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U N IT E D S T A T E S D E P A R T M E N T O F L A B O R Frances Perkins, Secretary B U R E A U OF L A B O R ST A TIS TIC S Isador Lubin, Commissioner + Earnings and Hours in the H at Industries, 1939 + P repared b y th e D i v i s i o n o f W a g e a n d H o u r S t a tis tic s , B . L . S . J. P E R L M A N , C h ie f Bulletin I'lo. 671 U N IT E D ST A T E S G O V E R N M E N T P R IN T IN G OFFICE W A S H IN G T O N : 1939 For sale b y the Superintendent o f Documents, Washington, D . C. Price 10 cents CONTENTS Page Letter of transmittal------------------------------------------------------------------------Preface____________________________________________________________ Summary----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Scope of survey-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Methods of collecting and analyzing data--------------------------------------------Manufacture of fur-felt hats--------------------------------------------------------------Analysis of sample---------------------------------------------------------------------Composition of labor force---------------------------------------------------------Average hourly earnings_________________________________________ Variations by sex and skill----------------------------------------------------Variations by type of plant__________________________________ Earnings in relation to Fair Labor Standards Act______________ Occupational differences_____________________________________ Effect of overtime on hourlyearnings_________________________ Weekly hours__________________________________________________ Full-time hours_____________________________________________ Actual weekly hours------------------------------------------------------------Weekly earnings------------------------------------------------------------------------Manufacture of wool-felt hats------------------------------------------------------------Analysis of sample----------------------------------------------------------------- ___ Composition of labor force----------------------------------------------------------Average hourly earnings_________________________________________ Variations by sex and skill___________________________________ Variations by type of plant__________________________________ Earnings in relation to Fair Labor Standards Act______________ Occupational differences_____________________________________ Effect of overtime on hourlyearnings_________________________ Weekly hours__________________________________________________ Full-time hours_____________________________________________ Actual weekly hours-------------- --------------------------------------------Weekly earnings________________________________________________ Manufacture of straw hats----------------------------------------------------------------Analysis of sample---------------------------------------------------------------------Composition of labor force----------------------------------------------------------Average hourly earnings_________________________________________ Variations by sex and skill___________________________________ Variations by product_______________________________________ Earnings in relation to Fair Labor Standards Act______________ Occupational differences_____________________________________ Effect of overtime on hourlyearnings_________________________ Weekly hours__________________________________________________ Full-time hours_____________________________________________ Actual weekly hours________________________________________ Weekly earnings________________________________________________ ra v v ii 1 2 3 5 5 7 9 10 11 12 13 15 15 15 16 17 18 18 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 24 25 26 27 27 28 28 29 30 31 32 33 33 33 34 35 IV CONTENTS Page Manufacture of hat materials----------------------------------------------------------------Analysis of sample------- ---------Composition of labor force-------------------------------------------------------------Average hourly earnings-----------------------------------------------------------------Variations by product------------Earnings in relation to Fair Labor Standards Act______________ Occupational differences_______________________________________ Effect of overtime on hourly earnings__________________________ Weekly hours______________________________________________________ Full-time hours________________________________________________ Actual weekly hours___________________________________________ Weekly earnings___________________________________________________ 36 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 43 43 44 Letter o f Transmittal U n it e d States D B epartm ent ureau of L of abor L abor, S t a t is t ic s , Washington, D. C., October 18, 1989. The S L : Transmitted herewith is a report on Earnings and Hours in the Hat Industries, 1939. This study was made by the Division of Wage and Hour Statistics of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. ecretary Hon. F of abor I sador L rances P e r k in s , Secretary of Labor. u b in , Commissioner. PREFACE This is the first survey of earnings and hours in the hat industries conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The survey was made at the request of the Wage and Hour Division, in order to furnish information for the use of Industry Committee No. 4, which was appointed by the Wage and Hour Administrator to recommend mini mum wage rates under the provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act. In carrying on the field work and preparing the report the Bureau followed its regular procedure for making such surveys. The Bureau is also adhering strictly to its usual practice of respecting the con fidential nature of all data supplied by individual establishments. The Bureau wishes to express its appreciation for the cordial coop eration given by the numerous employers who supplied the informa tion upon which this report is based. The organizations of both employers and workers were also very helpful in giving much-needed advice and in expediting the survey. The survey was made under the supervision of J. Perlman, Chief of the Division of Wage and Hour Statistics of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. H. E. Riley was in charge of the survey, and was assisted by Dorothy S. Smith. I sador L S eptem ber 15, 1939. u b in , Commissioner oj Labor Statistics. vn Bulletin 7\[o. 671 o f the U nited States Bureau o f Labor Statistics Earnings and H ours in the H at Industries, 1939 Summary The average hourly earnings of all wage earners in the fur-felt hat industry amounted to 66.3 cents in the early part of 1939. Workers in the wool-felt hat industry averaged 49.8 cents, while employees in straw hat establishments earned 49.1 cents on the average, and work ers in plants manufacturing hat materials had average hourly earnings of 55.2 cents. Hourly earnings differ substantially between males and females and among workers of various skills in each industry. In the furfelt hat industry, skilled males averaged 85.5 cents an hour, as com pared with 62.8 cents for skilled females. Among the semiskilled workers the average was 58.6 cents for males and 48.8 cents for females. Unskilled males averaged 42.3 cents, as against 38.6 cents for unskilled females. No skilled females were employed in the plants covered by the survey of the wool-felt hat industry. Hourly earnings of skilled males averaged 66.3 cents. Among the semi skilled workers the averages were 48.6 cents for males and 43.2 cents for females. For the unskilled employees the respective averages were 41.7 and 40.3 cents. Earnings in the straw hat industry averaged 74.7 cents an hour for skilled males and 49.7 cents for skilled females. Among the semi skilled workers the respective averages were 45.5 cents and 40.9 cents. Unskilled males averaged 30.5 cents, as compared with 31.4 cents for unskilled females. In the hat materials plants the earnings of males and females respec tively were 82.1 and 51.4 cents for skilled, 64.9 and 40.7 cents for semiskilled, and 45.5 and 36.8 cents for unskilled workers. The actual workweek averaged 37.2 hours in the fur-felt hat indus try, as compared with 39.0 hours in wool-felt hats, 41.2 hours in straw hats, and 37.8 hours in plants producing hat materials. Weekly earnings of all workers in the fur-felt hat industry averaged $24.69. Employees of wool-felt hat plants averaged $19.46 a week, while workers in straw hat establishments received $20.20 a week and employees of hat materials plants averaged $20.89 a week. This information was secured in a survey of the hat industry recently completed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1 184737°—39------2 Scope o f Survey In determining the scope of this survey, the Bureau of Labor Statistics followed the definition of the hat industries as adopted by the Wage and Hour Administrator, which includes: “ (a) The manu facture from any material of headwear for men or boys, except caps and cloth hats; (b) the manufacture of felt hat bodies from fur or wool for men's, boys', women's, or children's hats; and (c) the manufacture or processing of hatters' furs." The principal products covered by this definition are fur- and woolfelt hats, men's sewed-braid and woven-body dress straw hats, harvest and beach hats, silk and opera hats, and hatters' fur. A t the request of the Wage and Hour Division, the Bureau's survey was extended to include establishments making hat materials other than hatters' fur. Accordingly, the report contains data on the manufacture of hat leathers, linings, and bands, in addition to the items covered by the above definition. In other words, this report covers four industries manufacturing, respectively, fur-felt hats, wool-felt hats (including bodies for men's, women's, and children's hats and finished men's hats), men's straw hats (including dress straw hats, harvest, and beach hats), and hat materials. It should be pointed out that these industries are distinct from each other in many respects. Thus, as between the wool-felt and fur-felt branches, the manufac turing processes vary to a considerable degree, requiring different types of equipment. Furthermore, the greater part of the wool-felt bodies are sold to the millinery trade, to be made into women's hats, whereas a majority of the fur-felt bodies are used for men's hats. Although a number of plants make both felt and straw hats, the operations on the two products, with the occasional exception of trim ming, are invariably carried on in separate departments. As the subsequent analysis reveals, straw-hat manufacture differs from other types of hat production in nearly every important respect. Likewise, the manufacture of hat materials bears little resemblance to the processes in any of the hat industries. M ost of the hat ma terials are made in independent plants that specialize in these products. Although some of the large companies process fur for their own use, these operations are carried on in separate departments and may be clearly distinguished from the hat-making processes. In view of the distinctive characteristics exhibited by each of the four industries covered by the survey, it appears that a combination of the data might result only in obscuring important facts. Accord ingly, the earnings and hours figures for each industry have been analyzed separately. 2 Methods o f Collecting and Analysing Data In terms of wage earners, the survey covered approximately onehalf of the fur-felt hat industry and virtually 100 percent of the woolfelt hat, straw hat, and hat-materials industries. The sample in the fur-felt branch was carefully selected to give adequate representation with respect to all significant characteristics of the industry, such as geographical location, size of plant, size of community, corporate affiliation, and type of establishment. The coverage included all of the large companies. In order to avoid overweighting the sample with large companies, however, only onehalf of the employees in the fur-felt departments of their establish ments were included in the tabulation. This was done by taking a 50-percent cross section of each occupation and sex among the workers in these departments. The wages and hours data were copied from the company pay-roll records by the Bureau field representatives, who also interviewed plant officials to obtain additional information covering occupational descriptions, employer-employee dealings, methods of wage payment, etc. Furthermore, the plant supervisors in the various establish ments were asked to designate the degree of skill required in each occupation. This information, together with detailed descriptions of the several occupations, was used in making the skill classifications given in this report. The data cover all occupations, including work ing supervisors and factory clerks, but exclude the central office employees and higher plant supervisors. For each wage earner scheduled, the Bureau obtained the occupational title, sex, color,1 method of wage payment, and number of hours actually worked and total earnings during one pay-roll period.2 A pay-roll period in the months of February and March was taken for the great majority of the fur- and wool-felt hat factories and hatmaterials establishments. The data for a majority of the plants making straw hats covered a pay-roll period in February, March, or April. The Fair Labor Standards Act provides that employees working in excess of 44 hours per week shall receive time and a half for overtime.8 In obtaining the data, the earnings at regular rates of pay were sep arated from the extra overtime earnings. The hourly and weekly i T h e nu m ber of colored workers w as not sufficient to ju stify separate tabulation. s In case the pay-roll period exceeded 1 w eek, the schedule also show ed the nu m ber of hours w orked during 1 continuous week w ith in the pay-roll period. W ith this inform ation, the B ureau was able to present w eekly hours, as w ell as to com p ute w eek ly earnings, for all em ployees. 8 Som e of the establishm ents covered b y the survey paid extra rates for tim e worked bey on d 40 hours per w eek. 3 4 EARNINGS AND HOURS IN H AT INDUSTRIES earnings used in this report are based on regular rates only. This method of presentation, which is contrary to the usual Bureau prac tice, was necessitated by the fact that the data are to be used by the Wage and Hour Division in connection with minimum-wage recom mendations. As a subsequent analysis shows, however, the exclusion of extra earnings for overtime changed the averages only slightly. Manufacture o f FuivFelt Hats Analysis o f Sample According to the Census of Manufactures, the fur-felt hat industry in 1937 included 140 establishments having an annual product valued at $5,000 or more. The average monthly employment in these plants during the year amounted to 15,926 wage earners. It was the intention of the Bureau in making the survey to include 50 percent of the industry, taking only plants employing over 20 wage earners. According to the Census of Manufactures, there were 91 establishments with 15,488 workers in this category in 1937. The coverage of the survey, however, included 52 plants and 7,182 wage earners. It will be observed that this is more than 50 percent of the establishments but less than one-half of the workers reported by the census. The difference in number of plants covered is due primarily to the fact that the survey included all of the large establishments, taking approximately one-half of the employees in each one, as previously mentioned. In terms of wage earners, the sample included 46.4 percent of the total shown by the Census of Manufactures for plants having over 20 wage earners in 1937. The index of employment in the fur-felt hat industry, as compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, indicates that the number of wage earners in the industry declined by 12.5 percent between 1937 and the first quarter of 1939. Considering this as well as other factors involved, it would seem that the survey included about 50 percent of the wage earners employed in the industry during the period covered. The fur-felt hat industry has three types of establishments, namely, independent rough-body plants (back shops), independent finishing plants (front shops), and integrated plants. In the back shop are per formed operations involved in producing the rough hat bodies. These are sold to the front shops in which the rough body receives the finishing operations. The integrated establishments combine both back- and front-shop operations. The integrated group is represented in the survey by 13 establish ments, in which 3,803 wage earners were scheduled, or 53.0 percent of the total coverage. | Outstanding among the integrated plants are some fairly large companies, whose products include nearly every item covered by the industry definition. In addition to the output of men’s fur-felt hats, for which they are best known, several of the integrated establishments make women’s fur-felt hats and account for a large proportion of the production of sewed-braid and woven-body dress straw hats. Several integrated plants also process hatters’ fur and some make their own sweat bands, linings, and other trimmings. Most * 6 EARNINGS AND HOURS IN H AT INDUSTRIES of the output of the back-shop departments in integrated establish ments is consumed by their own front shops, although many of the smaller companies sell a substantial proportion of their products as rough hats. On the other hand, the integrated establishments may occasionally buy bodies in the market to supplement the output of their own back shops. The survey covered 9 independent fur-felt back shops, employing 1,101 wage earners. The products of these plants include rough bodies for both men’s and women’s hats. The remainder of the coverage consisted of 2,278 wage earners, employed in 28 independent front shops and 2 fur-felt finishing departments in plants engaged primarily in making straw hats. These establishments purchase their basic raw materials in the form of rough hat bodies, most of which come from the independent back shops. Some of the smaller shops in this group, as previously noted, also process made-over hats. Silk and opera hats were included in the survey, but the wage earn ers employed in the manufacture of these products were too few to justify the presentation of separate figures. Moreover, the operations in silk- and opera-hat manufacture differ to such an extent from those employed on other types of hats that the data could not be combined with any other figures, and figures for silk and opera hats are therefore not given in this report. The survey also included some figures covering the processing (i. e., cleaning, reblocking, and trimming) of made-over fur-felt hats, for resale. Here again the number of workers in these activities was too small for separate tabulation. However, as most of the made-over-hat plants are also engaged in finishing hats from purchased rough bodies, they have all been included with the fur-felt finishing shops. As shown by table 1, the leading States in fur-felt hat manufacture are Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey. The geographical distribution of the industry varies, however, for the different types of establishments. Thus, virtually all of the inte grated plants are found in Connecticut and Pennsylvania. Likewise, Connecticut contains most of the independent back shops. Thus, most of the fur-felt hat bodies used by the men’s hat and millinery industries are made in these two States. Because of the concentra tion of integrated plants, Connecticut and Pennsylvania are also foremost in the finishing of men’s fur-felt hats. Nevertheless, a sub stantial proportion of the independent front-shop operations is found in other areas, particularly in and near the New York metropolitan district. Some of the independent front shops are also scattered throughout the country, nearly every geographical region being represented in the total. M ost of the fur-felt hat plants are located in large metropolitan areas. One-half of the 52 establishments covered by the survey, with 7 MANUFACTURE OF FUR-FELT HATS over half (52.9 percent) of the workers scheduled, were found in places of over 1,000,000 population.4 There were 10 plants, with 15.2 per cent of the workers, scattered in communities ranging from 100,000 to 1,000,000, while 16 establishments and 31.9 percent of the wage earners were in places of under 50,000 population. Virtually all of the plants in the latter group were found in the Danbury-Bethel area of Connecticut. T a b l e 1.— Coverage o f su rvey in fu r -fe lt hat in d u s tr y , b y S ta te , 1 9 8 9 W ork ers State N u m b e r of plants N um ber Percentage o f total All Rt.fl.tfis 52 7,182 100.0 C onnecticut__________________________________________________________ M assach usetts________________________________________________________ N e w Jersey___________________________________________________________ N e w Y o r k ___________________________________________________________ P en n sylvan ia, _____ . _ ___ Othfir Rtatfis 1 17 3 6 13 4 9 3,131 361 677 748 1,676 589 43. 7 5 .0 9 .4 10.4 23.3 8 .2 * Includes 1 plan t each in the States of California, Ind ian a, K e n tu c k y , M a r y la n d , M in n e so ta , Texas, and W ash in gton , and 2 in M issouri. As measured by total employment, the fur-felt hat plants included in the survey varied widely, some having over 1,000 workers. None of the integrated plants had fewer than 50 employees, and all but 4 of the 13 establishments employed over 250 wage earners. Among the independent plants, the back shops w~ere on the average considera bly larger than the front shops. Thus, on the basis of the number of employees working on fur-felt hats only, the back shops averaged 122 workers, as compared with 76 workers in the front shops. In both groups there were a few establishments that had over 500 employees. In some of these plants, however, most of the workers were engaged primarily in making other products, such as straw or wool-felt hats. Trade-union organization is quite extensive in the fur-felt hat industry. Of the 52 establishments covered by the survey, 23, in which 3,220 wage earners were scheduled, had agreements with the United Hatters, Cap, and Millinery Workers’ International Union, which is the only labor organization in the industry. The union is industrial in character, including virtually all of the direct occupations, and is affiliated with the American Federation of Labor. Com position o f Labor Force Over three-fourths (77.7 percent) of the workers in the fur-felt hat industry, as a whole, are males. Skilled workers constituted 47.6 percent of the labor force, while about two-fifths (38.5 percent) were * T h e m etropolitan area, as used in this survey, includes not on ly the population of the principal political subdivisions b u t also that of nearby areas that form part of the sam e labor m arket. EARNINGS AND HOURS IN HAT INDUSTRIES 8 in semiskilled occupations and over one-eighth (13.9 percent) were classed as unskilled employees (table 2). The distribution of workers by sex and skill varies to a marked degree, however, between the back shops and the front shops. The felting, blocking, and pouncing operations, which make up most of the back-shop processes, require considerable physical effort and in volve continuous exposure to high temperatures, dust, and hot water. As most of these jobs are unsuitable for women, very few are employed in the back shops; women formed only 2.0 percent of the labor force in integrated, and 3.7 percent in independent back shops. Not only are many of the hat body-making operations heavy and disagreeable, but they also require a high degree of skill. Over threefifths of the workers (63.0 percent in integrated and 61.4 percent in independent back shops) were classed as skilled. The proportions of semiskilled and unskilled workers were about equal in the integrated back shops. In the independent back shops, however, only 15.3 percent of the workers were semiskilled, while 23.3 percent were in unskilled occupations. Although a majority of the front-shop employees are men, substan tial proportions of women are employed, especially for the various operations in hat trimming. As shown by table 2, about one-third of the front-shop employees are women, the proportions amounting to 33.6 percent in the integrated and 37.6 percent in the independent establishments. T a b l e 2 .— D istrib u tio n o f workers covered in su rvey o f fu r -fe lt hat in d u s try, b y typ e o f plant, skill, and sex, 1 9 3 9 A ll workers Sem iskilled workers Skilled workers U nskilled workers T y p e of plant T o ta l M a le F e T o ta l m ale M a le F e T o ta l m ale A ll p la n ts................................... B ack sh o p s____________ Front shops...................... 7,182 2,910 4, 272 5,578 2,833 2,745 1,604 77 1,527 3,420 1,817 1,603 3,247 1,817 1,430 173 Integrated p la n ts................... B a n k shnps . __ Front shops____________ 3,803 1,809 1,994 3,097 1,773 1, 324 706 36 670 1,839 1,141 698 1,761 1,141 620 Independent back sh o p s.. Independent front s h o p s .. 1,101 2,278 1,060 1,421 41 857 676 905 676 810 M a le Fe T o ta l M a le m ale F e m ale 2,765 511 2,254 1,517 497 1,020 1,248 14 1,234 997 682 415 814 519 295 183 63 120 78 1,380 343 1,037 861 341 520 519 2 517 584 325 259 475 291 184 109 34 75 95 168 1,217 156 500 12 717 257 156 228 111 29 45 173 78 Percentage distribution A ll plants................................... B ack shops____________ Front shops...................... 100.0 100.0 100.0 77.7 9 7 .4 6 4.3 22.3 2 .6 35.7 47.6 6 2 .4 37.5 45.2 6 2 .4 33.5 4 .0 3 8.5 17.6 5 2.8 21.1 17.1 23 .9 17.4 .5 28.9 13.9 20 .0 9 .7 11.4 17.9 6 .9 2 .5 2 .1 2 .8 Integrated p la n ts................... B ack sh o p s. .................... Front shops...................... 100.0 100.0 100.0 8 1.4 98 .0 6 6 .4 18.6 2 .0 3 3 .6 48.4 63.0 35.0 46.3 2 .1 63.0 __ 31.1 3 .9 3 6 .2 19.0 5 2.0 22.6 18.9 26.1 13.6 .1 25.9 1 5.4 18.0 13.0 12.5 16.1 9 .2 2 .9 1 .9 3 .8 In d ep en d en t back s h o p s .. Ind epen dent front s h o p s .. 100.0 100.0 96 .3 6 2 .4 3 .7 3 7.6 61.4 39.8 61.4 35.6 15.3 53.4 14.2 21.9 1.1 31.5 23.3 6 .8 2 0 .7 4 .9 2 .6 1 .9 2 .4 4 .2 9 MANUFACTURE OF FUR-FELT HATS Over one-half (52.8 percent) of the employees in the finishing plants were classed as semiskilled, while nearly two-fifths (37.5 percent) were skilled and one-tenth (9.7 percent) were unskilled workers. How ever, the skill distribution varied considerably between the two sexes. Of the total males, 52.1 percent were skilled, 37.2 percent semiskilled, and 10.7 percent unskilled. On the other hand, only 11.3 percent of all females were skilled and 7.9 percent were unskilled, while 80.8 percent were in semiskilled occupations. Average H ou rly Earnings Piece workers were found in every fur-felt hat plant covered by the survey. For the industry as a whole, 57.7 percent of the employees scheduled were paid on a straight piece-rate basis. The number of employees under production-bonus system was relatively small, namely 4.3 percent of the total, as this method of wage payment was in effect in only three establishments. The principal direct occupa tions were usually on straight piece rates, while supervisors, helpers, and indirect workers were paid straight-time rates. T a b l e 3 .— P ercentage distribution o f fu r -fe lt hat w ork ers , b y average hourly ea rnings, skill, and sex , 1 9 8 9 A ll workers Average hourly earnings (in cents) Total F e m ale 100.0 100.0 100.0 under 110.0_____ under 1 20.0_____ under 130.0_____ u n d e r 1 4 0 . 0 ____ under 1 5 0 . 0 ____ ove r_____________ 0 .3 4 .0 1 .5 1 .8 2 .9 1 .8 5 .7 2 .4 4 .7 7.1 7 .1 8 .3 11.6 7 .5 4.1 4 .5 4 .0 3 .4 7 .0 2 .8 0. 2 4 .3 1 .6 2 .8 3 .4 3 .3 6 .4 6 .6 7 .4 11.9 12.7 9 .0 10.1 8 .0 3 .8 3 .8 1 .6 1 .0 .4 .7 1.3 .1 .2 .2 .6 .1 0) .1 .1 .1 .3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 .1 T o ta l................................ 100.0 and and and and and and 0. 3 4 .1 1.5 2 .3 3.1 2 .5 6 .0 4 .3 5 .9 9 .4 9 .7 8 .6 11.1 7 .7 3 .9 4 .2 2 .9 2 .3 4 .0 1 .8 3 .2 .8 0 .6 _ 1.7 .6 1 .2 4 .0 1 .7 4 .6 9 .2 5 .2 8 .7 15.1 9 .2 8 .1 5 .8 4 .6 5 .8 2 .3 5 .2 4 .0 1 .2 .6 4 .7 5. 2 4 .3 6.1 5 .7 7 .8 3 .3 1 .5 .8 .4 .7 9 2 5 a n d u n d e r 100 0 F e m ale 0) (0 0 .1 .3 .2 .7 .4 .8 1 .6 2 .5 3 .8 5 .3 5 .1 8 .0 6 .4 8 .7 7 .2 10.1 10.8 14.5 6 .6 3 .1 1 .6 .8 1 .4 0 .1 0) .1 .4 .2 .9 .4 1 .0 2 .0 2 .7 4 .1 5 .8 5 .4 8 .0 6 .4 8 .5 7.1 9 .6 10.5 13.8 6 .3 3 .0 1. 5 .8 1 .4 5.5 M a le M a le 0 .8 4 .2 1 .4 2 .5 3 .6 2 .9 7 .6 5 .9 8 .4 12.5 10.9 8 .2 10.1 7 .3 3 .8 3 .7 1 .7 1 .4 .6 1.1 .8 .2 .2 .1 0. 3 2 .6 .7 1 .2 1.7 1.4 5 .3 2 .8 5 .6 6 .3 6 .7 6 .0 7 .4 6 .0 U nskilled workers T o ta l F e m ale T o ta l 0. 2 2.1 .5 .8 1.2 .9 4 .7 1 .9 4 .7 4 .5 5 .4 5 .4 6 .7 5 .6 6 .0 5 .0 6 .2 5.1 7 .7 7 .0 9 .9 4 .2 1 .9 1 .0 .5 .9 U nder 2 5 . 0 ........................ .. E x actly 2 5 .0 ............................. 25.1 and under 27 .5 ............ . 27. 5 and under 3 0 .0_............ 3 0.0 and under 3 2 .5 ............ 3 2 .5 and under 3 5 .0 -----------3 5.0 and under 37. 5_______ 3 7.5 and under 4 0 .0 ............4 0 .0 an d under 4 2 .5 ............ .. 4 2.5 and under 4 7 .5 .............. 47. 5 and under 5 2 .5__.......... 52. 5 and under 5 7 .5 _______ 57.5 and under 6 2 .5 _______ 62. 5 and under 6 7 .5 ..........__ 6 7 . 5 and under 7 2 . 5 _______ 72. 5 and under 7 7 . 5 _______ 77. 5 and under 8 2 . 5 _______ 8 2.5 and under 8 7 .5 _______ 87.5 and under 9 2 . 5 _______ 100.0 110.0 120.0 130.0 140.0 150.0 M a le Semiskilled workers Skilled workers 5.5 T o ta l M ale 1 .7 6 .8 .5 1 .9 2 .4 2 .1 18.6 6 .5 20 .4 12.5 12.1 5 .7 3 .5 3 .1 1 .2 .6 .2 .1 0 .9 6 .8 .4 2 .1 1 .2 2 .2 18.4 6 .9 2 0 .4 11.1 13.9 6 .4 3 .1 3 .7 1 .5 .6 .2 .1 .2 .2 .1 .1 100.0 100.0 100.0 F e m ale 5 .5 7 .1 1 .1 1.1 7 .8 1 .6 19.1 4 .9 19.1 19.1 4 .4 2 .7 5 .5 .5 .5 .5 100.0 i Less than Ho of 1 percent. Individual hourly earnings covered a wide range, as the effective limits of the distribution shown in table 3 are 25 cents and $1.20 an hour. In fact, the data were so widely dispersed that virtually no 184737°— 39-------3 EARNINGS AND HOURS IN HAT INDUSTRIES 10 central tendency is evident. Thus, the 5-cent interval having the largest concentration (37.5 to 42.5 cents) contained but 8.4 percent of the workers, while from about 4 to 7 percent of the wage earners were found in each 5-cent class from 42.5 to 92.5 cents. There was a minor concentration (2.6 percent) at exactly 25 cents. The propor tion averaging under 35 cents amounted to only 7.9 percent of the total. About one-seventh (14.5 percent) of the workers received $1 and over, but only 3.4 percent averaged $1.20 and over. Variations by Sex and Skill The wide dispersion of hourly earnings in the fur-felt hat industry is partly a reflection of variations in earnings by sex and skill. The male employees (who make up over three-fourths of the labor force) averaged 71.2 cents an hour, as against only 49.1 cents for the females (table 4). Among the males, the skilled workers averaged 85.5 cents, as compared with 58.6 cents for the semiskilled and 42.3 cents for the unskilled employees. Of the females, the relatively numerous semiskilled workers averaged 48.8 cents, as against 62.8 cents and 38.6 cents, respectively, for the small number of skilled and unskilled employees. T a b l e 4. — A verag e h ou rly earnings in fu r -fe lt hat in d u s try , b y typ e o f pla n t , skill, and sex, 1 9 8 9 A ll workers Skilled workers Semiskilled workers T y p e of plan t T o ta l M a le F e T o ta l m ale M a le Fe T o ta l m ale M a le U nskilled workers Fe m ale T o ta l M a le F e m ale A ll p lan ts................................... $0.663 $0. 712 $0.491 $0,843 $0.855 $0,628 $0,543 $0. 586 $0.488 $0.417 $0.423 $0.386 , .758 .767 .907 .642 B ack shops..................... .405 .907 .638 .438 .443 .396 .603 .778 F ront shops............. .. .660 .496 .796 .628 .561 .488 .523 .388 .391 .381 0) Integrated p la n ts................... B ack sh o p s____________ Front shops........... .......... .734 .785 .691 .776 .792 .757 .546 .432 .552 .909 .928 .880 .918 .928 .902 .697 .634 .660 .626 .686 .661 .699 .547 .455 .458 .451 .4 5 8 . 461 .452 .441 .428 .446 In d epen den t back s h o p s .. Ind epen dent front s h o p s .. .714 .5 2 9 .572 .726 .380 .453 .872 .699 .872 .714 " ’ .'575 .597 .438 .607 .425 0) .448 .412 .293 .419 .2 9 8 .358 .2 8 0 .697 .546 (i) * N u m b e r of workers not sufficient to justify com putation of an average. A striking feature of the distributions by skill and sex is the large concentration of skilled males in the upper earnings brackets. Thus, nearly one-half (48.9 percent) of the workers in this group earned 87.5 cents or more an hour. In comparison, the proportion receiving 87.5 cents or more amounted to 13.9 percent for the skilled females and 17.3 percent for the semiskilled males, while for the semiskilled females and the unskilled workers of both sexes the number was negligible. The contrast in the lower wage brackets was equally striking. Among the skilled workers, less than 1 percent of the qiales and qnly 4.1 percent of the females averaged under 35 cents an MANUFACTURE OF FUR-FELT HATS 11 hour. On the other hand, the proportions in that category included 12.3 percent of the semiskilled males, 15.6 percent of the semiskilled females, 13.6 percent of the unskilled males, and 24.2 percent of the unskilled females. Variations by Type of Plant The differences in average hourly earnings between back shops and front shops shown in table 4 are partly explained by variations in the composition of the labor force. As previously pointed out, a very high proportion of the employees in back shops were males, whereas a substantial number of females were employed in the front shops. In addition, skilled workers make up a much higher percentage of the working force in back shops than in front shops. Even on the basis of skill and sex groups, hourly earnings are usually higher in the back shops than in the front shops. This is especially true of the independent establishments.6 It may be explained partly by the fact that work in the back shops is somewhat more arduous than in the front shops, as pointed out before. In the integrated establishments, skilled males averaged 92.8 cents an hour in back shops, as compared with 90.2 cents in front shops, a difference of 2.6 cents. For unskilled males, the respective averages are 46.1 and 45.2 cents, which is a difference of only 0.9 cent. In each case, the difference between the averages in the back and front shops is considerably less for integrated than for independent estab lishments. Furthermore, the averages of some skill-sex groups in the integrated establishments are found to be higher in the front shops than in the back shops. The semiskilled males, for example, averaged 69.9 cents in the front shops, as against 66.1 cents in the back shops. Likewise, the unskilled females received 44.6 cents in the front shops, as compared with 42.8 cents in the back shops. The somewhat different situation in integrated as compared with inde pendent establishments is probably due to variations in plant organi zation. Thus, it was found in some cases that the integrated plants carried on certain activities in their front shops that are ordinarily part of the back-shop operations in independent establishments. Such a practice would naturally tend to bring about an equality of hourly earnings as between back and front shops of integrated establishments. Comparison of the averages as between integrated and independent establishments shows that in every case the figure is higher in the former than in the latter for both back and front shops. The highest averages are shown for the back shops in integrated establishments. The average hourly earnings in integrated front shops, moreover, are not only higher than those in independent front shops, but they also • T h e average in these plants for all females is higher in the front shops than in the back shops. T h is is du e to the fact that the front shops em p loy a large nu m ber of skilled and semiskilled females, whereas virtu ally all of the females in back shops are in unskilled occupations. 12 EARNINGS AND HOURS IN HAT INDUSTRIES exceed the averages of the independent back shops for each skill-sex group.6 These differences are probably due to the fact that the integrated plants are relatively much larger than the independent establishments. This aspect of the analysis cannot be developed in greater detail because of the limited amount of data. Table 5 shows the distributions of hourly earnings for all wage earners by type of plant.7 T able 5.— Percentage distribution of fu r-felt hat workers, by average hourly earnings and by type o f plant, 1989 A ll plants Integrated plants Ind epen dent plants A verage hou rly earnings T o ta l U nder 25.0 cen ts_____________________ ___________ E x a c tly 25.0 cen ts_____ _______________ ________ __ 25.1 and under 27.5 cen ts_______________________ 27.5 and under 30.0 cen ts............... ........................... 30.0 and under 32.5 c e n ts ........................................... 32.5 and under 35.0 cen ts....................................... .. 35.0 and under 37.5 cen ts........................................... 37.5 and under 40.0 cen ts........................................... 40.0 and under 42.5 cen ts........................................... 4 2 .5 and under 47.5 cen ts...................................... 47.5 and under 52.5 cen ts.........................................52.5 and under 57.5 cen ts............... ............................ 57. 5 and under 62.5 cen ts. _______ ___________ 62.5 and under 67.5 c e n t s ........................................ 67.5 and under 72.5 cen ts..................... ..................... 72.5 and under 77.5 c e n t s .. ....................................... 77.5 and under 82.5 c e n ts.............. ....................... .. 82.5 and under 87.5 cen ts------- -------- ------------------87.5 and under 92.5 cen ts________ _______________ 92.5 and under 100.0 c e n t s ................................... .. 100.0 and under 110.0 c e n t s .. _____ ____________ 110.0 and under 120.0 ce n ts.......................... ............ 120.0 and under 130.0 ce n ts....................................... 130.0 and under 140.0 c e n t s ..--------- ------------------140.0 and under 150.0 cen ts_____________________ 150.0 cents and o v e r................. ..................... ............... 0 .3 2 .6 .7 1 .2 1 .7 1 .4 5 .3 2 .8 5 .6 6 .3 6 .7 6 .0 7 .4 6 .0 5 .5 4 .7 5 .2 4 .3 6. 1 5 .7 7 .8 3 .3 1 .5 .8 .4 .7 T o ta l......... ............... ................................................ 100.0 B ack shops F ron t shops T o ta l 0 .3 .4 .4 4 .8 2 .3 4 .8 5 .2 5 .4 4 .8 6 .5 4 .5 5 .8 4 .9 7 .3 5 .5 5. 5 8 .5 11.8 5 .1 2 .6 1.4 .8 1 .4 0 .6 4 .3 1.1 1 .8 2 .6 2 .0 5 .7 3 .1 6 .0 7 .0 7 .5 6 .9 8 .2 7 .0 5 .3 4 .6 3 .8 3 .5 6 .6 3 .8 5 .1 2 .1 .7 .3 .1 .3 0 .1 .1 .3 .5 .3 4 .0 1 .7 5 .9 5 .9 6 .1 6 .0 8 .4 5 .9 5 .1 4 .8 5 .9 4 .7 8 .1 6 .8 10.2 4 .3 2.1 1 .2 .7 .9 100.0 100. c 100.0 0) B ack shops 0.1 F ront shops B ack shops .1 .1 .1 3 .5 1.3 5.1 5 .7 4 .6 5 .3 6 .5 3 .5 5 .6 4 .7 7 .8 5 .2 5 .8 9 .1 12.8 5 .6 2 .9 1 .9 1.1 1 .6 0 .1 .2 .5 .8 .5 4 .4 2 .0 6 .6 6 .2 7 .5 6 .6 10.1 8 .1 4 .6 5 .0 4 .2 4 .2 10.1 4 .8 7 .9 3 .1 1.3 .6 .3 .3 0 .7 .9 .9 6 .8 4 .1 4 .4 4 .4 6 .6 4 .0 6 .4 6 .1 6 .0 5 .2 6 .4 5 .9 5 .0 7 .6 10.6 4 .2 2 .0 .6 .2 1 .0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Front shops 1 .1 7 .8 2 .0 3 .0 4 .2 3 .4 6 .8 4 .0 5 .5 7 .8 7 .6 7 .1 6 .4 6 .0 6 .0 4 .3 3 .4 2 .9 3 .3 2 .9 2 .7 1.1 .3 .1 .3 100.0 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. Earnings in Relation to Fair Labor Standards Act A 25-cent minimum hourly wage rate for establishments engaged in interstate commerce became effective on October 24, 1938, under the provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act. This mini mum will be advanced to 30 cents on October 24, 1939. The act further provides means by which the minimum may be raised in the meantime to a level not exceeding 40 cents an hour. • T h e average hourly earnings of all workers ir integrated front shops were slightly lower than the average for all em ployees of independent back shops. T h is is due to the fact that the labor force in the independent back shops contained a high proportion of skilled workers, m ost of w h om are m ales, whereas the integrated front shops em p lo y a substantial nu m ber of semiskilled workers and females. 7 A lthough som e geographical differences m a y exist, a detailed examination of the data indicates that ty p e of plan t is probably m ore im portant th an m ere geographical location. I t should be pointed out that on ly a sm all portion of the indu stry is located ir the South. A n analysis of the original data shows that average hourly earnings were u su ally highei in the plants having union agreements than in those w ith ou t such contracts. Because of the lim ited nu m ber ol establishm ents in the indu stry, it is im possible to present the data supporting this conclusion. MANUFACTURE OF FUR-FELT HATS 13 As indicated in table 3, the number of workers receiving less than the 25-cent minimum was insignificant, amounting to only 0.3 percent of the total labor force. There was, however, a definite grouping at exactly 25 cents an hour, which is limited to the semiskilled and unskilled workers, among whom the proportion receiving this wage ranged from 4.0 percent for the semiskilled males to 7.1 percent for the unskilled females. The industry apparently will have little difficulty in meeting the 30-cent minimum, as indicated by the fact that only 4.8 percent of the workers are now averaging less than that figure. The effects of this minimum will also be confined almost entirely to the semiskilled and unskilled workers, of whom the proportions averaging under 30 cents amounted to 8.2 and 10.9 percent, respectively. The number of workers paid under 40 cents an hour amounted to about one-sixth (16.0 percent) of the total labor force. Relatively few of the skilled workers averaged under this figure, the proportions being 1.7 percent of the males and 9.8 percent of the females. Among the semiskilled and unskilled employees a very substantial percent age had average hourly earnings of less than 40 cents, the proportions ranging from 20.4 percent for semiskilled males to 48.2 percent for unskilled females. The number of workers averaging under 30 cents an hour was signif icant only in the independent front shops, in which 13.9 percent of the employees earned less than that figure. The proportion of workers averaging under 40 cents was 7.0 percent in integrated plants, 13.4 percent in independent back shops, and 32.3 percent in the independ ent front shops. Occupational Differences Average hourly earnings by occupation, as presented in table 6, ranged from $1,087 for skilled male blockers in the back shops to 37.8 cents for the group of females in miscellaneous unskilled direct occu pations. Among the skilled males, the finishers, who compose the largest occupational group in the fur-felt hat industry, averaged 78.4 cents an hour. The lowest average for this skill-sex group was received by the inspectors in the back shops, who earned 74.3 cents. It will be noted that the hourly earnings of a number of the skilled occupations exceeded the average for foremen, who received only 88.6 cents. The few skilled females included only forewomen and leather inserters, who averaged respectively 55.6 cents and 64.5 cents. The lower average for forewomen is due largely to the fact that these workers combined supervisory duties with various types of semiskilled operations. Hence, their hourly earnings are comparable with those of the higher-paid semiskilled women. 14 EARNINGS AND HOURS IN HAT INDUSTRIES The average hourly earnings of semiskilled males ranged from 69.5 cents for multiroller operators, who constitute the largest occupation in this group, to 47.8 cents for ironers. It will be observed that the front-shop pouncers and slickers, who were classed as semiskilled, averaged considerably less than the skilled back-shop pouncers (65.5 cents as compared with 95.7 cents an hour). Likewise, the hourly earnings of the skilled back-shop blockers were almost double the average for the semiskilled front-shop blockers. T a b l e 6 .— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings o f fu r-felt hat workers, hy skill, sex, and occupation, 1939 Skill, sex, and occupation N u m b e r of workers Average hourly earnings Average w eekly hours Average w eekly earnings Skilled workers M a le s: “ A ” and “ B ” m achine operators ___________________ 269 ____ ________________________ ________ Blockers, back244 sh o p C oners. .................. ..................... ....................... ........................... 173 F in is h e r s .--.................................................. .................................. 965 Flangers______________________ _____ ______________________ 250 Forem en, w orking______________________________________ 123 H ardeners_______ I ___________________ _______________ ____ 158 inspectors, back sh op ___________________________________ 49 Inspectors, front sh o p ___________________________ _______ 72 Pouncers, back shop*._______________________ _____ _____ 171 8 ta r te r s._ _____ ______________________________ _____ _______ 586 M iscellaneous, direct............... ........ ................... ..................... 84 M iscellaneous, indirect_________ ________ _____ _________ 113 Fem ales: F orew om en. _________________________ _________ _________ 31 Leather inserters________________________________________ 142 $0.761 1.087 .9 8 2 .784 .781 .886 .969 . 743 .854 .957 .8 9 3 .798 .825 35.7 33.0 33.2 37.3 37.8 42.3 33.3 38.1 40.0 35.0 32.9 40.1 43.2 $27.17 35.92 32. 62 29. 21 29.54 37.48 32. 25 28.27 34.19 33.54 29. 35 32.03 35. 62 .556 .645 40.2 36.8 22.36 23. 72 145 80 65 73 146 326 99 254 55 41 154 79 .546 .573 .587 .546 .478 .6 9 5 .489 .655 . 566 .576 . 536 .578 3 8 .8 39. 3 42. 6 4 0.2 39.9 32. 4 4 1.6 37.9 40.3 40.3 41.3 44.7 21.17 22.52 24.98 21.98 19.10 22. 50 20.34 24.80 22.82 23.24 22.11 25.86 127 70 65 136 36 645 56 113 .541 .509 . 533 .491 .587 .474 .466 . 457 36.8 36.6 35.3 34.3 32.1 36.4 40.1 4 2 .0 19.89 18.59 18.83 16.85 18.86 17.26 18.69 19.19 75 65 204 83 101 51 174 61 .412 .509 .396 .395 . 432 .421 .429 .444 41.3 40.5 41.2 35. 4 36.8 49.5 3 9 .6 41. 2 17. 00 20.64 16.30 14.01 15.88 20. 82 16.99 18. 31 52 59 72 .3 8 9 .3 9 4 .378 39. 7 35.0 3 8 .2 15. 46 13. 78 14.42 Semiskilled workers M a les: Blockers, front shop_____________________________________ B rim curlers_____________________________________________ Olerks, factory___________________________________________ F u r blowers and m ixers. __________ __________________ Ironers____________ . _______________________ ____________ M ultiroller operators___________________________________ P a ck ers............................................................................................ Pouncers and slickers, front s h o p . . __________________ R oun ders________________________________ ____ _____ _____ _____________ ______________________ Stiffeners____ _____ M iscellaneous, direct_____________________ __________ ___ Miscellaneous, indirect_________________________________ Fem ales: B inders............................................................................................... Leather fitters____________________________ _______________ Leather joiners and bow t a c k e r s _____ _______ ________ Lin in g inserters_____________________ ___________________ m akers___________________________________________ T r im m e rs.. . _______________________________ _____ _______ W e lte rs......................... ........................................... ......................... M iscellaneous, direct______________________________ ____ Lining Unskilled workers M a le s: D y e-room attendants___________________________________ D ye-room helpers_____ __________________________________ Floor workers______ _____________________________________ Form ing-m achine feeders______________________________ Sizers’ helpers___________________________________________ W a tc h m e n ________ ______________________________________ M iscellaneous, direct___________________________________ Miscellaneous, indirect_________________________________ Fem ales: Floor workers _ ______ ___________________________________ Form ing-m achine feeders_______________________________ M iscellaneous, direct___________________________________ MANUFACTURE OF FUR-FELT HATS 15 The trimmers, who averaged 47.4 cents an hour, were the most important of the semiskilled females, and make up, in fact, the second largest occupational group in the industry. The highest hourly earnings in this skill-sex group were received by the small group of lining makers, who averaged 58.7 cents. Among the unskilled workers, only the male dye-room helpers aver aged as much as 50 cents an hour, while the hourly earnings of the remaining occupations ranged from 44.4 cents for the male miscel laneous indirect workers to 37.8 cents for the female miscellaneous direct workers. It is worthy of note that the averages for male and female forming-machine feeders are almost identical. Likewise, the hourly earnings of male and female floor workers differed by less than 1 cent an hour. This is particularly interesting, in view of the fact that both of these groups are paid almost entirely on a straight-time basis. Effect of Overtime on Hourly Earnings As previously pointed out, the earnings data presented in this report are based on regular rates of pay for all time worked disregard ing extra rates paid for overtime. Of the 52 plants scheduled in the survey, 32 paid some extra overtime wages during the pay period covered. The amount of such payment was small in each case and was fairly well distributed over the working force. Consequently, the addition of overtime earnings resulted in but a slight change in the data shown. The actual increase in average hourly earnings for the industry as a whole amounts to only three-tenths of 1 cent, which means that the industry average including extra overtime earnings is 66.6 cents, as against the 66.3-cents average based on regular rates of pay. Weekly Hours Full-Time Hours A majority of the plants covered by the survey of the fur-felt hat industry had a normal workweek of 40 hours. The proportion varied considerably among the different types of plants. Of the 9 independent back shops, 4 were on a 40-hour basis, 1 had a workweek of 44 hours, and in 1 establishment the full-time hours varied from 32 %to 44 (depending upon the occupation of the worker or the shift on which he was employed). In the 3 remaining back shops, some of the occupations normally worked 40 hours, while others had a 44-hour week. The 30 independent front shops included 12 plants with a 40-hour week, 9 on a 44-hour basis, 7 having some workers at 44 and others at 40 hours, 1 with a 43%-hour week, and 1 with a workweek of 45 EARNINGS AND HOURS IN HAT INDUSTRIES 16 hours. The latter establishment provided two 6-minute rest periods each day.8 Of the 13 integrated establishments, 10 had a 40-hour week and 1 was on a 44-hour basis. Of the 2 remaining plants, one had a 40-hour week for all but a few workers who were on a 30-hour week, while the other was on a 40- to 42-hour basis, depending upon the occupa tion of the worker. Operation of more than one shift was found in seven of the inte grated plants and six of the independent back shops. None of the independent front shops had second- or third-shift operations. In the integrated establishments, the multiple-shift operations were con fined almost entirely to the back shops. Actual Weekly Hours The actual workweek of all workers in the fur-felt hat industry averaged 37.2 hours. An examination of the data for the different skill-sex groups in the various types of plants, as shown in table 7, reveals that the average hours of work varied from 33.8 for semiskilled males in back shops of integrated establishments to as much as 44.3 for unskilled males in independent front shops. For the industry as a whole, however, the averages varied from 36.1 hours for skilled males to 40.2 hours for unskilled males. T able 7 .— A verage actual w eek ly hours o f fu r -fe lt hat w ork ers, by typ e o f pla nt , sk illy and sex , 1 9 8 9 All workers Skilled workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers Type of plant Total M ale Fe Fe Total M ale Total Male Fe Total M ale Fe male male male male A ll plants................................ 37.2 Back shops___________ 35.5 Front shops. ................. 38.4 37.3 35.5 39.2 36.9 34.9 37.0 36.1 34.6 38.0 36.1 34.6 38.0 37.4 Integrated plants................. 36.6 Back shops..................... 35.2 Front shops.................... 37.9 36.7 35.2 38.8 36.1 35.6 36.1 35.8 34.5 37.8 35.8 34.5 38.1 36.0 Independent back shops.. 36.0 Independent front shops._ 38.9 36.1 39.6 34.2 37.7 34.6 38.1 34.6 38.0 37.7 35.4 38.2 38.5 35.5 39.9 36.7 0) 36.8 39.7 38.7 41.1 40.2 39.1 42.1 37.6 35.3 38.8 36.5 33.9 37.4 36.9 33.8 38.9 35.9 0) 35.9 39.5 39.2 39.9 40.1 39.7 40.8 37.0 35.1 37.9 38.6 38.6~ 38.9 39.2 41.0 C1) 37.4 38.0 43.1 38.3 44.3 35.6 40.2 37.4 36.0 * Number of workers not sufficient to justify computation of an average. Nearly seven-tenths (69.0 percent) of the employees worked from 32 to 44 hours, inclusive, during the selected pay-roll period. Onefifth (19.8 percent) worked exactly 40 hours, while 14.2 percent worked exactly 44 hours. A substantial proportion (22.1 percent) worked under 32 hours. This group is made up largely of workers who received only part-time employment, due to labor turn-over and 8 In accordance with the practice observed by both the Bureau of Labor Statistics and the W age and Hour Division, these rest periods have been considered part of the regular working time. 17 MANUFACTURE OF FUR-FELT HATS absenteeism during the pay-roll period scheduled. On the other hand, 8.9 percent averaged over 44 hours. This group includes the employees who were entitled to overtime compensation, under the provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act. Weekly Earnings 9 The weekly earnings of all workers in the fur-felt hat industry averaged $24.69 (table 8). The average was $26.57 for males and $18.13 for females. The weekly earnings ranged from $34.33 for skilled males in the front shops of integrated plants to as low as $11.24 for unskilled females in independent front shops. Nearly four-fifths (78.1 percent) of the employees in the fur-felt hat industry earned between $10 and $35 per week. About one-sixth (17.1 percent) received $35 or more, but only 4.0 percent earned as much as $45 or more. Only 4.8 percent of the workers received under $10 a week. T a b l e 8 . — A v era g e w eek ly earnings o f fu r -fe lt hat w ork ers , by typ e o f pla nt , sk illy and sex , 1 9 3 9 All workers Skilled workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers Type of plant Total Male Fe Fe Total Male Total Male male male Fe Total Male Fe male male A ll plants............................... $24.69 $26.57 $18.13 $30. 48 $30.86 $23.48 $20.45 $22.54 $17.92 $16.55 $17.01 $14.51 22. 57 22.79 0 ) 16.95 17.31 13.98 Back shops___________ 26.92 27.27 14.10 31.33 31.33 Front sh o p s.................. 23.17 25.86 18.34 29. 52 30.25 23.48 19.98 22. 41 17.96 15.98 16.46 14.79 Integrated plants................. *26. 88 28. 51 19. 72 32. 50 32.83 25.06 23.15 25.28 19. 62 17.97 18.35 16.32 Back shops___________ 27.66 27.90 15. 37 32.02 32. 02 22. 34 22.34 0 ) 17.96 18.30 15.02 Front shops__________ 26.17 29.32 19. 95 33. 30 34.33 25.06 23.42 27.20 19. 62 18.00 18.44 16.92 Independent back shops Independent front shops.. 23. 03 23. 77 0 ) 15.68 16.05 12. 77 25.70 26.20 12.98 30.18 30.18 20. 54 22.63 17.08 26. 61 27.13 22.19 17. 04 17.44 16.76 12.63 13.19 11.24 1 Number of workers not sufficient to justify computation of an average. » It should be remembered that all weekly earnings data presented in this report are based on regular rates of pay, excluding extra earnings for overtime. 184737°—39------4 Manufacture o f W ool-Felt Hats Analysis o f Sample The 1937 Census of Manufactures reported 14 establishments, with an average monthly employment of 4,038 wage earners during the year, engaged in the manufacture of carded wool-felt hat bodies. This includes only plants having an annual product valued at $5,000 or more.10 The Bureau’s survey in 1939 covered 15 wool-felt hat establish ments, employing 3,335 wage earners during the selected pay-roll period.11 This total includes 5 large integrated plants; 5 independent rough-body plants, or back shops; and 5 small independent establish ments engaged in finishing men’s wool-felt hats from purchased bodies, or front shops. It should be pointed out, however, that 3 of these 5 independent front shops are in reality departments in plants primarily engaged in making other products, such as straw hats or finished fur-felt hats. The chief product of the wool-felt hat industry consists of rough bodies for women’s hats. According to the census data for 1937, out of a total production of 2,799,689 dozen wool-felt hat bodies and hats, 2,152,256 dozen were sold in the rough to be made into women’s or children’s hats. The production of finished hats in this branch, as reported by the Census of Manufactures, amounted to only 372,019 dozen, of which 294,878 dozen were for men and boys and 77,141 dozen for women and children. Of the plants covered, 5 with 370 wage earners were in New York; 4 with 1,627 workers were in Pennsylvania; and 6 with 1,338 wage earners were in Connecticut, Georgia, Massachusetts, and Missouri. Trade-union organization in the wool-felt hat industry is confined to the independent back and front shops. Composition o f Labor Force The separation of back- and front-shop operations in the wool-felt hat industry is similar to that found in the fur-felt hat plants. Al though the wool-felt back-shop processes differ in many respects from those used in making fur-felt hat bodies, the conditions of work are such that, as in the fur-felt hat industry, the opportunities for employ ment of women are limited. Male employees constitute four-fifths (79.6 percent) of the labor force in all wool-felt back shops (table 9). In the front shops, on the other hand, less than three-fifths (56.9 per cent) of the workers are men. The proportion of female workers was » None of the establishments reported 20 or less wage earners. 11 The Bureau was unable to obtain information covering 1 medium-sized plant. 18 19 MANUFACTURE OE WOOL-FELT HATS considerably higher in the independent than in the integrated back shops (32.5 percent as against 12.3 percent). The opposite is true of the front shops, however, 43.5 percent of the workers in the inte grated, as against 41.6 percent in the independent plants, being females. These variations may be due partly to differences in the degree of finish applied to the bodies produced for sale, which in turn may be related to the type or price range of the finished hat. T able 9.— D istrib u tio n o f w orkers covered i n su rvey o f w ool-felt hat in d u s try , by typ e o f p la n t , sk ill, and sex, 1 9 8 9 Semiskilled workers All workers Type of plant Skilled males Unskilled workers Total Male Fe male Total 628 440 188 2,408 1,848 560 1,580 1,346 234 828 502 326 299 259 222 212 10 77 47 30 483 184 299 409 241 168 1,571 1,117 454 1,121 450 180 270 210 937 184 66 177 140 37 33 4 29 328 57 199 731 106 409 50 322 56 78 72 11 10 6 1 9.0 7.8 8.4 5.7 .4 3.6 Fe male Total Male A ll plants..................................... Back shops............................ Front shops______________ 3,335 2, 510 825 2,467 1,998 469 868 512 356 Integrated plants...................... Back shops_____ _________ Front shops______________ 2,190 1,502 688 1,707 1,318 389 Independent back shops_____ Independent front shops......... 1,008 137 680 80 20 144 Male Fe male 40 Percentage distribution A ll plants...................................... Back shops........ ................... Front shops........................... 100.0 100.0 100.0 74.0 79.6 56.9 26.0 20.4 43.1 18.8 17.6 Integrated plants______ ______ Back shops_______________ Front shops------- -------------- 100.0 100.0 100.0 78.0 87.7 56.5 22.0 12.3 43.5 Independent back shops_____ Independent front shops......... 100.0 100.0 67.5 58.4 32.5 41.6 72.2 73.6 67.9 47.4 53.6 28.4 20.0 8.8 39.5 9.3 18.7 16.0 24.4 71.7 74.4 51.2 62.4 26.7 20.5 39.3 9.6 9.6 9.6 8.1 66.0 19.8 14.6 72.5 77.4 40.6 36.5 31.9 40.9 7.7 8.0 7.1 7.3 22.8 24.8 12.0 9.3 5.4 1.2 1.5 .3 4.2 .6 .7 The wool-felt hat industry offers a sharp contrast to the fur-felt hat plants with respect to the distribution of employees by skill. Whereas a high proportion of the workers in the latter industry, particularly in the back shops, are highly skilled, such employees form only 17.6 percent of the labor force in the wool-felt back shops and 22.8 percent in the wool-felt front shops. All of the skilled workers were males. On the other hand, only 8.8 percent of the back-shop and 9.3 percent of the front-shop workers were classed as unskilled employees. Average Hourly Earnings Although straight piece rates are quite prevalent in the wool-felt hat industry, employees affected by this method of wage payment constituted only two-fifths (39.9 percent) of the total labor force. Nearly two-thirds (63.8 percent) of the front-shop workers, as com pared with less than one-third (32.0 percent) of those in back shops, were paid by straight piece rates. Some piece workers were found in EARNINGS AND HOURS IN HAT INDUSTRIES 20 every establishment covered by the survey. Very few occupations in the industry were paid piece rates exclusively, although this method was employed for most of the workers in several of the leading direct occupations, such as pouncers and slickers, hardeners, finishers, trimmers, and blockers. Only 1.4 percent of the total workers were paid under production bonus plans. The distribution of individual hourly earnings, as presented in table 10, covered an effective range from 30 cents to $1, within which were found 97.5 percent of all workers. A pronounced concentration (29.5 percent) occurred between 35 and 40 cents. Only 5.1 percent of the hourly earnings were under 35 cents. The group 40 to 42.5 cents contained 12.7 percent of the workers, while 12.5 percent averaged from 42.5 to 47.5 cents, and the distribution tapers off gradually from 47.5 cents to $1. There were 9.9 percent of the workers averaging 77.5 cents and over. T able 10.— Percentage d istribution o f wool-felt hat w orkers ea rn in g s, sex, and skill, 1 9 3 9 by All workers average h ou rly M ale workers Average hourly earnings Total Under 25.0 cents___________________________ Exactly 25.0 cents____ ____________________ 25 1 fir'd unriftr 27.5 rents 27.5 and under 30.0 cents----------------------------30.0 and under 32.5 cents___________________ 82.6 and under 35.0 cents.................................. 35.0 and under 37.5 cents---------------------------37.6 and under 40.0 cents---------------------------40.0 and under 42.5 cents__________________ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents----------------------------47.5 and under 52.5 ce n ts _________ ______ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents___________________ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents.................................. 62.5 and under 67.5 cents.................. ............. 67.5 and under 72.5 cents__________________ 72.5 and under 77.5 cents------------ ---------------77.5 and under 82.5 cents----------------------------82.5 and under 87.5 cents. ________________ 87.5 and under 92.5 cents.................................. 92.5 and under 100.0 cents........................ ....... 100,0 rents and over _ .... _ T otal_________________________________ Male Female 1 0.1 .7 0.2 .7 .2 .6 .1 .2 .6 1.9 1.5 1.3 16.1 10.5 0.1 1.6 15.8 13.7 12.7 12.5 6.8 5.4 5.5 4.7 4.6 3.3 3.7 2. 5 1.2 1.6 11.8 10.5 6.9 5.7 6.6 5.3 5.9 4.2 4.7 3. 2 1.5 Skilled .7 1.7 3.2 2.4 15.6 22.7 15.2 18.2 6.3 4.5 2.4 2.9 1.0 .7 .9 .3 .3 2.0 1.2 .2 .9 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.2 .8 1.0 4.9 1.9 3.0 4.9 5.4 7.2 8.9 11.3 12.3 7.5 12.6 7. 5 3.2 3.7 3.7 100.0 Semi skilled 0.8 .1 .3 .9 1.1 20.1 13.2 13. 5 13.2 U n skilled 1.2 1.5 .4 6.9 3.1 18.1 15.4 22.1 5.4 7.3 15.8 3.9 6.6 1.5 3.7 4.3 3.5 .4 .4 .4 .4 6.1 2.2 2.1 .9 1.6 .8 .4 .4 100.0 100.0 i Includes 828 semiskilled and 40 unskilled females. V ariation s b y Sex and Skill The average hourly earnings for all male employees was 52.2 cents, as compared with 43.0 cents for the females (table 11). The skilled workers, all of whom were males, averaged 66.3 cents. It is worthy of note that the hourly earnings of the remaining sex and skill groups varied within a spread of less than 10 cents, ranging from 48.6 cents for the semiskilled males to 40.3 cents for the unskilled females. Among the semiskilled workers, who made up nearly three-fourths of the labor force, the average for the females was 5.4 cents lower than MANUFACTURE OF WOOL-FELT HATS 21 that for the males. The average for unskilled females differed by only 1.4 cents from that for unskilled males. Few of the workers of either sex averaged under 35 cents an hour, the proportions being 3.9 percent of the males and 8.8 percent of the females. In terms of 5-cent intervals, the principal concentration of both sexes was between 35 and 40 cents, 26.6 percent of the males and 38.3 percent of the females being included in that range. However, the hourly earnings of the males were more widely dispersed than were the hourly earnings of the females. Thus, nearly one-half (48.9 percent) of the males, as compared with 71.7 percent of the females, averaged between 35 and 47.5 cents. About one-sixth (16.8 percent) of the males, as against 2.4 percent of the females, earned 72.5 cents or more. Only 8.8 percent of the skilled males averaged under 40 cents an hour, while 30.7 percent were paid 77.5 cents or more. The respec tive percentages were 36.5 and 7.2 for the semiskilled males and 46.6 and 1.6 for the unskilled males. T able 11.— A verage hourly earnings o f w ool-felt hat w ork ers , by typ e o f plants skill , and sexy 1939 Semiskilled workers A ll workers Total All plants-..................— Back shops.................... .. Front shops.................... - - Unskilled workers Skilled males Type of plant Total Male Female $0. 498 $0.522 $0,430 .482 .500 .407 .545 .608 .461 Male Female Total Male Female $0.663 $0.468 $0. 486 $0,432 $0.415 $0.417 .452 .402 .660 .467 .408 .405 .671 .464 .590 .451 .468. .517 Integrated plants................- - Back shops......................— Front shops........................ .496 .475 .540 .515 .485 .610 .432 .405 .448 .672 .676 .667 .463 .444 .508 .475 .451 .590 .433 .406 .450 .424 .409 .456 .426 .410 .480 Independent back shops____ Independent front shops ---- .493 .571 .530 .599 .408 .531 .642 .464 .560 .502 .591 .410 .533 .391 .396 0) 0) 0) $0.403 0) .424 .416 0) .425 0) 0) 1Number of workers D o t sufficient to justify computation of an average. Variations by Type o f Plant In the wool-felt as in the fur-felt hat industry, hourly earnings differ considerably among the various types of establishments. Wage levels are generally higher in the wool-felt front shops than in the back shops, which is in contrast with the situation found in the fur-felt hat plants. As was shown in table 11, the earnings of all workers in the woolfelt back shops averaged 48.2 cents an hour. In the front shops, the average was 54.5 cents, a difference of 6.3 cents. As against an aver age of 47.5 cents for all employees of integrated back shops, the workers in independent back shops averaged 49.3 cents an hour. Likewise, in the front-shop operations, wage earners in the inde pendent establishments received higher pay than those employed by integrated plants, the averages being 57.1 cents and 54.0 cents, EARNINGS AND HOURS IN HAT INDUSTRIES 22 respectively. Hourly earnings in the front shops exceeded the averages in the back shops for every sex and skill group for which a comparison is possible, with the exception of the skilled males in integrated plants, where the difference in favor of the back-shop employees amounted to less than 1 cent. Table 12 shows the distribution of individual earnings for all workers by type of establishment. T a b l e 1 2 . — Percentage distribution o f wool-felt hat w ork ers , by earnings and typ e o f plant , 1 9 3 9 average Integrated plants All plants hourly Independent plants Average hourly earnings Total Under 25.0 cents.............. - ........... - ......... Exactly 25.0 cents..................................... 25.1 and under 27.5 cents...................... 27.5 and under 30.0 cents............... ....... 30.0 and under 32.5 cents..---------------32.5 and under 35.0 cents.................... .. 35.0 and under 37.5 cents....................... 37.5 and under 40.0 cents............... ....... 40.0 and under 42.5 cents....................... 42.5 and under 47.5 cents...................... 47.5 and under 52.5 cents_____________ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents_____________ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents_____________ 62.5 and under 67.5 cents_____________ 67.5 and under 72.5 cents..---------------72.5 and under 77.5 cents....................... 77.5 and under 82.5 cents..____ ______ 82.5 and under 87.5 cen ts..................... 87.5 and under 92.5 cents....................... 92.5 and under 100.0 c e n ts ___________ 100.0 cents and over......... ............. ......... Total______________ ________ ____ 0.1 Back shops Front shops 0.1 0.2 .4 1.5 .7 .4 2.7 2.7 13.1 .7 .2 .6 1.9 (0 .7 1.7 1.6 1.2 15.8 13.7 12.7 12.5 16.8 16.0 13.9 13.1 6.3 4.7 5.2 4.4 4.4 3.2 3.5 2.4 6.8 5.4 5.5 4.7 4.6 3.3 3.7 2.5 1.2 1.6 .9 100.0 .6 6.8 8.7 10.4 8.4 7.4 6.7 5.5 5.5 3.6 4.5 2.7 2.8 .8 .6 3.9 100.0 100.0 1.8 Total 0.2 .6 .3 .3 2.0 1.8 20.0 11.2 12.4 11.6 6.4 4.8 5.9 4.5 4.8 3.6 4.0 Back shops Front shops 0.2 .6 .1 0.3 .3 1.7 1.6 22.4 12.8 14.1 11.9 5.9 4.0 5.5 3.8 4.2 3.6 3.9 .6 .7 .3 2.5 2.3 14.8 7.6 8.7 11.0 7.4 6.7 6.8 6.1 6.1 .8 .5 .5 3.5 4.2 2.3 2.5 4.1 1.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 2.2 1.0 1.6 2.1 .3 Back shops 0.2 1.3 1.7 .7 8.4 20.4 13.7 14.9 6.7 5.8 4.7 5.4 4.7 Front shops 5.8 .7 .7 3.6 4.4 5.1 2.9 8.9 8.0 13.2 11.0 5.8 2.2 2.2 2.6 .6 4.4 5.8 4.4 4.4 2.9 3.6 100.0 100.0 2.9 2.9 1.1 1.3 1 L e s s t h a n H o o f 1 p e rc e n t. Earnings in R elation to Fair Labor Standards A c t Very few employees in the wool-felt hat industry were earning under 25 cents an hour, the minimum rate now in effect under the provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act. The adjustment to the 30-cent minimum, effective on October 24,1939, will require but slight changes in the wage structure, as the number of workers now earning less than that figure amounts to only 1.6 percent of the total labor force (1.1 percent of the males and 3.2 percent of the females). Workers averaging under 40 cents an hour constituted 34.6 percent of the total labor force. The proportions were 30.5 percent for males and 47.1 percent for females. Among the skilled males, only 8.8 percent averaged under 40 cents. The percentages were 36.5 for semi skilled and 46.6 for unskilled males. MANUFACTURE OF WOOL-FELT HATS 23 An examination of the plant averages shows that of the 15 establish ments covered by the survey 5 were under 45 cents an hour, 4 between 45 and 50 cents, 3 between 50 and 55 cents, and 3 over 55 cents.12 Because of the limited number of establishments in the wool-felt hat industry, it is impossible to present distributions of individual earnings for plant groups classified on the basis of plant averages. An examination of the basic data indicates, however, that none of the establishments surveyed, including those with the lowest averages, had a substantial number of workers receiving under 35 cents an hour. On the other hand, a considerable proportion of the employees in all except the plants averaging 50 cents an hour or more were receiving under 40 cents. Occupational Differences Occupational averages in the wool-felt hat industry, as shown in table 13, ranged from 76.0 cents an hour for male pouncers and slickers,, a skilled back-shop operation, to 36.8 cents for semiskilled male coners. The side hardeners, who make up the largest occupational group of skilled males, averaged 65.3 cents. The lowest hourly earnings for skilled males were received by the miscellaneous indirect employees, who averaged 60.8 cents. This group includes the various building maintenance workers, such as plumbers, carpenters, machinists, etc. Among the semiskilled males, the front-shop blockers received 68.8 cents an hour, which was the highest average for this group. It will be observed that the hourly earnings of this occupation exceeded the averages for all of the skilled occupations with the exception of the back-shop pouncers and slickers. Among the largest semiskilled male occupations were the multiroller operators, who averaged 49.5 cents and the back-shop blockers, whose average was 48.6 cents an hour. The hourly earnings of the semiskilled females ranged from 55.3 cents for leather workers to 38.8 cents for back-shop inspectors. The coners, who were most numerous among this group, averaged 39.8 cents. It will be observed that this exceeds the average for male coners by exactly 3 cents. There were too few employees to permit the computation of averages for any unskilled occupations except the male dusters and washers, who received 41.2 cents an hour. The male employees in miscellaneous unskilled direct occupations averaged 41.8 cents, as against 42.2 cents for those in the indirect jobs. The unskilled females averaged 40.3 cents. 12 Examination of the original data reveals that on the whole average hourly earnings, for both back shops and front shops, were higher among the plants located in New York and Massachusetts than in those sit uated in other States. It is impossible to present specific data on this point without revealing figures for individual establishments. 24 T able EARNINGS AND HOURS IN H AT INDUSTRIES 13. — A verage h ou rly earningsy w eek ly hours , and w eek ly earnings o f w oolfelt hat w orkers , b y skill , sex , and occup ation , Number of workers Skill, sex, and occupation Skilled workers Males: Foremen, working................... .................................. Pouncers and finishers, front shop............................ Pouncers and slickers, back shop—........................... Side hardeners.................... ....................................... Miscellaneous, indirect.......... ................................... Average hourly earnings Average weekly hours Average weekly earnings 71 162 108 229 58 $0. 667 .648 .760 .653 .608 44.7 38.2 31.2 35.7 47.0 $29.79 24.76 23.70 23. 30 28. 54 201 68 .486 .688 40.2 38.7 41.4 43.2 38.8 35.0 36.6 41.9 43.7 40.9 41.9 39.8 38.6 37.6 43.0 43.4 44.7 19.54 26. 58 22.81 19. 50 17.91 12.90 14.75 22.18 18.36 20.28 18.13 19.97 17.70 21.67 19.29 22.82 23.00 Semiskilled workers Males: Blockers, back shop.—_________________________ Blockers, front shop______ ____________ _________ Brim and crown pressers________ _______________ Card strippers____________ ____________________ Catchers and folders_____ ____________ ____ _____ Conors........................................................................ Inspectors, back shop............................................... Inspectors, front shop______ _____ ______________ Kettlemen____ _______ _________ ______ _________ Multiroller or mezzera operators_________________ Pushers and bumpers__________________________ Sizers...__________________ ___________________ Stiffeners.................................. ...................... ........... Tip hardeners............................ ............ ................... Wool mixers and feeders------------------------------------Miscellaneous, direct.................. ................... ........... Miscellaneous, indirect___________ ______________ Females: Conors........................................................................ Inspectors, back shop........................... —......... ........ Leather workers........... ................ ......... ..............— Speckers and trimmers, hat bodies...................... . Trimmers....................... ........................ ...... ............. Welters and binders............................................... . Miscellaneous, direct.............................................. . 118 133 42 42 224 45 169 103 70 34 130 29 .550 .451 .461 .368 .403 .529 .420 .495 .433 .502 .458 .577 .449 .526 .515 209 134 73 95 175 39 103 .398 .388 .553 .424 .429 .445 .468 35.1 36.9 38.5 38.5 40.6 42.2 38.5 13.96 14.31 21.30 16.33 17.42 18.79 18.00 Unskilled workers Males: Dusters and washers.............................. ................... Miscellaneous, direct......................................... ........ Miscellaneous, indirect.............................................. Females: Miscellaneous........................................... ........ 69 152 38 40 .412 .418 .422 .403 41.4 39.8 43.6 17.05 16.64 18.39 15.85 39 32 101 39.3 Effect o f Overtime on H ourly Earnings Some extra compensation for overtime work was found in 10 of the 15 wool-felt hat plants covered by the survey. Although a number of employees were affected, the amount of extra pay in each case was quite small. A computation of the extra overtime earnings shows that the actual increase in the average hourly earnings would amount to only one-fifth of a cent. In other words, the total average would be 50.0 cents an hour, as against 49.8 cents covering the earnings at regular rates only. Weekly Hours Full-Time Hours Of the 15 wool-felt hat manufacturing establishments, 4 independent front shops and 2 integrated plants had a normal workweek of 40 hours. The full-time workweek was 44 hours in 3 back shops, 1 front shop, and 2 integrated plants. In 1 back shop and 1 integrated plant a 25 MANUFACTURE OF WOOL-FELT HATS majority of the employees worked 44 hours, but some were on a 40hour basis. The remaining establishment, an independent back shop, had a workweek of 37.5 hours for all employees. More than one shift operation for some occupations was practiced in three integrated plants, two independent back shops, and one inde pendent front shop. In only one plant, an independent back shop, were all occupations on a double shift. None of the establishments reported wage differentials between shifts. Actual Weekly Hours The actual hours worked in the wool-felt hat industry as a whole averaged 39.0 per week. According to table 14 the averages for the various types of plants did not differ materially, amounting to 38.0 hours in the independent back shops, as against 38.7 hours in the independent front shops and 39.6 in the integrated establishments. The averages by sex and skill show that the actual workweek was longer for males than for females. Moreover, it increased in length as the skill of the worker decreased. T able 14.— A v e r a g e a ctu a l w e e k l y h o u r s o f w o o l-f e l t hat w o r k e r s , b y t y p e o f p la n t s k ill, a n d s e x 1 9 8 9 , Semiskilled workers All workers Type of plant , Unskilled workers Skill ed males Total Male Fe male Total Male Fe male Total Male Fe male A ll plants_____ ______ ________ Back shops.......................... Front shops.......................... 39.0 38.6 40.5 39.4 39.1 40.5 38.0 36.4 40.5 37.6 37.0 39.0 39.2 38.8 40.8 39.9 39.6 41.4 38.0 36.4 40.4 40.6 40.0 42.1 40.8 40.4 42.5 0) Integrated plants....................... Back shops........................... Front sh o p s ....................... 39.6 39.0 40.9 39.5 39.1 40.9 39.8 38.2 40.9 37.3 36.2 38.9 40.0 39.4 41.3 40.0 39.6 42.1 39.9 38.5 40.8 40.9 40.0 42.8 41.2 40.5 43. 7 0) Independent back s h o p s ____ Independent front s h o p s ____ 38.0 38.7 39.2 38.9 35.4 38.4 38.0 0) 37.7 38.5 39.7 38.6 35.3 38.5 40.1 0) 40.1 0) 0) 0) 39.3 41.5 39.2 41.7 1 Number of workers not sufficient to justify computation of an average. In the scheduled pay period 74.2 percent of the employees worked from 36 to 44 hours. One-third (33.5 percent) worked exactly 44 hours; 15.0 percent worked exactly 40 hours; and three-fifths (60.3 percent) worked from 40 to 44 hours. One-fifth (20.6 percent) of the workers worked under 36 hours, whereas only 5.2 percent worked over 44 hours. Among the male employees, 20.2 percent worked under 36 hours, while 7.0 percent worked over 44 hours. A substantial proportion of the females had a relatively short workweek, 21.3 percent working under 36 hours. Moreover, for all practical purposes none of the females worked in excess of 44 hours. EARNINGS AND HOURS IN H AT INDUSTRIES 26 W eekly Earnings 13 The weekly earnings of ail workers in the wool-felt hat industry averaged $19.46 (table 15). The earnings of males averaged $20.55 per week, which may be compared with $16.37 for females. The weekly earnings of males exceeded the average for females in every skill-group and plant type. This, of course, is due to the fact that the males not only received higher hourly earnings, but had a longer actual workweek than the females in every case. T able 15.— A v e r a g e w e e k l y e a r n i n g s o f w o o l-f e l t hat w o r k e r s , b y t y p e o f p l a n t , s k ill, and sex, 1 9 8 9 A ll workers Type of plant Total M ale Fe male Semiskilled workers Skilled males Total M ale Fe male Unskilled workers Total Male A ll plants...................................... $19.46 $20. 55 $16.37 $24.96 $18.35 $19.37 $16.40 $16.85 $17.01 14. 80 24.45 17.51 Back shops............................ 18. 61 19.58 18.50 14.88 16.11 16. 37 18.64 26.17 21.10 24.40 18.73 Front shops.......................... 22 . 06 24.66 18.98 19.87 Fe male $15.85 0) 17.59 Integrated plants....................... Back shops........................... Front shops.......................... 19. 63 18. 62 22.05 20. 32 18. 95 24.94 17.21 | 25.07 15. 45 ! 24.47 18.30 25.92 18. 52 17. 52 20.99 19. 02 17.88 24.84 17. 28 15.65 18.36 17.35 16.34 19.54 17.54 16.63 20.98 16.32 0) 17.70 Independent back shops_____ Independent front shops......... 18.73 22.09 20.80 23. 28 14.43 20.41 17. 51 21.58 19. 91 22.78 14.45 20. 52 15.69 0) 15.87 0) 0) 0) 24.42 0) i Number of workers not sufficient to justify computation of an average. Over four-fifths (81.8 percent) of the workers received between $10 and $30 per week, and 7.1 percent received under $10. About one-tenth (11.1 percent) averaged $30 or more, but only 3.7 per cent received $35 or more. A significant proportion of both sexes received under $10 per week. Very few of the females received as much as $30 or more, as compared with 14.2 percent of the males. The analysis of weekly earnings of males according to skill shows, however, that the earnings of $30 or more were confined largely to the most skilled group. i* It should be remembered that all weekly earnings data presented in this report are based on regular rates of pay, excluding extra earnings for overtime. Manufacture o f Straw Hats A nalysis o f Sample The 1937 Census of Manufactures covering the men's straw-hat industry includes 47 establishments having an annual product valued at $5,000 or more. The monthly employment in these plants averaged 3,024 wage earners during the year. The industry's total output in 1937, as reported by the census, included 2,130,100 dozen hats, of which 919,599 dozen were for dress wear and 1,210,501 dozen harvest hats. Of the dress straw hats, 555,747 dozen were made of sewed braid and 363,852 dozen of woven-body construction. These totals include a relatively insignificant amount of women's straw hats. Most of the straw-hat production is carried on in establishments devoted primarily to that purpose, the principal exceptions being found in the few large integrated fur-felt hat companies that have straw-hat departments. Only those establishments were covered in the Bureau's survey which had more than 20 wage earners. These included 14 plants, employing 1,264 wage earners, engaged solely in making dress straw hats; 4 establishments, with 258 wage earners, producing only harvest hats; and 3 plants, with 428 workers, making both dress straw and harvest hats. The survey also included 3 plants, with a total of 600 wage earners, producing dress straw hats but having departments in which fur- or wool-felt hats are made. In addition, the survey covered 422 workers employed in dress-straw-hat departments of 6 establishments whose principal products were woolor fur-felt hats.14 Three of the establishments with 268 employees were located in Connecticut, 3 with 450 wage earners in Missouri, and 12 with 549 workers in New York; the other 12 plants with 1,705 wage earners were in the States of California, Georgia, Massachusetts, New Jer sey, Texas, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Illinois. Measured by number of wage earners employed, New York, Missouri, and Maryland are the leading States in straw-hat manufacture. Most of the dress straw hats are produced in New York and Maryland, and most of the harvest hats in Missouri and Illinois. The greater number of the straw-hat establishments are in large metropolitan areas, only 5 dress-straw-hat plants with 212 wage earners and 3 harvest-hat establishments with 244 workers being found in communities of under 500,000 population. Trade-union organization is relatively extensive in the straw-hat industry. The plants with trade-union agreements included 12 dress-straw-hat establishments but only 2 plants producing harvest hats. 14 These 30 establishments employed 2,972 wage earners at the time of the survey. 27 EARNINGS AND HOURS IN HAT INDUSTRIES 28 Composition o f Labor Force Most of the operations in straw-hat manufacture are semiskilled in character. For the industry as a whole, about two-thirds (65.6 percent) of the workers were semiskilled, 26.6 percent skilled, and 7.8 percent unskilled (table 16). The proportions differed widely as between dress straw and harvest hats. In the latter, 84.3 percent of the workers were classed as semiskilled, while only 5.8 percent were skilled. In the dress-straw-hat establishments, on the other hand, 30.7 percent of the workers were skilled and 62.0 percent semiskilled. T able 16.— D istr ib u tio n o f w o r k e r s c o v er ed i n s u r v e y o f p ro d u c t, sk ill, a n d sex , 1 9 3 9 All workers Skilled workers s tr a w -h a t i n d u s t r y , Semiskilled workers by Unskilled workers Product Total Male Fe male 1,431 Total Male Fe male Total M ale Fe male Total M ale Fe male All products............... .......... 2,972 1,541 792 683 109 1,949 593 1,356 231 155 73 Dress straw hats.................. Harvest hats.......................... 2,489 1,145 1,344 483 286 197 764 28 655 28 109 1,542 407 367 1,175 226 1.81 183 48 123 32 60 Iff Percentage distribution All products...................... .. 100.0 48.1 51.9 26.6 22.9 3.7 65.6 20.0 45.6 7.8 5.2 2.6 Dress straw hats.................. Harvest hats......................... 10C.0 100.0 46.0 59.2 54.0 40.8 30.7 5.8 26.3 5.8 4.4 62.0 84.3 14.8 46.8 47.2 37.5 7.3 9.9 4.9 2.4 3.3 6.6 For the total industry, the labor force is composed of nearly equal proportions of males and females (48.1 percent males as against 51.0 percent females). In the harvest-hat branch, however, the number of males exceeds the number of females, the respective proportions being 59.2 percent and 40.8 percent. For dress straw hats, the figures were 46.0 percent for males and 54.0 percent for females. Moso of the females in both branches were in semiskilled occupations. Average H ourly Earnings All of the straw-hat establishments, with the exception of one small plant making harvest hats, paid a substantial proportion of their employees on a straight piece-rate basis. Over seven-tenths (72.8 percent) of the wage earners in the industry as a whole were piece workers, but the proportion of piece workers was considerably lower in the harvest-hat than in the dress-straw-hat plants, the percentages being 59.4 and 75.4, respectively. None of the establishments covered had production-bonus systems. Piece rates were in effect for a substantial proportion of the workers in most of the principal direct occupations, such as sewing-machine 29 MANUFACTURE OF STRAW HATS operators, trimmers, blockers, sprayers and painters, and leather inserters. The chief occupations paid largely on a time-rate basis include the working foremen, indirect workers, packers, and work distributors. According to the distribution in table 17, the individual earnings were widely dispersed. A few workers averaged under 25 cents, and the number receiving $1 and over amounted to 3.6 percent of the total. An outstanding feature of the distribution is the pronounced concentration of hourly earnings at exactly 25 cents, with over onetenth of the workers being paid exactly the minimum rate provided by the Fair Labor Standards Act. Aside from the grouping at 25 cents, the principal concentration is found between 30 and 35 cents, if an interval of 5 cents is used, the earnings of one-eighth (12.4 percent) of the workers falling within these limits. Nearly one-third (32.1 percent) of the wage earners averaged under 35 cents, and over onefifth (20.6 percent) received 67.5 cents or more. Male employees averaged 57.3 cents an hour, as compared with 41.1 cents for females. It will be observed that a considerable num ber of both groups received exactly 25 cents an hour, the proportion being 11.7 percent of the males and 10.1 percent of the females. T able 17.— P e r c e n t a g e d is t r ib u t io n o f s tr a w -h a t w o r k e r s , b y a vera g e h o u r ly e a r n i n g s , p r o d u c t, a n d s e x , 1 9 3 9 Dress straw hats A ll products Harvest hats Average hourly earnings All Fe workers Males males Under 25.0 cents.................................... Exactly 25.0 cents.................................. 25.1 and under 27.5 cents.................... 27.5 and under 30.0 cents.................... 30.0 and under 32.5 cents..................... 32.5 and under 35.0 cents..... ............... 35.0 and under 37.5 cents.................... 37.5 and under 40.0 cents.................... 40.0 and under 42.5 cents.................... 42.5 and under 47.5 cents.................... 47.5 and under 52.5 cents.................... 52.5 and under 57.5 cents.................... 57.5 and under 62.5 cents.................... 62.5 and under 67.5 cents.................... 67.5 a n d u n d e r 72.5 c e n ts ____ _ 72.5 and under 77.5 cents.................... 77.5 and under 82.5 cents.................... 82.5 a n d u n d e r 87.5 c e n ts _____ 87.5 and under 92.5 cents.................... 92.5 and under 100.0 cents........ ......... 100.0 and under 110.0 cents................ 110.0 and under 120.0 c e n ts .............. 12 0.0 c e n ts a n d o v e r ___ _ . Total.............................................. 0.3 10.9 4.5 4.0 7.1 5.3 0.3 11.7 3.7 6.1 3.2 4.8 5.6 8.7 6.7 6.0 5.1 4.3 4.8 3.0 3.4 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.8 .9 .9 100.0 2.2 5.0 2.6 2.2 4.6 5.5 5.5 4.9 5.6 5.8 7.4 5.4 5.8 3.6 3.7 3.6 3.8 1.9 0.3 10.1 5.3 5.7 9.0 7.8 8.7 7.1 6.5 11.7 7.9 6.9 4.6 3.0 2.3 .8 1.1 .7 .3 .1 .1 2.0 100.0 100.0 Total 0.1 10.1 4.3 4.4 6.8 5.5 6.4 4.9 5.1 8.4 6.5 5.9 4.9 4.3 5.0 2.9 3.7 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.1 1.0 Males 0.2 11.4 3.7 2.3 4.0 2.7 3.1 1.9 3.5 5.1 4.6 Fe males 0.1 8.6 4 .8 6.3 9.2 8.0 9.2 7.4 6.5 11.0 8.0 5.2 7.1 4.7 6.0 2.8 7.8 5.2 2.7 6.6 1.3 4 .6 4.0 4.4 4.5 4.6 2 .2 1 .1 2.4 100.0 100.0 1.0 .8 .3 Fe males Total Males 1.0 0.7 13.0 3.8 1.7 9.2 1.5 19.8 2.1 6.6 15.8 5.8 1.9 8.3 3.9 4.3 4.1 7.9 10.8 8.1 6.0 6.0 4.6 3.7 3.7 1.9 1.0 .6 3.5 3.5 9.2 7.0 8.8 5.9 7.3 4.9 6.3 6.3 3.1 1.7 8.6 2.0 7.1 5.6 5.1 6.1 16.2 7.1 6.1 4.1 4.1 1.0 .1 .1 100.0 .2 .4 .3 .7 100.0 100.0 100.0 Variations by Sex and Skill On the basis of skill-sex groups, the average hourly earnings in the industry as a whole ranged from 74.7 cents for skilled males to 30.5 cents for unskilled males (table 18). The average for skilled females 30 EARNINGS AND HOURS IN HAT INDUSTRIES was 49.7 cents, or 25 cents less than the average hourly earnings of skilled males. Among the semiskilled workers, the males averaged 45.5 cents, as against 40.9 cents for females. The unskilled males averaged 30.5 cents, while the unskilled females averaged 31.4 cents. T a b l e 18.— A v e r a g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s o f s tr a w -h a t w o r k e r s , h y p r o d u c t , s k i l l , a n d s e x , 1989 A ll workers Semiskilled workers Skilled workers U n skilled workers P roduct T o ta l M a le Fe m ale T o ta l M a le Fe m ale T o ta l M a le F e m ale T o ta l M a le Fe m ale A ll products_____ __________ $0,491 $0,573 $0,411 $0.713 $0.747 $0.497 $0,424 $0,455 $0,409 $0,308 $0,305 $0,314 D ress straw hats___________ H arvest hats______ _________ .5 0 0 .441 .595 .4 8 2 .416 .337 .717 .615 .753 .497 .615 ............ .4 1 9 .441 .437 .485 .414 .3 8 0 .301 .3 3 6 .298 .333 .308 0) 1 N u m b e r of workers not sufficient to ju stify com putation of an average. Variations by Product An examination of the plant averages shows that, of the 26 dressstraw-hat plants covered by the survey, 8 had averages under 45 cents an hour, 4 between 45 and 55 cents, 6 between 55 and 60 cents, 5 between 60 and 75 cents, and 3 over 75 cents. Of the 7 plants pro ducing harvest hats, 3 averaged under 45 cents and 4 between 45 and 55 cents an hour.16 The average hourly earnings of all workers in dress-straw-hat estab lishments was exactly 50 cents. This may be compared with 44.1 cents for employees of harvest-hat plants. As the distributions given in table 17 indicate, both branches of the industry employ substantial numbers of workers averaging under 30 cents an hour (18.9 percent in dress straw as against 24.5 percent in harvest hats). There were 10.8 percent of the dress-straw-hat workers, as compared with only 2.2 percent of the harvest-hat employees, who averaged 82.5 cents or more. Although average hourly earnings of all employees is higher in dressstraw-hat than in harvest-hat plants, for some skill-sex groups the opposite is true. For example, the semiskilled males averaged 48.5 cents an hour in harvest-hat plants, as compared with 43.7 cents in establishments making dress straw hats. Likewise, the unskilled males employed in the harvest-hat branch averaged 33.3 cents, as against 29.8 cents for the unskilled male employees of dress-straw-hat plants. On the other hand, there was a very substantial difference in favor of the skilled males in the dress-straw-hat branch, who averaged 75.3 cents as compared with 61.5 cents for the skilled males employed in harvest-hat plants. Similarly, the semiskilled females averaged T h e coverage in the straw -hat in du stry included 3 plants that m ad e b oth dress straw and harvest hats. Separate averages h ave been com puted for th e 2 departm ents in each of these establishm ents. 31 MANUFACTURE OF STRAW HATS 41.4 cents in dress-straw-hat plants and 38.0 cents in harvest-hat establishments. Table 19 shows the distributions of individual average hourly earn ings for the various skill-sex groups in the dress-straw-hat branch. T a b l e 19. — P e r c e n t a g e d i s t r ib u t io n o f s tr a w -h a t w o r k e r s , b y a v era g e h o u r ly e a r n i n g s sk ill a n d s e x 1 9 3 9 , , A ll workers Skilled workers Sem iskilled workers , U nskilled w orkers1 A verage hourly earnings T o ta l M a le U n d er 25.0 cants E x a c tly 25.0 cen ts................ ............... 25.1 and under 27.5 cen ts_________ 27.5 and under 30.0 cen ts_________ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents_________ 32.5 and under 35.0 cents_________ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents_________ 37.5 and under 40.0 cents_________ 40.0 and under 42.5 cents_________ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents_________ 47.5 and under 52.5 c e n t s ..—. ____ 52.5 and under 67.6 cents_________ 67.5 and under 62.5 cents_________ 62.5 and under 67.5 cents_________ 67.5 and under 72.5 cents_________ 72.5 and under 77.5 cents_____— 77.5 and under 82.5 cents_________ 82.5 and under 87.5 cents_________ 87.5 and under 92.5 cents_________ 92.5 and under 100.0 cents__ 100.0 and under 110.0 cen ts_______ 110.0 and under 120.0 cents_______ 120.0 cents and over 0 .1 10.1 4 .3 4 .4 6 .8 5 .5 6 .4 4 .9 5 .1 8.4 6 .5 5 .9 4 .9 4 .3 5 .0 2 .9 3 .7 2 .3 2 .2 2 .1 2 .1 1 .0 1 .1 T o ta l............................................... 100.0 0 .2 11.4 3 .7 2 .3 4 .0 2 .7 3 .1 1 .9 3 .5 5 .1 4 .6 4 .6 5 .2 6 .0 7 .8 5 .2 6 .6 4 .0 4.4 4 .5 F e m ale 0 .1 8 .6 4 .8 6 .3 9 .2 8 .0 9 .2 7 .4 6 .5 11.0 8 .0 7 .1 4 .7 2 .8 2 .7 1 .0 1 .3 .8 .3 .1 4.6 2 .2 2 .4 .1 100.0 100.0 T o ta l M a le 2 .0 .7 .5 1 .8 1 .8 2 .4 .8 2 .7 4 .2 4 .2 6 .8 6 .4 7 .5 10.4 6 .0 10.1 6 .3 6 .2 6 .2 6 .3 3 .3 3 .4 1 .2 .6 2 .1 .6 2 .1 3 .5 3 .2 5 .6 6 .7 7 .9 11.5 6 .7 10.7 6 .6 7 .2 7 .2 7 .3 8 .7 4 .0 100.0 100.0 1 .4 .2 F e m ale 5 .5 3 .7 3 .7 5 .5 9 .2 8 .7 1 .8 6 .4 8 .3 10.1 13.7 4 .6 4 .6 4 .6 1 .8 7 .3 4 .6 .9 100.0 T o ta l M a le 0 .1 9 .7 5 .3 6 .0 9 .2 7 .5 8 .5 7 .1 6 .5 10.7 7 .9 6 .2 4 .7 3 .2 2 .9 1 .7 .8 .6 .5 .4 .3 .1 .1 100.0 Fe m ale 0 .3 ai 2a 4 6 .3 5 .0 6 .6 10.1 8 .0 9 .9 8 .0 6 .6 11.7 8 .0 6 .8 4 .9 2 .8 2 .6 .9 .7 .5 .3 .2 6 .0 4 .1 6 .5 6 .0 4 .1 4 .4 6 .0 7 .6 7 .6 4 .1 4 .1 4.6 3 .8 4 .1 1 .4 .8 .8 1.1 T o ta l M a le 0 .5 45.9 11.5 7 .1 7 .7 4 .4 6 .5 3 .3 3 .8 5 .5 3 .8 .5 0 .8 3 9 .0 15.4 8 .9 11.4 4 .1 5 .7 1 .6 3 .3 5 .7 3 .3 .8 .5 _____ _____ L4 .3 .5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 * N u m b e r of female workers not sufficient to ju stify com putation of a distribution. Earnings in Relation to Fair Labor Standards Act The pronounced concentration of earnings in the straw-hat in dustry at exactly 25 cents an hour is evidence that the application of the 25-cent minimum resulted in a certain amount of readjustment in the wage structure of the industry. About one-fifth (19.7 percent) of the employees covered by the survey were averaging under 30 cents, which group will be affected by the new minimum taking effect on October 24, 1939. The pro portions amounted to 18.9 percent in the dress-straw-hat plants and 24.5 percent in the harvest-hat establishments. If 40 cents is taken as the limit, the number earning below that figure amounted to over two-fifths (43.0 percent) of the total workers. It will be observed that about the same proportion of employees in each branch received earnings under the 40-cent level, the percent ages being 42.5 for dress straw and 45.1 for harvest hats. A sub stantial number of the workers of both sexes in each branch were included in this group, the proportions ranging from 29.3 percent of the males in dress-straw-hat plants to 56.3 percent of the females in the harvest-hat establishments. 32 EARNINGS AND HOURS IN HAT INDUSTRIES Occupational Differences Occupational averages for both the dress-straw and harvest-hat branches are shown in table 20. In the dress-straw branch, average hourly earnings ranged from 86.0 cents for skilled male hand hangers to 29.0 cents for the male miscellaneous direct unskilled workers. The hydraulic blockers, who were most numerous among the skilled males, averaged 71.9 cents. The forewomen and leather inserters were the only female occupa tions classed as skilled. They averaged 55.0 and 48.2 cents an hour, respectively. T able 2 0 .— A v e r a g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s, w e e k ly h o u r s, a n d w e e k ly e a r n in g s o f str a w hat w o rk ersf b y p ro d u ct , sk ill, s e x , a n d o c c u p a tio n Skill, sex, and occupation N um ber of workers 1939 A verage w eekly hours Average w eek ly earnings D ress straw hats Skilled workers M a le s: Blockers, h a n d ................................................................................ Blockers, hydrau lic................. .................................................... Flangers, h a n d ......................................... .................................... Forem en, w orkin g..................... ........................................... .. M iscellaneous, direct.................................................................. M iscellaneou s, indirect.............................................................. Fem ales: Forew om en, w ork in g. — - ...................................................... L eather inserters............................................................................ A verage hourly earnings , 197 220 38 40 137 23 $0,820 .719 .860 .827 .665 .751 38.3 41.5 42.2 44.8 40.7 43.4 $31.43 29.83 33.30 37.02 27.04 32.63 23 86 .550 .482 43.7 40.0 24.01 19.29 26 83 53 186 19 .481 .354 .604 .421 .436 44.6 44.9 43.0 44.0 42.9 21.48 15.91 25.98 18.52 18.72 127 450 382 216 .424 .439 .399 .382 38.9 40.1 40.6 41.8 16.50 17.64 16.19 15.94 105 18 60 .290 .342 .308 44.8 47.5 41.9 13.00 16.25 12.90 Semiskilled workers M a le s: C lerks, factory .................................. ............................................. Packers.................................. ............................................................ Sprayers and painters_______ ______________ . . . ............... M iscellaneous, direct.................................................................. M iscellaneous, indirect.............................................................. Fem ales: Leather fitters ................ ................... ......................................... Operators.............. .......................... ........................................... — T r im m ers........................................ .................................................. M iscellaneous, direct.................................................................. Unskilled workers M ales: M iscellaneous, direct.................................................................. M iscellaneous, indirect............- ................................................ F em ales: M iscellaneous, direct..................................................... H arvest hats Skilled workers M a le s: M iscellaneous.......................................................................... 28 $0.615 43.7 $26.84 55 48 44 79 .548 .372 .597 .452 42.5 41.1 39.1 42.9 23.32 15.27 23.37 19.38 45 35 35 66 .416 .439 .354 .341 38.7 35.9 39.8 38.2 16.09 15.74 14.09 13.03 32 16 .333 .342 41.9 35.9 13.96 12.30 Semiskilled workers M a le s: Blockers and pressers....... .......................................................... Packers............................................................................................... Sprayers and painters.......... ...................................................... M iscellaneou s.................................................................................. Fem ales: B an d sewers.......... ................. ........................................................ B in der operators............................................................................ Insp ectors.......................................................................................... M iscellaneous....................... ........................................................... Unskilled workers M a le s: M iscellan eou s.......................................................................... Fem ales: M iscellaneou s..................................................................... MANUFACTURE OF STRAW HATS 33 Among the semiskilled workers in the dress-straw branch, the male sprayers and painters had the highest average, 60.4 cents an hour. On the other hand, the male packers averaged only 35.4 cents, which was the lowest for the semiskilled occupations. The female sewingmachine operators make up the largest occupational group in the straw-hat industry. Their earnings averaged 43.9 cents an hour, which was the highest average for the semiskilled females. There were too few unskilled employees in any separate occupation to permit the computation of an average. Relatively few of the occupational groups in the harvest-hat branch contained enough workers to justify the presentation of aver ages. All of the occupations for which averages may be shown were classed as semiskilled. It will be observed that the male sprayers and painters had the highest earnings, 59.7 cents an hour. This was 24.3 cents more than the average for female inspectors, who were the lowest-paid occupational group for which an average was com puted. It is interesting to compare the few occupations which are fairly comparable as between the dress-straw and the harvest branches. Thus, the sprayers and painters averaged 60.4 cents in the dressstraw-hat plants, as against 59.7 cents in harvest-hat establishments. On the other hand, the packers in harvest-hat plants earned 1.8 cents per hour more than the packers in dress-straw-hat establishments. Effect of Overtime on Hourly Earnings Of the 26 dress-straw-hat plants included in the survey, 13 paid extra rates for overtime work during the selected pay-roll period. The extra payments amounted in all to an average of 0.4 cent an hour. W ith the inclusion of the extra payments, average hourly earnings for the dress-straw-hat industry becomes 50.4 cents, as com pared with 50.0 cents with the extra overtime pay deducted. In view of the fact that the extra payments were widely distributed, it is doubtful if the average for any occupational group would be increased by as much as 1 cent by the addition of extra overtime earnings to the wages based on regular rates of pay. Extra overtime earnings in the harvest-hat branch totaled 0.3 cent an hour. In other words, the average for the entire branch with extra overtime pay included would have been 44.4 cents, instead of the 44.1 cents average for earnings at regular rates of pay. W eekly H ours Full"Time Hours O f the 30 establishments in which dress straw or harvest hats were made, 15 had a normal workweek of 40 hours, 12 plants were on a 44-hour basis, and in 3 establishments part of the employees had a 34 EARNINGS AND HOURS IN HAT INDUSTRIES 40-hour week while some were on a 44-hour basis. The plants hav ing a 40-hour week for all workers included 11 dress-straw-hat estab lishments, 3 plants in which only harvest hats were made, and 1 pro ducing both dress straw and harvest hats. Among the plants on a 44-hour basis, there were 9 dress-straw-hat establishments, 1 plant making only harvest hats, and 2 plants in which both dress straw and harvest hats were produced. The 3 plants operating on a com bined 40- and 44-hour basis were making only dress-straw hats. None of the establishments covered in this section of the survey had multiple-shift operations. Actual Weekly Hours The actual time worked for all employees covered in the survey of the straw-hat industry averaged 41.2 hours per week. The aver age for the dress-straw-hat branch was 41.3 hours, as against 40.3 hours in the harvest-hat establishments (table 21). The averages ranged from 45.2 hours for the small number of unskilled males in dress-straw-hat plants to 38.2 hours for semiskilled females in the har vest-hat branch. T a b l e 2 1 . — A v e r a g e w e e k l y h o u r s a n d w e e k l y e a r n i n g s o f s t r a w -h a t w o r k e r s , b y p r o d u c t y skilly a n d s e x t 1 9 S 9 A ll workers Skilled workers Sem iskilled w ork ers U n sk illed workers P roduct T o ta l M a le F e m ale T o ta l M a le F e m ale T o ta l M a le F e m ale T o ta l M a le Fe m ale A verage w eek ly hours A ll p ro d u c ts______ _________ 4 1 .2 4 2 .2 4 0 .2 4 0 .8 4 0 .8 4 0 .8 41.1 43.1 4 0 .2 4 3 .3 4 4 .6 4 0.6 D ress straw h a ts..................... H arvest hats............................. 4 1.3 4 0 .3 4 2 .2 4 1 .9 4 0 .5 3 8 .0 4 0 .7 43.7 4 0 .7 4 3.7 4 0 .8 4 1.3 40.1 4 4 .0 41.7 4 0 .5 3 8 .2 44.1 3 9 .9 4 5 .2 4 1 .9 4 1.9 0) A verage w eek ly earnings A ll products......................... — $20.20 $24.16 $16.53 $29.08 $30.49 $20.29 $17.40 $19.61 $16.44 $13.31 $13.58 $12.77 D ress straw h a ts___________ H arvest h a ts ............................ 20.66 17.80 25.14 20.19 16.85 14.34 29.16 26.84 30.64 26.84 20.29 17. 32 17.70 19.22 20.24 16.73 14.52 13.29 13.41 13.47 13.96 12.90 0) 1 N u m b e r of workers not sufficient to Justify com p utation of an average. The distribution of wage earners according to weekly hours worked shows that the bulk of them (75.6 percent) averaged between 32 and 44 hours, inclusive. Particularly noticeable is the heavy concentration (34.7 percent) of workers averaging exactly 44 hours. This, of course, results from the desire of the employer to operate the maximum number of hours without paying extra over time rates, as required by the Fair Labor Standards A ct. Neverthe less, about one-seventh (15.2 percent) of the workers averaged over MANUFACTURE OF STRAW HATS 35 44 hours, and presumably they were paid time and a half for the hours worked beyond the normal allowed under the act. About one-sixth (16.2 percent) of the workers in the industry as a whole were employed exactly 40 hours. Weekly Earnings 16 As shown in table 21, the weekly earnings of all employees in the straw-hat industry averaged $20.20 during the selected pay-roll period. The level of earnings was somewhat higher in the dress-straw than in the harvest-hat establishments, the respective weekly averages being $20.66 and $17.80. Comparison of the averages by skill and sex show that this difference was due primarily to the higher earnings of skilled workers in dress-straw-hat plants. Moreover, it will be ob served, the average for these employees was lower in the harvest-hat plants despite the fact that their actual workweek was 3 hours longer than that of the skilled workers in the dress straw-hat plants. The differences as between dress-straw and harvest hats were relatively minor for the other sex and skill groups. The distribution for all employees in the industry shows that four-fifths (79.7 percent) averaged between $10 and $30 a week. There were 14.9 percent paid $30 or more, and 5.4 percent received under $10. i® I t should be rem em bered that all w eek ly earnings data presented in this report are based on regular rates of pa y, excluding extra earnings for overtim e. Manufacture of Hat Materials Analysis of Sample The hat-materials industry includes establishments producing hatters’ fur, hat linings, sweat bands, and ribbons for hats. The most important of these products is hatters’ fur, which is the basic raw material used in the manufacture of fur-felt hats. According to the Census of Manufactures, the value of hatters’ fur produced in 1937 amounted to $9,681,184, which was over 60 percent of the combined value of all hat and cap materials. On the basis of number of employees, as shown in this survey, it is estimated that about 75 percent of the fur cutting for the hat industry is done in independent establishments. Most of this output is pro duced for sale, but there is also a small amount of fur cutting on a contract basis. The remaining 25 percent is made up of the fur cut by a few large hat plants for their own use. Aside from hatters’ fur, the principal products included under the designation of hat materials are leathers or sweat bands, linings, and bands. These are usually made in small independent plants that specialize in such products. One of the large integrated hat companies makes all types of trimmings for its own use, while several plants make their own linings. In addition, the industry contains a number of small contract shops that do leather reeding, tip (lining) printing, or leather stamping on a commission basis. The Bureau’s survey of the hat-materials industry covered 3,126 wage earners, employed in 52 establishments.17 This includes 21 independent fur-cutting plants, 4 fur-cutting departments operated in hat factories, 10 establishments making sweat bands, 6 plants pro ducing hat linings, and 11 establishments which made ribbons for hat bands. In addition, one large company is represented by both a fur cutting and a trimmings department. The number of wage earners covered total 1,785 in hatters’ fur and 1,341 in trimmings plants. As hat-trimmings plants are small, the coverage in this branch was extended to include plants having 5 or more wage earners. All of the establishments covered in this part of the survey were in or near the principal hat centers, such as Philadelphia, New York City, northern New Jersey, and the Danbury, Conn., area. Connecti cut was the leading State in fur-cutting, with 15 plants employing 965 wage earners. About one-third of these workers were employed in the fur-cutting departments of establishments producing hat bodies. it A s noted before, the report of the C ensus of M anu factures covering this indu stry includes both hat and cap m aterials, no break-dow n separating the tw o kind s of products. H ence, no com parison can be m ade betw een the coverage of the su rvey and the data show n b y the census. 36 MANUFACTURE OF HAT MATERIALS 37 New Jersey ranked second in importance with 6 plants (all independent establishments), employing 471 wage earners. The remaining hatters’ fur plants covered by the survey included 2 in New York, 1 in M assa chusetts, and 1 in Pennsylvania. Of the 28 trimmings plants, 11, with 452 workers, were in New Y ork; 5, with 429 wage earners, in Pennsylvania; 9, employing 344 workers, in New Jersey; and 3, with 116 workers, in Connecticut. A majority of the hat-band producers were in Paterson, N . J., which is the center of the silk industry. Trade-union organization is not common in the hatters’ fur branch of the industry. Collective agreements were found in only four estab lishments. In each instance, the employees were represented by the United Hatters, Cap, and Millinery Workers’ Union. On the other hand, a large majority of the trimmings plants had agreements with labor organizations. Several international unions were represented, including not only the United Hatters, Cap, and Millinery Workers, but the United Textile Workers and the United Leather Workers. Members of the latter organizations were found, respectively, in the silk hat-band plants and in the leather establish ments. Composition of Labor Force Because of the miscellaneous nature of the products included under the general designation of hat materials, a description of the labor force in the industry as a whole conveys an inadequate picture of the situation in any single plant. In fact, only the hatters’ fur branch is sufficiently homogeneous in this respect to justify such an analysis. In the hatters’ fur branch, over three-fifths (61.8 percent) of the workers were males (table 22). The majority of the occupations were classed as semiskilled, 70.0 percent of the workers being in this cate gory. The proportions of semiskilled employees differed considerably between the 2 sexes, however. Of the 1,104 males, 60.5 percent were semiskilled, 30.4 percent unskilled, and only 9.1 percent were in skilled jobs. Among the females, on the other hand, none were classed as skilled, while 85.5 percent were semiskilled, and 14.5 percent un skilled. The greatest variation among plants with respect to composition of the labor force is found in the trimmings branch. This is not sur prising, in view of the fact that these establishments include some that are engaged exclusively in tanning and dyeing leathers, others that specialize in printing and gold stamping, and still others that weave or braid silk for hat bands. 38 T able . 22 — EARNINGS AND HOURS IN HAT INDUSTRIES D i s t r i b u t i o n o f w o r k e r s c o v er ed i n s u r v e y o f h a t -m a t e r i a ls i n d u s t r y , b y p ro d u c t, sk illt a n d se x , 1 9 3 9 A ll workers Skilled workers Semiskilled w ork ers U n skilled workers P roduct T o ta l M a le Fe T o ta l M a le m ale Fe T o ta l M a le m ale Fe T o ta l M a le m ale Fe m ale A ll products.......... ................... 3,126 1,792 1,334 605 535 70 1,861 832 1,029 660 425 235 Hatters* fnr_ _ T r im m i n g s ^ ____________ 1,785 1,104 1,341 688 100 505 100 435 1,250 611 70 668 164 435 225 336 89 99 136 681 653 582 447 Percentage distribution 100.0 57.3 42.7 19.4 17.1 100.0 T r im m in g s .............................. .. 100.0 61.8 51.3 38.2 48.7 5.6 37.7 5.6 32.5 A ll produ cts............................. Hatters’ fnr 2.3 59.5 26.6 32.9 21.1 13.6 7.5 5.2 70.0 45.5 37.4 12.2 32.6 33.3 24.4 16.8 18.8 6.6 5.6 10.2 In the trimmings branch, the labor force consists of about equal numbers of the two sexes, the proportions being 51.3 percent males and 48.7 percent females. A majority of the males were skilled, whereas most of the females were in semiskilled and unskilled occupations. Average Hourly Earnings Although piece-rate systems of wage payment were in effect in all but four of the hat-materials plants, the number of employees on piece work amounted to only 32.7 percent of the total labor force in the hatters’ fur and 39.2 percent in the trimmings plants. Among the occupations in fur-cutting establishments in which substantial num bers of piece workers were found were carroters, clippers, and openers. In the trimmings plants, a majority of the piece workers were found among the cutters, lining makers, warpers, and weavers. The number of employees working under production-bonus systems amounted to less than 1 percent of the total labor force in the hatmaterials industry as a whole. The distribution of individual earnings, as shown in table 23, cov ered an effective range from 25 cents to about $1.20 an hour, within which were found all but 1.2 percent of the total workers. In terms of a uniform 5-cent class interval, the principal concentration (22.5 percent) was between 37.5 and 42.5 cents. The majority of the hourly earnings (55.1 percent) fell within the range from 35 to 57.5 cents. However, as many as one-third (34.9 percent) of the workers averaged 57.5 cents and over. On the other hand, exactly one-tenth received under 35 cents, while the number averaging under 25 cents was negli gible. 39 MANUFACTURE OF H AT MATERIALS T able 2 3 . — P er cen ta g e d i s t r ib u t io n o f h a t -m a t e r ia ls w o r k e r s , e a r n i n g s , skilly a n d s e x f 1 9 3 9 a v era g e Sem iskilled workers SkiDed w o rk e rs1 AD workers by h o u r ly U nskilled workers A verage ho u rly earnings T o ta l M a le U n d e r 25.0 cents _ _ _ E x a c tly 25.0 c e n ts, _ _ 25.1 and under 27.5 cents.................. 27.5 and under 30.0 cents.................. 30.0 and under 32.5 cents.................. 32.5 an d under 35.0 c e n t s ................ 35.0 and under 37.5 c e n ts................. 37.5 and under 40.0 cents............... .. 40.0 and under 42.5 cents................. 42.5 an d under 47.5 cents................. 47.5 and under 52.5 cents............... .. 52.5 and under 57.5 cents.................. 57.5 and under 62.5 cents.................. 62.5 and under 67.5 cents_________ 67.5 and under 72.5 c e n ts................. 72.5 and under 77.5 cents................. 77.5 and under 82.5 cents 82.5 and under 87.6 cents.................. 87.5 and under 02.6 cents 02.5 and un der 100.0 cents 100.0 and under 110.0 cents __ 110.0 and under 120.0 cents 120.0 cents and over 0 .1 1 .2 1 .2 1 .8 3 .7 2 .0 6 .3 12.5 10.0 8 .4 8 .9 9 .0 4 .9 4 .1 4 .1 4 .4 3 .0 3 .2 3 .4 2.8 2 .7 1 .2 1 .1 T o ta l............................................... 100.0 0 .1 .7 .7 .9 2 .2 1 .0 2 .0 2 .8 4 .1 7 .3 10.3 12.5 6 .0 6 .5 6 .3 6 .9 5 .0 5 .5 5 .7 4 .9 4 .6 2.1 F e T o ta l M a le T o ta l m ale 0 .2 2 .0 1 .9 2 .8 5 .8 3 .3 1 2.0 2 5.8 18.2 10.0 7 .0 4 .3 3 .4 .7 1.1 .9 .2 .1 .2 .1 1 .9 100.0 100.0 0 .2 .3 .2 .7 1 .2 .3 .5 1 .3 3 .6 6 .0 7 .3 6 .1 6 .0 7 .9 9 .3 6 .9 7 .9 7 .9 9 .9 8 .1 4 .3 5 .1 100.0 0 .2 0 .2 "*".Y 1 .2 1 .2 3 .3 2 .0 7 .0 16.2 11.5 8 .0 9 .2 10.9 5 .4 3 .1 3 .8 3 .9 2 .4 2 .7 3 .1 1 .5 1 .8 .2 .4 .4 2 .2 2 .8 5 .8 6 .0 6 .5 8 .6 9 .8 7 .7 8 .8 8.8 11.1 9 .2 4 .9 5 .8 100.0 .8 M a le 0 .4 "” .T 1 .2 .5 1 .2 1 .2 3 .8 5 .6 12.0 19.1 7 .3 6.0 Fe T o ta l M a le m ale 0 .3 1.1 2 .2 2 .0 5 .1 3 .2 11.7 2 8.4 17.8 9 .8 6 .9 4 .3 3 .9 .8 7 .1 7 .7 5 .2 1 .1 .9 .2 6.0 6.6 .6 .2 3 .2 4 .0 1 .3 .4 100.0 100.0 .1 100.0 3 .8 2 .0 4 .7 7 .7 2 .7 9 .7 13.3 13.9 14.2 11.5 5 .5 2 .1 2 .8 3 .3 6 .8 2 .6 5 .9 9 .2 9 .4 17.0 16.3 8 .5 3 .3 7 .5 1 .9 2.1 5 .0 1 .5 1 .1 .9 .2 F e m ale 6 .8 .4 7 .2 9 .4 3 .0 16.6 20.9 22.0 9 .4 3 .0 _____ __ .4 .9 1.6 _____ 1 .4 .2 .2 .2 100.0 100.0 100.0 i N u m b e r of fem ale w orkers not sufficient to ju stify com p utation of a d istribution. M ale wage earners averaged 65.1 cents an hour as against 40.6 cents for females, a difference of 24.5 cents. This difference declined with skill, amounting to 30.7 cents for the skilled, 24.2 cents for semi skilled, and only 8.7 cents for the unskilled employees. T a b l e 2 4 . — A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a r n i n g s o f h a t-m a te r ia ls w o r k e r s , b y p r o d u c t, s k i l l , a n d sex, 1 9 3 9 AD workers Semiskilled workers SkiDed workers UnskiDed workers Product T o ta l M a le Fe T o ta l M a le m ale F e T o ta l M a le m ale F e T o ta l m ale M a le F e m ale AJ1 p roducts............................. $0,552 $0,651 $0.406 $0,790 $0,821 $0.514 $0,520 $0.649 $0,407 $0,427 $0,455 $0.368 H atters’ fu r—........................... T r im m in g s ................................ .527 .588 .612 .715 .377 .437 .739 .802 .739 .842 "5 1 4 .539 .480 .671 .558 .380 .446 .446 .385 .468 .402 .361 .373 Variations by Product Examination of the plant averages shows that, of the 25 hatters' fur establishments, 5 averaged under 42.5 cents an hour, 6 between 45 and 50, 8 between 50 and 55, 3 between 55 and 60, and 3 over 60 cents. Of the 28 plants producing hat trimmings, on the other hand, 5 had averages between 42.5 and 50 cents, 9 between 50 and 55, 2 between 55 and 60, 6 between 60 and 65, and 6 over 65 cents. 40 E A R N IN G S AND HOURS IN HAT IN D U S T R IE S The hourly earnings of all workers in the hat-trimmings branch averaged 58.8 cents, or 6.1 cents higher than the average shown for employees in the hatters’ fur establishments. This was not true, however, of all skill-sex groups. The average hourly earnings of semiskilled and unskilled males were higher in the hatters’ fur than in the hat-trimmings branch, respectively, by 11.3 cents and 6.6 cents. On the other hand, the hourly earnings of skilled males in hat-trimmings establishments exceeded the average for skilled males in hatters’ fur plants by 10.3 cents. Likewise, semiskilled females averaged 6.6 cents more in the hat-trimmings than in the hatters’ fur branch, while unskilled females averaged 1.2 cents more in the former than in the latter. Table 25 shows the frequency distributions of individual earnings in the two branches of the industry. T a b l e 2 5 .— P er c e n ta g e d istrib u tio n o f ha t-m a teria ls w orkers , b y average h ou rly ea r n in g s , p ro d u ct , a n d s ex , 1 9 3 9 A ll products H atters’ fur T r im m in g s A verage hourly earnings TTnder 25.0 cents _ _ . ,T E x actly 25.0 cents.......................................... 25.1 and under 27.5 cen ts_______ _______ 27.5 and un der 30.0 cents_______________ 30.0 and under 32.5 cen ts. ......................... 32.5 and under 35.0 cents............ ............... 35.0 and under 37.5 cen ts........................... 37.5 and under 40.0 cents........................... 40.0 and under 42.5 cen ts______ ________ 42.5 and under 47.5 cen ts............ ............... 47.5 and under 52.5 cen ts.......... ................. 52.5 and under 57.5 cents............................ 57.5 and un der 62.5 cents............ ............... 62.5 and under 67.5 cents_______________ 67.5 and under 72.5 cents........................... 72.5 and under 77.5 cents........................... 77.5 and under 82.5 c e n t s ...................... . 82.5 and under 87.5 cents _ . 87.5 and un der 92.5 c e n t s ______ 92.5 and under 100.0 cen ts_____________ 100.0 and under 110.0 cents 110.0 and under 120.0 cents _ 120.0 cents and o v e r ____ T o ta l_______________________ ______ F e m ale T o ta l M a le 0 .1 1 .2 1 .2 1 .8 3 .7 2 .0 6 .3 12.5 10.0 8 .4 8 .9 9 .0 4 .9 4 .1 4 .1 4 .4 3 .0 3 .2 3 .4 2 .8 2 .7 1 .2 1 .1 0 .1 .7 .7 .9 2 .2 1 .0 2 .0 2 .8 4 .1 7 .3 10.3 12.5 6 .0 6 .5 6 .3 6 .9 5 .0 5 .5 5 .7 4 .9 4 .6 2 .1 1 .9 0 .2 2 .0 1 .9 2 .8 5 .8 3 .3 12 .0 2 5 .8 1 8 .2 1 0.0 7 .0 4 .3 3 .4 .7 1 .1 .9 .2 .1 .2 100.0 100.0 100.0 .1 T o ta l M a le 0 .1 1 .5 1 .8 2 .1 3 .9 2 .2 5 .9 16.4 8 .6 8 .4 9 .7 8 .2 3 .2 4 .7 4 .1 4 .6 3 .1 3 .2 3 .3 1 .9 2 .1 .8 .2 0 .5 L0 .6 2 .0 1 .2 2 .4 3 .5 5 .5 8 .7 1 2 .2 12 .0 5 .2 7 .6 6 .5 7 .3 5 .1 5 .2 5 .3 3 .1 3 .4 1 .3 .4 100.0 100.0 F e m ale 0 .3 2 .9 3 .2 4 .4 6 .9 3 .8 11 .7 37.1 1 3.6 7 .9 5 .4 2 .1 .1 .3 .3 100.0 F e m ale T o ta l M a le 0 .1 1 .0 .4 1 .3 3 6 1 .7 6 .7 7 .7 1 2 .2 8 .5 7 .8 10.1 7 .0 3 .2 4 .0 4 .0 2 .8 3 .1 3 .4 4 .0 3 .5 1 .7 2 .2 0 .1 .9 .1 1 .5 2 .5 .7 1 .5 1 .7 1 .9 5 .1 7 .1 1 3.4 7 .3 4 .8 6 .0 6 .2 4 .9 6 .0 6 .2 7 .7 6 .7 3 .3 4 .4 0 .2 1 .1 .6 1 .2 4 .7 2 .8 12.3 1 3.8 2 2 .9 12.1 8 .6 6 .6 6 .7 1 .5 2 .0 1 .5 .5 .2 .5 100.0 100.0 100.0 .2 Earnings in Relation to Fair Labor Standards Act Not only was the number of employees in the hat-materials in dustry averaging under 25 cents an hour negligible at the time of the survey, but there were also relatively few (1.2 percent) paid exactly 25 cents. Although the proportion receiving exactly 25 cents amounted to as much as 6.8 percent in the case of unskilled females, the actual number of workers involved in this group is insignificant. The number of workers averaging under 30 cents an hour, which becomes the minimum rate after October 24, 1939, amounted to 4.3 M ANUFACTURE OF HAT M A T E R IA L S 41 percent of the total labor force. Among the skill-sex groups, the only ones that will be affected materially are the semiskilled females and the unskilled males and females, the respective percentages in each group earning under 30 cents being 5.6, 8.2, and 14.4. The number of workers averaging under 40 cents an hour amounted to over one-fourth, 28.8 percent, of the total labor force. Very few skilled males received less than this figure, the proportion being 1.6 percent. Among the semiskilled workers only 4.7 percent of the males, as against 54.0 percent of the females, averaged under 40 cents. The proportion of workers averaging under 40 cents amounted to 32.7 percent of the unskilled males and 64.3 percent of the unskilled females. Occupational Differences Occupational averages for both branches of the hat-materials industry are shown in table 26, but there were too few employees in any single skilled occupation in the hatters’ fur branch to permit the computation of separate averages for them. The carroters, who constituted the principal male occupational class of the hatters’ fur branch, averaged 75.7 cents an hour. This was 3.7 cents lower than the figure for clippers, who averaged 79.4 cents, but substantially higher than the hourly earnings of the remain ing semiskilled males. The female fur sorters, who are classed as semiskilled, composed the largest occupational group in the hatmaterials industry. They were also the lowest-paid occupation for which separate data may be presented, averaging only 36.6 cents. Among the unskilled workers, the male drummers had the highest average, namely, 50.2 cents an hour. The lowest hourly earnings for the males were received by the brushers, who averaged 42.5 cents. It will be observed that for brushers and dryers and spreaders, in which both sexes were employed, the males earned more than the females, the difference being 3.7 cents for brushers and 7.7 cents for dryers and spreaders. In the hat-trimmings branch of the industry, the average hourly earnings of skilled males ranged from 95.5 cents for cutters to 82.8 cents for weavers, if the miscellaneous class is excluded. It will be observed that male weavers averaged considerably more than fe males, whose hourly earnings amounted to only 49.6 cents. Among semiskilled females, the highest average hourly earnings, namely, 53.0 cents, were reported for warpers. This figure was even higher than the average of the female weavers, who are classed as skilled employees. The semiskilled female lining makers averaged 49.6 cents. The lowest average for semiskilled females was 39.5 cents for pickers. Occupational averages could not be shown for the semi skilled males and both male and female unskilled workers. 4 2 E A R N IN G S AND H OU RS IN HAT IN D U S T R IE S T able 26 .— A v era g e h o u rly ea r n in g s , w eek ly h o u rs, a n d w eek ly ea r n in g s , o f hatm aterials w orkers, b y p ro d u ct, skiU , sex, a n d occu p a tion , 19 89 c=' ■:----- ........................— l .._, — z ..= N um ber of workers Skill, sex, and occupation A verage hourly earnings Average w eek ly hours Average w eek ly earnings H atters’ fur Skilled workers M a le s : M iscellan eou s, direct M iscella n eou s,in d ire ct . 50 50 $0,784 .6 9 6 4 2 .3 44.1 $33.14 30.69 184 163 125 124 45 27 .7 5 7 .7 9 4 .5 7 9 .5 6 5 .5)81 .562 3 5.7 36.7 3 9 .2 4 2 .2 4 0 .4 4 2 .4 27.02 29.14 22.67 23.83 23.49 23.85 883 135 64 .3 6 6 .403 .411 3 6 .1 3 5 .6 3 9 .8 13.21 14.37 16.36 61 35 78 26 136 .425 .5 0 2 .444 .441 .498 3 9.3 4 5 .6 4 4 .2 4 9 .0 4 1 .0 16.74 22.89 19.61 21.59 20.43 30 28 41 .3 8 8 .3 6 7 .3 3 9 37.1 40.1 37 .4 14.37 14.70 12.68 Semiskilled workers M a le s : Harroters ..... C lippers ................ F u r c u tte r s. ____________________________________________ B low ers an d m ixers_____________________________________ M iscellan eou s, direct___________________________________ M iscellaneous! indirect. ... Fem ales: F u r sorters . . . Openers M iscellaneous Unskilled workers M a le s: ■finishers . . . . . . _____ . . . ____ D ru m m ers________________________________________________ D ryers and spreaders___________________________________ W atch m e n ........ M iscellaneous, d irect.. _ ____ Fem ales: B rushers__________________________________________________ D ryers ftnd spreaders M iscellaneou s, direct H a t trim m in gs Skilled workers M a le s : G u tters___________________________________________________ Forem en, w orking ......... Printers . . . _ W e a v e rs__________________________________________________ M iscellaneou s____________________________________________ F em ales: W e a v e rs__________________________________________________ M iscellaneous ....................................... . . . ... 41 37 98 168 91 $0.955 .8 9 7 .857 .828 .774 3 9 .0 4 0 .5 4 1 .9 3 5.4 3 7.3 $37.20 86.33 85.93 29.28 28.86 45 25 .4 9 6 .541 31.1 3 8.2 15.42 20.69 Semiskilled workers M a le s: M iscellaneous _ _ .................. . Fem ales: P ickers____________________________________________________ L in in g m akers___________________________________________ W a rp e rs____ __ ___________________________________________ W in d e rs and reelers _ M iscellaneous _____ .. . _ 164 .558 3 9.4 22.02 49 149 46 79 124 .3 9 5 .496 .5 3 0 .411 .4 0 0 3 0.3 35.3 3 0.5 3 2 .0 37.1 11.97 17.48 16.19 13.14 14.85 89 136 .4 0 2 .3 7 3 39.1 3 6 .0 15.72 13.40 Unskilled workers M alegt M iscellaneous F em ales: M iscellaneous . .. . . . _ . . Effect of Overtime on Hourly Earnings Of the 25 hatters’ fur plants, 13 paid extra rates for overtime worked during the selected pay-roll period. In most cases, the overtime was paid at the rate of time and a half after 44 hours per week, in accord ance with the requirements of the Fair Labor Standards Act. A few establishments allowed time and a half after 8 hours in any day or after 40 hours per week. For the branch as a whole, the addition of all extra overtime pay would increase the average by only 0.4 cent. M ANUFACTURE OF H A T M A T E R IA L S 43 Extra overtime payments were also made by a number of establish ments in the trimmings branch of the industry. Several plants paid time and a third after 40 hours and time and a half after 44 hours per week. In this, as in the hatters’ fur branch, the total amount of extra overtime payments increased the industry average by 0.4 cent. W eekly Hours Full-Time Hours The majority of plants making hat materials were operating on a 40-hour basis during the pay-roll period covered by the survey. The total in this group included 17 fur-cutting establishments, 24 plants making hat trimmings, and 1 large integrated plant that produces both hatters’ fur and hat trimmings. The normal workweek con sisted of 44 hours in 6 establishments, including 4 engaged in process ing hatters’ fur and 2 in making hat trimmings. In 3 fur-cutting plants, some of the workers had a 40-hour week and others were on a 44-hour basis. One hat-trimmings establishment had a normal workweek of 42 %hours. Only two hatters’ fur plants and one hat-trimmings establishment employed workers on extra shifts. In all cases, however, the multipleshift operation was confined to only a few operators. No wage differentials between shifts were reported. Actual Weekly Hours The actual weekly hours of all employees in the hat-materials in dustry averaged 37.8 (table 27). The workers in hatters’ fur estab lishments averaged 38.8 hours, which may be compared with 36.5 hours for those in hat-trimmings plants. The averages for the various sex and skill groups ranged from 43.2 hours for skilled males in the hatters’ fur branch to 33.6 hours for skilled females in hat-trimmings establishments. The actual average weekly hours were shorter in the hat-trimmings than in the hatters’ fur branch for every skill-sex group except the semiskilled males, who averaged 1 hour more in the former than in the latter. Over three-fourths (77.6 percent) of the workers averaged between 32 and 44 hours, inclusive, per week. The wide prevalence of the 40-hour week is demonstrated by the fact that over one-third (36.4 percent) of the hatters’ fur workers and one-half (50.7 percent) of the hat-trimmings plant employees worked exactly 40 hours. On the other hand, 18.4 percent in the fur-cutting establishments, as against 6.0 percent in the trimmings branch, worked exactly 44 hours. The proportion of employees working under 32 hours amounted to 14.7 percent in hatters’ fur, as compared with 16.7 percent in hat trimmings. The number of workers employed over 44 hours amounted to 8.0 44 E A R N IN G S AND HOURS IN HAT IN D U S T R IE S percent of the labor force in the h a tted fur branch and 5.3 percent in the hat-trimmings plants. Virtually all of these employees in both branches were males. W eekly Earnings18 The weekly earnings of all employees scheduled in the survey of the hat-materials industry averaged $20.89 (table 27). The averages for the two branches were quite similar, amounting to $20.45 in hatters’ fur and $21.47 in hat trimmings. Although the actual workweek in fur plants exceeded that in hat-trimmings establishments by 2.3 hours, the average weekly earnings in the latter were slightly higher than in the former, due to the higher level of hourly earnings. An outstanding feature in both branches is the marked difference between the average weekly earnings of males and females. Thus, in the hatters’ fur branch males averaged $24.54, as against $13.82 for females, a difference of $10.72. In the hat-trimmings plants, the weekly earnings of males averaged $27.54 or $12.46 more than the average for females. In the industry as a whole 72.9 percent of the workers received between $10 and $30 per week. About one-tenth (9.6 percent) received under $10, while 17.5 percent were paid $30 or more. T a b l e 2 7 . — A v era g e w e e k ly h ou rs an d w eek ly e a rn in g s o f h a t-m aterials w o rk ers, by p ro d u ct , skilly a n d s ex , 1 9 8 9 All workers Product Skilled workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe Total Male male male male male Average weekly hours All products............. .......... 37.8 39.5 35.6 38.4 39.0 33.6 36.8 38.6 35.4 40.0 41.8 36.8 37.5 38.4 36.4 41.5 42.5 38.1 Hatters' fur........................ 38.8 40.1 36.6 43.2 43.2 Trimmings......................... 36.5 38.5 34.5 37.4 38.0 *33.6 35.6 39.4 34.2 37.2 39.1 36.0 Average weekly earnings All products........................ $20.89 $25.69 $14.44 $30.31 $32.02 $17.31 $19.17 $25.03 $14.44 $17.08 $19.04 $13.56 Hatters’ fur.......................... 20.45 24.54 13.82 31.92 31.92 20.21 25.77 13.82 18.51 19.91 13.76 Trimmings................... ....... 21.47 27.54 15.08 30.00 32.04 “17731 17.07 22.02 15.25 14.32 15.72 13.40 i8 It should be remembered that all weekly earnings data presented in this report are based on regular rates of pay, excluding extra rates paid for overtime. O
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