international macroeconomic stability that this coordination provides. The President
has also initiated separate labor summits among the Group of
Seven, to provide a forum for collective exploration of how best to
promote job creation and alleviate joblessness.
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
has served as a catalyst for successful economic cooperation. Within
the OECD the industrial countries discuss policy in a host of areas,
including macroeconomic policy. Another OECD accomplishment
was a 1993 agreement that established a set of international principles for shipping policy, to promote a freely competitive environment for shippers and prohibit discriminatory fees and charges
based on port of origin. A Maritime Transport Committee serves as
a forum for dialogue, consultation, and harmonization of OECD
member policy in this area.
The International Trading System
One of the most important dimensions of international economic
cooperation has been the efforts led by the United States and its
partners to strengthen the international trading system. This chapter has discussed the many benefits that accrue from this process.
The work of expanding and reinforcing this system is ongoing, however, and there is still much to do.
As successive GATT rounds have reduced tariffs to a small fraction of their earlier levels, an important part of the agenda for
trade policy now is the reduction of nontariff barriers to trade.
Nontariff barriers are more complicated than tariffs and more difficult to eliminate. Indeed, many arise out of the legitimate pursuit
of domestic policy goals, yet their effect is to restrict imported
268
goods and services. The fact that they may serve or appear to serve
legitimate domestic goals makes them often hard to remove. For
example, although health and safety standards usually serve legitimate domestic purposes, they may be applied in ways that discriminate against imports. This is particularly the case when these
policies are not set in a transparent and open manner.
Nontariff barriers are also more difficult to measure. They are
not easily expressed by a single number like the average tariff rate.
Although limited progress has been made in calculating tariff
equivalents for some nontariff barriers, much room for improvement remains.
The United States and other countries have made progress in reducing nontariff barriers of various kinds. Some success has been
achieved in the area of product standards, which historically have
been based on the attributes of domestically produced goods. Provisions of the WTO and NAFTA require that product standards have
a scientific rationale; they also promote the use of internationally
recognized standards.
Another consequence of globalization is the increase in cross-border competition within industries. Trade officials are concerned
that this competition be fair. Antidumping and countervailing duty
laws are intended to ensure fair competition. Countervailing duties
may be imposed when imported goods benefit from subsidies by a
foreign government and injure a domestic industry. The duties are
designed to offset the subsidies, restoring a level playing field for
the injured domestic producers. Antidumping duties are intended
to offset international price discrimination that causes injury to a
domestic industry. Both measures are covered by WTO agreements,
which authorize and set boundaries on the application of the rules.
Separate domestic laws also govern competition (antitrust) policy. When barriers between markets were high, these two sets of
laws, domestic and international, could operate more or less independently. With globalization proceeding apace, and with international market barriers falling, the two increasingly overlap, yet
they embody distinct criteria. Competition promotes economic efficiency, and the goal of both sets of laws should continue to be to
promote competition and efficiency.
In static trade theory, under perfect competition U.S. customers
may actually gain from accepting foreign subsidies, which lower the
cost of imports. This gain more than outweighs the loss to U.S. producers harmed by the subsidized competition, and the winners can
in theory compensate the losers. However, dynamic considerations
and imperfect competition may yield a different conclusion. Government subsidies may allow foreign firms to engage in predatory behavior, permanently altering strategic dynamics in favor of foreign
firms and, in the extreme, driving U.S. firms out of business. There
269
are questions, however, about the prevalence of circumstances in
which predation is likely.
Subsidy "wars/' in which governments compete for market share
by offering subsidies to some of their most promising firms, may
occur. Such competition results in excessive investment in the subsidized industry, to the detriment of economic efficiency and welfare. To prevent subsidy wars in shipbuilding, to take one example,
the OECD countries have signed an agreement to curb subsidies to
shipbuilders. The President has asked the Congress to ratify this
agreement, which was slated to go into effect in 1996.
Protecting the Rules-Based System. The international trading system applies a set of rules to countries' trading behavior. One of the
most important is the requirement that countries not take arbitrary measures such as raising tariffs. Other core rules include the
most-favored-nation principle, in which countries agree generally to
extend the same tariff rates to all other countries, and national
treatment, which requires countries to give foreign-based companies treatment equivalent to that received by domestic companies.
Economic dislocation may result from trade liberalization, and
the Federal Government is committed to helping those adversely
affected, for example through trade adjustment assistance. Safeguard provisions in WTO agreements permit a variety of temporary
measures, including increased duties, to allow an industry injured
by imports to adjust to the increased competition.
WTO rules permit the use of these measures, as well as countervailing duties' and antidumping measures, under carefully circumscribed conditions. As traditional tariffs decline, countries are
increasingly resorting to such remedies to shield their domestic industries from import competition. In certain instances it has become clear that the rules are being improperly interpreted or applied, or it is simply difficult to discern how proceedings are being
conducted or to understand the basis for decisions. U.S. firms are
frequently the targets, This is not surprising, given the role of the
United States in the international trading system and the competitiveness of U.S. firms, which often operate with low profit margins.
The United States has had to monitor closely the implementation
of foreign trade remedy laws in order to discourage, identify, and
correct such irregularities. The United States is committed to the
active use of WTO dispute settlement provisions to address such
irregularities and to ensure the fairest possible treatment for exporters.
Regional Trading Agreements. Free trade is an international public good from which all nations benefit. Regional trading arrangements can serve as a bridge to broader, even worldwide agreements—true global public goods. Toward the end of the 1980s the
proliferation of regional trading agreements picked up speed. These
270
arrangements have always had both costs and benefits. The main
benefit is that they create trade by reducing barriers between
member countries. The cost is that they can also divert trade from
more efficient producers outside the region to less efficient producers within the region. WTO rules permitting regional trade agreements are designed to make it more likely that the trade creation
effects dominate. For the North American Free Trade Area, the
benefits of trade creation are likely to have outweighed the costs
of trade diversion, because its members have relatively low trade
barriers for most products from outside the region and because
members are free to lower their external tariffs individually.
Regional trading arrangements have also proved to be powerful
tools for liberalizing trade more widely, and thus increasing economic efficiency. The President has led efforts within APEC and
the FTAA talks to provide fora for neighboring countries with common interests to negotiate pathbreaking arrangements. These arrangements can then serve as a pattern on which multilateral efforts within the WTO can build. For example, the United StatesCanada Free Trade Agreement contained a chapter on services that
became a model for the Uruguay Round negotiation on services.
When regional trade arrangements are structured on this model,
the danger of their succumbing to the temptation of trade diversion
is diminished.
Cooperation in Competition Policy
Noncompetitive conditions in global markets can interfere with
the efficient allocation of resources and harm consumers and producers throughout the world. Global cartels restrict output and increase prices of both consumer goods and producer inputs. Anticompetitive exclusionary or predatory practices can insulate firms
from competition and exclude more efficient or innovative firms
from the market. Such practices reduce economic welfare and retard economic growth.
Noncompetitive conditions in a domestic market can also serve
as a barrier to trade. An example is the $4.5 billion Japanese market for flat glass. Three large domestic producers, with separate,
exclusive distribution systems, have dominated this market. It can
be extremely difficult for new producers, foreign or domestic, to
enter such a market. Under a 1995 agreement with the United
States, the Japanese government and the Japanese flat glass industry agreed to a set of steps to open this market to greater competition.
International cooperation in competition policy can help prevent
or mitigate the harm resulting from anticompetitive practices. Such
cooperation can take three basic forms. First, authorities can reduce unnecessary regulation (which can often act as a market barrier) and eliminate legal barriers to competition by both domestic
271
and foreign firms. Second, they can promulgate and vigorously enforce appropriate competition policies, designed to prevent such
conduct as price fixing, carving up of markets, and anticompetitive
mergers. Third, they can cooperate in bilateral and multilateral efforts to investigate and share information regarding potential violations, and to enforce their competition policies.
International Capital Markets and Rules for Investment
We have already discussed the benefits to developing countries
from receiving foreign investment, as well as the benefits to investor countries, including the United States, from investing in developing countries, and from the trade that accompanies foreign direct
investment in particular. Impediments to FDI therefore may act as
a nontariff barrier, making it more difficult to export into a market. This is a complicated issue: countries often are genuinely sensitive to the perceived loss of economic sovereignty associated with
inward foreign investment, yet such concerns are often difficult to
distinguish from efforts to protect domestic companies from competition. In that sense, countries engage in negative-sum behavior
when they restrict foreign investment without a clear rationale for
doing so, such as national security. These restrictions harm both
their domestic consumers and foreign producers.
The United States has engaged in several efforts to improve the
international climate for direct investment. The United States has
a vigorous program to negotiate bilateral investment treaties with
developing and transition economies, to ensure that U.S. firms are
able to invest abroad on the same liberal terms under which foreign companies may invest here. To date, the United States has
signed 38 si>ch treaties, of which 26 are in force. Several more are
pending ratification, and negotiations with other countries are ongoing. NAFTA included an agreement that substantially lowered
barriers to cross-border investment and established procedures for
settling investment disputes. The United States has been engaged
in extending this work through the negotiation of the Multilateral
Agreement on Investment (MAI) under the aegis of the OECD.
This Administration helped launch the MAI negotiations in May
1995, and they are scheduled to be completed in 1997. The United
States' objective in these talks is an agreement that will substantially liberalize foreign investment by establishing clear legal
standards on expropriation, providing access to binding international arbitration of disputes (as in NAFTA), and allowing unrestricted investment-related transfers across borders. It is envisioned that accession to the MAI will be open to both members and
nonmembers of the OECD, thus making possible an extension of
MAI rules to developing and transition economies.
Funds also flow across borders in the form of securities and bank
loans. Although these flows may be less stable than direct invest-
272
ment flows, which cannot readily be withdrawn, they can provide
an important source of funding. The Group of Ten participate in
the General Arrangements to Borrow, which is prepared to make
roughly $24 billion available to the IMF in time of financial emergency that might pose systemic risks. Recently the Group of Ten
and some other countries agreed to double the amount of emergency funding by creating an additional mechanism, the New Arrangements to Borrow. Contributors will include some of the fastgrowing developing countries.
Ad hoc international coordination has also facilitated such actions as the liquidity support provided to Mexico during its early1995 financial crisis, discussed in last year's Report. This U.S.-led
international support helped Mexico implement the policies necessary to avert default, regain access to international capital markets, and restore the basis for sustainable growth. Confidence has
now returned, and Mexico has repaid its borrowings from the United States ahead of schedule. The temporary support extended to
Mexico also helped protect vital U.S. interests: American exports
and jobs, the security of our common border, and the stability of
other emerging market economies.
The United States worked at the June 1995 Group of Seven summit in Halifax to reduce the likelihood of similar crises in the future. Initiatives launched at Halifax included the New Arrangements to Borrow and the IMF's Special Data Dissemination Standard, which aims to increase the quality and availability of economic
and financial data for emerging markets and other countries. This
and other initiatives, including the IMF's capital markets surveillance, help promote a transparent and rules-based international financial system, benefiting both providers and users of capital.
In banking, the Bank for International Settlements, which promotes the cooperation of central banks and acts as agent for international financial settlements, has recently enlarged its membership to include the central banks of key emerging markets. The
BIS is also the secretariat for the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, the source of many agreements aimed at strengthening
the supervision of internationally active banks. The committee is
made up of representatives from 12 industrialized countries (Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the
United States), but in recent years it has extended its outreach to
other countries. It is currently working with a group of developing
and transition economies to formulate guidelines for effective bank
supervision.
International Development and Humanitarian Assistance
The greatest contribution that the industrial countries can make
to growth in developing and transition economies is to preserve
273
these countries' access to international markets for trade and investment. Despite the dramatic increase in private investment
flows, however, many developing countries, especially the poorest,
still require assistance from the high-income countries and international organizations. It is important that these programs continue if the poorest countries, especially in Africa, are to persevere
in the political and economic reforms that many have undertaken
in recent years. These countries particularly benefit from aid that
encourages their development of the necessary human resources
and institutions in which a growing economy can take root. The development of such an institutional base helps ensure that aid flows
are used effectively.
As growth in the poorest countries begins to accelerate, the United States and other donor countries will benefit from new and expanding export markets and investment opportunities, as well as
from greater international political stability, because it means that
countries have an increasing stake in preserving the international
rules-based system. Effective assistance depends on international
cooperation, both through the coordination of bilateral aid within
the DAC and elsewhere, and through multilateral agencies. One aspect of this cooperation has been negotiated limits on the tying of
aid to the import of products and services from donor countries
(Box 7-5).
Another important aspect of assistance is humanitarian assistance. Human suffering in poor countries due to war, natural disaster, or famine concerns us all; these are circumstances in which
countries can be most effective if they coordinate their efforts.
Much of this coordination takes place through the United Nations;
thus the United States and other countries benefit from continuing
to support this organization. The multilateral development banks
also provide humanitarian assistance. Continued support for development assistance can also serve as preventive medicine, to forestall the social, political, and economic deterioration that creates
these crises in the first place.
INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND ORDER
All the international activities discussed in this chapter presuppose an international environment in which nations act peacefully and respect international order. Throughout the 20th century
the United States has led world efforts to create such an environment. Besides military and diplomatic efforts, the United States
has also employed economic means to achieve peace and order. Although economic sanctions may be viewed as a somewhat blunt instrument, they are one available tool to use against countries that
threaten international stability, particularly when the situation
274
Box 7-5.—Tied-Aid Agreements
Tied aid is officially supported concessional financing linked
to procurement in the donor country. It distorts trade when
used to win contracts for capital goods exports rather than to
provide true aid. Tied aid can misallocate resources from more
efficient to less efficient producers whose governments offer
such financing*
When used for export promotion, tied aid can also d^iprt aid
flows by directing scarce resources away from high-priority de*
velopment projects to projects of interest to industries in donor
countries. Traditionally, tied aid has directed donor su|l|K>rt toward, for example, large electric power generation |&d ^%
communications projects and away from social sector projects.
' Hits skewing of .resource allocation
fa'deydoping;^|^i^s;ii|^
creases the capital intensity of development and burdens the
with
Ill response to complaints from exporters that
faced tied-aid ^mpetition for capital goods pmj&sts,
States negotiated rules in the OECD to gwer&
grams. The rules, dubbed the Helsinki Package,
tive in February 1992, They apply to nonconcessional
and stipulate that higher income developing countries (those
with incomes per capita above $3,035) are ineligible for all tied
aid: The least developed countries remain eligible for all types
of financing because of their desperate shortage of capital. For
countries in between, such as China, Indonesia, and India, tied
aid is prohibited for projects that can generate cash flows sufficient to repay debt on commercial terms.
It is hoped that the Helsinki rules will reduce distortions
and maximize the total resources—aid and commercial financing—available to promote economic development- Last year the
OECD issued guidelines for the use of tied aid, to draw the line
between projects that should receive expert credits on commercial terms and those that may receive tied aid. Since 1992,
under the Helsinki Package, annual tied aid has declined from
$10 billion to about $4 billion. The tied aid that remains has
been shifted away from major capital projects capable of supporting financing on commercial terms to legitimate aid
projects such as water and sewerage, and health and other social services.
275
calls for something stronger than diplomatic protest, but less
strong than military engagement.
Sanctions come in a variety of forms. Sanctioning countries can
restrict exports, impede imports, freeze assets, prohibit investments, restrict financing, withdraw government aid, or ban commercial airline flights. Throughout the 20th century, sanctions
have been used primarily to restrict exports to and investment in
a targeted nation. Import controls are rare. Examples include the
ban on oil imported from Iran in response to the 1979-81 hostage
crisis and from Libya in response to terrorist threats, a 46-year ban
on all imports from North Korea, and a recent prohibition on oil
imports from Iraq. Formerly employed predominantly to complement war efforts or destabilize hostile regimes, sanctions have
been used since the 1960s to express condemnation of human
rights abuses, force compliance with international treaties (such as
nuclear nonproliferation treaties), promote democracy, and secure
compensation for expropriated property.
As with any policy tool, the rational evaluation of sanctions involves a weighing of the costs and benefits. This can be difficult;
whereas the costs of sanctions can often be expressed in economic
terms (e.g., reduced output and growth), the aims of sanctions are
frequently noneconomic. Sometimes sanctions may have mainly
symbolic value, as part of the imposer's efforts to demonstrate resolve and commitment.
Certain characteristics increase the likelihood that sanctions will
contribute to the desired outcome. As one would expect, sanctions
that inflict higher costs on the target nation tend to be more effective. The costs, to both the sanctioner and the target, depend
among other things on the type of sanction employed, the extent
of trade and financial linkages, the relative size of the two nations,
and the ease with which the target product or transaction can be
substituted.
Like other public goods, sanctions are generally more effective
when more nations participate in imposing them. Multilateral
sanctions usually impose greater costs than unilateral sanctions;
the ability of target nations to access alternative suppliers and providers of aid decreases as the number of sanctioning countries increases. Multilateral sanctions may also reduce the likelihood of
long-term costs on those who impose sanctions. Multilateral sanctions on South Africa contributed to the decision to dismantle
apartheid. United Nations-sponsored sanctions against Serbia in
connection with the recent Bosnian conflict contributed to a severe
contraction of Serbia's economy and pressured Belgrade to negotiate a peace agreement. The success of these sanctions was due in
part to the coordinated action of the international community, Ser-
276
bia's high dependence on foreign trade, and the narrow production
base of the Serbian economy.
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Many environmental issues can be viewed through the analytic
lenses of public goods and externalities. (Externalities occur when
actions taken by one person have unintended and uncompensated
positive or negative effects on others.) Clean air, for example, is
nonrival, in that anyone can breathe it without impairing the ability of others to breathe; it is also nonexcludable, in that it is next
to impossible to charge people for the right to breathe fresh air. As
we have seen, some environmental issues are local or national in
scope, whereas others are international or global and can therefore
benefit from international coordination. We have already touched
on some of the environmental challenges facing the United States
as they relate to aid to developing countries. International coordination among all nations is important in such areas as global
warming and preservation of the ozone layer. U.S. leadership is
needed if such coordination is to take place.
All nations benefit from efforts to reduce emissions of greenhouse
gases that may lead to global warming. However, in the absence
of an international agreement on emissions, every nation has an
economic incentive to avoid taking action on its own. That is why
the United States is working toward an effective agreement entailing global reductions of greenhouse emissions. The goal of these negotiations is the signing of an international agreement in Kyoto in
December 1997 to limit these emissions.
Another example is the overharvesting of ocean fisheries. Each
user ignores the marginal cost of his or her use on the stock of fish
required for regeneration. All potential fishing countries benefit
from the efforts of all other parties to curtail fishing, but each has
an incentive to deviate and overfish now. At the November 1996
annual meeting of the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas, the United States took a leading role in establishing an international fishery management organization to enforce fishing quotas in order to protect a declining stock of bluefin
tuna. The United States was also one of the first nations to ratify
the 1995 United Nations Agreement on Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks,
which promotes regional commissions to coordinate the management of ocean fishing and provides for binding dispute settlement
in accordance with the Law of the Sea.
BASIC RESEARCH
Knowledge may be the purest of public goods, and the most important for economic growth and development. All nations benefit
277
from increases in scientific knowledge that form the basis for technological advances. As with other public goods, however, there is
a temptation to free-ride. Some countries have specialized in adapting basic research done in other countries into profitable business
opportunities. If the quest for greater basic knowledge and improved technology is to continue, it is important that all countries
contribute to the support of basic research. Free-riding on other's
efforts can also be minimized if owners of intellectual property are
adequately compensated.
International research cooperation is a complex issue. The lines
between basic and applied research are increasingly blurred. Tension often arises between the goal of increasing the competitiveness
of domestic companies, by channeling research funding to them,
and the goal of increasing the world's stock of scientific and technological knowledge, from which we all gain.
CONCLUSION
Enormous changes are taking place in the international economic
environment, made possible by U.S. international leadership
throughout the postwar era. The United States has led the development of a stable international economic system based on a clear set
of rules. These rules have made possible our Nation's preeminence
in exports, and thus have served our own interest, but they allow
other countries to benefit from exports, too. And that, as we have
seen, serves our interest as well. Rules also encourage a more stable world economy, avoiding the calamities of the 1930s and 1940s.
With the emergence of developing and transition economies onto
the stage* long dominated by the United States and the other industrial democracies, the need is great to ensure that the international
system welcomes these new participants and allows both them and
the established powers to derive mutual benefit from the system.
The new participants themselves must continue to liberalize their
trade regimes and their domestic markets, so that all countries can
realize the gains from trade. Efforts should also continue to spread
prosperity to those countries that have yet to see sustained growth,
in part through assistance in developing the necessary economic institutions and human resources.
The United States must also continue to lead the ongoing effort
to improve the international economic system. The international
public goods of economic cooperation, peace and order, environmental protection, and basic research promise great benefits if
countries work together, but such cooperation requires strong leadership.
To exercise that leadership role, we must understand the lessons
of the changes that are sweeping the globe. The collapse of central
278
planning tells us of the dangers of overreaching by governments,
and reminds us of the key role of Western governments in ensuring
a rules-based domestic and international marketplace. The rise of
the East Asian economies and the revival of Latin America teach
us about the fundamentals of economic growth: saving, education,
technological progress, stability, openness to international trade,
and equity. We must work to maintain these conditions at home
and assist other countries in implementing them abroad. Finally,
increased globalization reminds us of our interdependence with
other nations and the benefits that we all receive from our economic interactions.
If the United States continues to exercise economic leadership in
the world, maintaining the international rules-based system that
we, above all others, helped develop, we will contribute to our own
prosperity as well as to that of the rest of the world.
279
Appendix A
REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT ON THE ACTIVITIES
OF THE
COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISERS DURING 1996
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISERS
Washington, D.C., December 31, 1996
MR. PRESIDENT:
The Council of Economic Advisers submits this report on its
activities during the calendar year 1996 in accordance with the
requirements of the Congress, as set forth in section 10(d) of the
Employment Act of 1946 as amended by the Full Employment and
Balanced Growth Act of 1978.
Sincerely,
Joseph E. Stiglitz, Chairman
Alicia H. Munnell, Member
Jeffrey A. Frankel, Member-Nominee
283
Council Members and their Dates of Service
Position
Name
Edwin G Nourse
Leon H Keyserling
John D Clark
Roy Blough
Robert C Turner
Arthur F Burns
Neil H Jacoby
Walter W Stewart
Raymond J Saulnier
Joseph S Davis
Paul W McCracken
Karl Brandt
Henry C Wallich
Walter W Heller
James Tobin
Hermit Gordon
Gardner Ackley
John P Lewis
Otto Eckstein
Arthur M Okun
James S Duesenberry
MertonJ Peck
Warren L Smith
Paul W McCracken
Hendrik S Houthakker
Herbert Stein
Ezra Solomon
Marina vN. Whitman
Gary L Seevers
William J Fellner
Alan Greenspan
Paul W MacAvoy
Burton G Malkiel
Charles L Schultze
William D Nordhaus
Lyle E Gramley
George C Eads
Stephen M. Goldfeld
Murray L Weidenbaum
William A Niskanen .
Jerry L Jordan
Martin Feldstein
William Poole
Beryl W Sprinkel
Thomas Gale Moore
Michael L Mussa
Michael J Boskin .
John B Taylor
Richard L Schmalensee
David F Bradford
Paul Wonnacott
Alan S. Blinder
Laura D'Andrea Tyson
Joseph E Stiglitz
Martin N Baily
Alicia H. Munnell
. ..
Chairman
Vice Chairman
Acting Chairman
Chairman
Member
Vice Chairman
Member
Member
Chairman
Member
Member
Member
Chairman
Member
. .
Member
Member
Member
Chairman
Member
Member
Member
Chairman
Member
Member
Member
Chairman
Member
Member
Member
Chairman
Member
Member
Chairman
Member
Member
Member
Member
Chairman
Member .
Member
Chairman
Member
Member
Member . .
Member
Chairman
. . Member
Member
Chairman
Oath of office date
.. ..
Chairman
Member . .
Member
Chairman
Member
Member
Member
Member . .
Member
Chair .
Member .. .
Chairman
Member
Member
284
August 9 1946
August 9 1946
November 2, 1949
May 10 1950
August 9, 1946 ..
May 10 1950
June 29 1950
September 8 1952
March 19 1953
September 15 1953
December 2 1953
April 4 1955
December 3 1956
May 2 1955
December 3 1956
November 1 1958
May 7 1959
January 29 1961
January 29, 1961
January 29 1961
August 3 1962
November 16 1964 . .. .
May 17 1963
September 2 1964
November 16 1964
. .
February 15, 1968
February 2 1966
February 15, 1968
July 1 1968
February 4 1969
February 4 1969
February 4 1969
January 1, 1972
September 9 1971
March 13, 1972
July 23 1973
October 31, 1973
September 4 1974
June 13 1975
July 22, 1975
January 22 1977 . .. .
March 18, 1977
March 18, 1977
June 6 1979
August 20, 1980
February 27, 1981
June 12 1981
July 14, 1981
October 14 1982 .. ..
December 10 1982
April 18 1985
July 1 1985
August 18 1986
February 2 1989
June 9, 1989
October 3 1989
November 13 1991
November 13 1991
July 27, 1993
Februarys 1993
July 27 1993
June 28, 1995
June 30 1995
January 29. 1996
Separation date
November 1 1949
January 20, 1953
February 11, 1953.
August 20 1952
January 20 1953
December 1 1956
February 9 1955
April 29 1955
January 20 1961
October 31 1958
January 31, 1959
January 20 1961
January 20 1961
November 15 1964
July 31 1962.
December 27 1962
February 15, 1968.
August 31 1964
February 1 1966
January 20, 1969.
June 30 1968
January 20, 1969
January 20 1969
December 31 1971
July 15 1971
August 31, 1974.
March 26 1973
August 15, 1973.
April 15 1975
February 25, 1975.
January 20 1977
November 15 1976
January 20, 1977.
January 20 1981
February 4, 1979.
May 27 1980.
January 20 1981
January 20, 1981.
August 25, 1982.
March 30 1985
July 31 1982.
July 10 1984
January 20 1985
January 20 1989
May 1 1989
September 19 1988
January 12 1993
August 2 1991
June 21 1991
January 20 1993
January 20 1993
June 26 1994.
April 22 1995
August 30 1996
Report to the President on the Activities of the
Council of Economic Advisers During 1996
The Council of Economic Advisers was established by the Employment Act of 1946 to provide the President with objective economic analysis and advice on the development and implementation
of a wide range of domestic and international economic policy issues.
The Chairman of the Council
Joseph E. Stiglitz, previously a Member of the Council, was appointed Chairman on June 28, 1995. Dr. Stiglitz is on leave from
Stanford University where he is the Joan Kenney Professor of Economics. Dr. Stiglitz is responsible for communicating the Council's
views on economic matters directly to the President through personal discussions and written reports. Dr. Stiglitz also represents
the Council at Cabinet meetings, meetings of the National Economic Council (NEC), daily White House senior staff meetings,
budget team meetings with the President, and other formal and informal meetings with the President, senior White House staff, and
other senior government officials. Dr. Stiglitz is the Council's chief
public spokesperson. He directs the work of the Council and exercises ultimate responsibility for the work of the professional staff.
The Members of the Council
Alicia H. Munnell is a Member of the Council. Dr. Munnell had
previously served in this Administration as Assistant Secretary for
Economic Policy at the Department of the Treasury. She also had
served as Senior Vice President and Director of Research at the
Federal Reserve Bank of Boston.
Martin N. Baily was a Member of the Council until August 1996.
He left the Council to join the Global Institute at McKinsey and
Company, Inc. The President has nominated Jeffrey A. Frankel to
succeed Dr. Baily as a Member of the Council. While awaiting confirmation, Dr. Frankel has been serving as Chief Economist. He is
on leave from the University of California, Berkeley, where he is
a Professor of Economics. He previously directed the program on
International Finance and Macroeconomics at the National Bureau
285
of Economic Research and is a former Senior Fellow at the Institute for International Economics.
The Chair and Members work as a team on most economic policy
issues. Dr. Munnell and Dr. Baily shared responsibility for domestic macroeconomic analysis, the Administration's economic forecast,
and budget and tax issues. Dr. Munnell is primarily responsible for
health care, welfare reform, environmental, and labor issues. Dr.
Baily was primarily responsible for international economic issues
and certain microeconomic issues, including agriculture and the environment. Dr. Frankel has taken over this portfolio. The Chair
and the Council Members participate in the deliberations of the
NEC. Dr. Stiglitz is a member of the NEC Principals Committee.
WEEKLY ECONOMIC BRIEFINGS
Dr. Stiglitz and the Members continued to conduct a weekly economic briefing for the President, the Vice President, and the President's other senior economic and policy advisers. The Council, in
cooperation with the Office of the Vice President, prepares a written Weekly Economic Briefing of the President, which provides analysis of current economic developments, more extended discussions
of a wide range of economic issues and problems, and summaries
of economic developments in different regions and sectors of the
economy. This document serves as a basis for the President's oral
briefing.
MACROECONOMIC POLICIES
A primary function of the Council is to advise the President on
all major macroeconomic issues and developments. The Council
prepares for the President, the Vice President, and the White
House senior staff almost daily memoranda that report key economic data and analyze current macroeconomic events.
The Council, the Department of the Treasury, and the Office of
Management and Budget—the Administration's economic "troika"—are responsible for producing the economic forecasts that underlie the Administration's budget proposals. The Council, under
the leadership of the Members, initiates the forecasting process
twice each year. In preparing these forecasts, the Council consults
with a wide variety of outside sources, including leading private
sector forecasters.
In 1996 the Council continued to take part in discussions about
the President's balanced budget plan. The Council also participated
in meetings on a range of budget issues including Medicare and
Medicaid, discretionary spending priorities, and the Administration's tax proposals.
The Council, together with the Department of Labor, prepared a
report titled "Job Creation and Employment Opportunities: The
United States Labor Market, 1993-1996," which analyzed the
286
American economy's robust employment growth, the nature of the
jobs being created, and the incidence of job displacement. This report concluded that over two-thirds (68 percent) of the net job
growth in full-time employment between February 1994 and February 1996 occurred in industry/occupation categories that paid
above-median wages. The Council also prepared a background report titled "Promoting Economic Growth," which discussed the
challenge of increasing the underlying productivity growth rate of
the U.S. economy.
The Council continued its efforts to improve the public's understanding of economic issues and the Administration's economic
agenda through regular briefings with the economic and financial
press, frequent discussions with outside economists, and presentations to outside organizations.
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC POLICIES
The Council has been an active participant in the international
economic policymaking process through the National Economic
Council and the National Security Council, providing both technical
and analytic support and policy guidance. The Council engaged in
interagency discussions dealing with such topics as U.S. trade remedy laws (antidumping, countervailing duties, safeguards, and Section 301 actions); the U.S. balance of payments; cross-border investment; international aspects of telecommunications and information technology; integrating Russia, China, and other newly
market-oriented economies into the world economic order; and the
agendas of multilateral and regional fora such as the World Trade
Organization, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and
the North American Free Trade Agreement.
In 1996, Dr. Stiglitz led a U.S. delegation to the Information Society and Development (ISAD) Conference in South Africa. The
ISAD Conference, which followed the 1995 Gr-7 Ministerial Conference on the Information Society held in Brussels, was designed
to extend acceptance of the Global Information Infrastructure principles, first articulated by the Vice President in 1994, to the developing world. Dr. Stiglitz also led a U.S. delegation to China, where
he met with top Chinese officials to initiate a dialogue on economic
issues between the Council and China's State Planning Commission. In addition, the Council drafted the 1996 APEC Economic
Outlook for the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and Dr. Stiglitz
presented this report to the APEC Ministers during their meetings
in Manila.
The Council plays a leading role in U.S. participation in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the
principal forum for economic cooperation among the high-income
industrialized countries. The Council heads the U.S. delegation to
the semiannual Economic Policy Committee (EPC) meetings, and
287
Dr. Stiglitz is the Committee's Chairman. In that role, Dr. Stiglitz
has led an effort to make the EPC's meetings more relevant to
member-country policy discussions. Dr. Munnell led the U.S. delegation to the OECD's Working Party 1 on microeconomic and structural issues and participated in Working Party 3. Dr. John D.
Montgomery also participated in the OECD's Working Party 3 on
macroeconomic policy coordination, and Dr. Steven N. Braun led
the U.S. delegation to the OECD's Short-term Economic Forecasters Meeting.
MICROECONOMIC POLICIES
The Council was an active participant in discussions of microeconomic policy issues in 1996. Dr. Stiglitz is a member of the Administration's Regulatory Working Group and addressed numerous
groups on the principles, content, and importance of the Administration's regulatory reform program. At Dr. Stiglitz's initiative, the
OECD has undertaken a series of studies to promote regulatory reform around the globe. The Council also participated in a range of
Administration efforts to reform regulation.
The Council was an active participant in the Administration's reinventing government effort, which has made Federal Government
agencies more efficient and more performance oriented and has revised and eliminated thousands of pages of regulations. To help
promote its objectives, the Council advocated procurement reforms
that would extend the use of competitive auctions by Federal agencies in their purchase of products and services.
The Council was involved in efforts to implement the 1996 telecommunications reform bill. The Council worked with the Vice
President, the National Economic Council, and the Departments of
Justice and Commerce to develop Administration policies regarding
interconnection of telephone competitors. Dr. Timothy J. Brennan
participated in an economists' forum at the Federal Communications Commission to examine various aspects of allowing local telephone companies to provide long-distance service. The Council also
promoted participation in spectrum auctions held by the Federal
Communications Commission and played an important role in ongoing efforts to restructure INTELSAT and Inmarsat (the international satellite consortia).
The Council was active in a range of policy discussions on natural resources and the environment. The Council has been a leading
proponent of reforming public lands policy, especially by reducing
subsidies for extractive use of Federal public lands. The Council
played a key role in the Headwaters acquisition negotiations and
has worked extensively on other land exchanges.
The Council participates actively in the ongoing assessment of
global climate change policies. The Council was also active in discussions on the Superfund program and other issues relating to the
288
management of hazardous wastes. The Council helped assess the
reauthorization of the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking
Water Act and evaluated the drafts of the Environmental Protection Agency's Mercury and Utility reports required by the Clean
Air Act Amendments of 1994. In addition, the Council was involved
in the evaluation of alternative National Ambient Air Quality
Standards for particulate matter and ozone, which are regulated
under the Clean Air Act.
The Council played an important role in agricultural policy reform, most notably the Administration's continuing efforts to implement the 1996 Farm Act. The Council also advised on the operation
of agricultural trade programs, including the sugar program and
various farm export subsidy programs.
The Staff of the Council of Economic Advisers
The professional staff of the Council consists of the Chief of Staff,
the Senior Statistician, 11 senior economists, 6 staff economists,
and 3 research assistants. The professional staff and their areas of
concentration at the end of 1996 were:
Chief of Staff and General Counsel
Michele M. Jolin
Senior Economists
S. Lael Brainard
Steven N. Braun
Timothy J. Brennan
William B. English
Phillip B. Levine
Mark J. Mazur
John D. Montgomery
Raymond Prince
Christopher J. Ruhm
Charles F. Stone
David L. Sunding
International Economics and Senior Director
at the National Economic Council
Director, Macroeconomic Forecasting
Regulation, Industrial Organization, and
Antitrust
Macroeconomics and Finance
Labor, Welfare, and Education
Public Finance and Senior Director at the
National Economic Council
International Economics
Environment and Natural Resources
Health Care, Aging, and Labor
Macroeconomics and Editor, Weekly
Economic Briefing of the President
Agriculture and Natural Resources
Senior Statistician
Catherine H. Furlong
289
Staff Economists
Carrie S. Cihak
Jason L. Furman
Cynthia K. Gustafson
Andrea Richter
Cristian J. Santesteban
Caroline M. Thompson
International Economics
Macroeconomics
Labor, Welfare, and Education
International Economics
Industrial Organization, Science and
Technology, and Regulation
International Economics
Research Assistants
Jennifer C. Daskal
Sarah J. Reber
Diane M. Whitmore
Statistical Office
Mrs. Furlong directs the Statistical Office. The Statistical Office
maintains and updates the Council's statistical information, oversees the publication of the Economic Indicators and the statistical
appendix to the Economic Report, and verifies statistics in Presidential and Council memoranda, testimony, and speeches.
Susan P. Clements
Linda A. Reilly
Brian A. Amorosi
Margaret L. Snyder
Statistician and Information Systems
Statistical Assistant
Research Assistant
Statistical Aide
The Administrative Office
Elizabeth A. Kaminski
Catherine Fibich
Administrative Officer
Administrative Assistant
Office of the Chairman
Alice H. Williams
Sandra F. Daigle
Lisa D. Branch
Francine P. Obermiller
Executive Assistant to the Chairman
Executive Assistant to the Chairman and
Assistant to the Chief of Staff
Executive Assistant to Dr. Munnell
Executive Assistant to Dr. Frankel
Staff Secretaries
Mary E. Jones
Rosalind V. Rasin
Mary A. Thomas
Mrs. Thomas also served as executive assistant for the Weekly
Economic Briefing of the President.
Michael Treadway provided editorial assistance in the preparation of the 1997 Economic Report. Robert E. Cumby, Georgetown
University, David M. Cutler, Harvard University, and Michael A.
290
Toman, Resources for the Future, served as consultants during the
year.
Student interns during the year were Oren Ahoobim, Anthony R.
Alvarado, Noelle M. Campbell, Albert C. Chen, George L.
Colindres, Mariano-Florentino Cuellar, Ariel S. Glasner, Kara A.
Gobi, Minna J. Hahn, Mary K. Lesh, Robert P. Martin, Rachel A.
Novak, Christopher J. O'Connor, Angela Sherry, Courtney A.
Sweeney, Megan R. Sweeney, James R. Sweet, and Jose A. Villar.
The following student interns joined the Council in January to assist with the preparation of the Economic Report: James T.
Engelhardt, Gregory B. Garvin, and Laura M. Higginson.
DEPARTURES
Peter R. Orszag, who served as Senior Adviser to the Council, returned to the London School of Economics in November and has
now joined the National Economic Council staff. The Council's senior economists, in most cases, are on leave of absence from faculty
positions at academic institutions or from other government agencies or research institutions. Their tenure with the Council is usually limited to 1 or 2 years. Most of the senior economists who resigned during the year returned to their previous affiliations. They
are George B. Frisvold (Department of Agriculture), Thomas J.
Kane (Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University), Eileen
Mauskopf (Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System),
Robert G. Murphy (Boston College), Marius Schwartz (Georgetown
University), and Michael A. Toman (Resources for the Future).
Robert S. Dohner accepted a staff position with the Department of
the Treasury. Louise M. Sheiner left the Council to serve as Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Treasury and has now rejoined the
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
Staff economists are generally graduate students who spend 1
year with the Council and then return to complete their dissertations. Those who returned to their graduate studies in 1996 are Michael A. Ash (University of California, Berkeley), Jonah B. Gelbach
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology), and Scott J. Wallsten
(Stanford University). Valerie A. Mercer accepted a position with
the International Monetary Fund. Ronald C. Chen began graduate
studies at Oxford University.
Public Information
The Council's Annual Report is the principal medium through
which the Council informs the public of its work and its views. It
is an important vehicle for presenting the Administration's domestic and international economic policies. Annual distribution of the
Report in recent years has averaged about 45,000 copies. The
Council also has primary responsibility for compiling the monthly
291
Economic Indicators, which is issued by the Joint Economic Committee of the Congress and has a monthly distribution of approximately 10,000.
292
Appendix B
STATISTICAL TABLES RELATING TO INCOME,
EMPLOYMENT, AND PRODUCTION
CONTENTS
NATIONAL INCOME OR EXPENDITURE:
B-l.
B-2.
B-3.
B-4.
B-5.
B-6.
B-7.
B-8.
B-9.
B-10.
B-ll.
B-12.
B-13.
B-14.
B-15.
B-16.
B-17.
B—18.
B-19.
B-20.
B-21.
B-22.
B-23.
B-24.
B-25.
B-26.
B-27.
B-28.
B-29.
B-30.
B-31.
Gross domestic product, 1959-96
Real gross domestic product, 1959-96
Chain-type price indexes for gross domestic product, 1959-96
Quantity and prices indexes for gross domestic product, and percent changes, 1959-96
Percent changes in real gross domestic product, 1960-96
Gross domestic product by major type of product, 1959-96
Real gross domestic product by major type of product, 1959-96
Gross domestic? product by sector, 1959-96
Real gross domestic product by sector, 1959-96
Gross domestic product by industry, 1959-94
Real gross domestic product by industry, 1977-94
Gross domestic product of nonfinancial corporate business, 195996
Output, costs, and profits of nonfinancial corporate business,
1959-96
Personal consumption expenditures, 1959-96
Real personal consumption expenditures, 1959-96
Private gross fixed investment by type, 1959-96
Real private gross fixed investment by type, 1959-96
Government consumption expenditures and gross investment by
type, 1959-96
Real government consumption expenditures and gross investment by type, 1959-96
Inventories and final sales of domestic business, 1959-96
Real inventories and final sales of domestic business, 1959-96 ....
Foreign transactions in the national income and product accounts, 1959-96
Real exports and imports of goods and services and receipts and
payments of factor income, 1959-96
*
Relation of gross domestic product, gross national product, net
national product, and national income, 1959-96
Relation of national income and personal income, 1959-96
National income by type of income, 1959-96
Sources of personal income, 1959-96
Disposition of personal income, 1959-96
Total and per capita disposable personal income and personal
consumption expenditures in current and real dollars, 1959-96
Gross saving and investment, 1959-96
Median money income (in 1995 dollars) and poverty status of
families and persons, by race, selected years, 1977-95
295
Page
300
302
304
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
330
332
333
334
336
Page
POPULATION, EMPLOYMENT, WAGES, AND PRODUCTIVITY:
B-32.
B-33.
B-34.
B-35.
B-36.
B-37.
B-38.
B-39.
B-40.
B-41.
B-42.
B-43.
B-44.
B-45.
B-46.
B-47.
B-48.
Population by age group, 1929-96
Civilian population and labor force, 1929-96
Civilian employment and unemployment by sex and age, 194896
Civilian employment by demographic characteristic, 1954-96
Unemployment by demographic characteristic, 1954-96
Civilian labor force participation rate and employment/population ratio, 1948-96
Civilian labor force participation rate by demographic characteristic, 1954-96
Civilian employment/population ratio by demographic characteristic, 1954-96
Civilian unemployment rate, 1948-96
Civilian unemployment rate by demographic characteristic,
1954-96
Unemployment by duration and reason, 1950-96
Unemployment insurance programs, selected data, 1963-96
Employees on nonagricultural payrolls, by major industry, 194896
Hours and earnings in private nonagricultural industries, 195996
Employment cost index, private industry, 1980-96
Productivity and related data, business sector, 1959-96
Changes in productivity and related data, business sector, 196096
337
338
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
352
353
354
355
PRODUCTION AND BUSINESS ACTIVITY:
B-49.
B-50.
B-51.
B-52.
B-53.
B-54.
B-55.
B-56.
B-57.
Industrial production indexes, major industry divisions, 1947-96 356
Industrial production indexes, market groupings, 1947-96
357
Industrial production indexes, selected manufactures, 1947-96 ... 358
Capacity utilization rates, 1948-96
359
New construction activity, 1959-96
360
New housing units started and authorized, 1959-96
361
Manufacturing and trade sales and inventories, 1954-96
362
Manufacturers' shipments and inventories, 1954-96
363
Manufacturers' new and unfilled orders, 1954-96
364
PRICES:
B-58.
B-59.
B-60.
B-61.
B-62.
B-63.
B-64.
B-65.
B-66.
Consumer price indexes for major expenditure classes, 1954-96
Consumer price indexes for selected expenditure classes, 1954—
96
Consumer price indexes for commodities, services, and special
groups, 1954-96
Changes in special consumer price indexes, 1958-96
Changes in consumer price indexes for commodities and services,
1929-96
Producer price indexes by stage of processing, 1954-96
Producer price indexes by stage of processing, special groups,
1974-96
Producer price indexes for major commodity groups, 1954-96
Changes in producer price indexes for finished goods, 1958-96 ....
296
365
366
368
369
370
371
373
374
376
Page
MONEY STOCK, CREDIT, AND FINANCE:
B-67.
B-68.
B-69.
B-70.
B-71.
B-72.
B-73.
B-74.
B-75.
Money stock, liquid assets, and debt measures, 1959-96
377
Components of money stock measures and liquid assets, 1959-96 378
Aggregate reserves of depository institutions and monetary base,
1959-96
380
Bank credit at all commercial banks, 1972-96
381
Bond yields and interest rates, 1929-96
382
Credit market borrowing, 1987-96
384
Mortgage debt outstanding by type of property and of financing,
1940-96
386
Mortgage debt outstanding by holder, 1940-96
387
Consumer credit outstanding, 1955-96
388
GOVERNMENT FINANCE:
B-76.
B-77.
B-78.
B-79.
B-80.
B-81.
B-82.
B-83.
B-84.
B-85.
B-86.
B-87.
Federal receipts, outlays, surplus or deficit, and debt, selected
fiscal years, 1929-98
389
Federal budget receipts, outlays, surplus or deficit, and debt, as
percent of gross domestic product, fiscal years 1934-98
390
Federal receipts and outlays, by major category, and surplus or
deficit, fiscal years 1940-98
391
Federal receipts, outlays, and debt, fiscal years 1992-98
392
Federal Government receipts and current expenditures, national
income and product accounts (NIPA), 1978-96
393
Federal and State and local government receipts and current expenditures, national income and product accounts (NIPA),
1959-96
394
Federal and State and local government receipts and current expenditures, national income and product accounts (NIPA), by
major type, 1959-96
395
State and local government receipts and current expenditures,
national income and product accounts (NIPA), 1959-96
396
State and local government revenues and expenditures, selected
fiscal years, 1927-93
397
Interest-bearing public debt securities by kind of obligation,
1967-96
398
Maturity distribution and average length of marketable interestbearing public debt securities held by private investors, 196796
399
Estimated ownership of public debt securities by private investors, 1976-96
400
CORPORATE PROFITS AND FINANCE:
B-88.
B-89.
B-90.
B-91.
B-92.
B-93.
B-94.
Corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments, 1959-96
Corporate profits by industry, 1959-96
Corporate profits of manufacturing industries, 1959-96
Sales, profits, and stockholders' equity, all manufacturing corporations, 1952-96
Relation of profits after taxes to stockholders' equity and to sales,
all manufacturing corporations, 1947-96
Common stock prices and yields, 1955-96
Business formation and business failures, 1955-96
297
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
Page
AGRICULTURE:
B-95.
B-96.
B-97.
B-98.
B-99.
B-100.
Farm income, 1945-96
408
Farm business balance sheet, 195O-95
409
Farm output and productivity indexesv4948-94
410
Farm input use, selected inputs, 1948-96
411
Indexes of prices received and prices paid by farmers, 1975-96 412
U.S. exports and imports of agricultural commodities, 1940-96 ... 413
INTERNATIONAL STATISTICS:
B-101. U.S. international transactions, 1946-96
B-102. U.S. international trade in goods by principal end-use category,
1965-96
B-103. U.S. international trade in goods by area, 1987-96
B-104. U.S. international trade in goods on balance of payments (BOP)
and Census basis, and trade in services on BOP basis, 197496
B-105. International investment position of the United States at yearend, 1987-95
B-106. Industrial production and consumer prices, major industrial
countries, 1970-96
B-107. Civilian unemployment rate, and hourly compensation, major industrial countries, 1970-96
B-108. Foreign exchange rates, 1970-96
B-109. International reserves, selected years, 1952-96
B-110. Growth rates in real gross domestic product, 1978-96
298
414
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
General Notes
Detail in these tables may not add to totals because of rounding. In addition,
because of the formula used for calculating real gross domestic product (GDP),
the chained (1992) dollar estimates for the detailed components do not add to
the chained-dollar value of GDP or to any intermediate aggregates.
Unless otherwise noted, all dollar figures are in current dollars.
Symbols used:
P Preliminary.
.... Not available (also, not applicable).
Data in these tables reflect revisions made by the source agencies from
February 1996 through late January 1997.
299
NATIONAL INCOME OR EXPENDITURE
TABLE B-l.—Gross domestic product, 1959-96
[Billions of dollars, except as noted; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Personal consumption expenditures
Gross private domestic investment
Fixed investment
Year or
quarter
Gross
domestic
product Total
507.2
NonDurable durable
goods goods
318.1
526.6 332.2
544.8 342.6
585.2 363.4
617.4 383.0
663.0 411.4
719.1 444.3
787.8 481.9
833.6 509.5
910.6 559.8
982.2 604.7
1,035.6 648.1
1,125.4 702.5
1,237.3 770.7
1,382.6 851.6
1,496.9 931.2
1,630.6 1,029.1
1,819.0 1,148.8
. .
2,026.9 1,277.1
2,291.4 1,428.8
2,557.5 1,593.5
2,784.2 1,760.4
3,115.9 1,941.3
3,242.1 2,076.8
3,514.5 2,283.4
3,902.4 2,492.3
4,180.7 2,704.8
4.422.2 2,892.7
4,692.3 3,094.5
5,049.6 3,349.7
5,438.7 3,594.8
5,743.8 3,839.3
5,916.7 3,975.1
6,244.4 4,219.8
6,553.0 4,454.1
6,935.7 4,700.9
7,253.8 4,924.9
5,660.4 3,759.2
1990:1
II
5,751.0 3,811.8
5,782.4 3,879.2
Ill
IV
5,781.5 3,907.0
1991-1
5,822.1 3,910.7
II
5,892.3 3,961.0
Ill
5,950.0 4,001.6
IV
6,002.3 4,027.1
1992:1
6,121.8 4,127.6
||
6,201.2 4,183.0
Ill
6,271.7 4,238.9
IV
6,383.0 4,329.6
1993-1
6,442.6 4,367.6
II
6,506.2 4,424.8
Ill
6,574.4 4,481.0
IV
6,688.6 4,543.1
1994-1
6,776.0 4,600.9
II
6,890.5 4,666.2
HI
6,993.1 4,738.3
IV
7,083.2 4,798.2
1995-1
7,149.8 4,840.6
II
7,204.9 4,910.5
Ill
7,309.8 4,957.9
IV
7,350.6 4,990.5
1996:1
7,426.8 5,060.5
II
7,545.1 5,139.4
III
7,616.3 5,165.4
See next page for continuation of table.
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
42.7
43.3
41.8
46.9
51.6
56.7
63.3
68.3
70.4
80.8
85.9
85.0
96.9
110.4
123.5
122.3
133.5
158.9
181.1
201.4
213.9
213.5
230.5
239.3
279.8
325.1
361.1
398.7
416.7
451.0
472.8
476.5
455.2
488.5
530.7
580.9
606.4
493.3
477.6
473.2
4619
449.0
452.7
462.0
457.3
474.1
481.3
492.5
506.2
508.3
525.2
536.7
552.3
562.6
573.1
585.3
602.7
593.0
604.0
615.8
612.8
625.2
637.6
630.5
148.5
152.9
156.6
162.8
168.2
178.7
191.6
208.8
217.1
235.7
253.2
272.0
285.5
308.0
343.1
384.5
420.6
458.2
496.9
549.9
624.0
695.5
758.2
786.8
830.3
883.6
927.6
957.2
1,014.0
1,081.1
1,163.8
1,245.3
1,277.6
1,321.8
1,368.9
1,429.7
1,485.9
1,220.7
1,230.2
1,256.2
1,274.1
1,268.3
1,279.7
1,283.4
1,279.0
1,303.1
1,308.4
1,326.3
1,349.5
1,354.1
1,364.1
1,371.3
1,386.1
1,399.7
1,416.6
1,443.4
1,459.0
1,471.5
1,486.7
1,491.2
1,494.2
1,522.1
1,544.7
1,546.5
Nonresidential
Services
127.0
136.0
144.3
153.7
163.2
176.1
189.4
204.8
222.0
243.4
265.5
291.1
320.1
352.3
384.9
424.4
475.0
531.8
599.0
677.4
755.6
851.4
952.6
1,050.7
1,173.3
1,283.6
1,416.1
1,536.8
1,663.8
1,817.6
1,958.1
2,117.5
2,242.3
2,409.4
2.554.6
2,690.3
2,832.6
2,045.3
2,104.1
2,149.8
2,171.0
2,193.5
2,228.6
2,256.3
2,290.7
2,350.4
2,393.3
2,420.1
2,473.9
2,505.2
2,535.4
2,572.9
2,604.7
2,638.6
2,676.5
2,709.6
2,736.6
2,776.1
2,819.8
2,850.9
2,883.5
2,913.2
2,957.1
2,988.5
300
Total
78.8
78.8
77.9
87.9
93.4
101.7
118.0
130.4
128.0
139.9
155.0
150.2
176.0
205.6
242.9
245.6
225.4
286.6
356.6
430.8
480.9
465.9
556.2
501.1
547.1
715.6
715.1
722.5
747.2
773.9
829.2
799.7
736.2
790.4
871.1
1,014.4
1,065.3
822.5
835.2
804.9
736.1
723.6
716.2
743.9
760.9
755.2
790.8
799.7
816.1
843.6
855.9
873.8
911.2
957.6
1,016.5
1,033.6
1,050.1
1,072.0
1,050.3
1,074.8
1,064.0
1,068.9
1,096.0
1,156.2
Total
74.6
75.5
75.0
81.8
87.7
96.7
108.3
116.7
117.6
130.8
145.5
148.1
167.5
195.7
225.4
231.5
231.7
269.6
333.5
403.6
464.0
473.5
528.1
515.6
552.0
648.1
688.9
712.9
722.9
763.1
797.5
791.6
738.5
783.4
850.5
954.9
1,028.2
813.9
794.0
791.2
767.5
739.7
736.2
738.6
739.5
755.4
780.5
788.1
809.7
823.8
834.3
851.8
892.3
917.4
942.0
968.9
991.4
1,013.9
1,016.3
1,036.6
1.046.2
1,070.7
1,088.0
1,119.6
Total
46.5
49.2
48.6
52.8
55.6
62.4
74.1
84.4
85.2
92.1
102.9
106.7
111.7
126.1
150.0
165.6
169.0
187.2
223.2
272.0
323.0
350.3
405.4
409.9
399.4
468.3
502.0
494.8
495.4
530.6
566.2
575.9
547.3
557.9
598.8
667.2
738.5
581.2
571.6
580.3
570.6
555.4
550.2
544.3
539.2
544.1
556.8
561.0
569.6
580.3
591.1
599.2
624.6
638.8
653.5
678.5
697.9
723.6
734.4
746.3
749.7
769.0
773.8
807.0
Structures
18.1
19.6
19.7
20.8
21.2
23.7
28.3
31.3
31.5
33.6
37.7
40.3
42.7
47.2
55.0
61.2
61.4
65.9
74.6
91.4
114.9
133.9
164.6
175.0
152.7
176.0
193.3
175.8
172.1
181.3
192.3
200.8
181.7
169.2
171.8
180.2
199.7
201.9
202.4
203.5
195.4
192.3
187.6
176.1
170.8
171.6
170.4
167.6
167.1
170.2
169.7
171.4
175.8
171.8
179.1
181.0
188.8
194.5
197.6
202.5
204.0
208.4
207.4
213.5
Producers'
durable
equipment
28.3
29.7
28.9
32.1
34.4
38.7
45.8
53.0
53.7
58:5
65.2
66.4
69.1
78.9
95.1
104.3
107.6
121.2
148.7
180.6
208.1
216.4
240.9
234.9
246.7
292.3
308.7
319.0
323.3
349.3
373.9
375.1
365.6
388.7
427.0
487.0
538.8
379.3
369.2
376.7
375.1
363.1
362.6
368.2
368.4
372.5
386.3
393.4
402.5
410.1
421.3
427.7
448.8
467.0
474.4
497.5
509.1
529.0
536.8
543.8
545.7
560.6
566.3
593.5
Residential
28.1
26.3
26.4
29.0
32.1
34.3
34.2
32.3
32.4
38.7
42.6
41.4
55.8
69.7
75.3
66.0
62.7
82.5
110.3
131.6
141.0
123.2
122.6
105.7
152.5
179.8
186.9
218.1
227.6
232.5
231.3
215.7
191.2
225.6
251.7
287.7
289.8
232.7
222.4
210.9
1969
184.3
185.9
194.3
200.3
211.3
223.7
227.1
240.1
243.5
243.2
252.6
267.7
278.5
288.5
290.4
293.5
290.4
281.9
290.3
296.5
301.7
314.2
312.6
Change
in
business
inventories
4.2
3.2
2.9
6.1
5.7
5.0
9.7
13.8
10.5
9.1
9.5
2.2
8.5
9.9
17.5
14.1
-6.3
16.9
23.1
27.2
16.9
-7.6
28.2
-14.5
-4.9
67.5
26.2
9.6
24.2
10.9
31.7
8.0
-2.3
7.0
20.6
59.5
37.0
8.6
41.2
13.8
-31.4
-16.1
-19.9
5.3
21.4
-.3
10.2
11.6
6.4
19.9
21.6
22.0
18.8
40.2
74.5
64.7
58.7
58.1
34.0
38.2
17.8
-1.7
8.0
36.6
TABLE B-l.—Gross domestic product, 1959-96—Continued
[Billions of dollars, except as noted; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Government consumption expenditures
and gross investment
Net exports of goods
and services
Year or
quarter
Federal
Net
exports Exports
-1.7
1959
2.4
3.4
2.4
3.3
5.5
3.9
1.9
1.4
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
-1.3
-1.2
1.2
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
-3.0
-8.0
.6
-3.1
13.6
-2.3
1980
1981
. : :.:
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1990:1
II
Ill
IV
1991:1
II
Ill
IV
1992:1
II
III
IV
1993:1
II
Ill
IV
1994:1
II
Ill
IV
1995- 1
II
Ill
IV
1996:1
II
til
-23.7
-26.1
-24.0
-14.9
-15.0
-20.5
-51.7
-102.0
-114.2
-131.5
-142.1
-106.1
-80.4
-71.3
-20.5
-29.5
-62.7
-94.4
-94.7
-74.3
-60.3
-78.5
-72.0
-32.9
-12.3
-22.0
-14.8
-8.9
-29.0
-37.6
-42.7
-47.9
-59.6
-74.5
-68.8
-78.8
-93.0
-107.0
-98.7
-108.7
-115.3
-87.6
-67.2
-86.3
-99.2
-120.2
Imports
20.6
22.3
25.3
26.0
27.4
29.4
33.6
35.4
38.9
41.4
45.3
49.3
22.8
22.7
25.0
26.1
28.1
31.5
37.1
39.9
46.6
50.5
57.0
59.3
66.2
91.8
55.8
62.3
74.2
91.2
124.3
136.3
148.9
158.8
186.1
228.7
278.9
302.8
282.6
277.0
303.1
303.0
320.7
365.7
447.2
509.3
557.3
601.8
639.4
657.8
719.1
807.4
541.6
554.8
555.5
577.3
577.4
602.7
602.6
624.4
632.4
635.9
640.2
649.1
646.9
660.4
645.3
678.7
678.9
707.4
729.2
761.0
776.1
797.3
819.0
837.0
839.5
850 C
844.3
127.5
122.7
151.1
182.4
212.3
252.7
293.8
317.8
303.2
328.6
405.1
417.2
452.2
507.9
553.2
589.7
628.6
622.3
669.0
720.5
813.5
902.0
615.9
615.1
634.1
649.2
610.3
615.0
624.5
639.3
641.3
664.9
677.8
691.8
694.8
720.0
719.8
747.5
757.6
800.4
836.1
859.6
884.8
912.6
906.6
904.2
925.8
949.2
964.5
Total
112.0
113.2
120.9
131.4
137.7
144.4
153.0
173.6
194.6
212.1
223.8
236.1
249.9
268.9
287.6
323.2
362.6
385.9
416.9
457.9
507.1
572.8
633.4
684.8
735.7
796.6
875.0
938.5
992.8
1,032.0
1,095.1
1,176.1
1,225.9
1,263.8
1,290.4
1,314.7
1,358.3
1,153.0
1,164.3
1,176.9
1,210.4
1,220.6
1,227.4
1,226.5
1,229.2
1,247.9
1,256.4
1,270.7
1,280.0
1,279.3
1,285.1
1,294.1
1,303.2
1,296.4
1.300.J
1,328.2
1,333.5
1,345.8
1,359.4
1,364.6
1,363.4
1,383.7
1,408.8
1,414.8
Total
National
defense
Non-
defense
State
and
local
67.2
55.7
11.5
44.8
65.6
69.1
76.5
78.1
79.4
81.8
94.1
54.9
57.7
62.3
62.2
61.3
62.0
73.4
85.5
92.0
92.4
10.8
11.4
14.2
15.9
18.1
19.7
20.7
21.0
21.8
23.4
47.6
51.8
55.0
59.6
65.0
71.2
79.5
88.1
98.3
90.6
88.7
93.2
94.7
25.3
28.3
31.9
33.5
38.0
43.6
46.6
52.6
58.9
63.8
106.6
113.8
115.8
115.9
117.1
125.1
128.2
139.9
154.5
162.7
178.4
194.4
215.0
248.4
284.1
313.2
344.5
372.6
410.1
435.2
455.7
457.3
477.2
503.6
522.6
528.0
522.6
516.4
516.6
496.4
500.1
501.2
516.7
525.6
528.2
520.9
515.5
521.8
523.2
532.0
535.0
525.5
520.1
521.3
523.5
511.3
509.4
523.8
520.9
519.7
522.0
516.8
507.7
518.6
529.6
525.5
101.9
110.9
116.1
125.8
135.6
151.2
174.2
202.0
230.9
255.0
282.7
312.4
332.4
350.4
354.0
360.6
373.1
383.5
375.8
362.7
352.0
345.5
369.7
370.6
368.9
383.3
389.7
389.3
382.1
373.0
372.8
374.1
380.9
375.3
365.7
362.7
361.2
361.3
346.7
349.3
362.3
349.7
347.6
351.7
345.7
337.1
343.9
353.7
348.8
1
Gross
2
74.2
82.2
82.3
89.4
89.9
97.7
102.9
105.3
103.3
116.7
130.4
139.1
152.2
159.9
164.3
171.0
126.7
129.5
132.3
133.3
136.0
138.9
138.8
142.6
149.0
149.1
151.1
159.7
159.8
157.4
160.1
162.2
164.6
160.0
161.5
171.2
172.1
170.3
171.1
170.6
174.7
175.8
176.7
108.0
120.2
132.8
143.8
159.4
183.3
208.1
223.1
238.5
263.4
292.0
324.4
349.2
371.6
391.2
424.0
464.9
503.3
537.2
574.7
617.9
672.6
703.4
735.8
767.8
798.4
841.7
656.6
664.2
675.7
693.7
695.0
699.2
705.5
713.6
726.1
733.2
738.7
745.1
753.8
765.0
772.7
779.7
785.0
791.4
804.4
812.6
826.1
837.3
847.7
855.7
865.1
879.2
889.3
Final
Gross Addendum:
sales of domes- Gross
domestic
national
purtic
product chases ' product'
503.0
523.3
541.9
579.1
611.7
658.0
709.4
774.0
823.1
901.4
972.7
1,033.4
1,116.9
1,227.4
1,365.2
1,482.8
1,636.9
1,802.0
2,003.8
2,264.2
2,540.6
2,791.9
3,087.8
3,256.6
3,519.4
3,835.0
4,154.5
4,412.6
4,668.1
5,038.7
5,407.0
5,735.8
5,919.0
6,237.4
6,532.4
6,876.2
7,216.7
5,651.8
5,709.8
5,768.7
5,812.9
5,838.2
5,912.2
5,944.7
5,980.9
6,122.1
6,191.0
6,260.1
6,376.6
6,422.8
6,484.6
6,552.3
6,669.8
6,735.9
6,816.0
6,928.5
7,024.6
7,091.7
7,170.9
7,271.5
7,332.8
7,428.6
7,537.1
7,579.6
508.9
524.1
541.5
582.8
614.1
657.6
715.3
785.9
832.2
911.8
983.4
1,034.4
1,128.4
1,245.3
1,382.0
1,500.0
1,617.1
1,821.2
2,050.5
2,317.5
2,581.5
2,799.1
3,130.9
3,262.6
3,566.2
4,004.5
4,294.9
4,553.7
4,834.5
5,155.6
5,519.1
5,815.1
5,937.2
6,274.0
6,615.7
7,030.1
7,348.4
5,734.7
5,811.3
5,861.0
5,853.5
5,855.0
5,904.6
5,972.0
6,017.1
6,130.7
6,230.2
6,309.3
6,425.7
6,490.5
6,565.8
6,648.8
6,757.4
6,854.8
6,983.5
7,100.1
7,181.9
7,258.4
7,320.2
7,397.3
7,417.8
7,513.2
7,644.3
7,736.5
domestic product (GDP) less exports of goods and services plus imports of goods and services.
GDP plus net receipts of factor income from rest of the world.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
301
510.1
529.8
548.4
589.4
621.9
668.0
724.5
793.0
839.1
916.7
988.4
1,042.0
1,133.1
1,246.0
1,395.4
1,512.6
1,643.9
1,836.1
2,047.5
2,313.5
2,590.4
2,819.5
3,150.6
3,273.2
3,546.5
3,933.5
4,201.0
4,435.1
4,701.3
5,062.6
5,452.8
5,764.9
5,932.4
6,255.5
6,563.5
6,931.9
7,246.7
5,681.4
5,767.8
5,796.8
5,813.6
5,849.0
5,904.5
5,959.4
6,016.6
6,138.3
6,212.2
6,281.1
6,390.5
6,458.6
6,516.5
6,587.1
6,691.9
6,781.0
6,888.3
6,987.0
7,071.4
7,146.8
7,202.4
7,293.4
7,344.3
7,426.6
7,537.5
7,598.9
Percent change
from preceding
period
Gross Gross
domes- domestic
tic
purproduct chases '
3.8
3.5
7.4
5.5
7.4
8.5
9.5
5.8
9.2
7.9
5.4
8.7
9.9
3.0
3.3
7.6
5.4
7.1
8.8
9.9
5.9
9.6
7.8
5.2
9.1
11.7
10.4
11.0
11.5
11.4
13.0
11.6
12.6
12.6
13.0
11.4
8.3
8.9
8.9
8.5
7.8
8.4
11.9
11.9
11.0
12.3
4.1
8.4
7.1
5.8
6.1
7.6
7.7
5.6
3.0
5.5
4.9
5.8
4.6
9.1
6.6
2.2
2.8
4.9
4.0
3.6
8.2
5.3
4.6
7.3
3.8
4.0
4.3
7.1
5.3
6.9
6.1
5.3
3.8
3.1
6.0
2.3
4.2
6.5
3.8
4.2
9.3
7.3
6.0
6.2
6.6
7.0
5.4
2.1
5.7
5.4
6.3
4.5
8.8
5.5
3.5
it
4.6
3.1
7.8
6.7
5.2
7.6
4.1
4.7
5.2
6.7
5.9
7.7
6.8
4.7
4.3
3.4
4.3
1.1
5.2
7.2
4.9
TABLE B-2.—Real gross domestic product, 1959-96
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars, except as noted; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Gross private domestic investment
Personal consumption expenditures
Fixed investment
Year or
quarter
Gross
domestic
product
Total
Durable
goods
2,212.3 1,394.6
1959
103.1
2,261.7 1,432.6
I960
105.2
2,309.8 1,461.5
101.2
1961
1962
2,449.1 1,533.8
113.0
2,554.0 1,596.6
1963
124.0
2,702.9 1,692.3
135.5
1964
2,874.8 1,799.1
1965
152.6
3,060.2 1,902.0
1966
165.5
1967
3,140.2 1,958.6
168.1
3,288.6 2,070.2
1968
186.6
1969
3,388.0 2,147.5
193.3
1970
3,388.2 2,197.8
187.0
1971
205.7
3,500.1 2,279.5
1972
3,690.3 2,415.9
231.9
3,902.3 2,532.6
255.8
1973
3,888.2 2,514.7
1974
238.2
1975
3,865.1 2,570.0
238.1
268.5
4,081.1 2,714.3
1976
293.4
1977
4,279.3 2,829.8
4,493.7 2,951.6
308.8
1978
4,624.0 3,020.2
307.3
1979
4,611.9 3,009.7
282.6
1980
4,724.9 3,046.4
285.8
1981
4,623.6 3,081.5
285.5
1982
327.4
4,810.0 3,240.6
1983
5,138.2 3,407.6
1984
374.9
411.4
5,329.5 3,566.5
1985
448.4
1986 III!" 5,489.9 3,708.7
5,648.4 3,822.3
454.9
1987
5,862.9 3,972.7
483.5
1988
6,060.4 4,064.6
496.2
1989
6,138.7 4,132.2
493.3
1990
6,079.0 4,105.8
462.0
1991
6,244.4 4,219.8
488.5
1992
6,386.4 4,339.5
524.1
1993
6,608.7 4,473.2
1994
562.0
1995
6,742.9 4,577.8
579.8
6,154.1 4,128.9
511.2
1990:1
II
6,174.4 4,134.7
495.4
490.4
Ill
6,145.2 4,148.5
IV
6,081.0 4,116.4
476.3
1991-1
6,047.9 4,084.5
458.6
II
6,074.1 4,110.0
460.5
III
6,089.3 4,119.5
467.3
IV
6,104.4 4,109.1
461.5
1992-.I
6,175.3 4,173.8
476.1
II
6,214.2 4,196.4
481.1
Ill
6,260.9 4,226.7
491.9
IV
6,327.3 4,282.3
505.0
6,326.4 4,289.7
1993:1
506.0
II
6,356.5 4,318.8
519.6
Ill
6,393.4 4,359.5
528.9
IV
6,469.1 4,390.0
541.9
1994:1
6,508.5 4,420.5
549.6
II
555.4
6,587.6 4,458.7
Ill
6,644.9 4,489.4
563.1
IV
6,693.9 4,524.0
579.8
1995:|
6,701.0 4,534.8
566.5
II
576.2
6,713.5 4,569.9
6,776.4 4,597.3
Ill
589.1
IV
6,780.7 4,609.4
587.5
6,814.3 4,649.1
599.2
1996-1
II
6,892.6 4,687.6
615.6
Ill
6,928.4 4,693.5
611.6
See next page for continuation of table.
Nondurable Services
goods
606.3
615.4
626.7
646.5
660.0
692.5
729.3
769.2
781.4
816.9
838.6
859.1
874.5
912.9
942.9
924.5
938.3
984.8
1,010.4
1,045.7
1,069.7
1,065.1
1,074.3
1,080.6
1,112.4
1,151.8
1,178.3
1,215.9
1,239.3
1,274.4
1,303.5
1,316.1
1,302.9
1,321.8
1,348.8
1,390.5
1,421.9
1,319.2
1,316.9
1,319.8
1,308.4
1,300.6
1,308.0
1,307.1
1,295.7
1,314.4
1,312.0
1,321.1
1,339.8
1,336.9
1,344.5
1,354.0
1,359.9
1,372.9
1,383.9
1,397.0
1,408.1
1,416.6
1,422.9
1,424.7
1,423.2
1,436.1
1,440.9
1,442.2
687.4
717.4
746.5
783.4
818.7
868.4
914.6
961.0
1,007.6
1,059.6
1,110.8
1,155.4
1,197.9
1,262.5
1,319.4
1,351.2
1,398.3
1,457.1
1,518.2
1,589.3
1,639.8
1,670.7
1,696.1
1,728.2
1,809.0
1,883.0
1,977.3
2,041.4
2,126.9
2,212.4
2,262.3
2,321.3
2,341.0
2,409.4
2,466.7
2,521.4
2,577.0
2,295.7
2,321.1
2,337.3
2,331.2
2,325.3
2,341.5
2,345.0
2,352.0
2,383.2
2,403.2
2,413.6
2,437.6
2,446.8
2,454.9
2,476.7
2,488.5
2,498.5
2,519.9
2,530.0
2,537.3
2,552.5
2,571.6
2,584.6
2,599.3
2,614.7
2,632.3
2,640.6
Change
in
busiProResiness
ducers'
durable dential inventories
equipment
Nonresidential
Total
274.2
270.5
265.2
298.5
318.1
344.6
392.5
423.5
406.9
429.8
454.4
419.5
467.4
522.1
583.5
544.4
440.5
536.6
627.1
686.0
704.5
626.2
689.7
590.4
647.8
831.6
829.2
813.8
820.5
826.0
861.9
817.3
737.7
790.4
857.3
979.6
1,010.2
844.1
856.1
820.8
748.1
725.5
718.0
744.9
762.4
757.9
792.8
798.6
812.4
834.8
843.2
857.6
893.5
933.6
984.8
994.2
1,005.9
1,023.7
996.8
1,015.2
1,004.9
1,011.9
1,038.6
1,093.4
302
Total
267.1
269.2
267.9
292.0
313.7
343.7
378.5
399.1
391.0
418.1
442.9
432.1
464.9,
520.3
567.5
530.2
471.0
517.6
593.7
660.8
695.6
648.4
660.6
610.4
654.2
762.4
799.3
805.0
799.4
818.3
832.0
805.8
741.3
783.4
836.4
921.1
975.9
834.7
811.2
803.1
774.4
742.6
739.4
741.0
742.0
758.3
782.4
787.3
805.8
815.4
821.1
835.4
873.5
892.4
911.4
930.8
949.7
969.5
965.7
980.0
988.5
1,013.3
1,031.1
1,057.5
Total
147.7
155.9
154.5
168.0
176.4
197.1
231.3
259.4
255.3
266.4
285.6
282.8
282.4
307.7
352.5
354.4
317.3
332.6
371.8
422.6
463.3
461.1
485.7
464.3
456.4
535.4
568.4
548.5
542.4
566.0
588.8
585.2
547.7
557.9
593.6
652.1
714.3
595.3
583.4
588.1
573.9
555.1
550.9
545.3
539.5
544.4
557.5
560.6
569.1
577.5
586.4
593.1
617.6
628.5
639.5
660.5
679.7
704.4
710.5
719.0
723.3
743.5
750.5
781.4
Structures
85.8
92.6
93.9
98.1
99.2
109.5
126.9
135.6
132.2
134.1
141.3
141.7
139.4
143.7
155.4
152.2
136.2
139.6
146.4
162.3
182.7
195.0
210.4
207.2
185.7
212.2
227.8
203.3
195.9
196.8
201.2
203.3
181.6
169.2
166.3
168.8
181.1
206.5
205.5
205.2
196.0
192.2
187.2
175.5
171.4
172.7
171.0
167.4
165.6
167.0
164.8
165.1
168.2
163.0
169.0
169.1
174.3
178.5
180.0
182.8
183.2
186.6
184.9
188.6
71.4
74.3
72.5
81.0
87.1
98.1
115.9
133.8
132.5
140.5
152.2
149.5
150.7
169.8
201.2
205.4
183.9
195.2
225.6
259.6
280.7
268.2
278.2
260.3
272.4
324.6
342.4
345.9
346.9
369.2
387.6
381.9
366.2
388.7
427.6
484.1
534.5
388.8
377.8
383.0
377.9
362.9
363.8
369.8
368.1
371.7
386.4
393:1
403.5
410.5
421.7
428.2
449.8
466.4
471.1
492.5
506.5
527.2
531.7
537.4
541.4
558.3
567.5
595.0
131.1
121.8
122.2
133.9
149.6
158.3
153.7
140.0
135.6
154.0
158.6
149.1
190.0
223.7
222.3
176.4
153.5
189.7
229.8
245.0
236.0
186.1
171.2
140.1
197.6
226.4
229.5
257.0
257.6
252.5
243.2
220.6
193.4
225.6
242.7
268.9
262.8
239.4
227.8
214.9
200.3
187.4
188.3
195.6
202.4
213.9
224.9
226.7
236.7
237.9
234.8
242.2
255.8
263.6
271.6
270.3
270.3
265.9
256.5
262.2
266.3
271.1
281.5
277.8
13.5
10.6
8.9
20.0
18.1
15.6
30.2
42.3
32.1
26.9
27.2
5.7
22.7
25.2
39.0
24.0
-11.0
29.0
38.0
42.3
23.1
-10.0
33.1
-15.6
-5.9
74.8
29.8
10.9
26.2
11.6
33.3
10.4
-3.0
7.3
19.1
58.9
33.1
11.0
43.8
14.9
-28.2
-17.5
-20.8
4.9
21.4
in
12.1
5.8
18.5
20.8
19.5
17.4
40.5
74.5
64.5
56.1
54.5
30.5
33.0
14.6
-3.0
7.1
34.5
TABLE B-2.—Real gross domestic product, 1959-96—Continued
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars, except as noted; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Net exports of goods
and services
Year or
quarter
Government consumption expenditures
and gross investment
Federal
Net
exports Exports Imports Total
Total
Nation- Non- State
and
al
de- local
defense
fense
Gross
Final
sales of domestic
domespurtic
product chases1
il* 106:6 -618.5 360.5 307.6 58.8 256.8 2,206.9 2,270.4
86.8 108.1 617.2 349.4 301.3 54.1 267.2 2,264.2 2.303.1
88.3 107.3 647.2 363.0 313.8 55.5 283.8 2,318.0 2,349.7
93.0 119.5 686.0 393.2 332.4 66.8 292.1 2,445.4 2,497.4
324.0 72.9 309.7 2,552.4 2,598.9
100.0 122.7 701.9 391.8
113.3 129.2 715.9 385.2 309.9 79.2 330.9 2,705.1 2,740.5
115.6 143.0 737.6 385.2 303.8 84.6 353.2 2,860.4 2,925.9
123.4 164.2 804.6 429.1 348.2 85.7 375.9 3,033.5 3,124.9
126.1 176.2 865.6 471.7 393.5 84.7 394.2 3,125.1 3,214.2
135.3 202.5 892.4 476.3 400.9 82.5 416.5 3,278.0 3,377.4
142.7 214.0 887.5 459.9 381.6 84.3 428.0 3,377.2 3,480.1
158.1 223.1 866.8 427.2 349.0 83.0 440.0 3,406.5 3,469.1
159.2 235.0 851.0 397.0 313.7 86.3 454.4 3,499.8 3,592.5
172.0 261.0 854.1 390.2 300.3 91.9 464.5 3,689.5 3,794.0
209.6 272.6 848.4 371.1 281.2 91.5 478.5 3,883.9 3,975.2
229.8 265.3 862.9 368.8 273.5 96.4 495.6 3,873.4 3,925.7
228.2 235.4 876.3 367.9 269.7 99.1 510.0 3,906.4 3,867.2
241.6 281.5 876.8 364.3 264.7 100.4 514.3 4,061.7 4,122.9
247.4 311.6 884.7 370.1 266.4 104.3 516.4 4,240.8 4,351.5
273.1 338.6 910.6 377.7 266.7 111.4 534.7 4,464.4 4,565.7
299.0 344.3 924.9 383.3 271.0 112.7 543.5 4,614.4 4,668.2
331.4 321.3 941.4 399.3 280.7 119.0 543.6 4,641.9 4,578.6
335.3 329.7 947.7 415.9 296.0 120.4 532.8 4,691.6 4,697.3
311.4 325.5 960.1 429.4 316.5 113.3 531.4 4,651.2 4,622.7
303.3 366.6 987.3 452.7 334.6 118.5 534.9 4,821.2 4,870.7
328.4 455.7 1,018.4 463.7 348.1 115.9 555.0 5,061.6 5,274.4
337.3 485.2 1,080.1 495.6 374.1 121.8 584.7 5,296.9 5,488.8
362.2 526.1 1,135.0 518.4 393.4 125.2 616.9 5,480.9 5,666.1
402.0 558.2 1,165.9 534.4 409.2 125.3 631.8 5.626.0 5,815.7
465.8 580.2 1,180.9 524.6 405.5 119.1 656.6 5,855.1 5,983.9
520.2 603.0 1,213.9 531.5 401.6 130.1 682.6 6,028.7 6,146.1
564.4 626.3 1,250.4 541.9 401.5 140.5 708.6 6,126.7 6,202.1
599.9 622.2 1,258.0 539.4 397.5 142.0 718.7 6,082.6 6,101.1
639.4 669.0 1,263.8 528.0 375.8 152.2 735.8 6,237.4 6,274.0
658.2 730.2 1,261.0 509.2 355.4 153.8 751.8 6,365.5 6,457.6
712.0 817.6 1,260.0 489.8 337.0 152.6 770.5 6,550.7 6,711.8
775.4 883.0 1,260.2 472.3 319.6 152.3 788.6 6,708.9 6,847.1
555.2 622.3 1,246.5 542.9 404.1 138.9 703.8 6,144.6 6,222.9
566.8 633.5 1,248.2 543.0 402.8 140.4 705.4 6,127.5 6,242.9
561.8 633.0 1,246.8 538.2 396.1 142.2 708.7 6,126.6 6,218.4
573.9 616.4 1,259.9 543.5 403.1 140.5 716.5 6,108.1 6,124.3
1991:1
572.3 596.6 1,262.6 547.3 408.4 139.0 715.5 6,065.4 6,072.2
II
600.3 617.4 1,263.8 547.1 405.0 142.2 716.8 6,095.9 6,091.1
Ill
603.6 633.4 1,255.1 536.3 395.0 141.4 718.8 6,085.4 6,119.1
IV
623.5 641.4 1,250.7 526.9 381.7 145.3 723.8 6,083.8 6,122.3
1992:1
633.0 647.8 1,258.5 525.1 374.2 150.8 733.5 6,175.8 6,190.0
II ..
635.8 668.3 1,257.5 523.3 373.3 150.0 734.2 6,203.8 6,246.8
Ill
639.7 670.5 1,266.5 529.6 378.7 150.9 736.9 6,249.5 6,291.9
IV
649.1 689.1 1,272.5 534.0 376.8 157.1 738.5 6,320.7 6,367.3
1993:1
647.1 703.1 1,257.7 516.1 361.6 154.4 741.6 6,307.1 6,382.1
II
660.0 724.4 1,258.4 509.7 356.9 152.7 748.8 6,334.5 6,420.4
Ill
645.5 731.7 1,261.6 505.9 351.6 154.2 755.7 6,371.3 6,478.6
IV
. 680.3 761.8 1,266.2 505.0 351.2 153.7 761.3 6,449.2 6,549.3
1994:1
677.6 777.0 1,252.4 489.9 334.8 154.9 762.7 6,467.7 6,605.9
II ..
703.1 810.4 1,249.8 483.3 335.5 147.8 766.8 6,514.9 6,692.3
Ill
719.6 831.3 1,271.2 496.7 346.2 150.4 774.7 6,582.1 6,753.7
IV
747.6 851.9 1,266.6 489.2 331.3 157.5 777.7 6,638.1 6,795.3
1995:1
325.0 155.6 782.2 6,647.4 6,819.8
752.3 874.9 1,262.7 481.0
II
763.2 884.6 1,265.1 479.4 325.5 153.5 786.3 6,682.4 6,830.9
Ill .
1,263.4
472.5 319.1 153.1 791.5 6,741.4 6,874.8
783.0 884.5
w .............
803.1 888.0 1,249.6 456.2 308.8 147.0 794.4 6,764.2 6,862.9
806.7 910.7 1,254.7 462.9 311.9 150.6 792.6 6,815.2 6,914.6
1996:1
II
817.9 932.6 1,278.2 473.4 319.4 153.7 805.5 6,884.7 7,003.0
Ill
816.1 953.5 1,276.1 469.3 314.9 153.9 807.7 6,892.7 7,060.7
1
2 Gross domestic product (GOP) less exports of goods and services plus imports of goods and services.
GDP plus net receipts of factor income from rest of the world.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964 .. .
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977 . .
1978
1979
1980
1981 .
1982
1983 ....
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1990:1
II
III
IV
-34.8
-21.3
-19.1
-26.5
-22.7
-15.9
-27.4
-40.9
-50.1
-67.2
-71.3
-65.0
-75.8
-88.9
-63.0
-35.6
-7.2
-39.9
-64.2
-65.6
-45.3
10.1
5.6
-14.1
-63.3
-127.3
-147.9
-163.9
-156.2
-114.4
-82.7
-61.9
-22.3
-29.5
-72.0
-105.7
-107.6
-67.1
-66.7
-71.2
-42.5
-24.3
-17.1
-29.8
-17.9
-14.8
-32.5
-30.8
-40.0
-56.0
-64.4
-86.2
-81.5
-99.3
-107.3
-111.7
-104.3
-122.5
-121.4
-101.6
-343
-104.0
-114.7
-137.4
303
Addendum.
Gross
national
prod-2
uct
2,224.3
2,274.8
2,324.6
2,465.9
2,572.0
2,722.3
2,895.2
3,078.9
3,159.4
3,309.2
3,407.8
3,407.7
3,522.2
3,714.3
3,936.0
3,927,1
3,894.5
4,116.9
4,320.2
4,534.4
4,680.8
4,667.7
4,774.1
4,665.4
4,851.2
5,176.1
5,352.7
5,503.4
5,657.2
5,876.2
6,074.0
6,159.4
6,094.4
6,255.5
6,397.1
6,606.0
6,737.1
6,174.3
6,190.8
6,158.8
6,113.4
6,074.8
6,085.8
6,098.3
6,118.7
6,191.6
6,225.1
6,270.4
6,334.8
6,342.5
6,366.9
6,406.3
6,472.5
6,514.0
6,586.2
6,640.0
6,683.5
6,699.1
6,711.9
6,762.0
6,775.«
6,814.9
6,886.5
6,913.7
Percent change
from preceding
period
Gross Gross
domes- domestic
tic
purproduct chases1
2.2
2.1
6.0
4.3
5.8
6.4
6.4
2.6
4.7
3.0
1.4
2.0
6.3
4.1
5.4
6.8
6.8
2.9
5.1
3.0
.0
3.3
5.4
5.7
ie
5.6
"!6
5.6
4.9
5.0
2.9
-.3
2.5
-2.1
4.0
6.8
3.7
3.0
2.9
3.8
3.4
1.3
-1.0
2.7
2.3
3.5
2.0
4.1
1.3
-1.9
-4.1
-2.2
1.7
1.0
1.0
4.7
2.5
3.0
4.3
4.8
-1.2
-1.5
6.6
5.5
4.9
2.2
-1.9
2.6
-1.6
5.4
8.3
4.1
3.2
2.6
2.9
2.7
.9
-1.6
2.8
2.9
3.9
2.0
3.2
1.3
-1.6
-5.9
-3.4
1.2
1.9
L9
2.3
4.8
2.5
4.9
3.5
3.0
.4
4.5
3.7
2.9
4.9
.9
2.4
3.7
4.4
3.5
5.3
3.7
2.5
1.4
3J
2.6
2.0
4.7
2.1
3.0
5.2
3.3
TABLE B-3.—Chain-type price indexes for gross domestic product, 1959-96
[Index numbers, 1992=100, except as noted; quarterly data seasonally adjusted]
Personal consumption expenditures
Gross private domestic investment
Fixed investment
Year or
quarter
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987 .
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Gross
domestic
product
Total
23.0
23.3
. ...
23.6
23.9
24.2
24.6
25.0
25.7
26.6
27.7
29.0
. .
30.6
32.1
33.5
35.4
38.5
42.2
44.6
47.5
50.9
55.3
60.4
66.1
70.2
73.2
75.9
78.6
80.6
83.1
86.1
89.7
93.6
97.3
100.0
102.6
105.0
107.6
1990:1
92.0
II
93.2
94.2
Ill
IV
95.1
1991-1
96.3
II
97.0
Ill
97.7
IV
98.3
1992:1
99.1
II
99.8
Ill
100.2
IV
100.91993:1
101.8
II
102.4
III
102.8
IV
103.4
1994:1
104.1
II
104.6
HI
105.2
IV
105.8
106.7
1995:1
II
107.3
Ill
. .
107.9
IV
108.4
1996:1
109.0
II
109.6
HI
110.2
See next page for continuation of
Durable
goods
22.8
41.4
23.2
23.4
23.7
24.0
24.3
24.7
25.3
26.0
27.0
28.2
29.5
30.8
31.9
33.6
37.0
40.0
42.3
45.1
48.4
52.8
58.5
63.7
67.4
70.5
73.1
75.8
78.0
81.0
84.3
88.4
92.9
96.8
100.0
102.6
105.1
107.6
91.0
92.2
93.5
94.9
95.7
96.4
97.1
98.0
98.9
99.7
100.3
101.1
101.8
102.5
102.8
103.5
104.1
104.7
105.5
106.1
106.7
107.5
107.8
108.3
108.9
109.8
110.2
table.
41.2
41.3
41.5
41.6
41.8
41.4
41.3
41.9
43.3
44.5
45.4
47.1
47.6
48.3
51.3
56.0
59.2
61.7
65.2
69.6
75.6
80.6
83.8
85.5
86.7
87.8
88.9
91.6
93.3
95.3
96.6
98.5
100.0
101.3
103.4
104.6
96.5
96.4
96.5
96.9
97.9
98.4
98.8
99.1
99.6
100.1
100.1
100.2
100.5
101.1
101.5
101.9
102.4
103.2
104.0
103.9
104.7
104.8
104.5
104.3
104.6
104.1
104.0
Presidential
Nondurable
goods
Services
24.5
24.8
25.0
25.2
25.5
25.8
26.3
27.1
27.8
28.9
30.2
31.7
32.6
33.7
36.4
41.6
44.8
46.5
49.2
52.6
58.3
65.3
70.6
72.8
74.6
76.7
78.7
78.7
81.8
84.8
89.3
94.6
98.1
100.0
101.5
102.8
104.5
92.6
93.4
95.2
97.4
97.5
97.8
98.2
98.7
99.2
99.7
100.4
100.7
101.3
101.5
101.3
101.9
102.0
102.4
103.3
103.6
103.9
104.5
104.7
105.0
106.0
107.3
107.3
18.5
19.0
19.3
19.6
19.9
20.3
20.7
21.3
22.0
23.0
23.9
25.2
26.7
27.9
29.2
31.4
34.0
36.5
39.5
42.6
46.1
51.0
56.2
60.8
64.9
68.2
71.6
75.3
78.2
82.2
86.6
91.2
95.8
100.0
103.6
106.7
109.9
89.1
90.7
92.0
93.1
94.3
95.2
96.2
97.4
98.6
99.6
100.3
101.5
102.4
103.3
103.9
104.7
105.6
106.2
107.1
107.9
108.8
109.7
110.3
110.9
111.5
112.4
113.2
304
Total
29.6
29.7
29.7
29.7
29.6
29.8
30.2
30.8
31.6
32.8
34.4
35.8
37.6
39.3
41.3
45.3
51.0
53.8
57.5
62.4
68.0
74.5
81.4
85.6
85.4
86.0
87.0
89.0
91.0
93.5
96.1
98.4
99.7
100.0
101.7
103.6
105.4
97.6
98.0
98.6
99.3
99.7
99.7
99.7
99.7
99.6
99.8
100.1
100.5
101.0
101.6
101.9
102.1
102.8
103.3
104.0
104.3
104.6
105.3
105.8
105.9
105.8
105.8
106.4
Total
27.9
28.1
28.0
28.0
28.0
28.1
28.6
29.2
30.1
31.3
32.9
34.3
36.0
37.6
39.7
43.7
49.2
52.1
56.2
61.1
66.7
73.0
79.9
84.5
84.4
85.0
86.2
88.6
90.4
93.2
95.9
98.2
99.6
100.0
101.7
103.7
105.4
97.5
97.9
98.5
99.1
99.6
99.6
99.7
99.6
99.6
99.8
100.1
100.5
101.0
101.6
102.0
102.2
102.8
103.4
104.1
104.4
104.6
105.2
105.8
105.9
105.9
106.0
106.6
Total
31.5
31.6
31.5
31.5
31.5
31.7
32.1
32.5
33.4
34.6
36.0
37.8
39.6
41.0
42.6
46.8
53.3
56.3
60.0
64.4
69.7
76.0
83.5
88.3
87.5
87.5
88.3
90.2
91.3
93.7
96.2
98.4
99.9
100.0
100.9
102.3
103.4
97.6
98.0
98.7
99.4
100.1
99.9
99.8
99.9
99.9
99.9
100.1
100.1
100.5
100.8
101.0
101.1
101.6
102.2
102.8
102.7
102.7
103.4
103.8
103.7
103.7
103.7
104.2
Structures
21.2
21.1
21.0
21.2
21.4
21.7
22.3
23.1
23.8
25.0
26.7
28.4
30.6
32.8
35.4
40.2
45.0
47.2
50.9
56.3
62.9
68.7
78.2
84.4
82.2
82.9
84.9
86.5
87.9
92.1
95.6
1%
100.0
103.3
106.7
110.2
97.8
98.5
99.2
99.7
100.1
100.2
100.4
99.7
99.3
99.7
100.1
100.9
101.9
103.0
103.8
104.6
105.5
106.0
107.1
108.4
109.0
109.8
110.8
111.3
111.7
112.2
113.2
Producers'
durable
equipment
39.7
40.0
39.9
39.7
39.5
39.5
39.6
39.7
40.6
41.7
42.9
44.5
45.9
46.5
47.3
50.9
58.6
62.2
65.9
69.6
74.1
80.7
86.6
90.2
90.6
90.0
90.1
92.2
93.2
94.6
96.4
98.2
99.8
100.0
99.9
100.6
100.8
97.5
97.7
98.4
99.3
100.1
99.8
99.5
99.9
100.2
100.0
100.1
99.8
99.9
99.9
99.9
99.8
100.1
100.7
101.1
100.5
100.3
100.9
101.2
100.9
100.7
100.6
100.9
Residential
21.4
21.6
21.6
21.6
21.5
21.6
22.3
23.1
23.9
25.1
26.9
27.7
29.4
31.1
33.9
37.4
40.9
43.5
48.0
53.7
59.7
66.2
71.6
75.5
77.2
79.4
81.5
84.9
88.3
92.1
95.1
97.8
98.8
100.0
103.7
107.0
110.3
97.2
97.6
98.1
98.3
98.4
98.7
99.3
99.0
98.8
99.5
100.2
101.5
102.3
103.6
104.3
104.7
105.7
106.2
107.4
108.6
109.2
109.9
110.7
111.3
111.3
111.7
112.6
TABLE B-3-—Chain-type price indexes for gross domestic product, 1959-96—Continued
[Index numbers, 1992=100, except as noted; quarterly data seasonally adjusted]
Exports and imports
services
Year or
quarter
Government consumption expenditures
and gross investment
Final
ni
01
Cp/faral
rcucfdl
rtnuu-
Exports
Imports
Total
Total
National
dp.
uefense
Nondefense
State
and
local
mestic
product
Total
Less
food
and
energy
28.7
17.4
20.9
18.1
18.6
22.8
22.5
18.1
19.5
29.1
18.2
23.1
22.8
17.8
19.8
21.1
18.3
18.8
23.4
18.4
29.5
21.1
18.7
23.1
18.2
19.0
20.5
19.4
23.7
18.7
29.5
23.4
21.1
20.9
19.1
18.8
29.4
21.7
21.3
23.7
19.3
19.2
19.9
24.0
19.6
21.7
29.6
20.6
19.6
19.8
20.2
24.3
24.0
22.8
20.4
30.6
22.1
20.7
20.2
23.2
21.2
24.8
24.5
31.6
22.6
25.5
25.1
21.1
21.1
21.6
21.9
24.0
22.7
21.7
24.7 22.3
32.8
22.6
26.3
25.9
22.5
33.5
23.0
23.7
27.5
23.6
22.9 26.3
23.8
27.0
34.5
23.6
24.2 27.7 25.2
25.2
25.1
28.8
28.3
36.0
25.0
27.1
27.2
30.3
29.8
27.3
25.9
30.3
37.3
29.4
31.4
29.2
28.2
32.7
26.5
31.9
29.3
28.4
38.5
33.3
31.0
32.0
32.8
31.0
34.5
31.5
33.4
34.7
33.7
43.8
34.5
35.1
33.3
36.5
33.9
54.1
37.4
37.2
48.0
38.3
38.2
37.0
39.3
37.9
59.7
41.1
52.1
41.4
41.9
40.8
41.9
41.8
43.8
43.4
61.6
53.7
44.4
44.2
43.9
44.6
46.3
44.0
47.1
64.2
58.5
47.2
47.2
46.2
47.2
48.2
50.3
68.2
62.7
50.7
50.7
49.3
50.8
52.8
50.3
51.5
73.4
53.7
76.5
55.8
56.1
55.1
55.3
56.6
54.8
91.4
84.2
59.7
61.1
62.2
60.1
62.0
62.3
60.9
96.4
90.3
65.6
68.2
68.3
65.8
66.8
68.3
66.8
70.7 "69'.0
90.8
93.1
70.0
73.0
72.6 69.9
71.3
72.9
75.4
89.6
72.0
73.2
76.2
91.3
76.1
73.0
73.3
74.5
80.4
76.4
92.3
74.6
81.2
88.9
78.2
75.8
75.9
77.5
78.4
78.4
89.8
82.7
77.3
79.5
86.0
83.5
80.2
81.0
80.4
88.5
82.7
80.1
86.0
80.5
81.6
84.5
82.2
84.0
91.0
82.9
91.0
83.0
83.1
85.0
85.6
84.0
85.2
85.3
96.0
87.4
86.1
86.7
95.3
87.2
86.1
86.1
87.5
87.3
89.7
89.7
97.9
97.8
89.6
90.5
89.8
90.2
89.8
89.8
98.7
100.4
94.1
93.3
93.6
94.9
92.9
92.8
92.9
93.8
97.4
100.3
100.0
97.0
97.9
96.5
96.9
97.3
97.3
97.9
100.0
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
100.0
100.0 100.0
98.7 102.3 102.6 102.1 104.0 102.1
99.9
102.6
102.5 102.6
101.0
99.5 104.3 105.4 104.5 107.7 103.6
105.0
104.8 105.1
104.1
102.2 107.8 109.4 108.1 112.3 106.7
107.6
107.3 107.7
91.4
97.5
98.8
1990:1
91.8
92.0
92.2
93.3
91.5
91.2
92.5
II
97.1
97.9
93.2
94.2
92.1
92.9
93.1
92.1
92.3
93.3
Ill ....
98.9
100.0
94.4
93.9
94.2
95.3
93.1
94.3
93.1
93.0
IV ....
100.6
94.9
95.7
96.8
95.0
105.6
96.1
95.1
95.0
94.9
95.4
96.4
97.1
100.9
102.2
1991:1
96.2
95.9
95.9
97.5
96.6
99.7
II
100.5
96.6
97.0
97.6
97.9
96.1
96.6
97.2
97.0
97.4
Ill ....
97.7
98.2
96.7
97.1
99.8
98.5
97.7
97.6
98.3
IV ....
97.7 98.2
98.6
100.1
99.6
98.1
98.3
97.8
98.3
98.3
99.4
1992:1
99.9
99.0
99.0
99.0
98.8
99.6
99.2
99.1
99.0
II
100.1
99.8
99.9
99.6
99.8
99.8
99.5
99.9 100.0 100.2
Ill ....
100.1
101.0 100.3 100.4 100.6 100.1 100.2
100.2
100.3 100.3
IV ....
100.4 100.6 100.2
100.0
99.6 101.6 100.9
100.9
100.9 100.9
1993:1
101.7 101.8
100.0
98.8 101.7 101.8 101.1 103.4 101.7
101.8
II
99.4 102.1 102.0 101.6 103.1 102.2
102.4
100.1
102.3 102.4
98.4 102.6 103.0 102.7 103.8 102.3
Ill ....
99.9
102.8
102.6 102.9
99.7
IV ....
103.4
98.1 102.9 103.7 102.9 105.6 102.4
103.2 103.4
1994:1
100.2
104.2
97.6 103.5 104.4 103.6 106.3 102.9
103.8 104.1
II
100.7
104.4 104.7
98.9 104.1 105.4 104.1 108.3 103.2
104.6
Ill ....
105.1 105.4
101.3
100.6 104.5 105.5 104.7 107.4 103.8
105.3
IV ....
101.8
105.7 105.9
100.9 105.3 106.5 105.5 108.7 104.5
105.8
106.7
106.4 106.7
1995:1
103.1
101.1 106.6 108.1 106.9 110.6 105.6
II
103.2 107.4 108.9 108.1 110.9 106.5
104.5
107.3
107.2 107.5
Ill ....
104.6
102.5 108.0 109.3 108.3 111.7 107.1
107.9
107.6 108.0
IV ....
108.4
108.1 108.6
104.3
101.9 109.1 111.3 109.2 116.0 107.7
104.4
1996:1
108.7 109.1
101.9 110.2 111.8 110.0 116.0 109.2
109.1
104.7
102.1 110.1 111.6 110.4 114.4 109.2
109.7
109.3 109.4
Ill '""
110.2
104.3
101.5 110.8 111.9 110.6 114.8 110.1
109.8 109.9
1
Gross domestic product (GDP) less exports of goods and services plus imports of goods and services.
2
Percent changes shown here are based on unrounded data. Quarterly changes are at annual rates.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
305
Percent change 2
Gross domestic purchases
Gross
national
product
23.0
23.4
23.6
23.9
24.2
24.6
25.0
25.8
26.6
27.7
29.0
30.6
32.2
33.5
35.4
38.5
42.2
44.6
47.5
51.0
55.3
60.4
66.1
70.2
73.2
76.0
78.6
80.6
83.1
86.1
89.8
93.7
97.3
100.0
102.6
104.9
107.6
92.1
93.2
94.2
95.2
96.3
97.0
97.7
98.3
99.1
99.8
100.2
100.9
101.8
102.4
102.8
103.4
104.1
104.6
105.2
105.8
106.7
107.3
107.8
108.4
109.0
109.6
110.2
«
uiOSS
domestic
product
1.4
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.5
1.9
2.8
3.2
4.4
4.7
5.3
5.2
4.2
5.6
8.9
9.4
5.8
6.4
7.3
8.5
9.3
9.4
6.3
4.2
3.8
3.4
2.6
3.1
3.7
4.2
4.4
3.9
2.8
2.6
2.3
2.5
4.9
5.2
4.3
4.1
4.8
3.2
2.8
2.5
3.4
2.8
1.5
2.8
3.8
2.2
1.8
2.3
2.9
1.9
2.4
2.1
3.3
2.4
2.1
2.1
2.3
2.2
2.0
Gross domestic purchases
Total
1.4
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.8
2.8
3.0
4.3
4.7
5.4
5.3
4.5
5.8
10.2
9.3
5.8
6.8
7.4
9.0
10.7
9.2
5.9
3.8
3.5
3.2
2.6
3.4
3.6
4.2
4.5
3.7
2.8
2.5
2.2
2.4
5.4
4.2
5.2
5.9
3.1
2.2
2.6
2.9
3.2
2.9
2.1
2.6
3.1
2.4
1.3
2.2
2.4
2.3
3.0
2.0
2.8
2.8
1.6
1.9
2.3
2.1
1.9
Less
food
and
energy
4"3
3.7
3.5
3.6
3.5
3.9
4.0
4.2
3.9
3.1
2.6
2.4
2.5
4.4
4.9
4.3
4.3
4.4
3.0
3.2
3.1
3.8
2.9
2.0
2.8
3.5
2.5
1.8
2.1
2.7
2.5
2.5
2.1
3.0
2.8
2.0
2.1
1.8
1.2
2.0
TABLE B-4.—Quantify and price indexes for gross domestic product, and percent changes, 1959-96
[Quarterly data are seasonally adjusted]
Gross domestic product
Index numbers, 1992=100
Year or quarter
Current
dollars
Chain-type
quantity
index
Chain-type
price index
Percent change from preceding period '
Implicit
price
deflator
35.4
8.1
23.0
8.4
36.2
23.3
8.7
37.0
23.6
9.4
39.2
23.9
24.2
40.9
9.9
10.6
43.3
24.6
46.0
25.0
11.5
25.7
12.6
49.0
50.3
26.6
13.3
52.7
27.7
14.6
15.7
54.3
29.0
16.6
54.3
30.6
18.0
56.1
32.1
59.1
33.5
19.8
35.4
22.1
62.5
24.0
62.3
38.5
42.2
26.1
61.9
65.4
29.1
44.6
32.5
68.5
47.5
36.7
50.9
72.0
74.1
41.0
55.3
60.4
44.6
73.9
75.7
49.9
66.1
70.2
74.0
51.9
73.2
56.3
77.0
62.5
82.3
75.9
85.3
78.6
67.0
87.9
80.6
70.8
75.1
90.5
83.1
93.9
86.1
80.9
97.1
87.1
89.7
92.0
98.3
93.6
94.8
97.3
97.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
104.9
102.3
102.6
111.1
105.8
105.0
116.2
108.0
107.6
90.6
98.6
92.0
92.1
93.2
98.9
98.4
94.2
92.6
97.4
92.6
95.1
93.2
96.9
96.3
94.4
97.3
97.0
97.7
95.3
97.5
96.1
97.8
98.3
98.0
98.9
99.1
99.5
99.3
99.8
100.4
100.3
100.2
102.2
101.3
100.9
103.2
101.3
101.8
102.4
104.2
101.8
102.4
105.3
102.8
107.1
103.4
103.6
104.1
104.2
108.5
110.3
105.5
104.6
106.4
105.2
112.0
113.4
107.2
105.8
106.7
114.5
107.3
115.4
107.5
107.3
117.1
108.5
107.9
108.4
117.7
108.6
109.1
118.9
1996:1
109.0
II
110.4
120.8
109.6
III
110.2
122.0
111.0
1
Percent changes shown here are based on unrounded data. Quarterly percent
1959
I960
1961
1962 .
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980 .
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1990-1
||
III
IV
1991-1
II
Ill
IV
1992-1
II
III
IV
1993-1
II
Ill
IV
1994-1
II
Ill
IV
1995-1
II
Ill
IV
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
306
Current
dollars
Chain-type
quantity
index
22.9
2.2
23.3
3.8
2.1
23.6
3.5
7.4
23.9
6.0
24.2
5.5
4.3
7.4
24.5
5.8
6.4
25.0
8.5
6.4
25.7
9.5
26.5
5.8
2.6
4.7
27.7
9.2
29.0
7.9
3.0
5.4
30.6
.0
32.2
8.7
3.3
5.4
33.5
9.9
35.4
5.7
11.7
-.4
38.5
8.3
42.2
8.9
-.6
44.6
11.5
5.6
47.4
11.4
4.9
51.0
13.0
5.0
55.3
11.6
2.9
60.4
-.3
8.9
65.9
11.9
2.5
4.1
-2.1
70.1
8.4
4.0
73.1
75.9
11.0
6.8
78.4
3.7
7.1
80.6
5.8
3.0
2.9
83.1
6.1
86.1
7.6
3.8
3.4
89.7
7.7
93.6
5.6
1.3
97.3
3.0
-1.0
2.7
100.0
5.5
4.9
102.6
2.3
5.8
3.5
104.9
4.6
107.6
2.0
4.1
92.0
9.1
6.6
93.1
1.3
94.1
2.2
-1.9
-.1
-4.1
95.1
2.8
-2.2
96.3
1.7
97.0
4.9
97.7
4.0
1.0
98.3
3.6
1.0
4.7
8.2
99.1
99.8
5.3
2.5
100.2
4.6
3.0
100.9
7.3
4.3
101.8
3.8
-.1
102.4
4.0
1.9
102.8
4.3
2.3
103.4
7.1
4.8
104.1
5.3
2.5
104.6
6.9
4.9
105.2
3.5
6.1
105.8
5.3
3.0
106.7
.4
3.8
107.3
3.1
107.9
6.0
3.B
108.4
2.3
4.2
109.0
2.0
4.7
109.5
6.5
109.9
3.8
2.1
changes are at annual rates.
Chain-type
price index
Implicit
price
deflator
1.4
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.5
1.9
2.8
3.2
4.4
4.7
5.3
5.2
4.2
5.6
8.9
9.4
5.8
6.4
7.3
8.5
9.3
9.4
6.3
4.2
3.8
3.4
2.6
3.1
3.7
4.2
4.4
3.9
2.8
2.6
1.5
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.5
2.0
2.9
3.1
4.3
4.7
5.4
5.2
4.3
5.7
8.7
9.6
5.6
6.3
7.7
8.5
9.2
9.2
6.3
4.2
3.9
3.3
2.7
3.1
3.7
4.2
4.3
4.0
2.7
2.6
4.9
5.2
4.3
4.1
4.8
3.2
2.8
2.5
3.4
2.8
1.5
2.8
3.8
2.2
1.8
2.3
2.9
1.9
2.4
2.1
3.3
2.4
2.1
2.1
2.3
2.2
2.0
4.9
5.2
4.2
4.2
5.1
3.1
2.9
2.5
3.3
2.7
1.5
2.9
3.8
2.1
1.9
2.2
2.8
1.9
2.5
2.2
3.4
2.4
2.1
2.0
2.2
1.8
1.7
II
II
TABLE B-5.—Percent changes in real gross domestic product, 1960-96
[Percent change from preceding period; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Personal consumption
expenditures
Year or
quarter
. ..
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
::::..:.::....:
1979
. ..
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
Gross
domestic
product
£5
L2
1.2
5.2
5.2
4.7
4.0
3.1
3.9
2.3
1.7
-.6
2.8
2.8
3.1
2.3
3.4
-1.0
1990:1
II
Ill
IV
1991:1
II
Ill
IV
1992:1
II
Ill
IV
1993:1
||
Ill
IV
1994-1
II
III
IV
1995:1
II
Ill
IV
1996-1
II
Ill
Total
2.7
2.0
4.9
4.1
6.0
6.3
5.7
3.0
5.7
3.7
2.3
3.7
6.0
4.8
4.0
6.8
3.7
3.0
2.9
3.8
3.4
1.3
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Nonresidential fixed
2.2
2.1
6.0
4.3
5.8
6.4
6.4
2.6
4.7
3.0
.0
3.3
5.4
5.7
-.4
-.6
5.6
4.9
5.0
2.9
-2.1
2.7
2.3
3.5
2.0
4.1
1.3
2.2
5.6
4.3
4.3
2.3
U
-1.9
-4.1
-3.1
-2.2
-3.1
1.7
1.0
1.0
4.7
2.5
3.0
4.3
1:2.39
4.8
2.5
49
3.5
3.0
.4
3i8
2.0
4.7
2.1
2.5
.9
-1.0
6.4
2.2
2.9
5.4
.7
2.7
3.8
2.8
2.8
3.5
2.8
3.1
1.0
3.1
2.4
1.1
3.5
3.4
Non-
Durable
goods
durable
goods
Services
2.0
1.5
1.8
3.1
2.1
4.9
5.3
5.5
1.6
4.5
2.7
2.4
1.8
4.4
3.3
4.4
4.1
4.9
4.5
6.1
5.3
5.1
4.8
5.2
4.8
4.0
3.7
5.4
4.5
2.4
3.5
4.2
4.2
4.7
3.2
1.9
1.5
1.9
4.7
4.1
-3.8
11.7
9.7
9.2
12.7
8.5
1.6
11.0
3.6
-3.2
10.0
12.7
10.3
-6.9
.0
12.8
9.3
5.3
-8.0
1.2
14>
14.5
9.7
9.0
1.5
6.3
2.6
-.6
-6.4
5.8
7.3
7.2
3.2
-2.0
1.5
5.0
2.6
3.5
2.3
-.4
.9
.6
2.9
3.5
2.3
3.2
1.9
2.8
2.3
1.0
-1.0
16.3
1.5
2.0
3.1
2.3
1.3
-4.0
~9
-11.8
-11.0
-14.1
1.7
6.1
-4.9
13.3
4.3
9.3
11.0
.8
11.2
7.3
10.2
5.8
43
5.6
12.4
-8.9
7.0
9.3
-1.0
8.2
11.4
-2.6
35i
4.2
4.0
2.3
2.6
.8
2.9
2.4
2.2
2.2
1.7
4.5
2.8
-3.4
-1.0
-2.4
-1.0
2.3
-3.4
5.9
-.7
2.8
5.8
-.9
2.3
2.8
1.7
3.9
32
3.8
3.2
2.4
1.8
.5
-.4
3.7
1.3
2.8
.6
1.2
5.4
3.4
1.7
4.0
1.5
1.3
3.6
1.9
1.6
3.5
1.6
1.2
2.4
3.0
2.0
2.3
2.4
2.7
1.3
Pro-
Total
Structures
5.6
-.9
8.7
5.0
7.9
1.4
4.5
1.1
10.4
15.9
11.8
17.3
12.1
-1.6
6.8
-2.5
1.4
5.4
4.3
7.2
-1.0
-lie
w
3.1
8.2
14.6
-,oi
4.8
11.8
13.7
-2.1
-10.5
2.5
4.9
10.9
12.6
9.6
6.7
7.9
?3
-4.4
-1.7
17.3
6.2
-3.5
-1.1
4.4
4.0
-.6
-6.4
1.9
6.4
9.8
9.5
4.5
-1.5
-10.4
14.3
7.3
-10.8
-3.6
2.2
1.1
-10.7
-6.8
-1.7
1.5
7.3
6.8
-1.9
-7.8
-8
-12.5
-3.0
-4.0
-4.1
-16i6
-7.7
-10.0
-22.7
-8.9
3.6
2.9
10.0
-3.9
-8.1
-4.3
2.2
6.2
6.0
6.3
4.7
17.5
7.3
71
3.5
-5.3
.8
7.5
-11.8
13.8
12.2
15.4
3.5
4.9
2.5
11.6
3.8
17.5
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
Exports and im- Government consumpports of goods tion expenditures and
gross investment
and services
Gross private domestic
investment
307
15.7
13iO
9.9
3.4
6.3
1.0
7.7
-3.7
8.4
ducers' Residura- dential
ble
equipment
4.1
-2.4
11.6
7.6
12.6
18.2
15.5
-1.0
6.1
8.3
-1.8
.8
12.7
18.5
2.1
-10.5
6.1
15.6
15.1
8.1
-7.1
.3
9.6
11.8
5.8
-2.9
-*.9
-3.1
13.6
3.0
-«.o
27.4
17.8
-.6
-20.6
-13.0
23.6
21.2
6.6
-3.7
Exports
20.8
1.7
5.4
7.5
13.3
2.0
6.7
2.2
7.3
5.5
10.8
8il
21.8
9.6
5.9
2.4
Imports
Total
1.3
-0.2
in
2.7
5.3
10.6
14.9
7.3
14.9
5.7
4.3
5.3
U
1.5
4.5
19.6
10.7
10.4
9.5
8.7
1.7
-21.1
10.8
-6.7
-18.2
19.2
41.1
14.6
-7.1
-2.6
-1.3
12.6
24.3
4.6
1.2
12.0
8.3
2.7
7.4
64
5.0
-2.0
-3.7
11.0
15.9
11.7
-1.5
-4.1
-9.3
5.5
1.0
6.2
10.0
13.2
10.4
3.3
-10.8
5.5
-5.2
-14.9
.9
6.8
-1.8
3.9
1.4
-12.3
16.6
7.6
10.8
-2.3
5.9
-18.0
-20.8
-24.5
-23.4
2.0
16.4
14.7
16.9
24.7
22.2
11.0
18.7
7.1
7.1
11.4
6.3
21.7
15.5
41
19.4
11.9
17.4
3.3
2.1
-5.1
13.2
24.3
12.8
12.7
-1.8
-6.3
13.1
20.9
16.3
-5.2
6.7
15.5
8.6
-3.5
8.9
21 !0
2.3
13.8
6.3
1.8
2.5
6.0
-1.3
2.6
6.5
8.4
6.1
3.9
3.9
3.9
7i5
9.2
12.0
8.0
5.9
7.4
-io!i
-12.2
14.7
10.8
5.1
4.1
13.3
1.3
2.6
5.9
1.8
5.6
-.9
4.1
8.2
1.0
-3.4
-7.1
-7.1
-1.7
-4.9
-.6
-U)
1.6
2.1
1.5
4.2
4.2
3.2
5.4
2.4
6.9
4.6
3.1
-1.8
1.3
2.0
-2!l
-3.6
-3.8
-3.6
6.1
-2.7
-1.4
2.5
l!u
1.5
-4.3
11.2
-1.2
9.9
9.3
-17
-3!5
-.8
7.0
-14
10.6
3.9
8.3
6.0
18.4
10.7
10.3
4.5
.0
1.6
-3.1
-4
4.3
.9
-4.6
17.5
10.7
10.7
~.'o
8.3
12.7
9.7
L3
2.8
3.1
6.1
5.1
2.7
1.3
2.8
3.0
.6
.5
11.6
8.3
-1.5
15.9
!9
2.9
1.6
1.8
2i9
1.9
-8.5
23.4
16.5
-13.4
9.2
6.4
7.4
3.5
4.3
3.0
8.5
6.3
6.6
2.9
8.2
8.9
-2.3
-1.8
-2.7
-6.4
-*.o
3.1
-.6
.4
-11.3
eral
11*9.9
H
7.6
11.0
-4.4
3.7
4.9
6.0
2.3
2.0
Fed-
.8
-.6
-4.3
1.6
7.7
-.6
4.0
2.8
-77
-6.8
-1.4
-1.4
4.9
3.4
-12.7
-4.9
-2.9
-.7
-11.4
-5.3
11.5
-5.9
-6.5
-1.3
-5.6
-13.2
6.0
94
-3.5
State
and
local
4.1
6.2
2.9
6.0
6.8
6.7
6.4
»
2.8
2.8
3.3
2.2
3.0
3.6
2.9
4
3.6
1.6
.0
-2.0
-.3
3.8
5.3
5.5
2.4
3.9
4.0
3.8
1.4
2.4
2.2
2.5
2.4
6.0
.9
1.9
4.5
-.6
.7
1.2
2.8
5.4
4
1.4
.9
1.7
3.9
3.8
3.0
.7
2.2
4.2
1.6
2.3
2.1
2.7
1.5
-.9
6.7
1.1
TABLE B-6.—Gross domestic product by major type of product, 1959-96
[Billions of dollars,- quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Goods1
Year or
quarter
Final Change
in
Gross sales of busidomestic domes- ness
product
tic
product inventories
Total
Total
Durable goods
Change
Change
in
in
Final busi- Final busisales ness sales ness
inveninventories
tories
Nondurable goods
Final
sales
Change
in
business
inventories
Serv-1
ices
Structures
507.2
4.2
4.2
503.0
92.3
192.7
62.5
252.0 247.8
3.1
155.5
1.1
3.2
3.2
1.7
526.6
1.6
523.3
257.8 254.6
95.1
159.5
206.8 61.9
260.4 257.5
544.8
541.9
163.2
2.9
2.9
94.3
3.0
63.6
220.8
14
585.2
579.1
6.1 104.5
170.7
2.7
6.1
281.2 275.1
236.1
67.8
617.4
611.7
5.7
292.7 287.1
5.7 111.0
2.7
72.7
176.1
3.0
252.0
78.4
663.0
271.4
658.0
5.0
313.2 308.1
5.0 120.5
1.0
4.0
187.6
709.4
9.7
9.7 133.3
84.7
6.7
719.1
342.9 333.3
3.0
291.5
199.9
787.8
774.0
13.8
380.6 366.8
13.8 149.0
10.2
3.6
319.2
88.0
217.8
833.6
823.1
10.5
10.5 153.8
230.2
394.5 384.0
5.5
5.0
349.5 89.6
901.4
426.7 417.6
910.6
9.1 167.8
9.1
4.6
249.8
4.5
383.9 100.0
982.2
972.7
9.5
9.5 178.6
3.2
455.8 446.2
6.3
418.2 108.3
267.6
2.2
2.2 180.2
1,035.6 1,033.4
2.2
467.5 465.3
.0
458.5 109.7
285.1
1,125.4 1,116.9
8.5
493.2 484.7
3.2
297.7
8.5 187.0
5.3
503.8 128.4
2.7
1,237.3 1,227.4
7.2
9.9
539.8 529.9
9.9 209.3
320.6
550.5 146.9
1,382.6 1,365.2
619.2 601.8
17.5
17.5 241.4
14.6
2.9
360.3
600.5 162.9
14.1
14.1 256.7
665.7 651.6
1,496.9 1,482.8
11.0
394.9
3.1
665.6 165.6
1,630.6 1,636.9 -6.3
436.4
1.2
718.1 724.5 -6.3 288.1
-7.5
745.8 166.7
. . . 1,819.0 1,802.0
16.9
804.0 787.1
16.9 322.5
10.6
6.3
464.6
823.8 191.2
883.7 860.6
2,026.9 2,003.8 23.1
23.1 366.9
493.7
916.4 226.8
10.2
12.8
2,291.4 2,264.2
27.2 416.9
27.2
996.5 969.3
20.3
552.5
6.9 1,023.1 271.8
2,557.5 2,540.6
16.9 1,115.2 1,098.3
16.9 475.0
12.5
623.3
4.3 1,131.7 310.6
2,784.2 2,791.9 -7.6 1,191.1 1,198.7 -7.6 502.9 -2.7
695.8 -4.9 1,274.1 319.1
3,115.9 3,087.8
28.2 1,342.6 1,314.5
28.2 546.0
768.4
7.5
20.6 1,423.3 350.0
3,242.1 3,256.6 -14.5 1,333.2 1,347.7 -14.5 544.4 -15.5 803.3
1.0 1,566.9 342.0
3,514.5 3,519.4 -4.9 1,426.9 1,431.8
-4.9 586.1
845.7 -8.9 1,720.9 366.8
4.0
3,902.4 3,835.0
67.5 1,607.0 1,539.6
67.5 655.1
43.6
884.5 23.9 1,871.8 423.6
4,180.7 4,154.5 26.2 1,669.8 1,643.6
26.2 713.2
930.4
17.6 2,054.6 456.3
8.6
4,422.2 4,412.6
969.7
9.6 1,720.6 1,711.0
9.6 741.3
9.0 2,224.2 477.4
4,692.3 4,668.1
24.2 1,804.8 1,780.6
24.2 764.7
2L5 1,015.9
2.8 2,398.1 489.3
16.4 1,095.0
5,049.6 5,038.7
10.9 1,942.9 1,932.0
10.9 837.0
-5.5 2,600.0 506.7
5,438.7 5,407.0 31.7 2,124.0 2,092.3 31.7 907.3 21.3 1,185.0
10.5 2,795.3 519.4
5,743.8 5,735.8
8.0 2,203.8 2,195.8
8.0 935.7
2.5 1,260.1
5.6 3,016.9 523.1
5,916.7 5,919.0 -2.3 2,234.0 2,236.3 -2.3 926.6 -16.6 1,309.7
14.3 3,201.3 481.4
6,244.4 6,237.4
7.0 965.9 -10.9 1,348.1
17.9 3,411.1 512.3
7.0 2,321.0 2,314.0
6,553.0 6,532.4
15.7 1,387.2
4.9 3,584.0 547.0
20.6 2,422.0 2,401.4
20.6 1,014.3
6,935.7 6,876.2
59.5 2,593.9 2,534.4
27.6 3,746.5 595.3
59.5 1,086.1
31.9 1,448.3
7,253.8 7,216.7 37.0 2,699.2 2,662.2 37.0 1,147.3 34.8 1,514.9
2.2 3,926.9 627.6
5,660.4 5,651.8
1.4 1,228.4
7.2 2,924.9 540.6
1990:1
8.6 2,194.9 2,186.3
8.6 957.9
II
5,751.0 5,709.8 41.2 2,223.6 2,182.4 41.2 932.7
16.9 1,249.7
24.3 2,997.8 529.6
5,782.4 5,768.7
Ill
13.8 2,210.7 2,196.9
13.8 929.3
9.9 1,267.7
3.9 3,051.3 520.5
IV
5,781.5 5,812.9 -31.4 2,186.1 2,217.5 -31.4 922.9 -18.4 1,294.6 -13.1 3,093.7 501.7
5,822.1 5,838.2 -16.1 2,207.9 2,224.0 -16.1 912.1 -38.7 1,311.8 22.6 3,131.6 482.6
1991-1 . .
II
5,892.3 5,912.2 -19.9 2,225.1 2,245.0 -19.9 936.0 -29.5 1,309.0
9.5 3,186.7 480.5
Ill
5,950.0 5,944.7
5.3 2,249.2 2,243.9
5.3 933.6
5.9 1,310.3
-.6 3,221.9 478.9
21.4 2,253.8 2,232.4
21.4 924.8 -4.2 1,307.6
IV
6,002.3 5,980.9
25.5 3,264.9 483.6
6,121.8 6,122.1
1992:1
-.3 2,281.1 2,281.4
-.3 944.6 -18.8 1,336.8
18.5 3,338.4 502.3
II
6,201.2 6,191.0
10.2 2,301.3 2,291.0
10.2 955.7
1.1 1,335.4
9.1 3,387.5 512.4
III
6,271.7 6,260.1
22.7 3,432.1 510.1
11.6 2,329.4 2,317.8
11.6 969.2 -11.1 1,348.6
6.4 2,372.2 2,365.8
6.4 994.2 -14.9 1,371.6
IV
6,383.0 6,376.6
21.3 3,486.4 524.4
6,442.6 6,422.8 19.9 2,382.2 2,362.3
1993:1
19.9 985.8
6.8 3,528.9 531.5
13.1 1,376.5
||
6,506.2 6,484.6
21.6 2,414.2 2,392.6
21.6 1,015.3
10.3 3,556.7 535.4
11.3 1,377.3
III
6,574.4 6,552.3
22.0 2,417.4 2,395.4
22.0 1,009.3
14.2 1,386.0
7.9 3,607.5 549.5
IV
6,688.6 6,669.8
18.8 2,474.3 2,455.4
18.8 1,046.6
24.3 1,408.8 -5.5 3,642.7 571.6
1994-1
40.2 2,523.2 2,483.0
6,776.0 6,735.9
40.2 1,061.5
15.1 3,678.2 574.7
25.1 1,421.5
II
74.5 2,574.7 2,500.1
39.5 3,724.0 591.9
6,890.5 6,816.0
74.5 1,069.5
35.1 1,430.6
64.7
64.7 2,619.3 2,554.6
Ill
34.2 1,453.3
30.5 3,773.4 600.5
6,993.1 6,928.5
,101.3
IV
7,083.2 7,024.6 58.7 2,658.6 2,600.0
58.7 ,112.3
25.6 3,810.5 614.1
33.1 1,487.7
3.7 3,856.2 619.8
1995 1
7,149.8 7,091.7 58.1 2,673.9 2,615.8
54.4 1,498.8
58.1 ,116.9
II
5.4 3,908.9 615.7
7,204.9 7,170.9 34.0 2,680.2 2,646.2
34.0 ,138.6
28.5 1,507.7
Ill
7,309.8 7,271.5 38.2 2,727.0 2,688.8 38.2 ,167.2
29.2 1,521.6
9.1 3,950.2 632.6
-9.4 3,992.4 642.3
IV
7,350.6 7,332.8
17.8 2,715.8 2,698.0
17.8 ,166.4
27.3 1,531.7
1996:1
7,426.8 7,428.6 -1.7 2,747.5 2,749.3 -1.7 1,192.1
12.3 1,557.1 -14.0 4,027.9 651.4
II
7,545.1 7,537.1
8.0 2,790.1 2,782.0
8.0 1,219.1
9.9 1,562.9 -1.9 4,087.0 668.0
III
7.616.3 7.579.6 36.6 2.821.6 2.785.0
36.6 1.225.5
34.7 1.559.5
2.0 4.122.0 672.6
1
Exports and imports of certain goods, primarily military equipment purchased and sok) by the Federal Government, are included in services.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995...-
308
TABLE B-7.—Real gross domestic product by major type of product, 1959-96
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Goods1
Year or
quarter
Final Change
in
Gross sales of busidomestic domes- ness
product
tic
product inventories
Total
Durable goods
Change
Total
Final
sales
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968.
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974 .
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991 . . ..
1992
1993 . .
1994
1995
business
inventories
Final
sales
Change
in
business
inventories
Nondurable goods
Final
sales
Change
in
business
inventories
Serv-1
ices
Structures
786.4
2,212.3 2,206.9
780.9
13.5
13.5 221.1
9.9 595.6
3.5 1,115.3 299.4
2,261.7 2,264.2
795.6
10.6
795.6
10.6
227.3
5.2 602.6
5.3 1,167.1 296.5
799.7
2,309.8 2,318.0
8.9
796.0
8.9 224.3
612.1
9.3 1,219.9 304.7
247.7
2,449.1 2,445.4
853.5 848.6
20.0
20.0
9.1 1,277.5 322.2
10> 634.7
882.4
2,554.0 2,552.4
878.8 18.1
18.1
262.0
8.3 648.2
9.8 1,336.9 343.9
936.7
2,702.9 2,705.1
682.7
935.8
15.6
283.8
12.1
3.0 1,406.3 367.0
15.6
713.4
20.4
313.9
9.2 1,472.5 385.4
2,874.8 2,860.4
30.2 1,013.0
999.9 30.2
3:060.2 3,033.5 42.3 1,099.9 1,077.9 42.3
350.0
30.9
751.8
10.9 1,557.8 385.9
3,140.2 3,125.1 32.1 1,114.7 1,101.2
32.1
359.2
16.3 765.4 15.6 1,639.4 380.2
378.7
3,288.6 3,278.0
13.2
26.9 1,166.6 1,156.5 26.9
801.8
13.6 1,712.0 403.6
17.4
3,388.0 3,377.2
27.2 1,200.3 1,189.9
391.2
27.2
822.6
9.6 1,774.1 408.8
3,388.2 3,406.5
5.7 1,181.6 1,193.4
5.7 383.2
837.8
5.9 1,824.0 391.1
3,500.1 3,499.8
22.7 1,209.3 1,206.1 22.7
385.8
8^0 848.8 14.8 1,875.8 427.4
3,690.3 3,689.5
25.2 1,296.5 1,293.2 25.2
431.8
18.0 885.4
7.2 1,936.1 459.0
916.7
3,902.3 3,883.9
496.6
39.0 1,413.2 1,396.0 39.0
34.6
6.0 2,004.4 469.0
3,888.2 3,873.4
496.9
24.0 1,400.9 1,386.5
24.0
20.6
905.9
4.5 2,063.3 420.5
926.7
3,865.1 3,906.4 -11.0 1,373.4 1,404.4 -11.0
495.8 -13.9
2.3 2,123.5 382.3
4,081.1 4,061.7
520.9
29.0 1,478.3 1,459.9 29.0
18.9 956.4 10.2 2,182.9 418.3
4,279.3 4,240.8 38.0 1,560.0 1,525.7 38.0
17.2
567.0
970.8
20.8 2,250.5 458.7
4,493.7 4,464.4
615.3 31.7 1,011.7
42.3 1,644.4 1,617.8 42.3
10.5 2,334.3 498.1
18.4 1,042.9
4,624.0 4,614.4
23.1 1,700.6 1,690.7 23.1
654.6
5.1 2,391.3 511.7
1,687.4 1,711.2 -10.0
4,611.9 4,641.9 -10.0
638.1 -3.6 1,085.6 -6.3 2,441.4 475.9
1,765.7
4,724.9 4,691.6
33.1
1,735.1
9.1 1,111.0 23.6 2,475.8 468.8
33.1 638.8
1,684.1 1,706.7 -15.6
4,623.6 4,651.2 -15.6
604.4 -17.8 1,122.6
2.0 2,518.7 428.5
4,810.0 4,821.2 -5.9 1,754.8 1,762.6 -5.9
637.6
4.9 1,142.6 -10.4 2,598.4 460.7
5,138.2 5,061.6
49.7 1,160.9 25.6 2,678.0 523.1
74.8 1,924.8 1,853.3
74.8
703.1
5,329.5 5,296.9
758.2
19.7 2,797.8 550.3
29.8 1,971.7 1,940.6 29.8
10.0 1,189.0
5,489.9 5,480.9
10.9 2,020.9 2,011.7 10.9
793.6
1,223.5
10.2 2,903.2 558.4
5,648.4 5,626.0
26.2 2,076.9 2,055.0 26.2
819.8 23^5 1,239.2
2.2 3,011.6 554.6
5,862.9 5,855.1
11.6 2,178.9 2,171.0 11.6
897.0
17.6 1,274.8 -6.2 3,128.6 550.8
6,060.4 6,028.7
33.3 2,300.2 2,269.2 33.3 951.9 22.4 1,317.2 11.0 3,208.5 546.0
6,138.7 6,126.7
10.4 2,307.1 2,295.4
10.4
2.7 1,331.3
963.9
7.6 3,295.4 533.3
6,079.0 6,082.6
934.2 -16.6 1,331.8
13.4 3,332.3 484.5
-3.0 2,262.3 2,265.9 -3.0
6,244.4 6,237.4
7.3 2,321.0 2,314.0
7.3 965.9 -10.9 1,348.1
18.3 3,411.1 512.3
6,386.4 6,365.5
15.4 1,361.7
3.7 3,467.1 529.4
19.1 2,390.0 2,369.0 19.1 1,007.4
6,608.7 6,550.7
58.9 2,524.3 2,465.6 58.9 1,068.1
30.6 1,397.8 28.2 3,526.1 559.8
6,742.9 6,708.9
33.1 2,589.2 2,555.1 33.1 1,124.1 32.8 1,431.8
3,583.9 571.8
6,154.1 6,144.6
991.4
1990:1
11.0 2,328.3 2,318.8
1.9 1,326.5
11.0
9.1 3,264.8 555.9
II
6,174.4 6,127.5 43.8 2,335.6 2,289.5 43.8
963.8
17.3 1,325.5 26.3 3,293.9 541.4
Ill
6,145.2 6,126.6
4.7 3,310.1 528.2
14.9 2,304.6 2,286.4 14.9
955.6
10.2 1,330.8
IV
944.7 -18.4 1,342.2 -9.9 3,312.7 507.5
6,081.0 6,108.1 -28.2 2,260.1 2,286.8 -28.2
1991-1
6,047.9 6,065.4 -17.5 2,251.8 2,269.0 -17.5
926.0 -38.9 1,343.3
21.0 3,308.8 487.3
II
6,074.1 6,095.9 -20.8 2,256.1 2,277.7 -20.8
8.4 3,335.0 483.4
944.9 -29.5 1,332.8
Ill
6,089.3 6,085.4
4.9 2,271.1 2,267.2
6.1 1,329.0 -1.3 3,338.3 480.1
4.9 938.2
IV
6,104.4 6,083.8 21.4 2,270.1 2,249.6 21.4
927.5 -4.2 1,322.1 25.6 3,347.2 487.3
1992:1
6,175.3 6,175.8
945.2 -18.7 1,344.2
2,288.9 2,289.3
18.6 3,379.4 507.1
II
6,214.2 6,203.8
2,301.1 2,290.7
in
113 953.8
1.2 1,336.9 10.1 3,398.6 514.4
III
6,260.9 6,249.5
12.1 2,327.4 2,316.0 12.1
23.7 3,424.2 509.4
970.0 -11.4 1,346.0
IV
6,327.3 6,320.7
5.8 2,366.7 2,360.1
5.8 994.8 -14.8 1,365.3 20.8 3,442.3 518.5
6,326.4 6,307.1
5.4 3,448.9 520.9
1993:1
18.5 2,356.7 2,337.3 18.5 982.1
13.1 1,355.2
II
9.7 3,451.0 519.3
6,356.5 6,334.5
20.8 2,386.5 2,364.4 20.8 1,008.5 11.2 1,356.0
6,393.4 6,371.3
Ill
19.5 2,385.6 2,363.4 19.5 1,000.9
13.5 1,362.5
6.1 3,478.3 529.5
IV
6,469.1 6,449.2
17.4 2,431.1 2,411.1 17.4 1,038.0 23.6 1,373.3 -6.4 3,490.3 548.1
1994:1
6,508.5 6,467.7 40.5 2,467.2 2,425.9 40.5 1,047.5
16.2 3,495.6 546.6
24.3 1,378.6
II
6,587.6 6,514.9
74.5 2,510.9 2,437.3 74.5 1,050.0 33.9 1,387.5 40.7 3,517.3 560.6
Ill
6,644.9 6,582.1
31.6 3,541.1 562.8
64.5 2,542.6 2,478.9 64.5 1,078.9
32.9 1,400.5
IV
6,693.9 6,638.1 56.1 2,576.5 2,520.2 56.1 1,095.9
31.5 1,424.7 24.5 3,550.5 569.1
1995:1
6,701.0 6,647.4
2.7 3,556.1 570.8
54.5 2,576.2 2,522.0 54.5 1,095.2
51.5 1,427.1
II
6,713.5 6,682.4
26.7 1,427.3
30.5 2,573.0 2,542.0 30.5 1,115.4
3.6 3,579.0 563.4
Ill
6,776.4 6,741.4
33.0 2,610.2 2,575.0 33.0 1,142.9 27.0 1,433.2
5.8 3,595.1 573.7
IV
6,780.7 6,764.2
146 2,597.5 2,581.5
14.6 1,143.0 25.8 1,439.4 -11.4 3,605.6 579.4
1996-1
6,814.3 6,815.2
-3.0 2,615.7 2,617.6 -3.0 1,166.3
11.8 1,452.6 -14.7 3,614.2 586.4
II
7.1 2,647.1 2,640.0
6,892.6 6,884.7
7.1 1,196.4
9.3 1,445.7 -2.2 3,648.8 598.8
Ill
6,928.4 6,892.7
34.5 2,682.1 2,646.2 34.5 1,206.9
33.0 1,441.7
1.5 3,652.0 597.5
'Exports and imports of certain goods, primarily military equipment purchased and sold by the Federal Government, are included in services.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
309
TABLE B-8.—Gross domestic product by sector, 1959-96
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Business '
Gross
domestic
product
Year or
quarter
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
Households and institutions
Nonfarm '
Total
Total
1
Nonfarm
less
housing
Housing
Farm
Total
NonPrivate profit
house- instituholds
tions
General government2
Total
Federal
State
and
local
382.4
12.4
3.6
418.0
35.6
18.9
57.9
31.8
26.1
507.2
8.9
436.9
392.7
19.8
13.9
3.8
28.6
526.6
451.1
431.3
38.6
10.1
61.5
32.9
403.4
41.4
14.5
3.7
10.7
34.2
544.8
20.1
65.5
31.3
444.8
464.9
585.2
434.7
20.2
15.6
70.1
33.8
479.3
44.6
3.8
36.3
499.5
11.8
20.4
16.7
617.4
47.4
36.7
38.1
505.5
458.1
3.8
12.8
74.8
525.9
80.4
17.9
40.0
663.0
564.7
495.3
50.2
19.3
3.9
14.0
40.5
545.5
538.4
43.7
19.3
719.1
591.9
53.5
21.9
4.0
15.3
86.0
42.3
613.8
670.4
21.3
17.2
47.1
590.6
57.0
22.9
4.0
96.1
49.0
787.8
647.5
23.4
703.7
22.2
4.2
19.2 106.5
54.9
833.6
681.5
620.6
60.8
51.6
4.4
22.7
21.7 118.4
743.4
26.1
61.9
910.6
766.1
678.6
64.8
56.5
4.4
25.2
29.5
982.2
798.1
728.2
25.0 129.5
60.2
69.3
823.3
69.9
32.4
78.7
834.1
26.2
1970
1,035.6
759.2
74.9
4.5
27.9 142.9
860.3
64.3
1,125.4
824.1
81.7
35.6
87.7
933.9
28.1
4.6
31.1 155.9
1971
905.8
68.2
1972
88.7
39.0
1,237.3 1,028.3
906.9
32.6
4.6
34.3 170.1
96.9
995.6
73.1
43.0
1,382.6 1,154.6 1,104.9 1,007.9
4.8
38.2 185.0
1973
96.9
49.8
76.9 108.1
1974
47.4
47.2
1,496.9 1,246.0 1,198.6 1,092.8
105.9
4.6
42.6 203.7
83.5 120.3
47.4 227.1
52.0
91.7 135.4
1975
1,630.6 1,351.5 1,302.7 1,188.4 114.3
48.8
4.6
46.4
57.1
5.4
51.7 245.8
1976
1,819.0 1,516.0 1,469.6 1,344.6 125.0
97.9 147.9
62.4
1977
47.2
2,026.9 1,697.5 1,650.3 1,510.9 139.4
5.9
56.5 266.9 106.1 160.9
2,291.4 1,931.9 1,877.1 1,721.3 155.8
54.7
69.8
1978
6.5
63.2 289.7 113.8 175.9
2,557.5 2,164.1 2,099.7 1,923.6 176.1
77.3
6.4
64.5
71.0 316.0 122.3 193.7
1979 ..
87.1
2,784.2 2,346.3 2,290.2 2,085.0 205.1
1980
56.1
6.1
81.0 350.8 135.6 215.2
97.6
3,115.9 2,631.8 2,561.9 2,326.6 235.3
69.9
6.2
1981
91.5 386.4 151.0 235.4
108.2
1982
3,242.1 2,714.7 2,649.5 2,390.0 259.5
65.1
6.3 102.0 419.2
164.0 255.2
1983
3,514.5 2,950.0 2,900.8 2,624.1 276.7
49.2 119.2
6.3 112.9 445.3
173.5 271.8
3,902.4 3,289.6 3,221.1 2,918.6 302.5
1984
131.2
7.3 123.9 481.7
68.5
190.8 290.9
4,180.7 3,520.2 3,453.1 3,121.1 332.0
67.1
140.9
1985
7.3 133.6 519.6 203.6 316.0
153.7
4,422.2 3,716.7 3,653.7 3,295.2 358.5
7.7
1986
63.0
145.9 551.9 211.1 340.7
1987
7.7 165.6 586.0 221.3 364.7
4,692.3 3,933.1 3,868.0 3,481.6 386.4
173.3
65.1
1988
5.049.6 4,233.4 4,169.6 3,750.4 419.2
195.1
63.8
8.3 186.8 621.0 230.0 391.0
5,438.7 4,563.7 4,487.5 4,036.1 451.4
1989
76.2 214.6
8.9 205.7 660.3 240.5 419.8
9.4 228.5 709.0 252.7 456.3
1990
5,743.8 4,796.9 4,717.3 4,234.1 483.2
79.6 237.9
1991
5,916.7 4,908.5 4,835.6 4,325.7 509.9
72.9 257.4
9.1 248.3 750.7 268.1 482.6
6,244.4 5,184.4 5,103.8 4,560.6 543.2
1992
279.1
80.6
10.1
269.0 781.0 274.4 506.6
10.7
6,553.0 5,451.6 5,379.5 4,821.9 557.6
72.1 294.9
284.2 806.5 276.6 529.9
1993
1994
6,935.7 5,798.4 5,716.1 5,123.0 593.1
82.3 310.3
299.5 827.0 275.7 551.4
10.8
1995
7,253.8 6,078.2 5,999.6 5,375.0 624.6
78.6 323.0
11.1
311.8 852.6 278.2 574.4
5,660.4 4,739.6 4,660.9 4,192.1 468.8
78.7 228.6
1990:1
9.3 219.3 692.3 248.7 443.5
II
250.4 452.4
82.6
235.5
5,751.0 4,812.7 4,730.1 4,252.0 478.1
9.5 226.0 702.8
Ill
5,782.4 4,825.7 4,746.1 4,256.4 489.7
9.4 233.4 713.9 253.1
79.6 242.8
460.8
IV
9.4 235.4 727.0 258.5 468.4
5,781.5 4,809.7 4,732.1 4,236.1 496.0
77.6 244.8
5,822.1 4,830.5 4,759.9 4,259.3 500.6
1991:1
70.6 249.2
9.0 240.1 742.4 267.9 474.5
II
5,892.3 4,887.5 4,810.5 4,305.6 504.9
77.0 255.7
9.0 246.7 749.1 268.5 480.6
Ill
70.7 259.7
484.7
5,950.0 4,937.6 4,866.8 4,354.5 512.3
9.1 250.6 752.8 268.1
IV
6,002.3 4,978.6 4,905.1 4,383.3 521.8
265.1
73.5
9.3 255.9 758.6
267.9 490.6
1992:1
9.7 260.4 771.7 274.4 497.3
6,121.8 5,080.1 5,000.9 4,475.0 525.9
79.1 270.1
II .
278.3
6,201.2 5,143.0 5,062.7 4,531.5 531.2
80.3
10.0
268.3 780.0 275.8 504.2
Ill
281.7
6,271.7 5,205.2 5,121.0 4,549.7 571.3
84.2
10.2 271.5 784.8 275.2 509.6
IV
78.7 286.2
10.4
6,383.0 5,309.2 5,230.6 4,686.2 544.4
275.8 787.6 272.1 515.5
6,442.6 5,351.4 5,279.7 4,723.7 555.9
71.7 290.5
1993:1
10.5
280.0 800.7
278.8 522.0
II
6,506.2 5,411.8 5,336.7 4,781.8
290.8
554.9
75.1
10.6
280.2 803.6
275.9 527.7
Ill
6,574.4 5,465.9 5,400.8 4,843.1 557.7
298.7
10.7
65.1
288.0 809.7 276.9 532.9
299.4
IV
6,688.6 5,577.3 5,500.7 4,938.8 561.9
812.0
76.6
10.8
288.6
275.0 537.0
1994: 1 .
6,776.0 5,649.5 5,562.4 4,971.6 590.9
306.0
87.1
295.2 820.5 277.1 543.4
10.8
II
82.4
309.5
6,890.5 5,755.5 5,673.1 5,089.8 583.3
298.6 825.5 277.2 548.3
10.9
Ill
301.4 828.2 274.0 554.2
6,993.1 5,852.7 5,773.1 5,178.7 594.4
79.6 312.3
10.9
IV
313.4
7,083.2 5,935.8 5,855.8 5,251.9 603.9
80.0
10.8
302.6 834.0 274.3 559.7
1995:1
7,149.8 5,988.0 5,911.3 5,298.0 613.3
76.6 316.7
10.9
305.8 845.1
278.6 566.5
II
7,204.9 6,033.1 5,956.3 5,335.8 620.5
76.8 321.3
11.0
310.3 850.4 278.9 571.6
Ill
7,309.8 6,129.6 6,051.0 5,425.9 625.1
324.3
11.2
78.6
313.1 855.9 278.8 577.1
IV
7,350.6 6,162.1 6,079.8 5,440.4 639.4
82.2 329.6
318.2 859.0 276.8 582.2
11.3
1996:1
7,426,8 6,226.3 6,137.3 5,496.9 640.4
333.5
89.1
11.5
322.0 867.0 279.0 588.0
II
7,545.1 6,334.6 6,237.0 5,591.6 645.4
97.6 338.3
11.6 326.7 872.2 277.8 594.4
Ill
343.2
331.4 878.9 276.6 602.3
7,616.3 6,394.2 6,290.3 5,634.9 655.4
103.9
11.8
1
Gross domestic business product equals gross domestic product less gross product of households and institutions and of general government.
2 Nonfarm product equals gross domestic business product less gross farm product.
Equals compensation of general government employees plus general government consumption of fixed capital.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1969
:.
310
TABLE B-9.—Real gross domestic product by sector, 1959-96
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Business '
Households and institutions General government 2
1
Nonfarm
Gross
NonYear or
Private profit
domestic
State
quarter
Nonfarm Hous- Farm
Total Federal and
product
Total
Total house- institu1
Total
less
holds tions
local
ing
housing
1959
18.5
78.6 415.1 232.1
186.4
1,525.1 149.8
34.0 105.0
2,212.3 1,723.6 1,677.8
85.4 429.3 236.4 196.2
18.6
2,261.7 1,757;! 17112
1,548.6 160.0
1960
34.3 112.1
1,577.0 169.4
18.1
87.8 444.6 241.5 206.4
1961
2,309.8 1,791.7 l',748.7
33.5 113.1
17.9
92.3 461.8 251.7 213.6
1962
1,685.3 180.4
32.6 117.2
2,449.1 1,906.5 1,868.2
17.7
95.6 475.7 254.3 224.6
1,760.9 189.9
1963
33.9 120.1
2,554.0 1,992.8 1,953.3
99.4 492.4 256.8 238.4
1964 ..
32.7 123.4
17.5
2,702.9 2,117.6 2,083.3 1,881.6 198.9
16.9 105.0 509.3 258.8 253.0
2,014.3 210.0
1965
34.5 127.9
2,874.8 2,263.0 2,227.6
16.3 110.9 542.1 276.4 268.4
2,159.9 220.3
32.5 132.6
1966
3,060.2 2,410.9 2,383.9
1967
16.3 115.2 571.1 295.1 279.2
2,195.6 231.2
3,140.2 2,463.9 2,430.1
35.8
136.9
15.5 120.6 592.6 300.6 294.8
1968
2,310.5 240.3
35.5 141.0
3,288.6 2,585.4 2,554.6
36.4 145.5
14.7 126.5 607.3 301.7 307.8
1969
2,379.8 251.1
3,388.0 2,665.6 2,634.4
2,373.4 258.7
13.8 126.4 609.7 288.9 321.5
1970
3,388.2 2,665.1 2,634.9
35.9 144.0
1971
2,464.0 269.3
13.1 130.6 611.3 276.1 334.9
37.5 147.2
3,500.1 2,768.0 2,736.2
12.7 135.4 611.5 263.5 347.4
1972
36.9 151.4
2,633.9 282.7
3,690.3 2,946.8 2,920.2
12.4 139.6 614.8 253.8 360.2
2,826.7 295.9
1973
3,902.3 3,145.7 3,126.9
36.3 154.9
10.7 143.2 625.2 252.0 372.6
1974
38.7
156.1
2,781.0 311.7
3,888.2 3,122.6 3,094.9
43.4 161.2
10.1 149.2 631.1 249.0 381.7
1975
2,733.3 315.4
3,865.1 3,091.8 3,049.7
10.4 150.6 634.3 247.5 386.4
2,929.2 323.4
1976
44.6 163.0
4,081.1 3,296.6 3,255.9
10.5 155.0 639.1 246.3 392.6
1977
50.2 167.5
3,093.2 333.6
4,279.3 3,481.4 3,431.3
41.7 170.3
4,493.7 3,678.8 3,651.6
3,294.6 351.7
10.8 157.5 649.2 247.3 401.8
1978
9.4 163.1 654.2 245.1 409.3
46.3 173.7
1979
4,624.0 3,798.4 3,762.6 3,387.7 370.7
46.2 178.7
8.3 169.8 660.9 246.7 414.5
1980
3,345.6 395.6
4,611.9 3,777.0 3,740.8
7.8 174.7 662.3 248.3 414.2
1981 ...."'"!'.!.. 4,724.9 3,882.5 3,816.0 3,406.1 411.6
63.3 182.7
3,291.4 418.7
7.6 180.4 666.6 250.3 416.4
1982
65.2 188.0
4,623.6 3,776.0 3,705.4
3,496.4 421.3
7.6 184.8 668.7 254.2 414.4
45.0 192.3
1983
4,810.0 3,952.8 3,915.7
56.4 197.1
8.7 188.2
1984
676.0 258.2 417.6
5,138.2 4,264.2 4,211.3 3,774.2 437.5
87 194.6 6932 2639 4292
1985
71.9 203.4
3,906.0 4519
5,329.5 4,431.3 4,357.5
9.0 204.3 709.9 266.9 443.0
1986
65.5 213.5
5,489.9 4,565.2 4,500.0 4,040.2 459.7
63.7 224.1
1987
5,648.4 4,698.8 4,636.1
4,162.1 473.9
8.9 215.2 724.2 272.3 452.0
4,335.7 491.0
9.5 231.0 741.3 274.1 467.3
56.6 240.6
1988
5,862.9 4,880.0 4,826.8
6,060.4 5,047.8 4,984.8
64.8 253.4
4,477.8 506.8
10.1 243.3 758.1 276.2 481.9
1989
10.2 253.8 774.7 280.3 494.5
4,510.5 515.9
1990 ....
6,138.7 5,099.4 5,026.5
72.9 264.1
9.4 262.6 781.1 281.0
500.1
71.2 272.1
1991
6,079.0 5,025.9 4,954.9 4,428.1 526.8
6,244.4 5,184.4 5,103.8 4,560.6 543.2
10.1 269.0 781.0 274.4 506.6
1992 ...
80.6 279.1
6,386.4 5,315.7 5,244.7
10.3 277.5 782.9 267.3 515.6
71.0 287.9
4,702.0 542.6
1993
1994
10.2 286.0 782.4 256.8 525.8
6,608.7 5,530.3 5,446.7 4,885.3 561.3
83.9 296.2
5,013.4 573.8
10.1 292.3 777.5 246.4 531.7
1995
76.0 302.5
6,742.9 5,663.4 5,587.2
69.4 259.3
10.3 249.0 770.3 279.8 490.5
6,154.1 5,123.5 5,055.1 4,544.1 510.8
1990:1
10.4 252.3 773.3 280.0 493.4
II
74.1 262.7
6,174.4 5,137.7 5,063.4
4,549.6 513.6
72.7 266.5
10.2 256.2 776.7 280.9 495.9
Ill
4,511.3 517.4
6,145.2 5,101.6 5,028.8
IV
4,437.2 521.7
10.0 257.8 778.5 280.4 498.1
75.3 267.8
6,081.0 5,034.7 4,958.9
9.5 259.5 783.7 284.9 498.9
4,401.6 523.2
1991:1
70.9 269.0
6,047.9 4,995.5 4,924.8
9.4 262.2 782.5 282.3 500.2
6,074.1 5,020.2 4,947.2
II
4,423.1 524.1
73.1 271.6
9.4 263.4 779.3 279.4 499.9
4,440.4 527.7
Ill
69.3 272.8
6,089.3 5,037.2 4,968.1
IV
6,104.4 5,050.8 4,979.6 4547.5 532.2
71.4 274.9
9.5 265.4 778.9 277.5 501.5
4,508.4 531.3
1992:1
9.9 267.4 779.3 275.8 503.5
79.0 277.3
6,175.3 5,118.7 5,039.7
II
4,542.4 532.9
81.4 277.2
6,214.2 5,156.7 5,075.3
10.1 267.1 780.3 275.0 505.3
III
83.0 279.8
10.1 269.6 782.3 274.0 508.4
6,260.9 5,198.8 5,115.8 4,545.7 570.1
IV
10.3 271.7 782.0 272.7 509.3
78.9 282.0
4,645.9 538.5
6,327.3 5,263.3 5,184.4
6,326.4 5,259.8 5,184.3 4,638.2 546.1
1993:1
75.6 283.5
10.3 273.1 783.2 271.5 511.7
II
73.7 287.1
10.4 276.7 783.2 269.0 514.3
4,671.5 541.2
6,356.5 5,286.2 5,212.7
6,393.4 5,320.3 5,259.1
Ill
10.3 279.2 783.6 266.4 517.3
60.8 289.6
4,717.9 541.2
IV
4,780.7 541.9
73.8 291.4
10.3 281.1 781.5 262.3 519.2
6,469.1 5,396.3 5,322.5
1994:1
4,783.4 564.4
10.3 283.2 783.1 261.1 522.2
6,508.5 5,432.0 5,347.9
84.6 293.5
4,870.7 554.1
524.7
10.3 285.6 782.7 258.1
II
6,587.6 5,509.1 5,424.8
84.8 295.9
Ill
84.4 296.8
10.2 286.7 783.2 255.9 527.5
6,644.9 5,565.1 5,481.1 4,920.1 561.1
IV
82.1 298.8
4,967.2 565.7
10.1 288.7 780.7 252.0 529.0
6,693.9 5,614.7 5,532.8
78.9 300.1
1995-1
10.0 290.1 780.1 250.2 530.2
6,701.0 5,621.2 5,542.4
4,973.3 569.1
II
76.4 301.6
10.1 291.5 779.6 249.1 530.9
6,713.5 5,632.7 5,556.1 4,984.3 571.7
Ill
6,776.4 5,694.1 5,620.2
5,046.7 573.6
10.2 292.9 779.7 247.7 532.5
73.5 303.1
IV
6,780.7 5,705.7 5,630.0 5,049.4 580.7
10.2 294.8 770.8 238.6 533.0
75.3 305.0
1996:1
10.3 295.3 768.0 238.7 530.0
79.1 305.5
5,085.1 577.4
6,814.3 5,741.6 5,662.4
II
10.3 298.1 777.7 240.4 538.1
5,146.2 578.6
82.8 308.4
6,892.6 5,807.3 5,724.5
Ill
6,928.4 5,841.2 5,754.3 5,170.8 583.7
87.1 310.1
10.3 299.8 778.1 239.0 539.9
1
Gross domestic business product equals gross domestic product less gross product of households and institutions and of general government.
2 Nonfarm product equals gross domestic business product less gross farm product.
Equals compensation of general government employees plus general government consumption of fixed capital.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
311
TABLE B-10.—Gross domestic product by industry, 1959-94
[Billions of dollars]
Private industries
Year
Gross AgriculManufacturing
domes- ture,
Contic
for- Mining strucproduct estry,
tion
Dura- Nonand
Total ble durable
fishing
goods goods
StaFinance,
Transinsurtisti- Govporta- Wholeerntion sale Retail ance, Services cal ment
disand trade trade and
real
public
creputilities
estate
ancy 1
Based on
1972 SIC:
1959
507.2
20.3
12.5
23.7 140.3
81.7
58.6
45.0
36.1
49.1
69.0
48.4
-2.1
64.8
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
526.6
544.8
585.2
617.4
663.0
21.3
21.7
22.1
22.3
21.4
12.9
13.0
13.2
13.5
13.9
24.2
25.2
27.0
28.8
31.5
142.5 82.6
142.9 81.7
156.7 92.1
166.1 98.3
177.9 105.9
59.9
61.3
64.6
67.8
72.0
47.3
48.8
51.9
54.8
58.3
37.7
38.8
41.4
43.1
46.4
50.4
51.7
55.4
57.9
63.5
73.6
78.1
82.6
87.1
93.0
51.6
55.0
59.3
63.4
69.1
-3.7
-3.3
-2.4
-3.5
-2.1
68.9
73.0
78.2
83.9
90.1
1965
1966
1967
1368
1969
719.1
787.8
833.6
910.6
982.2
24.2
25.4
24.9
25.7
28.5
14.0
14.7
15.2
16.3
17.1
34.6
37.7
39.5
43.3
48.4
196.3
215.3
220.8
241.1
254.4
118.8 77.5
131.1 84.3
134.1 86.7
146.3 94.8
154.4 100.0
62.4
67.3
70.5
76.4
82.7
50.0
54.4
57.8
63.4
68.5
68.0
72.7
78.2
86.6
94.2
100.0
108.1
117.4
127.0
136.6
74.7
82.7
90.8
99.4
110.8
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1,035.6
1,125.4
1,237.3
1,382.6
1,496.9
29.8
32.1
37.0
54.4
53.2
18.7
18.9
19.7
23.8
37.1
51.1
56.1
62.5
69.7
73.6
249.6
263.0
290.4
323.4
337.3
146.2
154.2
172.6
195.7
202.2
103.4 88.3 72.2
108.9 97.4 78.0
117.8 108.6 87.4
127.7 119.4 98.2
135.1 130.1 111.1
100.2
109.2
118.8
130.9
136.7
146.6
163.4
176.9
193.5
209.3
120.5
130.4
144.9
163.1
179.3
1.0
5.1
3.2
2.4
4.5
157.6
171.7
187.8
203.8
224.8
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1,630.6
1,819.0
2,026.9
2,291.4
2,557.5
54.5
53.6
54.3
63.2
74.5
42.8 75.1 354.7
47.6 84.9 405.3
54.1 93.8 462.4
61.5 110.6 516.9
71.2 124.7 571.3
207.0
239.9
277.6
316.9
343.5
147.7
165.4
184.7
200.0
227.8
142.6
161.6
179.5
202.5
219.2
121.5
129.2
142.3
161.0
182.4
152.8
172.2
190.2
215.6
234.2
227.1
250.4
283.7
328.1
370.6
199.1
223.9
255.5
294.6
333.2
11.2
18.9
17.5
17.6
27.8
249.3
271.2
293.5
319.8
348.2
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
2,784.2
3,115.9
3,242.1
3,514.5
3,902.4
66.7
81.1
77.1
62.6
83.6
584.4
652.0
649.8
690.1
780.5
348.7
388.1
377.4
397.3
469.5
235.7
263.9
272.3
292.7
311.0
242.3
276.3
293.2
328.3
358.0
195.3
216.4
219.6
229.2
264.4
245.9
270.4
288.1
321.9
362.2
418.2
470.9
504.2
565.6
626.1
377.3
426.2
471.8
521.5
590.4
27.4
14.6
-2.9
36.5
4.2
385.5
426.5
461.9
492.4
533.8
1985
1986
1987
4,180.7
4,422.2
4,692.3
84.5 132.8 185.5 802.9 477.1 325.9 376.8 280.8 395.0
82.1 86.3 207.3 833.1 487.0 346.1 394.0 293.6 415.2
88.6 88.3 217.0 889.0 514.4 374.6 420.7 306.3 436.5
691.3
761.3
830.3
651.1
1.3 578.6
712.2 22.1 615.0
785.1 -16.6 653.2
88.3 217.0 889.0 513.3 375.7 420.7 301.0 435.8
99.9 233.4 971.3 556.6 414.7 443.6 336.5 459.3
96.3 242.2 1,013.4 574.9 438.5 461.1 356.4 490.2
830.7
892.4
960.6
784.6 -16.6 653.2
877.8 -48.6 694.9
965.5 11.6 739.2
112.7
151.7
149.5
127.5
134.2
128.6
129.6
129,8
138.9
165.0
-1.4
96.3
2.7 106.9
.6 117.9
131.2
-2.2 143.3
Based on
1987 SIC:
1987
1988
1989
4,692.3 88.6
5,049.6 88.9
5,438.7 101.9
108.7 112.3 245.2 1,031.4 572.8 458.5 482.3 367.3 503.5 1,025.2 1,059.4 16.1 792.5
102.9 101.1 228.8 1,028.1 558.3 469.8 511.8 388.2 517.4 1,082.7 1,107.6
8.8 839.5
112.4 92.2 229.7 1,063.6 573.4 490.2 528.8 406.5 544.3 1,148.8 1,200.8 43.7 873.6
105.3 89.0 243.6 1,116.5 612.3 504.3 566.2 423.1 571.1 1,214.0 1,266.1 55.1 900.2
117.8 90.1 269.2 1,197.1 673.1 524.0 606.4 461.9 609.9 1,273.7 1,342.7 31.3 931.3
1
Equals gross domestic product (GDP) measured as the sum of expenditures less gross domestic income.
Note.—Data in this table incorporate the results of the comprehensive revision to the national income and product accounts (NIPA)
released in January 1996. See Survey of Current Business, August 1996 for details. Data do not reflect the limited annual NIPA revisions released in August 1996.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
5,743.8
5,916.7
6,244.4
6,550.2
6,931.4
312
TABLE B-ll.—Real gross domestic product by industry, 1977-94
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars]
Private industries
Agri-
Gross culdomes- ture,
Contic
for- Mining strucproduct estry,
tion
and
fishing
Year
Not
Finance,
TransStaalloinsurporta- Wholetisti- Govcated
erntion sale Retail ance, Services cal ment
by
indusand trade trade
and
disDura- Non- public
try?
real
crepble durable
estate
ancy1
goods goods utilities
Manufacturing
Total
Based on
1972 SIC:
1977
1978
1979
4,279.3
4,493.7
4,624.0
60.6
52.0
57.3
82.4
84.6
73.6
213.8 796.5 435.2 361.8 350.3 201.1
221.2 836.7 461.8 374.1 366.4 215.6
227.8 865.1 470.6 395.7 382.4 228.3
364.5
389.9
389.1
743.3
786.6
831.4
712.5 36.9 717.4 -38.0
759.5 34.4 731.5 -62.2
787.3 50.3 739.4 -74.3
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
4,611.9
4,724.9
4,623.6
4,810.0
5,138.2
57.7
75.6
78.6
59.4
72.9
82.0
81.4
78.8
73.7
82.0
214.7
195.4
172.8
181.0
210.1
374.5
386.2
387.9
422.6
465.0
863.5
878.8
876.5
900.8
945.8
810.8
829.9
838.1
862.8
920.8
1985
1986
1987
5,329.5
5,489.9
5,648.4
90.5
87.2
87.6
87.1
83.6
86.4
232.9 976.5 534.7 442.1 428.0 298.2 496.8 968.9 963.9 1.7 777.9 -26.5
5.3
239.0 967.6 527.5 440.8 425.9 333.2 526.6 969.8 996.8 27.4 795.6
239.6 1,041.6 566.4 476.4 458.4 322.1 510.1 1,016.0 1,041.9 -20.0 810.0 30.1
5,648.4
5,862.9
6,060.4
87.6
80.7
88.2
104.4
86.4
92.8
239.6 1,041.6 565.1 477.8 458.4 322.9 509.2 1,016.5 1,041.4 -20.0 810.0
248.8 1,110.9 616.1 494.5 472.7 343.9 537.6 1,070.2 1,099.1 -56.4 829.0
251.9 1,106.0 613.1 492.6 479.9 366.4 553.4 1,102.7 1,149.5 13.0 847.7
6,138.7
6,079.0
6,244.4
6,383.8
6,604.2
101.5
100.9
112.4
103.3
115.7
96.9
97.5
92.2
90.7
96.7
247.5
229.0
229.7
236.1
253.1
822.8
858.6
810.2
856.8
948.3
451.3
468.8
428.0
448.4
521.9
371.5
390.6
386.3
413.8
426.1
388.9
394.9
383.4
409.2
426.3
226.0
241.1
246.6
251.6
286.9
748.8
749.4
748.3
753.0
5.5 760.1
45.3
22.2
-4.1
50.0
•45.0
-45.2
-55.2
-59.4
-24.3
Based on
1987 SIC.
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
. .
1,090.1
1,050.4
1,063.6
1,095.3
1,168.0
600.7
568.1
573.4
601.2
657.9
489.3 494.7 360.6
482.2 514.7 381.3
490.2 528.8 406.5
494.1 555.8 418.6
510.2 585.3 450.0
546.4
534.1
544.3
563.2
595.4
1,109.9
1,106.6
1,148.8
1,159.*
1,192.8
1,181.7
1,174.2
1,200.8
1,222.1
1,249.6
17* 867.0
9.0 873.7
31.1
6.3
2.0
20.6
6.1
43.7 873.6
.0
53.7 875.1
7.0
875.8
-14.5
29.8
'Equals the current-dollar statistical discrepancy deflated by the implicit price deflator for gross domestic product.
Equals GDP less the statistical discrepancy and the sum of gross product originating of the detailed industries.
2
Note.—Data in this table incorporate the results of the comprehensive revision to the national income and product accounts (NIPA)
released in January 1996. See Survey of Current Business, August 1996 for details. Data do not reflect the limited annual NIPA revisions released in August 1996.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
313
TABLE B-12.—Gross domestic product of nonfinancial corporate business, 1959-96
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Net domestic product
Gross
domestic
product
of
nonfinancial
corporate
business
Year or
quarter
Domestic income
Consumption
of
fixed
capital
Total
Indirect
business
taxes '
Corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital
consumption adjustments
Total
Compensation
of
employees
Profits
Inven- Capital Net
con- intersump- est
ation
tion
UndisDiviadjust- adjusttributed
dends
ment
ment
profits
£
Profits after tax
Total
Profits Profits
tax
before
tax liability Total
1959
267.5
26.3
241.2
26.0
215.2
171.5
40.6
43.6
20.7
22.9
10.0
12.9
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
278.1
285.5
311.7
331.8
358.1
393.5
431.0
453.4
500.5
543.3
27.2
27.8
28.8
29.8
31.3
33.5
36.7
40.1
43.8
47.5
250.9
257.8
282.9
302.0
326.8
360.0
394.3
413.4
456.7
495.8
28.3
29.5
32.0
34.0
36.6
39.2
40.5
43.1
49.7
54.7
222.6
228.2
250.9
267.9
290.2
320.8
353.8
370.3
407.0
441.1
181.2
185.3
200.1
211.1
226.7
246.5
274.0
292.3
323.2
358.8
38.0
38.9
46.3
52.0
58.2
68.2
72.5
69.2
73.6
69.1
40.3
40.1
45.0
49.8
56.0
66.2
71.4
67.5
74.0
70.8
19.2
19.5
20.6
22.8
24.0
27.2
29.5
27.8
33.6
33.3
21.1
20.7
24.3
27.0
32.1
39.0
41.9
39.7
40.4
37.5
10.6
10.6
11.4
12.6
13.7
15.6
16.8
17.5
19.1
19.1
10.6
10.1
13.0
14.418.4
23.4
25.1
22.2
21.3
18.4
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
561.4
606.4
673.3
754.5
814.6
881.2
995.3
1,125.4
1,284.1
1,429.7
51.6
56.3
62.1
67.6
78.7
94.4
104.5
125.8
142.1
163.7
509.8 58.8
550.1 64.5
611.2
69.2
686.8 76.3
736.0 81.4
786.8 87.4
890.8 95.1
999.7 104.1
1,142.0 116.4
1,266.0 125.4
451.0
485.6
542.1
610.5
654.6
699.5
795.6
895.6
1,025.5
1,140.6
378.7
402.0
447.1
505.9
556.8
580.3
657.4
742.6
852.9
968.1
55.2
65.5
75.8
82.1
69.5
90.4
110.7
122.4
136.3
127.4
58.1
67.1
78.6
98.6
109.2
109.9
137.3
158.6
183.5
195.5
27.2
29.9
33.8
40.2
42.2
41.5
53.0
59.9
67.1
69.6
31.0
37.1
44.8
58.4
67.0
68.4
84.4
98.7
116.4
125.9
18.5
18.5
20.1
21.1
21.7
24.8
28.0
31.5
36.4
38.1
12.5
18.7
24.7
37.3
45.2
43.6
56.3
67.2
80.0
87.9
-6.6
-4.6
-6.6
-20.0
-39.5
-11.0
-14.9
-16.6
-25.0
-41.6
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1,553.8
1,767.3
1,823.4
1,950.3
2,187.5
2,319.3
2,416.3
2,589.6
2,805.2
2,950.9
187.8
218.3
235.4
248.9
255.1
266.5
283.7
296.9
316.5
335.5
1,365.9
1,549.1
1,588.0
1,701.4
1,932.4
2,052.8
2,132.6
2,292.7
2,488.7
2,615.4
141.6 1,224.3 1,058.5
170.4 1,378.7 1,171.5
172.1 1,415.9 1,217.0
189.0 1,512.4 1,280.5
210.2 1,722.2 1,421.7
224.4 1,828.4 1,521.9
235.8 1,896.8 1,603.2
246.7 2,046.0 1,715.5
263.5 2,225.3 1,846.7
280.8 2,334.6 1,950.0
107.6
135.3
116.4
155.3
212.7
215.9
195.5
225.2
257.5
238.7
181.6
181.4
133.7
157.4
191.0
167.6
151.5
214.9
260.6
237.0
67.0
63.9
46.3
59.4
73.7
69.9
75.6
93.5
101.7
98.8
114.6
117.5
87.4
97.9
117.3
97.6
75.9
121.4
158.8
138.3
45.3
53.3
53.3
64.2
67.8
72.3
73.9
75.9
79.4
103.5
69.2
64.2
34.2
33.8
49.5
25.4
2.1
45.5
79.4
34.8
-43.0 -30.9 58.2
-25.7 -20.4 71.9
-7.4 82.5
-9.9
-9.1
7.0 76.6
-5.6
27.3 87.8
47.8 90.6
1L4
32.6 98.1
-20.7
31.0 105.3
-29.3
26.3 121.0
-17.5
19.1 145.9
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
3,084.0 352.7 2,731.3 296.8 2,434.5 2,056.0
3,132.1 366.7 2,765.3 318.0 2,447.3 2,090.6
3,262.6 376.1 2,886.5 337.0 2,549.5 2,195.3
3,437.5 390.1 3,047.4 356.2 2,691.2 2,294.3
3,689.4 412.8 3,276.6 379.6 2,896.9 2,434.8
3,885.8 424.0 3,461.8 400.9 3,060.9 2,574.9
231.0
223.1
250.0
297.3
364.6
384.6
237.3
218.1
257.8
303.7
372.5
403.0
95.7
85.4
91.1
103.5
129.9
140.7
141.6
132.8
166.7
200.3
242.7
262.4
118.4
124.6
133.6
152.6
161.8
175.9
23.3
8.2
33.1
47.6
80.9
86.5
-13.5
4.0
-7.5
-6.6
-13.3
-28.1
237.5
254.2
214.7
217.7
227.9
239.0
250.1
232.3
90.5
96.4
101.1
94.7
137.3
142.7
148.9
137.7
119.5
116.5
118.1
119.5
17.8
26.2
30.8
18.2
-1.3
7.7
-40.0
-20.3
2,060.0
2,078.8
2,101.2
2,122.2
232.6
222.8
219.4
217.5
213.3
215.0
220.6
223.7
83.1
84.0
86.8
87.5
130.3
131.0
133.8
136.2
120.7
125.4
124.9
127.5
9.5
5.6
8.9
8.7
17.6
6.8
330.4 2,503.1 2,152.8
331.8 2,532.5 2,183.2
337.8 2,544.9 2,209.3
348.0 2,617.4 2,236.1
240.2
243.3
234.8
281.6
236.3
262.6
254.4
277.9
82.4
93.6
89.9
98.4
153.9
169.0
164.5
179.5
124.0
129.7
134.3
146.3
29.9
39.3
30.2
33.2
3.6 110.2
-2L9
2.6 106.0
-8.6 -11.0 100.8
.2
3.5 99.7
-0.3
-.2
!o
.1
-L2
-2.1
-1.6
-3.7
-5.9
-2.8
3.1
-2.2
-1.5
1.3
2.2
2.7
3.3
3.2
3.3
3.3
4.1
3.5
4.0
4.5
4.8
5.3
6.1
7.4
8.8
10.1
13.2
3.6
3.0
3.9
3.6
17.1
18.1
19.2
22.5
28.3
28.7
27.5
30.6
36.3
45.1
4'.5
-11.7
-19.5
-22.1
-26.6
7.2 147.5
1.0 133.7
104.2
99.6
5'.3 97.5
9.7 101.3
3.042.8
3,103.0
3,092.7
3,097.4
346.4
351.6
356.0
356.9
1991:1
3,107.7
3,119.1
3,142.0
3,159.5
363.2 2,744.5 309.2 2,435.3
365.7 2,753.4 314.2 2,439.2
369.0 2,773.0 321.2 2,451.8
369.1 2,790.4 327.3 2,463.1
1992:1
3,202.2
3,236.1
3,270.5
3,341.7
368.6
371.8
387.9
376.3
3,344.2
3,407.3
3,459.7
3,538.7
382.8 2,961.3 346.9
387.5 3,019.8 352.9
395.8 3,063.9 355.9
394.2 3,144.4 368.9
2,614.4
2,666.9
2,708.0
2,775.5
2,251.4
2,279.8
2,308.4
2,337.6
260.5
286.9
301.1
340.6
275.9
303.2
296.4
339.5
93.8
103.9
100.1
116.0
182.1
199.3
196.3
223.4
153.4
150.1
150.8
156.3
28.7
49.2
45.5
67.2
-14.6
-15.6
7.9
-4.0
3,601.7
3,663.0
3,709.5
3,783.2
427.9 3,173.9 372.6
404.3 3,258.7 376.5
408.7 3,300.8 382.1
410.4 3,372.9 387.2
2,801.3
2,882.2
2,918.6
2,985.7
2,381.8
2,418.4
2,445.8
2,493.3
323.6
366.3
374.2
394.3
346.0
364.4
378.0
401.8
121.0
126.9
130.9
140.6
225.0
237.5
247.1
261.1
154.9
160.9
161.0
170.2
70.1
76.7
86.1
91.0
-3.9 -18.4
11.7
-9.8
12.7
-16.5
-22.8
15.3
95.9
97.5
98.7
98.0
1995:1
II
Ill
IV
3,803.3 415.0 3,388.3 394.1
3,841.9 421.3 3.420.6 401.1
3,924.8 426.6 3,498.2 401.6
3,973.2 433.0 3,540.2 406.9
2,994.2
3,019.4
3,096.6
3,133.3
2,528.5
2,553.1
2,590.6
2,627.6
364.6
364.5
405.0
404.3
405.1
397.9
406.0
403.2
142.2
138.5
141.3
140.6
262.9
259.4
264.7
262.6
172.1
176.1
174.9
180.3
90.8
83.3
89.7
82.4
-51.9
-42.3
-9.3
-8.8
11.4
8.9
8.4
9.9
101.2
101.8
100.9
101.4
1996- 1
II
Ill
4,011.6 434.8 3,576.8 405.3
4,081.6 439.9 3,641.7 403.0
4,143.1 445.5 3,697.6 406.6
3,171.5 2,651.3
3,238.8 2,703.4
3,290.9 2,744.3
420.3
433.8
442.8
424.1
429.5
424.1
147.7
149.2
146.9
276.4
280.3
277.1
185.6
187.9
186.2
90.8
92.4
90.9
-17.4
-11.0
2.0
13.6 100.0
15.4 101.5
16.8 103.9
1990:1
II
Ill
IV
II
Ill
IV
II
Ill
IV
1993:1
II
Ill
IV
1994:1
II
Ill
IV
...
2,696.4
2,751.5
2,736.7
2,740.5
2,833.6
2,864.3
2,882.7
2,965.4
290.5
292.6
299.7
304.3
2,405.9 2,022.0
2,458.9 2,055.8
2,437.0 2,074.7
2,436.2 2,071.4
i Indirect business tax and nontax liability plus business transfer payments less subsidies.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
314
-7.6
10.9
7.4
4.7
5.6
146.5
148.9
147.6
147.1
1.7 142.7
1.1 137.6
131.1
l!s 123.3
-.7 102.5
100.2
98.5
97.4
-13
5.1
TABLE B-13.—Output, costs, and profits of nonfinancial corporate business, 1959-96
[Quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Gross domestic
product of
nonfinancial
corporate
business
(billions of
dollars)
Year or quarter
Current
dollars
Chained
(1992)
dollars
Current-dollar cost and profit per unit of real output (dollars)1
Total
cost
and
profit2
Consumption
of
fixed
capital
Indirect
business
taxes3
Compensation
of
employees
Corporate profits with
inventory valuation and
capital consumption
adjustments
Total
Profits
tax
liability
Profits
after
tax4
Net
interest
1959
267.5
921.6
0.290
0.028
0.028
0.186
0.044
0.023
0.022
0.003
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
278.1
285.5
311.7
331.8
358.1
393.5
431.0
453.4
500.5
543.3
947.5
967.6
1,046.8
1,110.7
1,189.4
1,283.6
1,363.1
1,396.5
1,488.1
1,545.6
.294
.295
.298
.299
.301
.307
.316
.325
.336
.351
.029
.029
.027
.027
.026
.026
.027
.029
.029
.031
.030
.031
.031
.031
.031
.031
.030
.031
.033
.035
.191
.192
.191
.190
.191
.192
.201
.209
.217
.232
.040
.040
.044
.047
.049
.053
.053
.050
.049
.045
.020
.020
.020
.021
.020
.021
.022
.020
.023
.022
.020
.020
.025
.026
.029
.032
.032
.030
.027
.023
.004
.004
.004
.004
.004
.005
.005
.006
.007
.009
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
561.4
606.4
673.3
754.5
814.6
881.2
995.3
1,125.4
1,284.1
1,429.7
1,525.5
1,592.0
1,717.2
1,811.4
1,780.6
1,744.6
1,892.2
2,041.1
2,165.7
2,214.2
.368
.381
.392
.416
.457
.505
.526
.551
.593
.646
.034
.035
.036
.037
.044
.054
.055
.062
.066
.074
.039
.041
.040
.042
.046
.050
.050
.051
.054
.057
.248
.253
.260
.279
.313
.333
.347
.364
.394
.437
.036
.041
.044
.045
.039
.052
.059
.060
.063
.058
.018
.019
.020
.022
.024
.024
.028
.029
.031
.031
.018
.022
.025
.023
.015
.031
.031
.032
.026
.011
.011
.011
.012
.016
.016
.015
.015
.017
.020
1,553.8
1,767.3
1,823.4
1,950.3
2,187.5
2,319.3
2,416.3
2,589.6
2,805.2
2,950.9
2,222.2
2,328.8
2,298.8
2,407.8
2,634.6
2,748.0
2,832.4
2,967.0
3,122.1
3,175.4
.699
.759
.793
.810
.830
.844
.853
.873
.898
.929
.085
.094
.102
.103
.097
.097
.100
.100
.101
.106
.064
.073
.075
.078
.080
.082
.083
.083
.084
.088
.476
.503
.529
.532
.540
.554
.566
.578
.591
.614
.048
.058
.051
.064
.081
.079
.069
.076
.082
.075
.030
.027
.020
.025
.028
.025
.027
.031
.033
.031
.018
.031
.030
.040
.053
.053
.042
.044
.050
.044
.026
.031
.036
.032
.033
.033
.035
.035
.039
.046
3,084.0
3,132.1
3,262.6
3,437.5
3,689.4
3,885.8
3,212.5
3,168.8
3,262.6
3,380.0
3,567.7
3,692.3
.960
.988
1.000
1.017
1.034
1.052
.110
.116
.115
.115
.116
.115
.092
.100
.103
.105
.106
.109
.640
.660
.673
.679
.682
.697
.072
.070
.077
.088
.102
.104
.030
.027
.028
.031
.036
.038
.042
.043
.049
.057
.066
.066
.046
.042
.032
.029
.027
.027
3.042.8
3,103.0
3,092.7
3,097.4
3.208.3
3,243.0
3,208.5
3,190.2
.948
.957
.964
.971
.108
.108
.111
.112
.091
.090
.093
.095
!647
.649
.074
.078
.067
.068
.028
.030
.032
.030
.046
.049
.035
.039
.046
.046
.046
.046
3,107.7
3,119.1
3,142.0
3,159.5
3,164.3
3,158.4
3,170.1
3,182.5
.982
.988
.991
.993
.115
.116
.116
.116
.098
.099
.101
.103
.651
.658
.663
.667
.074
.071
.069
.068
.026
.027
.027
.027
.047
.044
.042
.041
.045
.044
.041
.039
3,202.2
3,236.1
3,270.5
3,341.7
3,216.6
3,238.1
3,267.4
3,328.5
.996
.999
1.001
1.004
.115
.115
.119
.113
.103
.102
.103
.105
.669
.674
.676
.672
.075
.075
.072
.085
.026
.029
.028
.030
.049
.046
.044
.055
.034
.033
.031
.030
3,344.2
3,407.3
3,459.7
3,538.7
3,302.9
3,356.7
3,399.2
3,461.1
1.012
1.015
1.018
1.022
.116
.115
.116
.114
.105
.105
.105
.107
.682
.679
.679
.675
.079
.085
.089
.098
.028
.031
.029
.034
.050
.055
.059
.065
.031
.030
.029
.028
1994:1
II
Ill
IV
3,601.7
3,663.0
3,709.5
3,783.2
3,503.9
3,553.0
3,577.7
3,636.3
1.028
1.031
1.037
1.040
.122
.114
.114
.113
.106
.106
.107
.106
.680
.681
.684
.686
.092
.103
.105
.108
.035
.036
.037
.039
.058
.067
.068
.070
.027
.027
.028
.027
1995:1
3,803.3
3,841.9
3,924.8
3,973.2
3,634.1
3,656.1
3,719.9
3,759.1
1.047
1.051
1.055
1.057
.114
.115
.115
.115
.108
.110
.108
.108
.696
.698
.696
.699
.100
.100
.109
.108
.039
.038
.038
.037
.061
.062
.071
.070
.028
.028
.027
.027
4,011.6
4,081.6
4,143.1
3,779.2
3,831.0
3,888.8
1.062
1.065
1.065
.115
.115
.115
.107
.105
.105
.702
.706
.706
.111
.113
.114
.039
.039
.038
.072
.074
.076
.026
.027
.027
.. .
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
..
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1990:1
II
III
IV
1991-1
II
Ill
IV
.
1992 1
II
Ill
IV
1993:1
.
II
III . . . .
IV
II
Ill
IV
1996:1
II
III
'Output is measured by gross domestic product of nonfinancial corporate business in chained (1992) dollars.
2
This is equal to the deflator for gross domestic product of nonfinancial corporate business with the decimal point shifted two places to
the3 ten.
4 Indirect business tax and nontax liability plus business transfer payments less subsidies.
With inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments.
Source.- Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
315
TABLE B-14.—Personal consumption expenditures, 1959-96
[Billions of dollars,- quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Durable goods
Year or
quarter
FurniPersonal
Motor ture
consumption
vehiand
expendi- Total 1 cles house- Total 1
and
hold
tures
parts equiprncnt
Nondurable goods
Food
42.7 18.9
18.1 148.5 80.7
433 19.7
18.0 152.9 823
18.3 156.6 84.0
41.8 17.8
19.3 162.8 86.1
46.9 21.5
20.7 168.2 88.3
516 24.4
23.2 178.7 93.6
56.7 26.0
25.1 191.6 1007
63.3 29.9
28.2 208.8 109.3
68.3 30.3
70.4 30.0
30.0 217.1 112.5
80.8 36.1
32.9 235.7 122.2
34.7 253.2 131.5
85.9 38.4
35.7 272.0 1438
850 35.5
37.8 285.5 149.7
96.9 44.5
42.4 308.0 161.4
110.4 51.1
47.9 343.1 179.6
123.5 56.1
51.5 384.5 201.8
122.3 49.5
54.5 420.6 2231
1335 54.8
60.2 458.2 242.4
158.9 71.3
671 496.9 2624
181 1 835
201.4 93.1
74.0 549.9 289.2
82.3 624.0 324.2
213.9 93.5
2135 870
86.0 695.5 3554
91.3 758.2 382.8
230.5 95.8
92.5 786.8 402.6
239.3 102.9
279.8 126.9 105.3 830.3 422.9
325.1 152.5 117.2 883.6 446.3
361 1 1757 1263 927.6 4665
398.7 192.4 140.3 957.2 490.8
416.7 193.1 150.4 1,014.0 513.9
4510 2075 1628 1081 1 5512
472.8 214.4 173.3 1,163.8 588.4
476.5 210.3 176.0 1,245.3 630.5
455.2 187.6 178.5 1,277.6 650.0
488.5 206.9 189.4 ,1,321.8 660.0
530.7 226.1 205.5 1,368.9 685.7
580.9 245.3 226.8 1,429.7 7157
606.4 247.8 241.9 1,485.9 747.2
493.3 223.4 178.9 1,220.7 617.6
1990:1
II
477.6 211.5 176.4 1,230.2 627.5
Ill
473.2 208.5 175.0 1,256.2 637.1
IV
461.9 198.0 173.7 1,274.1 639.7
1991:1
449.0 183.6 175.2 1,268.3 644.0
II
452.7 183.3 179.7 1,279.7 652.9
Ill
462.0 192.5 180.6 1,283.4 653.2
IV
457.3 191.1 178.3 1,279.0 649.8
474.1 199.1 184.8 1,303.1 657.3
1992:1
II
481.3 204.0 186.5 1,308.4 652.3
Ill
492.5 208.3 190.6 1,326.3 657.9
IV
506.2 216.1 195.5 1,349.5 672.3
1993:1
508.3 214.2 198.3 1,354.1 676.5
II
525.2 225.4 202.1 1,364.1 683.0
Ill
536.7 228.3 207.7 1,371.3 687.9
IV
552.3 236.4 213.9 1,386.1 695.5
1994:1
562.6 243.3 216.0 1,399.7 701.4
II
573.1 242.4 223.4 1,416.6 710.7
Ill
585.3 245.0 230.2 1,443.4 721.1
IV
602.7 250.7 237.6 1,459.0 729.5
1995:1
593.0 240.6 237.1 1,471.5 738.4
II
604.0 248.3 239.2 1,486.7 744.6
Ill
615.8 253.9 244.3 1,491.2 750.9
IV
612.8 248.3 247.0 1,494.2 754.9
625.2 254.2 248.7 1,522.1 765.8
1996:1
II
637.6 256.2 255.9 1,544.7 767.9
Ill
630.5 249.8 255.9 1,546.5 773.3
1
Includes
other
items
not
shown separately.
2
Includes imputed rental value of owner-occupied housing.
Source-. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983 .
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994 .
1995
318.1
3322
342.6
363.4
3830
411.4
4443
481.9
509.5
559.8
604.7
6481
702.5
770.7
851.6
931.2
10291
1,148.8
12771
1,428.8
1,593.5
1 7604
1,941.3
2,076.8
22834
2,492.3
27048
2,892.7
3,094.5
33497
3;594!8
3,839.3
3,975.1
4,219.8
4,454.1
47009
4,924.9
3,759.2
3.811.8
3,879.2
3,907.0
3,910.7
3,961.0
4,001.6
4,027.1
4,127.6
4,183.0
4,238.9
4,329.6
4,367.6
4,424.8
4,481.0
4,543.1
4,600.9
4,666.2
4,738.3
4,798.2
4,840.6
4,910.5
4,957.9
4,990.5
5,060.5
5,139.4
5,165.4
Cloth- Gasoline
anrl
an'd OlIU
shoes oil
26.4
270
27.6
29.0
29.8
32.4
34.1
37.4
39.2
43.2
46.5
47.8
51.7
56.4
62.5
66.0
708
76.6
841
94.3
101.2
107.3
117.2
120.5
130.9
142.5
1521
163.1
174.4
1859
199.9
205.9
211.3
225.5
235.7
247.8
254.4
205.8
205.6
206.8
205.5
207.2
212.7
214.1
211.1
219.6
222.3
228.1
232.1
230.6
234.0
236.7
241.3
242.8
245.4
249.4
253.8
252.8
254.3
255.5
254.8
261.2
266.3
265.1
316
11.3
120
12.0
12.6
13.0
13.6
148
16.0
17.1
18.6
20.5
219
23.2
24.4
28.1
36.1
397
43.0
469
50.1
66.2
867
97.9
94.1
931
94.6
972
80.1
85.4
871
96.6
109.2
103.9
106.6
108.1
109.9
114.6
102.8
100.4
109.6
124.1
108.4
103.6
102.1
101.4
102.3
105.8
109.4
108.9
110.6
108.0
106.6
107.1
105.9
106.4
113.4
113.9
116.2
118.3
113.1
110.8
115.9
127.0
119.8
Services
Fuel
oil
and
coal
4.0
38
3.8
3.8
4.0
4.1
4.4
4.7
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.4
4.6
5.1
6.3
7.8
84
10.1
11 1
11.5
14.4
154
15.8
14.5
13.6
13.9
136
11.3
11.2
114
11.4
12.0
11.3
10.9
10.6
10.1
10.0
11.5
11.3
12.7
12.6
11.9
10.8
11.3
11.0
10.4
11.8
10.6
10.8
10.9
10.6
10.6
10.4
11.3
9.8
9.9
9.3
9.5
10.4
9.8
10.3
11.3
11.0
10.6
Household
operation
Total 1 Housjing
no2
127.0
136.0
144.3
153.7
163.2
176.1
189.4
204.8
222.0
243.4
265.5
291.1
320.1
352.3
384.9
424.4
475.0
531.8
5990
677.4
755.6
8514
952.6
1,050.7
1,173.3
1,283.6
14161
1,536.8
1,663.8
18176
1,958.1
2,117.5
2,242.3
2,409.4
2,554.6
2,690.3
2,832.6
2,045.3
2.104.1
2,149.8
2,171.0
2,193.5
2,228.6
2,256.3
2,290.7
2,350.4
2,393.3
2,420.1
2,473.9
2,505.2
2,535.4
2,572.9
2,604.7
2,638.6
2,676.5
2,709.6
2,736.6
2,776.1
2,819.8
2,850.9
2,883.5
2,913.2
2,957.1
2,988.5
45.0
48.2
51.2
54.7
58.0
61.4
65.4
69.5
74.1
79.7
86.8
94.0
102.7
112.1
122.7
134.1
147.0
161.5
1795
201.7
226.6
255.2
287.9
313.2
339.0
370.6
407.1
442.2
476.6
5129
547.4
586.3
616.5
646.8
673.2
706.6
743.7
571.1
581.5
593.5
599.2
605.8
612.9
619.7
627.5
636.6
643.4
649.9
657.4
663.7
670.1
675.9
683.2
693.2
701.6
711.3
720.3
729.8
739.0
748.0
758.1
767.0
775.2
783.3
Trans- MediElec- porta- cal
tion
tricity
care
Total and
gas
1
18.7
203
21.2
22.4
23.6
25.0
26.5
28.2
30.2
32.3
35.1
37.8
41.0
45.3
49.8
55.5
637
72.4
819
91.2
100.0
1130
126.0
141.4
155.9
168.0
1803
186.9
194.9
2066
219.8
226.3
237.6
248.2
268.5
2789
294.2
219.1
227.0
229.6
229.6
230.7
239.9
240.5
239.3
241.5
248.8
243.6
259.0
260.8
264.2
273.6
275.5
270.4
282.5
281.6
281.2
286.3
293.7
298.7
298.1
302.1
310.4
309.2
7.6
8.3
8.8
9.4
9.9
10.4
10.9
11.5
12.2
13.0
14.0
15.2
16.6
18.4
20.0
23.5
28.5
32.5
376
42.1
46.8
56.3
63.4
72.6
80.7
84.7
88.8
87.2
88.9
941
98.8
98.7
104.9
106.6
115.9
115.6
118.0
93.5
99.5
101.0
100.9
101.6
108.1
106.1
104.0
102.1
106.2
106.6
111.4
113.2
113.3
118.6
118.5
117.3
119.2
114.4
111.6
113.6
118.2
121.7
118.4
120.8
124.7
122.3
10.5
112
11.7
12.2
127
13.4
14.5
15.9
17.3
18.9
20.9
237
27.1
29.8
31.2
33.3
357
41.3
492
53.5
59.1
647
68.7
70.9
79.4
90.0
1000
107.3
118.2
1305
137!8
143.7
145.3
158.1
169.6
181.3
192.5
141.5
143.2
144.2
145.8
143.0
143.9
145.9
148.5
154.9
156.9
156.0
164.5
166.7
168.4
170.0
173.4
176.5
180.6
183.2
185.0
187.1
191.6
194.2
196.9
198.5
202.4
206.4
16.4
176
18.7
20.8
226
25.8
280
30.7
33.9
39.2
44.7
504
56.9
63.8
71.6
80.6
935
106.7
1230
140.0
158.0
1812
2110
239.4
2678
294.1
3218
346.1
381.1
4287
477il
537.7
586.5
646.6
697.4
7391
784.2
514.2
530.6
547.2
558.8
568.2
578.6
591.3
607.7
624.2
640.6
655.0
666.8
681.9
691.9
702.9
712.7
722.4
732.9
743.6
757.5
771.0
779.5
787.8
798.5
800.4
811.2
818.9
TABLE B-15.—Real personal consumption expenditures, 1959-96
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Durable goods
Year or
quarter
FurniPersonal
conMotor ture
vehisumption
and
expendi- Total 1 cles house- Total 1
and hold
tures
parts equipment
Nondurable goods
Cloth- Gaso- Fuel
ing
line ooili
on/4
nr
dllu
and dill)
shoes oil coal
Food
1,394.6 103.1 53.5 31.7 606.3 355.9
1,432.6 105.2 56.8 31.3 615.4 358.7
1,461.5 101.2 51.2 31.9 626.7 362.7
1,533.8 113.0 60.8 33.9 646.5 367.3
1,596.6 124.0 68.4 36.4 660.0 371.4
1,692.3 135.5 72.4 41.1 692,5 386.3
1 7991 1526 840 449 7293 4079
1,902.0 165.5 85.5 50.7 769.2 424.7
19586 1681 836 531 7814 4302
2',070:2 186.6 97.2 56.5 816.9 450.9
2,147.5 193.3 101.2 58.0 838.6 462.5
2,197.8 187.0 91.2 58.6 859.1 477.2
2,279.5 205.7 108.7 60.9 874.5 481.6
2,415.9 231.9 124.3 67.5 912.9 496.8
25326 2558 1357 748 9429 4984
2^514.7 238.2 112.5 75.6 924.5 490.6
2,570.0 238.1 113.2 73.9 938.3 502.6
2,714.3 268.5 136.8 78.8 984.8 529.4
2,829.8 293.4 151.5 85.5 1,010.4 541.2
2,951.6 308.8 158.0 90.5 1,045.7 545.7
3,020.2 307.3 147.4 95.4 1,069.7 555.1
3,009.7 282.6 127.5 93.5 1,065.1 558.7
3,046.4 285.8 130.5 93.5 1,074.3 557.9
3,081.5 285.5 133.9 91.3 1,080.6 565.1
3,240.6 327.4 160.5 103.5 1,112.4 579.7
3,407.6 3749 187.7 115.5 1,151.8 589.9
3,566.5 411.4 211.2 125.3 1,178.3 602.2
3,708.7 448.4 224.8 140.6 1,215.9 614.0
38223 4549 2162 1499 12393 6208
3i972.7 483.5 229.4 160.8 1,274.4 641.6
4,064.6 496.2 230.3 170.9 1,303.5 650.1
4,132.2 493.3 224.3 173.5 1,316.1 662.9
4,105.8 462.0 193.2 177.0 1,302.9 659.6
4,219.8 488.5 206.9 189.4 1,321.8 660.0
4,339.5 524.1 218.6 208.4 1,348.8 674.3
4,473.2 562.0 228.2 230.1 1,390.5 689.1
4,577.8 579.8 221.1 251.1 1,421.9 702.1
1990:1
4,128.9 511.2 237.6 176.0 1,319.2 659.0
II
4,134.7 495.4 226.4 173.9 1,316.9 664.2
Ill
4,148.5 490.4 223.1 172.5 1,319.8 665.5
IV
4,116.4 476.3 210.0 171.5 1,308.4 662.9
1991:1
4,084.5 458.6 191.4 173.0 1,300.6 658.7
II
4,110.0 460.5 189.6 177.7 1,308.0 661.5
Ill
4,119.5 467.3 197.2 179.2 1,307.1 661.6
IV
4,109.1 461.5 194.6 178.0 1,295.7 656.5
1992:1
4,173.8 476.1 201.7 183.7 1,314.4 661.0
II
4,196.4 481.1 204.5 186.0 1,312.0 653.9
4,226.7 491.9 207.4 191.3 1,321.1 656.4
Ill
IV
4,282.3 505.0 213.9 196.4 1,339.8 668.6
4,289.7 506.0 210.8 200.7 1,336.9 670.5
1993:1
II
4,318.8 519.6 219.0 205.0 1,344.5 672.9
Ill
4,359.5 528.9 * 219.1 211.0 1,354.0 675.7
IV
4,390.0 541.9 225.3 216.8 1,359.9 677.9
1994:1
4,420.5 549.6 230.3 219.0 1,372.9 682.3
II
4,458.7 555.4 226.6 226.1 1,383.9 688.6
4,489.4 563.1 226.5 232.6 1,397.0 690.5
Ill
IV
4,524.0 579.8 229.4 242.6 1,408.1 694.9
1995:1
4,534.8 566.5 216.3 243.1 1,416.6 700.5
II
4,569.9 576.2 220.9 247.1 1,422.9 701.3
Ill
4,597.3 589.1 226.4 254.1 1,424.7 703.6
IV
4,609.4 587.5 220.6 259.9 1,423.2 703.0
1996:1
4,649.1 599.2 224.2 264.1 1,436.1 709.2
II
4,687.6 615.6 225.9 276.0 1,440.9 704.9
III
4,693.5 611.6 220.0 279.0 1,442.2 701.6
1
Includes
other
items not shown separately.
2
Includes imputed rental value of owner-occupied housing.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Services
68.6
69.3
70.6
73.7
75.1
81.0
843
90.0
905
94.3
96.0
94.8
99.4
106.1
1135
111.9
115.7
121.2
127.8
139.9
145.8
148.1
156.0
157.1
167.3
179.9
186.5
199.9
2054
210.0
220.7
217.9
215.9
225.5
233.3
247.2
257.2
221.5
217.3
217.6
215.1
214.0
218.9
217.5
213.1
220.4
223.2
227.7
230.9
227.4
232.3
235.0
238.6
241.1
243.3
249.0
255.5
254.6
257.9
258.8
257.3
262.5
268.9
271.0
317
46.9
48.5
49.0
51.1
52.7
55.5
582
61.8
638
68.2
72.8
77.3
81.1
84.4
888
84.4
86.9
90.4
93.2
95.3
94.0
88.6
89.9
91.0
93.0
95.9
97.8
102.5
1053
106.5
108.1
107.3
103.4
106.6
109.1
110.4
113.3
109.3
107.5
107.4
104.9
103.3
104.0
103.8
102.5
104.8
106.1
108.2
107.3
108.2
108.0
110.9
109.3
108.8
109.5
111.6
111.6
113.4
113.6
112.5
113.7
112.6
114.3
113.4
26.7
25.6
24.4
24.3
25.5
26.5
277
28.5
286
27.0
25.6
23.8
23.0
25.3
275
21.7
21.3
23.9
23.1
23.0
21.3
16.5
13.8
12.8
12.9
1?8
13.0
13.4
130
13.2
12.6
11.2
10.8
10.9
10.7
10.3
10.3
10.7
11.8
12.3
9.9
10.4
10.8
11.4
10.6
10.5
11.9
10.5
10.7
10.9
10.6
10.7
10.6
11.4
10.0
10.2
9.6
9.9
10.6
10.0
10.7
10.7
10.1
10.1
Household
operation
Total 1
687.4
717.4
746.5
783.4
818.7
868.4
9146
961.0
10076
1,059.6
1,110.8
1,155.4
1,197.9
1,262.5
13194
1,351.2
1,398.3
1,457.1
1,518.2
1,589.3
1,639.8
1,670.7
1,696.1
1,728.2
1,809.0
1,883.0
1,977.3
2,041.4
21269
2,212.4
2,262.3
2,321.3
2,341.0
2,409.4
2,466.7
2,521.4
2,577.0
2,295.7
2,321.1
2,337.3
2,331.2
2,325.3
2,341.5
2,345.0
2,352.0
2,383.2
2,403.2
2,413.6
2,437.6
2,446.8
2,454.9
2,476.7
2,488.5
2,498.5
2,519.9
2,530.0
2,537.3
2,552.5
2,571.6
2,584.6
2,599.3
2,614.7
2,632.3
2,640.6
Housinn
ing 2
195.4
205.6
215.3
227.4
237.9
249.0
2626
274.6
2868
300.9
316.8
329.3
343.5
361.5
3794
399.1
410.6
422.9
433.3
454.5
472.7
486.6
497.8
500.9
511.8
531.8
551.1
565.5
5834
600.9
614.6
627.2
635.2
646.8
655.0
668.2
681.7
623.4
626.3
628.5
630.6
631.6
634.1
636.4
638.6
642.6
645.5
648.5
650.6
652.2
653.5
655.9
658.5
662.1
666.1
670.7
674.1
677.4
680.0
683.2
686.3
689.0
691.6
693.9
Total
1
79.7
83.5
86.5
90.7
94.6
99.2
1042
109.8
1153
119.9
125.9
130.2
132.2
138.9
1460
147.5
154.6
161.4
170.3
178.6
183.3
187.4
185.9
187.0
193.0
197.7
205.6
209.8
2194
229.2
237.6
240.1
243.4
248.2
261.2
266.0
276.8
233.7
241.3
243.7
241.9
238.2
246.9
246.1
242.5
243.6
249.9
243.3
256.1
257.0
258.0
264.9
265.0
258.8
269.8
268.1
267.2
270.1
277.2
280.8
278.9
280.8
285.6
282.2
Trans- MediElec- porta- cal
tricity tion care
and
gas
36.9
38.9
40.9
43.7
45.8
48.3
506
53.4
564
59.4
62.7
65.4
67.2
70.8
728
73.7
77.8
80.5
84.4
87.6
88.3
90.7
89.4
90.3
93.0
93.6
96.1
95.1
984
103.4
105.6
103.7
107.0
106.6
112.4
111.5
113.6
98.6
104.8
106.2
105.3
103.5
110.9
108.5
105.1
103.2
106.8
106.6
109.7
111.6
110.0
114.1
113.7
112.9
115.2
110.4
107.6
109,4
114.3
117.2
113.4
115.4
117.9
114.4
55.1 132.7
56.9 136.7
57.5 141.7
59.7 153.3
62.1 162.7
65.4 180.5
684 1889
72.7 197.6
7 7 2 2048
81.9 220.8
86.5 237.2
89.1 250.8
92.3 268.3
98.1 286.4
1006 307.6
101.1 320.2
103.0 337.3
107.3 353.5
114.8 371.2
118.0 385.7
121.7 401.1
115.6 415.5
111.7 436.4
109.9 442.2
117.0 459.7
128.6 4724
140.6 490.7
145.7 510.3
1510 537.3
159.0 561.3
160.8 575.8
159.9 602.8
152.3 621.6
158.1 646.6
162.6 658.8
171.3 668.8
177.0 684.1
161.7 591.9
160.9 600.7
159.7 608.0
157.3 610.6
152.6 614.3
152.1 617.9
151.8 623.3
152.6 630.8
155.4 638.2
156.7 645.9
160.5 650.3
159.6 652.2
160.6 656.6
161.5 .657.5
162.8 659.7
165.7 661.4
168.2 663.2
170.3 667.6
172.1 670.4
174.5 674.2
175.6 677.8
175.9 681.3
176.4 686.0
180.0 691.2
182.5 691.1
183.3 696.1
185.2 699.7
TABLE B-16.—Private gross fixed investment by type, 1959-96
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Nonresidential
Producers' durable equipment
Structures
Year or
quarter
.
Private
fixed
invest-
Total
nondential
Total >
Nonresidential Utilibuildings ties
including
farm
Mining
exploration,
shafts,
and
wells
74.6
4.9
46.5
18.1
10.6
75.5
49.2
19.6
5.0
12.0
75.0
19.7
12.7
4.6
48.6
13.7
81.8
52.8
4.6
20.8
87.7
21.2
55.6
5.0
13.9
96.7
62.4
5.4
23.7
15.8
74.1
108.3
28.3
6.1
19.5
116.7
84.4
7.1
31.3
21.3
117.6
85.2
7.8
31.5
20.6
130.8
92.1
9.2
33.6
21.1
37.7
24.4
145.5
102.9
9.6
106.7
148.1
25.4
40.3
11.1
111.7
42.7
27.1
167.5
11.9
195.7
126.1
47.2
30.1 13.1
225.4
150.0
55.0
35.5 15.0
231.5
165.6
61.2
38.3
16.5
231.7
61.4
169.0
35.6 17.1
269.6
187.2
65.9
35.9 20.0
223.2
333.5
74.6
21.5
39.9
91.4
24.1
403.6
272.0
49.7
464.0
323.0
65.7
27.5
114.9
73.7
30.2
473.5
350.3
133.9
405.4
528.1
164.6
86.3 33.0
515.6
409.9
175.0
94.5 32.5
399.4
152.7
552.0
90.5 28.7
648.1
468.3
176.0
110.0 30.0
688.9
502.0
193.3
128.0 30.6
31.2
712.9
494.8
175.8
123.3
495.4
172.1
722.9
126.0 26.5
763.1
530.6
181.3
133.3 27.1
29.4
142.7
797.5
566.2
192.3
791.6
575.9
200.8
148.9 27.5
181.7
738.5
31.6
547.3
126.1
783.4
557.9
113.2 34.5
169.2
850.5
598.8
116.6 32.0
171.8
33.7
954.9
667.2
180.2
126.2
1,028.2
199.7
738.5
38.5
142.0
1990:1 ....
813.9
581.2 201.9
27.0
150.8
II ...
794.0
202.4
571.6
151.2 27.0
Ill ..
791.2
151.4 27.5
580.3
203.5
IV ..
28.4
195.4
767.5
570.6
142.1
739.7
136.4
1991:1 ....
555.4
30.0
192.3
II ...
736.2
550.2
187.6
130.9 31.3
lit ..
121.4
738.6
544.3
32.3
176.1
IV ..
739.5
539.2
115.7 33.0
170.8
755.4
544.1
1992:1 ....
34.3
117.2
171.6
II ...
170.4
780.5
556.8
34.8
114.0
Ill ..
788.1
561.0
110.6 34.7
167.6
IV ..
809.7
167.1
569.6
34.2
111.0
1993:1 ....
823.8
580.3
170.2
113.6 32.8
II ...
834.3
591.1
169.7
113.8 31.9
Ill ..
171.4
117.1 31.7
851.8
599.2
IV ..
892.3
624.6
121.8 31.7
175.8
1994:1 ....
917.4
638.8
118.7 32.3
171.8
II ...
942.0
179.1
653.5
125.3 33.0
Ill ..
126.4 34.2
968.9
678.5
181.0
991.4
134.4
IV ..
697.9
35.2
188.8
1995:1 ....
1,013.9
723.6
194.5
137.9
36.3
II ... 1,016.3
734.4
197.6
140.3 37.9
I I I . . 1,036.6
39.7
144.0
746.3
202.5
IV .. 1,046.2
749.7
145.8 40.2
204.0
1,070.7
208.4
1996:1 ....
769.0
147.3
40.9
207.4
II ... 1,088.0
773.8
146.2
41.5
Ill .. 1,119.6
807.0
213.5
151.1 41.3
1
Includes other items, not shown separately.
2
Includes new computers and peripheral equipment only.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
2.5
2.3
2.3
2.5
2.3
2.4
2.4
2.5
2.4
2.6
2.8
2.8
2.7
3.1
3.5
5.2
7.4
8.6
11.5
15.4
19.0
27.4
42.5
44.8
30.0
31.3
27.9
15.7
13.1
15.7
14.4
17.5
17.1
13.3
15.6
13.5
12.0
16.8
17.6
17.6
18.1
19.4
18.9
15.2
15.0
12.8
13.3
13.3
13.8
15.8
16.0
15.5
15.1
14.4
14.1
13.0
12.4
13.2
11.5
11.9
11.4
13.9
14.1
15.0
318
Information processing
and related equipment
Total 1
Total
28.3
29.7
28.9
32.1
34.4
38.7
45.8
53.0
53.7
58.5
65.2
66.4
69.1
78.9
95.1
104.3
107.6
121.2
148.7
180.6
208.1
216.4
240.9
234.9
246.7
292.3
308.7
319.0
323.3
349.3
373.9
375.1
365.6
388.7
427.0
487.0
538.8
379.3
369.2
376.7
375.1
363.1
362.6
368.2
368.4
372.5
386.3
393.4
402.5
410.1
421.3
427.7
448.8
467.0
474.4
497.5
509.1
529.0
536.8
543.8
545.7
560.6
566.3
593.5
4.0
4.7
5.1
5.4
6.1
6.8
7.8
9.6
10.0
10.6
12.9
14.3
14.9
16.5
19.8
22.9
23.5
27.2
33.1
41.8
49.9
58.9
69.5
72.7
82.0
98.6
104.2
108.8
109.8
118.2
127.1
124.2
122.6
134.2
141.8
160.4
183.2
127.8
123.9
121.5
123.4
119.3
121.6
123.5
125.9
129.2
133.0
137.7
136.8
136.8
137.9
144.5
148.0
152.5
157.7
161.6
169.9
174.6
183.3
183.1
191.8
198.2
200.8
212.2
Computers and
peripheral
equip-2
ment
0.0
.2
.3
.3
.7
.9
1.2
1.7
1.9
1.9
2.4
2.7
2.8
3.5
3.5
3.9
3.6
4.4
5.7
7.6
10.2
12.5
17.1
18.9
23.9
31.6
33.7
33.4
35.8
38.1
43.3
38.9
38.1
43.9
48.7
54.5
63.6
41.3
38.9
36.8
38.6
36.7
37.2
37.8
40.7
41.9
44.4
44.6
44.9
47.2
46.8
49.7
51.2
52.1
53.7
54.4
57.7
58.4
62.8
63.3
69.7
73.7
74.2
79.3
Other
4.0
4.5
4.8
5.1
5.3
5.8
6.6
7.9
8.1
8.6
10.4
11.6
12.1
13.1
16.3
19.0
19.9
22.8
27.5
34.2
39.8
46.4
52.3
53.9
58.1
67.0
70.5
75.4
74.0
80.1
83.8
85.2
84.5
90.2
93.0
106.0
119.6
86.5
85.0
84.7
84.7
82.7
84.5
85.6
85.2
87.3
88.6
93.1
91.9
89.6
91.0
94.8
96.8
100.4
104.0
107.2
112.2
116.2
120.6
119.7
122.0
124.5
126.6
132.9
Industrial
u idi
equipmerit
8.4
9.3
8.7
9.2
10.0
11.4
13.6
16.1
16.8
17.2
18.9
20.2
19.4
21.3
25.9
30.5
31.1
33.9
39.2
47.4
55.8
60.4
65.2
62.2
58.2
67.4
71.7
74.6
75.9
82.9
91.5
89.8
86.4
89.3
97.6
109.7
124.5
91.7
88.9
90.3
88.1
87.8
86.4
86.3
85.2
86.2
87.7
90.5
92.8
94.3
95.6
97.8
102.8
105.4
107.6
111.3
114.6
120.4
126.9
125.8
124.9
127.9
131.2
128.7
Transportation
and
related
equipment
8.3
8.5
8.0
9.8
9.4
10.6
13.2
14.5
14.3
17.6
18.9
16.2
18.4
21.8
26.6
26.3
25.2
30.0
39.3
47.3
53.6
48.4
50.6
46.8
53.7
64.8
69.7
71.8
70.4
76.0
71.2
75.5
79.5
86.2
99.2
117.1
124.9
74.0
71.4
78.5
78.3
78.1
77.3
81.9
80.6
79.5
87.8
85,5
91.9
94.0
100.9
97.0
105.1
113.0
110.5
122.9
122.1
127.2
121.0
128.4
123.0
125.3
123.7
137.7
Residential
28.1
26.3
26.4
29.0
32.1
34.3
34.2
32.3
32.4
38.7
42.6
41.4
55.8
69.7
75.3
66.0
62.7
82.5
110.3
131.6
141.0
123.2
122.6
105.7
152.5
179.8
186.9
218.1
227.6
232.5
231.3
215.7
191.2
225.6
251.7
287.7
289.8
232.7
222.4
210.9
196.9
184.3
185.9
194.3
200.3
211.3
223.7
227.1
240.1
243.5
243.2
252.6
267.7
278.5
288.5
290.4
293.5
290.4
281.9
290.3
296.5
301.7
314.2
312.6
TABLE B-17.—Real private gross fixed investment by type, 1959-96
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Nonresidential
Structures
Year or
quarter
Producers' durable equipment
Information processing
and related equipment
Priuatp
rl IVdlc
fixed
invest-
Total
nondential Total 1
Nonresidential
buildings
including
farm
Utilities
Mining
exploration,
shafts,
and
wells
Total
267.1 147.7
52.4 20.2
11.0
85.8
269.2 155.9
10.3
92.6
59.9 20.4
2679 1545
105
633 189
939
674 19.0
292.0 168.0
98.1
11.0
20.4
313.7 176.4
10.4
99.2
67.5
343.7 197.1
11.1
109.5
75.0 22.2
894 24.4
378.5 2313
1269
11.0
10.4
399.1 259.4
135.6
94.2 27.8
3910 2553
1322
99
887 298
134.1
418.1 266.4
10.0
86^2 33.3
10.4
442.9 285.6
141.3
92.7 33.4
432.1 282.8
141.7
91.1 35.7
9.8
139.4
89.4 36.1
464.9 282.4
9.1
143.7
9.7
520.3 307.7
91.8 37.6
155.4
10.4
567.5 352.5
100.3 40.0
530.2 354.4
152.2
12.3
97.6 37.6
14.4
471.0 317.3 136.2
82.5 34.4
517.6 332.6
139.6
15.6
80.6 38.0
146.4
593.7 371.8
18.0
83.6 38.2
20.0
660.8 422.6
162.3
95.3 40.0
182.7
695.6 463.3
21.3
113.5 41.3
648.4 461.1
114.4 41.2
195.0
30.0
210.4
660.6 485.7
34.9
122.8 42.0
610.4 464.3 207.2
126.6 39.5
32.2
185.7
26.7
654.2 456.4
117.6 34.2
762.4 535.4
212.2
30.3
137.6 35.4
27.0
799.3 568.4
227.8
155.2 35.6
805.0 548.5
203.3
15.8
144.5 36.5
799.4 542.4
195.9
142.4 30.7
15.5
196.8
15.8
818.3 566.0
145.3 30.0
832.0 588.8 201.2
150.2 30.9
13.9
805.8 585.2
16.1
203.3
152.0 28.1
15.7
741.3 547.7
181.6
126.9 32.0
783.4 557.9
169.2
13.3
113.2 34.5
836.4 593.6
14.8
166.3
112.8 31.1
921.1 652.1
117.7 31.7
168.8
12.6
975.9 714.3
11.2
181.1
127.9 35.1
1990:1 ....
834.7 595.3
155.4 27.7
15.8
206.5
II ...
811.2 583.4 205.5
154.7 27.6
16.3
Ill ..
803.1 588.1
205.2
16.1
153.8 28.1
IV ..
774.4 573.9
16.3
196.0
143.8 28.9
1991:1 ....
742.6 555.1
192.2
17.3
137.6 30.4
II ...
739.4 550.9
131.7 31.7
187.2
17.0
Ill ..
741.0 545.3
175.5
121.7 32.6
14.0
IV ..
171.4
116.4 33.3
14.4
742.0 539.5
12.7
1992:1 ....
172.7
34.6
758.3 544.4
118.1
782.4
II ...
557.5
171.0
114.4 34.8
13.3
Ill ..
167.4
110.4 34.6
13.4
787.3 560.6
IV ..
13.7
805.8 569.1
165.6
109.8 33.9
815.4 577.5
1993:1 ....
111.4 32.4
15.2
167.0
II ...
821.1 586.4
15.2
164.8
110.6 31.0
Ill ..
835.4 593.1
112.7 30.7
165.1
14.6
IV ..
168.2
873.5 617.6
14.2
116.3 30.5
1994:1 ....
892.4 628.5
112.4 30.7
13.4
163.0
II...
911.4 639.5 169.0
13.3
117.8 31.2
Ill ..
117.4 32.1
930.8 660.5
12.2
169.1
IV ..
949.7 679.7
174.3
11.5
123.3 32.7
1995:1 ....
125.4 33.7
969.5 704.4
178.5
12.5
II ...
965.7 710.5
10.7
180.0
126.8 34.8
Ill ..
980.0 719.0
11.0
182.8
129.2 35.8
IV..
988.5 723.3
183.2
10.5
130.3 36.0
1996:1 ....
1,013.3 743.5
186.6
131.4 36.4
12.8
II... 1,031.1 750.5 184.9
129.7 36.8
12.9
Ill .. 1,057.5 781.4
13.5
188.6
133.0 36.4
1
Includes other items, not shown separately.
2
Includes new computers and peripheral equipment only.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
319
ers and
Total
71.4
74.3
725
81.0
87.1
98.1
1159
133.8
1325
140.5
152.2
149.5
150.7
169.8
201.2
205.4
183.9
195.2
225.6
259.6
280.7
268.2
278.2
260.3
272.4
324.6
342.4
345.9
346.9
369.2
387.6
381.9
366.2
388.7
427.6
484.1
534.5
388.8
377.8
383.0
377.9
362.9
363.8
369.8
368.1
371.7
386.4
393.1
403.5
410.5
421.7
428.2
449.8
466.4
471.1
492.5
506.5
527.2
531.7
537.4
541.4
558.3
567.5
595.0
Industrial
lildl
Comput-
1
peripheral
equip-2
ment
2.5
3.0
32
3i
4.1
4.6
55
7.1
75
s!o
9.7
10.7
11.4
12.9
15.4
17.5
16.9
19.4
24.1
31.7
38.6
45.4
52.5
54.5
63.4
79.8
88.0
94.1
97.5
106.6
116.2
116.2
117.8
134.2
147.1
170.4
201.1
119.2
116.1
113.8
115.7
112.5
116.2
119.7
122.5
126.7
132.4
138.6
138.9
139.5
142.2
150.7
156.0
161.2
166.6
171.6
182.4
189.1
199.7
201.4
214.4
225.5
234.1
250.5
o.'i'
.1
.1
.2
.2
.2
.2
.3
.5
1.0
1.5
2.4
3.8
4.7
7.1
11.6
14.5
16.7
21.0
24.0
29.4
29.4
32.4
43.9
56.2
69.3
91.5
30.6
29.3
27.9
29.9
29.2
30.8
33.2
36.6
39.2
43.4
45.7
47.5
51.1
52.9
58.3
62.5
64.5
67.1
69.3
76.3
80.2
88.2
91.9
105.6
117.2
126.3
138.9
Other
9.8
11.1
118
12.5
13.0
14.1
16.0
18.9
189
19.5
22.8
24.5
24.7
26.0
31.7
34.8
33.3
36.6
43.8
52.4
59.5
64.9
68.5
67.0
70.4
79.0
81.9
84.6
80.2
85.7
88.1
88.2
85.9
90.2
91.5
102.6
114.2
89.8
88.2
87.6
87.1
84.3
86.2
87.1
86.2
87.7
88.9
92.8
91.5
88.6
89.6
93.1
94.6
97.8
100.8
103.6
108.3
111.5
115.1
114.0
116.2
118.1
119.7
125.5
equipment
38.8
41.9
397
41.8
45.1
51.0
60.2
69.2
695
68.1
72.6
73.7
67.7
73.0
86.2
92.8
78.6
79.0
83.6
93.0
99.8
95.5
94.1
85.5
78.5
89.9
94.1
93.5
91.1
95.3
101.5
95.0
88.3
89.3
96.3
105.9
116.2
98.6
94.8
95.1
91.4
89.7
88.7
88.4
86.4
86.8
88.1
89.8
92.6
93.7
94.4
96.3
100.7
102.8
104.3
107.0
109.4
114.2
118.4
116.6
115.4
117.8
120.6
118.0
Transportation
and
related
equipment
28.0
28.8
270
33:4
32.1
36.3
455
50.1
484
58.2
60.5
49.7
53.6
62.3
75.0
67.9
58.4
65.0
79.1
87.3
91.0
74.2
72.0
63.7
71.7
85.1
88.4
85.6
82.1
87.1
78.9
81.2
81.7
86.2
97.5
111.7
118.1
80.3
77.4
84.3
82.8
81.2
79.9
83.9
81.6
79.9
87.9
85.4
91.5
93.0
99.5
95.0
102.7
109.0
105.3
115.8
116.6
121.9
114.9
120.3
115.4
117.5
114.9
126.5
Residential
131.1
121.8
1222
133.9
149.6
158.3
1537
140.0
1356
154.0
158.6
149.1
190.0
223.7
222.3
176.4
153.5
189.7
229.8
245.0
236.0
186.1
171.2
140.1
197.6
226.4
229.5
257.0
257.6
252.5
243.2
220.6
193.4
225.6
242.7
268.9
262.8
239.4
227.8
214.9
200.3
187.4
188.3
195.6
202.4
213.9
224.9
226.7
236.7
237.9
234.8
242.2
255.8
263.6
271.6
270.3
270.3
265.9
256.5
262.2
266.3
271.1
281.5
277.8
TABLE B-18.—Government consumption expenditures and gross investment by type, 1959-96
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Government consumption expenditures and gross investment
Federal
Year or
quarter
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1990:1 ....
II ...
Ill ..
IV ..
1991:1 ....
II ...
Ill ..
IV ..
1992:1 ....
II ...
Ill ..
IV ..
1993:1 ....
II ...
Ill ..
IV ..
1994:1 ....
II ...
Ill ..
IV ..
1995:1 ....
II ...
Ill ..
IV ..
1996:1 ....
II ...
Ill ..
Tntfll
lUldl
112.0
113.2
120.9
131.4
137.7
144.4
153.0
173.6
194.6
212.1
223.8
236.1
249.9
268.9
287.6
323.2
362.6
385.9
416.9
457.9
507.1
572.8
633.4
684.8
735.7
796.6
875.0
938.5
992.8
1,032.0
1,095.1
1,176.1
1,225.9
1,263.8
1,290.4
1,314.7
1,358.3
1,153.0
1,164.3
1,176.9
1,210.4
1,220.6
1,227.4
1,226.5
1,229.2
1,247.9
1,256.4
1,270.7
1,280.0
1,279.3
1,285.1
1,294.1
1,303.2
1,296.4
1,300.8
1,328.2
1,333.5
1,345.8
1,359.4
1,364.6
1,363.4
1,383.7
1,408.8
1,414.8
Total
67.2
65.6
69.1
76.5
78.1
79.4
81.8
94.1
106.6
113.8
115.8
115.9
117.1
125.1
128.2
139.9
154.5
162.7
178.4
194.4
215.0
248.4
284.1
313.2
344.5
372.6
410.1
435.2
455.7
457.3
477.2
503.6
522.6
528.0
522.6
516.4
516.6
496.4
500.1
501.2
516.7
525.6
528.2
520.9
515.5
521.8
523.2
532.0
535.0
525.5
520.1
521.3
523.5
511.3
509.4
523.8
520.9
519.7
522.0
516.8
507.7
518.6
529.6
525.5
Tntal
lOldl
55.7
54.9
57.7
62.3
62.2
61.3
62.0
73.4
85.5
92.0
92.4
90.6
88.7
93.2
94.7
101.9
110.9
116.1
125.8
135.6
151.2
174.2
202.0
230.9
255.0
282.7
312.4
332.4
350.4
354.0
360.6
373.1
383.5
375.8
362.7
352.0
345.5
369.7
370.6
368.9
383.3
389.7
389.3
382.1
373.0
372.8
374.1
380.9
375.3
365.7
362.7
361.2
361.3
346.7
349.3
362.3
349.7
347.6
351.7
345.7
337.1
343.9
353.7
348.8
National defense
P
Pnn.
\A1H~
sumpinvestment
110 II
expenditures
42.0
42.5
43.9
47.8
49.6
49.9
52.0
61.2
71.3
78.9
80.0
78.6
79.2
82.3
83.7
90.1
97.0
101.3
109.6
118.4
130.7
150.9
174.3
197.6
214.9
236.3
257.6
272.7
287.6
297.9
303.3
312.7
325.4
319.7
313.5
305.8
302.3
311.7
310.8
307.3
321.0
331.3
328.6
323.1
318.5
317.2
317.3
323.5
320.7
314.4
312.6
315.1
312.0
301.3
303.4
313.5
305.0
302.8
304.8
301.4
300.1
298.7
307.4
304.7
Struc- Equiptures ment
2.5
2.2
2.4
2.0
1.6
1.3
1.1
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.5
1.3
1.8
1.8
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.1
2.4
2.5
2.5
3.2
3.2
4.0
4.8
4.9
6.2
6.8
7.7
7.4
6.4
6.1
4.6
5.2
4.8
4.9
5.3
6.3
6.3
6.4
5.3
4.8
4.8
4.5
4.5
5.2
5.5
4.8
5.5
4.7
4.7
4.9
4.7
4.8
4.7
5.1
4.9
5.7
4.9
5.5
5.3
5.0
5.1
5.1
11.2
10.1
11.5
12.5
11.0
10.2
8.9
11.0
13.0
11.8
10.9
10.7
7.7
9.1
8.9
9.7
11.6
12.6
13.8
14.6
18.0
20.1
24.5
29.4
35.4
41.5
48.5
52.9
55.1
48.7
51.0
54.3
53.5
50.9
44.4
41.4
37.9
51.7
53.5
55.2
57.0
53.6
55.9
54.5
50.0
50.4
51.4
52.7
49.1
46.6
45.5
41.1
44.6
40.7
41.3
43.8
39.8
39.1
42.1
38.8
31.7
40.1
41.2
39.0
State and local
Nondefense
Tntal
I UUH
11.5
10.8
11.4
14.2
15.9
18.1
19.7
20.7
21.0
21.8
23.4
25.3
28.3
31.9
33.5
38.0
43.6
46.6
52.6
58.9
63.8
74.2
82.2
82.3
89.4
89.9
97.7
102.9
105.3
103.3
116.7
130.4
139.1
152.2
159.9
164.3
171.0
126.7
129.5
132.3
133.3
136.0
138.9
138.8
142.6
149.0
149.1
151.1
159.7
159.8
157.4
160.1
162.2
164.6
160.0
161.5
171.2
172.1
170.3
171.1
170.6
174.7
175.8
176.7
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
320
Consump-
«
investment
expenditures
Struc- Equiptures ment
tinn
UOII
9.9
8.8
9.0
11.3
12.4
14.0
15.1
15.9
17.0
18.2
20.0
21.9
24.6
27.8
29.2
33.2
38.0
40.4
45.7
50.4
55.2
64.3
71.7
72.3
78.2
77.9
84.9
89.7
90.7
89.9
101.9
113.9
120.6
131.4
138.4
144.9
151.5
110.0
112.9
115.9
116.7
119.3
120.5
120.6
122.0
128.5
129.1
130.9
137.0
136.9
135.9
138.4
142.3
145.4
141.7
142.2
150.4
151.8
150.8
152.2
151.3
154.9
156.1
156.6
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.8
2.8
2.2
2.1
1.9
2.1
2.5
2.7
3.1
3.4
4.1
4.6
5.0
6.1
6.3
7.1
7.7
6.8
6.7
7.0
7.3
8.0
9.0
6.8
6.9
8.0
9.2
10.3
11.2
10.5
10.1
8.2
8.1
8.1
7.6
7.7
9.1
9.1
10.8
10.3
10.2
9.6
11.0
11.7
10.8
11.3
11.0
10.6
9.9
10.0
11.5
11.0
10.2
9.3
9.9
9.7
10.0
9.6
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.8
1.1
1.6
1.8
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.4
1.4
1.6
1.9
2.3
2.4
2.9
2.8
3.2
4.5
5.0
5.4
5.2
5.6
6.6
7.9
8.6
9.3
10.5
10.3
8.9
9.4
8.5
8.4
8.3
9.1
9.0
9.3
9.1
9.8
10.1
9.9
10.5
11.6
11.2
10.7
10.5
8.9
8.5
8.4
9.4
9.4
9.3
9.3
9.6
9.4
10.1
9.7
10.5
vUll-
Total
tion
cxpciiu-
itures
44.8
47.6
51.8
55.0
59.6
65.0
71.2
79.5
88.1
98.3
108.0
120.2
132.8
143.8
159.4
183.3
208.1
223.1
238.5
263.4
292.0
324.4
349.2
371.6
391.2
424.0
464.9
503.3
537.2
574.7
617.9
672.6
703.4
735.8
767.8
798.4
841.7
656.6
664.2
675.7
693.7
695.0
699.2
705.5
713.6
726.1
733.2
738.7
745.1
753.8
765.0
772.7
779.7
785.0
791.4
804.4
812.6
826.1
837.3
847.7
855.7
865.1
879.2
889.3
30.9
33.7
36.7
39.1
42.2
46.0
50.5
56.5
62.9
70.8
79.8
91.6
102.9
113.4
126.4
144.0
164.9
179.7
196.1
214.5
235.9
261.3
285.3
307.9
326.2
350.8
382.6
412.7
441.1
471.3
507.2
550.1
579.4
603.6
627.9
651.7
682.6
535.3
543.9
554.0
567.3
572.1
576.9
581.5
587.3
592.6
600.8
607.4
613.6
620.8
626.0
630.8
634.1
642.4
647.3
655.4
661.9
672.1
680.1
686.2
691.9
701.3
710.2
719.3
Gross
investment
Ctrnr
oliUl*
tures
12.8
12.7
13.8
14.5
16.0
17.2
19.0
21.0
23.0
25.2
25.6
25.8
27.0
27.1
29.1
34.7
38.1
38.1
36.9
42.8
49.0
55.1
55.4
54.2
54.2
60.5
67.6
74.2
78.8
84.8
88.7
98.5
100.5
108.1
113.9
119.0
130.0
97.7
96.5
97.6
102.4
99.3
99.0
100.8
102.9
109.9
108.6
107.1
106.9
107.7
113.3
115.7
119.1
115.5
116.7
121.1
122.7
125.5
128.3
132.3
134.0
133.8
138.7
139.4
tv]Ulp-
ment
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.3
2.6
2.8
2.9
3.3
3.8
4.6
5.1
5.3
5.4
6.1
7.1
8.1
8.5
9.4
10.8
12.7
14.8
16.4
17.2
18.6
21.9
23.9
23.4
24.0
25.9
27.7
29.1
23.6
23.9
24.1
24.1
23.7
23.3
23.2
23.4
23.6
23.8
24.2
24.6
25.3
25.7
26.2
26.5
27.1
27.5
27.9
28.1
28.5
28.9
29.3
29.7
30.0
30.3
30.6
TABLE B-19-—Real government consumption expenditures and gross investment by type, 1959-96
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Government consumption expenditures and gross investment
State and local
Federal
Year or
quarter
National defense
Total
618.5
617.2
647.2
686.0
701.9
715.9
737.6
804.6
865.6
892.4
887.5
866.8
851.0
854.1
848.4
862.9
876.3
876.8
884.7
910.6
924.9
941.4
947.7
960.1
987.3
1,018.4
1,080.1
1,135.0
1,165.9
1,180.9
1,213.9
1,250.4
1,258.0
1,263.8
1,261.0
1,260.0
1,260.2
1990:1
1,246.5
II ... 1,248.2
Ill ... 1,246.8
IV... 1,259.9
1991:1
1,262.6
II .... 1,263.8
Ill ... 1,255.1
IV... 1,250.7
1992:1
1,258.5
II ... 1,257.5
Ill ... 1,266.5
IV... 1,272.5
1,257.7
1993:1
II ... 1,258.4
Ill ... 1,261.6
IV... 1,266.2
1,252.4
1994:1
II ... 1,249.8
Ill ... 1,271.2
IV... 1,266.6
1,262.7
1995:1
II ... 1,265.1
Ill ... 1,263.4
IV... 1,249.6
1,254.7
1996:1
II ... 1,278.2
Ill ... 1,276.1
Source: Department
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Total
Total
sumpinvestment
tion
expend- Struc- Equipitures
tures ment
28.4
307.6
259.3
15.5
13.7
301.3
260.8
25.6
313.8
265.8
14.6
29.0
332.4
284.2
12.1
30.9
324.0
287.9
9.9 26.4
309.9
279.3
7.5 24.4
6.7
303.8
281.1
21.0
348.2
318.9
7.0 25.8
393.5
6.4 29.9
360.2
376.7
400.9
6.3 26.1
381.6
361.6
6.8 23.1
349.0
330.1
5.5 21.7
313.7
304.6
7.0
14.6
300.3
285.3
6.3
17.5
6.4
281.2
265.5
17.1
273.5
256.5
5.9
17.9
269.7
5.7
20.4
248.9
264.7
242.5
5.0 21.5
266.4
243.7
5.1 22.0
266.7
244.7
5.1 21.5
271.0
245.9
4.3 24.5
280.7
254.0
5.0 25.5
266.4
296.0
4.8 28.3
316.5
282.0
5.6 32.0
334.6
293.3
6.6 37.0
6.4 41.7
348.1
301.3
374.1
318.2
7.9 48.6
393.4
331.1
8.6 53.7
341.1
409.2
9.2 58.4
405.5
345.3
8.5 51.9
401.6
340.9
6.9 53.8
6.4 56.1
338.9
401.5
338.7
4.7
54.1
397.5
319.7
5.2 50.9
375.8
355.4
307.4
4.4 43.6
337.0
293.6
4.3 39.1
319.6
280.1
4.6 35.0
404.1
6.7 53.9
343.6
6.7
402.8
340.0
56.0
332.4
6.7
396.1
56.9
339.7
403.1
5.6' 57.7
408.4
348.9
4.9 54.6
405.0
343.8
4.9 56.3
395.0
335.2
4.5 55.3
381.7
326.7
4.6 50.4
374.2
318.3
5.2 50.7
373.3
316.5
5.5 51.3
378.7
321.2
4.8 52.7
5.4 48.9
376.8
322.6
361.6
310.9
4.5 46.2
4.4 44.9
356.9
307.5
4.4 40.2
351.6
307.0
4.2 43.2
351.2
303.9
291.7
4.2 39.0
334.8
292.7
4.1 38.6
335.5
300.4
4.4 41.4
346.2
289.7
4.2 37.5
331.3
283.7
325.0
4.9 36.4
4.2 38.6
325.5
282.8
4.7 35.6
319.1
278.9
308.8
275.1
4.5 29.2
311.9
271.6
4.3 36.0
319.4
279.6
4.3 35.6
314.9
276.5
4.2 34.3
of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
360.5
349.4
363.0
393.2
391.8
385.2
385.2
429.1
471.7
476.3
459.9
427.2
397.0
390.2
371.1
368.8
367.9
364.3
370.1
377.7
383.3
399.3
415.9
429.4
452.7
463.7
495.6
518.4
534.4
524.6
531.5
541.9
539.4
528.0
509.2
489.8
472.3
542.9
543.0
538.2
543.5
547.3
547.1
536.3
526.9
525.1
523.3
529.6
534.0
516.1
509.7
505.9
505.0
489.9
483.3
496.7
489.2
481.0
479.4
472.5
456.2
462.9
473.4
469.3
Nondefense
Total
58.8
54.1
55.5
66.8
72.9
79.2
84.6
85.7
84.7
82.5
84.3
83.0
86.3
91.9
91.5
96.4
99.1
100.4
104.3
111.4
112.7
119.0
120.4
113.3
118.5
115.9
121.8
125.2
125.3
119.1
130.1
140.5
142.0
152.2
153.8
152.6
152.3
138.9
140.4
142.2
140.5
139.0
142.2
141.4
145.3
150.8
150.0
150.9
157.1
154.4
152.7
154.2
153.7
154.9
147.8
150.4
157.5
155.6
153.5
153.1
147.0
150.6
153.7
153.9
321
fan
WJH-
Consump-
Gross
investment
expenditures
Struc- Equiptures ment
53.9
47.1
46.5
56.4
60.4
64.5
67.7
68.4
71.5
71.4
75.1
74.6
77.5
83.0
82.3
87.3
89.9
90.2
93.5
98.1
100.4
106.0
107.9
102.3
105.9
102.3
107.4
110.6
109.2
104.8
114.8
123.8
123.6
131.4
132.4
133.5
133.5
122.0
123.7
125.7
124.0
122.4
123.8
123.2
124.7
130.4
129.9
130.7
134.5
131.7
131.4
132.6
134.0
135.8
129.6
131.4
137.1
135.8
134.7
134.8
128.6
131.6
134.7
134.4
7.2
8.1
9.0
10.1
10.9
11.7
12.4
12.3
9.3
8.3
7.1
7.1
7.9
8.1
8.7
8.5
8.9
9.5
9.8
11.3
10.6
10.7
10.5
8.6
8.4
8.7
8.9
9.4
10.3
7.6
7.4
8.3
9.3
10.3
11.0
10.0
9.3
8.5
8.4
8.4
7.7
7.9
9.2
9.1
10.9
10.4
10.2
9.6
10.9
11.5
10.6
11.0
10.6
10.3
9.5
9.5
10.8
10.3
9.4
8.5
8.9
8.8
9.0
8.5
0.4
.6
1.0
1.4
1.9
2.5
3.2
3.4
3.0
2.5
2.2
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.6
1.8
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.7
2.6
3.1
2.9
3.2
4.7
5.2
5.7
5.4
5.9
6.8
7.9
8.5
9.2
10.5
10.4
9.0
9.5
8.5
8.3
8.2
8.9
8.8
9.2
9.0
9.7
10.1
9.8
10.5
11.7
11.3
10.8
10.6
9.0
8.6
8.5
9.4
9.5
9.4
9.4
9.7
9.5
10.2
9.9
11.0
Total
sumption
itures
256.8
267.2
283.8
292.1
309.7
330.9
353.2
375.9
394.2
416.5
428.0
440.0
454.4
464.5
478.5
495.6
510.0
514.3
516.4
534.7
543.5
543.6
532.8
531.4
534.9
555.0
584.7
616.9
631.8
656.6
682.6
708.6
718.7
735.8
751.8
770.5
788.6
703.8
705.4
708.7
716.5
715.5
716.8
718.8
723.8
733.5
734.2
736.9
738.5
741.6
748.8
755.7
761.3
762.7
766.8
774.7
777.7
782.2
786.3
791.5
794.4
792.6
805.5
807.7
Gross
investment
Structures
191.6
59.9
201.8 60.0
213.0
65.0
218.7
67.1
229.5 72.7
244.9 77.5
261.1
83.0
277.7 88.2
289.8
93.9
307.5 98.1
324.4 92.9
344.1
86.0
362.1
83.1
376.0 78.9
389.9
78.3
406.8
78.1
77.4
423.1
429.5 76.1
437.6 71.3
448.1
78.1
452.3 81.4
451.7
81.3
450.3 73.3
455.6 67.0
458.2
66.3
467.9 73.8
487.8 80.9
513.3 85.9
525.5 87.8
545.3 91.6
566.3
93.5
583.2 100.7
593.8 101.3
603.6 108.1
614.6 111.5
629.0 114.4
639.1 121.1
578.1 101.0
581.6 99.0
585.0
99.0
588.2 103.7
590.9 100.6
593.5 99.7
594.2 101.2
596.7 103.7
599.0 110.8
601.7 108.8
605.9 106.8
607.9 106.1
610.3 106.2
612.4 110.9
616.6 113.2
619.1 115.9
624.0 112.0
626.9 113.0
631.2 116.2
633.7 116.5
636.1 118.2
637.9 120.2
640.5 122.5
642.1 123.4
640.9 122.5
649.7 126.3
652.4 125.5
ment
3.1
3.4
3.5
3.8
4.3
4.8
5.1
5.6
5.8
6.1
6.5
6.7
6.8
7.6
8.5
9.3
9.0
8.8
8.6
9.0
9.7
10.3
10.1
10.7
12.1
14.2
16.4
18.0
18.8
20.0
23.0
24.7
23.6
24.0
25.7
27.1
28.4
24.6
24.8
24.8
24.6
23.9
23.7
23.5
23.4
23.6
23.8
24.2
24.6
25.1
25.5
26.0
26.3
26.7
26.9
27.2
27.6
27.9
28.2
28.5
28.9
29.2
29.5
29.9
TABLE B—20.—Inventories and final sales of domestic business, 1959—96
[Billions of dollars, except as noted; seasonally adjusted]
Inventories '
Quarter
Fourth quarter:
Nonfarm
Total 2
Farm
Total 2
Manufacturing
Wholesale
trade
Retail
trade
Other
Final
sales of
domestic
business 3
Ratio of inventories
to final sales of
domestic business
Total
Nonfarm
2.71
3.59
18.3
20.0
51.6
36.5
9.0
98.9
21.4
37.7
3.57
18.6
52.8
2.70
8.9
101.8
103.4
9.2
3.49
2.62
19.1
20.9
54.3
39.5
22.3
9.2
57.6
41.8
3.48
2.61
19.9
109.0
114.4
2.57
3.33
21.3
23.6
9.8
59.6
44.5
47.4
22.7
121.4
24.9
63.2
3.25
2.56
10.6
27.7
11.7
3.22
68.2
52.5
2.51
24.3
131.9
2.67
27.7
30.1
3.35
12.5
148.6
78.3
55.6
161.4
85.2
59.2
335
29.9
31.1
15.3
2.73
34.4
91.4
2.67
31.7
65.1
3.29
16.3
173.8
37.7
35.2
18.1
69.1
3.38
2.75
189.9
99.0
2.74
38.7
3.32
199.7
39.0
19.3
102.8
72.9
79.4
42.1
20.9
3.29
2.66
44.9
211.5
103.5
23.4
109.4
88.5
3.28
2.59
50.0
228.8
46.0
58.7
29.2
125.1
97.5
3.55
2.75
54.8
267.8
105.4
64.2
158.2
3.78
3.13
69.8
38.0
330.3
64.7
338.4
2.87
118.0
3.48
69.3
39.8
164.5
129.7
3.42
77.2
73.3
43.5
375.1
181.1
2.89
3.41
50.4
81.2
145.0
2.90
86.6
421.0
202.8
3.47
228.4
167.6
2.89
94.5
59.1
484.0
101.9
186.4
268.7
3.63
3.01
120.5
105.3
67.5
561.9
3.04
113.7
3.60
622.8
296.5
204.8
138.5
74.0
151.4
678.2
318.1
3.53
3.06
123.9
84.9
221.8
3.30
123.5
84.6
658.0
299.5
232.8
2.83
150.3
154.1
86.4
255.4
2.67
3.08
138.0
681.1
302.6
333.4
276.7
3.11
2.72
157.3
751.5
169.0
91.8
2.94
98.4
297.7
173.4
2.58
171.9
769.1
325.3
315.7
177.2
176.8
768.2
2.73
2.43
99.5
314.6
106.4
199.5
333.1
2.78
2.49
190.6
829.5
332.9
2.74
2.46
213.8
362.8
208.5
109.6
890.8
358.8
2.44
232.7
2.71
218.4
382.1
384.9
107.8
941.0
108.4
2.67
229.8
945.7
385.9
394.2
2.40
1990:1
221.6
II
234.1
2.67
397.6
2.40
226.3
107.6
955.5
387.5
III
2.44
108.7
2.71
401.0
230.9
237.3
977.9
401.0
403.4
2.41
232.4
237.1
974.1
399.7
IV
2.68
104.8
232.7
393.7
233.7
403.9
2.65
2.38
961.1
101.0
1991-1
II
101.7
233.6
385.5
409.0
2.58
2.33
230.3
951.0
Ill
954.1
101.7
231.3
237.5
383.5
411.0
2.56
2.32
IV
383.4
240.1
413.1
2.56
2.33
235.5
961.0
102.0
104.4
423.4
379.2
2.52
2.27
240.1
1992:1
236.9
960.6
II
244.1
104.1
427.7
2.26
378.1
2.50
240.5
966.8
Ill
2.24
246.4
242.0
971.5
380.1
103.0
432.8
2.49
249.4
2.44
IV
.. .
2.20
973.1
375.5
103.0
441.9
245.3
2.47
2.22
248.0
259.0
987.5
378.0
102.5
444.3
1993:1
261.7
II
449.2
2.45
2.22
380.5
104.0
249.6
995.8
453.7
2.21
263.3
Ill
1,001.7
2.43
252.8
380.1
105.5
IV
2.40
2.18
255.2
267.0
1,011.2
463.2
380.9
108.1
467.4
1994:1
270.2
2.42
2.19
385.5
110.1
257.3
1,023.0
II
473.4
2.42
278.2
2.20
263.3
1,043.8
390.3
111.9
III
283.4
397.7
270.7
2.42
2.21
113.1
482.3
1,065.0
IV
406.7
2.44
2.23
289.8
1,091.6
115.3
489.8
279.8
1995-1
494.2
2.50
2.29
296.0
1,129.5
421.0
120.6
291.9
II
1,144.7
297.9
426.5
122.5
499.9
2.49
2.29
297.8
Ill
2.47
2.27
299.1
429.5
507.6
301.3
1,152.8
122.9
IV
430.4
2.27
1,160.2
126.7
299.1
512.0
2.46
304.0
1996-1
432.7
294.5
519.0
2.43
2.25
307.3
1,165.3
130.8
II
2.41
527.2
296.0
1,169.0
430.9
132.3
2.22
309.8
Ill
302.7
433.7
133.4
2.42
2.22
306.2
529.8
1,176.0
1
Inventories at end of quarter. Quarter-to-quarter change calculated from this table is not the current-dollar change in business inventories (CBI) component of GDP. The former is the difference between two inventory stocks, each valued at their respective end-of-quarter
prices. The latter is the change in the physical volume of inventories valued at average prices of the quarter. In addition, changes calculated
from
this table are at quarterly rates, whereas CBI is stated at annual rates.
2
Inventories of construction establishments are included in "other" nonfarm inventories.
Quarterly totals at monthly rates. Final sales of domestic business equals final sales of domestic product less gross product of households and institutions and of general government and includes a small amount of final sales by farms.
Note.—The industry classification of inventories is on an establishment basis. Estimates for nonfarm industries other than manufacturing
and trade for 1986 and earlier periods are based on the 1972 Standard Industrial Classification (SIC). Manufacturing estimates for 1981 and
earlier periods and trade estimates for 1966 and earlier periods are based on the 1972 SIC; later estimates for these industries are based on
the 1987 SIC. The resulting discontinuities are small.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
131.0
134.7
138.0
145.8
148.3
154.0
168.8
186.2
198.4
214.1
233.7
242.0
261.2
289.7
345.8
398.6
410.6
443.4
494.2
581.9
676.8
737.5
783.1
768.4
787.8
860.7
875.3
862.7
927.5
992.8
1,044.6
1,051.9
1,062.7
1,087.1
1,082.4
1,072.3
1,056.5
1,053.0
1,058.1
1,065.6
1,070.8
1,076.3
1,077.9
1,097.4
1,101.3
1,103.5
1,112.8
1,130.2
1,147.1
1,167.4
1,196.5
1,235.3
1,245.9
1,251.9
1,260.9
1,263.5
1,271.5
1,279.7
32.1
32.9
34.6
36.8
33.9
32.5
37.0
37.5
37.0
40.3
43.8
42.3
49.7
60.9
78.1
68.4
72.3
68.3
73.3
97.9
114.9
114.7
104.9
110.4
106.7
109.2
106.3
94.5
98.0
102.0
103.6
106.2
107.2
109.1
108.3
111.2
105.5
99.0
97.2
105.0
104.1
104.8
104.9
109.9
105.5
101.7
101.6
107.2
103.3
102.5
104.9
105.8
101.2
99.2
100.7
98.2
102.5
103.6
322
TABLE B-21.—Real inventories and final sales of domestic business, 1959-96
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars, except as noted; seasonally adjusted]
Inventories '
Quarter
Fourth quarter:
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964 ..
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984 ..
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
Nonfarm
Total 2
Farm
Total2
Manufacturing
Wholesale
trade
401.4
Retail
trade
Other
Final
sales of
domestic
business3
Ratio of inventories
to final sales of
domestic business
Total
Nonfarm
59.4
88.6
37.6
56.5
148.2
303.6
144.3
2.78
2.10
312.4
38.3
63.6
57.9
150.6
412.0
90.1
147.0
2.80
2.13
2.74
155.1
420.9
92.3
153.5
40.1
62.3
59.3
318.6
2.08
94.7
2.74
66.7
336.7
61.9
165.2
440.9
160.8
40.1
2.09
2.71
42.2
459.0
96.6
169.5
70.3
66.3
171.5
353.1
2.08
474.7
94.4
178.4
74.2
180.4
70.3
372.6
2.66
45.0
2.09
48.4
81.7
74.7
194.2
400.3
504.8
96.0
2.06
2.60
192.6
199.4
2.74
84.6
547.2
94.9
49.8
88.5
217.6
445.0
2.23
88.4
97.4
206.4
234.4
579.2
91.0
474.5
2.30
2.81
56.9
94.1
606.1
101.1
2.28
217.8
2.78
58.1
95.8
245.0
497.5
2.37
61.4
101.4
221.7
633.3
2.86
102.3
100.6
256.0
524.8
102.4
2.85
62.6
108.0
533.0
639.0
99.3
2.38
224.0
256.0
661.7
234.4
2.82
64.9
113.8
253.1
551.1
103.6
2.35
116.1
252.7
2.72
686.9
104.2
69.9
124.9
119.0
259.8
576.5
2.28
77.4
122.4
134.8
277.7
615.0
725.9
106.5
2.36
261.1
2.78
2.54
2.94
254.6
80.8
132.9
133.0
749.8
102.2
296.8
646.8
2.37
289.7
738.8
107.6
265.6
2.78
81.5
126.3
127.5
628.3
2.77
81.7
660.4
303.4
767.8
2.38
277.5
136.0
135.9
105.6
2.37
291.7
87.1
143.7
111.7
692.1
805.8
2.76
146.5
311.8
2.72
848.1
311.9
93.2
153.1
158.8
733.6
113.3
2.35
325.8
871.2
2.36
319.3
2.73
91.5
153.1
166.3
752.8
117.0
338.5
88.7
861.2
2.35
319.9
2.69
148.9
171.3
751.3
110.1
338.9
94.4
774.1
157.2
119.6
2.43
318.9
2.80
176.0
894.3
343.5
174.1
91.7
878.7
319.2
153.3
126.9
2.35
2.75
329.5
751.3
92.4
763.4
338.2
166.2
2.26
2.58
173.5
329.5
872.8
109.8
186.4
2.34
355.7
96.7
358.4
832.4
189.6
2.66
947.6
115.8
2.64
977.4
2.31
370.8
105.1
201.3
194.8
855.8
122.2
353.9
204.4
2.57
349.7
2.26
384.3
111.6
201.9
868.2
988.3
120.5
393.8
115.1
223.9
208.5
111.5
2.29
2.58
354.8
902.5
1,014.5
411.7
113.7
231.3
217.8
927.2
1,026.2
2.25
2.49
364.3
98.8
420.7
960.7
2.52
245.0
223.3
2.28
108.9
383.5
1,059.5
98.9
963.4
426.2
2.26
109.9
240.5
225.9
1,062.2
98.9
2.49
386.9
1990:1
244.1
424.2
II ..
109.3
230.5
389.2
973.2
1,073.2
100.0
2.29
2.53
Ill
2.54
107.6
245.0
391.1
423.6
231.1
974.9
1,076.9
102.0
2.30
103.4
968.4
101.4
2.54
IV
421.8
243.5
231.3
390.1
2.30
1,069.9
238.4
234.1
417.7
390.4
964.7
2.31
101.6
100.8
2.55
1991:1
1,065.5
It
420.2
2.52
102.6
238.0
232.0
386.1
958.8
1,060.3
101.5
2.28
Ill
419.4
241.7
2.29
2.53
102.9
233.1
384.5
962.2
1,061.5
99.3
99.7
IV
2.31
419.2
243.3
236.9
2.55
103.0
384.0
967.2
1,066.9
105.4
237.2
2.26
426.6
2.50
242.0
101.6
1992-1
380.6
965.3
1,066.9
II
104.1
1,069.7
104.1
244.3
2.25
428.9
2.49
239.8
965.6
377.5
2.24
105.4
102.1
1,072.7
ill
432.3
2.48
245.1
241.6
967.3
378.5
2.21
247.2
244.7
IV
438.1
2.45
102.6
374.7
1,074.2
105.1
969.1
436.7
2.47
100.2
245.2
2.23
255.1
375.0
975.6
1,078.8
103.3
1993:1
II
2.24
2.47
438.7
377.7
101.5
256.1
247.0
1,084.0
101.9
982.3
III
2.24
2.47
102.7
257.5
250.1
441.5
379.6
990.0
1,088.9
99.0
IV
2.44
2.22
1,093.2
448.0
105.1
259.6
250.6
380.2
995.5
97.9
1,103.4
1994-1
449.3
2.46
106.6
262.2
251.3
1,003.0
100.6
2.23
382.8
II
256.4
2.24
108.2
267.9
1,016.5
1,122.0
453.0
2.48
383.9
105.9
Ill
109.4
2.24
108.7
261.6
458.5
2.48
271.8
386.9
1,029.1
1,138.1
IV
110.4
267.2
1,042.4
463.2
276.1
1,152.1
2.25
2.49
388.5
110.1
113.4
1,056.7
464.0
279.2
273.2
390.7
109.2
1995:1
2.28
2.51
1,165.8
II
277.1
1,173.4
466.8
113.8
280.6
1,065.2
108.2
2.28
2.51
393.5
Ill
281.4
280.4
471.6
2.28
2.51
115.3
397.6
1,074.8
1,181.6
106.6
474.1
400.4
105.4
IV
279.6
281.5
2.50
117.9
1,079.5
1,185.3
2.28
119.4
403.4
274.2
283.1
2.26
2.48
478.5
1,080.3
1,184.5
103.8
1996-1
II
2.24
402.4
120.2
275.5
284.9
2.45
483.3
1,083.2
1,186.3
102.5
405.4
102.4
Ill
2.47
121.1
281.2
284.0
2.26
483.8
1,091.8
1,194.9
1
Inventories at end of quarter. Quarter-to-quarter changes calculated from this table are at quarterly rates, whereas the change in business
inventories component of GDP is stated at annual rates.
2
Inventories of construction establishments are included in "other" nonfarm inventories.
3
Quarterly totals at monthly rates. Final sales of domestic business equals final sales of domestic product less gross product of households and institutions and of general government and includes a small amount of final sales by farms.
Note.—The industry classification of inventories is on an establishment basis. Estimates for nonfarm industries other than manufacturing
and trade for 1986 and earlier periods are based on the 1972 Standard Industrial Classification (SIC). Manufacturing estimates for 1981 and
earlier periods and trade estimates for 1966 and earlier periods are based on the 1972 SIC; later estimates for these industries are based on
the 1987 SIC. The resulting discontinuities are small.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
323
TABLE B-22.—Foreign transactions in the national income and product accounts, 1959-96
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Year or
quarter
Receipts from rest of the world
Exports of goods and
Reservices
ceipts
of
T » 1 1
Total Goods 2 Services2
factor
income
Payments to rest of the world
Transfer payments
(net)
ments
of
From
From
factor
Servpersons governTotal
inment
ices2 come
(net)
(net)
Imports of goods and
services
Total
Total
2
Goods
0.4
2.4
1.5
7.0
4.3 25.0
22.3
15.3
2.4
.5
22.8
15.2
1.8
7.6
5.0 30.2
4.8
31.4
5.4
22.7
2.7
.5
1.8
7.6
15.1
5.1
1961
27.4
25.0 16.9
5.7
.5
2.8
1.8
8.1
6.1 33.5
1962
8.4
17.7
29.4
.6
2.1
6.1
2.8
6.6 36.1
26.1
1963
.7
2.4
7.4
1964
8.7
3.0
41.0 28.1 19.4
6.9
33.6
2.7
35.4
31.5
22.2
43.5
.8
3.0
9.3
8.1
7.6
1965
3.2
10.7
37.1
8.2
.8
8.3 47.2
26.3
38.9
1966
3.1
3.4
3.4
41.4
1967
1.0
12.2
9.2
8.9 50.2 39.9
27.8
3.2
4.1
1.0
33.9 12.6
10.0
45.3
1968
10.3 55.6 46.6
3.2
1.1
5.8
11.9 61.2
50.5 36.8 13.7
11.0
49.3
1969
12.4
1.2
3.6
6.6
55.8 40.9
14.9
13.0 70.8
57.0
1970
6.4
14.1 74.2
1971
4.1
1.3
15.8
62.3
46.6
13.8
59.3
83.4 74.2
7.7
16.4
14.4
1.3
4.3
17.3
66.2
1972
56.9
1.4
4.6
11.1
23.8 115.6 91.2
71.8 19.3
17.8
91.8
1973
1974
5.4
1.2
22.9
124.3
14.6
30.3 152.6 127.5 104.5
23.3
5.4
26.7
1.2
23.7
136.3
14.9
28.2 164.4 122.7
1975
99.0
15.7
1.2
26.5
148.9
1976
6.0
32.9 181.7 151.1 124.6
31.1
1977
1.2
17.2
35.1
158.8
6.0
29.8
37.9 196.6 182.4 152.6
6.4
47.4 233.5 212.3 177.4
40.7
186.1
1978
1.3
34.8 25.3
228.7
1.4
70.4 300.3 252.7 212.8
44.7
37.5
1979
7.5
39.9
1.6
53.2
278.9
1980
9.0
46.5
81.8 361.9 293.8 248.6 45.3
63.7
5.2
13.4
302.8
1981
60.9
95.6 399.5 317.8 267.8 49.9
6.2
16.7
1982
65.8
96.9 379.5 303.2 250.5 52.6
67.6
282.6
69.7
6.5
17.7
277.0
1983
97.6 374.6 328.6 272.7 56.0 65.6
1984
7.4
118.7 421.8 405.1 336.3 68.8 87.6
303.1
20.6
77.5
87.7
303.0
1985
7.8
80.8 108.1 411.1 417.2 343.3 73.9
23.1
94.7
320.7
1986
8.1
24.3
93.6
106.5 427.1 452.2 370.0 82.2
8.7
1987
365.7
23.3
108.2 116.0 481.8 507.9 414.8 93.1 107.1
121.4
144.7 591.9 553.2 452.1 101.1 131.7
447.2
1988
9.1
25.1
9.6
1989
169.0 678.3 589.7 484.5 105.3 154.8
137.6
509.3
26.1
28.4
9.9
1990
158.8 177.5 734.8 628.6 508.0 120.6 156.4
557.3
10.4
175.4 156.2 757.9 622.3 500.7 121.6 140.5 -12.1
601.8
1991
9.6
190.7
639.4
1992
32.0
137.9 777.3 669.0 544.9 124.1 126.8
1993
12.8
657.8
198.3 140.7 798.5 720.5 592.8 127.8 130.1
36.1
14.2
38.2
210.1 163.4 882.5 813.5 677.0 136.4 167.2
719.1
1994
14.9
807.4
1995
34.6
225.9 208.3 1,015.6 902.0 757.0 145.1 215.3
9.9
541.6
1990:1
26.1
150.0 173.6 715.2 615.9 500.4 115.5 152.5
II
156.4
497.4
9.5
30.3
117.8
155.1 173.3 728.1 615.1
554.8
10.2
Ill ....
555.5
29.1
173.1 728.6 634.1 511.3 122.7 158.7
160.9
IV ...
10.1
28.2
169.1
577.3
190.0 767.3 649.2 522.9 126.4 157.9
10.4
577.4
162.7
-61.3
174.0 751.4 610.3 488.3 122.1 147.1
1991:1
II
602.7
10.3
1739 156.0 758.7 615.0 493.5 121.6 143.8 -16.1
10.2
178.7
Ill ....
10.0
148.1 750.6 624.5 504.6 119.9 138.7
602.6
IV ...
624.4
10.6
18.9
186.3 146.6 771.0 639.3 516.5 122.7 132.2
9.4
632.4
1992:1
27.5
190.3 140.7 773.1 641.3 516.8 124.5 124.2
II
9.7
30.7
190.0 143.3 779.2 664.9 541.1 123.8 132.3
635.9
Ill ....
9.2
640.2
27.8
192.5 133.8 774.0 677.8 557.2 120.6 124.3
IV ...
9.9
42.0
190.1 133.9 783.0 691.8 564.4 127.4 126.4
649.1
195.7 136.1 783.0 694.8 570.7 124.0 120.2
1993:1
646.9
12.6
30.6
II
660.4
12.7
33.7
198.5 141.4 801.8 720.0 593.2 126.8 131.1
Ill ....
197.7
141.7 787.1 719.8 592.7 127.1 129.0
645.3
12.8
34.5
IV ...
678.7
201.3 143.5 822.2 747.5 614.4 133.1 140.2
13.1
45.5
1994:1
14.1
32.7
202.8 147.9 826.8 757.6 623.6 134.0 142.9
678.9
II
707.4
14.1
209.0 155.0 862.4 800.4 664.6 135.8 157.1
34.5
Ill ....
729.2
170.4 899.6 836.1 698.3 137.9 176.6
14.1
37.4
212.6
IV ...
761.0
48.4
215.9 180.3 941.3 859.6 721.6 138.0 192.1
14.5
1995:1
14.4
217.0 200.8 976.9 884.8 741.9 142.8 203.8
776.1
34.5
II
222.2 211.9 1,009.2 912.6 767.3 145.3 214.3
797.3
14.1
33.1
Ill ....
232.1
819.0
14.7
207.0 1,026.1 906.6 759.7 146.9 223.4
34.2
IV ....
837.0
232.5 213.4 1,050.3 904.2 759.0 145.2 219.7
36.6
16.5
1996:1
839.5
15.7
235.9 220.4 1,059.9 925.8 776.7 149.2 220.6
43.3
II
239.7 223.9 1,073.9 949.2 798.2 151.0 231.4
850.0
37.4
16.2
Ill ....
844.3
16.2
239.0 226.4 1,070.7 964.5 812.1 152.5 243.8
36.9
1
Includes
capital
grants
received
by
the
United
States
(net),
not
shown
separately.
See
Table
6-30
for
data.
2
Certain goods, primarily military equipment purchased and sold by the Federal Government, are included in
1986, repairs and alterations of equipment were reclassified from goods to services.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1959
1960
25.0
30.2
31.4
33.5
36.1
41.0
43.5
47.2
50.2
55.6
61.2
70.8
74.2
83.4
115.6
152.6
164.4
181.7
196.6
233.5
300.3
361.9
399.5
379.5
374.6
421.8
411.1
427.1
481.8
591.9
678.3
734.8
757.9
777.3
798.5
882.5
1,015.6
715.2
728.1
728.6
767.3
751.4
758.7
750.6
771.0
773.1
779.2
774.0
783.0
783.0
801.8
787.1
822.2
826.8
862.4
899.6
941.3
976.9
1,009.2
1,026.1
1,050.3
1,059.9
1,073.9
1,070.7
20.6
25.3
26.0
16.5
20.5
20.9
21.7
23.3
26.7
27.8
30.7
32.2
35.3
38.3
44.5
45.6
51.8
73.9
101.0
109.6
117.8
123.7
145.4
184.0
225.8
239.1
215.0
207.3
225.6
222.2
226.0
257.5
325.8
371.7
398.5
426.4
448.7
459.6
509.1
581.4
391.6
399.8
394.6
408.2
414.8
428.8
423.9
438.1
442.1
445.9
447.7
459.0
451.2
462.0
447.7
477.4
476.0
498.4
516.6
545.1
559.1
575.2
587.0
604.5
603.6
610.4
605.4
4.2
324
Net
foreign
investment
From
business
1.8
0.1
-1.2
1.9
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.2
2.1
1.9
1.8
2.0
2.4
2.5
2.5
3.2
3.5
3.7
3.4
3.8
4.1
5.0
5.0
7.0
7.8
9.7
12.2
12.9
11.2
11.4
11.4
13.3
-27.9
16.6
17.3
16.5
11.5
11.5
15.5
13.2
12.9
-76.9
-32.0
-5.4
2.6
12.4
15.0
12.9
26.1
12.6
14.8
15.5
26.3
11.2
12.9
15.7
26.2
12.1
11.0
11.3
11.6
19.0
11.8
11.7
.1
.1
.1
.1
3.2
4.3
3.9
5.0
7.5
6.2
3.9
3.5
1.7
1.8
4.9
1.3
-2.9
8.7
5.1
21.4
8.9
-9.0
-10.4
2.6
12.5
7.4
-6.1
-37.3
-91.5
-116.9
-142.9
-156.4
-118.1
-92.4
-78.6
7.3
-50.5
-88.2
-136.4
-136.3
-79.4
-73.8
-93.3
-68.1
55.3
16.0
-22.6
-19.4
-19.9
-48.7
-56.0
-77.2
-62.6
-83.0
-96.2
-111.0
-106.5
-129.7
-150.6
-158.9
-146.2
-150.8
-138.1
-110.2
-129.9
-144.2
-174.6
.2
.2
.2
.2
.3
.3
.4
.4
.5
.7
1.0
.7
1.1
1.4
1.4
2.0
2.4
3.2
3.4
3.4
3.5
3.1
3.3
3.3
4.6
5.1
5.2
5.4
5.8
6.0
7.5
8.2
4.7
5.3
5.7
5.3
5.2
5.6
5.2
5.7
5.7
6.0
5.8
5.9
5.5
6.2
6.2
6.1
7.3
7.4
7.6
7.7
8.1
8.0
8.2
8.5
8.6
9.4
9.1
services. Beginning with
TABLE B—23.—Real exports and imports of goods and services and receipts and payments of factor
income, 1959-96
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Exports of goods and services
Goods1
Year or quarter
Total
Total
Durable
goods
Nondurable
goods
Serv-1
ices
Receipts
of
factor
income
Imports of goods and services
Goods '
Total
Total
Durable
goods
30.4
51.7
23.7
23.7
18.6
20.8
106.6
71.9
71.1
23.4 108.1
70.0
36.5
20.6
86.8
63.8
29.3
22.6
25.2 107.3
88.3
64.2
29.5
69.9
36.8
22.0
21.8
80.2
38.6
24.0
93.0
67.0
31.0
27.6 119.5
25.6
32.7
42.2
122.7
83.5
25.5
29.8
27.0
100.0
72.3
37.7
47.2
32.6 129.2
113.3
82.2
89.0
28.6
30.0
45.9
37.1
115.6
82.6
30.8
34.6
143.0 101.6
39.3
123.4
88.4
42.2
48.8
32.6
34.3
164.2 117.6
46.2
40.4
35.7
176.2 123.8
126.1
88.8
48.8
35.5
49.5
53.4
135.3
42.8
37.3
39.5 202.5 149.4
63.0
95.8
142.7 100.8
57.7
43.2
43.7 214.0 157.5
39.6
67.3
158.1 112.3
631
49.5
43.1
45.0 223.1 163.7
69.2
46.4 235.0 177.4
62.7
159.2 111.9
49.6
45.0
76.1
44.7
51.7 261.0 201.6
55.1
172.0 123.9
69.2
87.6
70.4 272.6 215.8
66.5
93.2
209.6 152.4
52.6
86.3
65.9
61.6
82.5 265.3 209.8
229.8 164.5
99.6
93.6
64.2
228.2 160.7
65.6
70.2 235.4 183.4
97.5
765
93.7
70.3
77.2 281.5 224.8
241.6 168.3
98.9
72.5
83.4
247.4 170.5
98.7
72.8
77.2
311.6 252.2 106.0
80.6
83.0
96.8 338.6 274.8 122.5
273.1 189.5 110.0
87.9
83.9 132.4 344.3 279.5 125.4
299.0 211.9 125.2
331.4 237.2 139.6
89.2 141.1
98.9
321.3 258.7 126.3
329.7 264.0 136.8
98.5 150.1
335.3 234.7 134.7 101.4
98.4
311.4 213.5 117.0
98.5 143.5 325.5 257.4 138.4
94.4
96.8 138.2
366.6 292.4 166.8
303.3 207.3 114.6
328.4 223.7 127.0
455.7 363.1 221.9
98.1 105.9 160.3
95.3 106.1 140.5 485.2 385.9 244.1
337.3 231.7 137.3
362.2 243.6 145.3
99.1 120.3 134.6
526.1 425.5 266.7
402.0 270.5 165.7 105.0 133.4 141.9 558.2 445.2 278.5
465.8 321.4 205.5 115.8 145.0 170.2 580.2 463.2 290.1
520.2 361.7 236.7 124.9 158.7 189.9
603.0 482.7 302.6
564.4 391.6 260.0 131.6 173.1 190.6
6263 497.3 310.9
599.9 419.2 279.6 139.6 180.8 161.1 622.2 497.1 312.7
639.4 448.7 300.9 147.8 190.7 137.9 669.0 544.9 346.4
658.2 464.5 318.3 146.2 193.7 137.4 730.2 602.6 390.0
817.6 684.1 455.6
712.0 511.5 358.0 153.8 200.9 155.9
775.4 565.9 403.2 163.7 210.4 194.2 883.0 744.7 507.1
1990:1
555.2 386.8 256.1 130.6 168.6 189.5
622.3 494.2 303.1
II
633.5 504.0 313.3
566.8 394.8 264.2 130.6 172.2 187.1
Ill
561.8 388.0 258.6 129.4 174.3 185.1
633.0 503.2 315.4
IV . .
573.9 397.0 261.2 135.8 177.3 200.9 616.4 487.9 312.0
1991:1
596.6 472.2 298.9
572.3 403.3 263.1 140.1 168.9 181.4
II
617.4 490.8 304.8
600.3 419.8 282.8 137.1 180.6 161.5
Ill
603.6 420.0 281.9 138.1 183.8 152.0 633.4 509.4 320.2
IV
623.5 433.7 290.5 143.3 189.8 149.4 641.4 515.9 326.8
1992-1
647.8 521.2 331.2
633.0 440.3 294.5 145.8 192.8 141.9
II
635.8 445.1 298.4 1466 190.7 143.5 668.3 543.6 344.6
Ill
639.7 448.3 299.5 148.8 191.3 133.4
670.5 552.8 351.0
IV
689.1 561.8 359.0
649.1 461.0 311.1 149.9 188.2 132.7
647.1 454.3 308.1 146.2 192.7 133.9
1993-1
703.1 578.4 372.7
II
724.4 598.0 383.6
660.0 466.0 319.1 146.9 194.0 138.3
731.7 604.1 390.5
Ill
645.5 452.7 310.6 142.1 192.7 138.2
IV
761.8 629.8 413.1
680.3 485.0 335.5 149.6 195.5 139.1
1994:1
677.6 481.9 336.8 145.3 195.9 142.5 777.0 644.5 424.1
II
810.4 675.6 448.2
703.1 502.9 353.7 149.6 200.5 148.5
Ill
719.6 517.8 361.8 156.2 202.2 162.2 831.3 697.1 462.6
IV
747.6 543.4 379.7 163.9 204.9 170.6 851.9 719.3 487.7
874.9 735.4 500.1
1995-1
752.3 548.8 386.5 162.8 204.3 188.8
II
763.2 557.7 398.3 160.5 206.4 197.9 884.6 747.7 508.5
Ill
783.0 568.2 405.9 1635 215.4 192.6 884.5 745.6 506.0
IV
888.0 750.0 514.0
803.1 588.8 422.3 167.9 215.3 197.6
806.7 590.9 424.0 168.4 216.7 203.2 910.7 768.4 529.7
1996:1
II
817.9 600.6 437.9 1653 218.3 205.4 932.6 789.9 542.1
Ill
816.1 601.1 439.0 1648 216.1 207.0 953.5 810.0 556.9
•Certain goods, primarily military equipment purchased and sold by the Federal Government, are included in
1986, repairs and alterations of equipment were reclassified from goods to services.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
. .
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974 .
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984 .
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989 .. ..
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
325
Nondurable
goods
49.5
50.1
51.8
58.4
60.1
62.5
67.2
72.5
747
84.6
87.8
92.6
98.3
109.8
118.4
111.0
103.0
126.4
140.7
145.3
147.0
126.6
122.8
115.6
123.1
140.2
142.0
158.8
166.8
173.2
180.1
186.4
184.4
198.4
212.5
228.2
237.2
191.1
190.7
187.7
175.9
173.3
186.0
189.2
189.1
190.0
199.0
201.8
202.8
205.6
214.4
213.6
216.6
220.2
227.1
234.1
231.2
235.0
238.9
239.3
235.8
238.5
247.7
253.0
services.
Serv-1
ices
34.9
37.7
37.0
38.8
38.7
39.7
40.9
46.0
51.7
52.6
55.9
58.8
57.2
59.1
56.7
55.4
52.5
56.2
58.4
62.5
63.4
61.8
654
68.9
74.4
92.9
99.7
100.2
113.1
117.1
120.2
129.4
125.3
124.1
127.7
133.8
138.8
128.5
129.8
130.2
129.0
124.8
126.8
124.1
125.6
126.7
124.7
117.7
127.4
124.7
126.5
127.6
132.0
132.6
135.0
134.5
133.1
139.8
137.4
139.4
138.5
142.8
143.2
144.1
Payments
of
factor
income
7.5
8.7
8.8
8.9
9.9
11.0
12.0
13.4
14.3
16.6
21.9
23.6
22.0
25.3
34.1
41.0
38.7
38.7
39.5
53.5
73.0
83.1
99.4
100.7
95.9
121.9
116.8
120.9
133.0
157.1
176.7
170.2
145.7
126.8
126.7
158.6
199.7
169.5
171.0
171.7
168.7
154.7
149.9
143.0
135.2
125.6
132.6
123.9
125.2
117.9
127.9
125.3
135.6
137.0
149.8
166.9
180.8
190.5
199.2
206.8
202.4
202.3
211.1
221.4
Beginning with
TABLE B—24.—Relation of gross domestic product, gross national product, net national product, and
national income, 1959—96
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Year or
quarter
Less: Consumption of
Less:
Less:
Plusp
PayReceipts ments
Equals: Indirect BusiGross of factor of factor Equals:
Net
busiGross
ness Statisincome national
domestic income
nafrom
ness trans- tical
Governproduct rest of
to
tional
disand fer
rest of product Total Private ment product tax
nontax pay- crepanthe
thp
i
ne
cy
world
liability ments
world
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
507.2
1.5
44.5
4.3
510.1 58.6
529.8 60.7
526.6
5.0
1.8
46.1
548.4 62.2
5.4
47.2
544.8
1.8
589.4 64.7
585.2
1.8
48.9
6.1
617.4
2.1
50.5
6.6
621.9 67.2
2.4
7.4
663.0
668.0 70.4
53.1
2.7
56.7
724.5 74.9
719.1
8.1
787.8
3.1
793.0 81.1
61.8
8.3
34
8336
670
89
8391 878
4.1
916.7 95.4
910.6
10.3
73.0
988.4 103.6
982.2
5.8
79.5
11.9
1,035.6
6.6 1,042.0 111.9
13.0
86.1
1,125.4
14.1
6.4 1,133.1 122.0
94.4
16.4
7.7 1,246.0 134.8 104.9
1,237.3
11 1 13954 1480 1151
13826
238
1,496.9
14.6 1512.6 171.7 133.7
30.3
1,630.6
28.2
14.9 1,643.9 200.1 157.7
157 1 836.1 218.9 1741
18190
329
17.2 2.047.5 251.1 203.5
2,026.9
37.9
22914
474
253 23135 2818 2304
70.4
2i557.5
37.5 2.590.4 322.3 265.5
2,784.2
46.5 2,819.5 368.0 304.6
81.8
3,115.9
95.6
60.9 3,150.6 419.9 349.5
3,242.1
96.9
65.8 3,273.2 456.3 378.3
65.6 3,546.5 477.9 397.8
3,514.5
97.6
3,902.4
1187
87.6 3,933.5 494.0 410.9
4,180.7
87.7 4,201.0 519.5 432.4
108.1
4,422.2
93.6 4,435.1 552.8 459.4
106.5
107.1 4,701.3 581.9 483.2
4,692.3
116.0
144.7
131.7 5,062.6 620.2 516.0
5,049.6
5,438.7
154.8 5,452.8 662.2 551.9
169.0
156.4 5,764.9 693.1 575.8
5,743.8
177.5
5,916.7
156.2
140.5 5.932.4 723.1 599.6
6,244.4
137.9
126.8 6,255.5 754.2 626.1
140.7
6,553.0
130.1 6,563.5 773.8 640.0
6,935.7
163.4
678.7
167.2 6,931.9 818.8
7,253.8
208.3
215.3 7,246.7 825.9 679.2
5,660.4
173.6
1990:1
152.5 5,681.4 680.1 565.6
II
156.4 5,767.8 689.0 573.2
5,751.0
173.3
5,782.4
Ill
158.7 5,796.8 698.6 580.6
173.1
IV
5,781.5
190.0
157.9 5,813.6 704.6 583.9
5,822.1
147.1 5,849.0 713.6 592.5
1991:1
174.0
II
5,892.3
156.0
143.8 5,904.5 719.6 596.4
Ill
138.7 5,959.4 725.7 601.4
5,950.0
148.1
IV
6,002.3
132.2 6,016.6 733.5 608.1
146.6
1992:1
6,121.8
140.7
124.2 6,138.3 727.6 601.3
II
6,201.2
132.3 6,212.2 734.1 606.4
143.3
6,271.7
Ill
133.8
124.3 6,281.1 809.2 680.5
126.4 6,390.5 746.1 616.2
IV
6,383.0
133.9
6,442.6
120.2 6,458.6 765.6 633.8
1993:1
136.1
II
141.4
6,506.2
131.1 6,516.5 767.6 634.6
6,574.4
Ill
141.7
129.0 6,587.1 783.1 648.4
IV
6,688.6
140.2 6,691.9 779.1 643.3
143.5
1994:1
6,776.0
147.9
142.9 6,781.0 887.4 748.7
157.1 6,888.3 791.2 652.7
II
6.890.5
155.0
Ill
170.4
176.6 6,987.0 796.7 656.7
6,993.1
IV
7,083.2
192.1 7,071.4 799.7 656.6
180.3
203.8 7,146.8 809.5 664.6
1995:1
7,149.8
200.8
II
7,204.9
211.9
214.3 7,202.4 820.1 673.6
223.4 7,293.4 828.8 681.6
Ill
7,309.8
207.0
213.4
219.7 7,344.3 845.1 697.0
IV
7,350.6
220.4
7,426.8
220.6 7,426.6 843.0 694.7
1996:1
II
231.4 7,537.5 852.8 704.2
7,545,1
223.9
Ill
226.4
243.8 7,598.9 864.0 714.6
7,616.3
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
326
14.1
14.5
15.0
15.8
16.7
17.4
18.2
19.3
208
22.4
24.1
25.8
27.6
29.9
329
38.0
42.4
447
47.6
515
56.8
63.4
70.4
78.1
80.1
83.1
87.1
93.5
98.7
104.2
110.3
117.3
123.5
128.2
133.8
140.1
146.7
114.5
115.8
118.0
120.7
121.1
123.2
124.3
125.4
126.3
127.7
128.6
130.0
131.7
133.0
134.6
135.8
138.7
138.5
140.0
143.1
144.9
146.5
147.2
148.2
148.4
148.6
149.4
451.5
469.1
486.2
524.8
554.7
597.6
649.6
711.9
7513
821.3
884.8
930.1
1,011.0
1,111.2
12473
1340.9
1,443.8
16172
1,796.4
20316
2]268.1
2,451.5
2,730.7
2,816.9
3,068.6
3,439.5
3,681.5
3,882.2
4,119.4
4,442.5
4,790.6
5,071.9
5,209.3
5,501.3
5,789.7
6,113.2
6,420.8
5,001.3
5,078.9
5,098.2
5,109.0
5,135.3
5,184.9
5,233.7
5,283.2
5,410.7
5,478.1
5,471.9
5,644.3
5,693.0
5,748.9
5,804.0
5,912.8
5,893.6
6,097.2
6,190.2
6,271.7
6,337.3
6,382.3
6,464.6
6,499.1
6,583.6
6,684.7
6,734.9
41.9
45.5
48.1
51.7
54.7
58.8
62.7
65.4
704
79.0
86.6
94.3
103.6
111.4
1210
129.3
140.0
1516
165.5
1778
188.7
212.0
249.3
256.4
280.1
309.5
329.6
344.7
364.8
385.5
414.7
442.6
478.1
505.6
540.0
572.5
595.5
432.1
436.1
447.3
455.0
464.7
472.9
483.7
491.2
495.7
497.9
507.1
521.7
524.7
535.1
541.7
558.5
562.1
568.0
576.4
583.5
586.0
594.8
597.3
604.1
604.1
608.7
614.6
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.3
25
2.8
3.1
3.2
3.4
3.9
45
5.0
5.2
65
7.3
82
9.9
11.2
13.4
15.2
16.2
18.6
20.9
23.9
24.2
25.4
26.3
26.5
26.3
28.4
28.1
30.1
30.8
26.1
26.8
26.9
26.4
26.0
26.3
26.0
26.8
27.6
28.5
28.6
28.8
27.7
28.3
28.2
28.2
29.8
30.0
30.2
30.4
30.6
30.6
30.9
31.2
31.5
32.4
32.2
-2.1
-3.7
-3.3
-2.4
-3.5
-2.1
-1.4
2.7
6
.2
-2.2
1.0
5.1
3.2
24
4.5
11.2
189
17.5
176
27.8
27.4
14.6
-2.9
36.5
4.2
1.3
22.1
-16.6
-48.6
11.6
16.1
8.8
43.7
58.0
34.1
-.9
43.0
17.4
16.3
-12.3
-6.5
5.6
17.2
18.8
23.3
36.2
51.6
63.6
79.5
59.8
49.8
42.8
24.1
30.0
45.3
36.9
30.0
20.3
-7.1
-46.7
-50.0
-57.5
-98.1
PIUS:
Subsidies
less cur- Equals.rent sur- National
plus of
govern- income
ment
enterprises
0.1
.3
1.3
1.5
.9
1.4
1.7
3.0
29
3.1
3.6
4.9
5.1
6.4
59
4.5
8.1
74
10.1
11 1
11.7
15.2
16.9
21.1
25.6
25.5
21.9
25.1
31.0
28.5
24.2
25.3
23.6
27.1
31.7
25.1
18.2
23.8
24.5
25.7
27.3
24.4
22.7
23.5
23.6
24.6
25.4
26.9
31.5
35.2
33.7
29.9
28.0
27.2
24.0
23.4
25.9
19.2
18.7
17.9
16.8
17.3
17.6
16.8
410.4
426.2
441.2
475.3
502.6
540.2
587.8
644.4
6807
742.4
800.9
836.6
904.0
999.2
1 1253
1206.7
1,295.5
14475
1,616.3
18392
2,053.3
2,216.1
2,470.2
2,569.2
2,761.4
3,132.7
3,351.5
3,516.5
3,778.1
4,108.6
4,362.1
4,611.9
4,719.7
4,950.8
5,195.3
5,501.6
5,813.5
4,523.9
4,623.1
4,633.4
4,667.2
4,675.6
4,702.8
4,730.4
4,770.0
4,888.7
4,941.0
4,911.6
5,061.7
5,096.3
5,159.4
5,214.1
5,311.3
5,304.8
5,493.2
5,561.7
5,646.9
5,709.9
5,755.4
5,861.4
5,927.4
6,015.3
6,118.7
6,203.0
TABLE B—25.—Relation of national income and personal income, 1959—96
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Year or quarter
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1990:1
II
III
IV
1991-1
II
Ill
IV
1992:1
II
Ill
IV
1993:1
II
Ill
IV
1994:1
II
Ill
IV
1995:1
II
Ill
IV
1996:1
II
Ill
National
income
410.4
426.2
441.2
4753
502.6
5402
587.8
644.4
680.7
742.4
8009
836.6
904.0
999.2
1,125.3
1,206.7
1,295.5
1,447.5
1,616.3
1,839.2
2,053.3
2,216.1
2,470.2
2,569.2
2,761.4
3,132.7
3351 5
3,516.5
37781
4,108.6
4362 1
4611 9
4,719.7
4 950.8
5,195.3
55016
5!813.5
4,523.9
46231
4,633.4
4,667.2
46756
4,702.8
47304
4,770.0
4,888.7
4,941.0
4,911.6
5,061.7
5,096.3
5,159.4
5,214.1
5,311.3
5,304.8
5,493.2
5,561.7
5,646.9
5,709.9
5,755.4
5,861.4
5,927.4
6,015.3
6,118.7
6,203.0
50.2
48.8
49.8
577
63.5
704
80.9
86.3
83.6
90.3
875
75.7
88.8
102.2
115.1
103.7
121.1
147.0
167.3
191.6
194.0
167.1
183.9
159.2
212.3
268.2
2822
271.0
3097
357.2
3564
3695
382.5
4014
464.4
5295
586.6
369.3
3928
350.4
365.5
3937
380.0
3768
379.6
417.3
409.3
351.3
427.7
427.4
447.8
469.6
512.8
459.7
534.3
553.1
570.9
560.0
562.3
612.5
611.8
645.1
655.8
661.2
10.2
11.2
13.1
146
16.1
182
21.1
24.3
28.1
30.4
336
40.0
45.4
49.3
56.5
71.8
80.0
85.1
100.7
120.5
150.3
191.9
234.5
264.9
275.9
318.5
3372
363.1
3722
398.9
4566
4673
443.0
4143
398.9
3949
403.6
458.9
4650
467.7
477.5
4604
450.6
4466
434.3
419.2
417.5
408.1
412.4
412.8
403.2
391.4
388.0
390.2
395.5
400.1
393.8
406.9
405.2
400.7
401.9
399.5
402.3
405.6
Wage
accruals
less
disbursements
18.8
21.9
22.9
254
28.5
301
31.6
40.6
45.5
50.4
578
62.0
69.6
79.5
97.9
111.7
121.1
137.7
155.4
177.0
204.2
225.0
261.6
280.6
301.9
345.5
3759
402.0
4233
462.8
4912
5185
543.5
5714
592.9
6283
660.0
511.1
5162
522.4
524.3
5368
540.9
5460
550.3
565.1
570.1
574.8
575.7
578.3
592.8
597.5
603.1
614.2
627.5
632.2
639.3
651.0
656.2
664.0
668.6
676.0
686.2
694.4
1
Includes rest of world.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
Equals:
PI US:
L 5SS:
Corporate
profits
with
inventory
Contribuvaluation
tions
Net
for
and
capital interest
social
consumpinsurance
tion
adjustments *
327
0.0
.0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
o
.0
.6
.0
-.5
!i
.1
.3
.0
.1
.0
-.4
.2
_2
.0
0
.0
o
1
-.1
-158
4.6
155
2.7
.0
0
.0
.2
2
-.4
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
-63.0
64.0
1.0
1.0
-47.4
52.1
3.7
3.7
2.5
4.0
2.9
2,9
.9
1.9
.0
.0
Govern- Business
ment
transfer
Personal Personal transfer
interest dividend payments payments Personal
income
income income
to
to
persons persons
22.7
25.0
26.9
293
32.4
361
40.3
44.9
49.5
54.6
608
69.2
75.7
81.8
94.1
112.4
123.0
134.6
155.7
184.5
223.6
274.7
337.2
379.2
403.2
472.3
5084
543.3
5600
595.5
6745
7044
699.2
6672
648.1
6637
717.1
690.6
701 1
711.6
714.2
7054
702.2
6970
692.3
674.1
673.0
661.2
660.4
659.3
652.2
640.9
639.9
641.0
659.6
673.3
680.9
704.6
716.6
719.9
727.2
726.1
733.1
742.9
12.7
13.4
14.0
150
16.1
180
20.2
20.9
22.1
24.5
251
23.5
23.5
25.5
27.7
29.6
29.2
35.0
39.5
44.3
50.5
57.5
67.2
66.9
77.4
79.4
883
105.1
101 1
109.9
1309
1429
153.6
1594
186.8
1996
214.8
142.0
1434
143.3
142.7
1493
153.1
1564
155.7
152.3
154.5
160.8
170.1
180.0
185.4
189.7
192.1
193.2
197.5
201.0
206.7
209.5
212.2
215.8
221.7
226.6
229.3
231.5
25.7
27.5
31.5
326
34.5
360
39.1
43.6
52.3
60.6
675
81.8
97.0
108.4
124.1
147.4
185.7
202.8
217.5
234.8
262.8
312.6
355.7
396.3
426.6
438.5
4687
498.0
5225
556.8
6049
6665
749.1
8357
888.6
9338
1,000.0
649.2
6565
669.3
691.0
7256
742.5
7541
774.0
816.4
831.0
842.5
853.0
873.6
884.8
894.3
901.6
917.1
927.3
938.7
952.0
979.8
994.2
1,007.3
1,018.7
1,040.1
1,052.6
1,062.1
1.3
1.3
1.4
15
1.7
18
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.5
28
2.8
3.0
3.4
3.8
4.0
4.5
5.5
5.9
6.8
7.9
8.8
10.2
11.8
12.8
15.1
178
20.7
208
20.8
21 1
213
20.8
225
22.1
226
22.6
21.3
215
21.3
21.1
208
20.7
208
21.1
21.9
22.5
22.8
22.9
22.3
22.1
22.0
22.1
22.4
22.5
22.6
22.7
22.6
22.6
22.6
22.7
22.9
23.0
23.1
393.5
411.7
429.1
4561
479.1
5135
555.8
604.7
649.7
713.5
778.2
836.1
898.9
987.3
1,105.6
1,213.3
1,315.6
1,455.4
1,611.4
1,820.2
2,049.7
2,285.7
2,560.4
2,718.7
2,891.7
3,205.5
34396
3,647.5
38773
4,172.8
44893
4791.6
4,968.5
5 264.2
5,480.1
5753.1
6,115.1
4,687.8
4,771.5
4,838.4
4,868.6
48856
4,950.2
4,989.3
5,048.9
5,151.9
5,225.1
5,264.6
5,415.3
5,349.1
5,459.2
5,501.6
5,610.5
5,562.4
5,739.1
5,808.2
5,902.7
6,004.5
6,074.4
6,146.9
6,234.5
6,308.5
6,412.4
6,501.4
TABLE B—26.—National income by type of income, 1959—96
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Compensation of employees
Wages and salaries
Year or
quarter
National
income '
Total
Total
fnu
uUV-
ernment
Other
Supplements to wages and
salaries
Total
Employer
contributions for
social
insurance
Oth or
Ulllci
labor
income
Proprietors' income with inventory valuation
and capital consumption adjustments
Farm
Tntal
lUldl
Total
Proprietors'
income 2
Nonfarm
Total
Proprietors'
income 3
21.4
40.2
259.8
46.0 213.8
10.9
10.6
50.5
10.9
11.8
39.6
272.8
49.2 223.7 23.8
12.6
11.2
50.5
11.5
12.3 39.1
39.8
52.4
12.1
280.5
25.1
13.3
53.0
12.9 40.9
41.8
228.0
11.8
299.3
28.1
15.1
55.0
12.1
42.9
56.3
243.0
13.0
12.9
43.9
16.7
12.7 44.3
314.8
60.0
56.3
12.0
45.2
254.8 30.7
14.0
337.7
15.7
59.0
48.3
49.2
64.9
272.9 33.2
17.5
10.8
11.5
363.7
50.4
63.5
13,0
69.9 293.8 36.1
18.3
17.8
13.8
51.9
42.7
14.1
55.4
400.3
78.3
321.9
22.8
19.9
67.6
14.9 53.5
86.4
21.7
13.7 56.4
428.9
24.9
69.1 12.7
342.5 46.6
58.3
471.9
96.6 375.3
52.8
27.6
25.2
73.3 12.8
60.5
13.8
63.0
412.7 60.0
77.1 14.6
518.3
31.5
62.5
105.5
28.5
15.8
65.0
117.1
34.1
551.5
14.8
434.3 66.6
32.5
78.0
16.1 63.2
66.0
584.5 126.7 457.8 75.6
36.7
68.3
38.9
83.9
15.5
16.9
72.0
638.7
95.2
137.8
45.1
19.5
21.2
75.8
79.3
500.9 88.1
43.0
148.7
708.6
32.6
560.0 104.4
55.3
49.2 113.3
34.6 80.7
85.9
63.7
93.4
772.2 160.4
611.8 120.3
56.5
111.3
25.9
28.5 85.4
814.7
24.2
27.7 92.3
638.6 136.6
176.1
70.6
116.5
99.2
65.9
899.6 188.7
82.2
79.7 127.5 18.7
710.8 162.0
22.8 108.8
116.3
94.1
994.0 202.4 791.6 188.9
94.7 140.8
17.9
22.3 122.9
131.0
148.7
1,121.1 219.8
162.2 22.9
27.7 139.2
901.2 217.4
107.3
110.1
1,255.7 236.9 1,018.8 247.5
123.2
32.2 150.8
160.9
124.3 177.3 26.6
136.4
1,377.6 261.2 1,116.4 276.3
20.7 154.1
167.9
13.8
165.2
139.8
23.7
157.1
160.7
1,517.6 285.6 1,232.0 310.2
178.3
153.0
31.6 154.6
165.4
16.4
1,593.9
307.3 1,286.7 333.7
169.9
158.2
168.3
24.8 153.5
14.1 175.8
1,684.8 324.5 1,360.3 359.4
182.2
177.2 181.7
172.2
6.0
32.7 213.1
199.7
1,855.3 347.8 1,507.5 401.7
212.8
237.9 24.8
188.9
1,995.7 373.5 1,622.1 430.0
32.4 232.5 210.5
226.9 203.1 257.4 24.9
2,116.5 396.6 1,720.0 455.9
239.9 216.0 267.8 25.2
32.6 242.6 215.9
2,272.7 423.1 1,849.5 485.0
249.7 235.4 292.9 32.3
39.6 260.6 238.2
2,453.6 450.4 2,003.2 520.3
35.4 294.7 272.0
268.6 251.7 322.9 28.2
479.4 2.118.7 553.5
2,598.1
280.4 273.1 345.0 36.8
44.3 308.2
284.8
2,757.5 517.2 2,240.3 595.2
294.6 300.6 361.0 36.3
43.8 324.6 312.7
2,827.6 546.0 2,281.5 630.4
307.7 322.7 362.9 30.2
37.7 332.7
325.0
2,970.6
45.7 371.5
567.8 2,402.9 674.3
323.0 351.3
409.5 38.0
363.1
3,095.3 584.2 2,511.1 714.2
333.3 380.9 420.0 32.0
39.5 388.1 381.0
3,257.3 602.5 2,654.8 752.4
350.2
402.2 450.9 35.0
42.5 415.9
411.5
3,433.2 621.7 2,811.5 789.5
365.5 424.0 478.3 29.0
36.5 449.3 434.6
2,704.0 504.3 2,199.6 581.5
291.4 354.7 36.1
1990:1
290.1
302.2
43.5 318.6
II ...
2,753.0 514.3 2,238.6 591.7
46.7 323.3
309.4
294.0 297.8 362.7 39.4
Ill ..
296.4 304.0 365.6 36.0
2,784.5 520.8 2,263.6 600.5
319.7
43.5 329.6
IV ..
529.4 2,259.3 607.1
2,788.8
297.9 309.2 360.9 33.9
41.3 327.1 319.6
1991:1
2.789.5 541.5 2,248.0 616.2
303.8 312.4 349.2 27.6
35.1 321.6
313.0
II ...
2,814.7 544.9 2,269.8 626.0
319.7
306.3
365.1
34.2
41.6 331.0
323.3
Ill ..
2,838.8 546.9 2,292.0 635.4
309.1
326.3 365.2
28.0
35.5 337.1
329.9
IV ..
2,867.1 550.8 2,316.3 643.8
311.4
332.4 372.1 31.0
333.7
38.5 341.1
1992:1
2,916.5 561.4 2,355.1 660.7
319.9
44.2 359.8 350.8
340.8 396.5 36.7
II ...
2,956.2 567.2 2,389.0 670.3
322.7 347.6 406.9 37.9
45.4 368.9
360.7
Ill ..
2,988.2
569.8 2,418.3 681.0
325.1
355.9 412.1 39.9
48.3 372.3 364.4
IV ..
3,021.7
324.2 361.1 422.4 37.3
572.5 2,449.2 685.3
44.8 385.1
376.3
1993:1
3,046.0 580.9 2,465.1 698.2
325.9 372.2 413.5 31.5
39.0 382.0
375.5
II ...
3,075.2
581.4 2,493.9 712.6
375.7
333.5 379.1 417.6 35.8
43.3 381.8
Ill ..
3,115.0 586.3 2,528.7 719.9
335.6
414.2
26.1
388.1
380.0
384.3
33.8
IV ..
3.145.0 588.3 2,556.6 726.2
392.7
338.1
388.0 434.9 34.4
41.9 400.5
1994:1
3,194.1
596.5 2,597.6 738.5
342.9 395.6 421.1 40.8
48.2 380.3 399.3
II ...
3,237.5 601.7 2,635.8 750.5
350.0 400.5 454.4 35.1
42.5 419,3
409.1
Ill ..
603.7 2,666.6 757.2
39.4 426.8 415.1
3,270.3
352.3 404.9 458.7 31.9
IV ..
3,327.4
608.3 2,719.1 763.6
355.8 407.8 469.4 32.3
39.8 437.1
422.5
1995:1
3,371.9
616.3 2,755.6 778.6
360.8 417.7 472.0 28.5
36.1 443.5
429.6
II ...
3,406.0 619.6 2,786.4 785.6
363.6
422.0 474.7 27.6
35.1 447.1 433.1
Ill ..
624.1 2,829.9 793.7
3,454.0
35.7 451.5
367.8 425.9 479.6 28.1
436.3
IV ..
3,501.1 626.9 2,874.2 800.1
369.8
430.2 486.7 31.8
39.3 454.9 439.6
1996:1
3,540.2 634.0 2,906.1 804.1
446.4
375.0
429.1 499.5 38.4
45.8 461.1
II ...
3,606.5 638.9 2,967.5 814.4
380.4 434.0 515.2
45.8
53.2 469.4 455.2
Ill ..
3,659.6
644.6 3,015.1 823.3
59.4 474.6 459.4
384.6
438.6 526.3 51.8
1
National income is the total net income earned in production. It differs from gross domestic product mainly in that it excludes depreciation charges and other allowances for business and institutional consumption of durable capital goods and indirect business taxes. See Table
B-24.
See next page for continuation of table.
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
410.4
426.2
441.2
475.3
502.6
540.2
587.8
644.4
680.7
742.4
800.9
836.6
904.0
999.2
1,125.3
1,206.7
1,295.5
1,447.5
1,616.3
1,839.2
2,053.3
2,216.1
2,470.2
2,569.2
2,761.4
3.132.7
3,351.5
3,516.5
3,778.1
4,108.6
4,362.1
4,611.9
4,719.7
4,950.8
5,195.3
5,501.6
5,813.5
4.523.9
4,623.1
4,633.4
4,667.2
4,675.6
4,702.8
4,730.4
4,770.0
4,888.7
4,941.0
4,911.6
5,061.7
5,096.3
5,159.4
5,214.1
5,311.3
5,304.8
5,493.2
5,561.7
5,646.9
5,709.9
5,755.4
5,861.4
5,927.4
6,015.3
6,118.7
6,203.0
281.2
296.7
305.6
327.4
345.5
371.0
399.8
443.0
475.5
524.7
578.3
618.1
660.1
726.8
813.1
892.4
951.3
1,061.5
1,182.9
1,338.5
1,503.3
1,653.9
1,827.8
1,927.6
2,044.2
2,257.0
2.425.7
2,572.4
2,757.7
2,973.9
3.151.6
3,352.8
3.457.9
3,644.9
3,809.5
4,009.8
4.222.7
3,285.5
3,344.7
3,384.9
3.395.9
3,405.7
3,440.7
3,474.2
3,511.0
3,577.1
3,626.5
3,669.2
3,707.0
3,744.2
3,787.9
3,834.9
3,871.1
3,932.6
3,988.0
4,027.5
4.091.0
4,150.5
4.191.6
4,247.7
4,301.1
4,344.3
4,420.9
4,482.9
328
TABLE B-26.—National income by type of income, 1959-96—Continued
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Rental income of persons
with capital consumption
adjustment
Year or
quarter
Total
Capital
conRental
income sumption
of
persons adjustment
Corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments
Profits with inventory valuation adjustment and without
capital consumption adjustment
Total
Total
Profits
before
tax
18.2
19.7
53.4
50.2 53.1
-1.5
20.6
19.1
-1.5
48.8
51.0
51.1
-1.4
19.8
21.2
49.8 51.3
51.0
-1.4
57.7 56.4
56.4
20.6
22.0
21.3
22.6
-1.3
63.5 61.2
61.2
21.7
70.4 67.5
23.0
-1.3
68.0
22.5
24.0
-1.5
80.9
77.6
78.8
23.2
-1.7
24.9
86.3 83.0
85.1
24.4
83.6 80.3
26.3
-1.9
81.8
23.7
26.0
90.3 86.9
-2.3
90.6
24.4
27.3
-2.8
87.5 83.2
89.0
24.7
75.7 71.8
78.4
27.8
-3.1
25.8
-3.7
29.5
88.8
85.5
90.1
25.7
30.3
-4.6 102.2 97.9 104.5
27.4
-5.4
32.8
115.1 110.9
130.9
34.4
27.5
-6.9 103.7 103.4
142.8
26.6
-3.4 121.1 129.4 140.4
34.9
35.7
26.3
-9.5
147.0 158.9
173.8
24.7
36.4 -11.7
167.3 186.8
2035
26.5
41.2 -14.7
191.6 213.1
238.1
28.4
46.7 -18.3
194.0 220.2 261.8
35.3
167.1 198.3 241.4
57.3 -22.0
45.7
70.7 -25.1
183.9 204.1 229.8
74.7 -27.1
47.6
176.7
159.2 166.8
47.2
74.8 -27.6
212.3 203.7 212.8
51.0
79.2 -28.2
268.2 2385 244.2
49.1
79.0 -29.9
282.2 230.5 229.9
42.3
72.6 -30.4
271.0 234.0 222.6
45.5
309.7 272.9 293.6
77.6 -32.1
55.7
89.7 -33.9
357.2 325.0 354.3
52.4
356.4 330.6 348.1
91.0 -38.5
61.4
98.6 -37.2
369.5 358.2 371.7
68.4
107.0 -38.6
382.5 378.2 374.2
80.6
126.9 -46.2 401.4 398.9 406.4
102.5
144.3 -41.8 464.4 4577 464.3
116.6
159.4 -42.8 529.5 517.9 531.2
122.2
158.6 -36.4
586.6 570.8 598.9
55.5
1990:1
92.3 -36.8
369.3 353.4 354.7
II
57.9
373.4
94.9 -37.1
392.8 381.1
Ill
350.4 341.9 381.9
64.8
102.3 -37.5
IV
67.3
104.9 -37.5
365.5 356.5 376.7
104.1 -37.5
66.6
393.7 388.3 370.7
1991:1
II
66.3
103.9 -37.5
380.0 375.5 368.7
III
67.6
105.3 -37.7
376.8 373.8 374.6
IV
73.0
114.6 -41.6 379.6 375.2 382.8
78.6
1992:1
114.8 -36.2
417.3 411.4 411.1
II
80.9
117.5 -36.6
409.3 404.3 426.2
III
70.8
144.8 -73.9
351.3 359.4 368.0
IV
130.4 -38.1
427.7 420.5 420.3
92.3
98.4
1993:1
142.6 -44.2 427.4 422.4 437.0
||
143.4 -40.5 447.8 442.0 457.6
102.9
III
104.1
146.5 -42.5
469.6 465.9 458.0
IV
104.5
144.6 -40.1 512.8 500.5 504.5
1994:1
162.2 -61.0 459.7 471.6 475.5
101.1
II
121.0
159.0 -37.9
534.3 516.2 526.0
122.2
Ill
159.2 -37.0
553.1 534.3 550.8
IV
121.9
157.2 -35.3
570.9 549.6 572.4
120.6
1995:1
156.3 -35.7
560.0 542.6 594.5
II
121.6
157.2 -35.6
562.3 547.3 589.6
Ill
120.9
156.0 -35.1
612.5 597.9 607.2
IV
125.8
165.0 -39.1
611.8 595.3 604.2
126.9
1996:1
160.0 -33.1
645.1 624.8 642.2
II
124.5
158.6 -34.2
655.8 633.5 644.6
Ill
127.0
162.5 -35.5
661.2 637.6 635.6
2
3 Without capital consumption adjustment.
Without inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Capital
conInven- sumptory
tion
Profits after tax
valu- adjustProfits
ation
tax
ment
Undis- adjustDivi- tributed
liability Total dends
profits ment
Profits
329
23.6
22.7
22.8
24.0
26.2
28.0
30.9
33.7
32.7
39.4
39.7
34.4
37.7
41.9
49.3
51.8
50.9
64.2
73.0
83.5
88.0
84.8
81.1
63.1
77.2
94.0
96.5
106.5
127.1
137.0
141.3
140.5
133.4
143.0
163.8
195.3
218.7
133.0
141.2
148.0
139.7
130.1
132.3
136.0
135.2
143.9
150.9
127.6
149.7
151.5
162.6
159.3
181.7
171.4
192.8
203.4
213.5
217.3
214.2
224.5
218.7
233.4
236.4
233.4
29.7
12.7
28.4
13.4
28.2
14.0
32.4
15.0
16.1
34.9
40.0 18.0
47.9 20.2
51.4
20.9
49.2 22.1
51.2 24.6
49.4 25.2
44.0 23.7
52.4 23.7
62.6 25.8
28.1
81.6
91.0 30.4
30.1
89.5
35.9
109.6
130.4
40.8
154.6
46.0
173.8
52.5
156.6 59.3
148.6
69.5
69.8
113.6
135.5
80.8
83.2
150.1
133.4
92.8
116.1 110.2
166.5 107.0
217.3 116.8
206.8 138.9
231.2 151.9
240.8 163.1
263.4 169.5
300.5 197.3
335.9 211.0
380.2 227.4
221.7 150.7
232.2 152.4
233.9 152.4
237.1 152.0
240.7 158.6
236.4 162.6
238.6 165.9
247.6 165.3
267.2 162.1
275.2 164.6
240.4 170.9
270.6 180.4
285.6 190.2
295.0 195.8
298.6 200.2
322.8 202.9
304.1 204.4
333.3 208.8
347.4 212.5
358.8 218.5
377.2 221.7
375.3 224.6
382.8 228.5
385.5 234.7
408.8 239.9
408.1 243.1
402.2 245.2
17.0
15.0
14.3
17.4
18.8
22.0
27.8
30.5
27.1
26.6
24.1
20.3
28.6
36.9
53.5
60.6
59.4
73.7
89.6
108.6
121.3
97.3
79.1
43.8
54.8
66.9
40.6
5.8
59.5
100.5
67.9
79.4
77.7
93.9
103.2
124.8
152.8
71.1
79.8
81.6
85.0
82.0
73.8
72.7
82.2
105.2
110.6
69.5
90.3
95.3
99.2
98.4
119.9
99.7
124.5
134.9
140.3
155.5
150.8
154.3
150.8
168.9
165.1
156.9
-0.3
-.2
.3
.0
.1
-.5
-1.2
-2.1
-1.6
-3.7
-5.9
-6.6
-4.6
-6.6
-20.0
-39.5
-11.0
-14.9
-16.6
-25.0
-41.6
-43.0
-25.7
-9.9
-9.1
-5.6
.5
11.4
-20.7
-29.3
-17.5
-13.5
4.0
-7.5
-6.6
-13.3
-28.1
-1.3
7.7
-40.0
-20.3
17.6
6.8
-.8
-7.6
.3
-21.9
-8.6
.2
-14.6
-15.6
7.9
-4.0
-3.9
-9.8
-16.5
-22.8
-51.9
-42.3
-9.3
-8.8
-17.4
-11.0
2.0
-2.9
-2.2
-1.5
1.3
2.3
2.8
3.4
3.3
3.3
3.4
4.4
3.9
3.3
4.3
4.1
.3
-8.3
-11.8
-19.6
-21.5
-26.2
-31.2
-20.1
-7.6
8.6
29.7
51.8
37.0
36.8
32.2
25.8
11.3
4.3
2.5
6.7
11.6
15.9
15.9
11.7
8.5
9.0
5.4
4.6
3.0
4.5
5.9
5.0
-8.1
7.2
5.0
5.8
3.8
12.3
-11.8
18.1
18.8
21.3
17.4
15.0
14.6
16.5
20.4
22.3
23.6
Net
interest
10.2
11.2
13.1
14.6
16.1
18.2
21.1
24.3
28.1
30.4
33.6
40.0
45.4
49.3
56.5
71.8
80.0
85.1
100.7
120.5
150.3
191.9
234.5
264.9
275.9
318.5
337.2
363.1
372.2
398.9
456.6
467.3
448.0
414.3
398.9
394.9
403.6
458.9
465.0
467.7
477.5
460.4
450.6
446.6
434.3
419.2
417.5
408.1
412.4
412.8
403.2
391.4
388.0
390.2
395.5
400.1
393.8
406.9
405.2
400.7
401.9
399.5
402.3
405.6
TABLE B-27.—Sources of personal income, 1959-96
[Billions of dollars,- quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Wage and salary disbursements1
Private industries
Year or
quarter
Personal
income
Total
Total
Commodityproducing
industries
Total
loiai
Manufacturing
Other
Distributive
industries
Service
industries
Government
lahnr
laDOr
income '
Proprietors' income
with inventory
valuation and
capital
consumption
adjustments
Farm
259.8
109.9
213.8
86.9
65.1
393.5
38.8
46.0
10.6
1134
2237
4117
417
898
686
272.8
492
112
44.4
52.4
280.5
114.0
228.0
89.9
69.6
429.1
11.8
122.2
243.0
299.3
47.6
96.8
73.3
456.1
56.3
13.0
127.4
100.7
50.7
254.8
76.8
479.1
314.8
60.0
14.0
337.7
15.7
136.0
272.9
107.3
82.0
513.5
54.9
64.9
363.7
115.7
59.4
146.6
293.8
87.9
1965
555.8
69.9
17.8
604.7
4003
161.6
321.9
1282
95.1
1966
65.3
78.3
19.9
1967
649.7
86.4
21.7
169.0
342.5
101.6
428.9
72.0
1343
184.1
80.4
471.9
375.3
146.0
110.8
1968
713.5
96.6
25.2
200.4
412.7
157.7
121.7
5183
1969
778.2
90.6
105.5
28.5
158.4
203.7
551.5
99.4
117.1
4343
131.2
1970
836.1
32.5
457.4
140.4 107.9
1971
583.9
36.7
209.1
160.5
898.9
126.5
638.7
501.2
1374
2282
1972
1756
1533 1197
9873
430
708.7
148.7
255.9
560.0
196.6
1973
1,105.6
492
170.3 133.9
1974
2765
6118
2118
12133
7726
1868 1486
1609
565
277.1
814.6
638.6
1315.6
211.6
198.1 163.4
1975
176.0
65!9
3097
14554
7108
2195 1816
1976
8995
2380
1886
797
242.7 202.8
1977
lieil.4
266.7
993.9
94.7
346.1
791.6
202.3
1.120.8
901.2
1,820.2
392.6
300.1
274.9 233.7
1978
219.6
110.1
2,049.7
237.1
124.3
1.018.8
1979
1.255.9
442.5
335.3
308.5 267.8
1 377.7
1.116.4
356.4
2,285.7
336.7 3072
472.5
1980
261.3
1398
2,560.4
1,232.0
1.517.6
514.9
388.0
368.5 348.6
1981
285.6
153.0
U867
27187
3073
3862
1982
1 593.9
1654
5151
3859 3857
1,360.3
405.7 426.4
2,891.7
1,6853
5282
401.2
1983
177.2
325.0
445.9
1984 .. .
1.507.5
4452 4756
32055
1855.1
5866
3476
1889
620.7
1,622.1
468.9
1985
3,439.6
1.995.9
476.5 525.0
373.8
203.1
481.2
2 116.5
6373
1,720.0
5016 581.0
1986 .
3,647.5
3966
2160
2,272.7
660.4
535.4 653.7
1987
235.4
1349.5
4972
3,877.3
423.1
4504
20032
5753 7209
2453.6
7070
5301
1988
41728
251 7
732.4
2,118.7
21598.1
479.4
548.1
606.8 779.5
1989
4,489.3
273.1
634.1 852.1
7542
2,2403
561.2
1990
4,791.6
2.757.5
517.2
300.6
2.827.6
7463
2.281.5
646.6 888.6
1991
4,968.5
322.7
562.5
546.1
2.986.4
765.7
2.418.6
1992
5,264.2
583.5
680.3 972.6
567.8
351.3
2,506.4
3.090.7
698.4 1,026.7
781.3
593.1
1993
5,480.1
584.2
380.9
1994
3.241.8
824.9
2.6393
621.1
739.2 1,0752
5,753.1
602.5
4022
648.4
3.430.6
2308.8
783.7 1,161.6
1995
6,115.1
621.7
863.5
424.0
748.7
624.4 826.5
2.704.0
2.199.6
1990:1
4,687.8
291.4
554.8
504.3
II
757.7
2.238.6
2.753.0
563.9
633.9 847.1
4,771.5
514.3
297.8
Ill
2.784.4
4,838.4
758.5
2.263.6
638.9 8662
564.9
520.8
304.0
IV
2.259.3
5612
4,868.6
2.788.6
7513
639.1 868.4
529.3
3092
742.5
2,248.0
636.7 868.8
1991:1
4,885.6
2.7893
312.4
555.5
541.3
II
558.4
4,950.2
2.815.1
742.8
2.269.8
644.6 882.5
319.7
545.3
Ill
749.4
649.7 892.8
4,989.3
2.838.8
2,292.0
566.3
546.9
326.3
IV
2,867.1
569.7
332.4
750.6
23163
5,048.9
655.3 910.5
550.8
2,355.1
752.7
1992:1
2.916.5
6662 9362
561.4
571.5
5,151.9
340.8
II
2.9562
2.389.0
761.9
579.6
5,225.1
673.6 953.4
567.2
347.6
Ill
2.988.2
2,418.3
764.6
583.0
5,264.6
681.5 9722
569.8
355.9
599.7
IV
2,512.2
783.6
5,415.3 3.084.7
699.9 1,028.6
572.5
361.1
757.1
2.401.1
674.7 969.3
1993:1
2.982.0
573.8
5,349.1
3722
580.9
II
5,459.4
2,492.9
6962 1,0182
3.0743
581.4
778.5
591.5
379.1
Ill
2.527.7
5,501.6
3,114.0
785.5
596.0
704.0 1,0382
586.3
384.3
IV
3,192.4
718.7 1,0812
8042
2.604.0
5,610.5
611.0
588.3
388.0
1994:1
5,562.4
2.545.6
603.4
3.142.0
800.9
7162 1,028.5
596.5
395.6
3,233.8
820.4
II
2,632.1
735.7 1,075.9
601.7
618.1
5,739.1
400.5
Ill
3,266.6
744.7 1,085.7
5,808.2
832.5
2,662.9
603.7
626.5
404.9
636.4
IV
5,902.7
2.716.6
3.324.9
845.9
760.0 1,110.7
608.3
407.8
2.751.5
1995:1
3.367.9
854.8
643.6
767.6 1,1292
6,004.5
616.3
417.7
II
6,074.4
858.7
3.403.1
2.783.5
645.3
777.3 1,147.5
619.6
422.0
Ill
3.451.2
2327.1
866.7
624.1
6,146.9
650.1
789.3 1,171.1
425.9
IV
654.7
3.500.2
800.7 1,198.6
2.873.3
873.9
6,234.5
626.9
4302
878.7
3.5382
2.9042
1996: I
6,308.5
654.8
810.5 1,215.1
634.0
429.1
II
6,412.4
3.606.5
2,967.5
900.3
671.8
822.3 1,244.9
638.9
434.0
Ill
6,501.4
3.659.6
832.4 1,271.6
911.0
3.015.1
678.5
644.6
438.6
'The total of wage and salary disbursements and other labor income differs from compensation of employees in Table
cludes employer contributions for social insurance and the excess of wage accruals over wage disbursements.
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964 : :..
See next page for continuation of table.
330
Nonfarm
10.9
39.6
391
115
12.1
40.9
12.1
42.9
12.0
44.3
10.8
48.3
50.4
13.0
14.1
53.5
12.7
56.4
12.8
60.5
14.6
62.5
14.8
63.2
15.5
68.3
195
758
80.7
32.6
854
259
242
923
187
1088
17.9
122:9
1392
22.9
150.8
26.6
1541
138
23.7
154.6
164
1535
6.0
175.8
2131
248
24.9
232.5
252
2426
260.6
32.3
2947
282
3082
36'.8
36.3
324.6
332.7
302
38.0
371.5
32.0
388.1
35.0
415.9
449.3
29.0
36.1
318.6
39.4
323.3
36.0
329.6
327.1
33.9
27.6
321.6
342
331.0
337.1
28.0
341.1
31.0
36.7
359.8
37.9
368.9
39.9
372.3
37.3
385.1
31.5
382.0
35.8
381.8
26.1
388.1
34.4
400.5
380.3
40.8
35.1
419.3
31.9
426.8
437.1
32.3
28.5
443.5
447.1
27.6
28.1
451.5
31.8
454.9
38.4
461.1
469.4
45.8
474.6
51.8
B-26 in that it ex-
TABLE B—27.—Sources of personal income, 1959—96—Continued
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Year or
quarter
Rental
income
of
persons Personal
with
capital dividend
income
consumption
adjustment
Transfer payments to persons
Personal
interest
income
Total
Old-age,
survivors,
disability,
and
health
insurance
benefits
GovernGovern- Aid to
ment
ment families
unem- Veterans employ- with
ployment benefits
ees
dependinsurretireent
ance
ment children
benefits
benefits (AFDC)
Other
Less:
Personal
contributions
for
social
insurance
12.7
22.7
18.2
10.2
2.8
2.8
5.7
27.0
4.6
0.9
7.9
13.4
19.1
28.8
11.1
25.0
3.0
4.6
1.0
6.1
9.3
3.1
3.4
14.0
9.7
19.8
26.9
32.8
12.6
4.3
1.1
5.0
6.5
34.1
4.7
3.7
20.6
15.0
29.3
14.3
3.1
1.3
10.3
7.0
32.4
1.4
16.1
36.2
15.2
4.2
11.8
21.3
3.0
4.8
7.6
21.7
2.7
4.7
4.7
18.0
36.1
37.9
16.0
8.2
12.6
1.5
41.1
20.2
5.2
1.7
22.5
40.3
18.1
2.3
4.9
13.3
9.0
45.7
23.2
20.9
1.9
44.9
20.8
4.9
1.9
10.3
17.8
6.1
24.4
22.1
2.2
49.5
54.6
25.5
5.6
6.9
2.3
12.2
20.6
23.7
2.1
24.5
54.6
63.2
30.2
7.6
22.9
5.9
2.8
14.5
24.4
6.7
8.7
25.1
2.2
16.2
26.2
60.8
70.3
32.9
3.5
24.7
7.7
23.5
69.2
10.2
19.4
27.9
84.6
38.5
4.0
4.8
75.7
30.7
23.5
100.1
11.8
6.2
25.8
44.5
5.8
8.8
23.0
25.7
5.7
25.5
9.7
81.8
111.8
13.8
6.9
34.5
49.6
26.1
27.4
27.7
4.4
94.1
60.4
10.4
127.9
16.0
7.2
42.6
29.5
112.4
27.5
29.6
6.8
19.0
35.7
47.9
151.3
70.1
11.8
7.9
81.4
22.7
50.4
29.2
190.2
9.2
44.7
26.6
123.0
17.6
14.5
14.4
26.3
35.0
15.8
55.5
134.6
208.3
92.9
26.1
10.1
49.1
24.7
155.7
12.7
52.4
39.5
223.3
29.0
61.2
104.9
13.8
10.6
32.7
9.7
10.7
58.4
44.3
184.5
241.6
116.2
69.8
26.5
13.9
28.4
270.7
14.4
50.5
223.6
9.8
36.9
11.0
81.0
131.8
66.8
274.7
12.4
57.5
16.1
88.6
35.3
321.5
154.2
15.0
43.0
80.8
49.4
45.7
67.2
89.7
337.2
365.9
182.0
15.9
16.1
1045
13.0
16.4
94.1
379.2
408.1
25.2
54.6
112.3
47.6
66.9
204.5
13.3
439.4
77.4
221.7
119.7
14.2
47.2
403.2
26.3
16.6
58.0
102.6
79.4
16.4
132.7
235.7
51.0
472.3
453.6
15.9
60.9
14.8
109.9
508.4
15.4
253.4
15.7
16.7
118.7
149.0
88.3
486.5
66.6
49.1
16.7
70.7
16.4
105.1
518.6
269.2
162.1
42.3
543.3
16.3
129.3
16.7
173.7
101.1
543.3
14.5
76.0
45.5
560.0
282.9
16.6
136.6
55.7
300.4
109.9
577.6
82.2
194.2
595.5
13.3
16.9
17.3
147.6
52.4
14.4
210.8
130.9
674.5
626.0
325.1
17.3
87.6
18.0
163.6
61.4
704.4
223.9
142.9
687.8
352.0
18.1
17.8
94.5
19.8
185.6
68.4
26.8
102.2
22.0
235.8
153.6
699.2
769.9
382.3
18.3
218.2
248.4
159.4
667.2
858.2
414.0
38.9
109.0
80.6
19.3
23.3
253.8
910.7
444.4
116.4
34.0
259.6
102.5
186.8
648.1
20.1
23.9
271.8
663.7
23.7
20.2
125.8
24.2
278.1
116.6
199.6
956.3
472.9
289.5
717.1 1.022.6
507.4
294.5
122.2
214.8
21.6
20.9
135.5
23.3
313.9
16.4
221.0
55.5
142.0
690.6
1990:1
670.5
93.0
19.1
348.1
18.0
175.9
143.4
17.1
93.7
II
181.4
678.1
222.3
57.9
701.1
348.6
17.8
19.5
Ill
17.7
143.3
18.2
94.9
20.0
187.2
225.9
64.8
711.6
690.6
352.6
226.4
96.4
142.7
IV
358.7
714.2
20.9
197.6
67.3
7120
17.8
20.5
705.4
746.4
149.3
1991:1
102.2
233.0
21.1
66.6
374.6
24.5
18.1
205.9
II
27.7
18.7
234.6
153.1
702.2
763.2
380.0
101.6
21.8
66.3
213.5
221.4
156.4
Ill
384.7
236.9
22.2
67.6
697.0
774.9
26.0
18.3
102.3
155.7
IV
238.9
22.7
795.1
389.9
29.2
18.2
102.9
232.2
73.0
692.3
674.1
405.4
20.4
39.2
245.2
78.6
152.3
1992-1
838.3
107.8
242.5
23.0
40.4
247.4
II
154.5
853.5
412.2
108.6
250.2
80.9
673.0
18.9
23.1
Ill
38.7
249.7
23.4
70.8
160.8
661.2
865.3
416.9
18.8
109.0
258.5
37.1
251.4
IV
660.4
170.1
110.5
264.2
23.5
92.3
875.8
421.5
19.1
98.4
34.4
23.7
114.2
266.7
252.3
180.0
659.3
1993-1
895.9
436.8
20.1
185.4
II
652.2
34.3
259.3
102.9
906.9
441.9
20.3
115.8
270.6
24.0
Ill
189.7
104.1
916.4
446.7
34.7
20.2
117.2
261.9
24.0
640.9
273.6
192.1
IV
24.1
452.1
32.6
118.5
265.0
104.5
639.9
923.6
276.3
20.0
271.4
193.2
1994:1
939.5
27.9
120.2
24.2
283.6
101.1
641.0
463.6
20.0
II
470.4
277.6
286.7
197.5
121.0
659.6
949.8
23.9
124.6
24.2
20.0
Ill
961.4
20.4
201.0
122.2
279.9
24.2
673.3
475.6
21.8
291.3
128.1
206.7
IV
974.7
130.4
24.1
482.1
21.2
283.5
121.9
680.9
20.3
296.5
290.2
209.5
21.2
1995:1
120.6
704.6 1,002.4
497.6
20.8
132.9
23.8
3061
II
292.7
212.2
20.7
121.6
716.6
1.016.8
505.1
21.0
135.5
23.5
311.1
Ill
136.4
215.8
510.7
296.2
120.9
719.9
1,029.9
22.0
21.1
23.1
316.6
IV
221.7
727.2 1,041.4
125.8
516.1
22.2
137.3
298.8
22.8
322.0
21.0
1996: 1
21.7
138.4
226.6
22.2
301.0
126.9
726.1
1.063.0
529.9
22.5
328.3
II
229.3
1,075.6
22.0
142.1
22.0
331.2
305.8
124.5
733.1
536.3
22.0
III
334.4
309.7
541.7
231.5
127.0
742.9 1,085.1
143.5
22.0
21.9
21.6
Note.—The industry classification of wage and salary disbursements and proprietors' income is on an establishment basis and is based on
the 1987 Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) beginning 1987 and on the 1972 SIC for earlier years shown.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
331
TABLE B-28.—Disposition of personal income, 1959-96
[Billions of dollars, except as noted; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Percent of disposable
personal income '
Less: Personal outlays
Year or quarter
Personal
income
Less:
Equals:
Personal D
tax and
nontax personal
payments income
S!f
Total
324.7
44.5
393.5
349.0
48.7
411.7
362.9
339.6
50.3
378.8
350.5
429.1
54.8
401.3
371.8
456.1
421.1
392.5
58.0
479.1
457.6
56.0
513.5
422.1
61.9
493.9
456.2
555.8
533.7
604.7
494.7
71.0
649.7
77.9
571.9
523.0
621.4
92.1
574.6
713.5
668.4
621.4
109.9
778.2
727.1
109.0
666.1
836.1
108.7
790.2
721.6
898.9
132.0
855.3
791.6
987.3
875.4
140.6
965.0
1.105.6
1.054.2
956.6
159.1
1.213.3
156.4
1.159.2 1,054.8
1,315.6
1.455.4
182.3
1.273.0 1.176.7
1.401.4 1,308.9
1.611.4
210.0
1.820.2
1.580.1 1,467.6
240.1
2.049.7
280.2
1,769.5 1.639.5
312.4
2,285.7
1,973.3 1,811.5
2.560.4
360.2
2.200.2 2,001.1
371.4
2.718.7
2,347.3 2,141.8
2.891.7
2.522.4 2,355.5
369.3
395.5 2.810.0 2,574.4
3.205.5
437.7 3,002.0 2,795.8
3.439.6
459.9
3.647.5
3,187.6 2,991.1
514.2
3.363.1 3,194.7
3.877.3
3,640.8 3,451.7
532.0
4.172.8
594.9 3.894.5 3,706.7
4,489.3
624.8 4.166.8 3.958.1
4,791.6
624.8 4,343.7 4,097.4
4.968.5
5,264.2
650.5 4.613.7 4,341.0
689.9
4.790.2 4,575.8
5.480.1
731.4
5.021.7 4.832.3
5.753.1
794.3 5.320.8 5.071.5
6.115.1
4.687.8
613.0
4.074.8 3,875.8
628.2 4.143.3 3,929.4
4.771.5
4,838.4
630.8 4.207.6 3.999.3
627.1
4,868.6
4,241.5 4,027.9
4,885.6
622.3 4.263.3 4.032.5
1991:1
II
4.950.2
620.5 4,329.6 4,083.3
623.7 4,365.6 4.123.9
Ill
4.989.3
4.416.4 4,149.8
IV
632.5
5.048.9
636.7
1992-1
5.151.9
4.515.2 4.250.0
II
640.0
5,225.1
4.585.1 4,304.8
Ill
5.264.6
650.6
4,613.9 4,359.5
IV
5.415.3
674.8 4,740.5 4,450.0
662.4 4,686.7 4,489.2
1993-1
.5,349.1
II
5,459.2
686.9 4,772.3 4,545.5
696.4
Ill
5,501.6
4,805.2 4,602.2
IV
4396.7 4,666.3
713.8
5,610.5
5,562.4
1994-1
705.5 4,856.8 4,728.0
II
740.8
4.998.3 4,796.1
5,739.1
Ill
5,808.2
731.3
5.076.9 4,870.8
5,902.7
IV
748.1
5,154.6 4,934.2
6,0045
1995:1
770.0
5.234.5 4,980.3
II
6,074.4
801.5
5.272.9 5,054.4
III
798.4
6,146.9
5.348.5 5,106.6
807.2
IV
6,234.5
5.427.3 5,144.7
824.9
6,308.5
5.483.5 5,218.1
1996:1
6.412.4
II
870.6
5.541.8 5,300.7
6,501.4
Ill
872.5 5.628.9 5,329.8
i Percents based on data in millions of dollars.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
-1993
1994
1995
1990-1
II
Ill
IV
Personal
Personal Interest transfer
conpaysumption paid
ments
by
to rest
expendi- persons
of the
tures
world
(net)
318.1
332.2
342.6
363.4
383.0
411.4
444.3
481.9
509.5
559.8
604.7
648.1
702.5
770.7
851.6
931.2
1,029.1
1,148.8
1,277.1
1.428.8
1,593.5
1,760.4
1,941.3
2.076.8
2,283.4
2,492.3
2,704.8
2,892.7
3,094.5
3,349.7
3,594.8
3,839.3
3,975.1
4,219.8
4,454.1
4,700.9
4.924.9
3,759.2
3,811.8
3,879.2
3,907.0
3,910.7
3,961.0
4,001.6
4,027.1
4,127.6
4,183.0
4,238.9
4,329.6
4,367.6
4,424.8
4,481.0
4,543.1
4,600.9
4,666.2
4,738.3
4,798.2
4,840.6
4,910.5
4,957.9
4,990.5
5,060.5
5,139.4
5,165.4
332
6.1
7.0
7.3
7.8
8.9
10.0
11.1
12.0
12.5
13.8
15.7
16.8
17.8
19.6
22.4
24.2
24.5
26.7
30.7
37.5
44.5
49.4
54.6
58.8
65.5
74.7
83.2
90.3
91.5
92.9
102.4
108.9
111.9
111.7
108.9
117.2
131.7
106.7
108.0
109.8
110.9
111.4
112.0
112.0
112.1
112.9
112.1
111.4
110.4
109.0
108.0
108.5
110.0
113.0
115.8
118.4
121.5
125.3
129.8
134.0
137.8
141.9
145.1
148.2
0.4
.5
.5
'6
'.K
.8
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.6
5.2
6.2
6.5
7.4
7.8
8.1
8.7
9.1
9.6
9.9
10.4
9.6
12.8
14.2
14.9
9.9
9.5
10.2
10.1
10.4
10.3
10.2
10.6
9.4
9.7
9.2
9.9
12.6
12.7
12.8
13.1
14.1
14.1
14.1
14.5
14.4
14.1
14.7
16.5
15.7
16.2
16.2
Equals:
Personal
saving
Personal outlays
Total
24.3
23.3
28.3
29.5
28.6
35.5
37.8
39.1
48.9
46.8
46.9
61.0
68.6
63.6
89.6
97.6
104.4
96.4
92.5
112.6
130.1
161.8
199.1
205.5
167.0
235.7
206.2
196.5
168.4
189.1
187.8
208.7
246.4
272.6
214.4
189.4
249.3
199.0
213.9
208.3
213.5
230.8
246.3
241.7
266.6
265.2
280.3
254.5
290.5
197.4
226.8
202.9
230.5
128.8
202.2
206.2
220.4
254.2
218.5
241.9
282.6
265.4
241.1
299.1
93.0
93.6
92.5
92.6
93.2
92.3
92.4
92.7
91.5
92.5
93.0
91.5
91.3
92.6
90.7
90.7
91.0
92.4
93.4
92.9
92.6
91.8
90.9
91.2
93.4
91.6
93.1
93.8
95.0
94.8
95.2
95.0
94.3
94.1
95.5
96.2
95.3
95.1
94.8
95.0
95.0
94.6
94.3
94.5
94.0
94.1
93.9
94.5
93.9
95.8
95.3
95.8
95.3
97.4
96.0
95.9
95.7
95.1
95.9
95.5
94.8
95.2
95.7
94.7
Personal Personal
consumption saving
expenditures
91.1
91.5
90.5
90.6
90.9
89.9
90.0
90.3
89.1
90.1
90.5
89.1
88.9
90.1
88.2
88.3
88.8
90.2
91.1
90.4
90.1
89.2
88.2
88.5
90.5
88.7
90.1
90.8
92.0
92.0
92.3
92.1
91.5
91.5
93.0
93.6
92.6
92.3
92.0
92.2
92.1
91.7
91.5
91.7
91.2
91.4
91.2
91.9
91.3
93.2
92.7
93.3
92.8
94.7
93.4
93.3
93.1
92.5
93.1
92.7
92.0
92.3
92.7
91.8
7.0
6.4
7.5
7.4
6.8
7.7
7.6
7.3
8.5
7.5
7.0
8.4
8.7
7.4
9.3
9.3
9.0
7.6
6.6
7.1
7.4
8.2
9.1
8.8
6.6
8.4
6.9
6.2
5.0
5.2
4.8
5.0
5.7
5.9
4.5
3.8
4.7
4.9
5.2
5.0
5.0
5.4
5.7
5.5
6.0
5.9
6.1
5.5
6.1
4.2
4.8
4.2
4.7
2.7
4.0
4.1
4.3
4.9
4.1
4.5
5.2
4.8
4.3
5.3
TABLE B-29-—Total and per capita disposable personal income and personal consumption expenditures
in current and real dollars, 7939-96
[Quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates, except as noted]
Disposable personal income
Year or
Total (billions of
dollars)
VJUOllcl
Current
dollars
Chained
(1992)
dollars
Per capita
(dollars)
Current
dollars
Chained
(1992)
dollars
Personal consumption expenditures
Total (billions of
dollars)
Current
dollars
Chained
(1992)
dollars
Per capita
(dollars)
Current
dollars
Chained
(1992)
dollars
349.0 1.530.1
1.970
8.638
1,796
7,873
318.1
1394.6
1.565.4
362.9
2.008
8,660
3322
14326
1838
7,926
378.8 1.615.8
8,794
2.062
7,954
1,865
342.6 M6L5
4013 16937
9077
3634
2151
15338
1948
8220
9.274
421.1
2.225
8,434
1.755.5
3834 1,596.6
2i023
2.384
457.6 1.881.9
411.4
2,144
9,805
8,817
1.692.3
2,541 10.292
493.9 2.000.2
9,257
2,286
444.3 1,799.1
533.7 2.106.6
2,715 10.715
9,674
481.9
1,902.0
2,451
2.877 11.061
571.9
2.198.4
9,854
2,563
509.5 1,958.6
621.4 2.298.2
3.096 11,448
559.8 2,070.2
2,789
10,313
668.4 2.373.6
3.297 11.708
604.7 2,147.5
2,982
10,593
727.1 2.465.6
3.545 12.022
10,717
648.1
2,197.8
3,160
790.2 2.564.0
3.805 12.345
702.5 2,279.5
3,383
10,975
4.074 12.770
855.3 2.680.8
3,671
770.7 2,415.9
11.508
965.0 2.869.4
4.553 13.539
851.6
2,532.6
4,018
11.950
1,054.2 2,847.0
4.928 13.310
2,514.7
931.2
4,353
11,756
1.159.2 2.895.0
5.367 13.404 1.029.1 2,570.0
4,765
11,899
5.837 13.793 1.148.8
1.273.0 3.008.0
2,714.3
5,268
12,446
1.401.4 3.105.1
6.362 14.095
1.277.1 2,829.8
5,797
12,846
7,097 14,662 1,428.8 2,951.6
1.580.1 3,264.2
6,418
13,258
1.769.5 3353.9
7.861
13,417
14.899 1.593.5 3,020.2
7,079
1.973.3 3,373.3
8.665 14.813 1.760.4 30097
7,730
13,216
19413 30464
22002 34523
9566 15009
13245
8440
2.347.3 3J483.0 10.108 14.999 2 076.8 30815
8^943
13,270
25224 35799 10764 15277 22834 32406
9744
13829
2.810.0 3'.842.0 11,887 16.252 2>92.3 3,407.6 W543
14,415
3.002.0 3.958.6 12.587 16.597 2.704.8 3,566.5 11,341
14,954
3.187.6 4.087.0 13.244 16.981
2.892.7 3,708.7 12,019
15,409
4.154.1 13.849 17.106 3,094.5 3,822.3 12,743
3.363.1
15,740
3.6408 4,3181 14.857 17621 33497 39727 13669
16211
3.894.5 4.403.7 15,742 17.801 3,594.8 4;064.6 14,531
16,430
4.166.8 4,484.6 16.670 17.941 3,839.3
16,532
4,132.2 15,360
4.343.7 4,486.5 17.191 17.756 3.975.1 4,105.8 15,732
16,249
4.613.7 4.613.7 18.062 18.062 4.219.8 4,219.8 16,520
16,520
4,790.2 4.666.9 18.555 18.078 4,454.1 4,339.5 17,253
16,809
5.021.7 4.778 2 19,264 18330 47009 44732 18033
17 159
5.320.8 4.945.8 20,224 18.799 4,924.9 4J577.8 18,719
17,400
4.074.8 4.475.5 16369 17.979 3,759.2 4,128.9 15,102
1990:1
16,587
II
4.143.3 4.494.3 16.602 18.008 3.811.8 4,134.7 15,274
16,568
16,574
4.207.6 4.499.7 16.810 17.977 3.879.2 4,148.5 15,498
Ill
IV
4.241.5 4.468.8 16,8%
17.802 3.907.0 4,116.4 15,564
16,398
4.263.3 4,452.7 16.941 17.694 3.910.7 4,084.5 15,540
1991:1
16,231
II
4.329.6 4.492.6 17.161 17,807 3.961.0 4,110.0 15,700
16,291
Ill
4.365.6 4.494.2 17.253 17,761 4.001.6 4,119.5 15,815
16,280
IV
4.416.4 4,506.3 17.405 17,759 4.027.1 4,109.1 15,871
16,194
1992:1
4.515.2 4.565.6 17.753 17,951 4.127.6 4,173.8 16,229
16,410
II
4,196.4 16,402
16,454
4,585.1 4.599.8 17.979 18.036 4.183.0
111 Z~ 4.613.9 4.600.6 18.036 17.984 4.238.9 4,226.7 16,570 16,522
IV
4.740.5 4.688.7 18.478 18.277 4.329.6 4,282.3 16,877
16,692
4,686.7 4.603.0 18.225 17.900 4.367.6 4,289.7 16,984
1993:1
16,681
II
16,754
4,772.3 4,658.0 18.513 18.069
4,424.8 4,318.8 17,164
Ill
16,864
4.805.2 4.674.8 18.589 18,084
4,481.0 4,359.5 17,335
4,896.7 4.731.7 18.892
IV
18.256
4.543.1 4,390.0 17,528
16,937
1994:1
4,856.8 4,666.5 18.699 17,966 4,600.9 4,420.5 17,714
17,019
II
17,127
4.998.3 4.776.0 19,200 18.346
4.666.2 4,458.7 17,924
Ill
5.076.9 4,810.2 19.452 18.430
4.738.3 4,489.4 18,154
17,200
5.154.6
IV
4.798.2 4,524.0 18338
17,290
4.859.9 19.700 18.574
5.234.5 4,903.8 19.965 18.704 4.840.6 4,534.8 18,463
1995:1
17,296
5.272.9 4.907.1 20,068 18.676 4.910.5 4,569.9 18,689
II
17,393
Ill
17,454
5.348.5 4.959.5 20306 18.829 4.957.9 4,597.3 18,823
IV
5.427.3 5,012.9 20.555 18.986 4.990.5 4,609.4 18,901
17,458
5.483.5 5.037.6 20.727 19.041 5.060.5
17,573
1996:1
4,649.1 19,128
II
5,541.8 5.054.5 20,900 19.063 5,139.4
4,687.6 19,383
17,679
III
17,657
5,628.9 5.114.6 21.177 19,242 5.165.4 4,693.5 19,433
1
Population of the United States including Armed Forces overseas-, includes Alaska and Hawaii beginning
of quartern; data. Quarterly data are averages for the period.
Source: Department of Commerce (Bureau of Economic Analysis and Bureau of the Census).
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978 .:
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
333
Gross domestic
product
per capita
(dollars)
Current
dollars
Chained
(1992)
dollars
Population
fthnu
luiOU-
sands) '
2,864
12,490 177.130
12512 180 760
2913
12!571 183.742
2,965
13125 186 590
3136
3,261
13>92 189.300
14,083 191.927
3,455
14,792 194,347
3,700
4.007
15,565 196,599
4,194
15.800 198.752
16,382 200.745
4,536
16,712 202,736
4,845
16,520 205.089
5,050
16,853 207,692
5.419
5,894
17,579 209,924
6.524
18.412 211,939
18.178 213,898
6.998
17,896 215,981
7,550
8,341
18,713 218,086
19,426 220,289
9,201
20,185 222,629
10,292
20,541 225,106
11.361
20252 227,726
12226
13547
20542 230 008
13,961
19'911 232J218
20527 234 332
14998
21736 236394
16',508
22,345 238,506
17,529
18,374
22,810 240,682
23,260 242,842
19,323
23924 245061
20605
24>97 247,387
21,984
24,559 249,956
22,979
24,058 252,680
23,416
24,447 255,432
24,447
24,738 258,159
25,383
25352 260 681
26606
25,630 263,090
27,571
24,722 248,928
22,739
24,741 249,564
23,044
24,551 250,299
23,102
24,224 251,031
23,031
24,033 251,650
23,136
24,075 252,295
23,355
24,065 253,033
23,515
24,058 253,743
23,655
24,280 254,338
24.070
24,366 255,032
24,316
24,474 255,815
24,516
24.664 256,543
24,881
24,602 257,155
25,054
24,658 257,787
25,239
24,733 258,501
25,433
24,959 259,192
25,806
25,058 259,738
26,088
25,305 260,327
26,469
25,459 261,004
26,793
25,583 261,653
27,071
25,559 262,181
27,270
27,421
25,551 262,748
25,727 263,399
27,752
25,681 264,032
27,840
25,757 264,563
28.072
25,994 265,155
28,455
26,066 265,806
28,653
1960. Annual data are averages
TABLE B-30.—Gross saving and investment, 1959-96
[Billions of dollars, except as noted: quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Gross saving
Gross government saving
Gross private saving
Federal
Gross business saving
Year or
quarter
Total
Total
UndisPertribsonal
1
utedsaving Total corporate
profits2
13.9
109.0 82.8 243 58.4
12.7
113.9 82.1 233 58.8
130
1168 886 283 602
18.7
1274 97.1 29.5 67.6
135.4 100.3 28.6 71.7
21.2
24.4
1458 1129 35.5 77.4
299
1610 1244 378 866
31.7
171.7 132.6 39.1 93.5
174.4 144.7 48.9 95.9
28.9
263
1858 1461 468 99.3
22.6
202.9 149.0 46.9 102.1
17.7
198.2 164.7 61.0 103.8
273
215.3 190.7 68.6 122.1
34.5
244.9 202.7 63.6 139.1
37.6
297.5 242.3 89.6 152.7
21.5
3023 252.7 97.6 155.2
298.3 302.2 104.4 197.8
40.1
340.9 317.5 96.4 221.1
47.0
53.4
395.5 349.4 92.5 256.9
477.4 405.0 112.6 292.4
62.0
540.9 449.1 130.1 319.0
53.5
547.4 489.5 161.8 327.6
23.0
651.1 581.9 199.1 382.8
33.3
604.7 610.1 205.5 404.6
26.3
54.3
589.6 619.1 167.0 452.1
91.0
751.5 737.5 235.7 501.9
746.7 731.5 206.2 525.3
92.9
54.2
721.0 710.1 196.5 513.6
75.7
780.9 727.2 168.4 558.8
877.2 808.4 189.1 6193 103.3
76.2
907.9 815.9 187.8 628.1
904.4 861.7 208.7 653.0
77.2
86.0
935.3 931.9 246.4 685.6
905.4 971.9 272.6 699.2
88.9
935.5 962.4 214.4 748.0 1033
123.2
1,056.3 1,006.7 189.4 8173
1,151.8 1,071.8 249.3 822.5 140.6
85.6
896.1 850.2 199.0 651.2
1990:1
99.2
II .... 940.7 8863 213.9 672.4
50.0
Ill ... 895.0 838.9 2083 630.6
IV ... 885.7 871.2 213.5 657.7
73.8
983.5 928.2 230.8 697.4 105.0
1991:1
II .... 928.1 927.8 246.3 681.5
85.1
Ill ... 905.4 918.0 241.7 6763
74.9
IV ... 924.0 953.7 266.6 687.2
79.1
1992:1
921.5 977.8 265.2 712.6 111.3
93.7
II .... 915.1 980.5 2803 700.1
Ill ... 901.0 987.8 254.5 733.4
52.9
IV ... 884.0 941.3 290.5 650.8
97.7
908.7 981.0 197.4 783.6
85.7
1993:1
II .... 923.8 951.8 226.8 725.0
89.4
Ill ... 937.5 962.4 202.9 759.5 110.1
IV ... 972.1 954.6 230.5 724.1 128.2
1994:1
1,034.3 1,013.5 128.8 884.7
83.9
II .... 1,065.4 9913 202.2 789.1 132.7
Ill ... 1,054.9 1,003.8 206.2 797.6 137.2
IV ... 1,070.7 1,0183 220.4 797.9 138.8
1,115.0 1,043.8 254.2 789.6 121.0
1995:1
II .... 1,102.9 1,018.5 218.5 800.0 123.5
Ill ... 1,168.6 1,085.9 241.9 844.0 159.6
IV ... 1,220.6 1,138.9 282.6 8563 158.4
1996:1
1,217.9 1,133.8 265.4 868.4 171.8
II .... 1,244.5 1,121.6 241.1 880.5 176.3
Ill ... 1,314.0 1,196.1 299.1 897.0 182.5
1
Includes private wai
'With
inventory valuation and capital consumption
3
Consists mainly of allocations of special drawing
See next page for continuation of table.
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
B78
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Corporate
and noncorporate
consumption of
fixed
capital
Total
44.5
46.1
472
48.9
50.5
531
567
61.8
67.0
730
79.5
86.1
94.4
104.9
115.1
133.7
157.7
174.1
203.5
230.4
265.5
304.6
349.5
378.3
397.8
410.9
432.4
459.4
483.2
516.0
551.9
575.8
599.6
626.1
640.0
678.7
679.2
565.6
573.2
580.6
583.9
592.5
596.4
601.4
608.1
601.3
606.4
680.5
616.2
633.8
634.6
648.4
6433
748.7
652.7
656.7
656.6
664.6
673.6
681.8
697.0
694.7
704.2
714.6
26.2
31.8
283
303
35.1
329
366
39.2
29.7
397
53.9
32.6
23.9
41.5
55.1
51.5
-3.9
23.5
46.1
72.4
90.7
56.8
68.1
-53
-29.4
14.0
15.2
10.8
53.6
68.8
92.0
42.7
3.3
-66.5
-26.9
49.6
80.0
45.9
54.5
56.1
14.5
55.3
.2
-12.6
-29.7
-563
-65.3
-86.9
-573
-723
-28.0
-24.9
17.5
20.8
74.1
51.1
52.4
71.2
84.4
82.7
81.7
84.1
122.9
117.8
(SORs).
334
Consumption
of
Total
fixed
capital
12.8
17.8
136
14.0
17.2
13.0
159
15.6
5.6
120
24.3
2.2
-8.5
-2.4
8.7
5.1
-49.9
-31.9
-193
-2.8
13.0
-26.8
-20.6
-92.8
-131.8
-111.9
-116.9
-127.9
-77.2
-67.0
-56.4
-94.0
-132.2
-215.0
-187.4
-119.6
-87.8
-94.8
-84.4
-81.9
-115.0
-72.0
-132.9
-149.7
-174.0
-2022
-213.9
-231.5
-212.5
-217.2
-182.5
-185.7
-164.2
-1432
-99.7
-118.1
-117.4
-992
-86.9
-84.6
-80.7
-82.0
-54.1
-48.4
10.2
10.5
10.7
11.2
11.8
12.1
125
13.0
13.9
14.9
15.6
16.2
16.9
182
19.9
22.0
24.0
25.4
27.0
28.9
31.5
34.1
37.1
41.9
42.6
44.1
46.1
49.6
51.7
54.3
57.0
60.7
63.9
65.9
682
70.6
73.8
593
59.7
60.8
62.8
62.6
63.9
64.3
64.8
652
65.8
66.0
66.5
67.3
67.7
68.6
69.1
69.5
70.0
70.4
72.7
73.5
742
73.8
73.8
732
72.6
723
Capital
grants
Current received
surplus by the
or
United
deficit
States3
(net)
(NIPA)
State and local
ConCurrent
sumpsurplus
tion
or
of
deficit Total fixed
capital
(NIPA)
2.6
7.4
2.9
2.8
5.4
3^4
2.6
-8.3
-2.8
8.7
-14.1
-25.3
-20.5
-11.1
-16.9
-73.9
-57.2
-463
-31.7
-18.4
-61.0
-57.8
-134.7
-174.4
-156.0
-162.9
-177.5
-128.9
-121.3
-113.4
-154.7
-196.0
-280.9
-255.6
-190.2
-161.7
-154.1
-144.1
-142.6
-177.7
-134.6
-196.7
-214.0
-238.8
-267.4
-279.6
-297.5
-279.0
-284.5
-250.2
-254.4
-2333
-212.7
-169.6
-188.5
-190.1
-172.6
-161.1
-158.5
-154.5
-1552
-126.7
-120.8
13.5
14.0
147
16.3
17.9
19.9
208
23.5
24.1
27.6
29.6
30.4
32.4
43.9
46.4
46.5
46.0
55.3
65.4
75.1
77.7
83.6
88.7
87.5
102.4
125.9
132.0
138.8
130.8
135.8
148.4
136.7
135.5
148.6
160.5
169.2
167.9
140.7
138.9
137.9
129.4
127.3
133.1
137.1
144.4
145.9
148.5
144.6
155.2
144.9
154.5
160.9
181.7
164.0
173.7
169.2
169.8
170.4
171.3
167.3
162.4
166.1
177.0
1663
3.9
4.0
43
4.6
4.9
5.2
57
6.3
6.8
76
8.5
9.6
10.7
11.7
13.0
16.0
18.4
19.4
20.7
22.5
25.4
29.2
33.3
36.2
37.5
39.0
41.0
43.9
47.1
49.9
53.3
56.6
59.6
62.3
65.6
69.4
72.9
55.2
56.1
57.2
57.9
58.6
59.4
60.0
60.6
61.1
62.0
62.7
63.5
64.4
65.3
66.0
66.7
69.2
68.5
69.6
70.5
71.4
72.3
73.4
74.3
75.1
76.0
77.1
9.6
9.9
104
11.7
13.0
147
151
17.3
17.3
200
21.1
20.8
21.7
32.2
33.4
30.5
27.6
35.9
44.7
52.6
52.3
54.4
55.4
51.3
64.9
86.9
91.0
94.9
83.8
85.9
95.1
80.1
75.8
86.3
94.9
99.7
95.0
85.5
82.8
80.7
71.5
68.8
73.7
77.1
83.8
84.8
86.6
82.0
91.7
80.5
89.1
94.9
115.0
94.8
105.2
99.6
99.3
99.0
99.0
93.9
88.1
91.0
101.0
89.2
0.9
.7
.7
0
«-2.0
0
0
0
0
1.1
1.2
1.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
TABLE B-30.—Gross saving and investment, 1959-96—Continued
[Billions of dollars except as noted; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Addenda:
Gross investment
Year or quarter
1959
.
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972 ...
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1990 1
II
III
IV
1991-1
II
III
IV
1992-1
II
III
IV
1993: 1
II
Ill
IV
1994-1
II
III
IV
1995-1
II
III
IV
1996-1
II
III
Total
106.9
110.2
113.5
125.0
131.9
143.8
159.6
174.4
175.1
186.0
200.7
199.1
220.4
248.1
299.9
306.7
309.5
359.9
413.0
494.9
568.7
574.8
665.7
601.8
626.2
755.7
748.0
743.1
764.2
828.7
919.5
920.5
944.0
949.1
993.5
1,090.4
1,150.9
939.2
958.1
911.3
873.4
977.0
933.7
922.6
942.8
944.7
951.4
952.6
947.6
988.2
983.5
987.4
1,014.8
1,058.4
1,095.3
1.100.2
1,107.6
1,145.0
1,123.2
1,161.5
1,173.9
1,167.9
1,187.0
1,215.9
4
For details on
5
Gross
private
domestic
investment
78.8
78.8
77.9
87.9
93.4
101.7
118.0
130.4
128.0
139.9
155.0
150.2
176.0
205.6
242.9
245.6
225.4
286.6
356.6
430.8
480.9
465.9
556.2
501.1
547.1
715.6
715.1
722.5
747.2
773.9
829.2
799.7
736.2
790.4
871.1
1,014.4
1,065.3
822.5
835.2
804.9
736.1
723.6
716.2
743.9
760.9
755.2
790.8
799.7
816.1
843.6
855.9
873.8
911.2
957.6
1,016.5
1,033.6
1,050.1
1,072.0
1,050.3
1,074.8
1,064.0
1,068.9
1,096.0
1,156.2
Gross
government
invest-4
ment
29.3
28.2
31.3
33.2
33.5
34.5
35.4
40.1
43.5
44.3
43.9
44.0
43.1
45.4
48.3
56.0
62.7
64.4
65.4
74.6
85.3
96.4
102.1
106.9
116.5
131.7
149.9
163.5
173.5
172.9
182.7
199.4
200.5
209.1
210.6
212.3
221.9
196.0
196.7
199.7
205.4
198.1
201.5
201.3
201.4
209.5
209.3
208.9
208.8
207.1
210.6
209.8
214.7
207.3
208.5
217.2
216.3
219.1
223.7
224.7
220.1
228.8
235.1
234.2
Net
foreign
invest-5
ment
-1.2
3.2
4.3
3.9
5.0
7.5
6.2
3.9
3.5
1.7
1.8
4.9
1.3
-2.9
8.7
5.1
21.4
8.9
-9.0
-10.4
2.6
12.5
7.4
-6.1
-37.3
-91.5
-116.9
-142.9
-156.4
-118.1
-92.4
-78.6
7.3
-50.5
-88.2
-136.4
-136.3
-79.4
-73.8
-93.3
-68.1
55.3
16.0
-22.6
-19.4
-19.9
-48.7
-56.0
-77.2
-62.6
-83.0
-96.2
-111.0
-106.5
-129.7
-150.6
-158.9
-146.2
-150.8
-138.1
-110.2
-129.9
-144.2
-174.6
Statistical
discrepancy
-2.1
-3.7
-3.3
-2.4
-3.5
-2.1
-1.4
2.7
.6
.2
-2.2
1.0
5.1
3.2
2.4
4.5
11.2
18.9
17.5
17.6
27.8
27.4
14.6
-2.9
36.5
4.2
1.3
22.1
-16.6
-48.6
11.6
16.1
8.8
43.7
58.0
34.1
-.9
43.0
17.4
16.3
-12.3
-6.5
5.6
17.2
18.8
23.3
36.2
51.6
63.6
79.5
59.8
49.8
42.8
24.1
30.0
45.3
36.9
30.0
20.3
-7.1
-46.7
-50.0
-57.5
-98.1
Gross Personal
saving
saving
as a
as a
percent
percent
of
of
disposgross
able
national personal
product income
21.4
21.5
21.3
21.6
21.8
21.8
22.2
21.7
20.8
20.3
20.5
19.0
19.0
19.7
21.3
20.0
18.1
18.6
19.3
20.6
20.9
19.4
20.7
18.5
16.6
19.1
17.8
16.3
16.6
17.3
16.6
15.7
15.8
14.5
14.3
15.2
15.9
15.8
16.3
15.4
15.2
16.8
15.7
15.2
15.4
15.0
14.7
14.3
13.8
14.1
14.2
14.2
14.5
15.3
15.5
15.1
15.1
15.6
15.3
16.0
16.6
16.4
16.5
17.3
7.0
6.4
7.5
7.4
6.8
7.7
7.6
7.3
8.5
7.5
7.0
8.4
8.7
7.4
9.3
9.3
9.0
7.6
6.6
7.1
7.4
8.2
9.1
8.8
6.6
8.4
6.9
6.2
5.0
5.2
4.8
5.0
5.7
5.9
4.5
3.8
4.7
4.9
5.2
5.0
5.0
5.4
5.7
5.5
6.0
5.9
6.1
5.5
6.1
4.2
4.8
4.2
4.7
2.7
4.0
4.1
4.3
4.9
4.1
4.5
5.2
4.8
4.3
5.3
government investment, see Table B-18
Net exports of goods and services plus net receipts of factor income from rest of the world less net transfers plus net capital grants
received
by
the
United
States. See also Table B-22.
6
Consists of a U.S. payment to India under the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act. This payment is included in capital
grants received by the United States, net.
Source: Department of Commerce. Bureau of Economic Analysis.
335
TABLE B— 31.—Median money income (in 1995 dollars) and poverty status of families and persons,
by race, selected years, 1977-95
Families1
Year
Number
(millions)
Median
money
income
1995
dol- 2
lars)
ALL RACES
1977
1978 4
1979
1980
1981
1982 s
1983
1984
1985
1986 6
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991 7
1992
1993
1994
1995
WHITE
1977
1978 4
1979
1980
1981
1982 s
1983
1984
1985
1986 6
1987
1988 .
1989
1990
1991 7
1992
1993
1994
1995
BLACK
1977
1978 4
1979
1980
1981 .
1982 s
1983
1984
1985
1986 6
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991 7
1992
1993
1994 ...
1995
Persons
below
poverty level
Below poverty level
Female
householder
Total
Number
(millions)
Percent
Number
(millions)
Percent
Median money income (in 1995 dollars)
of persons 15 years old2 3 and over with
income
Males
Number
(millions)
cent
Per-
Females
All
persons
Yearround
full-time
workers
persons
Yearround
full-time
workers
All
57.2
57.8
59.6
60.3
61.0
61.4
62.0
62.7
63.6
64.5
65.2
65.8
66.1
66.3
67.2
68.2
68.5
69.3
69.6
$38,604
39,827
40,339
38,930
37.868
37,356
37,754
38,772
39.283
40.962
41,548
41,470
42,049
41,223
40.214
39,727
38,980
39,881
40,611
5.3
5.3
5.5
6.2
6.9
7.5
7.6
7.3
7.2
7.0
7.0
6.9
6.8
71
7.7
8.1
8.4
8.1
7.5
9.3
9.1
9.2
10.3
11.2
12.2
12.3
11.6
11.4
10.9
10.7
10.4
10.3
10.7
1J.5
11.9
12.3
11.6
10.8
2.6
2.7
2.6
3.0
3.3
3.4
3.6
3.5
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.8
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.2
4.1
31.7
31.4
30.4
32.7
34.6
36.3
36.0
34.5
34.0
34.6
34.2
33.4
32.2
33.4
35.6
35.4
35.6
34.6
32.4
24.7
24.5
26.1
29.3
31.8
34.4
35.3
33.7
33.1
32.4
32.2
31.7
31.5
33.6
35.7
38.0
39.3
38.1
36.4
11.6
11.4
11.7
13.0
14.0
15.0
15.2
14.4
14.0
13.6
13.4
13.0
12.8
13.5
14.2
14.8
15.1
14.5
13.8
$24,411
24,689
24,258
23,203
22.789
22,238
22,433
22,882
23.102
23,797
23,861
24.358
24,449
23,662
22.904
22,219
22,256
22,336
22,562
$36,340
36.264
35,997
35,504
35,000
34,521
34,402
35,209
35,408
36,006
35,794
35,223
34,928
33.790
33,939
33,491
32,776
32,508
32,199
$9,503
9,185
8,963
9,111
9,232
9,385
9,800
10,074
10,222
10,582
11,128
11,445
11,828
11,742
11,722
11,638
li.650
11,791
1?.130
$21,254
21.767
21,688
21.464
21,070
21,781
22,135
22,621
23,019
23,420
23,563
23,891
24,136
24,010
23,772
23.998
23,697
23,924
23,777
50.5
50.9
52.2
52.7
53.3
53.4
53.9
54.4
55.0
55.7
56.1
56.5
56.6
56.8
57.2
57.7
57.9
58.4
58.9
40,367
41,471
42.093
40,561
39.778
39.221
39,534
40,610
41,290
42.840
43,446
43,691
44,214
43,044
42,277
42.005
41,449
42,043
42.646
3.5
3.5
3.6
4.2
4.7
5.1
5.2
4.9
5.0
4.8
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.6
5.0
5.3
5.5
5.3
5.0
7.0
6.9
6.9
8.0
8.8
9.6
9.7
9.1
9.1
8.6
8.1
7.9
7.8
8.1
8.8
9.1
9.4
9.1
8.5
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.6
1.8
1.8
1.9
1.9
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.2
2.4
2.3
2.2
24.0
23.5
22.3
25.7
27.4
27.9
28.3
27.1
27.4
28.2
26.9
26.5
25.4
26.8
28.4
28.5
29.2
29.0
26.6
16.4
16.3
17.2
19.7
21.6
23.5
24.0
23.0
22.9
22.2
21.2
20.7
20.8
22.3
23.7
25.3
26.2
25.4
24.4
8.9
8.7
9.0
10.2
11.1
12.0
12.1
11.5
11.4
11.0
10.4
10.1
10.0
10.7
11.3
11.9
12.2
11.7
11.2
25,568
25,858
25,342
24,680
24,181
23,510
23.601
24,154
24,235
25,113
25,362
25,712
25,641
24,685
23,940
23,252
23,183
23,311
23,895
37,082
36,937
37.037
36,517
35,822
35,441
35,317
36,415
36,390
37,011
36,628
36,409
36,468
35,075
34,635
34,287
33,572
33,359
33,515
9,648
9,295
9,047
9,161
9,335
9,512
9,972
10,193
10,420
10,790
11,413
11,727
12,059
12,030
11,996
11,908
11,882
11,960
12.316
21,389
21,973
21,878
21,671
21,422
22,074
22,430
22,845
23,344
23,779
23,999
24,249
24,422
24,299
24,119
24,276
24,235
24,571
24,264
7.7 31.3
1.2
51.0
15,172
1.6 28.2
25,566
8,331
19,990
5.8 23,060
1.2
50.6
7.6 30.6
28,290
1.6 27.5
15,491
8,370
20,365
5.9 24,562
49.4
8,234
20,047
1.7 27.8
1.2
15.687
8.1 31.0
26,693
6.2 23.836
49.4
1.3
8,481
20,212
1.8 28.9
8.6 32.5
14,831 25,693
6.3 23,469
1.4
19,347
6.4 22,439
52.9
9.2 34.2
14,379
25,345
8,293
2.0 30.8
56.2
9.7 35.6
1.5
25,172
8,390
6.5 21,677
2.2 33.0
14,089
19,729
53.7
8,521
6.7 22,280
2.2 32.3
1.5
13,802 25,196
19,910
9.9 35.7
51.7
9,041
1.5
9.5 33.8
20,588
6.8 22,634
2.1 30.9
13,858 24,852
1.5
50.5
2.0 28.7
8.9 31.3
15,251
25,453
8,890
20,665
6.9 23,775
26,094
7.1 24.479
1.5
9,130
2.0 28.0
50.1
9.0 31.1
15,048
20,808
1.6
9,322
51.1
9.5 32.4
15,045 26,190
21,435
7.2 24,693
2.1 29.4
9.4 31.3
9,467
7.4 24,901
1.6
49.0
2.1 28.2
15,516 26,687
21,729
21,964
46.5
15,497
2.1 27.8
1.5
9.3 30.7
25,446
9,679
7.5 24,838
15,004
25,047
9,711
1.6
2.2 29.3
43.1
9.8 31.9
21,623
7.5 24,980
51.2
14,504
7.7 24,111
1.8
10.2 32.7
2.3 30.4
25,319
9,865
21,410
24,974
50.2
1.9
10.8 33.4
14,191
9,653
8.0 22,923
2.5 31.1
22,005
24.854
49.9
1.9
10.9 33.1
15,403
10,028
21,426
8.0 22,720
2.5 31.3
1.7
46.2
15,407
25,097
10.2 30.6
10,843
2.2 27.3
21,213
8.1 25,398
1.7
9.9 29.3
24,798
10,961
21,079
8.1 25,970
2.1 26.4
45.1
16,006
'The term "family" refers to a group of two or more persons related by birth, marriage, or adoption and residing together. Every family
must include a reference person. Beginning 1979, based on householder concept and restricted to primary families.
'Current dollar median money income deflated by CPHJ-X1
3
Prior to 1979, data are for persons 14 years and over.
4
Based on 1980 census population controls; comparable with succeeding years.
s
Reflects implementation of Hispanic population controls; comparable with succeeding years.
6
Based on revised methodology, comparable with succeeding years.
7
Based on 1990 census adjusted population controls; comparable with succeeding years.
Note.—Poverty rates (percent of persons below poverty level) for all races for years not shown above are: 1959, 22A, 1960, 22.2; 1961,
21.9; 1962, 21.0; 1963, 19.5; 1964, 19.0; 1965, R3; 1966. 14.7; 1967. 14.2; 1968, 12.8; 1969, 12.1; 1970, 12.6; 1971, 12.5; 1972, 11.9;
1973,11.1; 1974,11.2; 1975,12.3; and 1976,11.8.
Poverty thresholds are updated each year to reflect changes in the consumer price index (CPI-U).
For details see "Current Population Reports," Series P-60.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
336
POPULATION, EMPLOYMENT, WAGES, AND PRODUCTIVITY
TABLE B-32.—Population by age group, 1929-96
[Thousands of persons]
Age (years)
July 1
1929
1933
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944 ..
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Total
121,767
125 579
130,880
132,122
133402
134*860
136,739
138397
139,928
141,389
144126
146;631
149.188
152,271
154,878
157553
160*184
163,026
165,931
168903
171*984
174,882
177830
180671
183,691
186538
189,242
191889
194303
196,560
198712
200*706
202677
205052
207*661
2098%
211*909
213854
215 973
218035
220239
222*585
225 055
227,726
229,966
232188
234^307
236348
238,466
240,651
242,804
245,021
247,342
249,913
252,650
255,419
258,137
260,660
263,034
265,455
Under 5
11,734
10612
10,418
10,579
10850
11301
12*016
12524
12,979
13,244
14406
14,919
15,607
16,410
17,333
17312
17,638
18,057
18,566
19003
19494
19*887
20175
20341
20!522
20469
20,342
20165
19824
19208
18563
17,913
17376
17166
17244
17101
16851
16487
16121
15617
15564
15735
16063
16,451
16893
17228
17547
17695
17,842
17,963
18.052
18195
18,508
18,849
19,198
19.506
19.689
19,734
19591
19,423
5-15
16-19
26,800
26897
25,179
24,811
24516
24231
24,093
23949
23,907
24,103
24468
251209
25,852
26,721
27,279
28894
30,227
31,480
32,682
33994
35272
36,445
37368
38494
39,765
41205
41,626
42297
42938
43702
44244
44,622
44840
44816
44,591
44203
43*582
42989
42508
42,099
41298
40*428
39552
38.838
38.144
37784
37*526
37461
37,450
37,404
37,333
37593
37,972
38.588
39,197
39,905
40,546
41,223
41924
42,447
9,127
9302
9822
9895
9840
9730
9i607
9561
9,361
9,119
9097
8,952
8,788
8,542
8,446
8414
8,460
8,637
8744
8916
9195
9^543
10215
10683
11*025
11 180
12*007
12736
13516
14311
14200
14452
14800
15289
15688
16039
16446
16769
17017
17194
17276
17,288
17242
17,167
16812
16332
15,823
15295
15,005
15,024
15,215
15198
14,913
14449
13,929
13,671
13,798
14032
14287
14,791
20-24
10,694
11 152
11519
11,690
11807
11955
12*064
12062
12,036
12,004
11814
11,794
11,700
11,680
11,552
11350
11,062
10,832
10714
10616
10603
10756
10969
11 134
11483
11959
12,714
13269
13746
14050
15248
15,786
16480
17202
18,159
18153
18,521
18975
19527
19986
20499
20,946
21297
21,590
21,869
21902
21*844
21737
21,478
20,942
20,385
19846
19,442
19,307
19,356
19,192
18,895
18,451
17972
17,456
Note.—Includes Armed Forces overseas beginning 1940. Includes Alaska and Hawaii beginning 1950.
All estimates are consistent with decennial census enumerations.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
337
2M4
35,862
37319
39354
39868
40383
40861
41,420
42016
42,521
43,027
43657
44,288
44,916
45,672
46,103
46495
46,786
47,001
47194
47379
47440
47,337
47192
47140
47*084
47013
46*994
46958
46912
47001
47194
47721
48064
48473
48936
50482
51749
53051
54302
55852
57561
59,400
61379
63,470
65528
67692
69733
71735
73,673
75,651
77,338
78595
79,943
81 196
82,449
82,530
82,849
83180
83511
83*814
45-64
21,076
22933
25,823
26,249
26718
27 196
27*671
28138
28,630
29,064
29498
29,931
30,405
30,849
31,362
31884
32,394
32,942
33506
34057
34591
35409
35663
36203
36,722
37255
37,782
38338
38916
39534
40193
40,846
41437
41999
42*482
42898
43235
43522
43801
44,008
44150
44^86
44390
44,504
44,500
44462
44,474
44547
44,602
44,660
44,854
45471
45,882
46288
46,758
48,345
49,583
50,887
52216
53,675
65 and
over
6,474
7363
8,764
9,031
9288
9584
9*867
10147
10,494
10,828
11 185
11,538
11,921
12,397
12,803
13203
13,617
14,076
14,525
14938
15388
15^806
16248
16675
17*089
17457
17J78
18127
18451
18755
19071
19365
19680
20107
20561
21020
21525
22061
22696
23278
23892
24*502
25134
25,707
26,221
26787
27*361
27878
28,416
29,008
29,626
30124
30,682
31235
31,763
32,270
32,777
33152
33532
33,849
TABLE B-33.—Civilian population and labor force, 1929-96
[Monthly data seasonally adjusted, except as noted]
Civilian labor force
Year or month
Civilian
nonmstituttonal
population 1
Employment
Total
Total
Agricultural
UnNon- employagriment
cultural
Not in
labor
force
Civilian
labor
force
participation2
rate
Percent
Thousands of persons 14 years of age and over
1929
1933
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
99,840
99,900
98,640
94.640
93,220
94,090
103,070
106,018
49,180
51,590
55,230
55,640
55,910
56,410
55,540
54,630
53,860
57,520
60,168
47,630 10,450
38,760 10,090
45,750 9,610
47,520 9,540
50,350 9,100
53,750 9,250
54,470 9,080
53,960 8,950
52,820 8,580
55,250 8,320
57,812 8,256
37,180
28,670
36,140
37,980
41,250
44,500
45,390
45,010
44,240
46,930
49,557
1,550
12,830
9,480
8,120
5,560
2,660
1,070
670
1,040
2,270
2,356
Civil- Unemian
em- ployploy- ment
rate,
ment/ civilpopian
ula4
tion 3 workers
ratio
44,200
43,990
42,230
39,100
38,590
40,230
45,550
45,850
55.7
56.0
57.2
58.7
58.6
57.2
55.8
56.8
47.6
50.4
54.5
57.6
57.9
56.1
53.6
54.5
3.2
24.9
17.2
14.6
9.9
4.7
1.9
1.2
1.9
3.9
3.9
42,477
42,447
42,708
42,787
42,604
43,093
44,041
44,678
44,660
44,402
45,336
46,088
46,960
47,617
48,312
49,539
50,583
51,394
52,058
52,288
52,527
53,291
53,602
54,315
55,834
57,091
57,667
58,171
59,377
59,991
60,025
59,659
59,900
60,806
61,460
62,067
62,665
62,839
62,744
62,752
62,888
62,944
62,523
63,324
64,578
64,700
65,638
65,758
66,280
66,647
58.3
58.8
58.9
59.2
59.2
59.0
58.9
58.8
59.3
60.0
59.6
59.5
59.3
59.4
59.3
58.8
58.7
58.7
58.9
59.2
59.6
59.6
60.1
60.4
60.2
60.4
60.8
61.3
61.2
61.6
62.3
63.2
63.7
63.8
63.9
64.0
64.0
64.4
64.8
65.3
65.6
65.9
66.5
66.5
66.2
66.4
66.3
66.6
66.6
66.8
56.0
56.6
55.4
56.1
57.3
57.3
57.1
55.5
56.7
57.5
57.1
55.4
56.0
56.1
55.4
55.5
55.4
55.7
56.2
56.9
57.3
57.5
58.0
57.4
56.6
57.0
57.8
57.8
56.1
56.8
57.9
59.3
59.9
59.2
59.0
57.8
57.9
59.5
60.1
60.7
61.5
62.3
63.0
62.8
61.7
61.5
61.7
62.5
62.9
63.2
3.9
3.8
5.9
5.3
3.3
3.0
2.9
5.5
4.4
4.1
4.3
6.8
5.5
5.5
6.7
5.5
5.7
5.2
4.5
3.8
3.8
3.6
3.5
4.9
5.9
5.6
4.9
5.6
8.5
7.7
7.1
6.1
5.8
7.1
7.6
9.7
9.6
7.5
7.2
7.0
6.2
5.5
5.3
5.6
6.8
7.5
6.9
6.1
5.6
5.4
Thousands of persons 16 years of age and over
1947
101,827 59,350 57,038
103,068 60,621 58,343
1948
103,994 61,286 57,651
1949
1950
104,995 62,208 58,918
104,621 62,017 59,961
1951
1952 s
105,231 62,138 60,250
107,056 63,015 61,179
1953
1954
108,321 63,643 60,109
1955
109,683 65,023 62,170
110,954 66,552 63,799
1956
1957
112,265 66,929 64,071
113,727 67,639 63,036
1958
1959
115,329 68,369 64,630
5
117,245 69,628 65,778
I960
118,771 70,459 65,746
1961 5
1962
120,153 70,614 66,702
122,416 71,833 67,762
1963
1964
124,485 73,091 69,305
1965
126,513 74,455 71,088
128,058 75,770 72,895
1966
1967
129,874 77,347 74,372
1968
132,028 78,737 75,920
1969
134,335 80,734 77,902
1970
137,085 82,771 78,678
1971 5
140,216 84,382 79,367
1972s
144,126 87,034 82,153
1973
147,096 89,429 85,064
1974
150,120 91,949 86,794
1975
153,153 93,775 85,846
1976
156,150 96,158 88,752
1977
159,033 99,009 92,017
1978s
161,910 102,251 96,048
1979
164,863 104,962 98,824
167,745 106,940 99,303
1980
170,130 108,670 100,397
1981
172,271 110,204 99,526
1982
174,215 111,550 100,834
1983
1984
176,383 113,544 105,005
1985 s
178,206 115,461 107,150
180,587 117,834 109,597
1986
1987
182,753 119,865 112,440
1988
184,613 121,669 114,968
1989
186,393 123,869 117,342
s
189,164 125,840 118,793
1990
1991
190,925 126,346 117,718
1992
192,805 128,105 118,492
1993 s
194,838 129,200 120,259
196,814 131,056 123,060
1994
198,584 132,304 124,900
1995
1996
200,591 133,943 126,708
1
Not seasonally adjusted.
2
Civilian labor force as percent of civilian noninstitutiqnal population.
3
Civilian
employment as percent of civilian noninstitutional population.
4
Unemployed as percent of civilian labor force.
See next page for continuation of table.
338
7,890
7,629
7,658
7,160
6,726
6,500
6,260
6,205
6,450
6,283
5,947
5,586
5,565
5,458
5,200
4,944
4,687
4,523
4,361
3,979
3,844
3,817
3,606
3,463
3,394
3,484
3,470
3,515
3,408
3,331
3,283
3,387
3,347
3,364
3,368
3,401
3,383
3,321
3,179
3,163
3,208
3,169
3,199
3,223
3,269
3,247
3,115
3,409
3,440
3,443
49,148
50,714
49,993
51,758
53,235
53,749
54,919
53,904
55,722
57,514
58,123
57,450
59,065
60,318
60,546
61,759
63,076
64,782
66,726
68,915
70,527
72,103
74,296
75,215
75,972
78,669
81,594
83,279
82,438
85,421
88,734
92,661
95,477
95,938
97,030
96,125
97,450
101,685
103,971
106,434
109,232
111,800
114,142
115,570
114,449
115,245
117,144
119,651
121,460
123,264
2,311
2,276
3,637
3,288
2,055
1,883
1,834
3,532
2,852
2,750
2,859
4,602
3,740
3,852
4,714
3,911
4,070
3,786
3,366
2,875
2,975
2,817
2,832
4,093
5,016
4,882
4,365
5,156
7,929
7,406
6,991
6,202
6,137
7,637
8,273
10,678
10,717
8,539
8,312
8,237
7,425
6,701
6,528
7,047
8,628
9,613
8,940
7,996
7,404
7,236
TABLE B-33-—Civilian population and labor force, 1929-96—Continued
[Monthly data seasonally adjusted, except as noted]
Civilian labor force
Civilian
noninstituttonal
population1
Year or month
Employment
Total
Total
Agricultural
Un-
Non- employagriment
cultural
Not in
labor
force
Civilian
labor
force
participation2
rate
Thousands of persons 16 years of age and over
1993:Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May ...
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec .
1994- Jan 5
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
1995- Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
.
Aug
..z:r: z.rr:
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec ..
1996: Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
_
:
193.962
194,108
194,248
194,398
194,549
194,719
194,882
195,063
195,259
195,444
195.625
195,794
195,953
196,090
196,213
196,363
196,510
196,693
196.859
197,043
197.248
197.430
197,607
197,765
197,753
197,886
198,007
198.148
198.286
198.453
198.615
198.801
199.005
199,192
199.355
199.508
199.634
199.772
199.921
200.101
200.278
200,459
200.641
200.847
201.060
201.273
201.463
201.636
128,400
128,458
128,598
128,584
129.264
129,411
129,397
129,619
129,268
129,573
129,711
129,941
130,709
130.685
130,501
130,644
130,828
130.590
130,644
131.223
131,284
131,676
131.846
131,847
132.198
132,140
132,271
132,613
131,935
131,978
132,300
132.246
132.450
132,564
132,533
132,422
132.899
133.070
133,464
133,427
133.759
133.709
134,165
133.898
134.291
134,636
134,831
135,022
119,075
119,275
119,542
119,474
120,115
120,290
120,467
120,856
120,554
120,823
121,169
121,464
121,999
122,104
122,001
122,331
122,961
122,653
122,717
123,274
123,544
124,052
124,474
124,689
124,766
124,937
125,070
125,023
124,577
124,533
124,804
124,729
124,927
125,235
125,124
125,068
125,311
125.706
126,062
126,125
126,428
126,590
126,889
126,988
127,248
127,617
127,644
127,855
3,222
3,125
3,119
3,074
3,100
3,108
3,126
3,026
3,174
3,084
3,157
3,116
3,307
3,325
3,354
3,425
3,412
3,295
3,343
3,460
3,441
3,486
3,576
3,577
3,530
3,579
3,625
3,572
3,350
3,455
3,398
3,387
3,307
3,427
3,340
3,344
3,498
3,499
3,470
3,412
3,474
3,408
3,470
3,418
3,480
3,450
3,354
3,426
115,853
116,150
116,423
116,400
117,015
117,182
117,341
117,830
117,380
117,739
118,012
118,348
118,692
118,779
118,647
118,906
119,549
119,358
119,374
119,814
120,103
120,566
120,898
121,112
121,236
121,358
121,445
121,451
121,227
121,078
121,406
121,342
121,620
121,808
121,784
121,724
121,813
122,207
122,592
122,713
122,954
123,182
123,419
123,570
123,768
124,167
124,290
124,429
9,325
9,183
9,056
9.110
9,149
9,121
8,930
8,763
8,714
8,750
8,542
8,477
8,710
8,581
8,500
8,313
7,867
7,937
7,927
7,949
7,740
7,624
7,372
7,158
7,432
7,203
7,201
7,590
7,358
7,445
7,496
7,517
7,523
7,329
7,409
7,354
7,588
7,364
7,402
7,302
7,331
7,119
7,276
6,910
7,043
7,019
7,187
7,167
Civilian
employment/
population
ratio 3
Unemployment
rate,
civilian
work-4
ers
Percent
65,562
65,650
65,650
65,814
65,285
65,308
65,485
65,444
65,991
65,871
65,914
65,853
65,244
65,405
65,712
65,719
65,682
66,103
66,215
65,820
65,964
65,754
65,761
65,918
65,555
65,746
65,736
65,535
66,351
66,475
66,315
66,555
66,555
66,628
66,822
67,086
66,735
66,703
66,457
66,674
66,519
66,750
66,476
66,949
66,770
66,637
66,632
66,614
66.2
66.2
66.2
66.1
66.4
66.5
66.4
66.4
66.2
66.3
66.3
66.4
66.7
66.6
66.5
66.5
66.6
66.4
66.4
66.6
66.6
66.7
66.7
66.7
66.9
66.8
66.8
66.9
66.5
66.5
66.6
66.5
66.6
66.6
66.5
66.4
66.6
66.6
66.8
66.7
66.8
66.7
66.9
66.7
66.8
66.9
66.9
67.0
61.4
61.4
61.5
61.5
61.7
61.8
61.8
62.0
61.7
61.8
61.9
62.0
62.3
62.3
62.2
62.3
62.6
62.4
62.3
62.6
62.6
62.8
63.0
63.0
63.1
63.1
63.2
63.1
62.8
62.8
62.8
62.7
62.8
62.9
62.8
62.7
62.8
62.9
63.1
63.0
63.1
63.2
63.2
63.2
63.3
63.4
63.4
63.4
7.3
7.1
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.0
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.8
6.6
6.5
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.0
6.1
6.1
6.1
5.9
5.8
5.6
5.4
5.6
5.5
5.4
5.7
5.6
5.6
5.7
5.7
5.7
5.5
5.6
5.6
5.7
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.3
5.4
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.3
5.3
s
Not strictly comparable with earlier data due to population adjustments as follows: Beginning 1953, introduction of 1950 census data
added about 600,000 to population and 350.000 to labor force, total employment, and agricultural employment. Beginning 1960, inclusion of
Alaska and Hawaii added about 500,000 to population, 300.000 to labor force, and 240,000 to nonagricultural employment. Beginning 1962,
introduction of 1960 census data reduced population by about 50,000 and labor force and employment by 200,000. Beginning 1972, introduction of 1970 census data added about 800,000 to civilian noninstrtutional population and 333,000 to labor force and employment. A subsequent adjustment based on 1970 census in March 1973 added 60,000 to labor force and to employment. Beginning 1978, changes in sampling and estimation procedures introduced into the household survey added about 250,000 to labor force and to employment. Unemployment
levels and rates were not significantly affected. Beginning 1986, the introduction of revised population controls added about 400,000 to the
civilian population and labor force and 350,000 to civilian employment. Unemployment levels and rates were not significantly affected.
Beginning 1990, the introduction of 1990 census-based population controls, adjusted for the estimated undercount, added about 1.1 million to the civilian population and labor force, 880.000 to civilian employment, and 175,000 to unemployment. The overall unemployment rate
rose by about 0.1 percentage point
Beginning 1994, data are not strictly comparable with data for 1993 and prior years because of the introduction of a major redesign of
the Current Population Survey and collection methodology.
Note.—labor force data in Tables B-33 through B-42 are based on household interviews and relate to the calendar week including the
12th of the month. For definitions of terms, area samples used, historical comparability of the data, comparability with other series, etc., see
"Employment and Earnings."
Source: Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
339
TABLE B-34.—Civilian employment and unemployment by sex and age, 1948-96
[Thousands of persons 16 years of age and over; monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Civilian employment
Year or month
Total
58,343
57,651
58,918
59,961
60,250
61,179
60,109
62,170
63,799
64,071
63,036
64,630
Total
16-19
years
20
years
Total
16-19
years
over
41,725 2,344 39.382 16.617
40,925 2,124 38,803 16.723
41,578 2,186 39.394 17,340
41,780 2,156 39.626 18.181
41,682 2,107 39.578 18.568
42,430 2,136 40,296 18,749
41,619 1,985 39,634 18.490
42,621 2.095 40.526 19,551
43,379 2,164 41.216 20,419
43,357 2.115 41,239 20,714
42.423 2,012 40,411 20.613
43,466 2,198 41.267 21,164
65,778 43,904 2.361 41,543 21.874
65,746 43,656 2.315 41.342 22.090
66,702 44,177 2.362 41.815 22.525
67,762 44,657 2,406 42.251 23,105
69,305 45,474 2,587 42.886 23,831
71,088 46,340 2,918 43.422 24,748
72,895 46,919 3,253 43.668 25.976
74,372 47,479 3,186 44,294 26.893
75,920 48,114 3,255 44,859 27,807
77,902 48,818 3.430 45,388 29.084
78,678 48,990 3.409 45,581 29.688
79,367 49,390 3.478 45,912 29,976
82,153 50,896 3,765 47,130 31.257
85,064 52,349 4.039 48.310 32.715
86,794 53,024 4,103 48,922 33.769
85,846 51,857 3.839 48,018 33,989
88,752 53,138 3.947 49.190 35,615
92,017 54,728 4.174 50,555 37,289
96,048 56,479 4.336 52,143 39,569
98,824 57,607 4,300 53,308 41,217
99,303 57,186 4,085 53,101 42.117
100,397 57,397 3.815 53,582 43,000
99,526 56,271 3,379 52,891 43,256
100,834 56,787 3.300 53,487 44,047
105,005 59,091 3,322 55,769 45.915
107,150 59,891 3.328 56,562 47,259
109,597 60,892 3,323 57,569 48.706
112,440 62,107 3,381 58,726 50.334
114,968 63,273 3,492 59,781 51.696
117,342 64,315 3,477 60,837 53.027
118,793 65,104 3,427 61.678 53.689
117,718 64,223 3,044 61,178 53,496
118,492 64,440 2,944 61,496 54.052
120,259 65,349 2,994 62.355 54.910
123,060 66,450 3,156 63,294 56.610
124,900 67,377 3,292 64.085 57,523
126,708 68,207 3,310 64,897 58.501
1995: Jan
124,766 67,498 3,276 64,222 57,268
124,937 67,617 3,248 64,369 57,320
Feb
Mar
125,070 67,702 3,347 64,355 57.368
Apr
125,023 67,544 3.316 64,228 57.479
124,577 67,168 3.242 63,926 57,409
May
June
124,533 67,328 3,327 64.001 57,205
124,804 67,290 3,312 63.978 57.514
July
Aug
124,729 67,139 3,308 63831 57.590
Sept
124,927 67,328 3,297 64.031 57,599
Oct
125,235 67,428 3,245 64,183 57.807
Nov
125,124 67,240 3,292 63,948 57.884
Dec
125,068 67,290 3,293 63,997 57.778
1996-. Jan
125,311 67,527 3,269 64,258 57.784
Feb
125,706 67,742 3,326 64,416 57,964
Mar
126,062 67,856 3,294 64.562 58,206
Apr
126,125 67,932 3,359 64,573 58.193
May
126,428 68.188 3,400 64,788 58.240
June
126,590 68,251 3,318 64,933 58.339
July
126,889 68,376 3,305 65,071 58,513
Aug
126,988 68,368 3,203 65.165 58,620
Sept
127,248 68,304 3,326 64,978 58,944
Oct
127,617 68,647 3,348 65,299 58,970
Nov
127,644 68,589 3,240 65,349 59.055
Dec
127,855 68,707 3,340 65,367 59.148
Note.—See footnote 5 and Note, Table B-33.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Unemployment
Females
Mates
1,682
1.588
1.517
1.611
1.612
1.584
1.490
1,547
1.654
1,663
1.570
1.640
1.768
1.793
1.833
1,849
1,929
2.118
2,468
2,496
2.526
2,687
2,735
2,730
2.980
3,231
3,345
3.263
3,389
3,514
3.734
3,783
3,625
3,411
3.170
3.043
3.122
3,105
3.149
3,260
3.313
3,282
3,154
2,862
2,724
2,811
3,005
3.127
3.190
3,117
3,097
3,199
3,113
3.117
3.167
3.056
3.171
3.104
3,150
3.114
3.098
3.100
3.119
3.152
3.118
3.173
3.143
3,198
3,122
3,300
3,289
3,302
3,277
340
Males
20
years
and
over
Total
Females
20
20
years
16-19 years
Total 16-19
years and Total years and
over
over
14,936 2.276 1,559
256
15,137 3,637 2,572 353
15.824 3,288 2,239 318
16,570 2,055 1,221
191
16,958 1,883 1,185
205
17.164 1,834 1,202
184
17,000 3,532 2,344 310
274
18.002 2,852 1,854
18,767 2,750 1,711 269
19,052 2,859 1,841
300
19,043 4,602 3,098 416
19,524 3,740 2,420 398
20,105 3,852 2,486 426
20,296 4,714 2,997 479
20,693 3,911 2,423 408
21,257 4,070 2,472 501
21,903 3,786 2,205 487
479
22.630 3,366 1,914
23,510 2,875 1,551
432
24.397 2,975 1,508
448
426
25,281 2,817 1,419
26,397 2,832 1,403
440
26.952 4,093 2,238 599
27,246 5,016 2,789 693
28,276 4,882 2,659 711
29,484 4,365 2,275 653
30.424 5,156 2,714
757
30.726 7,929 4,442 966
32,226 7,406 4,036 939
33,775 6,991 3,667 874
35,836 6,202 3,142
813
37.434 6,137 3,120
811
38.492 7,637 4,267 913
39,590 8,273 4,577 962
40.086 10,678 6,179 1,090
41.004 10,717 6,260 1,003
42,793 8,539 4,744 812
44.154 8,312 4,521
806
45.556 8,237 4,530 779
47,074 7,425 4,101
732
48.383 6.701 3,655 667
49.745 6,528 3,525 658
50.535 7,047 3,906 667
50.634 8,628 4,946 751
51.328 9,613 5,523 806
52.099 8,940 5,055 768
53,606 7,996 4,367 740
54.396 7,404 3,983 744
55,311 7,236 3,880 733
54,151 7,432 4,074 691
54,223 7,203 3,852 774
54,169 7,201 3,824 673
54,366 7,590 4,002 726
54,292 7,358 4,034 740
54,038 7,445 3,990 754
54,458 7,496 3,968 750
54,419 7,517 4,073 782
54,495 7,523 4,035 761
54,657 7,329 3,856 762
54,770 7,409 4,032 743
54,680 7,354 4,073 767
54,684 7,588 4,059 761
54,845 7,364 4,002 730
55,054 7,402 4,080 756
55.075 7,302 3,990 734
55,067 7,331 3,932 724
55.196 7,119 3,859 704
55.315 7,276 3,941
790
55.498 6,910 3,593 714
55.644 7,043 3,783 705
742
55.681 7,019 3,716
55.753 7,187 3,773 731
55.871 7,167 3,707 705
1,305
2,219
1,922
1,029
980
1,019
2,035
1,580
1,442
1,541
2,681
2,022
2,060
2,518
2,016
1,971
1,718
1,435
1,120
1,060
993
963
1,638
2,097
1,948
1,624
1,957
3,476
3,098
2,794
2,328
2,308
3,353
3,615
5,089
5,257
3,932
3,715
3,751
3,369
2,987
2,867
3,239
4,195
4,717
4,287
3,627
3,239
3,146
3,383
3,078
3,151
3,276
3,294
3,236
3,218
3,291
3,274
3,094
3,289
3,306
3,298
3,272
3,324
3,256
3,208
3,155
3,151
2,879
3,078
2,974
3,042
3,002
717
1,065
1,049
834
698
632
1.188
998
1,039
1,018
1,504
1,320
1,366
1,717
1,488
1.598
1,581
1,452
1,324
1,468
1,397
1,429
1,855
2,227
2,222
2,089
2,441
3,486
3,369
3,324
3,061
3,018
3,370
3,696
4,499
4,457
3,794
3,791
3,707
3,324
3,046
3,003
3,140
3,683
4,090
3,885
3,629
3,421
3,356
3,358
3,351
3,377
3,588
3,324
3,455
3,528
3,444
3,488
3,473
3,377
3,281
3,529
3,362
3,322
3,312
3,399
3,260
3,335
3,317
3,260
3,303
3,414
3,460
153
223
195
145
140
123
191
176
209
197
262
256
286
349
313
383
385
395
405
391
412
413
506
568
598
583
665
802
780
789
769
743
755
800
886
825
687
661
675
616
558
536
544
608
621
597
580
602
573
575
572
584
623
606
591
647
587
629
575
613
627
619
589
573
570
581
547
511
585
555
552
593
603
564
841
854
689
559
510
997
823
832
821
1,242
1,063
1,080
1,368
1,175
1,216
1,195
1,056
921
1,078
985
1,015
1,349
1,658
1,625
1,507
1,777
2,684
2,588
2,535
2,292
2,276
2,615
2,895
3,613
3,632
3,107
3,129
3,032
2,709
2,487
2,467
2,596
3,074
3,469
3,288
3,049
2,819
2,783
2,783
2,779
2,793
2,965
2,718
2,864
2,881
2,857
2,859
2,898
2,764
2,654
2,910
2,773
2,749
2,742
2,818
2,713
2,824
2,732
2,705
2,751
2,821
2,857
TABLE B—35.—Civilian employment by demographic characteristic, 1954—96
[Thousands of persons 16 years of age and over; monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Year or
month
All
civilian
workers
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1995:Jan
Feb
Mar
Total
Males
Females
60,109 53,957 37,846 16,111
62,170 55,833 38,719 17,114
63,799 57,269 39,368 17,901
64,071 57,465 39,349 18,116
63,036 56,613 38,591 18,022
64,630 58,006 39,494 18,512
65,778 58,850 39,755 19,095
65,746 58,913 39,588 19,325
66,702 59,698 40,016 19,682
67,762 60.622 40,428 20,194
69,305 61,922 41,115 20,807
71,088 63,446 41,844 21,602
72,895 65,021 42,331 22,690
74,372 66,361 42,833 23,528
75,920 67,750 43,411 24,339
77,902 69,518 44,048 25,470
78,678 70,217 44.178 26,039
79,367 70,878 44,595 26,283
82,153 73,370 45,944 27,426
85,064 75,708 47,085 28,623
86,794 77,184 47,674 29,511
85,846 76,411 46,697 29.714
88,752 78,853 47,775 31,078
92,017 81,700 49,150 32,550
96,048 84,936 50,544 34,392
98,824 87,259 51.452 35.807
99,303 87,715 51.127 36.587
100,397 88,709 51,315 37.394
99,526 87,903 50,287 37,615
100,834 88,893 50.621 38.272
105,005 92,120 52,462 39,659
107,150 93,736 53.046 40,690
109,597 95,660 53.785 41,876
112,440 97,789 54.647 43,142
114,968 99,812 55,550 44.262
117,342 101,584 56,352 45,232
118,793 102,261 56.703 45,558
117,718 101.182 55.797 45,385
118,492 101,669 55,959 45,710
120,259 103,045 56,656 46,390
123,060 105,190 57,452 47,738
124,900 106,490 58,146 48,344
126,708 107,808 58,888 48,920
124,766 106,438 58,222 48.216
124,937 106,497 58,278 48,219
125,070 106,531 58,297 48,234
125,023 106,509 58,177 48,332
124,577 106,123 57.883 48,240
June
124,533 106,271 58,118 48,153
124,804 106.609 58.149 48,460
July
Aug
124,729 106.510 58,037 48,473
124,927 106,648 58,159 48,489
Sept
Oct
125,235 106,724 58,212 48,512
125,124 106,503 58,077 48,426
Nov
Dec
125,068 106,525 58,195 48,330
1996:Jan
125,311 106.631 58,356 48,275
Feb
125,706 107,192 58,609 48.583
Mar
126,062 107,398 58,633 48,765
Apr
126,125 107,364 58,704 48,660
May
126,428 107,576 58.848 48,728
June
126,590 107,733 58,922 48,811
July
126,889 107,862 58,987 48,875
Aug
126,988 107,853 58,908 48,945
Sept
127,248 108.217 58.970 49.247
127,617 108.527 59.234 49,293
Oct
Nov
127,644 108,570 59,183 49,387
127,855 108,734 59,299 49,435
Dec
Note.—See footnote 5 and Note, Table B-33.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
fc-
Black
Black and other
White
Both
sexes
16-19
Total
Males
Females
Both
sexes
16-19
3,078
3,225
3,389
3,374
3,216
3,475
3,700
3,693
3,774
3,851
4,076
4,562
5,176
5,114
5,195
5,508
5,571
5,670
6,173
6,623
6,796
6,487
6,724
7,068
7,367
7,356
7,021
6,588
5,984
5,799
5,836
5,768
5,792
5,898
6,030
5,946
5,779
5,216
4,985
5,113
5,398
5,593
5,667
5,667
5,526
5,685
5,637
5,575
5,728
5,595
5,629
5,520
5,538
5,508
5,530
5,560
5,626
5,587
5,615
5,705
5,666
5,680
5,478
5,781
5,794
5,764
5,764
6,152
6,341
6,534
6,604
6,423
6,623
6,928
6,833
7,003
7,140
7,383
7,643
7,877
8,011
8,169
8,384
8,464
8,488
8,783
9,356
9,610
9,435
9,899
10,317
11,112
11,565
11,588
11,688
11,624
11,941
12,885
13,414
13,937
14,652
15,156
15,757
16,533
16,536
16,823
17,214
17,870
18,409
18,900
18,242
18,450
18,480
18,474
18,448
18,289
18,222
18,264
18.298
18,514
18,664
18,567
18,583
18,491
18,635
18,728
18,857
18,856
19,034
19,176
19,061
19,093
19,137
19,132
3,773
3,904
4,013
4,006
3,833
3,971
4,149
4,068
4,160
4,229
4,359
4,496
4,588
4,646
4,702
4,770
4,813
4,796
4,952
5,265
5,352
5,161
5,363
5,579
5,936
6,156
6,059
6,083
5,983
6,166
6,629
6,845
7,107
7,459
7,722
7,963
8,401
8,426
8,482
8,693
8,998
9,231
9,319
9,261
9,351
9,356
9,355
9,253
9,204
9,149
9,145
9,212
9,214
9,179
9,107
9,144
9,125
9,199
9,219
9,319
9,304
9,384
9,504
9,381
9,412
9,437
9,397
2,379
2,437
2,521
2,598
2,590
2,652
2,779
2,765
2,843
2,911
3,024
3,147
3,289
3,365
3,467
3,614
3,650
3,692
3,832
4,092
4,258
4,275
4,536
4,739
5,177
5,409
5,529
5,606
5,641
5,775
6,256
6,569
6,830
7,192
7,434
7,795
8,131
8,110
8,342
8,521
8,872
9,179
9,580
8,981
9,099
9,124
9,119
9,195
9,085
9,073
9,119
9,086
9,300
9,485
9,460
9,439
9,366
9,436
9,509
9,538
9,552
9,650
9,672
9,680
9,681
9,700
9,735
396
418
430
407
365
362
430
414
420
404
440
474
545
568
584
609
574
538
573
647
652
615
611
619
703
727
689
637
565
543
607
666
681
742
774
813
801
690
684
691
763
826
832
744
804
827
792
793
808
808
827
873
859
911
855
830
785
840
863
881
810
837
814
839
849
804
831
341
Total
Males
Both
Fe- sexes
males 16-19
7,802
8,128
8,203
7,894
8,227
8,540
9,102
9,359
9,313
9,355
9,189
9,375
10,119
10,501
10,814
11,309
11,658
11,953
12,175
12,074
12,151
12,382
12,835
13,279
13,542
13,129
13,328
13,351
13,317
13,300
13,186
13,086
13,114
13,174
13,380
13,576
13,314
13,388
13,326
13,401
13,432
13,584
13,478
13,612
13,699
13,566
13,647
13,673
13,693
4,368
4,527
4,527
4,275
4,404
4,565
4,796
4,923
4,798
4,794
4,637
4,753
5,124
5,270
5,428
5,661
5,824
5,928
5,995
5,961
5,930
6,047
6,241
6,422
6,456
6,421
6,519
6,551
6,497
6,419
6,403
6,336
6,321
6,397
6,439
6,432
6,341
6,382
6,365
6,380
6,398
6,487
6,403
6,490
6,594
6,456
6,502
6,518
6,502
3,433
3,601
3,677
3,618
3,823
3,975
4,307
4,436
4,515
4,561
4,552
4,622
4,995
5,231
5,386
5,648
5,834
6,025
6,180
6,113
6,221
6,334
6,595
6,857
7,086
6,708
6,809
6,800
6,820
6,881
6,783
6,750
6,793
6,777
6,941
7,144
7,072
7,006
6,961
7,021
7,034
7,097
7,075
7,122
7,105
7,110
7,145
7,155
7,191
509
570
554
507
508
508
571
579
547
505
428
416
474
532
536
587
601
625
598
494
492
494
552
586
613
521
565
580
569
563
575
570
567
613
611
682
614
600
584
632
645
683
599
603
596
604
626
576
607
TABLE B—36.—Unemployment by demographic characteristic, 1954—96
[Thousands of persons 16 years of age and over; monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Year or
month
All
civilian
workers
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988 . ..
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1995:Jan
Feb
Mar
Total
Males
3,532 2,859 1,913
2,852 2,252 1,478
2,750 2,159 1,366
2,859 2,289 1,477
4,602 3,680 2,489
3,740 2,946 1,903
3,852 3,065 1,988
4,714 3,743 2,398
3,052 1,915
3,911
4,070 3,208 1,976
3,786 2,999 1,779
1,556
3,366 2,691
2,875 2,255 1,241
2,975 2,338 1,208
2,817 2,226 1,142
2,832 2,260 1,137
4,093 3,339 1,857
5,016 4,085 2,309
4,882 3,906 2,173
4,365 3,442 1,836
5,156 4,097 2,169
7,929 6,421 3,627
7,406 5,914 3,258
6,991 5,441 2,883
6,202 4,693 2,411
6,137 4,664 2,405
7,637 5,884 3,345
8,273 6,343 3,580
10,678 8,241 4,846
10,717 8,128 4,859
8,539 6,372 3,600
8,312 6,191 3,426
8,237 6,140 3,433
7,425 5,501 3,132
6,701 4,944 2,766
6,528 4,770 2,636
7,047 5,186 2,935
8,628 6,560 3,859
9,613 7,169 4,209
8,940 6,655 3,828
7,996 5,892 3,275
7,404 5,459 2,999
7,236 5,300 2,896
7,432 5,450 3,053
7,203 5,252 2,896
7,201 5,326 2,930
7,590 5,594 3,037
7,358 5,522 3.071
7,445 5,449 2,990
June
7,496 5,452 2,921
July
7,517 5,475 3,016
Aug
7,523 5,492 3,025
Sept
7,329 5,473 2,946
Oct
7,409 5,553 3,087
Nov
7,354 5,500 3,037
Dec
1996:Jan
7,588 5,576 3,041
7,364 5,459 2,994
Feb
Mar
7,402 5,429 3,025
7,302 5,356 2,960
Apr
7,331 5,449 2,940
May
7,119 5,207 2,889
June
7,276 5,277 2,905
July
6,910 5,051 2,718
Aug
7,043 5,117 2,810
Sept
7,019 5,098 2,781
Oct
7,187 5,246 2,807
Nov
7,167 5,257 2,777
Dec
Note.—See footnote 5 and Note, Table B-33.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
fc-
Black
Black and other
White
Females
Both
sexes
16-19
Total
423
373
382
401
541
525
575
669
580
708
708
705
651
635
644
660
871
1,011
1,021
955
1,104
1,413
1,364
1,284
1,189
1,193
1,291
1,374
1,534
1,387
1,116
1,074
1,070
995
910
863
903
1,029
1,037
992
960
952
939
912
940
909
957
951
916
971
935
967
977
992
1,004
1,018
957
960
935
945
916
953
917
896
912
945
918
673
601
591
570
923
793
788
971
861
863
787
678
622
638
590
571
754
930
977
924
1,058
1,507
1,492
1,550
1,505
1,473
1,752
1,930
2.437
2,588
2,167
2,121
2,097
1,924
1,757
1,757
1,860
2,068
2.444
2,285
2,104
1,945
1,936
1,931
1,944
1,874
1,990
1,874
1,982
1,989
2,056
2,044
1,920
1,841
1,884
1,957
1,900
1,974
1,941
1,929
1,891
1,956
1,880
1,938
1,962
1,927
1,943
946
774
793
812
1,191
1,043
1,077
1,345
1,137
1,232
1,220
1,135
1,014
1,130
1,084
1,123
1,482
1,777
1,733
1,606
1,927
2,794
2,656
2,558
2,287
2,260
2,540
2,762
3,395
3,270
2,772
2,765
2,708
2,369
2,177
2,135
2,251
2.701
2.959
2,827
2,617
2,460
2,404
2,397
2,356
2,396
2,557
2,451
2,459
2,531
2,459
2,467
2,527
2,466
2,463
2,535
2,465
2,404
2,396
2,509
2,318
2,372
2,333
2,307
2,317
2,439
2,480
Statistics.
342
Males
Females
Both
sexes
16-19
431
376
345
364
610
517
498
599
509
496
426
360
310
300
277
267
380
481
486
440
544
815
779
784
731
714
922
997
1,334
1,401
1,144
1,095
1,097
969
888
889
971
1,087
1,314
1,227
1,092
984
984
983
951
894
974
972
992
1,017
1,075
1,016
948
934
1,045
979
1,010
1.059
1,038
1,000
960
1,009
897
979
969
956
932
242
225
246
206
313
276
290
372
352
367
361
318
312
338
313
304
374
450
491
484
514
692
713
766
774
759
830
933
1,104
1,187
1,022
1,026
999
955
869
868
889
981
1,130
1,058
1,011
961
952
948
993
980
1,016
902
990
972
981
1,028
972
907
839
978
890
915
903
929
931
947
983
959
993
971
1,011
79
77
95
96
138
128
138
159
142
176
165
171
186
203
194
193
235
249
288
280
318
355
355
379
394
362
377
388
443
441
384
394
383
353
316
331
308
330
390
373
360
394
367
353
398
352
403
393
415
416
437
420
372
376
387
360
355
372
376
359
321
339
388
366
388
388
390
Total
906
846
965
1,369
1,334
1,393
1,330
1,319
1,553
1,731
2,142
2,272
1,914
1,864
1,840
1,684
1,547
1,544
1,565
1,723
2,011
1,844
1,666
1,538
1,592
1,517
1,541
1,451
1,584
1,481
1,571
1,589
1,618
1,653
1,478
1,441
1,530
1,594
1,536
1,618
1,572
1,554
1,532
1,600
1,598
1,618
1,629
1,617
1,613
Males
Females
Both
sexes
16-19
448
395
494
741
698
698
641
636
815
891
1,167
1,213
1,003
951
946
826
771
773
806
890
1,067
971
848
762
808
765
743
662
763
768
783
794
829
791
694
709
837
800
806
867
813
796
780
846
754
827
813
813
766
458
451
470
629
637
695
690
683
738
840
975
1,059
911
913
894
858
776
772
758
833
944
872
818
777
784
752
798
789
821
713
788
795
789
862
784
732
693
794
730
751
759
758
752
754
844
791
816
804
847
279
262
297
330
330
354
360
333
343
357
396
392
353
357
347
312
288
300
268
280
324
313
300
325
310
286
329
278
319
318
346
345
369
365
306
311
329
312
286
307
316
288
277
304
350
311
325
316
322
TABLE B-37.—Civilian labor force participation rate and employment I population ratio, 1948-96
[Percent-1 monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Labor force participation rate
Year or month
Employment/population ratio
All
Both
All
Both
civilian Mates Fe- sexes White Black
Fe- sexes White Black
Males males
and Black civilian
and Black
workworkmales 16-19
16-19
other
other
ers
years
ers
years
58.8 86.6 32.7
52.5
56.6
55.4
58.9 86.4 33.1
52.2
59.2 86.4 33.9
51.8
56.1
59.2 86.3 34.6
52.2
57.3
59.0 86.3 34.7
51.3
57.3
57.1
58.9 86.0 34.4
50.2
58.8 85.5 34.6
48.3
58.2 64.0
55.5
58.7 64.2
56.7
59.3 85.4 35.7
48.9
59.4 64.9
60.0 85.5 36.9
50.9
57.5
57.1
59.6 84.8 36.9
49.6 59.1 64.4
47.4 58.9 64.8
55.4
59.5 84.2 37.1
46.7 58.7 64.3
59.3 83.7 37.1
56.0
37.7
59.4 83.3
47.5 58.8 64.5
56.1
55.4
59.3 82.9 38.1 46.9
58.8 64.1
58.8 82.0 37.9
46.1
55.5
58.3 63.2
58.7 81.4 38.3 45.2
55.4
58.2 63.0
55.7
58.7 81.0 38.7
44.5
58.2 63.1
45.7
58.4 62.9
56.2
58.9 80.7 39.3
59.2 80.4 40.3
48.2
58.7 63.0
56.9
48.4
59.6 80.4 41.1
59.2 62.8
57.3
59.6 80.1 41.6
48.3
57.5
59.3 62.2
60.1 79.8 42.7 49.4 59.9 62.1
58.0
60.4 79.7 43.3
57.4
49.9
60.2 61.8
49.7 60.1 60.9
60.2 79.1 43.4
56.6
60.4 78.9 43.9
60.4 60.2 "59.9
51.9
57.0
60.8 78.8 44.7 53.7
60.8 60.5 60.2
57.8
61.4 60.3 59.8
61.3 78.7 45.7
54.8
57.8
61.2 77.9 46.3
54.0
61.5 59.6 58.8
56.1
61.6 77.5 47.3 54.5
61.8 59.8 59.0
56.8
62.3 77.7 48.4
56.0
62.5 60.4 59.8
57.9
63.2 77.9 50.0
57.8
63.3 62.2 61.5
59.3
63.7 77.8 50.9
57.9 63.9 62.2 61.4
59.9
64.1 61.7 61.0
63.8 77.4 51.5 56.7
59.2
55.4
63.9 77.0 52.1
59.0
64.3 61.3 60.8
54.1
64.0 76.6 52.6
57.8
64.3 61.6 61.0
64.0 76.4 52.9
53.5
64.3 62.1 61.5
57.9
64.4 76.4 53.6
53.9
64.6 62.6 62.2
59.5
64.8 76.3 54.5
54.5
65.0 63.3 62.9
60.1
54.7 65.5 63.7 63.3
60.7
65.3 76.3 55.3
54.7 65.8 64.3 63.8
65.6 76.2 56.0
61.5
65.9 76.2 56.6
55.3
66.2 64.0 63.8
62.3
66.7 64.7 64.2
66.5 76.4 57.4 55.9
63.0
53.7
66.5 76.4 57.5
66.9 64.4 64.0
62.8
61.7
66.2 75.8 57.4
51.6
66.6 63.8 63.3
66.4 75.8 57.8
51.3
66.8 64.6 63.9
61.5
61.7
51.5
66.8 63.8 63.2
66.3 75.4 57.9
66.6 75.1 58.8 52.7 67.1 63.9 63.4
62.5
67.1 64.3 63.7
53.5
66.6 75.0 58.9
62.9
66.8 74.9 59.3
52.3 67.2 64.6 64.1
63.2
53.7
66.9 75.5 58.9
67.3 64.3 63.4
63.1
67.1 64.9 64.3
66.8 75.4 58.9
53.8
63.1
54.4
67.2 64.6 64.0
63.2
66.8 75.4 58.9
54.1
66.9 75.3 59.2
67.3 64.9 64.3
63.1
66.5 74.9 58.8 53.3 67.0 64.4 63.7
62.8
54.1
66.5 75.0 58.7
62.8
67.0 64.1 63.6
53.4
67.1 63.8 63.1
66.6 74.9 59.0
62.8
66.5 74.7 59.0
62.7
53.9
67.0 64.0 63.3
67.1 64.0 63.6
66.6 74.8 59.0
53.2
62.8
52.7
67.1 64.1 63.6
66.6 74.6 59.1
62.9
66.5 74.6 59.0
52.6
66.9 64.3 64.2
62.8
66.4 74.6 58.8 52.9
62.7
66.9 64.0 63.8
52.7
66.6 74.8 59.0
66.9 64.3 64.0
62.8
66.6 74.9 59.0 52.7
67.2 63.7 63.4
62.9
52.7
66.8 75.0 59.1
67.2 64.3 64.0
63.1
66.7 75.0 59.1
67.1 64.3 63.8
52.6
63.0
66.8 75.1 59.1
53.1
67.2 64.6 64.3
63.1
66.7 75.0 59.0
67.1 64.4 63.7
51.8
63.2
52.2 67.2 65.0 64.4
63.2
July
. .
66.9 75.2 59.2
66.7 74.7 59.3
50.7
Aug
63.2
67.0 65.1 64.7
52.2 67.2 64.8 64.1
Sept
66.8 74.7 59.5
63.3
52.4 67.3 64.8 64.4
63.4
Oct
66.9 74.9 59.5
Nov
67.4 64.7 64.3
63.4
66.9 74.9 59.6
52.0
Dec
67.4 64.7 64.3
63.4
67.0 74.9 59.7
52.3
1
Civilian labor force or civilian employment as percent of civilian noninstitutional population
Note.—Data relate to persons 16 years of age and over.
See footnote 5 and Note, Table &-33.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
,
1969
1970 .
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984 .. .
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1995- Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct . ;.""'"
Nov
Dec
1996- Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June " ::: ::...
343
83.5 31.3 47.7
81.3 31.2 45.2
82.0 32.0 45.5
84.0 33.1 47.9
83.9 33.4 46.9
46.4
83.6 33.3
81.0 32.5 42.3 "55i2
81.8 34.0 43.5 56.5
82.3 35.1
45.3 57.3
81.3 35.1 43.9 56.8
78.5 34.5 39.9 55.3
79.3 35.0 39.9 55.9
78.9 35.5 40.5 55.9
77.6 35.4 39.1 55.3
77.7 35.6 39.4 55.4
77.1 35.8
37.4 55.3
77.3 36.3 37.3 55.5
77.5 37.1 38.9 56.0
77.9 38.3
42.1 56.8
78.0 39.0 42.2
57.2
57.4
77.8 39.6 42.2
77.6 40.7 43.4 58.0
76.2 40.8 42.3 57.5
74.9 40.4 41.3 56.8
75.0 41.0 43.5 57.4
75.5 42.0 45.9 58.2
74.9 42.6
46.0 58.3
71.7 42.0 43.3 56.7
72.0 43.2 44.2
57.5
72.8 44.5 46.1 58.6
73.8 46.4 48.3 60.0
73.8 47.5 48.5 60.6
72.0 47.7
46.6 60.0
71.3 48.0 44.6
60.0
69.0 47.7 41.5 58.8
68.8 48.0 41.5 58.9
70.7 49.5 43.7 60.5
70.9 50.4 44.4 61.0
71.0 51.4
61.5
44.6
71.5 52.5 45.5 62.3
72.0 53.4 46.8 63.1
72.5 54.3 47.5 63.8
72.0 54.3 45.3 63.7
70.4 53.7 42.0 62.6
69.8 53.8
41.0 62.4
70.0 54.1 41.7 62.7
70.4 55.3 43.4 63.5
70.8 55.6 44.2
63.8
70.9 56.0 43.5 64.1
71.2 55.6 44.8 64.0
71.3 55.6 44.4
64.0
71.4 55.6 45.6 64.0
71.1 55.7 44.7
63.9
70.7 55.6 44.0 63.7
70.8 55.4 44.8 63.7
70.7 55.6
43.8 63.9
70.5 55.6 44.5 63.8
70.6 55.6
43.7 63.8
70.6 55.7 43.6 63.8
43.4 63.6
70.3 55.8
70.3 55.6 43.5 63.6
70.6 55.6 43.3 63.6
70.7 55.7
43.8
63.9
70.8 55.9 43.7 64.0
70.8 55.9 43.7 63.9
71.0 55.9 44.3 64.0
71.0 55.9 43.4 64.0
71.1 56.0 43.5 64.1
71.0 56.1 42.0 64.0
70.8 56.3 43.9 64.2
71.1 56.3 43.8 64.3
71.0 56.3 43.3 64.3
71.0 56.4 43.7 64.3
in group specified.
"M!O
58.7
59.5
59.3
56.7
57.5
57.9
56.2
56.3
56.2
57.0
57.8 •• ••'•
58.4
58.2
58.0
58.1
56.8
54.9
54.1 '"537
55.0 54.5
54.3 53.5
51.4 50.1
52.0 50.8
52.5 51.4
54.7 53.6
55.2 53.8
53.6 52.3
52.6 51.3
50.9 49.4
51.0 49.5
53.6 52.3
54.7 53.4
55.4 54.1
56.8 55.6
57.4 56.3
58.2 56.9
57.9 56.7
56.7 55.4
56.4 54.9
56.3 55.0
57.2 56.1
58.1 57.1
58.6 57.4
58.1 56.9
58.7 57.7
58.7 57.7
58.6 57.5
58.4 57.3
57.8 56.8
57.5 56.3
57.5 56.3
57.5 56.5
58.1 57.3
58.5 58.0
58.1 57.3
58.1 57.2
57.8 56.8
58.1 57.1
58.3 57.1
58.6 57.7
58.5 57.2
58.9 57.7
59.3 57.9
58.8 57.3
58.8 57.5
58.8 57.5
58.7 57.5
TABLE B—38.—Civilian labor force participation rate by demographic characteristic, 1954—96
[Percent;1 monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Black and other or black
White
Year or month
All
civilian
workers
Males
Total
Total
16-19
years
Females
20
years Total
and
over
16-19
years
Males
20
years Total Total
and
over
16-19
years
Females
20
years Total
and
over
16-19
years
20
years
and
over
Black and other
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
58.8
59.3
60.0
59.6
59.5
59.3
59.4
59.3
58.8
58.7
58.7
58.9
59.2
59.6
59.6
60.1
60.4
60.2
60.4
58.2
58.7
59.4
59.1
58.9
58.7
58.8
58.8
58.3
58.2
58.2
58.4
58.7
59.2
59.3
59.9
60.2
60.1
60.4
85.6
85.4
85.6
84.8
84.3
83.8
83.4
83.0
82.1
81.5
81.1
80.8
80.6
80.6
80.4
80.2
80.0
79.6
79.6
57.6
58.6
60.4
59.2
56.5
55.9
55.9
54.5
53.8
53.1
52.7
54.1
55.9
56.3
55.9
56.8
57.5
57.9
60.1
87.8
87.5
87.6
86.9
86.6
86.3
86.0
85.7
84.9
84.4
84.2
83.9
83.6
83.5
83.2
83.0
82.8
82.3
82.0
33.3
34.5
35.7
35.7
35.8
36.0
36.5
36.9
36.7
37.2
37.5
38.1
39.2
40.1
40.7
41.8
42.6
42.6
43.2
40.6
40.7
43.1
42.2
40.1
39.6
40.3
40.6
39.8
38.7
37.8
39.2
42.6
42.5
43.0
44.6
45.6
45.4
48.1
32.7
34.0
35.1
35.2
35.5
35.6
36.2
36.6
36.5
37.0
37.5
38.0
38.8
39.8
40.4
41.5
42.2
42.3
42.7
64.0
64.2
64.9
64.4
64.8
64.3
64.5
64.1
63.2
63.0
63.1
62.9
63.0
62.8
62.2
62.1
61.8
60.9
60.2
85.2
85.1
85.1
84.2
84.1
83.4
83.0
82.2
80.8
80.2
801
79.6
79.0
78.5
77.7
76.9
76.5
74.9
73.9
61.2
60.8
61.5
58.8
57.3
55.5
57.6
55.8
53.5
51.5
49.9
51.3
51.4
51.1
49.7
49.6
47.4
44.7
46.0
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1995=Jan
Feb
Mar
60.4
60.8
61.3
61.2
61.6
62.3
63.2
63.7
63.8
63.9
64.0
64.0
64.4
64.8
65.3
65.6
65.9
66.5
66.5
66.2
66.4
66.3
66.6
66.6
66.8
66.9
66.8
66.8
66.9
66.5
66.5
66.6
66.5
66.6
66.6
66.5
66.4
66.6
66.6
66.8
66.7
66.8
66.7
66.9
66.7
66.8
66.9
66.9
67.0
60.4
60.8
61.4
61.5
61.8
62.5
63.3
63.9
64.1
64.3
64.3
64.3
64.6
65.0
65.5
65.8
66.2
66.7
66.9
66.6
66.8
66.8
67.1
67.1
67.2
67.3
67.1
67.2
67.3
67.0
67.0
67.1
67.0
67.1
67.1
66.9
66.9
66.9
67.2
67.2
67.1
67.2
67.1
67.2
67.0
67.2
67.3
67.4
67.4
79.6
79,4
79.4
78.7
78.4
78.5
78.6
78.6
78.2
77.9
77.4
77.1
77.1
77.0
76.9
76.8
76.9
77.1
77.1
76.5
76.5
76.2
75.9
75.7
75.8
76.2
76.0
76.0
76.0
75.6
75.7
75.6
75.6
75.6
75.5
75.5
75.5
75.7
75.9
75.9
75.8
75.9
75.9
75.9
75.5
75.7
75.9
75.8
75.8
60.1
62.0
62.9
61.9
62.3
64.0
65.0
64.8
63.7
62.4
60.0
59.4
59.0
59.7
59.3
59.0
60.0
61.0
59.6
57.3
56.9
56.6
57.7
58.5
57.1
58.7
58.5
59.2
59.2
58.4
59.4
58.9
58.7
58.1
58.0
57.7
58.0
58.3
58.2
57.5
58.0
58.7
57.1
57.2
54.0
56.5
57.0
56.3
56.3
82.0
81.6
81.4
80.7
80.3
80.2
80.1
80.1
79.8
79.5
79.2
78.9
78.7
78.5
78.5
78.4
78.3
78.5
78.5
78.0
78.0
77.7
77.3
77.1
77.3
77.5
77.4
77.4
77.3
76.9
77.0
76.9
76.9
77.0
76.9
76.9
76.9
77.0
77.3
77.4
77.3
77.3
77.4
77.4
77.3
77.2
77.4
77.3
77.4
43.2
44.1
45.2
45.9
46.9
48.0
49.4
50.5
51.2
51.9
52.4
52.7
53.3
54.1
55.0
55.7
56.4
57.2
57.4
57.4
57.7
58.0
58.9
59.0
59.1
58.9
58.8
58.9
59.1
58.9
58.8
59.2
59.1
59.0
59.1
58.9
58.7
58.7
59.0
59.1
58.9
59.1
58.9
59.0
59.0
59.3
59.3
59.5
59.6
48.1
50.1
51.7
51.5
52.8
54.5
56.7
57.4
56.2
55.4
55.0
54.5
55.4
55.2
56.3
56.5
57.2
57.1
56.3
54.1
52.5
53.5
55.1
55.5
54.7
57.3
55.3
56.6
56.3
55.7
56.6
55.4
55.4
54.4
54.7
54.6
54.5
54.9
54.7
54.5
53.6
54.2
54.3
54.7
53.6
55.5
55.2
55.7
54.9
42.7
43.5
44.4
45.3
46.2
47.3
48.7
49.8
50.6
51.5
52.2
52.5
53.1
54.0
54.9
55.6
56.3
57.2
57.6
57.6
58.1
58.3
59.2
59.2
59.4
59.0
59.1
59.0
59.3
59.1
58.9
59.4
59.3
59.4
59.4
59.2
59.0
59.0
59.3
59.4
59.3
59.4
59.2
59.3
59.4
59.5
59.6
59.8
59.9
59.9
60.2
59.8
58.8
59.0
59.8
61.5
61.4
61.0
60.8
61.0
61.5
62.2
62.9
63.3
63.8
63.8
64.2
64.0
63.3
63.9
63.2
63.4
63.7
64.1
63.4
64.3
64.0
64.3
63.7
63.6
63.1
63.3
63.6
63.6
64.2
63.8
64.0
63.4
64.0
63.8
64.3
63.7
64.4
64.7
64.1
64.4
64.3
64.3
73.6
73.4
72.9
70.9
70.0
70.6
71.5
71.3
70.3
70.0
70.1
70.6
70.8
70.8
71.2
71.1
71.0
71.0
71.0
70.4
70.7
69.6
69.1
69.0
68.7
69.5
70.2
69.6
70.0
69.2
69.1
68.5
68.6
68.8
68.2
68.1
68.4
68.5
68.3
68.9
68.5
69.0
68.0
69.3
69.3
68.6
68.8
68.8
68.1
46.3
45.7
46.7
42.6
41.3
43.2
44.9
43.6
43.2
41.6
39.8
39.9
41.7
44.6
43.7
43.6
43.8
44.6
40.7
37.3
40.6
39.5
40.8
40.1
39.5
38.0
42.7
36.6
39.8
38.7
40.9
40.6
41.4
41.0
38.6
41.7
40.4
38.8
37.6
41.3
42.5
42.6
36.9
42.1
40.0
37.5
40.1
37.1
37.1
87.1
87.8
87.8
87.0
87.1
86.7
86.2
85.5
84.2
83.9
84.1
83.7
83.3
82.9
82.2
81.4
81.4
80.0
78.6
46.1
46.1
47.3
47.1
48.0
47.7
48.2
48.3
48.0
48.1
48.6
48.6
49.4
49.5
49.3
49.8
49.5
49.2
48.8
31.0
32.7
36.3
33.2
31.9
28.2
32.9
32.8
33.1
32.6
31.7
29.5
33.5
35.2
34.8
34.6
34.1
31.2
32.3
47.7
47.5
48.4
48.6
49.8
49.8
49.9
50.1
49.6
49.9
50.7
51.1
51.6
51.6
51.4
52.0
51.8
51.8
51.2
48.7
49.3
49.0
48.8
49.8
50.8
53.1
53.1
53.1
53.5
53.7
54.2
55.2
56.5
56.9
58.0
58.0
58.7
58.3
57.5
58.5
57.9
58.7
59.5
60.4
58.5
59.6
59.4
59.7
59.3
59.0
58.8
59.0
59.3
59.9
61.0
60.1
60.3
59.4
59.9
60.0
60.4
60.1
60.4
60.9
60.4
60.8
60.7
61.2
32.2
34.2
33.4
34.2
32.9
32.9
37.3
36.8
34.9
34.0
33.5
33.0
35.0
37.9
39.1
39.6
37.9
40.4
36.8
33.5
35.2
34.6
36.3
39.8
38.9
34.2
37.1
39.6
38.9
38.3
40.0
39.9
40.8
43.7
40.8
42.3
41.0
40.2
37.6
39.7
40.0
40.4
37.7
35.0
39.2
38.6
39.1
37.9
40.6
51.2
51.6
51.4
51.1
52.5
53.6
55.5
55.4
55.6
56.0
56.2
56.8
57.6
58.6
58.9
60.0
60.1
60.6
60.6
60.0
60.8
60.2
60.9
61.4
62.6
60.9
61.8
61.3
61.8
61.4
60.9
60.6
60.8
60.9
61.8
62.9
62.0
62.3
61.6
62.0
62.0
62.4
62.4
63.0
63.1
62.7
63.0
63.0
63.3
Black
f,June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
1996:Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
1
Civilian labor force as percent of civilian noninstitutional population in group specified.
Note.—See Note, Table B-37.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
344
78.5
78.4
77.6
76.0
75.4
75.6
76.2
76.3
75.1
74.5
74.7
75.2
74.8
74.4
74.8
74.7
74.6
74.4
75.0
74.6
74.3
73.2
72.5
72.5
72.3
73.3
73.4
73.6
73.6
73.0
72.5
71.8
71.8
72.2
71.8
71.6
71.8
72.1
72.0
72.3
71.6
72.3
71.8
72.7
73.0
72.6
72.4
72.7
72.0
TABLE B—39-—Civilian employment/population ratio by demographic characteristic, 1954—96
[Percent;1 monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Black and other or black
White
Year or month
All
civilian
work- Total
ers
Total
Males
16-19
years
Males
Females
20
years Total
and
over
16-19
years
20
years Total Total
and
over
16-19
years
Females
20
years Total
and
over
16-19
years
20
years
and
over
Black and other
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
55.5
56.7
57.5
57.1
55.4
56.0
56.1
55.4
55.5
55.4
55.7
56.2
56.9
57.3
57.5
58.0
57.4
56.6
57.0
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
57.0
57.8
57.8
56.1
56.8
57.9
59.3
59.9
59.2
59.0
57.8
57.9
59.5
60.1
60.7
61.5
62.3
63.0
62.8
61.7
61.5
61.7
62.5
62.9
63.2
63.1
63.1
63.2
63.1
62.8
62.8
62.8
62.7
62.8
62.9
62.8
62.7
62.8
62.9
63.1
63.0
63.1
63.2
63.2
63.2
63.3
63.4
63.4
63.4
55.2
56.5
57.3
56.8
55.3
55.9
55.9
55.3
55.4
55.3
55.5
56.0
56.8
57.2
57.4
58.0
57.5
56.8
57.4
81.5
82.2
82.7
81.8
79.2
79.9
79.4
78.2
78.4
77.7
77.8
77.9
78.3
78.4
78.3
78.2
76.8
75.7
76.0
49.9
52.0
54.1
52.4
47.6
48.1
48.1
45.9
46.4
44.7
45.0
47.1
50.1
50.2
50.3
51.1
49.6
49.2
51.5
84.0
84.7
85.0
84.1
81.8
82.8
82.4
81.4
81.5
81.1
81.3
81.5
81.7
81.7
81.6
81.4
80.1
79.0
79.0
31.4
33.0
34.2
34.2
33.6
34.0
34.6
34.5
34.7
35.0
35.5
36.2
37.5
38.3
38.9
40.1
40.3
39.9
40.7
36.4
37.0
38.9
38.2
35.0
34.8
35.1
34.6
34.8
32.9
32.2
33.7
37.5
37.7
37.8
39.5
39.5
38.6
41.3
31.1
32.7
33.8
33.9
33.5
34.0
34.5
34.5
34.7
35.2
35.8
36.5
37.5
38.3
39.1
40.1
40.4
40.1
40.6
58.0
58.7
59.5
59.3
56.7
57.5
57.9
56.2
56.3
56.2
57.0
57.8
58.4
58.2
58.0
58.1
56.8
54.9
54.1
76.5
77.6
78.4
77.2
72.5
73.8
74.1
71.7
72.0
71.8
72.9
73.7
74.0
73.8
73.3
72.8
70.9
68.1
67.3
52.4
52.7
52.2
48.0
42.0
41.4
43.8
41.0
41.7
37.4
37.8
39.4
40.5
38.8
38.7
39.0
35.5
31.8
32.4
66.8
67.5
658
60.6
60.6
61.4
63.3
63.4
60.4
59.1
56.0
56.3
59.2
60.0
60.6
62.0
62.7
62.8
62.6
61.3
59.9
60.0
60.8
61.7
61.1
62.1
63.0
63.2
62.6
61.8
61.6
60.9
60.6
61.2
61.5
61.4
60.4
60.8
60.6
60.7
60.7
61.5
60.6
61.4
62.2
60.8
61.1
61.2
61.0
31.6
32.8
314
26.3
25.8
26.4
28.5
28.7
27.0
24.6
20.3
20.4
23.9
26.3
26.5
28.5
29.4
30.4
27.7
23.8
23.6
23.6
25.4
25.2
24.9
25.0
25.6
24.9
25.3
23.0
25.1
24.6
23.6
26.2
25.2
28.4
24.7
24.0
25.4
26.3
27.7
29.8
23.4
24.0
24.7
23.5
25.5
21.8
22.8
79.2
80.4
81.3
80.5
76.0
77.6
77.9
75.5
75.7
76.2
77.7
78.7
79.2
79.4
78.9
78.4
76.8
74.2
73.2
41.9
42.2
43.0
43.7
42.8
43.2
43.6
42.6
42.7
42.7
43.4
44.1
45.1
45.0
45.2
45.9
44.9
43.9
43.3
24.7
26.4
28.0
26.5
22.8
20.3
24.8
23.2
23.1
21.3
21.8
20.2
23.1
24.8
24.7
25.1
22.4
20.2
19.9
43.7
43.9
44.7
45.5
45.0
45.7
45.8
44.8
44.9
45.2
46.1
47.3
48.2
47.9
48.2
48.9
48.2
47.3
46.7
Black
57.4 76.0
51.5 79.0 40.7
41.3 40.6 53.7
58.2 76.5
54.3 79.2 41.8
43.6 41.6 54.5
544 786 424
443 422 535
583 759
56.7 73.0
50.6 75.7 42.0
42.5 41.9 50.1
57.5 73.4
51.5 76.0 43.2
44.2 43.1 50.8
54.4 76.5 44.5
58.6 74.1
45.9 44.4 51.4
60.0 75.0
56.3 77.2 46.3
48.5 46.1 53.6
55.7 77.3 47.5
49.4 47.3 53.8
60.6 75.1
53.4 75.6 47.8
60.0 73.4
47.9 47.8 52.3
60.0 72.8
51.3 75.1 48.3
46.2 48.5 51.3
58.8 70.6
47.0 73.0 48.1
44.6 48.4 49.4
47.4 72.6 48.5
58.9 70.4
44.5 48.9 49.5
60.5 72.1
49.1 74.3 49.8
47.0 50.0 52.3
47.1 51.0 53.4
61.0 72.3
49.9 74.3 50.7
61.5 72.3
49.6 74.3 51.7
47.9 52.0 54.1
62.3 72.7
49.9 74.7 52.8
49.0 53.1 55.6
51.7 75.1 53.8
63.1 73.2
50.2 54.0 56.3
52.6 75.4 54.6
63.8 73.7
50.5 54.9 56.9
63.7 73.3
51.0 75.1 54.7
48.3 55.2 56.7
62.6 71.6
47.2 73.5 54.2
45.9 54.8 55.4
62.4 71.1
46.4 73.1 54.2
44.2 54.9 54.9
62.7 71.4
45.7 55.2 55.0
46.6 73.3 54.6
63.5 71.8
48.3 73.6 55.8
47.5 56.4 56.1
49.4 73.8 56.1
63.8 72.0
48.1 56.7 57.1
64.1 72.3
48.2 74.2 56.3
47.6 57.0 57.4
1996
1995:Jan
64.0 72.4
49.9 74.1 56.1
50.0 56.5 56.9
49.2 74.2 56.1
Feb
64.0 72.4
48.0 56.6 57.7
Mar
50.4 74.1 56.1
49.4 56.5 57.7
64.0 72.4
Apr
63.9 72.2
50.1 73.9 56.2
48.6 56.7 57.5
63.7 71.8
48.1 56.6 57.3
May
49.5 73.5 56.0
63.7 72.0
49.7 56.3 56.8
June
50.3 73.7 55.9
47.2 56.9 56.3
July
63.9 72.0
50.3 73.7 56.2
48.4 56.7 56.3
Aug
63.8 71.8
49.5 73.6 56.2
Sept
63.8 71.9
48.8 73.7 56.2
47.0 56.8 56.5
Oct
63.8 71.9
48.3 73.8 56.2
47.6 56.8 57.3
Nov
63.6 71.7
48.3 73.5 56.0
46.8 56.7 58.0
48.7 73.6 55.9
Dec
63.6 71.8
46.6 56.5 57.3
1996Jan
63.6 71.9
48.8 73.7 55.8
46.9 56.4 57.2
49.2 74.0 56.1
Feb
63.9 72.2
47.3 56.7 56.8
Mar
64.0 72.2
47.2 56.9 57.1
48.3 74.1 56.3
63.9 72.2
46.6 56.8 57.1
49.1 74.0 56.1
49.7 74.1 56.2
47.2 56.8 57.7
64.0 72.3
72.4
June
47.3 56.9 57.2
64.0
48.6 74.3 56.2
72.4
64.1
July
48.0 74.3 56.3
47.9 56.9 57.7
46.6 57.0 57.9
Aug
64.0 72.2
45.6 74.4 56.3
Sept
64.2 72.2
48.1 74.2 56.6
48.9 57.2 57.3
48.2 74.4 56.6
Oct
64.3 72.5
48.8 57.2 57.5
Nov
48.7 57.3 57.5
64.3 72.3
47.5 74.3 56.7
64.3 72.4
48.0 74.4 56.7
48.0 57.3 57.5
Dec
1
Civilian employment as percent of civilian nonmstitutional population in group specified.
Note.—Data relate to persons 16 years of age and over.
See footnote 5 and Note, Table B-33.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
&::::
345
73.0 43.0
73.7 43.8
719 43.5
66.5 41.6
66.8 42.8
67.5 43.3
69.1 45.8
69.1 46.0
65.8 45.7
64.5 45.1
61.4 44.2
61.6 44.1
64.1 46.7
64.6 48.1
65.1 48.8
66.4 50.3
67.1 51.2
67.0 52.0
67.1 51.9
65.9 50.6
64.3 50.8
64.3 50.9
65.0 52.3
66.1 53.4
65.5 54.4
66.5 52.6
67.4 53.3
67.8 53.2
67.1 53.3
66.6 53.7
66.0 52.9
65.2 52.6
65.1 52.8
65.5 52.6
66.0 53.8
65.6 55.3
64.8 54.7
65.3 54.2
64.9 53.7
64.8 54.1
64.8 54.2
65.4 54.6
65.2 54.4
65.9 54.6
66.9 54.4
65.6 54.4
65.6 54.6
66.0 54.6
65.7 54.8
19.2 46.5
22.0 47.2
20.9 46.9
20.2 44.9
19.2 46.4
18.5 47.0
22.1 49.3
22.4 49.3
21.0 49.1
19.7 48.5
17.7 47.5
17.0 47.4
20.1 49.8
23.1 50.9
23.8 51.6
25.8 53.0
25.8 53.9
27.1 54.6
25.8 54.7
21.5 53.6
22.1 53.6
21.6 53.8
24.5 55.0
26.1 56.1
27.1 57.1
21.6 55.6
24.8 56.1
26.6 55.8
25.2 56.1
26.2 56.4
25.5 55.6
25.5 55.3
26.1 55.5
26.9 55.2
27.7 56.4
29.2 57.9
28.3 57.3
27.9 56.8
25.1 56.6
28.1 56.7
27.7 56.8
28.6 57.2
27.6 57.1
27.1 57.4
25.2 57.4
26.7 57.2
26.7 57.4
26.5 57.4
28.0 57.5
TABLE B^40.—Civilian unemployment rate, 1948-96
[Percent,-1 monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Year or month
All
civilian
work- Total
ers
Males
Females
20
1616- years
19
Total
19
and
years over
years
20
years
and
over
4.1
3.2
3.8
3.6
9.8
8.3
5.4
6.0 12.3
5.9
5.9 14.3
4.7
5.7 11.4
5.3
5.1 12.7
44
81
25
83
33
28
24
89
36
80
30
28
7.9
2.5
3.3
7.2
2.9
2.8
5.5
5.3 13.5
4.9
6.0 11.4
4.4
4.2 11.6
3.8
4.9 10.2
41
34
38 11 1
4 8 11 2
4.1 12.4
4.7 10.6
3.6
4.3
6.2
6.8
6.8 17.1
6.8 14.3
47
52 153
59 135
55
54 153
47
59 139
55
6.7
6.4 17.1
5.7
7.2 16.3
5.2 14.7
4.6
6.2 14.6
5.5
57
52 172
45
65 172
5.2
4.6 15.8
3.9
6.2 16.6
45
32
40 141
55 157
3.8
3.2 117
2.5
4.8 14.1
5.2 13.5
3.8
3.1 12.3
2.3
2.2
3.6
2.9 11.6
4.8 14.0
4.7 13.3
2.8 11.4
2.1
3.5
4.4 15.0
4.9
3.5
5.9 15.6
4.4
5.9
5.3 16.6
6.9 17.2
4.0
5.6
5.0 15.9
6.6 16.7
49
4 2 139
33
60 153
6.7 16.6
5.6
3.8
4.9 15.6
6.8
8.5
7.9 20.1
9.3 19.7
7.7
7.1 19.2
5.9
8.6 18.7
7.1
5.2
8.2 18.3
6.3 17.3
7.2 17.1
6.1
5.3 15.8
4.3
42
58
51 159
68 164
7.4 17.2
7.1
6.9 18.3
5.9
7.4
7.6
20.1
6.3
7.9 19.0
9.7
9.4 21.9
9.9 24.4
8.8
9.2 21.3
9.6
9.9 23.3
8.9
7.4 19.6
6.6
7.5
7.6 18.0
7.4 17.6
7.2
6.2
7.0 19.5
7.1 17.6
6.1
7.0
6.9 19.0
5.4
6.2
6.2 17.8
6.2 15.9
5.5
5.5 16.0
4.8
5.6 14.4
5.4 14.0
5.2 15.9
5.3
4.5
5.7 16.3
5.6
5.0
5.5 14.7
6.4
6.4 17.5
7.2 19.8
6.8
71
75
7 9 215
70 186
6.4
7.2 20.4
6.9
6.6 17.5
54
6 2 190
61
60 162
5.6
5.6 18.4
4.8
5.6 16.1
5.4 15.2
5.4
5.4 18.1
4.6
5.7 17.4
5.6
5.0
5.5 15.6
5.4 19.2
5.5
4.6
5.5 15.6
5.4
4.7
5.3 16.7
5.6 15.4
5.7
5.6
18.0
4.9
5.9 16.7
5.7 18.6
5.6
4.9
5.5 16.3
M P ayZ"
5.7 15.7
June
5.6 18.5
5.6
4.8
July
5.7
5.6 18.5
4.8
5.8 17.5
5.7
5.7 19.1
Aug
4.9
5.6 15.6
5.7
5.7 18.8
5.7 16.8
Sept
4.9
5.4 19.0
5.7 15.4
Oct
4.6
5.5
Nov
5.7 18.4
5.6
4.9
5.5 16.4
5.4 16.8
Dec
5.7 18.9
5.6
4.9
1996Jan
5.7 18.9
5.7
4.9
5.8 16.6
Feb
5.5
56 18.0
4.8
5.5 15.9
Mar
5.7 18.7
5.4 15.4
5.5
4.9
5.4 15.5
5.5 17.9
4.8
5.5
4.7
5.5
5.5 17.6
5.5 15.5
5.4 17.5
June
4.6
5.3
5.3 14.8
5.4
5.4
5.4
19.3
4.6
13.8
July
5.4 15.8
4.2
Aug
5.2
5.0 18.2
Sept
5.2
5.2 17.5
4.5
5.2 14.4
4.4
Oct
5.2
5.3 14.4
5.1 18.1
4.4
Nov
5.2 18.4
5.3
5.5 15.2
4.4
Dec
5.5 15.5
5.3
5.1 17.4
1
Unemployed as percent of civilian labor force in group specified.
'Data for 1949 and 1951-54 are for April; 1950, for March.
Note.—Data relate to persons 16 years of age and over.
See footnote 5 and Note, Table B-33.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952 .. .
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994 .
1995
1996
1995Jan
Feb
Mar
&:::
3.6
5.3
5.1
40
32
2.9
5.5
4.4
42
4.1
6.1
52
51
6.3
5.4
54
5.2
45
3.8
4.2
3.8
3.7
4.8
5.7
5.4
49
5.5
8.0
7.4
7.0
6.0
57
6.4
6.8
8.3
8.1
6.8
6.6
6.2
5.4
4.9
4.7
4.9
5.7
63
5.9
54
4.9
4.8
4.9
4.9
4.9
5.2
4.8
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
4.8
4.6
5.1
4.8
4.8
4.7
4.9
4.7
4.9
4.7
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
346
Both
sexes
16-19
years
9.2
13.4
12.2
82
85
7.6
12.6
11.0
11 1
11.6
15.9
146
147
16.8
14.7
17.2
16.2
148
12.8
12.9
12.7
12.2
15.3
16.9
16.2
145
16.0
19.9
19.0
17.8
16.4
161
17.8
19.6
23.2
22.4
18.9
18.6
18.3
16.9
15.3
15.0
15.5
18.7
201
19.0
176
17.3
16.7
16.5
17.5
16.1
17.3
17.5
17.2
18.0
17.4
17.8
17.3
17.5
17.9
17.8
17.0
17.1
16.8
16.6
16.2
16.7
17.0
16.0
16.3
16.8
16.5
White
3.5
5.6
4.9
31
2.8
2.7
5.0
3.9
36
3.8
6.1
48
50
6.0
4.9
5.0
4.6
41
3.4
3.4
3.2
3.1
4.5
5.4
5.1
43
5.0
7.8
7.0
6.2
5.2
51
6.3
6.7
8.6
8.4
6.5
6.2
6.0
5.3
4.7
4.5
4.8
6.1
66
6.1
53
4.9
4.7
4.9
4.7
4.8
5.0
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
5.0
4.9
5.0
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.6
4.7
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.6
4.6
Black
and
other
Black
5.9
8.9
9.0
53
54
4.5
9.9
8.7
83
7.9
12.6
107
102
12.4
10.9
108
9.6
81
73
7.4
6.7
6.4
8.2
9.9 ..........
10.0
94
90
9.9 10.5
13.8
14.8
13.1 14.0
13.1 14.0
11.9 12.8
113 123
13.1 14.3
14.2 15.6
17.3 18.9
17.8 19.5
14.4 15.9
13.7 15.1
13.1 14.5
11.6 13.0
10.4 11.7
10.0 11.4
10.1 11.4
11.1 12.5
127 142
11.7 13.0
105 11 5
9,6 10.4
9.3 10.5
9.6 10.4
9.5 10.4
9.2
9.8
9.7 10.6
9.2 10.0
9.8 10.6
9.8 10.8
10.1 11.0
10.0 11.1
9.4
9.9
9.6
9.0
9.2 10.2
9.5 10.6
9.3 10.3
9.6 10.8
9.4 10.5
9.3 10.3
9.1 10.2
9.3 10.5
8.9 10.4
9.2 10.7
9.3 10.7
9.1 10.6
9.2 10.5
Experienced
wage
and
salary
workers
4.3
6.8
6.0
37
34
3.2
6.2
4.8
44
4.6
7.3
57
57
6.8
5.6
56
5.0
43
3.5
3.6
3.4
3.3
4.8
5.7
5.3
45
5.3
8.2
7.3
6.6
5.6
55
6.9
7.3
9.3
9.2
7.1
6.8
6.6
5.8
5.2
5.0
5.3
6.6
72
6.6
59
5.4
5.2
5.4
5.2
5.2
5.5
5.5
5.4
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.4
5.4
5.4
5.4
5.3
5.4
5.3
5.4
5.1
5.2
5.0
5.1
5.0
5.2
5.1
Married Women
who
men,
spouse 2 maintain
present families
15
4.6
15
14
1.7
4.0
2.6
23
2.8
5.1
36
37
4.6
3.6
34
2.8
24
19
1.8
1.6
1.5
2.6
3.2
2.8
23
2.7
5.1
4.2
3.6
2.8
28
4.2
4.3
6.5
6.5
4.6
4.3
4.4
3.9
3.3
3.0
3.4
4.4
51
4.4
37
3.3
3.0
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.3
3.4
3.1
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.1
3.1
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.9
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
4.9
4.4
4.4
5.4
7.3
7.2
71
7.0
10.0
10.1
9.4
8.5
83
9.2
10.4
11.7
12.2
10.3
10.4
9.8
9.2
8.1
8.1
8.3
9.3
100
9.7
89
8.0
8.2
8.9
8.4
7.9
9.2
8.0
8.5
8.0
7.0
8.0
7.9
7.7
6.8
8.2
7.6
7.7
7.3
8.5
7.8
8.8
8.5
8.3
8.5
8.8
8.4
TABLE B-41.—Civilian unemployment rate by demographic characteristic, 1954-96
[Percent;1 monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Year or month
White
All
Males
Females
civilian
20
work- Total
years
16-19
ers
Total 16-19
years and Total years
over
Black and other or black
Males
Females
20 Total
20
20
years
years
16-19 years
Total 16-19
and
years and Total years and
over
over
over
Black and other
5.5
4.3
4.2
4.3
6.2
5.3
5.3
6.5
5.5
5.8
5.5
5.0
4.3
4.6
4.3
4.2
5.4
6.3
5.9
10.4
9.1
9.7
9.5
12.7
12.0
12.7
14.8
12.8
15.1
14.9
14.0
12.1
11.5
12.1
11.5
13.4
15.1
14.2
5.1
3.9
3.7
3.8
5.6
4.7
4.6
5.7
4.7
4.8
4.6
4.0
3.3
3.8
3.4
3.4
4.4
5.3
4.9
9.9
8.7
8.3
7.9
12.6
10.7
10.2
12.4
10.9
10.8
9.6
8.1
7.3
7.4
6.7
6.4
8.2
9.9
10.0
10.3
8.8
7.9
8.3
13.7
11.5
10.7
12.8
10.9
10.5
8.9
7.4
6.3
6.0
5.6
5.3
7.3
9.1
8.9
14.4
13.4
15.0
18.4
26.8
25.2
24.0
26.8
22.0
27.3
24.3
23.3
21.3
23.9
22.1
21.4
25.0
28.8
29.7
5.6 5.1 4.5 14.2
3.6 5.9
4.9 4.3 3.8 12.3
3.0 5.3
5.6 5.0 4.4 13.5
3.5 6.1
8.5 7.8 7.2 18.3
6.2 8.6
7.7 7.0 6.4 17.3
5.4 7.9
7.1 6.2 5.5 15.0
4.7 7.3
3.7 6.2
6.1 5.2 4.6 13.5
5.8 5.1 4.5 13.9
3.6 5.9
7.1 6.3 6.1 16.2
5.3 6.5
7.6 6.7 6.5 17.9
5.6 6.9
9.7 8.6 8.8 21.7
7.8 8.3
9.6 8.4 8.8 20.2
7.9 7.9
7.5 6.5 6.4 16.8
5.7 6.5
7.2 6.2 6.1 16.5
5.4 6.4
7.0 6.0 6.0 16.3
5.3 6.1
6.2 5.3 5.4 15.5
4.8 5.2
4.1 4.7
5.5 4.7 4.7 13.9
5.3 4.5 4.5 13.7
3.9 4.5
5.6 4.8 4.9 14.3
4.3 4.7
6.8 6.1 6.5 17.6
5.8 5.6
7.5 6.6 7.0 18.5
6.4 6.1
6.9 6.1 6.3 17.7
5.7 5.7
6.1 5.3 5.4 16.3
4.8 5.2
5.6 4.9 4.9 15.6
4.3 4.8
5.4 4.7 4.7 15.5
4.1 4.7
1995-Jan
5.6 4.9 5.0 15.0
4.4 4.7
4.1 4.7
5.5 4.7 4.7 15.8
Feb
5.4 4.8 4.8 14.8
Mar
4.2 4.7
5.7 5.0 5.0 15.3
Apr
4.3 5.0
4.4 4.8
5.6 4.9 5.0 15.4
May
5.6 4.9 4.9 15.2
June
4.3 4.9
5.7 4.9 4.8 14.7
4.2 5.0
July
5.7 4.9 4.9 15.8
Aug
4.3 4.8
5.7 4.9 4.9 16.1
4.3 4.8
Sept
4.1 5.0
5.5 4.9 4.8 16.8
Oct
4.4 4.8
Nov
5.6 5.0 5.0 16.2
5.6 4.9 5.0 16.1
4.3 4.8
Dec
1996:Jan
5.7 5.0 5.0 16.3
4.3 5.0
4.2 4.8
Feb
5.5 4.8 4.9 15.4
Mar
5.5 4.8 4.9 15.9
4.3 4.7
Apr
5.5 4.8 4.8 15.3
4.2 4.7
4.1 4.9
May
5.5 4.8 4.8 15.3
4.1 4.5
5.3 4.6 4.7 14.9
June
5.4 4.7 4.7 16.1
July
4.0 4.6
5.2
4.5
4.4
15.7
Aug
3.8 4.5
5.2 4.5 4.5 14.8
3.9 4.5
Sept
5.2 4.5 4.5 15.4
Oct
3.8 4.5
Nov
5.3 4.6 4.5 15.5
3.9 4.7
5.3 4.6 4.5 14.8
3.9 4.8
Dec
1
Unemployed as percent of civilian labor force in group specified.
Note.—See Note, Table B-40.
Source. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
14.2
13.0
14.5
17.4
16.4
15.9
14.4
14.0
14.8
16.6
19.0
18.3
15.2
14.8
14.9
13.4
12.3
11.5
12.6
15.2
15.8
14.7
13.8
13.4
12.9
12.7
13.1
12.6
13.6
13.7
12.2
14.9
12.6
13.6
13.0
14.2
14.6
14.6
13.6
13.3
13.1
13.0
12.8
12.4
12.9
11.9
11.6
12.6
12.6
4.9
4.3
5.1
7.5
6.8
6.2
5.2
5.0
5.6
5.9
7.3
6.9
5.8
5.7
5.4
4.6
4.1
4.0
4.1
5.0
5.5
5.2
4.6
4.3
4.1
4.2
4.1
4.2
4.5
4.3
4.4
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.4
4.2
4.2
4.4
4.3
4.1
4.2
4.4
4.0
4.1
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.2
4.3
10.4
9.4
10.5
14.8
14.0
14.0
12.8
12.3
14.3
15.6
18.9
19.5
15.9
15.1
14.5
13.0
11.7
11.4
11.4
12.5
14.2
13.0
11.5
10.4
10.5
10.4
10.4
9.8
10.6
10.0
10.6
10.8
11.0
11.1
9.9
9.6
10.2
10.6
10.3
10.8
10.5
10.3
10.2
10.5
10.4
10.7
10.7
10.6
10.5
9.3
8.0
9.8
14.8
13.7
13.3
11.8
11.4
14.5
15.7
20.1
20.3
16.4
15.3
14.8
12.7
11.7
11.5
11.9
13.0
15.2
13.8
12.0
10.6
11.1
10.6
10.2
9.2
10.5
10.7
10.9
11.1
11.6
11.0
9.7
9.9
11.7
11.1
11.2
12.0
11.3
10.9
10.9
11.5
10.3
11.4
11.1
11.1
10.5
31.7
27.8
33.1
38.1
37.5
39.2
36.7
34.2
37.5
40.7
48.9
48.8
42.7
41.0
39.3
34.4
32.7
31.9
31.9
36.3
42.0
40.1
37.6
37.1
36.9
34.1
40.0
31.9
36.5
40.6
38.7
39.3
42.9
36.1
34.8
31.7
38.9
38.1
32.5
36.3
34.9
30.0
36.6
43.0
38.2
37.2
36.5
41.2
38.6
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
5.5
4.4
4.1
4.3
6.8
5.5
5.5
6.7
5.5
5.7
5.2
4.5
3.8
3.8
3.6
3.5
4.9
5.9
5.6
5.0
3.9
3.6
3.8
6.1
4.8
5.0
6.0
4.9
5.0
4.6
4.1
3.4
3.4
3.2
3.1
4.5
5.4
5.1
4.8
3.7
3.4
3.6
6.1
4.6
4.8
5.7
4.6
4.7
4.1
3.6
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.5
4.0
4.9
4.5
13.4
11.3
10.5
11.5
15.7
14.0
14.0
15.7
13.7
15.9
14.7
12.9
10.5
10.7
10.1
10.0
13.7
15.1
14.2
4.4
3.3
3.0
3.2
5.5
4.1
4.2
5.1
4.0
3.9
3.4
2.9
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
3.2
4.0
3.6
9.9 9.2
8.4 8.5
7.4 8.9
7.6 7.3
12.7 10.8
9.4
10.5
9.6 9.4
11.7 11.9
10.0 11.0
9.2 11.2
7.7 10.7
6.0 9.2
4.9 8.7
4.3 9.1
3.9 8.3
3.7 7.8
5.6 9.3
7.3 10.9
6.9 11.4
20.6
19.2
22.8
20.2
28.4
27.7
24.8
29.2
30.2
34.7
31.6
31.7
31.3
29.6
28.7
27.6
34.5
35.4
38.4
8.4
7.7
7.8
6.4
9.5
8.3
8.3
10.6
9.6
9.4
9.0
7.5
6.6
7.1
6.3
5.8
6.9
8.7
8.8
40.5
36.1
37.4
41.0
41.6
43.4
40.8
39.1
39.8
42.2
47.1
48.2
42.6
39.2
39.2
34.9
32.0
33.0
29.9
36.0
37.2
37.4
32.6
34.3
30.3
36.9
33.3
32.8
35.3
31.6
36.4
36.1
36.0
38.5
32.1
30.9
31.0
30.6
33.3
29.1
30.8
29.3
26.9
22.4
35.8
30.9
31.9
30.0
31.2
9.0
8.6
8.8
12.2
11.7
12.3
11.2
10.9
11.9
13.4
15.4
16.5
13.5
13.1
12.4
11.6
10.4
9.8
9.7
10.6
11.8
10.7
9.8
8.6
8.7
8.6
9.1
9.0
9.2
8.0
8.7
8.9
8.7
9.4
8.7
7.9
7.5
8.9
8.0
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.6
8.9
9.0
8.7
8.9
8.9
9.2
Black
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981 ..
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
. . . .
1994
1995
1996
347
7.0
6.0
7.4
12.5
11.4
10.7
9.3
9.3
12.4
13.5
17.8
18.1
14.3
13.2
12.9
11.1
10.1
10.0
10.4
11.5
13.5
12.1
10.3
8.8
9.4
9.2
8.2
7.8
8.8
8.7
9.0
9.2
9.4
9.2
8.1
8.3
9.8
9.4
9.9
10.3
9.6
9.6
9.2
9.3
8.3
9.7
9.3
9.2
8.8
11.8
11.1
11.3
14.8
14.3
14.9
13.8
13.3
14.0
15.6
17.6
18.6
15.4
14.9
14.2
13.2
11.7
11.4
10.9
12.0
13.2
12.1
11.0
10.2
10.0
10.1
10.5
10.4
10.7
9.4
10.4
10.5
10.4
11.3
10.1
9.3
8.9
10.2
9.5
9.7
9.7
9.6
9.6
9.6
10.6
10.0
10.2
10.1
10.5
TABLE B-42.—Unemployment by duration and reason, 1950-96
[Thousands of persons, except as noted; monthly data seasonally adjusted1]
Duration of unemployment
Year or month
Unemployment
27
Less
than 5-14 15-26 weeks
5 weeks weeks and
over
weeks
12.1
3,288 1,450 1,055
425 357
1950
1951
574
137
9.7
2,055 1,177
166
84
84
1,883 1,135
516
148
1952
1,834 1,142
482
132
8.0
78
1953
1954
3,532 1,605 1,116
495 317
11.8
2,852 1,335
815
366 336
13.0
1955
232
2,750 1,412
805
301
11.3
1956
2,859 1,408
891
321
239
10.5
1957
1958
4,602 1,753 1,396
785 667
13.9
14.4
3,740 1,585 1,114
469 571
1959
3,852 1,719 1,176
503 454
12.8
1960
1961
4,714 1,806 1,376
728 804
15.6
534 585
14.7
1962
3,911 1,663 1,134
4,070 1,751 1,231
535 553
14.0
1963
3,786 1,697 1,117
482
13.3
1964
491
404 351
3,366 1,628
983
11.8
1965
10.4
287 239
2,875 1,573
779
1966 2
271
177
8.7
1967
2,975 1,634
893
£3 'i',229
8.4
2,817 1,594
1968
810
256
156
4.5 1,070
827
4.4 1,017
2,832 1,629
242
133
7.8
1969
4,093 2,139 1,290
428 235
8.6
4.9 1,811
1970
1971
5,016 2,245 1,585
668 519
11.3
6.3 2,323
4,882 2,242 1,472
6.2 2,108
1972
601
566
12.0
1973
4,365 2,224 1.314
10.0
5.2 1,694
483 343
1974
574 381
5,156 2,604 1,597
9.8
5.2 2,242
8.4 4,386
1975
14.2
7,929 2,940 2,484 1,303 1,203
8.2 3,679
7,406 2,844 2,196 1,018 1,348
15.8
1976
1977
6,991 2,919 2,132
913 1,028
14.3
7.0 3,166
6,202 2,865 1,923
766
648
11.9
5.9 2,585
1978
6,137 2,950 1,946
5.4 2,635
1979
706 535
10.8
7,637 3,295 2,470 1,052
820
11.9
6.5 3,947
1980
13.7
8,273 3,449 2,539 1,122 1,162
6.9 4,267
1981
8.7 6,268
10,678 3,883 3,311 1,708 1,776
1982
15.6
10,717 3,570 2,937 1,652 2,559
20.0
1983
10.1 6,258
1984
18.2
8,539 3,350 2,451 1,104 1,634
7.9 4,421
8,312 3,498 2,509 1,025 1,280
15.6
6.8 4,139
1985
8,237 3,448 2,557 1,045 1,187
15.0
1986
6.9 4,033
1987
7,425 3,246 2,196
943 1,040
14.5
6.5 3,566
6,701 3,084 2,007
801
809
13.5
5.9 3,092
1988
6,528 3,174 1,978
730 646
11.9
1989
4.8 2,983
7,047 3,265 2,257
822 703
1990
12.0
5.3 3,387
8,628 3,480 2,791 1,246 1,111
13.7
1991
6.8 4,694
1992
9,613 3,376 2,830 1,453 1,954
17.7
8.7 5,389
8,940 3,262 2,584 1,297 1,798
1993
18.0
8.3 4,848
1994
7,996 2,728 2,408 1,237 1,623
9.2 3,815
18.8
7,404 2,700 2,342 1,085 1,278
1995
16.6
8.3 3,476
7,236 2,633 2,287 1,053 1,262
16.7
1996
8.3 3,370
7,432 2,813 2,155 1,032 1,367
17.1
1995Jan
7.9 3,560
17.1
Feb
7,203 2,582 2,212 1,109 1,245
8.3 3,378
Mar
7,201 2,589 2,300 927 1,328
17.2
8.2 3,377
Apr
17.4
7,590 2,669 2,353 1,059 1,377
8.3 3,423
7,358 2,595 2,302 1,253 1,288
May
16.9
8.9 3,525
15.7
June
7,445 2,744 2,382 1,097 1,183
7.8 3,431
July
7,496 2,573 2,548 1,079 1,246
8.7 3,516
16.5
7,517 2,747 2,444 1,156 1,239
Aug
16.2
8.3 3,516
7,523 2,848 2,313 1,064 1,277
Sept
16.3
8.0 3,452
7,329 2,808 2,351 1,036 1,250
16.2
Oct
8.1 3,553
Nov
7,409 2,739 2,383 1,082 1,273
16.5
8.1 3,511
7,354 2,683 2,368 1,120 1,247
16.4
Dec
8.2 3,512
1996-Jan
7,588 2,774 2,370 1,114 1,255
16.2
8.2 3,586
7,364 2,736 2,291 1,097 1,225
Feb
16.6
8.1 3,543
Mar
7,402 2,632 2,305 1,102 1,304
17.2
8.2 3,508
Apr
7,302 2,450 2,330 1,098 1,289
17.3
8.6 3,535
8.4 3,409
7,331 2,754 2,310 1,048 1,306
16.9
May
7,119 2,544 2,201 1,051 1,302
17.2
June
8.1 3,399
July
994 1,332
7,276 2,603 2,307
16.9
8.5 3,348
6,910 2,534 2,199 1,003 1,270
17.2
Aug
8.5 3,095
7,043 2,522 2,245 1,040 1,237
Sept
16.9
8.6 3,236
7,019 2,556 2,265 1,062 1,232
16.7
Oct
8.3 3,171
7,187 2,819 2,252 1,018 1,166
Nov
7.7 3,261
16.0
7.167 2.671 2.357
976 1.203
15.8
7.8 3.221
Dec
1
2 Because of independent seasonal adjustment of the various series, detail will not add to totals.
Data for 1967 by reason for unemployment are not equal to total unemployment,
beginning January 1994, job losers and persons who completed temporary jobs.
Note.—Data relate to persons 16 years of age and over.
See footnote 5 and Note, Table B-33.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Reason for unemployment
Average Median
Job losers3
(mean) duraduraOn Other
tion
tion
Total layoff
(weeks) (weeks)
348
""394
334
339
675
735
582
472
746
1,671
1,050
865
712
851
1,488
1,430
2,127
1,780
1,171
1,157
1,090
943
851
850
1.028
1,292
1,260
1,115
977
1,030
1,021
999
1,021
1,028
1,067
956
1,059
1,112
1,084
922
1,044
1,062
1,024
1,106
1,041
1,031
1,092
1,070
1,000
980
931
989
957
994
987
""836
736
678
1,137
1,588
1,526
1,221
1,495
2,714
2,628
2,300
1,873
1,784
2,459
2,837
4,141
4,478
3,250
2,982
2,943
2,623
2,241
2,133
2,359
3,402
4,129
3,733
2,838
2,446
2,349
2,561
2,357
2,349
2,356
2,569
2,372
2,404
2,432
2,530
2,509
2,449
2,488
2,480
2,502
2,477
2,443
2.339
2,399
2,368
2,164
2,247
2,214
2,267
2.234
Job
leavers
Reen- New
entrants trants
""438
431
436
550
590
641
683
768
827
903
909
874
880
891
923
840
830
823
877
1,015
965
983
1,024
1,041
1,004
1,002
976
791
824
774
716
788
798
827
879
855
836
863
871
748
830
879
835
749
783
723
688
702
754
775
800
797
825
845
""945
909
965
1,228
1,472
1,456
1,340
1,463
1,892
1,928
1,963
1,857
1,806
1,927
2,102
2,384
2,412
2,184
2,256
2.160
1,974
1,809
1,843
1,930
2,139
2,285
2,198
2,786
2,525
2,512
2,553
2,485
2,436
2,765
2,440
2,540
2,538
2,532
2,570
2,511
2,502
2,443
2,481
2,499
2,538
2,487
2,709
2,437
2,522
2,467
2,441
2,489
2,523
2.556
"396
407
413
504
630
677
649
681
823
895
953
885
817
872
981
1,185
1,216
1,110
1,039
1,029
920
816
677
688
792
937
919
604
579
580
573
575
597
618
558
564
543
587
614
560
582
587
620
603
593
567
546
545
590
552
559
577
586
626
TABLE B-43.—Unemployment insurance programs, selected data, 1963-96
All programs
Year or month
Covered
employment1
Insured
unemployment
(weekly
average)"
State programs
Total
benefits
paid
(millions
Insured
unem-
&
dollars)2*
48,434
49,637
51,580
54,739
56,342
57,977
59,999
59,526
59,375
66,458
69,897
72,451
71,037
73,459
76,419
88,804
92,062
92,659
93,300
91,628
91,898
96,474
99,186
101,099
103.936
107,157
109,925
111,498
109,613
110,167
112,147
115,255
8
118,068
1995- Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
1996: Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr .
May
June
July
iug
: :.:.: :.: : :
Sept
octNov
z:
Dec/'
Exhaustionss
Benefits paid
Total
(millions
of
dollars) 4
Average
weekly
check
(dollars)6
Weekly average; thousands
Thousands
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985 ...
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996^
Initial
claims
Insured
unemployment as
percent
of
covered
employment
7
1,973
1,753
1,450
1,129
1,270
1,187
1,177
2.070
2,608
2,192
1,793
2,558
4.937
3.846
3.308
2,645
2.592
3,837
3,410
4,592
3.774
2.560
2.699
2,739
2,369
2.135
2.205
2.575
3.406
3,348
2,845
2.746
2.641
2.654
3.026
2.749
2.360
1.891
2.222
2.191
2.299
4.209
6.154
5.491
4.517
6.934
16.802
12.345
10.999
9.007
9.401
16.175
15.287
24.491
21.000
13.838
15.283
16.670
14.929
13,694
14.948
18.721
26.717
9
26,460
'22.950
22.844
22.386
3,283
3.182
2.957
2.728
2.481
2.402
2.638
2.465
2,201
2.297
2.427
2.675
3.507
3,343
3,170
2,941
2.358
2.387
2.554
2.258
2.188
2.049
2,108
2.741
2.220.9
2.098.0
2.3172
1.788.4
1,815.7
1.718.3
1.723.0
1.807.5
1,483.5
1.572.5
1,672.7
1.823.8
2.568.1
2.371.7
2,247.9
2.130.0
1.793.7
1,550.6
1.838.7
1.599.6
1.452.0
1.520.0
1.418.6
1.9152
7
1,806
1,605
1.328
1,061
1,205
1.111
1,101
1305
2.150
1348
1.632
2,262
3.986
2.991
2.655
2359
2,434
3350
3.047
4.059
3395
2.475
2.617
2.643
2300
2,081
2.158
2,522
3342
3,245
2.751
2.670
2.575
2.594
2.504
2,508
2.494
2.496
2,558
2.636
2.683
2.634
2,632
2.678
2.652
2.625
2,655
2,660
2.641
2,576
2344
2.570
2,537
2^23
2,462
2,464
2.456
2314
7
298
268
232
203
226
201
200
296
295
261
247
363
478
386
375
346
388
488
460
583
438
377
397
378
328
310
330
388
447
408
341
340
357
**356
333
336
342
352
373
376
373
346
357
365
375
363
374
371
393
356
348
356
335
323
334
332
335
355
30
26
21
15
17
16
16
25
39
35
29
37
81
63
55
39
39
59
57
80
80
50
49
52
46
38
37
45
67
74
62
57
51
53
4.3
3.8
3.0
2.3
2.5
2.2
2.1
3.4
4.1
3.5
2.7
3.5
6.0
4.6
3.9
3.3
2.9
3.9
3.5
4.6
3.9
2.8
2.9
2.8
2.4
2.0
2.1
2.4
3.2
3.1
2.6
2.4
2.3
2,775
2,522
2,166
1,771
2,092
2,032
2,128
3,849
4,957
4,471
4,008
5,975
11,755
8,975
8,357
7,717
8,613
13,761
13,262
20,649
17,787
12,610
14,131
15,329
13,607
12,565
13,760
17,356
24,526
23,869
20,539
20,401
20,125
35.27
35.92
37.19
39.75
41.25
43.43
46.17
50.34
54.02
56.76
59.00
64.25
70.23
75.16
78.79
83.67
89.67
98.95
106.70
119.34
123.59
123.47
128.14
135.65
140.55
144.97
151.73
161.56
169.88
173.64
179.62
182.16
187.29
189.39
57
52
52
57
52
49
54
50
45
48
48
50
58
53
55
61
53
52
56
49
47
46
44
53
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2,146.9
2,030.4
2,244.1
1,730.0
1,753.0
1,660.4
1,668.0
1,745.9
1,430.5
1,508.6
1,606.4
1,758.6
2,488.2
2,305.3
2,188.1
2,073.8
1,744.3
1,504.0
1,782.3
1,549.1
1,405.4
1,467.3
1,371.3
1,858.2
186.19
189.50
189.92
188.46
187.64
186.74
184.92
183.31
186.58
187.48
187.00
188.88
191.92
193.85
193.45
192.11
189.02
187.70
176.96
184.79
188.92
189.07
190.43
190.92
**
Monthly data are seasonally adjusted.
1
Includes persons under the State. UCFE (Federal employee, effective January 1955), RRB (Railroad Retirement Board) programs, and UCX
(unemployment
compensation for ex-servtcemembers, effective October 1958) programs.
2
Includes State, UCFE, RR, UCX, UCV (unemployment compensation for veterans, October 1952-January 1960), and SRA (Servicemen's Readjustment Act, September 1944-September 1951) programs. Abo includes Federal and State extended benefit programs. Does not include
FSB (Federal supplemental benefits), SUA (special unemployment assistance). Federal Supplemental Compensation, and Emergency Unemployment
Compensation programs, except as noted in footnote 9.
3
Covered workers who have completed at least 1 week of unemployment.
4
Annual
data are net amounts and monthly data are gross amounts.
5
6 Individuals receiving final payments in benefit year.
For
total
unemployment only.
7
Programs include Puerto Rican sugarcane workers for initial claims and insured unemployment beginning July 1963.
8
Latest data available for all programs combined. Workers covered by State programs account for about 97 percent of wage and salary
earners.
9 Including Emergency Unemployment Compensation and Federal Supplemental Compensation, total benefits paid for 1992 and 1993 would
be approximately (in millions of dollars): for 1992,39.990 and for 1993.34,876.
Source: Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration.
349
TABLE B—44.—Employees on nonagricultural payrolls, by major industry, 1948—96
[Thousands of persons; monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Goods-producing industries
Year or month
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996?
1995- Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Oct
Nov
Dec
1996-Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Oct
NOVP
Dec**
.
sept : . . .
Total
.
.
.
„..
. . .
:.
sept" ..:.::: ...:::: ::::: .:::.: :
44,866
43,754
45,197
47,819
48,793
50,202
48,990
50,641
52,369
52,855
51,322
53,270
54,189
53,999
55,549
56,653
58,283
60,763
63,901
65,803
67,897
70,384
70,880
71,211
73,675
76,790
78,265
76,945
79,382
82,471
86,697
89,823
90,406
91,152
89,544
90,152
94,408
97,387
99,344
101,958
105,210
107,895
109,419
108,256
108,604
110,730
114,172
117,203
119,549
116,250
116,502
116,701
116,861
116,907
117,100
117,201
117,499
117,623
117,749
117,899
118,136
118,070
118,579
118,750
118,922
119,332
119,537
119,772
120,052
120,050
120,311
120,438
120.700
Total
18,774
17,565
18,506
19,959
20,198
21,074
19,751
20,513
21,104
20,967
19,513
20,411
20,434
19,857
20,451
20,640
21,005
21,926
23,158
23,308
23,737
24,361
23,578
22,935
23,668
24,893
24,794
22,600
23,352
24,346
25,585
26,461
25,658
25,497
23,812
23,330
24,718
24,842
24,533
24,674
25,125
25,254
24,905
23,745
23,231
23,352
23,908
24,206
24,258
24,269
24,281
24,282
24,276
24,217
24.212
24,171
24,179
24,176
24,151
24,133
24,160
24,112
24,254
24,196
24,209
24,263
24,274
24,264
24,298
24,257
24,284
24,308
24.348
Mining
994
930
901
929
898
866
791
792
822
828
751
732
712
672
650
635
634
632
627
613
606
619
623
609
628
642
697
752
779
813
851
958
1,027
1,139
1,128
952
966
927
777
717
713
692
709
689
635
610
601
580
570
593
587
588
585
582
580
578
576
574
573
569
570
569
573
574
573
576
575
570
570
567
566
567
565
Construction
2,198
2,194
2,364
2,637
2,668
2,659
2,646
2,839
3,039
2,962
2,817
3,004
2,926
2,859
2,948
3,010
3,097
3,232
3,317
3,248
3,350
3,575
3,588
3,704
3,889
4,097
4,020
3,525
3,576
3,851
4,229
4,463
4,346
4,188
3,904
3,946
4,380
4,668
4,810
4,958
5,098
5,171
5,120
4,650
4,492
4,668
4,986
5,158
5,405
5,132
5,137
5,134
5,136
5,116
5,139
5,146
5,164
5,187
5,200
5,211
5,223
5,234
5,349
5,341
5,353
5,384
5,401
5,427
5,437
5,449
5,464
5,487
5.510
Manufacturing
Total
15,582
14,441
15,241
16,393
16,632
17,549
16,314
16,882
17,243
17,176
15,945
16,675
16,796
16,326
16,853
16,995
17,274
18,062
19,214
19,447
19,781
20,167
19,367
18,623
19,151
20,154
20,077
18,323
18,997
19,682
20,505
21,040
20,285
20,170
18,780
18,432
19,372
19,248
18,947
18,999
19,314
19,391
19,076
18,406
18,104
18,075
18,321
18,468
18,282
18,544
18,557
18,560
18,555
18,519
18,493
18,447
18,439
18,415
18,378
18,353
18,367
18,309
18,332
18,281
18,283
18,303
18,298
18,267
18,291
18,241
18,254
18,254
18.273
Durable
Nondurable goods
goods
8,298
7,285
7,462
6,979
7,175
8,066
7,334
9,059
7,313
9,320
10,080
7,468
7,213
9,101
7,370
9,511
9,802
7,442
9,825
7,351
7,144
8,801
9,342
7,333
7,367
9,429
9,041
7,285
9,450
7,403
9,586
7,410
9,785
7,489
10,374
7,688
11,250
7,963
11,408
8,039
11,594
8,187
8,304
11,862
11,176
8,190
10,604
8,019
11,022
8,129
11,863
8,291
11,897
8,181
10,662
7,661
11,051
7,946
11,570
8,112
12,245
8,259
12,730
8,310
8,127
12,159
12,082
8,089
11,014
7,766
10,707
7,725
11,476
7,896
11,458
7,790
7,752
11,195
11,154
7,845
11,363
7,951
11,394
7,997
11,109
7,968
7,837
10,569
10,277
7,827
7,854
10,221
10,448
7,873
10,654
7,814
10,676
7,606
10,632
7,912
10,657
7,900
10,674
7,886
10,679
7,876
10,668
7,851
10,655
7,838
10,647
7,800
10,653
7,786
7,767
10,648
7,747
10,631
10,628
7,725
10,667
7,700
10,643
7,666
10,659
7,673
10,623
7,658
10,654
7,629
7,624
10,679
7,602
10,696
7,587
10,680
10,711
7,580
10,675
7,566
10,684
7,570
7,564
10,690
10.708
7.565
Note.—Data in Tables EM4 and B-45 are based on reports from employing establishments and relate to full- and part-time wage and salary workers in nonagricultural establishments who received pay for any part of the pay period which includes the 12th of the month. Not
comparable with labor force data (Tables B-33 through B-42), which include proprietors, self-employed persons, domestic servants,
See next page for continuation of table.
350
TABLE B-44.—Employees on nonagricultural payrolls, by major industry, 1948-96—Continued
[Thousands of persons; monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Year or month
1948
1949 ...
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954 .
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959 ..
1960 ... .
1961
1962 ...
1963
1964 ...
1965
1966 ...
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971 ...
1972
1973 .
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988 .. .
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994 ..
1995
1996* .
1995:Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
1996Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov/>
Dec/'
Total
26,092
26,189
26,691
27,860
28,595
29,128
29,239
30,128
31,264
31,889
31,811
32,857
33,755
34,142
35,098
36,013
37,278
38,839
40,743
42,495
44,158
46,023
47,302
48,276
50,007
51,897
53,471
54,345
56,030
58,125
61,113
63,363
64,748
65,655
65,732
66,821
69,690
72,544
74,811
77,284
80,086
82,642
84,514
84,511
85,373
87,378
90,264
92,997
95,291
91,981
92,221
92,419
92,585
92,690
92,888
93,030
93,320
93,447
93,598
93,766
93,976
93,958
94,325
94,554
94,713
95,069
95,263
95,508
95,754
95,793
96,027
96,130
96,352
Transportation and Wholesale
public
trade
utilities
2,612
4,189
4,001
2,610
4,034
2,643
4,226
2,735
2,821
4,248
2,862
4,290
4,084
2,875
4,141
2,934
4,244
3,027
4,241
3,037
3,976
2,989
3,092
4,011
4,004
3,153
3,142
3,903
3,207
3,906
3,258
3,903
3,347
3,951
3,477
4,036
3,608
4,158
3,700
4,268
4,318
3,791
4,442
3,919
4,515
4.006
4,014
4,476
4,541
4,127
4,656
4,291
4,447
4,725
4,542
4,430
4,582
4,562
4,713
4,723
4,923
4,985
5,221
5,136
5,146
5,292
5,165
5,375
5,081
5,295
4,952
5,283
5,156
5,568
5,727
5,233
5,247
5,761
5,362
5.848
5,514
6,030
6,187
5,625
6,173
5,793
5,762
6.081
5,997
5,721
5,981
5,829
6,162
5,993
6,412
6,165
6,587
6,318
6,094
6,312
6,114
6,341
6,125
6,360
6,134
6,374
6,389
6,139
6,152
6,408
6,427
6,160
6,187
6,437
6,194
6,451
6,212
6,465
6,233
6,478
6,249
6,498
6,254
6,512
6,529
6,270
6,292
6,548
6,294
6,550
6,567
6,309
6,329
6,575
6,333
6,585
6,342
6,603
6,337
6,619
6,338
6,643
6,648
6,355
6,657
6,360
Service-producing industries
Finance,
Retail
insurance, Services
trade
and real
estate
6,659
1.800
5,181
6,654
1,828
5,239
6,743
1,888
5,356
7,007
5,547
1,956
7,184
2,035
5,699
2,111
7,385
5,835
7,360
2,200
5,969
7,601
2,298
6,240
6,497
2,389
7,831
7,848
2,438
6,708
7,761
2,481
6,765
7,087
8,035
2,549
8,238
2,628
7,378
8,195
2,688
7,619
2,754
8,359
7,982
8,277
8,520
2,830
8,812
2,911
8,660
2,977
9,036
9,239
9,637
3,058
9,498
3,185
10,045
9,906
3,337
10,567
10,308
3,512
10,785
11,169
11,034
3,645
11,548
11,797
11,338
3,772
11,822
3,908
12,276
12,857
12,315
4,046
13,441
4,148
12,539
13,892
12,630
4,165
4,271
13,193
14,551
4,467
15,302
13,792
4.724
14,556
16,252
14,972
17,112
4,975
15,018
5,160
17,890
15,171
5,298
18,615
19,021
15,158
5,340
15,587
19,664
5,466
5,684
16,512
20,746
21,927
17,315
5,948
22,957
17,880
6,273
18,422
6,533
24,110
25,504
19,023
6,630
26,907
19,475
6,668
27,934
19,601
6,709
19,284
6,646
28,336
6,602
29,052
19,356
6,757
30,197
19,773
20.507
6,896
31,579
33,107
21,173
6.830
6,977
21,591
34.360
32,492
21,005
6,823
32,644
6,812
21,048
21,056
6,809
32,798
32,867
21,115
6,806
6,807
32,947
21,119
21,179
6,810
33,038
21,196
6,821
33,106
21,225
6,833
33,269
6,842
33,377
21,258
21,263
6,859
33,460
6,871
21,300
33,546
21,334
6,887
33,661
6,894
33,694
21,268
21,340
33,902
6,919
21,350
6,931
34,039
34,117
6,942
21,415
6,964
21,485
34,285
6,967
21,568
34,378
21.671
6,987
34,448
21.672
34,532
6,999
34,607
21,702
7,009
34,709
21.803
7,026
34,771
21,835
7,036
34,883
21.883
7,053
Government
Total
5,650
5,856
6,026
6,389
6,609
6,645
6,751
6,914
7,278
7,616
7,839
8,083
8,353
8,594
8,890
9,225
9,596
10,074
10,784
11,391
11,839
12,195
12,554
12,881
13,334
13,732
14,170
14,686
14,871
15,127
15,672
15,947
16,241
16,031
15,837
15,869
16,024
16,394
16,693
17,010
17,386
17,779
18,304
18,402
18,645
18,841
19,128
19,310
19,459
19,255
19,262
19,271
19,289
19,289
19,301
19,320
19,369
19,325
19,339
19,338
19,347
19,336
19,365
19,394
19,395
19,459
19,446
19,484
19,606
19,519
19,508
19,485
19,516
Federal
1,863
1,908
1,928
2,302
2,420
2,305
2,188
2,187
2,209
2,217
2,191
2,233
2,270
2,279
2,340
2,358
2,348
2,378
2,564
2,719
2,737
2,758
2,731
2,696
2,684
2,663
2,724
2,748
2,733
2,727
2,753
2,773
2,866
2,772
2,739
2,774
2,807
2,875
2,899
2,943
2,971
2,988
3,085
2,966
2,969
2,915
2,870
2,822
2,757
2,842
2,835
2,831
2,830
2,831
2,831
2,825
2,822
2,812
2,801
2,796
2,790
2,783
2,780
2,780
2,776
2,776
2,756
2,752
2,739
2,739
2,731
2,732
2,720
State and
local
3,787
3,948
4,098
4,087
4,188
4,340
4,563
4,727
5,069
5,399
5,648
5,850
6,083
6,315
6,550
6,868
7,248
7,696
8,220
8,672
9,102
9,437
9,823
10,185
10,649
11,068
11,446
11,937
12,138
12,399
12,919
13,174
13,375
13,259
13,098
13,096
13,216
13,519
13,794
14,067
14,415
14,791
15,219
15,436
15,676
15,926
16,258
16,489
16,703
16,413
16,427
16,440
16,459
16,458
16,470
16,495
16,547
16,513
16,538
16,542
16,557
16,553
16,585
16,614
16,619
16,683
16,690
16,732
16,867
16,780
16,777
16,753
16,796
Note (cont'd).—which count persons as employed when they are not at work because of industrial disputes, bad weather, etc., even if they
are not paid for the time off; and which are based on a sample of the working-age population. For description and details of the various
establishment data, see "Employment and Earnings."
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
351
TABLE B-45.—Hours and earnings in private nonagricultural indutries, 1959-961
[Monthly data seasonally adjusted, except as noted]
Average weekly hours
Year or month
Total
private
Manufacturing
Total
Overtime
Average hourly earnings
Total private
1982
Current
dollars dollars 2
39.0
38.6
38.6
38.7
38.8
38.7
38.8
38.6
38.0
37.8
37.7
37.1
36.9
37.0
36.9
36.5
36.1
36.1
36.0
35.8
35.7
Manufacturing
(current
dollars)
Average weekly earnings, total private
Level
Current
dollars
1982
dollars 2
$6.69
$2.19
2.7 $2.02
40.3
$78.78 $260.86
80.67
39.7
261.92
6.79
2.26
2.09
2.5
2.14
2.32
2.4
6.88
39.8
265.59
82.60
40.4
7.07
2.22
2.39
85.91 273.60
2.8
7.17
2.45
40.5
278.18
2.28
88.46
2.8
40.7
7.33
2.53
283.63
2.36
91.33
3.1
7.52
2.46
2.61
95.45
41.2
291.90
3.6
2.71
41.4
294.11
7.62
98.82
2.56
3.9
101.84
7.72
2.82
3.4
293.49
2.68
40.6
40.7
298.42
2.85
7.89
3.01
107.73
3.6
3.04
3.19
7.98
114.61
40.6
300.81
3.6
3.35
3.23
8.03
119.83
39.8
298.08
3.0
3.57
8.21
303.12
3.45
127.31
39.9
2.9
3.82
315.44
40.5
3.70
8.53
3.5
136.90
3.94
40.7
4.09
315.38
8.55
3.8
145.39
4.24
4.42
302.27
8.28
40.0
154.76
3.3
8.12
4.83
39.5
4.53
163.53
2.6
293.06
8.24
5.22
40.1
4.86
3.1
175.45 297.37
5.25
8.36
5.68 189.00 300.96
40.3
3.5
40.4
6.17
8.40
5.69
3.6
300.89
203.70
8.17
40.2
6.70
291.66
6.16
219.91
3.3
7.27
39.7
35.3
6.66
7.78
2.8
274.65
235.10
7.69
7.99
39.8
35.2
270.63
7.25
255.20
2.8
34.8
7.68
8.49
38.9
267.26
7.68
267.26
2.3
35.0
272.52
8.02
7.79
8.83
40.1
280.70
3.0
40.7
9.19
3.4
35.2
8.32
7.80
274.73
292.86
111
9.54
8.57
34.9
40.5
271.16
299.09
3.3
271.94
7.81
9.73
3.4
40.7
34.8
8.76
304.85
7.73
3.7
34.8
269.16
8.98
9.91
41.0
312.50
41.1
34.7
10.19 322.02 266.79
9.28
7.69
3.9
7.64
10.48 334.24 264.22
34.6
9.66
3.8
41.0
259.47
7.52
10.83
34.5
345.35
3.6 10.01
40.8
40.7
34.3
10.32
7.45
11.18
353.98 255.40
3.6
34.4
7.41
11.46
41.0
254.99
363.61
3.8 10.57
11.74
254.87
373.64
4.1 10.83
41.4
7.39
34.5
12.07
34.7
11.12
7.40
4.7
385.86 256.73
42.0
12.37
4.4 11.44
41.6
34.5
255.29
7.40
394.68
34.4
12.78
255.73
7.43
406.61
41.6
4.5 11.82
34.7
12.22
42.2
7.40
392.11
256.78
4.8 11.30
4.7 11.31
7.39
12.25
41.9
34.5
255.03
390.20
7.37
12.28 390.54
Mar
34.5
254.42
41.8
4.6 11.32
Apr
4.4 11.38
34.6
255.68
7.39
12.31 393.75
41.5
12.30
34.2
7.36
388.51 251.63
41.5
4.3 11.36
May
34.4
7.39
12.33 393.19 254.16
4.2 11.43
41.5
June
July
7.41
12.39
34.5
395.72 255.80
4.2 11.47
41.3
34.4
254.34
12.42
7.39
394.22
41.5
Auc
4.3 11.46
34.4
255.34
4.4 11.52
7.42
12.43
396.29
41.5
41.4
7.42
12.46
34.5
Oct
255.93
398.48
4.3 11.55
34.4
7.44
12.49
41.5
Nov
398.70
4.3 11.59
255.91
7.44
41.2
34.3
12.51
398.22
4.2 11.61
Dec
255.11
7.41
4.1 11.62
1996Jan
33.8
12.63
40.0
250.48
392.76
41.4
255.84
7.42
34.5
12.56 401.93
Feb
4.3 11.65
34.5
Mar
7.40
12.55 402.96 255.36
41.3
4.3 11.68
12.74
Apr
11.72
7.40
34.3
402.00
4.6
41.5
253.79
May
41.7
12.73
7.39
34.2
252.68
401.51
4.6 11.74
12.77
7.44
34.7
41.8'
June
258.18
410.50
4.6 11.83
7.41
4.4 11.81
July .. .
34.2
12.79 403.90 253.55
41.6
34.4
41.7
7.45
12.89 408.33 256.17
4.5 11.87
12.87 413.28
41.7
34.7
7.45
4.5 11.91
Sept
258.46
254.47
7.42
41.7
4.4 11.90
12.88
408.17
34.3
Oct
41.7
Nov
34.5
7.45
12.93
4.5 11.99
257.09
413.66
4.7 12.05
7.47
34.8
42.0
Dec/*
13.01 419.34 259.98
1
For production or nonsupervisory workers; total includes private industry groups shown in Table B-44.
2
Current dollars divided by the consumer price index for urban wage earners and clerical workers on a 1982=100 base.
3
Percent changes are based on data that are not seasonally adjusted.
Note.—See Note, Table B-44.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985 .
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996/>
1995:Jan
Feb
sept':::::::::...::::::: :::....:.:
Aug
:.:
352
Percent change
from year
earlier 3
Current 1982 2
dollars dollars
4.9
2.4
2.4
4.0
3.0
3.2
4.5
3.5
3.1
5.8
6.4
4.6
6.2
7.5
6.2
6.4
5.7
7.3
7.7
7.8
8.0
6.9
8.5
4.7
5.0
4.3
2.1
1.9
2.5
3.0
3.8
3.3
2.5
2.7
2.8
3.3
2.3
3.0
2.6
3.2
2.1
2.3
2^
2.8
2.4
2.4
2.0
2.3
2.1
.2
2.7
3.1
2.6
3.6
4.6
2.5
3.5
4.4
2.5
3.8
5.2
4.2
.4
1.4
3.0
1.7
2.0
2.9
.8
-.2
1.7
.8
-.9
1.7
4.1
-.0
-4.2
-3.0
1.5
1.2
-.0
-3.1
-5.8
-1.5
-1.2
2.0
.8
-1.3
-1.0
-.9
-1.0
-1.8
-1.6
-.0
~:e.2
-.3
-:g
-.9
-2.5
-.8
-.0
-J
-.6
-A
-2.5
.0
.3
~'.6
1.8
-.4
.7
1.4
:5
1.8
TABLE B-46.—Employment cost index, private industry, 1980-96
Total private
Year and month
Service-producing
Goods-producing
Non manufacturing
Manufacturing
Total Wages
Total Wages
Total Wages
Total Wages
Total Wages
com- and Bene-1 com- and Bene-1 com- and Bene-1 com- and Bene-1 com- and Bene-1
pen- sala- fits pen- sala- fits
pen- sala- fits pen- sala- fits pen- sala- fits
sation ries
sation ries
sation ries
sation ries
i sation ries
Index. June 1989=100; not seasonally adjusted
December:
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1995-. Mar
June
Sept
Dec
1996: Mar
June
Sept
64.8
71.2
75.8
80.1
84.0
87.3
90.1
93.1
97.6
102.3
107.0
111.7
115.6
119.8
123.5
126.7
124.5
125.4
126.2
126.7
127.9
129.0
129.8
67.1
73.0
77.6
81.4
84.8
88.3
91.1
94.1
98.0
102.0
106.1
110.0
112.9
116.4
119.7
123.1
120.6
121.5
122.4
123.1
124.4
125.6
126.5
59.4
66.6
71.4
76.7
81.7
84.6
87.5
90.5
96.7
102.6
109.4
116.2
122.2
128.3
133.0
135.9
134.5
135.1
135.6
135.9
136.6
137.4
138.1
1995: Mar
June
Sept
Dec
1996: Mar
June
Sept
124.4
125.3
126.1
126.9
127.8
128.8
129.6
120.6
121.5
122.4
123.2
124.5
125.6
126.4
133.8 125.3 120.4 135.4
134.6 126.0 121.4 135.7
135.4 126.7 122.1 136.3
136.1 127.7 122.9 137.7
136.0 128.2 123.9 137.2
136.9 129.4 125.1 138.4
137.8 130.3 126.1 138.9
66.7
73.3
77.8
81.6
85.4
88.2
91.0
93.8
97.9
102.1
107.0
111.9
1161
120.6
124.3
127.3
125.3
125.9
126.5
127.3
128.2
129.3
130.1
69.7
75.7
80.0
83.2
86.4
89.4
92.3
95.2
98.2
102.0
105.8
109.7
112.8
116.1
119.6
122.9
120.4
121.4
122.1
122.9
123.9
125.1
126.1
60.5
68.2
73.2
78.3
83.2
85.7
88.3
90.9
97.3
102.6
109.9
116.7
123.4
130.3
134.8
137.1
135.9
135.9
136.2
137.1
137.7
138.6
138.8
63.3
69.5
74.1
78.9
82.9
86.6
89.3
92.6
97.3
102.3
107.0
111.6
115.2
119.3
122.8
126.2
123.9
124.9
125.8
126.2
127.6
128.6
129.5
65.3
71.1
75.9
80.2
83.7
87.7
903
93.4
97.8
102.2
106.3
110.2
113.0
116.6
119.7
123.2
120.7
121.6
122.6
123.2
124.7
125.8
126.7
58.4
65.1
69.6
75.2
80.4
83.6
86.8
90.2
96.1
102.6
109.0
115.7
121.2
126.7
131.5
134.7
133.2
134.1
134.8
134.7
135.5
136.2
137.2
66.0
72.5
76.9
80.8
85.0
87.8
90.7
93.4
97.6
102.0
107.2
112.2
116.5
121.3
125.1
128.3
126.2
126.9
127.3
128.3
129.3
130.4
131.3
68.9
74.9
79.1
82.5
86.1
89.2
92.1
95.2
98.1
101.9
106.2
110.3
113.7
117.3
120.8
124.3
121.9
122.9
123.5
124.3
125.4
126.5
127.7
59.9
67.5
72.4
77.5
82.7
85.0
87.5
89.8
96.6
102.3
109.5
116.1
122.6
130.0
134.3
136.7
135.4
135.2
135.5
136.7
137.5
138.5
138.8
64.2
70.4
75.1
79.6
83.4
87.0
89.7
92.9
97.5
102.3
106.9
111.5
115.1
119.0
122.6
125.9
123.7
124.6
125.5
125.9
127.2
128.2
129.1
66.2
72.1
76.8
81.0
84.2
880
90.6
93.7
97.8
102.2
106.1
109.8
112.6
116.0
119.1
122.5
120.0
120.9
121.9
122.5
123.9
125.1
125.9
59.1
66.1
70.6
76.2
81.1
84.4
87.5
91.0
96.8
102.8
109.3
116.2
122.0
127.4
132.3
135.3
133.9
134.7
135.4
135.3
136.0
136.7
137.5
121.9
122.9
123.5
124.3
125.4
126.5
127.7
134.8
135.1
135.7
137.1
137.0
138.4
139.0
123.6
124.6
125.4
126.2
127.2
128.2
128.9
120.0
120.9
121.8
122.6
124.0
125.1
125.7
133.5
134.5
135.4
135.9
135.7
136.5
137.4
9.7
9.7
6.7
6.0
4.8
4.3
3.1
3.6
5.0
4.9
4.5
4.3
3.2
3.4
3.0
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.9
8.9
8.9
6.5
5.5
4.0
4.5
3.0
3.4
4.4
4.5
3.8
3.5
2.6
3.0
2.7
2.9
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.9
3.3
3.5
3.3
12.6
11.8
6.8
7.9
6.4
4.1
3.7
4.0
6.4
6.2
6.3
6.3
5.0
4.4
3.8
2.3
3.1
3.0
2.4
2.3
1.6
1.5
1.6
Index, June 1989=100; seasonally adjusted
124.0
124.9
125.8
126.5
127.5
128.5
129.4
120.7
121.6
122.5
123.3
124.8
125.8
126.5
132.9
133.9
134.8
135.2
135.2
136.0
137.1
126.0
126.7
127.4
128.4
129.0
130.2
131.3
Percent change from 12 months earlier, not seasonally adjusted
December:
1980 ..
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1995: Mar
June
Sept
Dec
1996- Mar
June
Sept
9.6
9.9
6.5
5.7
4.9
3.9
3.2
3.3
4.8
4.8
4.6
4.4
3.5
3.6
3.1
2.6
2.9
2.8
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.9
2.9
9.1
8.8
6.3
4.9
4.2
4.1
3.2
3.3
4.1
4.1
4.0
3.7
2.6
3.1
2.8
2.8
2.9
2.9
2.8
2.8
3.2
3.4
3.3
11.7
12.1
7.2
7.4
6.5
3.5
3.4
3.4
6.9
6.1
6.6
6.2
5.2
5.0
3.7
2.2
2.9
2.6
2.1
2.2
1.6
1.7
1.8
9.9
9.9
6.1
4.9
4.7
3.3
3.2
3.1
4.4
4.3
4.8
4.6
3.8
3.9
3.1
2.4
2.9
2.4
2.1
2.4
2.3
2.7
2.8
9.4
8.6
5.7
4.0
3.8
3.5
3.2
3.1
3.2
3.9
3.7
3.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
2.8
3.0
2.9
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.3
10.8
12.7
7.3
7.0
6.3
3.0
3.0
2.9
7.0
5.4
7.1
6.2
5.7
5.6
3.5
1.7
2.4
1.5
1.0
1.7
1.3
2.0
1.9
9.7
9.8
6.6
6.5
5.1
4.5
3.1
3.7
5.1
5.1
4.6
4.3
3.2
3.6
2.9
2.8
2.9
3.1
2.9
2.8
3.0
3.0
2.9
8.8
8.9
6.8
5.7
4.4
4.8
3.0
3.4
4.7
4.5
4.0
3.7
2.5
3.2
2.7
2.9
2.9
2.9
2.9
2.9
3.3
3.5
3.3
12.5
11.5
6.9
8.0
6.9
4.0
3.8
3.9
6.5
6.8
6.2
6.1
4.8
4.5
3.8
2.4
3.3
3.4
2.7
2.4
1.7
1.6
1.8
9.8
9.8
6.1
5.1
5.2
3.3
3.3
3.0
4.5
4.5
5.1
4.7
3.8
4.1
3.1
2.6
3.0
2.8
2.3
2.6
2.5
2.8
3.1
9.4
8.7
5.6
4.3
4.4
3.6
3.3
3.4
3.0
3.9
4.2
3.9
3.1
3.2
3.0
2.9
3.3
3.3
2.9
2.9
2.9
2.9
3.4
10.5
12.7
7.3
7.0
6.7
2.8
2.9
2.6
7.6
5.9
7.0
6.0
5.6
6.0
3.3
1.8
2.6
1.7
1.2
1.8
1.6
2.4
2.4
Percent change from 3 months earlier, seasonally adjusted
0.7
0.7
0.7
1995: Mar
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.1
0.8
0.6
0.9
0 0.9
0
0.5
.7
.7
.6
.8
.8
.6
.8
.6
.2
.8
.8
.7
June
.7
.7
.6
.6
.6
'4
>
.7
.4
.7
.6
.6
.7
.6
Sept
.7
.8
.7
.4
.7
.7
.4
.6
.6
Dec
1.0
.8
1.0
.4
'.7
.8 -.4
1996: Mar
1.1
.8
1.2
.9 -.1
.8
1.1 -.1
0
.9 ~>
.9
.8
.9
.9
.8
.8
.6
^9
.8
.9
June
1.0
1.0
.6
.7
.4
.7
.6
.7
.8
.9
.4
.6
.8
.6
.8
.5
.5
.7
Sept
1
Employer costs for employee benefits.
Note.—The employment cost index is a measure of the change in the cost of labor, free from the influence of employment shifts among
occupations and industries.
Data exclude farm and household workers.
Through December 1981, percent changes are based on unrounded data; thereafter changes are based on indexes as published.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
:&
353
TABLE B-47.—Productivity and related data, business sector, 1959-96
[Index numbers, 1992=100; quarterly data seasonally adjusted]
Year or
quarter
Output per hour
of all persons
Hours of all
persons2
Output'
Compensation
per hour 3
Real compensation
per hour 4
Busi- Nonfarm Busi- Nonfarm Busi- Nonfarm Busi- Nonfarm Business business ness business ness business ness business ness
sector sector sector sector sector sector sector sector sector
Unit labor
costs
Implicit price
def later *
Nonfarm Busi- Nonfarm Busi- Nonfarm
business ness business ness business
sector sector sector sector sector
1959
50.7
54.3
33.8
33.5
66.6
61.7
13.1
13.7
63.2
66.0
25.8
25.2
25.5
25.0
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
51.5
53.2
55.6
57.8
60.5
62.6
65.0
66.5
68.8
69.1
54.9
56.6
59.2
61.3
63.9
65.8
68.1
69.3
71.7
71.7
34.3
34.9
37.1
38.8
41.3
44.2
47.1
48.0
50.4
52.0
34.0
34.7
37.1
38.7
41.4
44.3
47.4
48.2
50.8
52.3
66.7
65.6
66.7
67.1
68.3
70.6
72.4
72.2
73.3
75.2
62.0
61.2
62.6
63.2
64.7
67.2
69.6
69.6
70.8
72.9
13.7
14.2
14.9
15.4
16.2
16.8
17.9
18.9
20.5
21.9
14.3
14.8
15.4
15.9
16.7
17.2
18.2
19.3
20.8
22.2
64.8
66.7
69.0
70.6
73.3
74.8
77.6
79.6
82.6
83.8
67.8
69.4
71.5
73.1
75.5
76.7
78.9
81.0
83.9
85.0
26.6
26.7
26.7
26.6
26.8
26.8
27.6
28.5
29.8
31.7
26.0
26.1
26.0
26.0
26.1
26.2
26.8
27.8
29.0
31.0
25.8
26.1
26.4
26.5
26.8
27.3
28.0
28.8
29.9
31.1
25.3
25.5
25.8
26.0
26.3
26.7
27.3
28.2
29.3
30.5
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
70.4
73.4
75.8
78.2
77.1
79.7
82.6
84.2
84.8
84.5
72.7
75.7
78.3
80.8
79.5
81.7
84.6
86.0
87.1
86.4
51.8
53.8
57.4
61.3
60.6
59.9
64.0
67.8
71.6
73.8
52.2
54.1
57.9
62.1
61.1
60.1
64.3
68.0
72.3
74.3
73.6
73.3
75.7
78.5
78.6
75.1
77.5
80.5
84.5
87.3
71.7
71.5
73.9
76.8
76.9
73.6
76.0
79.1
83.1
86.0
23.6
25.1
26.7
29.0
31.8
35.1
38.2
41.2
44.9
49.2
23.8
25.4
27.0
29.2
32.1
35.4
38.4
41.5
45.3
49.6
85.4
87.1
89.7
91.7
90.6
91.5
94.2
95.4
96.6
95.1
86.2
87.9
90.6
92.4
91.4
92.2
94.7
96.1
97.4
95.8
33.6
34.3
35.3
37.1
41.3
44.1
46.2
48.9
52.9
58.2
32.8
33.5
34.5
36.2
40.4
43.3
45.4
48.3
52.0
57.3
32.6
34.0
35.2
37.0
40.4
44.3
46.6
49.3
53.1
57.7
31.9
33.3
34.3
35.5
39.1
43.2
45.6
48.6
51.9
56.4
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
84.3
86.0
85.5
88.3
90.3
92.0
94.2
94.1
94.6
95.3
86.1
87.1
86.4
90.0
91.5
92.5
94.9
94.6
95.2
95.7
72.9
74.9
72.6
76.2
82.5
85.9
88.6
91.1
94.6
97.8
73.5 86.5
74.8 87.1
72.4 84.9
76.8 86.3
82.8 91.3
85.8 93.4
88.7 94.0
91.4 96.8
95.1 100.0
98.1 102.5
85.3
85.9
83.8
85.3
90.5
92.8
93.5
96.5
99.9
102.5
54.5
59.7
64.2
66.8
69.8
73.2
77.0
79.9
83.5
85.8
54.9
60.2
64.7
67.4
70.3
73.5
77.3
80.2
83.6
85.9
92.8
92.2
93.3
94.2
94.2
95.4
98.5
98.7
99.0
97.1
93.5
92.9
94.0
95.0
94.9
95.9
99.0
99.1
99.2
97.1
64.7
69.4
75.1
75.7
77.2
79.6
81.7
84.9
88.3
90.0
63.8
69.2
74.8
74.9
76.8
79.5
81.5
84.7
87.8
89.7
62.9
68.6
72.6
75.3
77.7
79.9
81.6
83.8
86.8
90.5
61.9
67.9
72.2
74.7
77.0
79.7
81.4
83.5
86.4
90.0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
96.1
96.7
100.0
100.2
100.7
96.2 98.7
96.9 96.9
100.0 100.0
100.2 102.7
100.7 107.0
98.8
97.1
100.0
102.9
107.0
102.7 90.7
100.2 95.1
100.0 100.0
102.8 102.5
106.3 104.5
90.6
95.1
100.0
102.3
104.3
97.4
97.9
100.0
99.5
99.0
97.3 94.4
97.9 98.3
100.0 100.0
99.3 102.3
98.8 103.8
94.2 94.0
98.1 97.7
100.0 100.0
102.1 102.5
103.7 104.7
93.8
97.6
100.0
102.5
104.9
1995
100.8
100.9 109.6
109.9 108.8
108.9
107.8
107.7
99.2
99.1 106.9
106.7
98.8 99.5
99.6 99.8
99.8 100.1
101.8 100.7
99.5 98.6
99.7 99.5
100.1 100.7
100.7 101.2
98.6
99.6
100.7
101.2
99.8
99.8
100.3
99.9
99.7 99.3
99.9 99.6
100.3 101.0
99.9 100.1
102.6
100.2
100.0
102.5
106.2
107.1
107.2
99.3 99.3
99.6 99.7
101.0 100.1
100.1 100.9
99.2
99.8
100.1
100.9
101.5
102.6
102.9
102.4
101.4
102.4
102.4
102.2
101.7
102.3
102.7
103.3
101.8
102.4
102.7
103.3
99.2
98.9
98.4
98.7
103.6
103.6
103.6
104.4
103.4
103.5
103.5
104.2
103.9
104.4
105.1
105.6
103.9
104.5
105.3
105.7
98.7
98.8
99.2
99.6
105.8
106.5
107.0
108.3
105.6
106.3
106.8
108.1
106.4
106.9
107.5
107.8
106.5
107.1
107.5
107.8
1992:1
99.3
99.9
99.7
101.1
99.3 98.8
99.9 99.6
99.7 99.8
101.1 101.7
1993:1
100.2
99.8
100.0
100.9
100.1
99.7
100.1
100.8
101.4
102.1
102.8
104.5
101.6
102.2
103.3
104.7
101.3
102.3
102.9
103.5
101.4
102.6
103.2
103.9
101.7
102.3
102.8
103.3
101.5
102.0
102.5
103.0
99.6
99.5
99.6
99.3
99.5
99.3
99.3
99.0
1994:1
100.5
100.6
101.1
101.1
100.3
100.6
101.0
101.1
104.9
106.7
107.7
108.7
104.9
106.7
107.8
108.8
104.4
106.0
106.6
107.6
104.6 104.0
106.1 104.2
106.7 104.7
107.6 105.5
103.8
104.1
104.5
105.4
99.5
99.0
98.6
98.8
1995:1
100.4
100.8
101.2
101.0
100.5
100.9
101.3
101.1
108.8
109.0
110.3
110.4
109.0 108.4
109.2 108.2
110.6 109.0
110.7 109.3
108.4
108.3
109.1
109.5
106.2
107.2
108.2
109.3
98.8
98.9
99.3
99.8
II
Ill ....
IV
II
Ill ....
IV
II
Ill ....
IV
II
Ill ....
IV
106.2
107.3
108.3
109.4
111.4 109.6
99.7 108.6
101.5 111.2
110.2
101.5
109.8 110.3
99.8
108.5 108.2
108.1
II
101.7 112.6
99.7 109.4
109.4 108.8
112.! 110.6
110.9 111.4
111.3
99.9
108.7
101.8
112.2 100.2
110.4 109.1
Ill .... 101.8
101.6 113.2
111.5 112.5
113.3 111.1
100.0 110.5
109.0
1
Output refers to real gross domestic product originating in the sector.
2
Hours at work of all persons engaged in the sector, including hours of proprietors and unpaid family workers. Estimates based primarily
on 3establishment data.
Wages and salaries of employees plus employers' contributions for social insurance and private benefit plans. Also includes an estimate
of 4wages, salaries, and supplemental payments for the self-employed.
Hourly compensation divided by the consumer price index for all urban consumers.
5
Current dollar output divided by the output index.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
1996:1
354
TABLE B-48.—Changes in productivity and related data, business sector, 1960-96
[Percent change from preceding period; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Output per hour
of all persons
Year
Tear nr
Oi
quarter
Compensation
per hour ^
Hours of 2all
persons
Output'
Real compensation
per hour4
Busi- Nonfarm Busi- Nonfarm Busi- Nonfarm Busi- Nonfarm Business business ness business ness business ness business ness
sector sector sector sector sector sector sector sector sector
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1.6
3.3
4.6
3.9
4.6
1.2
3.1
4.6
3.4
4.3
1.6
1.7
6.4
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
3.5
3.9
2.3
3.5
.4
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
4.5
6.4
0.1
-1.6
1.7
.6
1.7
0.5
-1.1
2.1
1.1
2.4
4.3
4.0
4.5
3.7
5.2
4.4
3.4
4.1
3.5
4.6
2.6
2.9
3.5
2.3
3.8
3.0
3.5
1.7
3.4
.1
7.0
6.6
2.0
5.0
3.0
7.0
7.1
1.7
5.2
3.0
3.4
2.6
-.3
1.5
2.6
3.9
3.6
-.0
1.7
2.9
3.7
6.7
5.7
8.1
7.0
3.3
5.8
5.8
7.9
6.8
1.8
4.3
3.3
3.1
-1.3
1.4
4.1
3.4
3.1
-1.6
-.3
3.8
6.6
6.9
-1.2
-2.0
-.4
3.3
3.7
.1
-1.6
-.3
3.4
4.0
.1
7.8
6.4
6.3
8.6
9.7
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
3.3
3.7
1.9
.7
-.3
-1.2
6.9
5.9
5.6
3.0
-4.4
3.1
3.9
4.9
3.4
-4.3
3.4
4.0
5.0
3.6
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
-.2
2.0
-.6
3.3
2.3
2.7
3.6
1.6
1.3
-.8
-.4
1.1
-.8
4.2
1.7
-.2
3.8
6.9
7.3
-1.5
-1.7
7.1
5.7
6.4
2.8
-1.1
2.7
-3.1
5.0
8.2
-1.2
1.9
-3.3
6.1
7.9
-.9
.7
-2.5
1.7
5.8
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1.8
2.5
-.2
.5
.8
1.0
2.6
-.3
.6
.5
4.1
3.2
2.9
3.8
3.4
3.6
3.4
3.0
4.1
3.2
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
.8
.6
3.4
.2
.5
.1
.5
.7
3.2
.2
.5
.9
-1.8
3.2
2.7
4.2
.3
2.5
8.1
2.1
7.2
2.5
-10
5.9
-3.8
-1.8
1.7
2.8
6.2
3.2
8
7.9
-1.2
2.5
3.0
65
1.7
6.9
4.1
3.8
3
>
4.8
1992:1
II
Ill
IV
1993:1
II
Ill ....
IV
1994:1
II
Ill ....
IV
_c
5.4
-3.5
-1.6
.8
3.8
-1.7
«j
L9
.2
-1.8
1.0
1.7
.4
1995:1
-2.6
1.4
1.4
-.6
-2.3
1.5
1.8
-1.2
1996:1
2.1
1.2
0
1.9
.6
-.3
II
Ill ....
IV
II
Ill ....
c
3.0
5.0
2.1
Vtittn**
Nonfarm Busi- Nonfarm Busi- Nonfarm
business ness business ness business
sector sector sector sector sector
1.6
1.9
6.9
4.5
6.8
1995
Unit labor
costs
2.7
.6
-.1
-.2
.5
3.2
.3
-.5
.1
.3
2.1
3.7
2.5
3.8
1.5
2.7
2.4
3.0
2.2
3.3
1.7
2.8
2.7
3.5
1.3
.3
2.7
3.3
4.5
6.6
7.2
6.5
6.4
8.2
9.9
1.9
1.9
3.0
2.2
-1.2
1.4
2.0
3.1
1.9
-1.1
10.3
8.8
7.9
9.0
9.7
10.1
8.6
8.0
9.1
9.5
1.1
2.9
1.3
1.3
-1.5
-.8
.7
-2.5
1.8
6.0
10.8
9.5
7.5
4.2
4.4
10.8
9.7
7.4
4.2
4.2
2.2
.7
3.0
3.3
2.5
2.5
.8
3.2
3.5
2.6
4.9
5.2
3.8
4.5
2.8
.7
-1.8
3.0
2.9
4.0
2.7
.1
-2.3
-.2
2.5
3.7
.2
-2.5
-.2
2.8
3.5
2.4
5.6
3.1
7
8.4
-1.5
.6
17
2.4
2.7
4.1
5.5
-1.7
1.1
14
2.4
2.4
4.2
2.2
2.6
.8
7.0
4.2
4.0
3.5
6.4
2.1
3.6
3.0
4.6
2.4
2.6
2.7
6.0
2.4
3.6
.6
c
5X
3.0
-.7
3.3
1.1
2.9
-.6
3.2
1.5
2.8
4.1
3.6
4.3
2.7
4.8
1.8
.8
3.1
2.0
.8
4.1
2.1
3.2
4.3
3.8
_g
2.4
1.1
.9
.8
.9
1.2
.3
2.3
4.0
4.3
6.7
1.3
1.0
.9
.7
1.0
1.7
2.6
2.8
3.8
4.3
1.5
2.3
3.3
3.9
4.2
5.9
2.1
2.9
5.3
11.2
5.7
2.3
2.9
4.9
11.6
4.6
4.5
3.4
5.2
9.0
4.5
4.6
2.9
3.6
10.0
.9
2.7
1.4
1.4
-1.7
6.8
4.9
5.8
8.2
10.0
7.2
4.9
6.3
7.7
10.3
9.8
5.1
5.9
7.8
8.6
10.6
5.6
6.4
6.9
8.6
-2.4
-.7
1.2
.9
.0
-2.4
-.6
1.2
1.0
-.1
11.0
7.4
8.1
11.2
8.5
8.2
2!0
2.5
9.0
9.0
5.9
3.7
3.2
9.8
9.6
6.4
3.4
3.1
4.6
5.2
3.7
4.3
2.7
1.3
3.3
.2
.3
-2.0
3.0
2.6
4.0
4.0
1.9
3.6
2.5
4.0
3.7
2.1
2.8
2.2
2.7
3.5
4.2
3.4
2.2
2.6
3.4
4.2
5.7
4.8
5.2
2.5
1.9
5.5
4.9
5.2
2.3
2.1
.3
.6
2.1
-.5
-.6
1.0
3.3
.1
.1
-2.1
.1
.7
2.1
-.7
-.5
4.9
4.2
1.7
2.3
1.4
5.0
4.2
1.9
2.1
1.5
4.0
3.9
2.4
2.5
2.2
4.2
4.1
2.4
2.5
2.3
3.1
3.2
.3
.3
3.0
2.2
7.8
4.1
46
2.0
5.2
.1
19
-1.5
5.0
.7
15
-1.5
-.1
1.3
55
-3.2
2.9
5
16
56
-3.7
2.3
8.0
3.4
49
2.0
2.8
1.9
15
3.0
3.0
2.1
14
3.2
1.9
2.6
2.0
2.0
13
2.\
1J
2.0
-1.C
-1.6
-.8
-.1
-1.1
5.6
4.3
1.2
-1.8
5.2
4.0
-1
3.5
2.5
1.3
2.4
3.8
2.1
1.2
2.5
2.8
.7
2.0
2.9
2.9
1.3
1.8
3.3
2.9
4.0
3.7
4.0
3.4
3.9
3.4
.8
-1.8
-1.7
.7
4.6
.2
.1
2.8
5.6
2.6
2.1
5.0
4.9
.3
.1
2.9
2.4
1.8
2.7
2.0
2.5
2.2
2.9
1.9
-.0
.7
1.5
1.9
.9
-1.2
-1.9
1.0
.1
.6
1.6
1.6
5.3
2.5
1.9
5.2
3.0
2.2
2.0
1.0
-.0
.4
1.5
.2
.1
1.1
1.1
3.1
3.8
1.5
3.3
3.7
1.5
2.4
1.2
3.0
2.0
1.7
.9
1.4
2.1
1.1
1
Output
2
!l
-1.2
refers to real gross domestic product originating in the sector.
Hours at work of all persons engaged in the sector, including hours of proprietors and unpaid family workers. Estimates based primarily
on 3establishment data.
Wages and salaries of employees plus employers' contributions for social insurance and private benefit plans. Also includes an estimate
of 4wages, salaries, and supplemental payments for the self-employed.
Hourly compensation divided by the consumer price index for all urban consumers.
5
Current dollar output divided by the output index.
Note.—Percent changes are based on original data and may differ slightly from percent changes based on indexes in Table B-47.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
355
PRODUCTION AND BUSINESS ACTIVITY
TABLE B—49-—Industrial production indexes, major industry divisions, 1947—96
[1987=100; monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Year or month
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996*
1995:Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug .
Sept
Oct ..
Nov
Dec
1996:Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct"
Nov
Dec/*
Total
industrial
production
Manufacturing
Total
21.2
22.0
20.8
24.2
26.1
27.2
29.6
27.7
31.3
32.5
32.9
30.6
34.5
35.2
35.3
38.4
40.7
43.5
48.2
52.6
53.6
56.6
59.1
56.4
57.3
63.3
68.9
67.9
61.1
67.4
73.3
77.8
80.9
78.8
80.3
76.6
80.9
89.3
91.6
94.3
100.0
104.7
106.4
106.1
103.8
108.2
112.3
119.7
123.9
128.0
124.1
123.9
124.0
123.5
123.2
123.3
123.3
124.2
124.9
124.4
124.5
124.8
124.5
126.2
125.2
126.5
127.4
128.5
129.0
129.2
129.6
129.5
130.4
131.8
22.7
23.6
22.3
25.8
28.0
29.1
31.6
29.9
33.7
35.1
35.6
33.3
37.3
38.1
38.4
41.6
44.0
47.0
51.7
56.3
57.5
60.7
63.5
61.4
62.2
68.3
73.8
72.7
66.3
72.4
78.2
82.6
85.7
84.1
85.7
81.9
84.9
92.8
94.4
95.3
100.0
104.4
106.0
106.0
104.2
107.7
111.5
118.1
121.9
125.8
121.8
121.7
121.9
121.4
121.3
121.4
121.5
122.7
122.8
122.2
122.6
122.8
122.5
124.2
123.6
124.5
125.4
126.4
126.3
126.9
127.2
127.1
128.1
129.1
Source: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
356
Durable
19.9
20.8
18.9
23.0
25.9
27.5
31.1
27.4
31.3
32.4
32.6
28.5
32.8
33.3
32.7
36.3
38.7
41.4
47.1
52.3
52.9
55.5
57.7
53.3
53.1
59.3
66.2
64.8
56.7
62.6
68.7
73.9
78.3
75.7
77.4
72.7
76.8
88.4
91.8
93.9
100.0
106.6
108.6
107.4
104.1
109.3
115.6
125.8
132.5
139.9
131.8
132.1
132.2
131.6
131.1
131.5
131.5
133.2
134.4
133.5
134.3
134.8
134.9
137.5
135.6
138.3
139.1
141.1
141.5
142.2
142.3
141.5
142.8
144.7
Nondurable
22.6
23.4
23.0
25.6
26.4
26.9
28.0
28.2
31.3
32.9
33.5
33.7
37.1
38.0
39.1
41.5
43.8
46.6
49.8
52.9
54.6
58.1
61.1
61.1
63.6
69.3
72.7
72.3
67.7
74.6
80.1
83.5
84.6
83.1
84.5
82.5
87.0
90.8
91.5
94.9
100.0
102.3
103.7
104.4
103.4
106.7
108.6
113.0
114.3
114.8
115.6
114.8
115.1
114.6
114.4
114.3
114.3
114.3
114.4
114.3
113.7
113.8
113.1
113.8
113.6
113.5
114.4
114.6
115.2
114.8
115.6
116.2
116.7
117.6
Mining
55.5
58.3
51.7
57.7
63.4
62.8
64.5
63.2
70.5
74.2
74.3
68.1
71.3
72.7
73.1
75.2
78.2
81.4
84.4
88.9
90.6
94.1
97.8
100.4
97.8
99.9
100.8
100.3
98.0
98.9
101.5
104.6
106.6
110.0
114.3
109.3
104.8
111.9
109.0
101.0
100.0
101.3
100.0
102.0
100.2
98.9
98.0
100.3
99.9
101.2
100.6
100.8
100.3
100.6
100.5
101.0
100.7
100.0
100.0
98.2
98.3
98.1
97.1
98.0
101.1
100.4
100.5
102.8
100.9
102.7
101.9
102.0
102.7
104.0
Utilities
11.7
13.0
13.9
15.8
18.1
19.6
21.3
22.9
25.6
28.1
30.0
31.4
34.5
36.9
39.0
41.9
44.8
48.7
51.7
55.6
58.4
63.1
68.7
72.9
76.4
81.3
84.5
83.5
84.3
87.6
89.9
92.7
95.3
95.9
94.3
91.8
93.6
97.0
99.5
96.3
100.0
105.0
108.7
109.9
112.3
111.9
116.3
117.9
122.0
126.1
117.3
118.5
119.2
118.8
122.1
121.0
122.7
128.8
122.7
121.6
125.4
125.1
125.6
126.6
128.0
126.4
128.4
126.6
122.6
125.6
125.4
125.5
128.4
124.1
TABLE B-50.—Industrial production indexes, market groupings, 1947-96
[1987=100; monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Year or month
Final products
Total
industrial
production
Consumer goods
Total
Total
Intermediate
EnerAuto- Other NonDe- prod- Total Dura- Nonmotive dura- durable Total > Busi- fense ucts
ble durgy
able
prod- ble goods
ness and
space
ucts goods
22.7
23.6
22.3
25.4
21.7 22.8
27.0
20.8
27.7
21.5
26.2
22.6 23.8
20.9
27.9
26.1
22.5 22.0
25.8 23.5
29.7
30.3
28.3 30.4
28.0 25.4
25.0 26.2
31.3
29.4
29.1 27.3
22.5 26.2
32.6
30.1
28.4 29.6
31.6 29.1
33.5
31.9
31.7
29.9 27.6
26.5 27.3
33.9
35.4
33.7 29.8
35.2 32.2
36.5
36.7
35.1 31.6
38.8
28.9 33.9
35.6 32.5
40.1
37.6
30.3 33.2
24.1 31.3
33.3 31.0
37.2
41.3
44.1
30.2 36.0
37.3 34.0
40.9
42.4
38.1 35.1
34.6 36.2
45.5
38.4 35.4
43.3
31.6 37.3
47.0
46.2
49.2
41.6 38.4
38.3 40.5
51.4
44.0 40.6
48.8
41.9 43.7
47.0 42.9
51.5
43.9 47.7
54.0
51.7 47.1
55.5
54.1 54.1
56.3
58.4
56.3 51.6
53.9 59.6
59.0
47.4 60.4
59.8
57.5 53.7
62.0
60.7 56.3
63.4
56.4 64.7
64.5
56.7 69.0
66.7
63.5 58.1
65.8
61.4 56.0
47.7 66.9
65.0
67.8
69.7
62.2 56.5
68.8
60.8 70.8
74.2
68.3 61.3
74.3
65.6 81.0
72.4 85.7
77.6
76.5
73.8 65.9
72.7 65.7
75.2
62.6 79.3
76.5
72.3
59.0 69.8
66.3 61.8
74.9
79.4
80.4
72.4 66.2
73.2 78.2
84.4
78.2 71.6
84.0 87.4
85.1
88.4
82.6 76.1
86.3 91.2
87.8
85.7 79.0
87.7
87.3
78.5 89.8
84.1 80.0
59.5 85.1
89.1
85.3
85.7 82.1
85.8
59.2 86.3
89.6
89.7
84.5
57.5 78.1
81.9 80.8
88.8
71.9 86.2
84.9 83.0
91.9
93.4
92.8 91.0
92.8
86.6 94.6
93.7
92.7 90.6
94.4
94.4 94.2
95.3 93.9
97.6
95.3 95.7
96.8
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
104.4 104.8 102.9 106.4 103.0 102.4
106.0 106.8 104.0 108.2 105.2 103.2
106.0 107.0 103.4 100.7 103.6 103.8
91.1 100.3 105.0
104.2 105.4 103.0
107.7 108.7 106.0 100.9 104.9 106.9
111.5 112.7 109.5 115.1 111.8 108.6
118.1 1183 113.7 130.8 118.5 111.2
121.9 121.4 115.1 130.7 118.6 112.9
125.8 125.6 116.4 131.7 119.0 114.4
121.8 120 115.5 134.4 120.8 112.7
121.7 121.1 114.9 135.3 120.4 111.9
121.9 121.5 115.3 134.4 118.6 112.7
121.4 120.9 114.4 131.7 119.0 111.8
121.3 120.6 114.1 127.1 116.7 112.4
121.4 121.1 114.8 129.1 116.3 113.1
June
July
121.5 121.2 114.6 125.3 118.1 113.0
Aug ....:: '"I" 122.7 122.4
115.9 130.7 118.1 113.9
Sept
122.8 122.6 116.0 132.9 119.6 113.7
Oct
122.2 121.3 114.9 128.5 118.9 112.9
Nov
122.6 121.9 115.9 130.5 119.9 113.8
Dec
122.8 122.1 115.7 132.8 120.5 113.2
1996: Jan
122.5 121.9 114.6 125.9 115.5 113.3
Feb
124.2 124.5 116.6 133.1 118.1 114.5
Mar
123.6 123.4 115.3 120.3 118.5 114.4
Apr
124.5 124.8 115.9 133.5 118.5 113.6
125.4 125.1 116.3 134.1 119.3 114.0
May
126.4 126.0 116.8 138.4 123.4 113.5
June
July
126.3 126.7 117.3 143.4 120.5 114.0
Aug
126.9 126.5 116.5 137.5 118.7 113.8
Sept
127.2 126.8 116.8 135.8 117.7 114.6
Oct/>
127.1 126.9 116.7 128.4 117.2 115.4
NOVA>
128.1 128.2 118.2 135.2 117.3 116.4
129.1 129.2 118.7 135.9 121.8 116.4
Dec**
1
Two components—oil and gas well drilling and manufactured homes—are
Source: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963 .
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977 ..
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996 P
1995: Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May . .: : : : : : :
Materials
Equipment
357
15.0
15.8
14.1
14.7
7.5
22.4
8.8
15.3
23.6
13.4
9.2
22.4
15.3 14.3 10.8
26.1
21.2 17.5 26.5
27.4
25.5 19.8 37.2
27.2
27.6 20.6 44.6
29.1
24.2 18.1 39.3
29.0
24.7 19.6 35.9
32.9
27.1 22.7 35.1
34.4
34.4
28.2 23.6 36.7
25.2 19.9 36.8
33.6
27.7 22.4 38.8
37.1
37.4
28.5 23.0 39.9
28.1 22.3 40.6
38.1
40.4
31.3 24.3 46.9
42.7
33.1 25.5 50.6
35.0 28.5 49.0
45.5
48.4
39.6 32.6 54.3
51.4
46.1 37.8 63.7
49.0 38.6 72.7
53.5
50.4 40.3 72.9
56.6
51.8 42.9 69.4
59.6
58.7
48.1 41.3 58.7
45.0 39.3 52.8
60.5
49.3 44.8 51.3
67.6
55.0 52.4 50.1
71.9
69.4
56.8 54.7 49.4
52.0 48.8 48.5
62.6
53.8 50.6 49.2
69.0
58.8 56.7 49.2
74.9
64.2 63.1 49.5
79.1
71.0 71.5 51.5
81.2
74.6 73.5 57.4
77.0
78.2 76.1 58.5
77.0
77.0 72.9 65.7
75.1
76.8 71.9 71.8
80.3
89.2 85.4 78.9
86.2
94.8 91.1 89.4
88.3
94.5 93.1 96.0
91.9
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
107.6 110.7 99.7
101.8
110.9 115.5 100.1 102.0
112.1 116.9 98.8 101.2
108.8 115.9 90.8
96.8
112.5 123.4 84.8
99.3
117.5 131.8 79.3
101.8
125.3 144.9 71.9
107.3
131.4 1.55.7 65.9 109.0
140.5 168.5 63.9
110.7
130.4 153.2 68.9 109.5
131.0 154.3 68.2
109.5
131.4 155.1 67.8 109.2
131.3 155.0 67.1
108.2
130.8 154.3 66.8 108.2
131.2 155.1 66.8 108.2
131.6 155.7 66.5 108.5
132.9 157.5 66.1 109.4
133.1 158.2 65.2
109.5
131.5 156.5 64.4
109.2
131.4 156.9 62.9
109.3
132.3 158.4 62.0
110.1
133.7 160.5 61.6
108.5
137.3 164.8 63.1 109.3
136.5 162.7 64.2
109.6
139.2 166.3 64.0
108.6
139.2 166.0 64.3
110.1
140.8 168.6 63.7 111.3
142.0 170.3 64.5
109.9
142.8 171.1 65.0 111.2
143.2 172.0 64.7
111.9
143.4 172.5 64.1
111.8
144.7 174.6 63.5 112.7
146.3 176.6 63.8 113.0
included in total equipment, but
25.1 21.5
26.2 22.1
23.9 19.8
28.6 24.9
31.6 28.3
32.1 28.9
35.6 33.8
32.9 29.2 25.2
38.9 35.7 28.9
39.9 35.8 30.2
39.9 35.8 30.1
35.9 30.1 29.9
41.4 35.9 34.2
42.0 36.3 34.8
42.0 35.5 36.2
45.8 39.4 39.2
48.7 42.1 41.6
52.6 45.9 45.2
58.7 52.6 49.6
63.9 57.9 53.6
63.3 55.9 54.5
67.5 59.2 59.9
71.5 62.3 64.9
69.0 56.5 65.2
70.0 56.8 68.0
77.2 64.2 74.9
84.5 73.3 80.4
82.8 71.2 80.8
72.6 59.3 71.9
81.2 68.4 81.4
87.3 75.3 86.7
91.8 81.4 89.7
95.4 85.3 92.9
91.3 79.3 88.7
92.8 82.1 90.5
85.1 73.4 82.1
88.3 79.2 89.2
96.6 92.1 93.0
96.6 92.9 91.7
95.9 93.7 94.4
100.0 100.0 100.0
105.0 106.8 104.4
106.7 108.4 107.1
106.8 107.6 108.0
105.5 105.6 106.6
109.7 112.8 110.1
113.8 120.1 111.6
122.0 132.3 118.0
127.4 141.5 119.8
131.8 149.7 119.2
127.1 140.0 122.2
127.1 140.2 121.5
127.2 140.3 121.5
127.0 139.8 121.7
127.2 139.8 122.2
126.8 139.7 120.4
126.8 140.2 118.9
128.1 142.3 118.8
128.1 144.1 117.8
128.1 143.9 118.7
128.4 145.3 116.6
128.4 144.8 117.4
128.5 145.8 115.7
129.4 147.3 116.1
129.1 145.5 116.3
130.3 147.3 118.8
131.6 148.8 120.0
132.6 150.5 120.1
132.1 150.3 121.1
133.5 152.3 119.9
133.4 152.0 120.4
133.1 151.4 120.3
133.8 151.8 121.3
135.1 154.2 122.1
not in detail shown.
52.7
59.3
62.7
63.4
58.8
62.3
63.1
63.6
65.8
69.7
72.5
75.8
80.6
83.4
87.2
91.7
96.2
97.1
100.8
101.5
98.8
96.7
99.0
101.1
102.2
105.0
106.2
104.3
100.7
98.9
103.8
103.4
99.5
100.0
102.2
103.1
104.2
104.4
103.7
103.5
105.3
106.6
107.8
106.2
106.4
106.4
106.6
107.2
107.2
107.5
108.5
105.8
105.5
105.7
106.0
105.9
106.1
108.2
107.0
108.1
108.7
106.3
108.4
108.2
108.5
109.7
109.1
TABLE B-51.—Industrial production indexes, selected manufactures, 1947-96
[1987=100; monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Nondurable manufactures
Durable manufactures
Year or month
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996*
1995- Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
1996Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
sept
.::.:...
Oct/>
NOVP
Deep
Primary
metals
Total
Iron
and
steel
70.2
73.0
61.4
77.3
84.1
76.8
87.0
70.4
91.5
90.9
87.1
69.0
80.7
80.4
78.9
84.6
91.2
102.9
113.2
120.2
111.1
115.1
123.8
115.2
109.2
122.4
138.9
134.5
107.2
119.9
121.5
130.7
133.0
110.8
117.5
83.2
91.0
102.4
101.8
93.7
100.0
108.7
107.2
106.5
98.6
101.9
107.7
116.4
119.2
119.8
121.5
120.8
121.3
120.2
119.5
117.5
118.3
115.4
121.0
115.7
120.8
120.0
121.5
117.1
118.0
119.2
118.6
121.0
118.6
120.1
120.9
124.0
118.3
121.8
102.1
106.8
91.2
112.4
125.7
110.6
127.5
99.1
131.8
129.3
124.6
93.9
108.1
109.9
104.9
109.3
119.1
135.5
148.7
153.1
141.5
146.1
159.2
148.2
135.5
150.6
171.5
166.1
133.5
147.1
145.1
155.3
156.5
126.0
135.1
86.2
96.1
105.9
104.5
90.8
100.0
112.7
111.2
111.5
100.5
104.7
111.9
119.3
122.4
123.8
125.5
124.9
125.8
123.5
123.0
119.2
119.3
117.7
127.0
115.1
126.1
122.7
128.1
119.5
120.2
122.9
121.0
124.2
122.8
124.1
123.6
129.8
122.9
126.6
Fabricated
metal
products
37.5
38.2
34.4
42.2
45.1
44.0
49.6
44.7
51.0
51.8
53.1
47.6
53.4
53.4
52.1
56.7
58.5
62.1
68.3
73.1
76.5
80.6
81.9
75.9
75.6
82.9
92.1
88.4
76.7
84.9
92.7
96.2
99.5
92.5
91.1
83.2
85.5
93.3
94.5
93.8
100.0
104.2
102.8
99.5
94.5
99.0
103.1
110.5
113.9
117.1
114.3
115.0
114.3
112.3
113.7
113.7
112.4
114.3
115.1
114.0
114.5
115.0
115.6
117.0
116.1
115.5
116.7
117.3
117.2
118.1
117.9
117.5
118.3
119.0
Industrial
Electrimacal
chinery machinand
ery
equipment
12.0
12.1
10.3
11.6
14.7
16.0
16.7
14.2
15.6
17.9
17.9
15.0
17.5
17.6
17.1
19.2
20.5
23.3
26.2
30.5
31.1
31.3
33.9
32.8
30.5
35.4
41.4
44.1
38.1
40.0
45.1
50.2
56.9
60.6
65.9
63.9
64.3
80.8
86.8
90.3
100.0
113.0
117.3
117.6
114.7
124.0
138.1
157.7
177.8
205.4
171.4
171.8
172.4
174.3
174.6
174.4
176.0
179.5
181.3
183.8
186.5
190.1
191.9
196.1
197.8
199.0
201.2
205.2
205.8
210.5
211.3
212.3
214.9
218.4
8.5
8.8
8.3
11.3
11.4
13.0
14.9
13.3
15.3
16.5
16.4
15.0
18.2
19.8
21.0
24.1
24.8
26.2
31.3
37.5
37.7
39.8
42.3
40.5
40.7
46.5
53.0
52.4
45.1
50.7
58.4
64.0
71.3
73.3
75.4
75.9
80.3
94.1
93.1
94.3
100.0
108.5
111.0
111.4
113.9
123.5
134.1
154.3
174.9
189.0
166.7
167.7
169.4
169.6
171.1
173.0
175.7
178.7
180.8
182.4
183.6
182.8
182.4
188.7
187.9
187.3
188.8
191.0
190.1
190.2
190.2
189.3
189.9
193.5
Transportation
equipment
Total
19.6
21.4
21.5
25.7
28.7
33.3
41.8
36.4
41.9
40.6
43.5
34.3
38.9
40.3
37.8
43.7
48.0
49.2
58.5
62.7
61.3
66.6
66.1
55.5
60.1
64.1
73.0
66.4
59.7
68.0
73.7
79.5
81.0
72.3
68.7
64.8
72.7
83.1
91.8
96.9
100.0
105.2
109.6
107.0
101.1
104.8
109.2
115.3
113.3
114.0
117.8
118.5
118.0
115.7
113.2
113.4
111.6
114.1
114.1
109.3
108.6
109.7
108.3
112.1
103.1
114.6
114.6
116.6
120.3
118.7
117.9
113.8
118.4
119.3
Source: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
358
Motor
vehicles
and
parts
27.3
29.6
30.4
39.0
35.8
30.7
38.7
33.3
44.6
36.2
38.0
28.0
36.4
41.1
36.0
43.9
48.6
49.9
63.7
62.6
55.1
66.0
66.3
53.3
66.9
73.0
85.0
73.4
62.2
81.9
94.7
99.2
91.0
67.0
64.4
58.8
74.5
90.6
99.0
98.5
100.0
105.7
106.9
101.0
94.4
107.4
122.9
141.2
141.9
141.6
147.3
148.4
147.6
143.0
138.8
139.7
136.7
142.1
143.3
139.7
140.7
141.2
135.5
141.1
121.3
144.3
144.7
148.7
154.5
150.3
148.0
138.0
146.3
147.0
Lumber
and
products
38.8
40.4
35.7
43.4
43.2
42.7
45.1
44.8
50.1
49.5
45.4
46.1
52.3
49.3
51.6
54.4
56.9
61.1
63.5
65.9
65.3
67.2
67.1
66.7
68.5
78.4
78.7
71.4
66.5
75.6
82.3
83.6
82.4
76.9
74.7
67.3
79.9
86.0
88.0
95.1
100.0
100.1
99.4
97.1
90.2
95.2
97.1
104.0
104.5
107.5
107.1
105.0
103.9
103.9
101.7
103.0
103.7
103.7
106.2
105.7
104.8
106.9
103.1
103.3
107.5
108.4
107.7
110.6
107.4
109.0
108.3
107.3
108.0
107.9
Printing
Apparel Textile
mill
and
prod- prodpublishucts
ucts
ing
43.1
45.0
44.5
47.9
47.0
49.5
50.1
49.5
54.7
56.0
55.8
54.3
59.7
60.9
61.3
63.8
66.4
68.7
72.6
74.5
74.1
76.0
78.4
75.3
76.2
80.9
81.5
77.9
71.1
83.9
91.6
93.9
89.0
89.2
91.0
90.1
93.8
95.7
92.6
96.3
100.0
98.1
95.0
92.2
92.7
95.0
97.1
100.1
95.7
90.1
100.6
99.8
99.3
97.4
97.5
95.5
94.8
94.5
94.5
93.3
92.4
91.5
89.2
90.9
89.7
90.4
90.8
90.9
90.1
90.6
90.1
90.0
89.4
90.1
35.2
37.7
34.8
39.6
39.2
38.9
39.9
37.3
42.5
43.7
41.6
41.1
46.4
45.6
46.9
50.1
51.9
56.0
61.0
64.7
64.8
72.3
76.0
74.4
78.5
86.0
89.6
81.5
77.7
86.3
91.6
92.0
95.0
92.1
89.4
83.0
93.2
93.7
89.7
93.9
100.0
98.6
100.3
97.1
96.5
104.0
109.9
113.5
112.6
109.3
117.2
115.9
116.2
117.2
113.6
110.4
109.9
112.4
110.5
111.1
108.9
108.3
104.1
106.2
109.0
108.2
108.8
111.1
112.4
110.1
109.6
110.3
111.5
112.5
22.1
23.2
23.8
24.9
25.4
25.3
26.5
27.6
30.3
32.3
33.4
32.6
34.8
36.2
36.4
37.7
39.7
42.1
44.8
48.3
50.9
51.7
54.2
52.7
53.2
56.7
58.3
57.4
53.7
58.7
64.3
68.1
69.9
70.3
72.1
75.2
79.0
84.5
87.6
90.6
100.0
100.9
101.1
100.8
97.0
98.1
98.8
100.1
99.4
98.1
100.1
100.3
99.3
99.2
99.0
98.6
99.0
100.5
99.8
98.9
99.3
98.8
97.9
98.7
96.7
96.3
97.7
97.2
97.2
97.4
98.2
99.2
100.0
100.0
Chemicals
and
products
Foods
8.7 33.1
9.4 32.8
9.3 33.1
11.6 34.3
13.1 35.0
13.7
35.7
14.8 36.4
15.0 37.2
17.6
39.3
18.9 41.5
19.9 42.2
43.2
20.6
45.4
24.0
24.9
46.6
47.9
26.1
29.0 49.5
31.7 51.2
34.8 53.6
38.7 54.8
42.2 56.9
59.4
44.2
49.6
61.0
53.7
63.0
55.9 64.0
59.5 66.0
66.9
69.5
73.1 70.9
75.8 71.9
69.1 71.4
75.5
77.3
83.3
79.0
88.0
81.8
91.3 82.6
87.8 84.6
89.2 86.5
87.7
81.8
87.5 90.1
91.4 92.1
91.4 94.9
97.4
94.6
100.0 100.0
106.0 101.5
109.2 102.5
111.8 103.7
110.5 105.3
114.4 106.9
115.4 109.5
121.3 113.2
125.0 115.3
129.1 115.9
126.2 115.9
124.7 114.2
125.0 115.0
123.5 115.1
124.0 115.9
124.4 116.1
124.0 115.3
124.4 115.5
125.3 115.5
126.7 115.4
126.0 114.8
126.5 114.8
127.1 114.8
127.1 116.0
126.5 115.6
126.0 115.4
127.7 115.6
128.1 115.1
129.7 115.8
129.2 114.6
130.7 115.5
132.3 116.5
132.5 116.9
132.6 118.3
TABLE B-52.—Capacity utilization rates, 1948-96
[Percent-1 monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Manufacturing
Total
industry
Year or month
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
.
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985 . . . .
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996*
1995-Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aue
Oct
Nov
Dec
1996- Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
. ..
sept:..:.:::::..::
May
.: ::T
864
86.8
869
80.8
792
84.3
884
842
746
793
833
85.5
86.2
82.1
809
75.0
758
81.1
803
79.2
81.5
837
837
821
79.2
803
81.4
839
838
83.2
851
84.7
846
840
83.7
835
83.3
839
83.4
830
83.4
83.8
824
83.3
82.6
830
83.3
83.7
83.4
835
834
83.0
83.4
83.8
Total
82.5
742
82.8
85.8
854
893
801
870
86.1
836
75.0
816
801
77.3
814
83.5
856
89.5
91 1
87.2
87.2
86.8
79.7
782
83.7
881
83.8
732
78.5
828
85.1
85.4
80.2
78.8
72.8
74.9
80.4
79.5
79.1
81.6
836
832
813
78.0
795
80.6
833
830
82.1
846
84.2
840
834
82.8
827
82.4
827
82.3
819
82.2
82.8
814
82.3
81.3
819
82.1
82.6
82.5
824
823
81.9
82.2
82.8
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct/'
Nov
Dec*
1
Output as percent of capacity.
Source: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
Durable
goods
87.1
86.8
86.3
76.7
743
80.9
875
82.7
702
75.4
803
83.5
84.9
78.6
766
69.0
70.5
78.3
77.8
76.2
78.6
819
81.6
791
75.0
769
79.1
82.6
827
82.0
844
84.2
83.8
830
82.3
821
81.7
824
82.2
813
81.6
82.2
81.3
82.5
80.9
821
82.1
82.9
82.6
826
822
81.3
81.6
82.2
359
Nondurable
goods
863
86.6
866
82.9
828
86.6
875
840
764
818
852
862
85.1
81.4
810
78.0
81 1
83.1
819
83.0
856
859
85.3
840
81.6
825
82.3
840
833
82.2
849
84.2
84.2
837
83.5
833
83.1
830
82.4
827
83.0
83.5
81.4
81.9
81.6
81.5
82.0
82.0
82.3
820
82.4
82.7
83.0
83.5
Primary
processing
Advanced
processing
873
762
885
90.2
849
894
806
920
894
847
754
830
798
779
815
838
878
910
914
854
86.3
869
80.4
793
864
915
860
729
801
840
863
86.4
78.0
780
69.0
748
80.4
798
80.9
849
869
862
841
79.8
824
84.1
879
874
86.1
897
89.3
889
882
87.8
870
86.7
862
86.7
866
86.1
86.9
85.4
84.9
85.3
855
86.1
86.8
86.6
866
867
86.6
86.1
86.9
800
732
798
83.4
859
893
800
842
844
83 1
749
81 1
805
772
816
834
846
888
91 1
880
87.4
865
791
774
825
865
828
735
778
819
843
84.8
813
791
74.6
749
80.3
794
78.3
801
822
820
801
77.2
782
79.0
813
81 1
80.5
825
82.0
819
813
80.8
808
80.6
812
80.5
800
80.6
81.1
797
81.1
79.6
804
80.5
80.8
80.8
806
805
80.0
80.6
81.1
Mining
812
83.5
86.6
88.9
874
90.4
925
92.5
899
90.0
909
91.3
91.9
94.0
946
865
799
84.4
829
78.2
799
841
854
884
874
869
87.0
896
893
90.5
898
90.0
896
899
89.7
902
90.0
893
91.2
912
91.9
93.0
86.8
87.6
90.3
89.7
89.8
91.9
90.3
919
912
91.3
91.9
93.0
Utilities
93.4
94.1
95.8
95.4
939
94.6
929
86.8
840
84.8
846
84.8
85.9
85.5
82.8
79.5
80.3
82.5
83.5
80.2
82.0
842
86.0
85.7
85.8
847
87.0
87.7
903
92.2
87.3
88.2
88.6
882
90.6
89.7
90.8
95.3
91.4
91.4
93.4
90.2
92.4
93.1
94.0
92.7
94.1
92.6
89.6
91.6
91.4
91.4
93.4
90.2
TABLE B-53.—New construction activity, 1959-96
[Value put in place, billions of dollars; monthly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Public construction
Private construction
Year or month
Total
new
construction
55.4
54.7
56.4
60.2
64.8
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
Nonresidential buildings and other
construction '
Residential1
buildings
Total
39.3
38.9
39.3
42.3
45.5
Total2
New
housing
units
24.3
23.0
23.1
25.2
27.9
19.2
17.3
17.1
19.4
21.7
Total
New series
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
. .
1984
1985 .
. . . .
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
. . . .
1993
1994
1995
1995- Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
Julyy
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
1996- Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
15.1
15.9
16.2
17.2
17.6
Commercial3
3.9
4.2
4.7
5.1
5.0
Industrial
2.1
2.9
2.8
2.8
2.9
Total
Other 4
9.0
8.9
8.7
9.2
9.7
16.1
15.9
17.1
17.9
19.4
and
Federal State
local 5
3.7
3.6
3.9
3.9
4.0
12.3
12.2
13.3
14.0
15.4
3.7
24.1
24.4
16.5
7.9
5.0
11.5
20.2
75.1
54.9
30.5
9.4
18.0
29.7
7.2
21.9
3.9
60.0
30.2
23.8
13.1
81.9
9.4
14.6
23.8
3.8
20.0
61.9
21.8
9.3
85.8
28.6
33.3
15.4
8.4
25.4
22.1
28.7
3.3
87.2
61.8
21.5
33.1
9.3
69.4
26.7
10.4
27.4
3.2
24.2
8.5
16.3
34.2
35.2
96.8
3.2
77.2
29.2
12.5
9.6
17.8
27.8
24.6
104.9
37.2
39.9
27.1
42.1
13.0
9.3
19.8
24.8
78.0
27.9
3.1
105.9
35.9
29.7
122.4
92.7
38.7
21.1
3.8
25.9
44.2
15.3
7.8
48.5
6.7
60.7
48.4
4.2
18.8
22.9
30.0
25.8
139.1
109.1
50.1
4.7
121.4
21.7
25.6
27.6
65.1
54.6
56.3
9.0
32.3
153.8
43.4
21.7
33.0
155.2
117.0
61.1
11.5
27.9
38.1
5.1
56.0
11.7
17.2
37.2
109.3
36.3
28.9
43.3
6.1
152.6
51.6
57.8
32.4
37.2
6.8
172.1
128.2
50.8
17.0
10.5
44.0
68.3
59.9
19.7
7.1
157.4
72.2
65.4
36.0
11.3
34.5
43.1
200.5
92.0
189.7
24.7
85.6
16.2
50.1
8.1
42.0
239.9
109.8
79.9
39.0
43.7
116.4
89.3
99.8
34.0
22.0
56.6
8.6
48.1
272.9 216.2
41.7
47.7
100.4
69.6
9.6
54.0
109.9
20.5
63.6
273.9 210.3
10.4
224.4
69.4
48.7
25.4
64.7
54.3
289.1
99.2
125.1
51.0
84.7
51.6
63.1
10.0
53.1
57.0
131.6
53.9
26.1
279.3 216.3
53.4
19.5
49.8
10.6
52.9
311.6
125.5
94.6
122.6
63.5
248.1
52.4
11.2
71.6
20.9
70.2
59.0
298.8 153.8
113.8
144.9
369.0
114.7
24.1
65.8
165.1
88.1
52.9
77.8
12.0
401.4
158.5
323.6
12.4
72.2
53.2
133.2
158.2
84.0
21.0
84.6
429.9 345.3 187.1
14.1
194.7
83.2
21.2
76.6
351.0
139.9
156.3
52.0
90.6
441.6
86.4
23.2
53.2
94.7
360.9 198.1
138.9
12.3
82.5
455.6
162.8
89.2
57.1
139.2
175.1
98.2
12.2
86.0
469.8
371.6
196.6
28.8
95.4
12.1
178.2
85.8
33.6
58.8
107.5
361.1
182.9
128.0
468.5
31.4
62.2
62.6
110.1
12.8
97.3
424.2 314.1
110.6
156.2
157.8
14.4
452.1
336.2 187.8
148.4
53.2
66.2
101.5
129.6
29.0
115.8
67.7
14.4
105.7
144.1
57.9
482.7 362.6 210.5
26.5
120.2
152.1
64.4
14.4
112.7
527.1
127.1
28.9
400.0 238.9 167.9
161.1
67.8
15.7
547.1
74.7
121.1
410.2
32.3
236.6
162.9
173.6
66.6
136.9
70.7
115.7
542.7 411.1
169.2
30.1
67.8
131.6
15.9
242.5
168.6
174.4
32.2
545.5 414.9 240.5 167.4
73.1
69.1
130.6
15.8
114.9
67.1
16.4
175.4
76.2
32.1
134.7
118.3
547.9 413.2
237.8 163.8
73.7
34.3
68.6
15.6
122.9
549.3 410.8
234.2 159.9
176.6
138.5
73.3
33.6
136.1
541.5
405.5 232.5 157.6
173.0
66.1
16.1
120.0
15.4
175.7
32.7
545.1
406.8 231.1
155.9
75.5
67.5
123.0
138.3
15.4
120.2
158.3
77.8
67.3
545.0 409.4 231.3
178.1
33.1
135.6
171.4
74.8
136.4
16.2
542.3 405.9 234.5
161.8
31.8
64.8
120.3
32.4
122.4
173.7
66.2
16.7
550.5 411.3
237.7
164.3
75.0
139.1
31.4
139.4
13.7
125.7
550.0 410.6
74.6
66.6
238.0 165.8
172.6
549.7 411.0
171.1
138.7
239.9 166.4
75.3
32.0
63.8
15.9
122.8
555.7
174.1
15.4
417.2
76.9
65.2
243.1
168.1
32.0
138.5
123.1
124.4
169.2
176.4
67.1
15.7
559.0 418.9
242.5
76.8
32.5
140.1
172.7
76.7
411.2
65.2
117.1
544.6
30.8
133.3
16.3
238.6 166.9
67.4
557.0 419.7
173.8
173.8
75.8
30.6
15.2
245.9
137.3
122.0
14.7
125.7
424.2 248.0 179.3
140.4
564.6
176.2
77.8
30.3
68.2
125.4
178.2
75.8
140.4
558.5 418.1
247.5
170.6
27.3
67.5
15.0
80.4
June
177.7
563.1
423.1
176.2
67.0
246.9
28.8
15.0
125.0
140.0
174.4
66.7
559.3 419.3
78.9
175.6
28.8
244.9
14.5
140.0
125.5
July
Aue
426.7 246.0
564.7
180.7
27.1
69.7
83.9
13.5
176.5
138.0
124.5
Sept ". ".
29.7
572.3 428.4 246.4
176.2
82.7
14.6
182.0
69.6
143.9
129.3
Oct>
189.7
434.3 244.6
86.5
70.2
16.2
175.6
146.7
581.0
33.0
130.5
Nov/>
194.1
441.6
176.3
88.9
74.2
592.0
247.6
30.9
14.8
135.6
150.3
1
Beginning 1960, farm residential buildings included in residential buildings; prior to 1960, included in nonresidential buildings and other
construction.
2
3 Includes residential improvements, not shown separately. Prior to 1964, also includes nonhousekeeping units (hotels, motels, etc.).
Office buildings, warehouses, stores, restaurants, garages, etc., and, beginning 1964, hotels and motels; prior to 1964 hotels and motels
are4 included in total residential.
Religious, educational, hospital and institutional, miscellaneous nonresidential, farm (see also footnote 1), public utilities (telecommunications, gas, electric, railroad, and petroleum pipelines), and all other private.
Includes Federal grants-in-aid for State and local projects.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
Bay .:..:.::::::
360
TABLE B-54.—New bousing units started and authorized, 1959-96
[Thousands of units]
New private housing units authorized 2
New housing units started
Year or month
Private and public
Total
(farm and
nonfarm)
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996*>
1,553.7
1,296.1
1,365.0
1,492.5
1,634.9
1,561.0
1,509.7
1,195.8
1,321.9
1,545.4
1,499.5
1,469.0
2.084.5
2,378.5
2,057.5
1,352.5
1,171.4
1,547.6
2,001.7
2,036.1
1,760.0
1,312.6
1,100.3
1,072.1
1,712.5
1,755.8
1,745.0
1,807.1
1,622.7
)
)
l
Private (farm and nonfarm) '
Type of structure
Type of structure
Nonfarm
1,531.3
1,274.0
1,336.8
1,468.7
1,614.8
1,534.0
1,487.5
1,172.8
1,298.8
1,521.4
1,482.3
( 33 )
(3)
(3)
(3 )
( )
( 33 )
(3)
()
( 33 )
()
( 33 )
(3)
(3)
( 3)
()
( 33 )
(3)
( 3)
(3
(
( 33
(3
(
( 33
(
( 33
(
Total
1,517.0
1,252.2
1,313.0
1,462.9
1,603.2
1,528.8
1,472.8
1,164.9
1.291.6
1.507.6
1,466.8
1,433.6
2,052.2
2,356.6
2,045.3
1,337.7
1,160.4
1,537.5
1,987.1
2,020.3
1,745.1
1,292.2
1,084.2
1,062.2
1,703.0
1.749.5
1,741.8
1,805.4
1,620.5
1,488.1
1,376.1
1,192.7
1,013.9
1,199.7
1.287.6
1,457.0
1.354.1
1,473.7
1 unit
1,234.0
994.7
974.3
991.4
1.012.4
970.5
963.7
778.6
843.9
899.4
810.6
812.9
1,151.0
1,309.2
1,132.0
888.1
892.2
1.162.4
1,450.9
1,433.3
1,194.1
852.2
705.4
662.6
1,067.6
1,084.2
1,072.4
1,179.4
1.146.4
1,081.3
1,003.3
894.8
840.4
1,029.9
1,125.7
1,198.4
1,076.2
1.160.2
2 to 4
units
Total
5 units
or more
28:?.9
25 f.5
331J.7
47 .5
59<).7
108.4
86.6
61.1
71.6
80.9
85.0
84.8
120.3
141.3
1183
68.1
64.0
85.9
121.7
125.0
122.0
1095
91.1
80.0
113.5
121.4
93.4
84.0
65.3
58.8
55.2
37.5
35.6
30.7
29.4
35.0
33.7
44.7
450.0
422.5
325.1
376.1
527.3
571.2
535.9
780.9
906.2
795.0
381.6
204.3
289.2
414.4
462.0
429.0
330.5
287.7
319.6
522.0
544.0
576.1
542.0
408.7
348.0
317.6
260.4
137.9
139.0
132.6
223.5
244.1
268.8
1 unit
1,208.3
998.0
1,064.2
1,186.6
1,334.7
1,285.8
1,239.8
971.9
1,141.0
1,353.4
1,323.7
1,351.5
1,924.6
2,218.9
1,819.5
1,074.4
939.2
1,296.2
1,690.0
1,800.5
1,551.8
1,190.6
985.5
1,000.5
1,605.2
1,681.8
1,733.3
1,769.4
1,534.8
1,455.6
1,338.4
1,110.8
948.8
1,094.9
1,199.1
1,371.6
1,332.5
1,430.9
938.3
746.1
722.8
716.2
750.2
720.1
709.9
563.2
650.6
694.7
625.9
646.8
906.1
1,033.1
882.1
643.8
675.5
893.6
1,126.1
1,182.6
981.5
710.4
564.3
546.4
901.5
922.4
956.6
1,077.6
1,024.4
993.8
931.7
793.9
753.5
910.7
986.5
1,068.5
997.3
1,073.1
2 to 4
units
77.1
64.6
67.6
87.1
118.9
100.8
84.8
61.0
73.0
84.3
85.2
88.1
132.9
148.6
117.0
64.3
63.9
93.1
121.3
130.6
125.4
114.5
101.8
88.3
133.6
142.6
120.1
108.4
89.3
75.7
67.0
54.3
43.1
45.8
52.3
62.2
63.7
65.9
5 units
or more
192.9
187.4
273.8
383.3
465.6
464.9
445.1
347.7
417.5
574.4
612.7
616.7
885.7
1,037.2
820.5
366.2
199.8
309.5
442.7
487.3
444.8
365.7
319.4
365.8
570.1
616.8
656.6
583.5
421.1
386.1
339.8
262.6
152.1
138.4
160.2
241.0
271.5
291.8
Seasonally adjusted annual rates
241
1,370
1,062
992
62
270
1,295
(3
38
1,264
44
227
927
54
283
1,322
1,051
( 33
904
1,241
214
252
992
35
1,221
65
(3
271
1.017
61
1,278
236
1,245
913
(3
25
946
62
250
1.300
1,005
36
259
1,258
(3
64
970
256
U01
1,036
1,290
35
230
()
3
1,017
1,450
286
1,358
62
279
1,125
39
(3)
271
62
1,401
1,135
238
1,379
1,046
28
()
1,427
279
1,401
1,130
232
1,079
69
39
( 33 )
275
211
1,109
31
1,393
1,050
68
1,351
( 3)
71
306
297
1,073
1,458
1.129
32
1,450
()
304
1.487
1,123
60
1,425
1.150
246
29
(3)
3
257
287
1,453
1.146
1,378
1,056
65
20
(3 )
1,087
1,514
1,417
270
298
60
1.183
33
( 3)
1,097
251
265
1,439
1,423
61
1,163
25
( 3)
269
1,115
75
1,209
249
1,459
1,511
53
(3)
1,144
292
1,452
62
1.478
285
1,098
49
(3 )
268
1,415
1,085
62
1,490
1.209
46
235
()
3
1,457
316
277
1,073
68
1.470
1.150
43
( 3)
1,078
285
1,533
256
1,423
60
1.239
38
()
44
286
1,461
1.138
1,399
1,040
73
279
( 33 )
282
1,011
242
1,362
69
1,385
1.088
55
(3)
1,514
67
326
292
1,418
1,025
1.161
61
( 3)
1,024
64
330
1,016
U29
40
265
1,410
()
1
Units in structures built by private developers for sale upon completion to local public housing authorities under the Department of Housing and Urban Development "turnkey" program are classified as private housing. Military housing starts, including those financed with mortgages insured by FHA under Section 803 of the National Housing Act, are included in publicly owned starts and excluded from total private
starts.
2
Authorized by issuance of local building permit.- in 19,000 permit-issuing places beginning 1994; in 17,000 places for 1984-93; in 16,000
places for 1978-83; in 14,000 places for 1972-77-, in 13.000 places for 1967-71. in 12.000 places for 1963-66; and in 10,000 places prior
1995:Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept . .
Oct
Nov
Dec
1996 Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr .
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec**
(
to 31963.
Not available separately beginning January 1970.
4
Series discontinued December 1988.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
361
TABLE B-55.—Manufacturing and trade sales and inventories, 1954-96
[Amounts in millions of dollars; monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Year or month
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1995:Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
1996Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct"
Nov»
Total manufacturing
trade
1
InvenSales
tories2
73,175
46,443
51,694
79,516
87,304
54,063
89,052
55,879
87,055
54,201
92,097
59,729
60,827
94,719
61,159
95,580
65,662 101,049
68,995 105,463
73,682 111,504
80,283 120,929
87,187 136,824
90,820 145,681
98,685 156,611
105,690 170,400
108,221 178,594
116,895 188,991
131,081 203,227
153,677 234,406
177,912 287,144
182,198 288,992
204,150 318,345
229,513 350,706
260,320 400,931
297,701 452,640
327,233 508,924
355,822 545,786
347,625 573,908
369,286 590,287
410124 649 780
4221583 664,039
430419 662 738
457>35 709',846
497 157 767 226
527,039 815,486
545,909 840,428
542,815 834,281
567 176 842 137
595,240 874,515
637 561 931 702
679,700 9891839
670,780 942,318
670,696 948,860
671,939 957,242
670,826 965,376
676,690 969,908
681,343 973,914
677,107 977,485
685,051 981,703
686,522 985,988
685,638 991,142
690,263 993,148
695,490 989,839
690,692 995,352
699,208 996,008
700,253 994,010
709,541 998,430
715,130 996,984
711,760 997,322
719,176 1,002,404
717,532 1,005,435
722,691 1,006,430
725,787 1,011,261
729,830 1,011,955
and
Ratio3
1.60
1.47
1.55
1.59
1.61
1.54
1.56
1.56
1.54
1.53
1.51
1.51
1.57
1.60
1.59
1.61
1.65
1.62
1.55
1.53
1.61
1.59
1.56
1.53
1.54
1.52
1.56
1.53
1.67
1.56
153
1.56
1 55
1.50
149
1.52
1.52
1.53
1 48
1.45
141
1.43
1.40
1.41
1.42
1.44
1.43
1.43
1.44
1.43
1.44
1.45
1.44
1.42
1.44
1.42
1.42
1.41
1.39
1.40
1.39
1.40
1.39
1.39
1.39
Manufacturing
1
3
InvenSales
tories2 Ratio
23,355 41,612 1.81
26,480 45,069 1.62
27,740 50,642 1.73
28,736 51,871 1.80
27,248 50,203 1.84
30,286 52,913 1.75
30,878 53.786 1.74
30,922 54,871 1.77
33,358 58.172 1.74
35,058 60.029 1.71
37,331 63.410 1.70
40,995 68,207
1.66
44,870 77,986 1.74
46,486 84.646 1.82
50.229 90,560 1.80
53,501 98.145 1.83
52,805 101,599 1.92
55,906 102.567 1.83
63,027 108.121 1.72
72.931 124.499 1.71
84,790 157.625 1.86
86,589 159.708 1.84
98,797 174.636 1.77
113,201 188.378
1.66
126.905 211,691 1.67
143,936 242,157 1.68
154,391 265,215 1.72
168129 283413 169
163,351 311852 1.95
172.547 312,379 1.78
190682 339516 1 73
1941538 334,749 1.73
194657 322654 168
206^326 338.107 1.59
224619 369 378 158
236,698 391.243 1.63
242,686 405.105
1.65
239,847 390.944 1.65
250394 382480 1 54
260,635 390.721 1.49
278 652 406 207 143
297^44 432,344 1.43
294,398 410,341 1.39
294,205 413,574 1.41
295,537 416,681 1.41
293,156 419,978 1.43
295,251 422,807
1.43
296,877 424.293
1.43
293,901 426.722 1.45
299,808 427,245 1.43
300,754 429.959 1.43
299,824 431.303 1.44
300,755 431,652 1.44
301,284 432,344 1.44
298,685 434,724 1.46
301,763 435,615 1.44
300.646 435,413 1.45
308.003 435,441 1.41
311,203 434,220 1.40
308,851 433,868 1.40
312.400 434,446 1.39
312,847 435.687 1.39
315.160 436,700 1.39
315,510 438,134 1.39
318,280 439.889 1.38
Merchant
wholesalers
Inven-2 Ratio3
Sales1 tories
8,993 10,637 1.18
9,893 11,678 1.13
10,513 13,260 1.19
10,475 12.730 1.23
10,257 12.739 1.24
11,491 13.879 1.21
11,656 14,120 1.21
11,988 14.488 1.21
12,674 14,936 1.18
13,382 16,048 1.20
14,529 17,000 1.17
15,611 18,317 1.17
16,987 20,765 1.22
19,576 25,786 1.32
21,012 27,166 1.29
22,818 29,800 1.31
24.167 33,354 1.38
26,492 36,568 1.38
1.35
29,866 40,297
38,115 46,918 1.23
47,982 58,667 1.22
46.634 57,774 1.24
50,698 64.622 1.27
56,136 73,179 1.30
66,413 86,934 1.31
79,051 99,679 1.26
93,099 122,631 1.32
101 180 129,654 1.28
95,211 127,428 1.36
99.225 130,075 1.28
112199 142452 1 23
1131459 147,409 1.28
114960 153 574 132
122^68 1631903 1.29
134521 178801 130
143|760 187I009 1.28
149,506 195,550 1.29
148,306 200,062
1.33
154.150 207,663 1.32
161,681 215,878 1.31
172973 234 893 130
187!387 254^16 1.32
183.285 237,628 1.30
185,456 239,785
1.29
183,828 243,169 1.32
185,298 245,596 1.33
186,946 246,823
1.32
188,359 249,252 1.32
187,591 251,179 1.34
188,162 252,078 1.34
189,171 253,245 1.34
1.34
189,589 254,563
191,349 254,686
1.33
194,901 254,616 1.31
192,878 256,258 1.33
194.053 255,569 1.32
195,379 256,444
1.31
197,507 259,592 1.31
198,258 258,834
1.31
198,543 259,262 1.31
202,057 259,100 1.28
200,086 258,822
1.29
201,404 256,959
1.28
202,790 257,770 1.27
204,578 258,015 1.26
Sales1
14,095
15,321
15,811
16,667
16,696
17,951
18,294
18,249
19,630
20,556
21,823
23,677
25,330
24,757
27,445
29,371
31,249
34,497
38,189
42,631
45,141
48,975
54,655
60,176
67,002
74,713
79,743
86514
89,062
97,514
107 243
114,586
120803
128>4J
138017
146,581
153,718
154,661
162,632
172,924
185 936
195,068
193,097
191,035
192,574
192,372
194,493
196,107
195,615
197,081
196,597
196,225
198,159
199,305
199,129
203,392
204,228
204,031
205,669
204,366
204,719
204,599
206,127
207,487
206,972
Retail
trade
3
Inventories2 Ratio
20,926 1.51
22,769 1.43
23,402 1.47
24,451 1.44
24,113 1.44
25,305 1.41
26,813 1.47
26,221 1.44
27,941 1.42
29,386 1.43
31,094 1.42
34,405
1.45
38,073 1.50
35,249 1.42
38,885 1.42
42,455 1.45
43,641 1.40
49,856
1.45
54,809 1.44
62,989
1.48
70,852 1.57
71,510 1.46
79,087
1.45
89,149 1.48
102,306
1.53
110,804 1.48
121,078 1.52
132719 1 53
134,628 1.49
147,833 1.44
1
@FedFRASER