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The Earnings Gap
Between Women and Men
U.S. Department of Labor
Office of the Secretary
Women's Bureau

1979




Material contained in this publication is
in the public domain and may be
reproduced, fully or partially, without
permission of the Federal Government.
Source credit is requested but not
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contained herein.




The Earnings Gap
Between Women and Men
U.S. Department of Labor
Ray Marshall, Secretary
Women's Bureau
Alexis M. Herman, Director
1979




For sale b y the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D . C . 2O402
Stock Number 020-016-00060-7




CONTENTS
Page
Introduction

. . .

1

Occupation, Industry, and Class of Worker

2

Educational Attainment

3

Work Experience

4

Overtime Work

4

Earnings Differentials

4

Age
Race
Marital Status
Regions

4
5
5
5

Tables:
1.

Comparison of Median Earnings of Year-Round Full-Time
Workers, by Sex, 1955-1977

6

Earnings Distribution of Year-Round Full-Time Workers,
by Sex, 1977

7

3. Median Earnings of Year-Round Full-Time Civilian Workers,
by Occupation Group and Sex, 1977

8

2.

4. Annual Salaries of Scientists and Engineers,
by Field and Sex, 1976
5.
6.

Women With Earnings Ranking in the Top Half of All
Earners, by Occupation, 1973 and 1977

11

Median Earnings of Year-Round Full-Time Workers,
by Industry and Occupation, 1977

12

7. Median Earnings in 1977 of Year-Round Full-Time Civilian
Workers, by Class and Occupation, Sex, Race,
and Spanish Origin
8.
9.

10

14

Comparison of Median Income of Year-Round Full-Time
Workers, by Educational Attainment and Sex, 1977

15

Median Educational Attainment of Year-Round
Full-Time Workers, by Sex and Income, 1977

16

10. Average Annual Salary Offers, Bachelor Degree
Candidates, by Curriculum and Sex, 1976

17

11. Weekly Earnings of Overtime Workers Receiving
Premium Pay, by Sex, May 1977

18

12. Annual Medium Income in 1977 of Year-Round
Full-Time Workers, by Age and Sex

19

13.
14.

Median Wage or Salary Income of Year-Round
Full-Time Workers, by Race and Sex, 1977

20

Median Income in 1977 of Year-Round Full-Time Workers,
by Sex, Age, Marital Status, Race, and Spanish Origin . . .

21

15. Median Income of Year-Round Full-Time Workers, by
Region, Sex, Race, and Spanish Origin, 1977



22




Introduction
The magnitude and persistence of the earnings gap between women and men
is a familiar and important issue among working women for several reasons. First,
most women work because of economic need, and women have assumed a
significant role in the economic support of themselves and their famlies. Their
concentration in low-paying, dead end jobs makes their budget problems more
difficult. Second, the sustained earnings differential is in sharp contrast to the
gains women have made recently in the number and kinds of jobs they hold.
Women who worked at year-round full-time 1/ jobs in 1977 earned only 59
cents for every dollar earned by men (table 1, column 4). In fact, men's median
weekly earnings exceeded women's by about $116, so that women had to work
nearly 9 days to gross the same earnings men grossed in 5 days.
The earnings differential has not changed substantially in recent years. In
1977, the $14,626 earned by men was 70 percent more than the $8,618 earned by
women (table 1, column 5). The differential has remained at about this level since
1961. When the absolute difference between the earnings of men and women over a
20-year period is expressed in constant dollars, to take into account the reduced
purchasing power of the dollar, the disparity is even more evident. The differences
increased 64 percent—from $2,023 in 1957 to $3,310 in 1977 (column 6).
Women are clearly overrepresented among those workers whose earnings are
low. They are 3.2 times as likely as men to be earning between $3,000 and $4,999
and about as likely to be within the $5,000 to $6,999 earnings range. Women are
much less likely than men to be earning $15,000 and over (table 2, column 5).
The persistent female-male earnings differential is in contrast to the gains
women have made in employment in recent years. Two primary factors have
sustained the gap. First, despite the fact that increasing numbers of women are
securing higher level and better paying positions, the majority are still concentrated in lower paying occupations of a traditional nature which provide limited
opportunity for advancement. Second, the recent dynamic rise in women's labor
force participation has resulted in larger proportions of women who are in or near
the entry levels.
The labor force participation rate of women (the percent of all women 16
years of age and over who are in the labor force) has steadily increased since World
War II. Over the past 20 years it has risen from 37 percent to 50 percent. In 1958
women accounted for 33 percent of the civilian labor force; in 1978 they made up
about 42 percent. Many of the new entrants as well as reentrants to the labor
force must often accept relatively low-paying jobs, which tend to pull down their
median earnings. However, the earnings of many of these women may increase
over time, especially for those in nontraditional careers.
Several other factors are also significant in the gap between the earnings of
women and men. Although women workers are as well educated as men in terms of
median years of schooling completed, there are differences in the kinds of
education, training, and counseling they receive, which directs them into traditional and low-paying jobs. The fact that women working on full-time schedules
tend to work less overtime than men is also attributed to the earnings differential.

1/ Worked 50 to 52 weeks, 35 hours or more a week.




In addition, women on the average have fewer years of worklife experience than
men. Studies have shown, however, that even after adjusting for some of these and
other factors such as age, region, and industrial concentration, much of the femalemale earnings differential remains unexplained. Discrimination in hiring, promotions, and pay scales continues to be a major obstacle to equality for women in
the workplace. Data from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
indicate that women experience unusual difficulty in getting hired and promoted
into top career positions. Undoubtedly this is true in many instances and at various
job levels.
Differences in the occupations and industries in which women and men are
employed, their educational attainment, work experience, and hours of work are
discussed in the sections below. In addition, comparisons of the earnings of women
and men, highlighting differentials by age, race, and marital status, and by U.S.
regions, are provided in the data which follow.
Occupation, Industry, and Class of Worker
Despite recent changes in the structure of the labor force, and women's
increasing attachment to their jobs, historical patterns concerning "men's jobs" and
"women's jobs" still persist. Although this pattern has become less rigid in recent
years, such sex stereotyping still seems to restrict or discourage women, especially
older women, from entering many higher paying traditionally male occupations.
Of prime importance, then, in explaining the earnings differential is the
concentration of women in relatively low-paying occupations and lower status jobs
even within the higher paying occupation groups. For example, among the major
occupation groups employing large numbers of women in 1977, the earnings gap was
largest among year-round full-time sales workers, where most high-paying
commissioned, nonretail jobs were held by men (table 3). Even among sales workers
in retail trade, men's salaries were more than double women's. Men in retailing sell
most of the big ticket commissioned items while women sell most of the lower
priced items. Among professional and technical workers, men earned 52 percent
more than women. Doctors, lawyers, judges, engineers, college educators, or
architects were likely to be men, while elementary and secondary school teachers,
nurses, librarians, dietitians, and health technologists were usually women. The
earnings differential was smallest among nonfarm laborers, which included only
422,000 women in 1977.
When a detailed occupational comparison is made of fully employed women in
highly skilled jobs, the gap narrows but does not disappear. Among health workers
(except physicians, dentists, and related practitioners) and computer specialists,
men's earnings exceeded women's by 11 percent and 25 percent, respectively.
Among elementary and secondary school teachers, the gap was 28 percent. Among
managers, women in public administration had salaries which most nearly
approached men's. Still, they earned only 67 cents for every dollar earned by men.
The median salaries of women scientists in 1976 were from $1,700 to $6,600 less
than those of men in the same fields. The gap was widest in physical science,
where women earned a median salary of only $16,900 as compared with $23,500 for
men (table 4).
Between 1973 and 1977, the numbers and proportions of women with earnings
that ranked in the top half of all workers1 earnings, by occupation, increased (table
5). However, with notable exceptions, these increases were usually small and




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women accounted for small proportions of all workers with earnings above the
median in both 1973 and 1977. Among professional and .technical workers, women's
share of those earning more than the median (the top earners) increased from 12 to
16 percent. The largest increase was among clerical workers—an occupation in
which women continue to account for a far larger proportion of all persons in those
jobs.
The gap also tended to be narrower—and to a substantial degree—between
women and men government workers than between women and men in the private
sector (table 7). Wages and salaries for women in government amounted to 68
percent of men's, but among private workers, it was 59 percent. The wages of
women were much higher among government workers than among those in the
private sector. However, although black women in government had higher earnings,
women of Spanish origin in government had earnings significantly lower than their
counterparts who were private wage and salary workers. The narrowest wage gap
existed in State and local government among all classes of employees. But wages
and salaries for these workers, male and female, white and black, tended to be
lower than those of private and Federal workers.
Educational Attainment
The educational background of workers often determines not only the type of
job but also the level within an occupation for which they can qualify at entry.
However, women who work year round full time earn substantially less than fully
employed men who have the same number of years of education (table 8). In fact,
in 1977 women with 4 years of college had lower incomes than men who had completed only the 8th grade.
Fully employed women high school graduates (no
college) had less income on the average than fully employed men who had not
completed elementary school.
The absolute dollar gap between women and men widened with increasing
levels of educational attainment, with only two exceptions—persons with 1 to 3
years of college only and those with graduate and professional degrees* The
relative income position of women (women's income as a percent of men's, column
4) was at a low point for an educational attainment of 8 years (54.3 percent).
Women's relative income improved with additional schooling, with the exception of
4 years of college only. Here, men's income increased dramatically with the
addition of a bachelor's degree, while women's increased modestly. The gap was
narrowest between those who had completed 5 or more years of college. Even at
this level, women's income was only 65 percent of men's. The extent to which
men's income exceeded women's is reflected in the relative income differentials
(column 5). The fact that the marginal return on the investments in education was
greater for men than for women is confirmed by the data in columns 6 and 7 of
table 8. Only among the small number of workers completing 5 years of college or
more was the return from an additional education investment better for women
than for men.
Educational attainment data further suggest that women needed more education than men to reach the middle- to upper-income categories. In 1977, among
workers in income categories ranging from $4,000 upward, women consistently had
a higher median educational attainment than men (table 9). Among persons with
incomes of $15,000 to $19,999 and $20,000 to $24,999, women's median educational
attainments were 14.5 years and 16.3 years compared with men's 12.8 and 13.0
years, respectively. Higher education (a median attainment of 13 years or more)
became important for men with incomes over $20,000. For women, education
became an important component for those with incomes over $12,000.




-3-

Work Experience
Along with education, work experience has been considered another partial
explanation for the earnings differential between women and men. The theory is
that earnings are affected by the amount of experience on the job or, in general,
the average number of years a person works during his or her lifetime. The
discontinuous worklife of some women adversely affects their earnings potential.
Also, many women, especially older women who anticipated working in the home
for a larger portion of their lives, did not prepare themselves for long-term careers
in full-time jobs which would provide higher earnings. Women, upon reentering the
labor market after a period of absence—perhaps devoted to childbearing and other
family responsibilities—often experience difficulty in finding a rewarding job.
These women may find employers unwilling to credit their previous work
experience or their activities during the period they were out of the labor force as
evidence of current job skills or future potential.
One would expect that young women and men without work experience but
with the same educational background in the same occupational fields would receive the same entry level salaries. Surveys of starting salaries for women and
men graduating from college, however, have for many years revealed differences in
"offers" received by women and men job seekers. This gap has narrowed appreciably in recent years, and in certain highly technical fields with a limited number
of openings, the salary offers for first jobs to women exceed menfs. However, the
majority of women continue to receive lower offers than men.
According to a 1976 survey, women who entered the job market after graduation in June 1976 would receive higher salary offers than men in 9 of the 19 fields
enumerated in table 10. This is a marked change from earlier years when salaries
offered to women were substantially below those of men in all fields. In 1970, for
example, the spread between the offers to women and men ranged from $1,032 less
for women in accounting to $216 less for them in economics and finance.
But in 1976, the range was from a $1,152 disadvantage for women in the
social sciences to an advantage of $588 in civil engineering. These figures, of
course, do not indicate whether different salaries are being offered to women and
men hired by the same company for the same type job, but they are averages of
offers by all surveyed companies planning to employ graduates in specified fields.
Overtime Work
Of the 7.7 million workers who received pay for working overtime in May
1977, only 22 percent were women. The proportion of men employed full time who
worked 41 hours or more averaged about 24 percent in May 1977; only 16 percent of
women who were employed full-time worked overtime.
Not only is the proportion of women who work overtime smaller, but women's
weekly earnings, even with premium pay, remain lower than men's. About 2 out of
5 women who worked overtime in May 1977—but only 1 out of 8 men—earned less
than $150 a week. Only 16 percent of the women but 33 percent of the men earned
$300 or more a week. Median overtime earnings for all men were $252 a week;
they were only $161 for women (table 11).
Earnings Differentials
Age.—Although women who worked year round full time had incomes in 1977
equal to only 58 percent of similarly employed men, the widest differential was
between women and men aged 45 to 49 years—the ages where men's income on the




-4-

average, peaked (table 12). Women's income peaked at a much earlier age—30 to
34 years—but their median incomes by age did not vary as extremely as men's.
These characteristics are symptoms of women's dead-end careers and general lack
of labor force mobility. The earnings gap widened after age 35, as men's careers
continued to advance and earnings increased, and remained extreme through the
usual working age of 65 years, and even beyond.
Women aged 30 to 34 had the highest average income among women—$9,629.
This amount is only slightly higher than the median figure for each age group
between 25 and 69 years. However, the $17,347 peak income for men which occurred among those aged 45 to 49 years, was significantly greater than the income
of younger men aged 25 to 29—at the beginning of their careers. Again, these data
suggest the contrast between men's increased earnings with experience and job
growth in comparison with women's stagnant earnings pattern.
Race.—The wages of both white and black women are substantially less than
the wages of men, either white or black. Although fully employed minority women
continue to have lower wages than white women, the gap between these women was
only $402, or 5 percent less than white women's wage and salary income in 1977
(table 13).
The wage differential between nonwhite women and men was considerably
less than that between white women and men. The gap between black women and
men was $2,401, or 23 percent less than black men's wages. White men's wages
exceeded white women's by $6,443, or 42 percent less than white men's wages. The
gap between white and black men was $4,177, or 27 percent less than white men',s
wage and salary income.
Marital Status.—Among women aged 25 to 64 years who worked year round
full time in 1977, those who were divorced or single had the highest incomes,
substantially higher than that of married and widowed women. However, the income of married men was significantly above that of single and divorced men.
The income differential by gender was smallest between those individuals who
were single or divorced (table 14). In fact, single women's income was 84 percent
of single men's, while divorced women's income was 76 percent of that of divorced
men.
The income of single black women aged 25 to 64 years exceeded that of single
black men. Also, the income differential was small between black women and men
who were separated.
Regions.—The income differentials by sex and region are fairly consistent
throughout the country. Nearly all sections were close to the national female/male
earnings ratio of 58.5 percent in 1977 (table 15). Generally women fared best in
this comparison in the Northeast, especially in the Middle Atlantic States where
women's income was 62 percent of men's. The widest differential was in the North
Central States, particularly the East North Central region where women's income
amounted to 57 percent of men's.
The differential between black women and men was most favorable in the
South, especially in the South Atlantic States, due mostly to the much lower earnings of black men. The gap was widest in the North Central States, largely because
of the relatively high earnings of black men in that region.




-5-

Table 1.—Comparison of Median Earnings of Year-Round Full-Time Workers,
by Sex, 1955-1977
(Persons 14 years of age and over)

Year

Median earnings
Women
Men
(2)
(1)

Earnings
gap in
dollars
(3)

1977
1976
1975
1974
1973
1972
1971
1970
1969
1968
1967
1966
1965
1964
1963
1962
1961
1960
1959
1958
1957
1956
1955

$8,618
8,099
7,504
6,772
6,335
5,903
5,593
5,323
4,977
4,457
4,150
3,973
3,823
3,690
3,561
3,446
3,351
3,293
3,193
3,102
3,008
2,827
2,719

$14,626
13,455
12,758
11,835
11,186
10,202
9,399
8,966
8,227
7,664
7,182
6,848
6,375
6,195
5,978
5,974
5,644
5,417
5,209
4,927
4,713
4,466
4,252

$6,008
5,356
5,254
5,063
4,851
4,299
3,806
3,643
3,250
3,207
3,032
2,875
2,552
2,505
2,417
2,528
2,293
2,124
2,016
1,825
1,705
1,639
1,533

Notes:

Women's
earnings
as a
percent
of men's
(4)

Percent
men* s
earnings
exceeded
women1s
(5)

Earnings
gap in
constant
1967 dollars
(6)

58.9
60.2
58.8
57.2
56.6
57.9
59.5
59.4
60.5
58.2
57.8
58.0
60.0
59.6
59.6
59.5
59.4
60.8
61.3
63.0
63.8
63.3
63.9

69.7
66.1
70.0
74.8
76.6
72.8
68.0
68.4
65.3
72.0
73.1
72.4
66.8
67.9
67.9
73.4
68.4
64.5
63.1
58.8
56.7
58.0
56.4

$3,310
3,141
3,259
3,433
3,649
3,435
3,136
3,133
2,961
3,079
3,032
2,958
2,700
2,696
2,637
2,790
2,559
2,394
2,308
2,108
2,023
2,014
1,911

For 1967-77, data include wage and salary income and earnings from
self-employment; for 1955-66, data include wage and salary income only.
Column 3 - column
Column 4 = column
Column 5 = column
Column 6 = column
(1967 = $1.00).

2
1
2
3

minus column 1.
divided by column 2.
minus column 1, divided by column 1.
times the purchasing power of the consumer dollar

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: "Money Income of
Families and Persons in the United States,1' Current Population Reports, 1957 to 1977,
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Handbook of Labor Statistics/




- 6 -

Table 2.—Earnings Distribution of Year-Round Full-Time Workers,
by Sex, 1977
(Persons 14 years of age and over).

Earnings
group

Likelihood
of a woman
rather than
Number
a man to be
(in thousands) Distribution in each earnWomen
Men Women
Men ings group 1/
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
en

Number and
distribution

19,238

39,263

100.0

100.0

1.0

32.9

713
1,667
3,810
5,921
5,234
1,692
180

1,026
1,057
2,356
4,955
10,883
13,888
5,099

3.7
8.7
19.8
30.8
27.3
8.8
.9

2.6
2.7
6.0
12.6
27.7
35.4
13.0

1.4
3.2
3.3
2.4
1.0
.2
(2/)

41.0
61.2
61.8
54.4
32.5'
10.9
3.4

Less than $3,000
$3,000 to $4,999
$5,000 to $6,999
$7,000 to $9,999
$10,000 to $14,999
$15,000 to $24,999
$25,000 and over

Notes:

Women
as
percent
of all
earners
(6)

Cumulative
distribution
Women
Men
(7)
(8)

3.7
12.4
32.2
63.0
90.3
99.1
100.0

2.6
5.3
11.3
23.9
51.6
87.0
100.0

Individual items may not add to totals because of rounding.
Column 5 - column 3 divided by column 4.
Column 6 = column 1 divided by the sums of columns 1 and 2, times 100.

U
This measure would show earnings equality if\the coefficient for each income
group were equal to 1.0. This is a more accurate method of assessing the earnings
disparity than simply comparing medians.
2/

Less than 0.1.

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census:
Reports, P.60, No. 118.




- 7 -

Current Population

Table 3.—Median Earnings of Year-Round Full-Time Civilian Workers*
by Occupation Group and Sex, 1977
(Persons 14 years of age and over)

Occupation group
Total

Women

Men

Dollar
gap

Women's
earnings
as a
percent
of men's

Percent
men's
earnings
exceeded
women's

$8,618

$14,626

$6,008

58.9

69.7

Professional and technical workers
Accountants
Computer specialists
Health workers (except physicians,
dentists, and related practioners)
Teachers
College and university
Elementary and secondary
Engineering and science technicians

11,995
11,155
15,135

18,224
17,312
18,849

6,229
6,157
3,714

65.8
64.4
80.3

51.9
55.2
24.5

12,093
11,970
15,172
11,732
11,566

13,360
15,790
20,337
15,029
15,147

1,267
3,820
5,165
3,297
3,581

90.5
75.8
74.6
78.1
76.4

10.5
31.9
34.0
28.1
31.0

Managers and administrators
Salaried
Manufacturing
Retail trade
Finance, insurance, and real estate
Public administration
Other industries
Self-employed
Retail trade

9,799
10,272
11,277
8,437
10,684
12,568
10,839
4,258
4,732

18,086
19,023
22,523
15,076
19,696
18,673
20,220
12,428
10,554

8,287
8,751
11,246
6,639
9,012
6,105
9,381
8,170
5,822

54.2
54.0
50.1
56.0
54.2
67.3
53.6
34.3
44.8

84.6
85.2
99.7
78.7
84.4
48.6
86.5
191.9
123.0

6,825

16,067

9,242

42.5

135.4

11,020
5,529
5,413

18,907
11,110
10,114

7,887
5,581
4,701

58.3
49.8
53.5

71.6
100.1
86.8

Sales workers
Insurance, real estate, and stock
agents and brokers
Retail trade
Sales clerks
Clerical workers
Bookkeepers
Cashiers and counter clerks
(except food)
Office machinery operators

8,601
8,516

13,966
13,520

5,365
5,004

61.6
63.0

62.4
58.8

6,632
9,019

10,139
13,076

3,507
4,057

65.4
69.0

52.9
45.0

Craft and kindred workers
Blue-collar worker supervisor, n.e.c.

8,902
9,138

14,517
16,202

5,615
7,064

61.3
56.4

63.1
77.3

Operatives, including transport
Manufacturing
Durable goods
Nondurable goods
Nonmanuf ac turing
Operatives (except transport)

7,350
7,479
8,305
6,736
6,401
7,342

12,612
12,644
12,648
12,631
12,536
12,384

5,262
5,165
4,343
5,895
6,135
5,042

58.3
59.2
65.7
53.3
51.1
59.3

71.6
69.1
52.3
87.5
95.8
68.7




- 8 -

Table 3*—Median Earnings of Year-Round Full-Time Civilian Workers,
by Occupation Group and Sex, 1977—Continued
(Persons 14 years of age and over)

Occupation group

Laborers (except farm)
Manufacturing

Women

Men

Dollar
gap

Women's
earnings
as a
percent
of men's

Percent
men's
earnings
exceeded
women's

$7,441
7,533

$10,824
12,061

$3,383
4,528

68.7
64.5

45.5
60.1

Service workers (except private
household)
Cleaning service workers
Food service workers
Health service workers
Personal service workers

6,108
6,353
5,255
7,050
6,097

10,332
9,201
7,332
8,643
9,553

4,224
2,848
2,077
1,593
3,456

59.1
69.0
71.7
81.6
63.8

69.2
44.8
39.5
22.6
56.7

Farm workers

1,635

6,412

4,777

25.5

292.2

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population
Reports, P-60, No. 118.




- 9 -

Table 4.—Annual Salaries of Scientists and Engineers,
by Field and Sex, 1976
Percent
men1 s
salary
exceeded
women

Field

Median salary
Men
Women

Dollar
gap

All fields

$19, 000

$23,100

$4,100

21.6

Physical science
Mathematical science
Computer science
Environmental science
Engineering
Life science
Psychology
Social science

16,900
20,100
20,100
22,200
18,200
17,300
20,300
19,000

23,500
24,100
21,800
25,300
23,200
21,100
23,500
24,900

6,600
4,000
1,700
3,100
5,000
3,800
3,200
5,900

39.1
19.9
8.5
14.0
27.5
22.0
15.8
31. 1




Source:

National Science Foundation, 1978.

- 10 -

Table 5.—Women With Earnings Ranking in the Top Half of All Earners,
by Occupation, 1973 and 1977
(Persons 14 years of age and over)

Occupation group

Professional, technical workers
Managers and administrators
Sales workers
Clerical workers
Craft and kindred workers
Operatives (except transport)
Transport operatives
Laborers (except farm)
Service workers(except private
household)
Farmers and farm managers
Farm laborers and supervisors
Private household workers

1977
Women
with
Workers
earnings
above
Median with
earnings earnings median
for all
of all above
workers
workers median
(in thousands)

Women
as a
percent
of all
workers
above
median

1973
Women
with
Workers earnings
Median with
above
earnings earnings median
of all
above
for all
workers median
workers
(in thousands)

$15,342
16,222
13,560
9,365
228
io;176
13,066
10,427

5,127
A,305
1,552
4,995
4,350
3;317
1,110
1,071

822
259
104
3,048
59
443
9
36

16.0
6.0
6.7
6.1.0
1.4
13.4
.8
3.4

$12,500
13,400
10,114
7,194
10,655
7,220
(1/)
8,511

4,650
3,798
1,491
4,584
4,529
4,704
(1/)
1,068

522
171
56
1,788
15
495
(1/)
16

11.9
4.5
3.8
39.0
.3
10.5
(1/)
1.5

4.1
1.5
2.9
22.0
1.1
2.9
(1/)
1.9

8,030
5,219
6,860
2,729

2,550
555
235
88

694
4
6
87

27.2
.7
2.6
98.9

6,595
(1/)
(1/)
(2/)

2,458
(1/)
(1/)
(2/)

439
(1/)
(1/)
(2/)

17.9
(1/)
(1/)
(27)

9.3
(1/)
(1/)
(2/)

_1 / Base less than 75,000 for women.
2_/ Base less than 75,000 for men.
Source:

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Unpublished data.




Women
as a
percent
of all Percentage
workers
point
above increase,
median 1973 to 1977

Table 6.—Median Earnings of Year-Round Full-Time Workers,
by Industry and Occupation, 1977
(Persons 14 years of age and over)

Men

Dollar
gap

Women's
earnings
as a
percent
of men's

$8,618

$14,626

$6,008

58.9

69.7

4,208
(1/)
8,723
(1/)
8,788
(1/)
Q/>

7,142
16,867
14,205
18,527
19,238
13,168
10,210

2,934

58.9

69.7

Manufacturing
Professional and managerial
Clerical and sales
Craft workers and operatives
Other workers

8,519
11,744
9,511
7,601
7,979

15,111
20-453
14,700
13,826
12,036

6,592
8,709
5,189
6,225
4,057

56.4
57.4
64.7
55.0
66.3

77.4
74.2
54.6
81.9
50.8

Durable goods
Professional and managerial
Clerical and sales
Craft workers and operatives
Other workers

9,115
12,009
9,915
8,421
(I/)

15,267
20,781
14,602
13,925
12,284

6,152
8,772
4,687
5,504

59.7
57.8
67.9
60.5

67.5
73.0
47.3
65.4

—

—

Nondurable goods
Professional and managerial
Clerical and sales
Craft workers and operatives
Other workers

7,904
11,507
9,017
6,830
8,001

14 733
19,841
14,902
13,633
11,351

6,829
8,334
5,885
6,803
3,340

53.6
58.0
60.5
50.1
70.6

86.4
72.4
65.3
99.6
41.7

Transportation, communication,
and other public utilities
Professional and managerial
Clerical and sales
Craft workers and operatives
Other workers

10,940
12,245
10,733
(1/)
a/)

16,130
20,044
15,216
16,059
12,208

5,190
7,799
4,483

67.8
61.1
70.5

47.4
63.7
41.8

8,984
10,479
8,987
(1/)
a/)

15,731
19,804
16,645
12,555
10,839

6,747
9,325
7,658

6,655
8,124
6,782
7,468
5,096

11,553
14,150
10,840
10,830
8,218

4,898
6,026
4,058
3,362
3,122

Industry and occupation
of longest job

Women

Total
Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries
Mining
Construction
Professional and managerial
Clerical and sales
Craft workers and operatives
Other workers

Wholesale trade
Professional and managerial
Clerical and sales
Craft workers and operatives
Other workers
Retail trade
Professional and managerial
Clerical and sales
Craft workers and operatives
Other workers




- 12 -

—

5,482
—

10,450

—

61.4
—

45.7

Percent
men's
earnings
exceeded
women's

—

62.8
—

118.9

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

.

—

—

—

57.1
52.9
54.0

75.1
89.0
85.2

—

—
—

—

57.6
57.4
62.6
69.0
62.0

—

73.6
74.2
59.8
45.0
61.3

Table 6.—Median Earnings of Year-Round Full-Time Workers,
by Industry and Occupation, 1977—Continued
(Persons 14 years of age and over)

Dollar
gap

Womenf s
earnings
as a
percent
of men's

Percent
men's
earnings
exceeded
women* s

50.8
55.9
49.7

96.9
78.9
101.1

Industry and occupation
of longest job

Women

Men

Finance, insurance and real estate
Professional and managerial
Clerical and sales
Craft workers and operatives
Other workers

$8,578
11,072
8,258
(1/)
(I/)

$16,889
19,810
16,609
(1/)
8,069

$8,311
8,738
8,351

Business and repair services
Professional and managerial
Clerical and sales
Craft workers and operatives
Other workers

8,258
11,419
7,740
(1/)
(I/)

12,358
19,316
15,505
10,197
9,037

4,100
7,897
7,765

Personal services
Professional and managerial
Clerical and sales
Craft workers and operatives
Other workers

5,232
(1/)
6,732
5,342
4,659

10,499
13,333
(1/)
10,333
8,573

5,267

Entertainment and recreation services

8,127

Professional and related services
Professional and managerial
Clerical and sales
Craft workers and operatives
Other workers
Public administration
Professional and managerial
Clerical and sales
Craft workers and operatives
Other workers

11

—
—

—

—

—

—

—

—

66.8
59.1
49.9

49.6
69.2
100.3

—

—

—

—

49.8

100.7
—

—

—

—

—

—

4,991
3,914

51.7
54.3

93.4
84.0

12,161

4,034

66.8

49.6

9,422
11,919
8,264
7,222
6,761

15,426
17,779
10,552
13,091
8,742

6,004
5,860
2,288
5,869
1,981

61.1
67.0
78.3
55.2
77.3

63.7
49.2
27.7
81.3
29.3

10,327
12,315
9,930
(1/)
(1/)

16,051
18,700
15,855
15,236
14,124

5,724
6,385
5,925

64.3
65.9
62.6

55.4
51.8
59.7

—

—

Base less than 75,000.

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census:
Reports, P-60, No. 118.




- 13 -

Current Population

—

—

Table 7.—Median Earnings in 1977 of Year-Round Full-Time Civilian Workers,
by Class and Occupation, Sex, Race, and Spanish Origin
(Persons 14 years of age and over)

Class and occupation

Women

Total

$8,618

$14,626

$8,672

$15,060

$8,097

$10,445

$7,516

$10,789

8,213
(2/)
8,226

14,784
7,682
14,945

8,311
(2/)
8,325

15,179
7,932
15,275

7,211
(2/)
7,268

10,136
(2/)
10,275

7,211
(2/)
7,228

10,586
7,799
10,802

11,633
10,045
6,809
8,552
8,898
7,355
7,416

18,564
18,981
16,004
13,057
14,963
12,709
11,255

11,540
10,000
6,860
8,547
8,882
7,505
7,248

18,626
19,227
16,156
13,403
15,135
13,010
12,061

11,522
(2/)
(2/)
8,512
(2/)
6,504
(2/)

16,217
13,591
(2/)
8,964
10,945
10,612
8,320

(2/)
(2/)
(2/)
8,352
(2/)
6,494
(2/)

16,303
15,329
(2/)
9,790
11,164
10,567
9,605

6,061
2,743

8,662
(2/)

6,104
1,887

9,420
(2/)

5,880
3,788

7,420
(2/)

5,989
(2/)

(2/)
8,019

10,342
10,327
10,425
8,967
11,508
12,001
11,411
8,886
10,161
9,058
10,390
9,085

15,182
16,051
14,708
12,658
17,118
17,314
16,154
15,835
13,951
14,679
14,605
12,148

10,420
10,275
10,553
8,935
11,563
11,701
12,681
(2/)
10,254
9,050
10,499
8,938

15,444
16,307
15,162
12,882
17,623
17,758
18,653
16,082
14,340
15,059
15,039
12,370

9,704
10,507
9,465
(2/)
11,479
13,249
(2/)
(2/)
9,294
8,694
9,447
(2/)

12,206
13,637
11,001
10,321
14,966
15,322
(2/)
(2/)
10,624
11,314
10,623
9,774

5,989
9,192
(2/)
9,255
(2/)
(2/)
(2/)
(2/)
8,923
(2/)
9,173
(2/)

12,195
14,722
11,589
(2/)
(2/)
(2/)
(2/)
(2/)
10,881
(2/)
11,277
(2/)

4,737
(2/)
5,213

11,522
5,820
13,307

4,683
(2/)
5,179

11,800
5,919
13,713

(2/)
(2/)
(2/)

5,339
(2/)
5,645

(2/)
(2/)
(2/)

10,737
(2/)
10,902

(2/)
(2/)
(2/)

(2/)
(2/)
(2/)

(2/)
(2/)
(2/)

(2/)
(2/)
(2/)

(2/)
(2/)
(2/)

(2/)
(2/)
(2/)

(2/)
(2/)
(2/)

(2/)
(2/)
(2/)

Private wage and salary workers
Agriculture
Nonagriculture
Professional and
technical workers
Managers and administrators
Sales workers
Clerical workers
Craft and kindred workers
Operatives (including transport)
Laborers
Service workers (except
private household)
Private household workers
Government wage and salary workers
Public administration workers
Professional services
All other workers
Federal government
Public administration workers
Professional services
All other workers
State and local government
Public administration workers
Professional services
All other workers
Self-employed
Agriculture
Nonagriculture
Unpaid family workers
Agriculture
Nonagriculture

White

Black

Spanish ,
origin Women
Men

All races
Women
Men

Men

Women

Men

J[J Persons of Spanish origin may be of any race.
2/ Base less than 75,000,
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports, P-60, No. 118.




Table 8.—Comparison of Median Income of Year-Round Full-Time Workers,
by Educational Attainment and Sex, 1977
(Persons 25 years of age and over)

Years of
school
completed

Elementary school
Less than 8 years
8 years
High school
1 to 3 years
4 years
College
1 to 3 years
4 years
5 years or more

Notes:

Median income
Women
Men
(2)
(i)

Income
gap In
dollars
(3)

Percent
Women's
men's
Income as income
a percent exceeded
of men's
women's
(4)
(5)

$6,074
6,564

$9,419
12,083

$3,345
5,519

64.5
54.3

55.1
84.1

$490

$2,664

7,387
8,894

13,120
15,434

5,733
6,540

56.3
57.6

77.6
73.5

823
1,507

1,037
2,314

10,157
11,609
14,338

16,235
19,603
21,941

6,078
7,998
7,603

62.6
59.2
65.3

59.8
68.9
53.0

1,263
1,448
2,733

801
3,368
2,338

Column 3 = column
Column 4 = column
Column 5 - column
Columns 6 and 7 =
years of school

—

—

2 minus column 1.
1 divided by column 2.
2 minus column 1, divided by column 1*
absolute (median) dollar difference between successive
completed.

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census:
Reports, P-60, No. 118.




Marginal
dollar
value of
increased
educational
attainment
Women
Men
(6)
(7)

- 15 -

Current Population




Table 9.—Median Educational Attainment
of Year-Round Full-Time Workers,
by Sex and Income, 1977
(Persons 25 years of age and over)

Educational attainment
Women
Men

Income

Total
$1 to $999 or loss*
$1,000 to $1,499
$1,500 to $1,999
$2,000 to $2,499
$2,500 to $2,999
$3,000 to $3,499
$3,500 to $3,999
$4,000 to $4,999
$5,000 to $5,999
$6,000 to $6,999
$7,000 to $7,999
$8,000 to $8,999
$9,000 to $9,999
$10,000 to 11,999
$12,000 to $14,999
$15,000 to $19,999
$20,000 to $24,999
$25,000 and over

12.7

12.8

12.5
12.3
12.2
12.2
11.5
12.2
12.1
12.1
12.2
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
13.1
14.5
16.3
16.5

12.3
12.3
12.2
12.6
11.3
12.2
12.1
10.9
11.7
11.3
12.1
12.4
12.3
12.5
12.7
12.8
13.0
16.2

* Some persons reported their annual
income as a loss.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce,
Bureau of the Census. Unpublished data.

- 16 -




Table 10.—Average Annual Salary Offers,
Bachelor Degree Candidates,
by Curriculum and Sex, 1976

Curriculum

Business
Accounting
General business
Marketing
Humanities and social sciences
Humanities
Social sciences
Engineering
Aeronautical
Chemical
Civil
Electrical
Industrial
Mechanical
Metallurgical
Science
Agricultural
Biological
Chemistry
Computer science
Health professions
Mathematics
Other physical and
earth sciences

Women

Men

$12,252
10,320
9,768

$12,204
10,512
10,236

8,916
9,240

9,792
10,392

14,136
15,396
13,836
14,100
13,968
14,712
14,520

13,824
15,336
13,248
13,848
13,644
14,340
14,544

9,912
9,540
12,624
12,540
9,900
11,784

10,272
9,840
12,132
12,420
10,596
11,904

12,516

12,636

Source: National Science Foundation, Women and
Minorities in Science and Engineering, 1977.

- 17 -




Table 11.—Weekly Earnings of Overtime Workers
Receiving Premium Pay, by Sex, May 1977
(Numbers in thousands)

Less
$100
$150
$200
$300
$400

Men
Percent
distriNumber
bution

Earnings

Women
Percent
distri
Number
bution

Total
Earnings

1,661
$161

100.0

6,037
$252

100.0

180
547
460
408
88
15

10.8
32.9
27.7
24.6
5.3
.9

125
583
1,080
2,260
1,284
738

2.1
9.7
17.9
37.4
21.3
12.2

than $100
to $149
to $199
to $299
to $399
or more

Note: Percent distribution may not total 100.0
due to rounding.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics. Unpublished data.

- 18 -




Table 12.—Annual Median Income in 1977 of Year-Round
Full-Time Workers, by Age and Sex

Women's
income
as a
percent
of men's

Age JV

Income
Women
Men

Total

$8,814

$15,070

58.5

5,632
7,497
9,543
9,485
9,629
9,282
9,488
9,049
9,142
9,179
9,098
8,846
8,990
8,556
8,922
7,257

6,042
9,800
14,129
12,866
15,447
16,863
16,703
17,064
17,029
17,347
16,723
15,669
15,981
15,200
14,536
11,722

93.2
76.5
67.5
73.7
62.3
55.0
56.0
53.0
53.7
52.9
54.4
56.5
56.3
56.3
55.8
61.9

14 to 19 years
20 to 24 years
25 to 34 years
25 to 29 years
30 to 34 years
35 to 44 years
35 to 39 years
40 to 44 years
45 to 54 years
45 to 49 years
50 to 54 years
55 to 64 years
55 to 59 years
60 to 64 years
65 to 69 years
70 years and over

J./

As of March 1978.

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of
the Census, Current Population Reports, P-60, No. 118.

- 19 -

Table 13.—Median Wage or Salary Income of Year-Round Full-Time Workers,
by Race and Sex, 1977
(Persons 14 years of age and over)

Race

Women

Men

Dollar
gap

Women1s
earnings
as a
percent
of men's

Total

$8,733

$14,902

$6,169

58.6

70.6

8,787
8,385
8,217

15,230
11,053
10,618

6,443
2,668
2,401

57.7
75.9
77.4

73.3
31.8
29.2

White
Black and other races
Black

Percent
men's
earnings
exceeded
women' s

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, P-60, No. 118.




- 20 -

Table 14.—Median Income in 1977 of Year-Round Full-Time Workers,
by Sex, Age, Marital Status, Race, and Spanish Origin
Sex, age, race and
Spanish origin

Total

Single

Married
Spouse
Spouse
present absent

Widowed

Divorced

All races
Female
18 years and over
18 to 24 years
25 to 64 years
65 years and over

$8,819 $8,575
7,254
7,046
9,280 10,225
7,838
(1/)

$8,644
7,435
8,839
6,826

$8,501
7,402
8,739

$9,291
(1/)
9,409
8,382

$10,156
7,873
10,309
a/)

Male
18 years and over
18 to 24 years
25 to 64 years
65 years and over

15,082 10,117
9,301
8,217
15,748 12,126
13,815
(1/)

15,942
10,582
16,316
14,866

11,835
9,666
12,187
(I/)

14,820
(1/)
15,276
a/)

13,360
10,443
13,550
a/)

White
Female
18 years and over
18 to 24 years
25 to 64 years
65 years and over

8,874
8,634
7,252
7,050
9,399 10,430
7,932
(1/)

8,660
7,414
8,868
6,863

9,054
7,545
9,662
(I/)

9,445
(1/)
9,576
8,353

10,196
7,829
10,374

Male
18 years and over
18 to 24 years
25 to 64 years
65 years and over

15,391 10,290
9,397
8,270
16,102 12,527
14,745
a/)

16,211
10,664
16,613
15,191

13,298
10,273
13,832
(1/)

15,978
(1/)
16,113
a/)

13,643
(1/)
13,827

8,165

9,659
(1/)
9,685
a/)

an

Black
Female
18 years and over
18 to 24 years
25 to 64 years
65 years and over

8,297
7,063
8,525
a/)

8,102
6,963
8,854
<i/>

8,298
(U)
8,444
(1/)

7,571
(1/)
7,746
a/)

Male
18 years and over
18 to 24 years
25 to 64 years
65 years and over

10,607
8,041
10,964
a/)

8,263
7,602
8,646
a/)

11,639
8,794
11,845
a/)

8,036

Spanish origin 2/
Female
18 years and over
18 to 24 years
25 to 64 years
65 years and over

7,603
6,750
7,874
a/)

7,629
6,691
8,507
a/)

7,416
a/)
7,580
a/)

Male
18 years and over
18 to 24 years
25 to 64 years
65 years and over

10,942
8,902
11,591
a/)

8,128
7,549
9,334
a/)

11,736
10,083
12,157
a/)

an
8,009
an
an
an

an

an

(i/)
a/)

11,169
(1/)
11,266
a/)

(i/)
(i/)

an
a/)

(i/)
(i/)
(i/)
a/)

8,519
(1/)
8,704
a/)

9,519
(1/)
10,021
(1/)

(i/)
(i/)
(i/)
(i/)

(1/)
(1/)
(1/)
(1/)

an
an

8,278

1/ Base less than 75,0002/ Persons of Spanish origin may be of any race.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population
Reports, P-60, No. 118.



- 21 -

Table 1 5 . — M e d i a n Income of Year-Round Full-Time Workers,
by Region, Sex, Race, and Spanish Origin, 1977
(Persons 14 years of age and over)

Northeast
United

States
All races
Female
Male
Women's income
as a percent
of men's
White
Female
Male
Women's income
as a percent
of men's
Black
Female
Male
Women's income
as a percent
of men's
Spanish origin
Female
Male
Women's income
as a percent
of men's
U

New

Total

England

Middle
Atlantic

North Central
East
West
North
North
Total
Central
Central

South

Total

West
Mountain

Pacific

West
South
Central

$9,433
15,362

$9,047
15,251

$9,558
15,407

$8,877
15,491

$9,068
15,880

$8,477
14,163

$9,509
15,797

$8,494
14,594

$9,862
16,209

$8,141
13,502

$8,294
13,593

$7,501
12,854

$8,221
13,800

58.5

61.4

59.3

62.0

57.3

57.1

59.9

60.2

58.2

60.8

60.3

61.0

58.4

59.6

8,870
15,378

9,485
15,547

9,005
15,246

9,663
15,677

8,858
15,646

9,033
16,082

8,493
14,316

9,509
15,970

8,521
14,742

9,899
16,464

8,287
14,400

8,445
14,767

7,688
13,607

8,341
14,434

57.7

61.0

59.1

61.6

56.6

56.2

59.3

59.5

57.8

60.1

57.5

57.2

56.5

57.8

8,290
10,602

8,995
11,946

O/)
d/)

8,994
11,667

8,964
12,855

9,201
13,244

10,744

13,553

10,010

7,255
9,086

7,496
9,206

6,400
8,392

7,158
9,238

78.2

75.3

77.1

69.7

69.5

73.9

79.8

81.4

76.3

77.5

7,599
10,935

7,861
10,293

7,834
10,244

13,197

7,945
11,399

6,858
10,001

a/)
11,890

U/)
(I/)

6,895
9,477

69.5

76.4

69.7

68.6

(1/)
(1/)

76.5

a/)

a/)

13,397

a/)

9,798

13,544

07)

U/)

72.3
CI/)
(1/)

7,759
11,575

a/)
12,187

67.0

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, P-60, No. 118.




East
South
Central

$8,814
15,070

Base less than 75,000.

Source:

Total

South
Atlantic

72.8