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DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR

BULLETIN
OF THE

BUREAU OF LABOR

NO.




79—NOVEMBER, 1908
ISSUED EVERY OTHER MONTH

W A SH IN G TO N
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1908




CONTENTS.
Mortality from consumption in dusty trades, b y Frederick L. Hoffman:
Introduction ...........................................................................................................
Statistical data and method of determining the degree of consumption
frequency.............................................................................................................
Occupation classification of dusty trades.........................................................
Occupations with exposure to metallic dust....................................................
Grinders...........................................................................................................
P olish ers.........................................................................................................
Tool and instrument m akers......................................................................
Jew elers...........................................................................................................
Gold-leaf manufacture.................................................................................
Brass w orkers.................................................................................................
P rin ters...........................................................................................................
C om positors...................................................................................................
Pressm en.........................................................................................................
Engravers.........................................................................................................
Summary of conclusions regarding occupations with exposure to
metallic d u st...............................................................................................
Occupations with exposure to mineral du st....................................................
The stone in d u stry .......................................................................................
Stonew orkers.................................................................................................
Marble w ork ers.............................................................................................
The glass industry.........................................................................................
Glass b low ers.................................................................................................
Glass cutters...................................................................................................
Diamond cutters.............................................................................................
Potters ..................................................................................................- .........
Cement workers.............................................................................................
Plasterers.........................................................................................................
Paper hangers.................................................................................................
Foundrymen and molders...........................................................................
Core m a k ers...................................................................................................
Lithographers.................................................................................................
Summary of conclusions regarding occupations with exposure to
mineral d u st...............................................................................................
Occupations with exposure to vegetable fiber d u s t......................................
Cotton ginn in g................................
Cotton textile manufacture...............
Textile spinners.............................................................................................
Textile w eavers.................
Manufacture of hosiery and knit goods....................................................
Lace manufacture.........................................................................................
Flax and linen manufacture........................................................................
H em p and cordage manufacture...............................................................




m

pa^e633-641
641-643
643,644
644-681
644-649
649-652
652-657
657-660
660,661
661-667
667-673
673-675
676
676-678
678-681
681-726
682-685
685-688
688-691
691-695
695,696
696-699
699-701
701-708
708-711
711-714
714-716
716-718
718,719
719-722
722-726
726-784
727-729
729-737
737-740
740-742
743-746
746-750
750-757
757-762

IV

CONTENTS.

Mortality from consumption in dusty trades, by Frederick L. Hoffman— Con. Page.
Occupations with exposure to vegetable fiber dust— Concluded.
Manufacture of jute and jute g o o d s ........................................................... 762-767
Paper and pulp manufacture....................................................................... 768-771
Cabinetmakers................................................................................................ 771-776
W ood turners and carvers............................................................................. 776-780
Summary of conclusions regarding occupations with exposure to
vegetable fiber dust..................................................................................... 780-784
Occupations with exposure to animal and m ixed fiber dust...................... 784-829
Furriers and taxidermists............................................................................. 784-789
Hatters.............................................................................................................. 789-794
Silk manufacture............................................................................................ 794-800
W oolen and worsted manufacture............................................................. 800-808
Carpet and rug manufacture......................................................................... 808-813
Shoddy m anufacture......................................................................................813-817
Rag industry................................................................................................... 817-821
Upholsterers and hair mattress m akers................................................... 821-825
Summary of conclusions regarding occupations with exposure to
animal and m ixed fiber d u s t................................................................... 825-829
General summary of results................................................................................. 829-833
Problem of ventilation and dust removal in industry................................... 833-843
Appendix— 17 tables.............................................................................................. 844-859
* List of references on occupation m ortality....................................................... 859-875
Charity relief and wage earnings, b y S. E. Forman:
Introduction............................................................................................................ 876-878
Number, nativity, and size of fam ilies............................................................. 879-882
Age and conjugal condition.................................................................................. 882-884
Occupations.............................................................................................................. 885-888
Earnings of charity recipients............................................................................ 888-893
K ind of aid g iv e n .................................................................................................. 893-897
Delinquencies of charity recipients..................................................................... 897-901
Causes of distress of charity recipients.............................................................. 901-918
Immediate causes of d istress....................................................................... 904-910
Contributing or indirect causes of distress................................................ 910-912
Persistent causes of distress..........................................................................913-918
Summary................................................................................................................... 919-922
Digest of recent reports of state bureaus of labor statistics:
Maine— Twenty-first Annual Report, 1907: Factories, mills, and shops
built—Labor unions—W om en and children in sardine factories—
School teachers— Child la b o r ......................................................................... 923-926
Michigan— Twenty-fifth Annual Report, 1908: Beet sugar and Portland
cement industries—Coal industry— Furniture, boot and shoe, corset,
and refrigerator industries—Free employm ent bureaus— Electric rail­
w ays— Power used in manufacturing in M ichigan................................... 926-929
New Jersey— Thirteenth Annual Report, 1907: Statistics o f manufac­
ture— Steam railroads— Cost of living—Fruit and vegetable canning—
New Jersey as a manufacturing State— Industrial ch ron olog y ............ 930-933
Ohio—Thirty-first Annual Report, 1907: Manufactures— Coal mining—
Free public em ploym ent offices.................................................................... 934,935
Digest of recent foreign statistical publications:
Chile: Report on the creation and initiatory work of the office for the
collection of labor statistics.............................................................................. 936,937
Italy:
Report of the Bureau of Labor on the condition of employees in
mines and quarries of I t a l y .................................................................... 937-941




CONTENTS.

Digest of recent foreign statistical publications— Concluded.
Report of the Bureau of Labor on wages and hours of labor of
page.
employees on public works......................................................................... '
941,942
Russia: Report on the number and distribution of wage-workers in
Russia, based upon data of the first general census of the Russian
Empire in 1897 ...............................................................................................
942-949
Opinions of the Attorney-General on questions affecting labor:
Eight-hour law — application to lock tenders............................................
950,951
951,952
Eight-hour law — application to watchmen, messengers, etc................
Decisions of courts affecting labor:
Decisions under statute la w ...........................................................................
953-961
Employers’ liability—employm ent of children—violation of stat­
ute— defenses— discovering age (Syneszewski v. S chm idt)..........
953-955
Employers’ liability—railroads—bridges over tracks— danger sig­
nals ( Chesapeake and Ohio R y. Co. v. Rowsey's Administrator)___
955,956
Public work—protection of laborers and material men— con­
tractors’ bonds—assignment of claims ( Title Guaranty and Trust
Co. v. Puget Sound Engine Works et al.) ..........................................
956-958
Railroads— construction of shelters over repair tracks— constitu­
tionality and construction of statute (St. Louis, Iron Mountain
and Southern Ry. Co. v. State).............................................................
958-960
Suits for wages—attorneys’ fees—constitutionality of statute ( Chi­
cago, Rock Island and Pacific Ry. Co. v. Mashore)..........................
960,961
Decisions under common law .........................................................................
961-967
Injunction— violation— contempt—persons not parties to original
bill—notice—nature of proceedings ( Garrigan v. United States) . .
961-965
Strikes—injunction—picketing—interference with employm ent
(Jones et al. v. E. Van Winkle Gin and Machine Works)................
965-967
Laws of various States relating to labor, enacted since January 1, 1904 .......... 968-1003
Cumulative index of labor laws and decisions relating thereto.......................... 1005-1037







BULLETIN
OF THE

BUEEAU
No. 79.

OF

LABOR.

W ASH IN G TO N .

N ovem ber,

1908.

THE M ORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.
BY FREDERICK L. HOFFMAN.

IN TRODU CTION .
The importance o f dust as a factor in occupation mortality has
attracted the attention o f every authority on occupation diseases
from Ramazzini to Thomas Oliver. It requires no extended considera­
tion to prove that human health is much influenced by the character
o f the air breathed and that its purity is a matter o f very consider­
able sanitary and economic importance. Aside from the risk of ex­
posure to so-called air-borne diseases, the pollution of the atmosphere
by organic and inorganic dust is unquestionably the cause o f a vast
amount o f ill-health and premature mortality, but chiefly among men
and women engaged in the many indispensable trades and occupa­
tions that minister to human needs. The sanitary dangers o f air
contaminated by disease-breeding germs are probably not so serious
as generally assumed, while the destructive effects o f the dust-laden
atmosphere o f factories and workshops are a decidedly serious menace
to health and life. While the investigations o f Doctor McFadden and
Mr. Lunt seem to prove the paucity of bacteria in very dusty air, the
evidence otherwise available is entirely conclusive that the risk to
disease infection is much greater indoors than out in the open, where
sunlight, rain, and wind in combination go far to purify the atmos­
phere by destroying the bacterial life contained in minute particles
o f suspended matter. Apart, however, from the transmission of
disease through a dust-contaminated atmosphere, dust in any form,
when inhaled continuously and in considerable quantities, is preju­
dicial to health because of its inherent mechanical properties, de­
structive to the delicate membrane o f the respiratory passages and the




633

634

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

lungs. It has long been known that those who live most o f their time
out o f doors have a decided advantage over those who, because o f
their employment, are compelled to spend their working hours inside
the home, the office, the factory, or the workshop, and it is an accepted
axiom o f modern sanitary science that measures and methods for the
prevention o f dust are a first and preliminary essential consideration
in rational methods of sanitary reform. A ll that sanitary science can
suggest or that sanitary legislation can regulate and change should
be done for humane reasons and as a matter o f governmental concern
to mitigate the needless hardships of those who suffer in health and
life as the result o f conditions over which they themselves have but a
very limited control.
The importance of dust as a factor in occupation diseases has been
emphasized by all who have written on the subject, but by no one
more precisely and clearly than by Sir James Crichton-Browne, in
his address on the Dust Problem, read at the Sanitary Congress held
at Manchester, England, in 1902, from which the following is quoted:
The mortality o f the principal dust-producing occupations, com­
pared with that o f agriculturists, who live and work in what is practi­
cally dustless atmosphere, is excessive to a startling degree. It is not
suggested that this excess is to be ascribed to dust alone, no doubt
various factors contribute to it, but the facts that it is due mainly to
respiratory diseases, that it is distributed amongst the several occupa­
tions pretty much in proportion to their dustiness, and that it has
diminished in some instances where dust has been effectually dealt
with, justify the conclusion that it is largely dust begotten.
Sir Crichton-Browne in continuation o f his remarks pointed out
that a detailed examination o f the conditions o f work in each o f the
22 principal dusty trades brought out clearly the fact that the un­
healthiness was born o f or was primarily due to the dust inhaled by
the workmen, and that there was always a well-defined relation
between the death rate and the quantity and quality o f dust present
in the atmosphere. There is apparently no very material difference
in the manner in which the different varieties o f dust act upon the
human organism, except where, in addition to mechanically injurious
properties, the dust is o f a poisonous character, which leads to diseases
such as lead poisoning, phosphorous poisoning, anthrax poisoning, etc.
Industrial mineral dust apparently acts with greater rapidity upon
the lungs than organic dust, which is slower and more insidious in its
operations, but in a general way follows similar lines. A ll varieties
o f dust, the immediate result o f occupation, are, therefore, compre­
hended under the term o f “ industrial dust,” which is specifically
defined by Sir Crichton-Browne, as follow s:
I select this dust for my further remarks because it is readily
recognized and defined, because its pernicious effects are well marked
and indisputable, because it is to a large extent, i f not entirely, pre­



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

635

veritable or removable, and because the efforts already made to pre­
vent or remove it have been rewarded with conspicuous benefit. And
I still further simplify and abbreviate what I have to say by restrict­
ing my observations to those varieties o f it which are dust and nothing
more, which are injurious by their physical properties and mechanical
operations, and not as poisons to the systems, chemical destructives o f
the tissues, or bearers o f bacterial invaders.
A similar but even more restricted limitation has been adopted for
the present purpose, and only such occupations will be considered in
detail in the following discussion as expose to the continuous and con­
siderable inhalation o f metallic, mineral, and vegetable fiber dust, and
in which the evidence is at least fairly conclusive that the resulting
disease liability and mortality from consumption and other respira­
tory diseases is above the average for occupied males generally.
Preliminary to a discussion in detail o f the mortality from con­
sumption in dusty trades it may prove o f decided advantage to
those who do not have access to the original sources o f information
to present a brief summary o f qualified medical opinion regarding
dust as a factor in occupation diseases and mortality. In a course of
lectures on Unhealthy Trades, delivered before the Society o f Arts,
London, in 1876, Dr. B. W . Richardson (a) placed injuries from the
inhalation by the lungs o f fine particles o f solid matter, usually
defined as dust, at the head o f the causes responsible for industrial
diseases, and from his discussion the following is quoted:
The term “ dusts,” as I would here apply it, includes all those fine,
solid particles which are thrown off from various substances in the
processes o f manufacture or treatment o f articles in common use in
daily life, such as earthenware utensils, knives, needles, or mechanical
instruments, like files or saws; or ornamental things, such as orna­
ments o f pearl, ivory, and turned w ood; or articles that are worn, of
silk, cotton, hemp, fur; or things that are used for food, such as flour;
or for creating warmth, such as coal; or for using as a supposed
luxury, such as tobacco and snuff. These are only a few illustrations;
many others will naturally occur to those who think on the subject.
The dusts lyhich inflict injury are o f varied quality, as will be seen
from the brief sketch just given. They are also o f varied effect in
regard to the specific injuries which they produce. We may profit­
ably study them divided into different groups, according to their
physical characters, as follow s:
(a) Cutting dusts, formed o f minute hard, crystallized particles
which have sharp, cutting, and pointed edges. These dusts are com­
posed o f iron or steel, o f stone, of sand or glass, o f dried silicates in
earthenware, o f lime, o f j>earl.
(&) Irritant dusts, derived from woods, from ivory, from textile
fabrics, fluffs o f wool, o f silk, of cotton, of flax, and of hemp, from
hair, from clay.
(<?) Inorganic poisonous dusts, derived from some poisonous chem­
ical compounds used for coloring artistic products, or for preserving
° Scientific Am erican Supplements, Numbers 9, 10, 18, 19, and 22, dated,
respectively, February 26, M arch 4, A pril 29, M ay 6, and M ay 27, 1876.




636

BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR.

organic substances, such as furs. These dusts are charged with ar­
senical salts.
(d) Soluble saline dusts, derived from soluble crystalline substances
used for dyeing purposes. The sulphate o f iron, copperas, yields a
dust o f this class.
(e) Organic poisonous dusts, which are thrown off during the
making up of tobacco into cigars and snuff. These dusts carry with
them particles o f the dried tobacco plant.
( / ) Obstructive and irritating dusts composed o f carbon, o f fine
particles o f coal dust, o f scrapings o f carbon or o f soot, o f dust o f
rouge, and o f flour.
Whatever may be the kind of dust to which the workman is sub­
jected, to whichever o f the above named he may be exposed, the
primary cause o f danger lies in the circumstance that the fine par­
ticles are borne by the air into the lungs. They pass, wafted by the
air, through the mouth and nostrils into the windpipe; they pass
along the bronchial tubes; in some instances they reach and traverse
the bronchial passages which lie between the larger bronchial tubes
and the minute air vesicles, or they even reach the air vesicles them­
selves.
An American authority on occupation diseases has referred to the
subject at some length in an article contributed to Buck’s Hygiene
and Public Health, printed in 1879. This writer, Dr. Roger S. Tracy,
for many years registrar o f vital statistics o f New York City and
sanitary inspector o f the board o f health, makes the following state­
ment with particular reference to the special form or type of disease
resulting from the inhalation o f metallic and mineral dusts :
The disease comes on very gradually, like the more slowly developed
forms o f phthisis pulmonalis, and its duration may be extended over
four or five years. It begins with the cough o f irritation, dry and
hacking at first, with very scanty expectoration, whitish and stringy
in character; there is no haemoptysis, but sometimes nausea and
vomiting in the morning. Auscultation at this time reveals puerile
respiration, with occasional slight rales. The expectoration grad­
ually increases in amount and becomes reddish, and soon after this
tinge appears there may be haemoptysis. There is dyspnoea on
slight exertion, and dullness over the whole chest, with weak respira­
tion and mucous rales. There is no fever, and the appetite and
strength are still good. I f work is abandoned at this time recovery
is not only possible, but in most cases probable. I f work is continued,
the lung tissue begins to break down, and cavities form near the
apices. Expectoration is very profuse, and there may be severe
hemorrhages. There is general dullness on percussion, and the last
traces o f vesicular respiration give way to sibilant, large mucous and
cavernous rales. Fever is continuous, with evening exacerbations,
night sweats, emaciation, insomnia, and great dyspnoea, soon followed
by death.
Very suggestive also are the observations and conclusions o f Dr.
John Syer Bristowe, F.R.S., who in an address on industrial diseases,
read at the conference on sanitary subjects held in connection with



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

637

the International Health Convention of 1884, discussed the effects of
nonpoisonous irritants on the lungs, in part as follow s:
Occupations which habitually expose the workmen to the inhala­
tion o f abundant solid particles that are incapable o f solution or
removal by the animal tissues or secretions, in many cases induce
chronic diseases o f the lungs, which are known as the asthmas or
consumptions o f the several occupations referred to, and tend very
materially to shorten life among those engaged in them. Workers in
coal mines and in copper mines, grinders, millstone makers, and flax
dressers are perhaps especially liable to suffer from such causes. It
is marvelous how tolerant the bronchial tubes and lungs are o f for­
eign particles which are drawn into them with the breath. Wherever
smoke impregnates the atmosphere, as in London and other manufac­
turing towns, its particles are conveyed in greater or less abundance
into the lungs; whence some are expelled with the expectoration,
which presents, consequently, a slaty or black appearance, while some
et absorbed, and becoming deposited in the tissue o f the lungs, prouce in them that black mottling which increases with advancing
years, and is well known to pathologists. Yet, as a general rule, the
soot-studded organs remain practically healthy, and no clinical evi­
dences o f pulmonary disease manifest themselves. The same remarks
doubtless apply to the inhalation of the siliceous particles of ordinary
dust. The effects are different, however, when such matters are in­
haled in large excess. * * * The symptoms under which the suf­
ferers labor have some resemblance to those o f chronic phthisis, some
to those o f chronic bronchitis and emphysema, for either o f which
they may well be mistaken. They consist in gradually increasing
shortness o f breath, lividity o f surface, feebleness o f circulation, and
cough, with more or less abundant expectoration; to which, at a later
period, general dropsy and haemoptysis may be superadded. There is
generally a total, or almost total, absence of fever. The only meth­
ods, so far as I know, by which the irritative diseases o f the lungs, just
considered, can be lessened or prevented, are by providing good ven­
tilation, and (when possible) by adopting methods to prevent the d if­
fusion o f particles or dust in the atmosphere which the workmen have
to breathe. It is obvious, too, that since the diseases are insidious in
their progress, and increase in proportion as the inhaled particles
accumulate, it would be well for persons who present early traces of
them to seek at once some other kind o f employment.

S

The most qualified and extended discussion o f the entire subject o f
the inhalation o f dust, its pathology and symptomatology, with
special reference to dusty trades, is by Dr. J. T. Arlidge, who, in 1892,
published a treatise on The Hygiene, Diseases, and Mortality o f
Occupations. “ Few, indeed,” he argued, “ are the occupations in
which dust is not given off,” and “ in none can it be absolutely harm­
less, for the lung tissue must be just so much the worse, and less
efficient fo r its purpose, in proportion to its embarrassment by dust.”
And in continuation:
W hat occurs to the ordinary citizen becomes magnified ten or a
hundredfold to those engaged in dusty occupations, and more espe­



638

BULLETIN OF TH E BUKEAU OF LABOR.

cially where the dust itself possesses noxious properties. But unless
dust has this latter quality, it is remarkable with what indifference
its inhalation is treated by the majority o f workmen. In one sense,
indeed, it is unfortunate that it does not, for the most part, awaken
attention by any immediate tangible consequences. Its disabling
action is very slow, but it is ever progressive, and until it has already
worked its baneful results upon the smaller bronchial tubes and air
cells and caused difficulty o f breathing, with cough and spitting, it
is let pass as a matter o f indifference— an inconvenience o f the trade.
Arlidge called attention to the fact that bronchitis, asthma, and
fibroid and tubercular consumption ranked foremost in the causes o f
British mortality, holding that without doubt these maladies were
largely attributable to the inhalation o f dust operating per se, or in
conjunction with constitutional proclivities and insanitary surround­
ings. In further continuation he remarked that—
Pathologists tell us o f the presence o f bacilli in tubercular disease,
and favor the belief that these minute bodies are the cause of it. This
notion may represent a whole truth or only a partial one; in my
opinion, the latter. For I doubt if these bacilli actually develop
phthisis unless there be some antecedent change in the vitality o f the
affected tissue; a change wrought by depressing causes connected with
the mode o f life, or with constitutional debility and inherited taint,
or with the occupation followed; o f which contributory factors two
or more may cooperate. And assuredly the breathing or dust may be
reckoned as one such o f no light energy. In other words, I look upon
a phthisical lung as one prepared for the germination and multipli­
cation o f bacilli, and not a primary product o f those microscopic
organisms, nor o f the products of their organic existence.
The conclusions o f Arlidge are summarized in the statement that
“ One practical lesson is to be gained by these considerations—namely,
that persons predisposed to respiratory diseases and phthisis ought
not to engage in dusty occupations.”
More recently the entire subject o f occupation diseases in their
relation to workmen’s compensation has been considered at length
and in much detail by a British departmental committee appointed
to consider the pressing and important question o f workmen’s com­
pensation for industrial diseases. In its observations upon respira­
tory diseases, and in particular bronchitis, pneumonia, and phthisis,
and their relation to occupation exposure, the committee concluded
that—
Pulmonary disease manifests itself in three kinds or forms— as
ordinary tuberculous phthisis, acute or chronic; as “ fibroid phthisis,”
and as a mixed form when a tuberculous process is ingrafted sooner
or later upon the fibroid. Fibroid phthisis is always a slow disease.
It consists in a chronic reactive inflammation around the many
minute foci o f dust inhalation, which by coalescence gradually invades
large areas, impairing and strangling the proper lung tissues in cor­
responding measure. Again, a lung so impaired is very apt to har­



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

639

bor bacilli, especially the bacillus of tubercle, by the influence of
which it may be still further destroyed. Thus both fibroid phthisis
uncomplicated and fibroid phthisis with the supervention of tubercle
are in their nature occupational disease. (a)
The committee, in its final report, describes the typical forms of
fibroid phthisis as induced by the inhalation o f industrial dust, hold­
ing that—
The first symptom is a cough which insidiously, and for a while
almost imperceptibly, becomes habitual.
A t first in the morning
only, it gradually becomes more frequent during the day, and expec­
toration, nominal at the beginning, becomes more marked, though
not profuse until the latter stages o f the disease. Leaving out of
account the more rapid progress o f the disease in tin and gold miners,
these symptoms o f a negative phase o f purely local damage may last
for years—ten or fifteen or even more—without advancing to such a
degree as to throw the workman out o f employment or even to cause
him serious inconvenience. A t some period, however, rarely less
than ten years and frequently more than twenty, of continuous em­
ployment, in a like imperceptible manner the breathing gets shorter
and the patient finds himself less and less capable o f exertion. Yet,
even when the cough and dyspnoea have reached a considerable
degree, there are no signs o f fever, as is the case of pulmonary tuber­
culosis; the flesh does not fall and the muscles retain their strength
and volume. Thus even at a period when the malady is fully estab­
lished the general health may be but little impaired, and the patient
may not be compelled to cease work. Herein fibroid phthisis pre­
sents a well-marked difference from pulmonary tuberculosis; and
even if, as we have said, the disease becomes complicated with tuber­
cle, yet the rate o f progress may be determined rather by the charac­
ter o f the primary than of the secondary disease, though usually the
supervention o f tubercle hastens the sufferer into a more rapid con­
sumption.^)
The results o f all these researches into an almost neglected field o f
preventive hygiene prove that occupation diseases, properly so
called, demand the most thoroughly qualified and medical supervision
o f factories and workshops and the periodical medical examination
and inspection o f persons employed in recognized unhealthy trades.
For, as the committee referred to points out, “ I f in the early stage of
fibroid phthisis the workman leaves the dusty employment for work
in agriculture or in other occupation in air free from irritating parti­
cles, the disease may be practically arrested; that is, although the
part affected may proceed to obliteration, the disease would not ex­
tend to other parts o f the lung, and the portion destroyed would be
negligible as a factor of health and capacity.” (5)
a R eport o f the Departmental Committee on Compensation fo r Industrial D is­
eases, 1906, p. 18.
h Report o f the Departm ental Committee on Compensation fo r Industrial D is­
eases, 1906, p. 14.




640

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

The conclusion o f this investigation, the most important official
inquiry ever made into the subject o f industrial diseases, fully war­
rants the view that while ordinary tuberculous phthisis can not be
regarded as a disease specific to any occupation, fibroid phthisis in its
latter stage, and when the history o f the case is known, can be clearly
distinguished from tuberculous phthisis, so that it may be regarded
as an established fact that fibroid phthisis is a disease specific to the
employment in certain trades, o f which the committee mentions the
follow ing: Grinders, continuously using either grindstones or emery
for the abrasion o f metals, especially steel; potters engaged in certain
processes; stone workers employed on certain kinds of stone, espe­
cially i f not working in the open a ir; tin miners, in particular such
as have previously been exposed to the exceedingly unhealthy condi­
tions o f the gold mines of the Transvaal; and ganister miners, in­
cluding men employed in certain processes o f ganister brick making.
The committee did not arrive at final conclusions regarding persons
employed in the slate industry, nor o f employees in the working o f
asbestos, and many other recognized unhealthy trades, partly, no
doubt, because o f the limited scope o f the inquiry and the paucity o f
conclusive statistical data. It is pointed out by the committee that
it was not possible to separate the English death rates from fibroid
phthisis from those o f other diseases of the respiratory system, since
medical men do not, as a rule, distinguish that disease when certify­
ing the causes o f death. It is clearly established by the results of the
investigation that such a distinction should be made and that medical
practitioners should qualify the death returns from tuberculosis in
all cases where the death was the result o f fibroid phthisis.
The committee, having arrived at the opinion that fibroid phthisis
is a specific and distinguishable trade disease, concluded that employers
might properly be required to pay compensation to their work people
who contract it; but it did not, however, recommend the extension
o f the Workmen’s Compensation Act to the disease for two reasons.
The first was that owing to the long period o f its development it
would not be right to lay the whole burden on the employer under
whom the workman had been serving during the twelve months prior
to the incapacity. The other and more important reason was that
for several years before the nature o f the disease can be definitely
diagnosed the patient may suffer from symptoms that while not dis­
tinctive are sufficient to prevent him from securing employment.
In the partly descriptive account o f 42 occupations considered in de­
tail in this article only the most general facts have been included to
emphasize, as far as possible, the industrial processes productive of
conditions more or less injurious to health in general and to the
development o f tuberculosis in particular. Authorities are referred
to only as far as this has seemed necessary to clearly establish in the



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

641

case o f each trade or occupation considered the facts o f a more or less
excessive degree o f consumption frequency aside from the statistical
sources o f information which form the basis of the subsequent con­
clusions, except in the case o f a few employments for which neither
general vital statistics nor insurance mortality experience are as yet
available. The term “ tuberculosis ” is used in a very general sense,
and as a rule limited to phthisis pulmonalis, or consumption, unless
otherwise stated. A ll of the references to insurance mortality
experience are limited to the mortality from phthisis pulmonalis and
do not include other forms o f tuberculosis or other forms o f respi­
ratory diseases unless specifically stated in the text.
S T A T IS T IC A L D A T A AND M ETH OD OF D E TE R M IN IN G
T H E D E G R E E OF CONSUM PTION FREQ U EN CY .
The principal statistical data used in the present discussion are,
first, the occupation returns by divisional periods o f life of the
United States census for 1900; second, the occupation mortality
statistics o f the Twelfth Census, published in 1904; third, the occupa­
tion mortality statistics of Rhode Island for the decade ending with
1906; fourth, the occupation mortality statistics published decen­
nially as a supplement to the report o f the Registrar-General of
Births, Marriages, and Deaths for England and Wales for the two
periods 1890-1892 and 1900-1902; fifth, the corresponding statistics
for Scotland; and sixth, the industrial mortality statistics of the
Prudential Insurance Company of America for the decade 1897 to
1906, published in connection with the company’s exhibit of the
mortality from consumption in dusty trades at the International
Congress on Tuberculosis, held in Washington, D. C., in 1908, and
presented in a discussion of the same subject before the American
Association o f Medical Examiners in September, 1907, and the
Medical Society o f the County o f New York in December, 1907.
Four different statistical methods are available to determine with
approximate accuracy the degree o f consumption frequency in differ­
ent trades. Absolute accuracy is not obtainable in investigations o f
this kind, nor is it necessary for the end in view.
The first method is to determine the numbers living at ages 65 or
over in different trades, and to compare the same with the correspond­
ing proportion for occupied males generally. This method is never
conclusive by itself, but is useful in conjunction with the use o f other
statistical data. It is evident, o f course, that other factors besides
mortality determine the proportion o f persons at work in different
occupations at ages 65 or over, and the method, therefore, requires
to be used with extreme caution.




642

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

The second method is to determine the true rate of mortality from
all causes, or specific causes such as consumption, by ascertaining the
number o f deaths occurring in every thousand persons of any par­
ticular trade or industry exposed to the risk o f death for a single
year. This method is by far the most satisfactory, but it is seldom
that accurate information is available regarding the living popula­
tion, and estimates o f the numbers exposed to risk are likely to be
seriously misleading. The chance o f error is increased by the method
employed in the Twelfth Census, since the occupation classification
o f the census is probably not exactly the same as the occupation
classification o f the different boards o f health throughout the country,
where the original entries are made as to the occupation of decedent
at the time o f death.
The third method is to determine the proportion o f deaths from a
specified cause, such as consumption, occurring in the mortality from
all causes, without reference to ages at death. This method is made
necessary in the use o f the Rhode Island statistics, which are not re­
turned by divisional periods of life. The same is true also of the
occupation mortality statistics o f the United States census by specified
causes, but when used with extreme caution the proportions thus
determined are often extremely suggestive and quite often entirely
conclusive.
The fourth method is known as the proportionate mortality figure,
by which the proportion o f deaths from any particular disease, such
as consumption, is calculated as a percentage o f the deaths from all
causes occurring during specified periods o f life. This method has
been extensively employed in the present discussion, since otherwise
the available industrial insurance mortality statistics could not have
been utilized. It is, in a measure, the most satisfactory and deter­
mining o f all the various methods referred to, since it determines
with absolute accuracy the actual incidents or degree o f consumption
frequency at specified periods o f life.
The industrial insurance mortality statistics are derived from the
experience o f a large and representative company, which has from
time to time given publicity to the facts o f its experience. The re­
sulting proportionate mortality returns, however, indicate a specific
mortality from consumption somewhat below the actual, since the
experience is, to a certain extent, affected by medical selection. In
other words, the proportionate mortality from consumption, or the
true actual loss from the disease at specified periods o f life, would
have been somewhat higher if medical selection had not been made
use of. In comparing this experience with the adopted standard for
the registration area o f the United States the comparison is, there­
fore, somewhat more favorable to the various trades and occupations
considered than would have been the case i f the returns could have



MORTALITY PROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

643

been derived from the registration records o f the different States
and cities comprehending the experience o f the company referred to.
The proportionate mortality figure may be briefly explained as
follows: A t ages 25 to 34, out o f every 100 deaths from all causes
in the registration area of the United States during the seven years
ending 1906, 31.3 deaths were from consumption. The correspond­
ing proportions o f deaths in the industrial insurance mortality ex­
perience were 70.8 per cent for grinders, 66.7 per cent for compositors,
58.5 per cent for upholsterers, 52.9 per cent for potters, etc. The dif­
ference between the normal proportionate consumption mortality for
the registration area as a whole and the corresponding proportionate
mortality from consumption in the different occupations considered
in detail, measure approximately the health-injurious circumstances
o f the different employments.
O CCU PATIO N C L A S S IF IC A T IO N OF D U S T Y TR A D E S.
The following occupation grouping has been adopted to empha­
size the dust hazard in principal occupations and to facilitate ready
reference to the various employments considered in some detail in
the subsequent discussion:
Group 1.— Exposure to m etallic d u s t:
1. Grinders.
2. ‘Polishers.
3. T ool and instrument makers.
4. Jewelers.
5. Gold leaf manufacture.
6. Brass workers.
7. Printers.
8. Compositors.
9. Pressmen.
10. Engravers.
Group 2.— Exposure to mineral d u st:
11. Stone workers.
12. Marble workers.
13. Glass blowers.
14. Glass cutters.
15. D iam ond cutters.
16. Potters.
17. Cement workers.
18. Plasterers.
19. Paper hangers.
20. Molders.
21. Core makers.
22. Lithographers.
Group 3.— Exposure to vegetable fiber
du st:
23. Cotton ginning.

Group 3.— Exposure to vegetable fiber
dust— Concluded.
24. Cotton textile manufacture.
25. Spinners.
26. Weavers.
27. Hosiery and knitting mills.
28. Lace making.
29. F lax and linen m anufacture.
30. Hemp and cordage m anufac­
ture.
31. M anufacture o f ju te and jute
goods.
32. Paper m anufacture.
33. Cabinetmakers.
34. W ood turners and carvers.
Group 4.— Exposure to animal and
m ixed fiber du st:
35. Furriers and taxidermists.
36. Hatters.
37. Silk manufacture.
38. W oolen and worsted m anufac­
ture.
39. Carpet and rug m anufacture.
40. Shoddy manufacture.
41. Rag industry.
42. Upholsterers and
hair-mattress makers.

The grouping is necessarily a more or less arbitrary one since all
occupations involve exposure to more than one particular kind of
63675— No. 79— 09----- 2




644

BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

dust, but it is safe to assume that the predominating character o f
a particular dust exposure primarily determines the resulting de­
parture o f the consumption mortality from the normal for the gen­
eral population. A ll the groupings o f dusty trades which have been
adopted by Hirt, Merkel, Arlidge, Oliver, and others have this limi­
tation in common. Since no entirely conclusive investigation has
been made to afford the material for a final and strictly scientific
classification o f dusty trades, the grouping adopted will serve at least
the purpose o f a convenient arrangement with a strict regard to the
facts as they are known and understood at the present time.
O CCU PATION S W IT H E X P O S U R E TO M E T A L L IC DUST.
In the group o f occupations exposing to a continuous and consider­
able inhalation o f metallic dust resulting from industrial processes
have been included for the present purpose the following repre­
sentative employments: Grinders, polishers, tool and instrument
makers, jewelers, gold-leaf manufacture, brass workers, printers,
compositors, pressmen, and engravers. These occupations are all
more or less subject to an excessive death rate from all causes, but
in particular to a decided excess in the proportionate mortality from
consumption, and in most cases also to a comparatively high degree of
frequency in the occurrence o f other respiratory diseases. The details
o f labor conditions, as far as they could be conveniently included in
the following summary o f observations regarding particular trades,
appear to fully confirm the opinion that the degree o f excess in
consumption frequency is intimately related and in almost exact pro­
portion to the degree o f exposure to continuous and considerable
inhalation o f metallic dust.
GRINDERS.

The grinding trade includes a large variety o f employments, o f
which metal grinding, by either the dry or wet process, is hygienically as well as industrially the most important. The grinding o f
metal involves exposure to decidedly health-injurious conditions,
probably as much so i f not more than in any other employment.
Chiefly as the result o f the inhalation o f relatively large quantities
o f fine metallic dust, and not inconsiderable quantities o f fine mineral
dust, the mortality from consumption in this occupation is decidedly
above the normal for occupied males generally. While the sanitary
and other conditions injuriously affecting the health o f metal grinders
never have been so notoriously bad in the United States as in Eng­
land or in continental Europe, the observed mortality o f this occu­
pation as carried on in this country fully warrants the most serious
conclusions as to the health-injurious effects o f this group o f
employments.



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

645

The mortality o f metal grinders has been discussed by James H.
Lloyd, M. D., in his treatise on “ Diseases o f occupations,” included
in the Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine, published in 1895.
Lloyd, after calling attention to the well-known fact that the trade
o f the grinder is conspicuous above all others for the suffering that
is entailed from the inhalation o f metallic dust, describes in detail
the different processes o f grinding and their relation to health, from
which the following is quoted:
Grinding edge tools is of two kinds—wet and dry. The latter
method is by far the more injurious, as, naturally, it raises far the
greater amount o f dust. For some tools both methods are used—
the mixed method. The tools ground are scythes, saws, table knives,
machine knives, various other kinds o f edge tools, files, penknives,
razors, scissors, forks, needles, etc. A great difference in their bad
effects is observed among the branches o f the trade according as the
grinders use the wet or dry method and according to the tool ground.
The smaller objects are far the most trying and exacting upon health.
The worst o f all branches are the fork grinding and needle grinding.
This is because in grinding these small objects the workman is obliged
to lean close over the stone and therefore inhales large quantities of
the dust, and also because the dry grinding is used.
The dust raised by grinding is composed largely o f minute bits of
steel. According to Hall, 12 razor blades forged in the rough, which
weigh 2 pounds and 4 ounces, lose 10 ounces m the process o f grind­
ing. This loss represents so much fine metallic dust, mingled of
course with dust from the stone. This statement gives some idea of
the immense amount of dust produced by dry grinding. According
to Holland the concrete masses o f this dust formed in needle grinding
have almost the specific gravity o f iron.
In discussing the symptoms of the diseases typical o f grinders as
the result o f their employment, Lloyd points out further that—
They are those of a slowly advancing bronchitis with asthma and
sometimes with emphysema; later dilated bronchi with excavation are
observed; then, consolidation, and breaking down o f lung tissue occur
as the terminal processes.^ The exact relationship o f these processes
to a tubercular infection in grinders is an interesting and important
subject, which, o f course, did not receive much light from the earlier
writers. They endeavored, in fact, to draw distinctions between
true “ consumption ” and grinder’s “ asthma,” but the state o f patho­
logical knowledge in their day was not such as to permit them to
do otherwise. It is quite evident from reading their reports o f cases
that they had to do with a disease that was essentially tubercular, but
it would be interesting to have the exact relationship o f this infection
to the grinder’s unwholesome occupation investigated by the methods
o f modern bacteriology. I do not know whether this has ever been
done. There can be no doubt that the influence o f the grinder’s trade
is that o f a predisposing cause. The inhalation o f the irritating par­
ticles o f steel into the lungs causes a constant catarrhal bronchitis and
pneumonitis, with increase o f connective tissue; and this prepares the
soil for a tubercular infection which characterizes the latter stages of
the disease.




646

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

The most recent qualified discussion o f the health-injurious cir­
cumstances o f dry and wet grinding is by Oliver, who, in his Diseases
o f Occupation, goes fully into all the details concerning the trade,
including a brief account o f the corresponding conditions in the cut­
lery manufacture o f Germany, at Solingen:
So far as the two methods o f grinding cutlery are concerned, the
dry method is, from a health point o f view, the more dangerous to
the workers. The dust is dry, and is in the form o f a very fine
powder, which readily reaches the lungs owing to the attitude o f the
men when at work. Steel grinders sit astride the grinding stone on
a saddle, and as they lean forward keeping close to their work, they
can not but inhale some o f the dust, which is a mixture o f steel and
stone. Forks and needles are generally ground by the dry method;
knives, scissors, and razors by the wet. Some are ground by both
methods, e. g., the backs o f razors and scissors are ground by the dry
method and the remainder o f the blade by the wet. It was in 1865
that Dr. T. C. Hall, o f Sheffield, drew attention to the high death
rate o f steel grinders from pulmonary phthisis. The average age at
death o f steel grinders was at this period only 29 years, but o f late
this has improved. Doctor Hall’s statistics referred to dry grinding.
In wet grinding the running stone passes through a thin layer of
water in a trough below the stone, so that, as its surface is always
kept wet, comparatively little dust is given off during the process
o f grinding; but while the atmosphere is clearer o f dust, the floors
and walls o f the workshop are damp and cold. The grinding is
carried on in rooms called “ hulls,” which are bounded by three blank
walls; the windows are without glass. Where dry grinding is car­
ried on there are fans, but these often prove ineffective. It is no
uncommon thing to find men engaged in different processes in one
large room, so that the dust which is generated affects not only the
workman sitting at his own grinding stone, but the other inmates
o f the room as well. In Sheffield it has been ascertained that in
every 1,000 deaths among steel grinders pulmonary phthisis is the
cause o f 345 and other respiratory diseases 295; that is, collectively,
pulmonary diseases account for 64 per cent o f the entire mortality,
whereas among the adult population o f the country generally phthisis
accounts for 144 deaths per 1,000 and other respiratory diseases
182, or collectively 32.6 per cent. Steel grinders die comparatively
young. Dr. Sinclair White, in Dangerous Trades, page 414, says
that 458 grinders in every 1,000 die between the ages o f 35 and 55,
compared with 261 in every 1,000 o f the entire male population o f
the country. Only 140 grinders out o f every 1,000 reach the age of
55 and upward, whereas for every 1,000 o f the adult male popula­
tion 391 reach 55 years and upward. Sinclair White is o f the
opinion that phthisis is not so rife among steel grinders as formerly.
In Doctor Hall’s time the average age at death from phthisis was 29
years; at present it is 43. (a)
With reference to conditions in Germany and the remarkable im­
provement which has followed the introduction o f sanitary precau­

0 Diseases of Occupation, Thomas Oliver, pp. 230, 231, London, 1908.



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

647

tions, rational methods o f ventilation, and other means o f dust
prevention, Oliver holds:
In the town o f Solingen and the neighborhood it is estimated that
there are 29,000 persons employed in making cutlery. Here all sorts
o f steel goods are made—knives, forks, scissors, and swords. A good
deal o f the work is done by the people in their homes, and it is inter­
esting to know that the home industry is rather encouraged by the
local* authority, which provides the men with gas and electric power.
So prevalent is pulmonary consumption among the grinders in So­
lingen that it has attracted the attention o f the Government Factory
Department. In the ten years 1885-1895 72.5 per cent o f the deaths
among knife grinders in the Solingen district was due to phthisis,
against 35.3 per cent for the rest o f the population over 14 years o f
age, and an official examination showed that out of 1,250 grinders only
85 men were over 45 years of age. Doctor Shadwell speaks approv­
ingly o f the methods adopted in some o f the Solingen factories to deal
with the removal o f dust. Oldendorf, in writing about the grinders
at Solingen, states that 24.7 per cent reached 50 years o f age and 3.3
per cent 70; that at Runsched 33.8 per cent reached 50 years and 8.0
per cent 70; while at Kronenberg the numbers were 32.9 and 8.7,
respectively. The mean age at death o f grinders employed in the dry
methods was 39.4, of workers in iron 48.3, and o f the rest of the male
population 54.4 years. Taking all ages, the deaths from tuberculosis
per 100 cases were for grinders 78.3, iron workers 59.0, other per­
sons 46.0. (a)
A very interesting account o f the mortality o f cutlery grinders in
Solingen was also included in the Report o f the Chief Inspector
o f Factories and Workshops o f England for 1906, from which an
abstract is made to emphasize the sanitary and labor conditions
necessary to reduce the mortality o f grinders to a minimum:
The atmosphere o f Solingen is bright and clear. It is seldom that
black smoke is seen escaping from the factory chimneys. This is
largely the result o f careful firing and the use o f coal briquettes in­
stead o f ordinary coal, which avoids the use o f slack coal. The day’s
actual work is nine hours; on Saturday work ceases at 5.30 p. m. The
factories in Solingen are said to be marvels o f order and cleanli­
ness ; the floors are o f concrete and the air space for each worker must
be at least 565 cubic feet. A ll the grinding stones are protected by
uards. The walls o f the workrooms are limewashed every year; the
oors are swept every evening and damp-wiped once a week. The
“ rasing ” o f grindstones is never undertaken during working hours
except under a stream o f water or unless the stone is entirely inclosed
in casing except at the working place o f the rasing tool. The floors
are kept clean and provision is made for the removal o f the dust
during grinding. Cutlery manufacture is recognized as a dangerous
trade in Solingen, and in recent years considerable improvement has
taken place in the means to prevent dust. In Solingen the grind­
stones and polishing wheels are run toward the worker; in Shef­

f

®Diseases of Occupation, Thomas Oliver, p. 232.



648

BU LLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR.

field they are run away from the worker, so that the dust has an
upward tendency and flies into the room .(a)
The subject is also considered in the Report o f the Chief Inspector
o f Factories and Workshops for 1907, in which the rules or police
regulations governing the trade at Solingen are republished in full.
A remarkable improvement in the health of the workmen has followed
the introduction o f these rules.
The most conclusive mortality data o f metal grinders are for Shef­
field, England, and from the annual reports of the medical officer o f
health are tabulated the deaths of grinders occurring within the
period 1889 to 1906, including 2,045 deaths from all causes, o f which
837 were from consumption and 543 from respiratory diseases other
than consumption. The data are given in tabular form below, by
divisional periods o f life, with the resulting mortality from consump­
tion and other respiratory diseases at specified ages:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AND FROM OTHER RESPI­
RATORY DISEASES COMPARED WITH THAT FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG
GRINDERS, IN SHEFFIELD, ENGLAND, 1889 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From annual reports of the Medical Officer of Health, Sheffield, England.]
Age at death.
Under 25 years...............................................................
25 th 34 years..................................................................
35 to 44 years..................................................................
45 to 54 years..................................................................
55 to 64 years..................................................................
65 years or over..............................................................
Total....................................................................

Deaths
from all
causes.
85
246
416
575
452
271
2,045

Deaths from con­
sumption.

Deaths from re­
spiratory diseases
other than con­
sumption.

Number. Per cent. Number. Percent.
36
135
235
263
139
29
837

42.4
54.9
56.5
45.7
30.8
10.7
40.9

20
44
69
151
167
92
543

23.5
17.9
16.6
26.3
36.9
33.9
26.6

According to this table, at ages under 25, o f every 100 deaths from
all causes, 42.4 were from consumption, increasing to 56.5 at ages 35
to 44, decreasing subsequently to 30.8 at ages 55 to 64, and to 10.7 at
ages 65 or over. The corresponding mortality from respiratory dis­
eases other than consumption was also excessive at every period of life.
There are no similar data for the United States except the indus­
trial insurance mortality statistics o f grinders, limited to 128 deaths
from all causes, o f which 63, or 49.2 per cent, were from consumption.
O f the mortality o f grinders from respiratory diseases other than con­
sumption, 15 were from pneumonia, 5 from asthma and bronchitis,
and 2 from other respiratory diseases. I f the deaths from con­
sumption and other respiratory diseases are combined, a total o f 85,
or 66.4 per cent o f the mortality o f grinders, was from diseases o f

0 Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1906, pp. 107-109.



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

649

the lungs and air passages. The excess in the mortality o f grinders
from consumption is clearly brought out in the tabular presentation
o f the proportionate mortality from this disease by divisional periods
o f life compared with that o f all males in the registration area of
the United States :(a)

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG G RINDERS, 1897 TO
* 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA OF
THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for grinders from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures for
males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census.]
of deaths
Deaths of grinders, Perdue cent
to consumption
1897 to 1906, due to— among—
Age at death.

Males in
All causes. Consump­
Grinders. registration
tion.
area, 1900
to 1906.

15 to 24 years.......... :..........................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

7
24
38
30
20
9
128

4
17
24
12
5
1
63

57.1
70.8
63.2
40.0
25.0
11.1
49.2

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

While according to this table the proportionate consumption mor­
tality o f grinders was excessive at all ages, the excess was most pro­
nounced at ages 25 to 34, when out o f every 100 deaths from all causes,
70.8 were from consumption, against a normal expected proportion of
31.3. The data are unfortunately very limited, but they are at pres­
ent the only trustworthy source of information regarding the mor­
tality o f grinders in the United States. The number o f deaths is
sufficient, however, to warrant the conclusion that the mortality from
consumption in this occupation is very considerably above the normal
for the general population.
POLISHERS.

The polishing o f metal ware is a widely diversified trade, and the
term “ polisher ” is one o f general rather than o f special significance.
Under the term are included metal polishers and buffers working
upon steel, brass, gold, and silverware, but no data are available
which would permit o f a proper classification o f polishers according
to the metal or material manipulated. The health-injurious effects
o f this employment have been recognized by all who have written
a The registration area, from w hich m ortality statistics were secured by the
Bureau o f the Census, included in 1906 about one-half (48.8 per cent) o f the
total estimated population o f continental United States.




650

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

upon the mortality o f dusty trades, and the more important facts
are summarized by Arlidge in part as follows:
After being shaped and ground to the required dimensions, the
next business is to burnish or polish the articles. This is accomlished by wheels covered by leather, and also by a thick bundle o f
nen rags cut and bound together in the form o f a wheel, and which,
by rapid rotation, assumes the character o f a solid mass, and, at the
same time, one so soft as to serve better than any other contrivance
for the purpose o f surface polishing. To assist in giving polish to
the articles made various powders are employed; for example, emery,
whiting, rouge, powdered pumice, etc. The use of these materials
adds vastly to the dust o f the trade and to its pernicious results;
but no data are in existence to indicate what is its share in the causa­
tion o f disease as compared with the dust o f the grindstones. Still,
no question exists that these polishing powders, differing as they do
among themselves in physical qualities, differ likewise m the range
o f their effects upon the lungs.

E

The rather involved circumstances affecting the polisher’s health
and mortality are also discussed in The Workers o f the Nation, by
Mr. Gilson Willets, whose attention appears to have been attracted
by the particularly health-injurious conditions o f the employment,
and whose conclusions are decidedly suggestive:
Metal polishers who have reached the age of 40 often look like old
men. There can hardly be found a trade more deleterious to health,
say those who follow it. Among the harmful conditions may be
mentioned the liability o f the workmen to get their lungs full of
flying and impalpable dust, which is composed o f metal, minerals,
and cotton fiber. They are also, in many cases, deprived of the
proper supply o f light, and great injury to the eyes thus arises.
It is not easy to wear goggles or glasses, as the operator’s sight
must be o f the keenest in order to detect blemishes. There are
laws for the protection o f this class o f workmen, but they are too
seldom employed. New York statutes require that at each polishing
lathe there shall be an exhaust fan to carry off the dust, that each
operative shall have 250 square feet o f air to breathe, and plenty o f
light. It has been claimed that not in 5 per cent o f the shops do
these desirable provisions prevail. A buffing wheel, making 2,500
revolutions per minute, has wrecked many constitutions. From it,
as the polisher applies the metal, a cloud o f dust arises, made o f
particles o f cloth and metal, and that is what the operator breathes.
Generally the windows are hermetically sealed. Often the walls and
floors are covered with the accumulation o f years. In the process o f
brightening silver-plated material there is given forth by the wheel
a cloud o f dust o f which crocus is a large constituent, while from
the plating room come fumes o f nitric acid. In the process of
polishing chandeliers there is much dust set free, which is composed
o f particles o f brass, and permeates the air o f the shop. Metal
polishers often do not care to complain, because their wages are high.
Here is a good field for activity among the factory inspectors, who
should force employers to maintain proper conditions in the shops. (®)

° The Workers of the Nation, Vol. I, p. 57.



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN BUSTY TRADES.

651

More recent evidence has been presented in the published sickness
and mortality experience of the Metal Polishers’ Union, regarding
which it has been stated that:
The treasury o f this union, in spite o f the fact that the men are
steady and have no special temptations to excess, was found to be
constantly exhausted. The reason is that the death claims eat up all
the funds. An investigation o f these claims showed that many o f
the men were dying from pulmonary tuberculosis. There were some
deaths from accident, a few suicides, but the rest were all from pul­
monary diseases— and pneumonia was very rare as compared with
phthisis. The statistics for the last four years show that in 1903, 45
metal polishers died, o f whom 43 succumbed to some lung trouble.
In 1904 there were but 38 deaths among the metal polishers, o f which
only 3 were due to other causes than pulmonary disease. In 1905
there were 70 deaths among the metal polishers, 65 o f which were due
to some form o f lung trouble. In New York City a local union
having 170 men working exclusively on the precious metals, had 8
death claims in two years, 7 being due directly to tuberculosis, while
400 men employed in all the other branches o f the same industry
have had but 3 deaths from this cause in the same space o f time.
A medical journal, commenting upon the above-quoted facts at the
time o f their publication, argued very pointedly to the effect that—
It would seem from these statistics that even the cleanest kinds o f
dust, without a trace of infectious material in them, may still prove
a source o f the greatest possible danger and be the indirect cause o f
tuberculosis. This has been known for some time, but so startling a
confirmation o f it is sure to emphasize the necessity for taking every
precaution for the avoidance o f dust. Even what might seem to be
the most innocuous o f dirt particles may, when inspired, constitute
foci o f irritation in which tubercle bacilli may readily find a favor­
able nidus for implantation and growth.
There are, unfortunately, no official vital statistics o f polishers
except the recorded mortality for Rhode Island for the period 1897 to
1906, which, however, includes only 42 deaths o f polishers from all
causes, but o f this number 14, or 33.3 per cent, were from consump­
tion. There were 4 deaths from pneumonia and 2 from asthma and
bronchitis, a total o f 20 deaths from diseases o f the lungs and air
passages, or 47.6 per cent of the mortality from all causes.
The Rhode Island statistics are fully confirmed by the recorded
industrial insurance mortality data of polishers, which includes 279
deaths from all causes, of which 108, or 38.7 per cent, were deaths
from consumption. O f the mortality of polishers from respiratory
diseases other than consumption, 25 were from pneumonia, 5 from
asthma and bronchitis, and 5 from other respiratory diseases. I f the
deaths from consumption and other respiratory diseases are combined,
it is found that 51.2 per cent o f the mortality o f polishers was from




652

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The excess in the mortality o f
polishers from consumption is clearly brought out in the tabular
presentation o f the proportionate mortality from this disease by
divisional periods o f life:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG PO LISH ERS, 1897
TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA
OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for polishers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures for
males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States census.]
of deaths
Deaths of polishers, Perdue cent
to consumption
1897 to 1906, due to— among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Males in
Polishers. registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
area, 1900
to 1906.
48
75
68
48
19
21
279

22
42
29
11
4

45.8
56.0
42.6
22.9
21.1

108

38.7

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

While according to this table the proportionate consumption mor­
tality o f polishers was excessive at all ages under 65, the excess was
most pronounced at ages 25 to 34, when out o f every 100 deaths from
all causes 56 were from consumption, against a normally expected
proportion o f 31.3. The number o f deaths o f polishers included in
the analysis is sufficient to warrant the conclusion that the mortality
from consumption in this occupation is very considerably above the
normal for the general population, but below the corresponding
averages for grinders.
TOOL AND INSTRUMENT MAKERS.

The manufacture o f tools and instruments includes a large number
o f grinders and polishers, but it is not possible to classify the occupa­
tions in detail. In the United States census statistics the industry
includes cutlery manufacture, while in English mortality statistics
the group comprehends tool, file, and saw makers, cutlers and scissors
makers, and needle and pin makers. The statistics o f 1900 for the
United States return 26,997 males o f known ages 15 or over em­
ployed in this industry as previously defined, and o f this number 666,
or 2.5 per cent, were 65 years of age or over. The proportion attain­
ing to old age was, therefore, somewhat larger than expected, consider­
ing the high rate o f mortality o f grinders and polishers, and others
employed in the manufacture of tools, instruments, etc. A special
investigation into the sanitary conditions of this employment was
made by the Massachusetts state board o f health in 1907, and the




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

653

report included a number of very valuable and suggestive references
to conditions unfavorable to health and life, from which the follow­
ing extracts are made:
From a sanitary point of view, the one important part o f this in­
dustry is the reduction o f the surface o f the article in process o f manu­
facture from the roughness o f the original casting to the smoothness
and brilliancy so necessary and desirable in the finished product.
This involves successive treatment by wet grinding, dry grinding on
emery and corundum wheels, and polishing with rouge on buffing
wheels. Each o f these processes, even that o f wet grinding on large,
coarse, and finer stones, causes to be cast into the air large amounts o f
fine dust, made up o f very fine particles o f steel and of the abrasive
substance. In establishments properly equipped and conducted, pro­
vision is made to reduce the danger of this dust to a minimum by
means o f hoods connected with a system of exhaust fans or blowers.
In spite o f the precautions taken to protect their health, a very large
proportion o f grinders recklessly remove the hoods, and thus expose
themselves unnecessarily to this especially dangerous form o f dust.
They assert that they prefer freedom o f movement with dust to the
protection afforded by hoods.
The workmen are not, as a class, long lived; indeed, the nature o f
the work is not compatible with longevity, and a person entering upon
it in middle life is unlikely to follow it many years. Whatever the
age at which the trade is taken up, a man in sound health who has
followed it a few years is an acknowledged rarity. A study of the
death returns o f the city o f Northampton, which is one o f the centers
o f this industry, for the past twelve years, yields facts which can be
interpreted in only one way. During this period tuberculosis is given
as the cause o f death in no less than 54.5 per cent o f those whose oc­
cupation is indicated by “ grinder ” or “ polisher,” and in 45.4 per
cent o f those designated generally as u cutlers,” and o f the latter
36.4 died o f pneumonia. Taken together, the “ grinders,” “ polish­
ers ” and “ cutlers ” returns show that, during this period, diseases o f
the lungs were responsible for 72.73 per cent o f their mortality. As
was shown in the preliminary report on this industry, the tuberculosis
death rate for cutlers in Northampton is four times as high as that
for the entire adult male population.
A serious problem in the cutlery and tool industry is how to se­
cure effective ventilation, and many of the factories and workshops
inspected were found to be seriously defective in this respect. A
large proportion o f the workmen, including many young boys, are
exposed to considerable dust, chiefly, of course, in the grinding and
polishing departments. While much has been done to improve the
sanitary conditions by artificial ventilation, there has been but a very
languid cooperation on the part of the operatives themselves, and
many, in fact, are interfering with the arrangements made for their
protection to the extent o f removing the hoods and exhaust pipes
installed for the purpose o f removing the dust.
The United States census vital statistics do not include the mortal­
ity o f tool and instrument makers, and the only official statistics are



654

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

those of the state board of health o f Rhode Island. During the
decade 1897 to 1906 there were recorded in Rhode Island 44 deaths of
tool makers from all causes, and o f this number 9, or 20.5 per cent,
were from consumption, and 5, or 11.4 percent, from other respiratory
diseases. The total mortality from diseases o f the lungs and air
passages was 14, or 31.9 per cent, against an expected percentage of
30.3 for all occupied males in Rhode Island. Fortunately there are
more conclusive data regarding this occupation. The most valuable
official statistics are those for England and Wales, published at
decennial intervals in the supplements to the reports of the registrargeneral o f births, marriages, and deaths. Only two comparatively
recent investigations are here referred to. The first o f these, for the
three years ending with 1892, included 2,529 deaths from all causes,
o f which 505, or 20 per cent, were from consumption. O f diseases
o f the respiratory system other than consumption, 384 deaths were
from bronchitis, 286 from pneumonia, and 78 from other diseases of
this group, a total of 748, or 29.6 per cent, of the mortality from all
causes. Combining the mortality from consumption and other res­
piratory diseases, it is found that 49.5 per cent o f the deaths o f tool
and instrument makers, as previously defined, were from diseases of
the lungs and air passages.
The most recent English mortality statistics of tool and cutlery
manufacture are for the three years ending with 1902, referred to in
the Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the RegistrarGeneral, in part as follow s:
In the occupation as a whole the mortality at ages under 25 is
below the standard for occupied and retired males; but among file
makers the death rate at these ages exceeds the standard. Beyond
age 25 the'mortality in the whole occupation, as well as among cutlers
and file makers, considerably exceeds the standard. A t ages 45 to 65
years the death rate among cutlers is 72 per cent and that o f file
makers is 84 per cent above the average. Within the main working
period o f life the comparative mortality figure for the whole occupa­
tion is 1,315, or 31 per cent, above the standard. The mortality from
lead poisoning is nine times and that from phthisis is nearly double
the standard, and these workers suffer excessively from nervous, cir­
culatory, respiratory, and urinary diseases. On the other hand, the
mortality from alcoholism and liver disease and from accident is
about half the average. Among cutlers and file makers the compara­
tive mortality figures considerably exceed the average for the entire
occupation, the figure for the former being 56 per cent above the
standard for all occupied and retired males, while that for the latter
is 69 per cent in excess. Indeed, these two occupations appear to be
the most unhealthy in the whole group of workers in metal. It
should be mentioned in this place that the occupation o f file maker is
one that is specially liable to lead poisoning, the mortality figure for
plumbism being no less than 56, whilst among all occupied and retired
males the mortality is represented by unity.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

655

File makers experience more than twice the average mortality from
nervous diseases and nearly four times the average from Bright’s
disease, but cutlers experience comparatively little excess o f mortality
from either o f these causes. In both industries the mortality from
phthisis is enormous, the figure for cutlers being nearly three times
and that for file makers more than twice the standard, and in both
occupations the mortality from respiratory diseases approaches
double the standard. Both these workers, however, experience a low
mortality from influenza, from alcoholism and liver disease, and from
accident, while among file makers the mortality from cancer is also
less than normal. (a)
The English occupation mortality statistics for men employed at
tool, instrument, and cutlery making are quite conclusive o f the more
or less unfavorable effects o f this industry on health. In the table
which follows a comparison is made o f the mortality from all causes
among men in this group with occupied males generally, and the re-,
suit is decidedly suggestive of conditions in this trade more or less
unfavorable to life and health, but in particular at ages 45 or over,
when the general mortality o f this class exceeds the general average
by from 8.24 to 12.26 per 1,000.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG TOOL, INSTRUMENT, AND CUTLERY
M AKERS, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND
AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Death rate for tool, instrument, and
cutlery makers.

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over................................................................

20 to 24

Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+)
for all
less (—)
occupied Rate per orthan
rate
males.
1,000.
for all
occupied
males.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

2.09
3.32
6.32
13.65
25.97
42.05
100.65

- 0.35
- 1.09
+ .31
+ 3.43
+ 8.24
+11.04
+12.26

Ratio to
rate for all
occupied
males.
£6

75
105
134
146
136
114

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further com­
ment. A more extended comparison is made in the next table, in which
the mortality o f tool, instrument, and cutlery makers from consump­
tion and other respiratory diseases is compared with the normal
mortality o f occupied males from these diseases, by divisional periods
o f life. The comparison shows that at ages 20 or over the mortality
a Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the Registrar-Gen­
eral o f Births, Deaths, and M arriages in England and W ales, pp. lxix, lxx.




656

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

from consumption is excessive among tool, instrument, and cutlery
makers, but decidedly so at ages 35 to 64, inclusive. The table further
shows that the mortality from other respiratory diseases is excessive
among men in this class, but decidedly so at ages 45 or over, reaching
the highest rate at ages 65 or over, when the excess is 7.69 per 1,000.
The two tables, derived from English experience, fully confirm the
previous conclusion that the mortality o f tool, instrument, and cutlery
makers is excessive when comparison is made with the normal mor­
tality of occupied males generally and that this excess is largely
because o f a high degree o f consumption frequency, particularly at
ages 25 to 64, when the excess is from 0.91 to 4.09 per 1,000. The table
which follows requires no further comment and is otherwise selfexplanatory :

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AND FROM OTHER DISEASES OF THE RES­
PIRATORY SYSTEM AMONG TOOL, INSTRUMENT, AND CUTLERY M AK ERS,
COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES,
1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Mortality from other diseases of the respi­
ratory system.

Mortality from consumption.
Death rate for tool, instrument,
and cutlery makers.
Death
Age at death. rate per
Greater (+) Ratio to
1,000 for
or less (—)
all
occupied Rate per than rate rateallfor
males. 1,000.
for all
occupied occupied
males. males.
15 to 19 years.......
20 to 24 years.......
25 to 34 years.......
35 to 44 years.......
45 to 54 years.......
55 to 64 years.......
65 years or over...

0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.17
1.57
2.94
5.90
7.13
5.26
1.97

-0.37
+ .02
+ .91
+3.16
+4.09
+3.10
+ .86

31
101
145
215
235
244
177

Death rate for tool, instrument,
and cutlery makers.
Death
rate per
1,000 for
Greater (+) Ratio to
all
or less (—)
occupied Rate per than rate rateallfor
males. 1,000.
for all
occupied occupied
males. males.
0.24
.48
.77
1.66
3.32
6.54
17.77

0.23
.56
1.14
2.01
5.40
10.42
25.46

-0.01
+ .08
+ .37
+ . 35
+2.08
+3.88
+7.69

96
117
148
121
163
159
143

The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f tool and
instrument makers include 303 deaths from all causes, o f which 101,
or 33.3 per cent, were from consumption. O f the mortality o f tool
and instrument makers from other respiratory diseases, 25 were from
pneumonia, 9 from asthma and bronchitis, and 5 from less frequent
respiratory diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and other
respiratory diseases are combined, it is found that 46.3 per cent of the
mortality o f tool and instrument makers was from diseases o f the
lungs and air passages. The excess in the consumption mortality of
tool and instrument makers is still more clearly brought out in the
tabular presentation o f the proportionate mortality from this disease
by divisional periods of life. While the consumption mortality o f




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

657

tool and instrument makers was excessive at all ages, the excess was
most pronounced at 25 to 34, when out o f every 100 deaths from all
causes 59.3 were from consumption, against a normal expected pro­
portion o f 31.3. The analysis o f the consumption mortality o f tool
and instrument makers in detail is set forth in the table below:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG TOOL AND INSTRU­
MENT M AK ERS, 1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE
REGISTRATION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for tool and instrument makers from experience of an industrial insurance
company; figures for males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of
the United States census.]
Deaths of tool and in­ Per cent of deaths due
strument m ak ers, to c o n s u m p t i o n
1897 to 1906, due to— among—
Age at death.

Tool and
All causes. Consump­
tion. instrument
makers.

Males in
registration
area, 1900
to 1906.

32.5
59.3
35.3
37.5
12.5
8.3
33.3

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

15 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

40
59
68
56
32
48
303

13
35
24
21
4
4
101

The preceding observations and statistical data fully confirm the
conclusion that tool and instrument makers, including under this term
many similar employments, but in particular the manufacture o f cut­
lery inclusive o f grinding and polishing, represent a trade subject to
decidedly health-injurious circumstances which are responsible for
the comparatively high degree of consumption frequency disclosed
by both the general vital statistics of the occupation and the observed
mortality o f this class in industrial insurance experience.
JEWELERS.

The manufacture o f jewelry in all its branches involves a large
variety o f manipulations, including the melting and refining o f small
quantities o f the precious metals, and the handling, shaping, cutting,
and polishing o f precious stones. An important part o f the indus­
try is engraving and die cutting, which, however, for the present
purpose, is separately considered as a well-defined occupation, and
although often included with jewelers, it is equally often included
with printers and compositors. Most o f the articles made by jewelers
are o f small dimensions, such as chains, rings, brooches, pins, and
buckles, which require painstaking care in handling and continuous
eye-straining attention in shaping and polishing. Aside from the




658

BULLETIN OF T H E BUREAU OF LABOR.

use o f gold and silver, many other metals and mineral substances are
employed, such as jet, coral, tortoise, bone, ivory, etc. Zinc is also
extensively used as an alloy and for coloring purposes. The gems
require to be cut with extreme care, and the work o f the diamond
polisher and lapidary constitutes, next to the gold and silver smith,
important separate branches o f the trade. The manufacture o f
artificial gems, made o f a paste, chiefly o f a vitreous substance pre­
pared from rocks and crystals or flint powder, subsequently treated
with nitric acid with lead and borax as a flux, forms another im­
portant subdivision o f the industry.
The work o f the jeweler is naturally an indoor occupation, involv­
ing a stooping position, much like that o f the engraver. The work­
shops are generally small and the ventilation is usually poor. The
dust generated in the process o f hammering, cutting, shaping, grind­
ing, polishing, etc., is considerable, but very minute, and not easily
observed. The dust accumulations are preserved and sold to refining
plants, for remelting and the recovery o f precious substances. The
health problem is complicated by the universal use o f blow-pipe
apparatus and o f gas for heating purposes. In large factories the use
o f machinery is increasing, but chiefly in connection with the manu­
facture o f imitation jewelry and stones.
The unhygienic condition o f many jewelry workshops and the gen­
eral effect o f this employment on health were discussed at some length
in an early treatise by Thackrah, from which is quoted the following:
The jewelers’ workrooms are generally crowded, and the atmos­
phere consequently fouled by respiration, animal effluvia, and the
smoke o f lamps, as well as by the specific exhalations o f the manu­
facture. Its temperature is generally raised, and in summer the heat
is excessive. The labor is light, but the confinement to a leaning
posture, with the head much depressed, and the elbows generally fixed
to the'sides o f the trunk, for ten, fourteen, or sixteen hours a day, is
irksome and injurious. Intemperance is general, and dram drinking
especially prevalent. The disorders o f which jewelers principally
complain are pains and soreness o f the chest, disorders o f the stomach
and liver, and plethoric affections of the head. They enter the employ
about 13 or 14 years o f age and are obliged to abandon it. generally at
45 to 50. (a)
Thackrah continues that “ an old jeweler is seldom to be found, and
leaving work, they seem to leave the world as well.” That this rather
unfavorable view regarding the health conditions in the jewelers’
trade is not exaggerated is made evident by the fairly trustworthy
vital statistics o f the trade. The English mortality data o f jewelers
and allied occupations for the three years ending with 1902, include
2,823 deaths from all causes, o f which 598, or 21.2 per cent, were from
®Effects o f Arts, Trades, and Professions on H ealth and Longevity.
ner Thackrah, London, 1832, p. 115.




0 . Tur­

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

659

consumption. In addition to a high mortality from consumption
there were 164 deaths from bronchitis and 247 from other respiratory
diseases, a total o f 1,009 deaths, or 35.7 per cent, from diseases o f the
lungs and air passages in the mortality from all causes. (a)
In Rhode Island the jewelry industry has attained to very large
proportions, constituting one o f the most important industries in
that State. During the ten years ending with 1906 the number o f
deaths o f jewelers recorded was 557 from all causes, and o f this
number 173, or 31.1 per cent, were from consumption, and 51, or 9.2
per cent, from other respiratory diseases; o f the total mortality,
therefore, 224 deaths, or 40.3 per cent, were from diseases o f the lungs
and air passages. No corresponding information is available for
other States, but in Massachusetts an investigation was made in 1907
into the hygiene o f this trade under the direction o f the state board
o f health, the results o f which, however, were rather inconclusive.
The opinion arrived at regarding the relation o f this employment to
health was a rather favorable one, it being stated that in general the
appearance o f the employee “ is healthy and many who have follow ed
the industry for twenty or more years speak o f the work as being
entirely consistent with good health.” This favorable opinion, how­
ever, may be called into question in view o f the very high propor­
tionate m ortality from consumption among jewelers and others
employed in the jewelers’ trade. In amplification o f the previous
reference to the Rhode Island statistics, it may be stated that during
the half century ending with 1902, 1,252 deaths o f jewelers were
recorded, o f which 480, or 38.3 per cent, were from consumption.
There were also 80 deaths from pneumonia, 18 from asthma and
bronchitis, or a total o f 578 deaths, or 46.2 per cent, from diseases
o f the lungs and air passages in the mortality from all causes.
The recorded mortality o f jewelers in industrial insurance experience
includes 403 deaths from all causes, o f which 113, or 28 per cent, were
from consumption. O f the mortality o f jewelers from other respira­
tory diseases, 37 were from pneumonia, 10 from asthma and bron­
chitis, and 2 from other respiratory diseases. The deaths from con­
sumption and other respiratory diseases combined show that 40.2
per cent o f the m ortality o f jewelers was from diseases o f the lungs
and air passages. The excess in the consumption mortality o f jewel­
ers is still more clearly brought out in the tabular presentation o f the
proportionate m ortality from this disease by divisional periods o f life.
W hile the consumption mortality o f jewelers was excessive at all
ages, the excess was most pronounced at 25 to 34, when out o f every
°T h e E nglish data include w atch and clock m akers, m akers o f scien tific
instrum ents, and other m ore or less closely allied trades. F or th is reason the
E nglish statistics are n ot strictly com parable w ith other data fo r jew elers and
are, not, th erefore, presented here in tabu lar form .
63675— N o. 7 9 -4 )9 ----- 3




660

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

100 deaths from all causes 59.5 were from consumption, against a
normal expected proportion o f 31.3. The analysis o f the consumption
m ortality o f jewelers in detail is set forth in the follow ing table:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG JE W E L E R S, 1897
TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA
OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for jewelers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures for
males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census.]’
Deaths of jewelers, 1897 Per cent of deaths due
to 1906, due to— to consumption among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Males in
registra­
Jewelers. tion
All causes. Consump­
area,
tion.
1900 to 1906
60
74
50
59
77
83
403

24
44
22
13
7
3
113

40.0
59.5
44.0
22.0
9.1
3.6
28.0

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data confirm the con­
clusion that jewelers as a class are subject to an excessive mortality
from consumption, but in particular at ages 25 to 34, and that this
excess is in a large measure the result o f health-injurious circum­
stances connected with the employment.
MANUFACTURE OF GOLD LEAF.

The work o f the gold leaf beater is nearly all hand work, excepting
in the operation o f the rolling machines. The trade is carried on
to-day in practically the same manner as in ancient times. The
weight o f the hammer used w ill average 18 pounds, which is more
than that o f the hammer used by the average blacksmith. Girls, as
a rule, are employed in connection with the less arduous operations
and the final packing o f the gold leaves in boxes and packages. The
tissue used in connection with this process is coated with red chalk,
the dust o f which, o f course, enters into the atmosphere o f the rooms,
usually badly ventilated. One o f the chief difficulties in connection
with ventilation is the fact that the slightest draft o f air w ill carry
the scrap o f gold leaf from one anvil to another and make packing
operations difficult or impossible. Evidence that the fine particles
o f gold enter the atmosphere is found in the fact that workmen
with beards turn in less waste gold than clean-shaven workmen, and
they are now required to wash themselves before leaving the shop, the
water being filtered for the recovery o f the metal contained therein.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

661

Thackrah, writing in 1832, held that gold-beating must be con­
sidered a distinct employment, aside from the metal trade generally.
Gold-beaters are about half the day engaged in beating the metal
with heavy hammers and the rest in spreading the gold leaf on paper.
B y this change in employment the process affords an excellent alter­
nation o f labor and comparative rest. In his opinion, the men were
not exposed to health-injurious conditions and were generally healthy
and robust. (a) It is difficult, however, to accept these conclusions
in their entirety. The work o f the gold-beater is carried on in rooms
the air o f which is more or less contaminated and where proper pro­
vision for ventilation is extremely difficult, if not impossible. The
work is commenced at rather early ages and quite a considerable
proportion o f young persons are employed. Whether gold dust is
itself injurious has never been scientifically determined, but it is
quite probable that it is less injurious than other metallic dust.
There are no general vital statistics for this occupation other than
the published industrial insurance mortality experience data and
these are limited to only 25 deaths from all causes. O f this number 7
were from consumption and 5 from pneumonia and other respiratory
diseases. F or all ages 28 per cent o f the deaths were from consump­
tion, and at 25 to 34 the proportionate mortality from this disease was
50 per cent. The very limited number o f observed cases does not
warrant a final conclusion, but the statistical evidence would seem
to confirm the view that the consumption m ortality in this occupa­
tion is above the average. The sanitary problems in this industry
are complicated by the fact that the work is, as a rule, carried on in
small shops, to which it is most difficult to apply rational principles
o f factory legislation.
BRASS WORKERS.

Brass workers, exclusive o f brass polishers and buffers, who have
been separately considered, constitute a large group o f widely diversi­
fied and often quite unlike employments. Brass casting, founding,
and molding are arduous occupations exposing to the inhalation o f
considerable quantities o f mineral dust more or less mixed with
metallic ingredients. Whether brass dust, as such, is more injurious
than the dust o f iron and steel, for illustration, has not been deter­
mined. In the evidence submitted to the Departmental Committee on
Compensation for Industrial Diseases by the National Society o f Am al­
gamated Brass W orkers,(6) including about 7,000 members, it was
a E ffects o f A rts, Trades, and P rofession s on H ealth and L ongevity, by
C. T urner Thackrah, 1832, p. 48.
5 M inutes o f Evidence, D epartm ental Com m ittee on Com pensation fo r In dus­
tria l D iseases, 1906, p. 75 et seq.




662

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

stated that about 2,000 o f these were engaged in casting. The trade
was said to be divided into pattern making, chasing, casting, finishing, burnishing, polishing, and putting together. The correspond­
ing classification o f the trade in the United States follow s practically
similar lines. (a) O f the groups mentioned, casting and founding were
considered the most injurious to health. Burnishing was held to be
less injurious than polishing, but the so-called putting together was
stated to be decidedly unhealthful on account o f the use o f white lead.
Evidently, in so diversified a trade the degree o f dust exposure must
vary widely, and at best the degree o f injury can only be measured
approximately upon the basis o f more or less indefinite mortality
data. The exposure o f brass workers to dust inhalation is only one
o f a number o f specific factors in the trade decidedly injurious to
health and life, and o f these mention may be made o f the exposure
to fumes and vapors generated in the smelting processes. Brass
founder’s ague is a well-defined occupation disease, the symptoms
o f which are tightness o f the chest with indefinite nervous sensation,
follow ed by fever and previous sweating. Zinc and other fumes in­
haled are the chief causes o f this ailment, and it is quite probable that
the lung injury resulting from the inhalation o f fine particles o f
metallic dust is a material contributory cause in brass founder’s ague.
Arlidge, in summing up the views o f other authorities on brass
workers’ disease, points out that—
Besides brass founding, there are other departments in the brass­
working business that are damaging to health; and chiefly so by
reason o f the dust produced. These branches are brass casting,
turning, filing, and polishing. The soft nature o f brass is opposed
to the development o f very fine and acuminated particles, and its
weight to its rising very freely and to its diffusion in the air. Never­
theless, those turning and filing it show clearly, by their clothes and
hair, that it is largely dispersed; the latter getting green, as happens
with brass founders. The inhalation o f brass dust operates in simi­
lar fashion to that seen in connection with other metallic dusts, pro­
voking bronchial catarrh, which advances to bronchitis and ends in
fibrosis. It is reported by some writers that phthisis is unusually
prevalent, but no reliable statistics are available to support this
statement.
More recent investigations in England fully confirm these earlier
conclusions. In 1894 a departmental committee was appointed by the
secretary o f state to report upon the conditions o f work as affecting
the health o f operatives in the manufacture o f brass and kindred
amalgams. In its report, which was published in 1896, the commit­
tee stated as the result o f its investigation, first, that brass workers
as a class were extensively liable to diseases o f the respiratory ora The num ber o f brass w orkers in the U nited States in 1900 w as 26,760, but
o f th is num ber 890 w ere w om en.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

663

gans, and, second, that brass founder’s ague, so called, was found to
result from the inhalation o f fumes given off by the molten brass at
the time o f pouring, but in a less degree it was attributed to the
contamination o f the workers’ food by the fumes, and that this
danger was in proportion to the amount o f zinc used in the alloy.
The subject was also reported upon in much detail in the Report o f
the Chief Inspector o f Factories and W orkshops for the year 1905.
From this report the follow ing suggestive extracts are m ade:
Altogether some 500 brass workers were examined, and in addition
to the filling in by each one o f them o f the appended form , note was
made o f the height, weight, chest measurement, and strength o f
grasp; the heart, lungs, gums, and teeth were, whenever practicable,
examined; and the condition as to anemia, paresis, general health,
and prevalence o f brass founder’s ague was determined.
The result o f the replies o f 216 casters and 199 polishers and others
to the question, Do you consider that your health has been in any way
injured by working in brass? was that 22.7 per cent o f the casters
and 11.6 per cent o f the polishers and others said they had suffered.
This is perhaps the strongest evidence obtained in the inquiry that
the casters are exposed to more trying conditions o f work than are
other brass workers.
The nature o f the injury was, as a rule, only very vaguely ex­
pressed; in the case o f the casters it was nearly always either
“ fumes ” or “ sulphur,” and in that o f the polishers “ dust.” In one
casting shop, where 19 strip casters were examined, o f whom 9 said
they suffered, illness or discom fort was attributed in some cases to
resin fumes in addition to those ordinarily present. Am ong the
casters there were indications that the older the workers were, and
also that the earlier the age o f commencement o f work, the more did
they say they had suffered, facts which could not be observed in the
case o f the polishers.
In 8 casters (3.9 per cent) definite physical signs in the lungs were
found, and similarly in 3 (1.5 per cent) o f the polishers and others.
In two o f the casters these pointed to chronic phthisis, while the
remainder pointed to bronchial catarrh. I am not inclined to draw
any conclusions from these facts, because (1) the number o f observa­
tions is too small, (2) the examination in some o f the factories was
carried out under great disadvantages, owing to the im possibility o f
securing a quiet room, and (3) it is well known that persons who are
the subjects o f disease o f the lungs in any marked degree are not
likely to be found at work.
Very strong evidence o f the beneficial effect o f good exhaust venti­
lation in connection with all kinds o f polishing operations, and indi­
rectly o f the lowered state o f health from the nonremoval o f the
dust, was obtained at one factory. Here the opinion o f the occupier
was that the installation had paid for itself over and over again in
the better work which was turned out by the men, and by the im­
proved tone among them resulting from the absence o f the obnoxious
dust. The remarks o f the polishers bore this out. One said, “ W orked
for eighteen years before the fan was put in, when the dust used to




664

BULLETIN OF TH E .BUREAU OF LABOR.

make him feel sick, but it is not so now.” A second said, “ I prefer
this shop to any other.” A third, “ I never worked in a cleaner
shop;” and a fourth. “ The fan is a great improvement.”
A large amount o i fluff, sand, and lime is given off in the process
o f polishing with calico mops. It is not, therefore, difficult to under­
stand (even although actual injury to health from it may be hard to
prove) that removal o f the dust is welcomed as tending to make the
work healthier. A sample o f dust taken from under a polishing bob
was submitted to Doctor Thorpe, who reported: “ This sample con­
tains a large proportion o f fiber, the loss on ignition amounting to
37.6 per cent. The metallic portion o f the residue— copper, zinc,
lead, and iron— amounts to 10.56 per cent o f the total sample. The
lead present equals 0.22 per cent o f the total sample, or 2.1 per cent
o f the above metallic constituents, or, excluding the iron, 2.33 per
cent. M icroscopically brass dust collected from near an emery wheel
showed all the appearances o f an injurious metallic dust—fine
particles with irregular jagged edges.”
Oliver concludes his observations regarding the hygiene o f this
employment with the follow ing statement:
The necessity o f personal cleanliness on the part o f workmen and
o f well-ventilated workshops is apparent. Means ought to be pro­
vided for a ready escape o f the fumes and for the removal o f dust.
The workshops ought to be cleaned at least once a year and the walls
whitewashed. H ot and cold water should be provided for the men to
wash in. The workmen themselves have found out by experience that
milk is both a prophylactic or preventive as well as a curative agent.
W hile the use o f respirators seems called for, the men can not work
well in them. Women and persons under 18 years o f age are not
allowed to work in the casting shop.
The most recent English mortality statistics o f brass workers are
for the three years ending with 1902, referred to in the report o f the
registrar-general in part, as follow s:
The mortality o f these workers is somewhat below the standard at
ages 15 to 20 and 25 to 35 years, but above the standard at every
other age group. In the main working period o f life their compara­
tive mortality figure is 1,154, or 15 per cent above the average; the
greatest excess o f m ortality occurring under the head o f phthisis, the
figure for which disease is above the average by 45 per cent. The
mortality from diseases o f the nervous, circulatory, respiratory, and
urinary systems as well as from suicide is also above the average.
These workers are only slightly liable to fatal influenza, and their
mortality from alcoholism and liver disease is also low. They like­
wise suffer less than the average from fatal accident. (a)
The English occupation mortality statistics for brass workers are
quite conclusive o f the more or less unfavorable effects o f this indus­
try on health. In the table which follow s a comparison is made o f
a P art II, Supplem ent to the S ixty-fifth Annual R eport o f the R egistrarG eneral o f B irths, D eaths, and M arriages in E ngland and W ales, p. lx xv .




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

665

the m ortality from all causes o f men in this group with occupied
males generally, and the result is quite suggestive o f conditions
in this trade more or less unfavorable to life and health, but in par­
ticular at ages 35 to 64, when the general mortality o f this class
exceeds the general average by from 3.17 to 5.59 per 1,000.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES OF BRASS W O R K ER S, COMPARED WITH THAT
OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE
GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Death rate for brass workers.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate
per 1,000
for all occu­ Rate per
pied males. 1,000.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

2.22
5.13
5.86
12.79
20.90
36.60
83.78

Greater(+)
or less (—)
than rate
for all occu­
pied males.

Ratio to
rate for all
occupied
males.

-0.22
+ .72
- .15
+2.57
+3.17
+5.59
-4.61

91
116
98
125
118
118
95

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison is made in the next table, in
which the mortality o f brass workers from consumption and respira­
tory diseases other than consumption is compared with the normal
m ortality o f occupied males from these diseases, by divisional periods
o f life. The comparison shows that at ages 20 to 64, inclusive, the
mortality o f brass workers from consumption is excessive by from
0.42 to 1.79 per 1,000, the excess being greatest at ages 35 to 44. The
table further shows that the mortality from respiratory diseases other
than consumption is excessive among men in this class, but decidedly
so at ages 55 and over, when the excess is from 1.29 to 2.88 per 1,000.
The two tables derived from English experience fu lly confirm the
previous conclusion that the m ortality o f brass workers is excessive
when comparison is made with the normal m ortality o f occupied
males generally, and that this excess is largely because o f the high
degree o f consumption frequency, particularly at ages 25 to 54. The
table which follow s requires no further comment, and is otherwise
self-explanatory.




666

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AND FROM OTHER DISEASES OF THE RES­
PIRATORY SYSTEM AMONG BRASS W O R K E R S, COMPARED WITH THAT OF
ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE
GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......
20 to 24 years.......
25 to 34 years.......
35 to 44 years.......
45 to 54 years.......
55 to 64 years----65 years or over...

Mortality from consumption.

Mortality from other diseases of the
respiratory system.

Death rate for brass workers.
Death
rate per
Greater (+) Ratio to
1,000 for
all occu­ Rate per or less (—) rate for
than rate all occu­
pied
males. 1,000. for all occu­ pied
pied males. males.

Death rate for brass workers.
Death
rate per
1,000 for
Greater (+) Ratio to
all occu­ Rate per or less (—) rate for
pied, 1,000. than rate all occu­
males.
for all occu­ pied
pied males. males.

0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.49
2.17
2.93
4.53
4.61
2.58
.44

—0.05
4- .62
+ .90
+1.79
+1.57
+ .42
- .67

91
140
144
165
152
119
40

0.24
.48
.77
1.66
3.32
6.54
17.77

0.24
.52
.60
2.05
3.94
9.42
19.06

+0.04
- .17
+ .39
+ .62
+2.88
+1.29

100
108
78
123
119
144
107

The recorded mortality o f brass workers in industrial insurance ex­
perience includes 414 deaths from all causes, o f which 161, or 38.9 per
cent, were from consumption. O f the m ortality o f brass workers
from respiratory diseases, other than consumption, 36 were from
pneumonia, 3 from asthma and bronchitis, and 12 from less frequent
respiratory diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and other
respiratory diseases are combined, 51.2 per cent o f the mortality o f
brass workers was from diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The
excess in the consumption m ortality o f brass workers is still more
clearly brought out in the tabular presentation o f the proportionate
m ortality from this disease by divisional periods o f life. W hile the
consumption m ortality was excessive at all ages, the excess was most
pronounced at ages 15 to 24, when out o f every 100 deaths from all
causes 59.1 were from consumption, against a normal expected pro­
portion o f 27.8. The analysis o f the consumption m ortality o f brass
workeis in detail is set forth in the follow ing table.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

667

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG BRASS W O R K E R S,
1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION
AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for brass workers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United
States census.]
of deaths
Deaths of brass workers, Perduecent
to consumption
1897 to 1906, due to— among—
Age at death.

Males in
Brass registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
workers. area, 1900
to 1906.

15 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or oyer..................................................................
Total..........................................................................

66
112
91
58
54
33
414

39
56
41
14
11

59.1
50.0
45.1
24.1
20.4

161

38.9

27.8
31.3
2a 6
15.0
&1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data fully confirm the
conclusion that brass workers as a class are subject to decidedly
health-injurious circumstances connected with the employment, and
resulting in a comparatively high degree o f consumption frequency
and a death rate from respiratory diseases in excess o f the normal
at ages 35 or over.
PRINTERS.

The employment o f printers differs in many essentials from most
o f the other occupations considered in this discussion, since it is
homogeneous and well-defined and common throughout the country.
W hile in many o f the modern printing establishments the conditions
favoring health and life, with special reference to ventilation and
light, are probably satisfactory, in the smaller workshops the sani­
tary conditions, as a rule, are decidedly to the contrary, and predis­
pose to tuberculosis. Thackrah early called attention to the diseases
o f printers, and in his opinion “ few appear to enjoy good health.”
Consumption, according to this writer, was frequent, but apparently
caused rather by the confinement or indoor employment than from
direct injury to the respiratory organs. The trade is one which has
received a considerable amount o f attention because o f its recognized
unhygienic features, and, in addition to the general data upon this
subject, the m ortality experience o f various typographic associations
has been carefully investigated. As Oliver points out, “ Printing
houses should be so constructed that free currents o f air can get to
them, and not, as is so frequently the case, shut in by other buildings.”
But such construction is even to-day the exception rather than the
rule. Considering that, as a class, printers probably rank above the
average mechanics in intelligence and earnings, it is difficult to un­



668

BULLETIN OE TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

derstand why they should so persistently in the past have neglected
the important problem o f workshop hygiene. The successful effort
to secure to the members o f the craft in illness or old age a home
in the mountain region o f the West emphasizes what could be done
by concentrated effort in other and even more important directions.
In the historical sketch o f the Union Printers’ Home, at Colorado
Springs, it is, in fact, pointed out that the place was selected for
the location o f the home prim arily because o f the special liability
o f printers to all forms o f lung and throat diseases, and in explana­
tion o f the subsequent necessity for a hospital annex the statement
is repeated that “ consumption is one o f the diseases to which the
printer is especially liable.”
The English vital statistics o f printers for 1890 to 1892 are quite
conclusive. Out o f 2,677 deaths o f printers from all causes, 917
were from phthisis, 218 from bronchitis, 186 from pneumonia, and
50 from other diseases o f the respiratory system. In every 100 deaths
from all causes there occurred, therefore, 51.2 deaths from diseases o f
the lungs and air passages. In comparing the mortality rates o f
printers with occupied males generally the health-injurious effects
o f the occupation, at even very early ages, become very readily ap­
parent. A t ages 15 to 19 the rate fo r occupied males generally was
2.55 against 3.24 for printers; at 20 to 24 the rates were, respectively,
5.07 and 6.61; at 25 to 34, 7.29 and 9.10; at 35 to 44, 12.43 and 14.40;
at 45 to 54, 20.66 and 21.56; at 55 to 64, 36.66 and 43.39; and finally,
at ages 65 or over, 102.32 and 102.61. This comparison proves
conclusively that the excess in the mortality falls very largely upon
ages under 35, and at these ages more than h alf o f the mortality
from all causes is from diseases o f the lungs or air passages, or pri­
m arily from consumption.
Tatham, in commenting upon the excessive m ortality o f printers,
as disclosed by an analysis o f the English m ortality data, remarks
that “ like bookbinders, printers die very rapidly from phthisis, and
probably for a similar reason, namely, because o f the excessively
unhealthful conditions under which their work is carried on.” (a)
Tatham calls attention, however, to the decline in the mortality o f
printers during the course o f the last twenty years, due among other
causes to the decrease in the deaths from lead poisoning, which had
fallen to one-half o f the earlier figure. The frequency o f phthisis
among English printers had decreased during the decade by one-sixth
o f the form er rate.
In the occupation m ortality statistics o f the Tw elfth Census, printers
are grouped with compositors and pressmen, which is to be regretted
since there are certain important differences in the disease liability o f




<*D angerous Trades, p. 151.

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

669

these allied employments which are sufficiently distinct to warrant
separate consideration, at least in the case o f pressmen, although the
number o f the latter is comparatively small. The total number o f
persons included in this group in the registration States, aged 15 or
over, according to the census, was 54,374, but o f this number only 818,
or 1.5 per cent, had attained to the age o f 65 or over.(a) This rather
surprising result is confirmed by the statistics o f the New Jersey
bureau o f labor for 1891, according to which out o f 462 printers only
2 had attained to the age o f 60 or over. The census mortality statis­
tics o f this group o f printers, or as stated, compositors, printers,
and pressmen, are o f some value though not entirely conclusive on
account o f probable defects in the census enumeration.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG COMPOSITORS, PR IN T E R S, AND
PRESSM EN, COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE MANUFACTURING AND MECHAN­
ICAL CLASS AND THE MERCANTILE AND TRADING CLASS IN THE REGISTRA­
TION STATES, 1900, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From report of the Bureau of the Census on Vital Statistics, 1900.]
Death rate per 1,000 among—
Age at death.
15 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over...................................................................

Compositors, The manufac­ The mercantile
printers, and turing and me­ and trading
pressmen. chanical class.
class.
5.05
12.29
20.01
108.80

4.43
8.35
20.16
105.43

2.60
6.72
19.91
9a 79

According to this table the death rate o f printers at ages 15 to 24
was 5.05 per 1,000, compared with 4.43 for men in the mechanical
and manufacturing class, and only 2.60 for the mercantile and trading
class. A t ages 25 to 44 the rate was 12.29 for printers, but only
8.35 and 6.72, respectively, for the other two selected groups o f occu­
pations. A t ages 45 or over the differences in the m ortality o f
printers compared with other occupations were very slight, due in
all probability to the fact that on the one hand most o f those at all
liable to consumption had died, and that on the other many o f the
impaired in health had left the trade. In addition, there is also the
factor o f a possible defect in the census enumeration.
Every investigation which has been made into the m ortality rate
o f printers has confirmed these startling facts o f health-injurious
circumstances apparently inherent in the trade. In Ehode Island,
out o f 81 deaths o f printers recorded during the ten-year period
ending with 1906, 21, or 25.9 per cent, were from consumption and 15,
or 18.5 per cent, from other respiratory diseases. A t the forty-sixth
session o f the International Typographical Union, held at Milwaukee,
W is., in 1900, a statistical summary was submitted showing that out
o f 419 deaths o f printers, 192, or 45.8 per cent, had been deaths from
« R eport o f the B ureau o f the Census on V ital S tatistics, 1900, p. c clx x x ii.




670

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

diseases o f the lungs or air passages, including under this term bron­
chitis, asthma, pulmonary consumption, pneumonia, and all other res­
piratory diseases. O f the 411 printers whose ages at death were
known, 44, or 10.7 per cent, died at the age o f 65 or over, while the
average age at death was only 41.25 years, compared with 52.2 years
fo r all males aged 15 or over in the registration area o f the United
States in 1900.
A thorough and extended investigation into the sanitary condi­
tions o f the printing trade was published as part o f the report o f the
New Y ork state bureau o f labor statistics in 1906, prepared by Mr.
George A . Stevens, statistician. This investigation included the en­
tire m ortality o f the International Typographical Union for the five
years ending with 1905, or 2,498 deaths, representing a mean death
rate o f 12.63 per 1,000. The rate was highest among the printers o f
New Y ork City, or 16.32 per 1,000, and lowest in Chicago, or 10.12
per 1,000. The average age at death for all printers was not quite
45 years. The disease most frequent and severe among compositors
was found to be tuberculosis o f the lungs. The average age at death
o f compositors dying from tuberculosis was only 36.33 years. Out
o f 2,498 deaths from all causes, 660, or 26.4 per cent, were from
tuberculosis, equivalent to an annual mean death rate o f 3.34 per
1.000. Pneumonia caused 258 deaths, or 10.3 per cent o f the deaths
from all causes, equivalent to an annual mean death rate o f 1.30 per
1.000. In commenting upon the high degree o f consumption fre­
quency the report points out that 44scarcely any other occupation
furnishes so large a quota o f victims from consumption. The domestic
life o f printers is parallel to that o f other artisans in equal financial
circumstances. They are fairly compensated for their labor, thus
enabling them to have homes as healthful as those procured by the
best-paid workmen in any community. Neither can it be said that
compositors are ill nourished and therefore rendered more susceptible
to the tubercle bacilli. The determining cause o f their susceptibility
to the harm ful process o f the great white plague lies in a different
direction—neglect o f sanitary precautions in composing rooms.” (a)
O f the mortality at known ages, from all causes, 18.9 per cent were
deaths at 60 years o f age or over. O f the 464 deaths in this group,
321 occurred between the ages o f 60 and 69, 122 between 70 and 79,
19 between 80 and 89,1 at age 90, and 1 at age 96.
The statistical data o f the mortality rate among printers for the
United States are fu lly confirmed by the corresponding statistics for
German printers, which were published in a small treatise on the
hygiene o f the printing trade by Doctor Lewitt, o f Berlin, in 1899.
According to this authority, out o f 1,390 recorded deaths o f printers,
®R eport o f the New Y ork B ureau o f L abor S tatistics, 1906, pp. cx x i and cx x ii.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

671

798, or nearly 61 per cent, were o f diseases o f the lungs and air pas­
sages, including 630 deaths from consumption. O f the total number,
243 had attained to the age o f 60 or over, or 17.5 per cent o f the mor­
tality at known ages. The suggestions made by this writer regarding
the prevention o f tuberculosis and other diseases in the printing trade
are eminently practical and feasible in most o f the workshops in
which printers are employed.
The most recent English m ortality statistics o f printers are for the
three years ending with 1902, referred to in the Supplement to the
Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the Registrar-General, in part as fo l­
low s:
The death rates o f printers were above the standard for occupied
and retired males at all ages up to 35 years, but above that age
they were below the standard. W ithin the main working period o f
life the comparative mortality figure o f printers is 994, which practi­
cally corresponds to the standard; they show a slightly excessive mor­
tality from influenza, nervous diseases, and Bright’s disease; and
their m ortality from phthisis exceeds the standard by 60 per cent.
On the other hand their mortality from circulatory and respiratory
diseases is considerably below the average, and they appear to be sub­
ject to small risk from fatal accident, and to be but little addicted to
alcoholism and suicide.
Since 1880-1882 there has been a continuous decline in mortality
from phthisis, liver disease, and accident. It is also worthy o f notice
that the mortality from lead poisoning is now only one-fifth part as
high as it was twenty years ago. From the other causes shown in
the table the mortality in this occupation has fluctuated considerably.
The English occupation mortality statistics for printers are quite
conclusive o f the unfavorable effects o f this occupation on health.
In the table which follows the mortality from all causes among
men in this employment is compared with that o f occupied males
generally, and the result is decidedly suggestive o f conditions in
this trade more or less unfavorable to life and health but in particular
at the early ages, or 15 to 34, when the excess in mortality is from 1.62
to 0.45 per 1,000. This table is deserving o f particular consideration
in that it emphasizes the health-destructive circumstances o f this em­
ployment at a very early period o f life. Those who survive to age
35 or over do not apparently experience a decidedly unfavorable
mortality in comparison with other occupations, and in this respect
the English statistics are confirmed by the United States census sta­
tistics previously quoted. W hile the actual excess in the m ortality o f
printers at ages 20 to 24 is only 1.62 per 1,000, this excess is equivalent
to nearly 50 per cent o f the normal mortality at this period o f life.




672

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG P R IN T E R S, COMPARED WITH THAT OF
ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902. BY AGE
GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over...................................................................

Death rate for printers.
DeatlTrate
per 1,000
Greater (+)
for all oc­
or less (—) Ratio to
cupied Rate per than rate rate for all
males.
1,000. for all oc­ occupied
cupied
males.
males.
2.44
ai9
+0.75
131
+1.62
4.41
6.03
137
fiOl
6.46
+ .45
107
10.22
10.19
- .03
100
17.73
17.76
+ .03
100
- .75
31.01
30.76
99
88.39
87.61
- .78
99

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison is made in the next table,
in which the mortality o f printers from consumption and other dis­
eases o f the respiratory system is compared with the normal mortality
o f occupied males from these diseases, by divisional periods o f life.
The comparison shows that at all ages the m ortality o f printers from
consumption is excessive by from 0.49 to 2.11 per 1,000. The excess is
most marked at ages 35 to 44, but the difference is a material one at
all ages 20 to 64 inclusive. The corresponding mortality from other
respiratory diseases among printers was slightly excessive at ages un­
der 20 and comparatively high at ages 65 or over, but below the
average at ages 20 to 64, inclusive. Apparently the employment does
not predispose seriously to respiratory diseases except such as assume
the pulmonary form o f true consumption o f a rapidly developing type
most destructive to young printers at ages under 45. The table which
follow s requires no further comment and is otherwise self-explanatory.

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AND FROM OTHER DISEASES OF THE RES­
PIRATORY SYSTEM AMONG PR IN T E R S, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL
OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......
20 to 24 years.......
25 to 34 years.......
35 to 44 years.......
45 to 54 years.......
55 to 64 years.......
65 years or over...

Mortality from consumption.

Mortality from other diseases of the
respiratory system.

Death rate for printers.
Death
rate per
Greater Ratio to
1,000 for
or less rate for
all occu­ Rate per (+)
(
- ) than all
pied
occu­
rate
for all pied
1,000.
males.
occupied males.
males.

Death rate for printers.
Death
rate per
Greater Ratio to
1,000 for
or less rate for
all occu­ Rate per (+)
(—)
than
pied
occu­
rate
for all allpied
males. 1,000. occupied
males.
males.

0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
a 04
2.16
1.11




1.03
a 41
a65
4.85
4.27
a42
1.60

+0.49
+1.86
+1.62
+2.11
+1.23
+1.26
+ .49

191
220
180
177
140
158
144

0.24
.48
.77
1.66
3.32
6.54
17.77

0.36
.37
.55
1.24
2.17
5.16
20.76

+0.12
- .11
- .22
- .42
-1.15
-1.38
+2.99

150
77
71
75
65
79
117

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

673

The recorded m ortality o f printers in industrial insurance experi­
ence was exceptionally large and representative o f the trade, includ­
ing 1,590 deaths from all causes, o f which 613, or 38.6 per cent, were
from consumption. O f the mortality o f printers from other respira­
tory diseases, 169 were from pneumonia, 28 from asthma and bron­
chitis, and 24 from less frequent respiratory diseases. I f the deaths
from consumption and other respiratory diseases are combined, 52.5
per cent o f the mortality o f printers was from diseases o f the lungs
and air passages. The excess in the consumption mortality o f print­
ers is decidedly suggestive o f a typical indoor employment, where
the exposure to the inhalation o f metallic dust in minute particles
is continuous and more or less unavoidable. W hile the consumption
mortality o f printers was excessive at all ages, the excess was most
pronounced at 25 to 34, when out o f every 100 deaths from all causes
56.3 were from consumption against a normal expected proportion
o f 31.3. The analysis o f the consumption mortality o f printers in
detail is set forth in the follow ing table:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG PR IN T E R S, 1897 TO
1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA OF
THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for printers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures for
males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census.]
Deaths of printers, Per cent of deaths due to
1897 to 1906, due to— consumption among—
Age at death.

Males in
All causes. Consump­
Printers. registration
tion.
area,
1900
to 1906.

15 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

344
439
346
211
142
108
1,590

167
247
140
42
13
4
613

48.5
56.3
40.5
19.9
9.2
3.7
38.6

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data, derived from both
American and foreign sources, fully confirm the conclusions that the
printing trade is subject to decidedly unfavorable circumstances more
or less responsible for the comparatively high degree o f consumption
frequency disclosed by both the general vital statistics o f the occu­
pation and the observed mortality o f this class o f labor in industrial
insurance experience.
COMPOSITOBS.

Compositors, considered as a distinct occupation (fo r most printers
are also com positors), are exposed to practically the same healthinjurious conditions as are persons engaged in the other occupations




674

BU LLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

o f the printing business, and in addition they suffer from eye
strain, which may, under given conditions, affect very seriously
the disease-resisting capacity o f the system. Stereotyping might
have been included here, and its enormous development as a separate
branch o f the printing trade would warrant special consideration if
any really authenticated observations had been made a matter o f
record useful for the present purpose. In stereotyping the liability
to lead poisoning is a serious factor, affecting especially the men em­
ployed in melting the alloy and ladling it into the forms. The same
observation applies to operatives on linotype machines, but our present
information regarding these employments is too indefinite to warrant
the conclusion that the exposure to the risk o f plumbism increases
materially the m ortality from tubercular and respiratory diseases.
There are no general vital statistics o f compositors separate from
those o f printers and pressmen, since in both American and foreign
statistics these employments are considered as a group.
In the occupation m ortality statistics o f Rhode Island out o f 12
deaths from all causes o f compositors recorded during the ten years
ending with 1906, 3, or 25 per cent, were from consumption and 2
from other respiratory diseases, or a total o f 41.7 per cent o f the deaths
o f compositors were from diseases o f the lungs and air passages.
There may be included in this brief reference an extract from a
letter by Mr. J. W . Sullivan, a New York City printer, in the T ypo­
graphical Journal for November, 1903, and reprinted in the annual
report o f the New York bureau o f labor statistics for 1906, in part as
follow s:
Typesetting is exhaustive work. Standing hour by hour brings on
backache, and in some men varicose veins and swollen feet. Sitting
on the high printing-office stools doubles the typesetter up, constrain­
ing his arm motions and interfering with his digestion. The lino­
type operator’s stool is too low, as it throws his legs into cramped
positions. From the pot o f molten type metal under his machine
comes a trying heat and. offensive gases. He must watch the delicate
machinery lest it go wrong. The electric light thrown on his copy
often sharply conflicts with the daylight. His keyboard work with
wrist and fingers and his handling o f hot slugs sometimes results
in numbness that threatens scrivener’s palsy. Whether typesetter or
linotype operator, the com positor’s brain is active every moment dur­
ing the workday. Composition can never be wholly mechanical.
Attention must be given to deciphering the copy, to spelling, to capi­
talizing, punctuating, office style, and correcting the lines as com­
posed. Each o f these distinct mental acts, on the whole tedious and
monotonous, helps to drain the bodily forces. As the brain becomes
fatigued its cells shrink. W ith every type a man sets there is a
touch o f wear on the cerebral tissue itself, only to be repaired by the
restorative operations o f nature— through food, rest, and sleep.
The recorded m ortality o f compositors in industrial insurance ex­
perience affords an opportunity to separately consider this employ­



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

675

ment as distinct from that o f printers. The mortality from all
causes was 168, o f which 59, or 35.1 per cent, were from consumption.
O f the m ortality o f compositors from other respiratory diseases, 19
were from pneumonia, 1 from asthma, and 5 from less frequent re­
spiratory diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and from other
respiratory diseases are combined, 50 per cent o f the mortality o f
compositors was from diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The
excess in the consumption mortality o f compositors is still more clearly
brought out in the tabular presentation o f the proportionate mortal­
ity from this disease by divisional periods o f life. W hile the con­
sumption m ortality was excessive at all ages under 55, the excess was
most pronounced at ages 25 to 34, when out o f every 100 deaths from
all causes 66.7 were from consumption, against a normal expected pro­
portion o f 31.3. W hile at this period o f life the proportionate con­
sumption m ortality o f compositors was higher than the correspond­
ing mortality o f all printers, the proportions were somewhat less at
other divisional periods o f life, and at ages 55 and over the numbers
were too small for a safe conclusion. The analysis o f the consump­
tion mortality o f compositors in detail is set forth in the table below :

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG COMPOSITORS,
1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION
AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for compositors from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census.]
Deaths of compositors, Per cent of deaths due to
1897 to 1906, due to— consumption among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Males in
Composi­ registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
tors.
area,
1900
1
to 1906.
21
54
32
19
33
9
168

6
36
12
3
1
1
59

28.6
66.7
37.5
15.8
3.0
11.1
35.1

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data, derived from in­
dustrial insurance experience, confirm the conclusion that compositors
as a class are exceptionally liable to diseases o f the lungs, and that the
degree o f consumption frequency is decidedly excessive and appar­
ently more so than in the printing trade as a whole.
63675— No. 79— 09------ 4




676

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

PRESSMEN.

Pressmen in printing plants may be separately considered, although
the inform ation regarding this occupation is rather fragmentary and
inconclusive. A rlidge comments on the hygienic aspects o f the em­
ployment in part as follow s:
Their old mode o f working has been superseded by the wonderful
development o f the modern printing machine, whereby the pressman
has become little else than an attendant upon it; and we see the
marvelous machine in newspaper offices strike off, fold, and count
the sheets by thousands in an hour. B odily strength is consequently
at a discount, and the disadvantages o f the occupation limited to the
heat o f the press room—caused principally by the heated cylinders o f
the press, and to a greater or smaller extent, where coal gas and not
electricity is used for lighting, by the gas jets. A dd to these the noise
o f the machines, the standing posture, and confinement in the press
room and sustained attention to their work, and there remains noth­
ing else calculated to injure the pressman’s health, barring circum­
stances within his own control.
The occupation o f pressmen does not appear to have attracted the
special attention o f American writers on occupation mortality, but
it is safe to assume that the disease liability o f this class, and in par­
ticular the degree o f consumption frequency, do not materially differ
from the observed m ortality o f men employed in the printing trade
generally. More definite data, however, would supply a much to be
desired addition to our at present very limited knowledge regarding
the specific occupation m ortality o f this employment.
ENGRAVERS.

Engravers are not a very numerous, but a widely distributed, class
o f workmen, whose occupation is sufficiently well defined to warrant
separate consideration. According to the census o f 1900 there were
11,156 engravers in the United States. Engravers upon copper, steel,
or other metals are subject to much the same conditions injuriously
affecting health and life, and the differentiation o f the employment
according to the kind o f metal worked upon is not practicable.
The employment decidedly predisposes to consumption, and all
the available data indicate an excessive proportion o f deaths from this
disease among engravers, at least during the active working period o f
life. Aside from health-injurious factors directly resulting from
operations and processes inseparable from the employment, there is
also the unfavorable effect o f a sedentary occupation demanding a
fixed and stooping position. Arlidge has called attention to the fact
that there are other accessory conditions unfavorable to health in this
employment, such as the frequent use o f strong light, severe tax­
ing o f the eyes,(°) and the employment o f strong acids.
° F or an extended discussion o f the cause o f eye strain see B iograph ic C linics,
V ol. IV , by G eorge M. G ould, M. D ., P hiladelphia, 1906, pp. 61 et seq .; also
Popular Science M onthly fo r D ecem ber, 1905.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

677

Some fairly conclusive data are available regarding the mortality
o f engravers, with particular reference to consumption, but as an
interesting case o f extreme longevity mention may be made o f the
death o f a Mr. Charles Harris at the age o f 93, who for more than
half a century had been an engraver o f the American Bank Note
Company. A somewhat similar case was the death o f a Mr. James P.
Mayer, who, at his death at the age o f 83, was considered the oldest
American steel engraver on record.
These, however, are but illustrations o f exceptions and rather
mark the rule o f the comparative infrequency o f extreme longevity
among men in this employment. Thackrah held that “ engravers
and copperplate printers present few examples o f old age,” but he
may have included printers and lithographers and similar employ­
ments under this term. Tracy, writing with reference to more recent
and American conditions, holds that engravers, in common with lapi­
daries and watchmakers, are very liable to phthisis. It is probably
quite true, as pointed out by Sommerfeld, that the amount o f metallic
or mineral dust generated in this occupation is comparatively small
in quantity, but it is practically certain to be injurious in its effects
just because o f the minuteness o f the particles. According to Somm erfeld’s data, 23.6 per cent o f all cases o f sickness o f engravers
were diseases o f the lungs and air passages. H e suggests, among
other points, as a precaution, extreme care in the physical selection o f
engravers’ apprentices to eliminate those already predisposed to con­
sumption. He further suggests the proper ventilation o f the work­
shops, which in most cases is almost entirely neglected. The evidence
o f such neglect is brought out by the consumption m ortality data o f
this employment for the State o f Rhode Island, according to which,
out o f 142 deaths o f engravers recorded during the half century
ending with 1902, 45, or 31.7 per cent, were from consumption,
against a normal mortality from this disease among men in all occu­
pations in Rhode Island o f 17.8 per cent.
The recorded industrial insurance mortality experience o f engravers
includes 192 deaths from all causes, o f which 67, or 34.9 per cent, were
deaths from consumption. O f the mortality o f engravers from other
respiratory diseases, 18 were from pneumonia, 1 from asthma, and 3
from less frequent respiratory diseases. I f the deaths from con­
sumption and from other respiratory diseases are combined, 46.4 per
cent o f the m ortality o f engravers was from diseases o f the lungs and
air passages. The excess in the consumption m ortality o f engravers
is still more clearly brought out in the tabular presentation o f the
proportionate mortality from this disease by divisional periods o f
life. W hile the consumption mortality was excessive at all ages, the
excess was most pronounced at 25 to 34, when out o f every 100 deaths




678

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

from all causes 61.7 were from consumption, against a normal ex­
pected proportion o f 31.3. The analysis o f the consumption mor­
tality o f engravers in detail is set forth in the follow ing table:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG ENGRAVERS, 1897
TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA
OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for engravers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures for
males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census.]
of deaths due
Deaths of engravers, Per cent
co n su m p tion ,
1897 to 1906, due to— to
among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Males in
registra­
All causes. Consump­
tion. Engravers. tion area,
1900 to 1906.
31
47
42
34
19
19
192

12
29
19
5
2

38.7
61.7
45.2
14.7
10.5

67

34.9

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data, derived from
industrial insurance experience, would seem to warrant the conclusion
that engravers are subject to more or less unfavorable effects o f their
employment, resulting in a decidedly high degree o f consumption
frequency at early ages, but in particular at ages 15 to 44.
SUM M ARY OF CONCLUSIONS REGARDING OCCUPATIONS W IT H
EXPOSURE TO METALLIC DUST.

Ten occupations exposed to metallic dust have been considered
in detail. It is not possible in all cases to base conclusions upon iden­
tical data, since for a number o f occupations no official vital statistics
are available. As a method o f indicating with approximate accuracy
the possible effect o f health-injurious employment, use may, however,
be made o f the statistics exhibiting the age distribution o f persons in
this group, and when the employments for which the data are avail­
able are combined the number o f such persons under observation in the
last census year was 219,579. O f this number only 3,544, or 1.6 per
cent, had attained to an age o f 65 years or over, against a normal ex­
pected proportion o f 4.6 per cent. W hile it is quite probable that, to
a certain extent, this small number o f persons o f advanced age in
occupations exposing to metallic dust is the result o f occupation selec­
tion, or conditions favorable to the employment o f young persons, the
result is, nevertheless, decidedly suggestive o f conditions more or less
unfavorable to health and life. The details o f the age distribution




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

679

are given in the follow ing table, by divisional periods o f life, together
with the corresponding percentage distribution o f all occupied males,
the data for both groups being derived from the census o f 1900.

NUMBER AND PER CENT OF MALES IN EACH AGE GROUP IN OCCUPATIONS
EXPOSED TO METALLIC DUST, COMPARED WITH NUMBER AND PER CENT
IN ALL OCCUPATIONS, 1900.
[From report of the Bureau of the Census on Occupations, 1900.]
Age.
15 to 24 years................................................................
25 to 34 years................................................................
35 to 44 years................................................................
45 to 54 years................................................................
55 to 64 years................................................................
65 years or over............................................................
Total...................................................................

Males in occupations ex­
posed to metallic dust.
Number.
75,663
69,998
41,246
19,711
9,407
3,554
219,579

Percent.
34.4
31.9
18.8
9.0
4.3
1.6
100.0

All occupied males.
Number.
5,933,720
5,993,847
4,704,682
3,250,259
1,856,181
1,063,856
22,802,545

Percent.
26.0
26.3
20.6
14.3
8.1
4.7
100.0

According to this analysis the proportion o f males aged 15 to 34
was unusually large in this group o f occupations, or 66.3 per cent,
against 52.3 per cent expected. A t ages 35 to 44 the proportion was
18.8 per cent for the group under consideration, against 20.6 per cent
among occupied males generally, while at ages 45 or over the per­
centage proportion o f males employed in occupations with exposure
to metallic dust was only 14.9 per cent, against 27.1 per cent for
occupied males generally. Since most o f the trades considered do
not involve a very considerable amount o f muscular labor, it would
seem safe to assume that the unfavorable age distribution is the result
o f a high death rate, rather than because o f occupation selection, more
or less favorable to the employment o f persons below the age o f 35
years.
It is unfortunately not possible to present a combined summary
o f the census vital statistics o f males employed in the occupations
included in this group, since it is only for printers and compositors
that the census data have been made public. If, however, the mortal­
ity statistics for printers and compositors are compared with the cor­
responding statistics for all occupied males, the death rates are above
the average and decidedly so at ages 25 to 44. The death rate from
consumption was 4.36 per 1,000, against 2.37 for all occupations, while
the death rate from other respiratory diseases was slightly below the
average, or 1.54 against 1.97 expected.
The occupation mortality statistics o f Rhode Island are available
for 8 specific occupations with exposure to metallic dust and when
combined return 791 deaths from all causes, o f which 229 were from
consumption and 99 from other respiratory diseases. The corre­
sponding percentages were 29 per cent o f deaths from consumption for



680

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

persons employed in occupations with exposure to metallic dust,
against 17.8 per cent for occupied males generally in the State o f
Rhode Island. The percentage o f deaths from other respiratory
diseases was 12.5 per cent, which was exactly the same as for all
occupied males in Rhode Island.
The English vital statistics for this group o f occupations are avail­
able for tool and instrument makers, brass workers, and printers
and compositors. When the returns for these occupations are com­
bined, they exhibit excessive death rates at every period o f life, as
set forth in tabular form , as follow s:

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES, FROM CONSUMPTION, AND FROM OTHER DIS­
EASES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, IN OCCUPATIONS EXPOSED TO
METALLIC DUST, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENG­
LAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

rate per 1,000 due to
Death rate per 1,000 due to Death rate per 1,000 due to Death
other diseases of the re­
all causes among—
consumption among—
spiratory system.
All occupied Occupations
occupied Occupations
exposed to Allmales.
exposed to All occupied Occupations
exposed to
males. metallic
dust.
metallic dust. males. metallic dust.

to 19 years........
to 24 years........
to 34 years........
to 44 years........
54 y ea rs ..........
to 64 years........
years or over...

15
20
25
35
45 t o
55
65

2.44
4.41

6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

2.73
5.28
6.29

11.68
20.97
36.03
92.52

0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74

3.04
2.16
1.11

0.73
2.73
3.33
5.05
5.22
3.91
1.54

0.24
.4 8
.77

1.66

3.32
6.54
17.77

0.30
.4 5
.69
1.62

3.55

7.94
22.46

The table shows that the mortality from consumption among men
in occupations with exposure to metallic dust was decidedly excess­
ive at all ages and extremely high throughout life, while the cor­
responding m ortality rate from respiratory diseases other than con­
sumption was fairly normal and slightly below the average at ages
20 to 44.
The industrial insurance m ortality statistics are available for nine
occupations included in this group, returning in the aggregate 3,502
deaths from all causes, and o f this number 1,292, or 36.9 per cent,
were from consumption. The deaths from other respiratory diseases
numbered 469, or 13.4 per cent. The expected consumption percentage
by the standard adopted for the registration area o f the United States
was 14.8 per cent for consumption and 11.7 per cent for other respira­
tory diseases. When the m ortality from consumption and from
respiratory diseases other than consumption are combined, the propor­
tionate number o f deaths among men in occupations with exposure to
metallic dust is found to be 50.3 per cent from this group o f causes,
against 26.5 per cent expected.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

681

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN OCCUPATIONS EXPOSED
TO METALLIC DUST, 1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN
THE REGISTRATION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE
GROUPS.
[Figures for occupations exposed to metallic dust from experience of an industrial
insurance company; figures for males in registration area computed from mortality
statistics of the United States census.]
Deaths in occupations Per cent of deaths
exposed to metallic due to consumption
dust, 1897 to 1906, among—
due to—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Occupa­ Males in
tions ex­ registration
All causes. Consump­
posed to area, 1900
tion.
metallic to 1906.
dust.
619
892
739
518
398
336
3,502

288
510
313
121
47
13
a 1,292

46.5
57.2
42.4
23.4
11.8
3.9
«36.9

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
514.8

"There were also 469 deaths from other diseases of the respiratory system, or 13.4
per cent of the deaths from all causes.
»The per cent of deaths from other diseases of the respiratory system in the regis­
tration area was 11.7.
It is evident from the foregoing observations and statistical data
relating to a sufficient number o f representative employments with
exposure to metallic dust, that the health-injurious effects o f such
exposure are reflected in the comparatively small proportion o f per­
sons o f advanced years, a high general death rate, and very high
specific death rates from consumption and other respiratory diseases.
O CCU PATIO N S W IT H E X P O SU R E TO M IN E R A L DU ST.
In the group o f occupations exposing to a continuous and consid­
erable inhalation o f mineral dust resulting from industrial processes,
have been included for the present purpose the follow ing repre­
sentative employments: Stone workers, marble workers, glass
blowers, glass cutters, diamond cutters, potters, cement workers,
plasterers, paper hangers, molders, core makers, and lithographers.
These occupations are all more or less subject to an excessive death
rate from all causes, but in particular to a decided excess in the pro­
portionate m ortality from consumption, and in most cases also to a
comparatively high degree o f frequency in the occurrence o f respira­
tory diseases. The details o f labor conditions as far as they could
be conveniently included in the follow ing summary o f observations
regarding particular trades appear to fully confirm the opinion that
the degree o f excess in consumption frequency is intimately related
and in almost exact proportion to the degree o f exposure to contin­
uous and considerable inhalation o f mineral dust.




682

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

THE STONE INDUSTRY.

The stone industry in the United States is o f considerable extent
and wide dispersion over practically the entire country. The number
o f males o f known ages 15 or over employed as stone and marble
cutters in the United States in 1900, according to the census, was
54,039, but it is quite probable that this total does not include stone
polishers, sawyers, and other similar occupations peculiar to the stone
industry. The health o f stone and marble cutters has, from earliest
times, been held to be notoriously bad, and the hygienic importance
o f this trade was recognized by Ramazzini, who, as far back as 1705,
discussed the subject in an entire chapter in his work on occupation
mortality, stating that “ in hewing marble or stones out o f the rock,
in polishing and cutting them, they oftentimes suck in, by inspiration,
the sharp, rough, and cornered small splinters or particles that fly o ff;
so that they are usually troubled with a cough, and some o f them turn
asthmatic and consumptive. * * * Our medical histories give
many instances o f stones found in the stomach and lungs o f these
workmen, for which we can assign no other material cause but the
dusty particles taken in at the mouth and gradually gathered into a
heap. * * * W ithal, all possible caution must be used to avoid
the sucking in o f these minute particles at the mouth.”
From the earliest to the most recent observers upon the health con­
ditions in this trade, the conclusions have been decidedly unfavorable
and suggestive o f circumstances more or less possible o f material
improvement. Oliver, in his treatise on Diseases o f Occupation,
remarks, with special reference to stone masons:
The occupation o f the stone mason and o f the quarryman has for
long been regarded as one in which a higher death rate from lung
disease occurs than in most occupations. The disease, which usually
assumes a chronic character, is slow in its development and progress.
As it is attended by the ordinary physical signs and symptoms ob­
served in other forms o f pneumokoniosis, the malady calls fo r no
special description other than this, that in contradistinction to miners’
phthisis, which occurs in men who work underground, stone masons’
phthisis is met with in men who are working in the open air, a
circumstance which becomes a strong argument in favor o f the dust
origin o f pneumokonioses as against the bacillary. A fter a time the
lung disease becomes tuberculous, hence the extraordinary fact o f
the death rate from pulmonary tuberculosis among stone masons and
marble cutters, who are follow ing an outdoor occupation, being six
times that o f bankers and brokers, who are leading an indoor life.
This want o f harmony between occupation and m ortality from pul­
monary phthisis is observed in other outdoor occupations than stone­
cutting. It would appear, therefore, as if the predisposing causes o f
lung disease are often o f greater importance than the exciting—in
other words, that the soil is o f as much, if not o f greater, influence
than the seed. The irritation o f the lung caused by dust would seem




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

683

in some instances, especially in the early stages o f the disease, to
create a favorable soil for the implantation o f the tubercle bacillus,
while in the slowly developed forms o f pneumokoniosis the hard and
unyielding fibrous tissue does not offer the same attractions to the
micro-organism, and as a consequence it is in those parts o f the lung
where the structure is least fibrous that the tubercle bacilli exert their
greatest power for harm .(a)
The remarks o f Oliver are fully sustained by the available statis­
tical evidence. The secretary o f the Operative Masons’ Society o f
London, in his testimony before the committee on industrial diseases,
produced the mortality record for Newcastle for the period 1871 to
1896, including an account o f 160 deaths o f stone masons, and o f this
number 71, or 44.4 per cent, had died from phthisis, at an average
age o f only 42.23 years. It was admitted, however, that conditions
had improved, and more recent data resulted in a more favorable
showing. Out o f 253 deaths o f stone masons reported in 1905 by the
same society, 79, or 31.2 per cent, were deaths from consumption.
The same witness stated that the average age at death o f those dying
from phthisis during 1905 was 44 years, against 51 years for deaths
from all causes. (*6)
Conditions are probably somewhat different in this country, due to
the more general use o f pneumatic tools, which generate considerable
quantities o f fine dust, the complete prevention o f which is always
difficult and often is impossible. The degree o f disease liability
varies materially according to the specific occupation, and the risk
is less in the case o f paving-stone cutters and slate splitters than in
the case o f monument or custom work, which requires close atten­
tion in matters o f minute detail and which is more often carried
on indoors. Surfacing and carving and cutting with pneumatic
tools are the most dangerous employments, and the risk is less in
polishing, grinding, sawing, and lathe work, most o f which is car­
ried on by the wet process. Large quantities o f dust are stirred up,
however, in the brushing off and cleaning up o f the accumulated
dust, and in the moving o f materials, dropping o f slabs, etc. There
is, therefore, more or less dust exposure in all branches o f the stone
industry, but the results o f exposure vary according to the kind o f
material, which includes a large variety o f stones, chiefly, however,
granite, marble, limestone, sandstone, bluestone, slate, etc.
The stonecutter’s trade is one which requires both skill and arduous
physical labor. The men as a rule work in the open air, and in very
warm or wet weather under shelter; but all are liable to inhale the
dust and small particles from the material upon which they operate.
This on some kinds o f stone is much more deleterious to health than
a D iseases o f O ccupation, London, 1908, p. 305.
6 M inutes o f Evidence, D epartm ental Com m ittee on Com pensation fo r Indus­
tria l D iseases, p. 322.




684

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

on others, the stone containing the largest proportion o f flints being
much more injurious than that which has most lime in it. The re­
turns show that the present age o f stonecutters is three years less
than that o f carpenters or masons, while the average number o f years
at work exceeds that o f either by nearly one year. But this is ac­
counted for by reason o f the difference in the ages at which they began
to work, which by 63.9 per cent o f stonecutters was under 15 years o f
age; while in the other two trades mentioned it was 13.8 per cent and
4 per cent, respectively. The explanation is that in England, Ireland,
and Scotland, as well as in other European countries, seven years are
the rule for apprenticeship o f stonecutters, and a large proportion are
taken when 12 years old, and quite a number under this age. Eightythree and one-half per cent o f the total number were foreign born
and but 16.5 per cent American born; and o f the latter but ninetenths o f 1 per cent began to work under 15 years o f age; while 15.4
per cent o f carpenters and 25.6 per cent o f masons began to work at
their respective trades after the age o f 20 years and upward, none
o f the stonecutters had reached this age. This fully accounts fo r the
differences above noted. (a)
In his discussion o f the hygiene o f this occupation Lloyd makes the
follow ing observations:
Stonecutters and quarrymen suffer in various degrees from the in­
halation o f dust. The extent o f the evil in their cases depends upon,
first, the character o f the dust and, second, the circumstances amid
which the work is pursued. The quality o f the stone has much to do
with the extent o f pulmonary disease among stonecutters. Some stone
is much more dusty than others. A sedimentary stone, for instance,
that was formed "originally simply by the deposit o f earthy and
siliceous particles under water is much more liable to give off a large
quantity o f dust than is a stone that was fused in early geological
ages—the igneous stones, for instance, like granite. Although the
particles from these latter stones are exceedingly hard, yet there is not
much true dust, only the particles actually displaced by the contact
with the tool being thrown off. These probably do not carry far in
the air, and are mostly too large to gain access to the alveoli as dust.
This was the explanation given by Hamilton, o f Aberdeen (quoted
by A rlid ge), for the fact that the masons and polishers at the Aber­
deen quarries do not suffer much, i f any, with industrial phthisis.
A brief abstract from a special report o f the Massachusetts state
board o f health on dangerous occupations, as suggestive evidence
particularly applicable to American conditions at the present time, is
also included here:
It is preeminently a dusty trade, and the workmen are, therefore,
exposed to the danger o f inhaling nonabsorbable and irritating par­
ticles o f mineral matter. Accidents to the eyes from flying chips are
also very common, but they are generally less serious than those due
to fragments o f steel from the tools employed. O f the various kinds
o f stone dust, granite is regarded as more injurious than marble, and
° Fourteenth Annual R eport o f the Bureau o f S tatistics o f L abor and Indus­
trie s o f New Jersey, 1891, pp. 176, 177.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

685

soapstone the least o f a ll; but different granites vary in this partic­
ular, some yielding a much finer dust than others, on account o f d if­
ferences in texture. The greatest amount o f dust comes from the sur­
facing machines, which are operated with compressed air. The tool
is either a large hammer or an instrument which presents four smaller
separate faces. Sometimes a bushing hammer, made o f thin, chisel­
like blades bolted together, is used; this creates the finest dust o f all.
The men who operate the surfacing tools rarely wear masks, but many
chew tobacco and spit, in the belief that the practice serves to protect
them from the effects o f the dust to which they are exposed. Some
protect themselves from flying chips by means o f wire screens placed
about the hammer; some wear wire masks and some wear glasses. By
a union regulation, surfacing is done in the open sheds m the yard.
W hile the operation o f smoothing can not be done by the wet process,
on account o f clogging o f the tools with the pasty material which
would thereby be produced, polishing is conducted with the applica­
tion o f water, which prevents the evolution o f dust. The sawing o f
granite and marble into slabs is conducted ordinarily by the wet proc­
ess, and is therefore unattended by dust; but soapstone sawing and
cutting for joints is frequently done dry, and with the evolution o f
much fine dust. Turning in lathes is conducted in the wet way, and
is dustless.
O f 348 deaths which occurred m the city o f Quincy among stone­
cutters during a period o f about sixteen years, no fewer than 142
(41.4 per cent) were due to pulmonary tuberculosis, 41 (12 per cent)
to other diseases o f the lungs, 44 (12.8 per cent) to diseases o f the
heart, 24 (7 per cent) to violence, and 92 (26.8 per cent) to all other
causes. Excluding accidents, the percentage due to tuberculosis was
44.5. These statistics show even more strikingly than those quoted
in a report submitted two years ago the dangerous character o f this
occupation. Therein it appears that, o f a total o f 30,000 deaths among
stonecutters, tuberculosis was the cause in 28.57 per cent. It must be
said, however, that the average age at death o f the victims o f the
disease in this industry, so far at least as the Quincy records show,
is somewhat high (47.8 years), but it is to be borne in mind that the
calling is one which is not open to the naturally weak, and that many
o f those who become incapacitated through injection drift into other
lines o f industry in which physical strength is not so essential, and
hence at death are not returned as belonging to this class.
STONEWORKERS.

No very satisfactory data for this country are available to deter­
mine with accuracy the probable degree o f difference in the healthinjurious conditions resulting from the cutting or manipulation other­
wise o f the different kinds o f stone, such as granite, sandstone,
limestone, bluestone, slate, etc., except marble-cutters, to be sep­
arately considered as a well-defined branch o f the trade. The term
stonecutter is, therefore, practically inclusive o f all branches o f the
industry and o f all the different employments necessary in connection
therewith. An observer o f conditions in the sandstone industry states
that “ stonecutters who work on sandstone seldom live to be 50 years



686

BULLETIN OF TH E BUKEAU OF LABOB.

o f age, and nearly all o f them die o f lung disease due to the inhala­
tion o f mineral dust; ” but how far this is sustained by actual experi­
ence in the regions where sandstone is quarried and cut can not be
stated at present. A physician o f long residence in the New Bedford,
Ind., limestone field, states that he has not observed very serious con­
sequences to result from employment in that branch o f the stone
industry, but all such observations are subject to serious error in the
absence o f trustworthy statistical data for a period o f years.
The Vermont state board o f health has reported the mortality by
occupations during the six years ending with 1905, and during that
time there were 204 deaths from all causes among the granite and
stone cutters and workers in that State. O f those deaths 80, or 39.2
per cent, were from consumption, and 27, or 13.2 per cent, from other
respiratory diseases. O f the deaths from all causes among granite
and stone cutters and workers in Vermont, 52.4 per cent was due
either to consumption or to other respiratory diseases.
In the State o f Rhode Island during the period 1897-1906, 125
deaths o f stone and marble cutters and workers were recorded, and o f
this number 40, or 32 per cent, were from consumption, compared
with the average o f 17.7 per cent for men in all occupations in that
State. The census m ortality statistics for 1900 combine marble and
stone cutters into one group, including 26,141 males aged 15 years
or over in the registration States. O f the number stated, 659, or 2.5
per cent, had attained to 65 years o f age or over, which compares with
3.9 per cent for men in mechanical and manufacturing industries gen­
erally. In the mortality from all causes the death rate was compara­
tively low at ages under 25, but high at ages 25 or over, as shown
in detail in the table follow ing. The census mortality statistics, how­
ever, are subject to the criticism that in all probability the facts are
understated on account o f defective enumeration, and the table must,
therefore, be used with caution.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG MARBLE AND STONES CUTTERS,
COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL CLASS
AND THE MERCANTILE AND TRADING CLASS, IN THE REGISTRATION
STATES, 1900, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From report of the Bureau of the Census on Vital Statistics, 1900.]
Death rate per 1,000 among—
Age at death.
15 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over....................................................................




The mercan­
Marble and The manufac­
and me­ tile and trad­
stone cutters. turing
chanical class. ing class.
3.35
9.32
24.72
122,91

4.43
8.35
20.16
105.43

2.60
6.72
19.91
93.79

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

687

A further difficulty in connection with the vital statistics o f stone
and marble cutters results from the fact that men in this trade are
a very mobile element, frequently moving from one place to another
in response to better trade conditions, higher wages, etc., in other
fields. The most suggestive results o f the census mortality investiga­
tion is the extraordinary death rate from consumption, which is re­
turned at 5.41 per 1,000, compared with 2.62 for the mechanical
and manufacturing class, and 1.66 for the mercantile and trading
class. The statistics o f Rhode Island and the United States census
o f 1900 confirm, therefore, the conclusion that consumption among
men employed in the stone industry is o f exceptional frequency and
in fact by far the most common cause o f death.
For reasons unknown, the Report' o f the Registrar-General for
England and Wales does not specifically consider stonecutters, but
they are combined with quarrymen in stone and slate, which, o f
course, precludes the utility o f the resulting averages in an effort
to determine the relative degree o f consumption frequency in a welldefined specific occupation such as the stonecutter’s trade. Even
when considered as a group, however, quarrymen and stonecutters
combined, according to English statistics, show an excessive mortality
from consumption and other respiratory diseases, but it is a matter o f
regret that the data should not be separately available for men
employed in the more important branches o f the stone industry.
The recorded industrial insurance mortality experience o f stoneworkers includes 858 deaths from all causes, o f which 302, or 35.2 per
cent, were from consumption. O f the mortality o f stoneworkers from
respiratory diseases other than consumption, 95 were from pneumonia,
13 from asthma, 30 from bronchitis, and 24 from less frequent respira­
tory diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and from respiratory
diseases other than consumption are combined, it is found that 54.1
per cent o f the mortality o f stoneworkers was from diseases o f the
lungs and air passages. The excessive mortality from lung diseases
among stoneworkers is therefore sustained by all o f the numerous
investigations which have been made into the health conditions o f this
employment. The excess in the consumption m ortality o f stone­
workers is still more clearly brought out in the tabular presentation
o f the proportionate mortality from this disease by divisional periods
o f life. W hile the consumption mortality was excessive at all ages,
the excess was most pronounced at ages 35 to 44, when out o f every
100 deaths from all causes 47.7 were from consumption against an
expected normal proportion o f 23.6. The analysis o f the consumption
mortality o f stoneworkers in detail is set forth in the table follow ing.




688

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG STONEW ORKERS,
1897 TO 1906; COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION
AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for stoneworkers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United
States census.]
Deaths of stonework- Per cent of deaths due to
ers, 1897 to 1906, due consumption among—
to—
Age at death.

Males in
Stonework­ registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
ers.
area, 1900
to 1906.

15 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

21
114
172
232
199
120
858

10
60
82
91
52
7
302

47.6
52.6
47.7
39.2
26.1
5.8
35.2

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data, including the
industrial insurance mortality experience o f this class, fully confirm
the conclusion that this occupation is to be classed as decidedly unhealthful and that the degree o f consumption frequency is materially
above the normal at all ages, but that the excess is most marked at
ages 35 to 44.
MARBLE WORKERS.

Marble workers constitute a distinctive and well-defined group o f
the stone industry, which it has seemed best to consider separately,
though most o f the general statistics appertaining to the occupation
are included in the stone industry considered as a whole. The Am eri­
can marble industry is centered chiefly in Vermont, where about 60
per cent o f all the marble produced in the United States is quarried,
and most o f it is cut and dressed, sawed, or polished, as the case
may be, in the locality where quarried. The Vermont state board
o f health has for some six years past reported the m ortality by
occupations, and o f the deaths o f marble workers reported in that
State, out o f a m ortality o f 42 from all causes, 5 were from consump­
tion and 5 from other respiratory diseases. The fact that Vermont
is an otherwise exceptionally healthful State goes far to mitigate the
intrinsic dangers o f the occupation resulting from continuous exposure
to the inhalation o f stone dust.
Bertillon, in his observations on m orbidity and mortality, refers to
stonecutters and workers in marble in Switzerland as being subject
to a considerable mortality, principally from phthisis, which rapidly
increases with age. Under 20 years o f age, according to this author­
ity, it is rarer than among the mass o f the population; from 20 to 29
it equals the average, from 30 to 39 it is double, from 40 to 49 it is




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

689

triple, and from 50 to 59 it is four times the average rate o f the Swiss
as a nation. He also refers to Italian statistics, which are significant
on account o f the remarkable development o f the marble industry at
Carrara, stating that stonecutters and pavers average fewer days o f
sickness than the whole population up to 45 years, but considerably
more above that age. A t Paris the workers in marble are subject to
a high death rate at all ages.
A very instructive descriptive account o f the machine process as
generally employed in the marble industry was included in the re­
port on the stone industry for 1908, by Mr. W. C. Day, o f the United
States,Geological Survey, from which the follow ing extract is made
as emphasizing the more or less health-injurious circumstances o f
employment in marble manufacture:
A fter being sawed the slabs are placed on a “ rubbing bed,” which
consists o f a circular cast-iron plate, from 8 to 15 feet in diameter,
the older forms having a circular opening from 1 foot to 18 inches
in diameter in the center. The plate is planed to a smooth surface
and is mounted upon running gear so that it may revolve in a hori­
zontal plane. Fixed arms, usually four in number, are sustained radi­
ally about one-fourth o f an inch above the plate, either by an upright
passing through the central opening or by a framework overhead (in
the case o f the newer solid forms o f bed). The slabs o f stone to be
polished are placed upon the bed in front o f the arms, and the bed
is revolved slowly beneath them in such a direction as to hold them
firmly against the arms. An abrading material, such as sand, some­
times mixed with “ chilled shot,” or crushed steel, with a constant
supply o f water, is fed upon the plate. I f necessary, the stones are
weighted to increase the friction. From this rubbing bed the slabs
are removed to the emery bed, which is similar to the former, fine
emery being used for abrasion. They are then rubbed down by hand
with a fine, evenly grained sandstone, commonly called a “ Scotch
hone,” with a sufficient supply o f water, and smoothed off with pum­
ice stone and water. The final polish is put on by rubbing the slabs
upon a buffing bed, similar in form to the rubbing bed, but covered
with a thick, specially prepared felt, upon which a small amount o f
“ putty powder ” (oxide o f tin) is fed, to give a high gloss. The hand
process consists in grinding on the rubbing bed as before, and then
rubbing down by hand successively with Nova Scotia “ blue stone,”
“ red stone,” “ Scotch hone,” and pumice stone, after which it is
glossed with putty powder, or, in case o f cheaper “ onyxes ” and com­
mon marbles, with a mixture o f two parts o f oxalic acid and one part
o f tin oxide.
In marble cutting, as in the stone industry generally, the intro­
duction o f pneumatic tools operated by compressed air has brought
in a new and decidedly health-injurious factor, since the amount
o f dust generated by this process is very much greater than when the
work is done entirely by hand with the ordinary chisel and mallet.
Portable stone-dressing machines have been invented and quite widely




690

BULLETIN OF T H E BUREAU OF LABOR.

adopted, since in part the quality o f the work done by these machines
is superior to hand work, while the productive capacity is claimed to
be from eight to fifteen times as much as when the work is done
entirely by hand. Exhaust air is employed to keep the stone clean
at the point o f impact o f the cutting tool, but the clouds o f dust raised
by this apparatus are considerable, even though the work is usually
done outside o f the shed. Aside from the dust generated in either
machine or hand cutting, a vast amount o f dust is produced during
cleaning-up operations, and while labor organizations have, in part,
provided against this risk by special regulations, the generation o f
much dust is practically unavoidable under the existing methods by
which the work is carried on.
The United States census m ortality statistics combine marble and
stone cutters, so that it is impossible to separately consider statistic­
ally the mortality o f this employment. As has been previously
pointed out in discussing stonecutters generally, the evidence is
entirely conclusive that the mortality from consumption and other
respiratory diseases among this class is decidedly excessive. It is
observed in the report on Vital Statistics o f the census o f 1890 (V ol.
I, p. 144) that “ it w ill be seen from the preceding table that among
marble and stone cutters in the United States the greatest proportion
o f deaths was due to consumption, being much greater than the
average proportion due to this cause in this class. The proportion o f
deaths o f marble and stone cutters in the United States due to diseases
o f the respiratory system was greater than the average proportion in
this class.” The respective rates per 1,000 living were 3.15 for con­
sumption against an average o f 2.11 and 1.91 for other respiratory
diseases against an average o f 1.54 among occupied males in manu­
facturing and mechanical industries generally.
The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f marble cut­
ters include 200 deaths from all causes, o f which 56, or 28 per cent,
were from consumption. O f the mortality o f marble workers from re­
spiratory diseases other than consumption, 26 were from pneumonia,
7 from asthma and bronchitis, and 3 from less frequent respiratory
diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and from respiratory dis­
eases other than consumption are combined, 46 per cent o f the mor­
tality o f marble workers was from diseases o f the lungs and air
passages. The excess in the consumption mortality o f marble work­
ers is less than the excess in the consumption mortality o f stoneworkers generally, and this fact is still more clearly brought out in
the tabular presentation o f the proportionate m ortality from this
disease by divisional periods o f life. W hile the consumption mor­
tality was high during the entire active working lifetim e o f marble
workers, the excess in the mortality was most pronounced at 25 to




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

691

34, when out o f every 100 deaths from all causes 50 were from con­
sumption, against a normal expected proportion o f 31.3. The analy­
sis o f the consumption mortality o f marble-cutters in detail is set
forth in the table below :

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG MARBLE CUT­
T E R S, 1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGIS­
TRATION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS:
[Figures for marble-cutters from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census.]
Deaths of marble cut­ Per cent of deaths due to
ters, 1897 to 1906, consumption among—
due to—
Age at death.

Males in
Marble- registration
All causes. Consump­
cutters. area, 1900
tion.
to 1906.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over.................................................................
Total........................................................................

3
30
40
46
50
31
200

15
16
16
7
2
56

50.0
40.0
34.8
14.0
6.5
28.0

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data, derived from indus­
trial insurance mortality experience, confirm the conclusion that the
degree o f dust exposure in this occupation is about the same as among
stoneworkers generally and that the degree o f consumption frequency
among marble cutters is materially above the average, but decidedly
so at ages 25 to 34.
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.

The glass industry in the United States gives employment to some
50,000 wage-earners, o f whom about 10 per cent are children under
16 years o f age. The industry is a varied one, including among
others the manufacture o f blown and pressed ware, o f window glass
and plate glass, and finally o f so-called crystal or cut glass, which for
the present purpose is considered as a separate industry. The labor
division o f the trade includes numerous and well-defined occupations,
each o f which is subject to more or less injurious circumstances, but
o f these the handling o f materials and the m ixing are the most liable
to the risk o f continuous inhalation o f mineral dust. The most im­
portant employment is that o f the glass blower, but there are few
accurate statistics which separate this employment from the industry
as a whole. For the present purpose, however, it has seemed best, as
far as practicable, to consider the mortality o f glass blowers by itself,
although the medical observations subsequently to be quoted refer
more or less to glass workers as a class. Changes in manufacturing
processes and the introduction o f labor-saving machinery have resulted
63675—No. 79—09---- 5



692

BULLETIN OF T H E BUREAU OF LABOR.

in sanitary improvements, which in consequence have had a favorable
effect upon the health o f glass blowers, at least in the United States,
as far as the rather fragmentary statistical data can be relied upon.
Among glass workers as a class, consumption is o f exceptional fre­
quency, in addition to which there is a comparatiyely high mortality
from other respiratory diseases, lead poisoning, and heat prostration.
Thackrah, writing in 1832, held that glass workers as a class were
liable to catarrh and cough, but not to pleurisy and pneumonia. He
commented upon the appearance o f a fine dust at the furnaces which,
however, in his opinion did not produce any marked effect on the
health o f the operatives. He also mentioned individual cases o f glass
workers remaining at their employment at ages 70 to 80, but in the
m ajority o f instances failing eyesight at ages 50 to 60 disqualified for
the employment. Thackrah’s account o f this occupation was, how­
ever, very superficial, and some o f his conclusions were not at all in
conform ity to the facts as reported by other authorities. Tracy, writ­
ing in 1879, held that—
In the manufacture o f glass the workmen who grind and powder
the siliceous material inhale great quantities o f very irritating dust,
and suffer from constant hacking cough and conjunctivitis. It is
rare to find a sound man among them, and they are not able to con­
tinue long at the work. According to H irt, they should not be
allowed to labor, at a stretch, more than two or three weeks, and
should then work at something else, or, at any rate, give up this
occupation for at least double the working time. In this way, by the
use o f relays, the health o f the men may be sustained. (a)
Since the health-injurious effects o f any given industry are, to a
certain extent, measured by the proportion o f those who attain to
advanced ages, it is o f interest to note that out o f 47,245 glass workers
in the United States o f known ages, only 392, or 0.8 per cent, had at­
tained to age 65 or over. The age distribution o f male glass workers
in the United States, according to the census o f 1900, was as follow s:

NUMBER AND PER CENT OF MALE GLASS W O R K ER S IN EACH AGE GROUP,
COMPARED WITH NUMBER AND PER CENT OF MALES IN ALL OCCUPATIONS,
1900.
[From report of the Bureau of the Census on Occupations, 1900.]
Age.
10 to 14 years..............................................................................
15 to 24 years.............................................................................
25 to 34 years.............................................................................
35 to 44 years.............................................................................
45 to 54 years.............................................................................
55 to 64 years.............................................................................
65 years or over.........................................................................
Total................................................................................
aBuck’s



Male glass workers.

All occupied males.

Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
2,849
17,882
13,314
7,625
3,838
1,345
392
47,245

6.0
37.9
28.2
16.1
8.1
2.9
.8
100.0

875,342
5,933,720
5,993,847
4,704,682
3,250,259
1,856,181
1,063,856
23,677,887

Hygiene and Public Health, Vol. II, pp. 36, 37.

3.7
25.1
25.3
19.9
13.7
7.8
4.5
100.0

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

693

The actual numbers, as well as percentages, o f glass workers at
advanced ages is surprisingly small. It is evident that the rapid
diminution o f the number at work after age 35 must be partly, at
least, the result o f a high death rate at the younger ages, and in par­
ticular an excessive mortality from consumption, which at this
period o f life causes from one-third to one-half o f the deaths from
all causes. Tatham, in Oliver’s Dangerous Trades, considers this
employment at some length, and his observations, based largely upon
English m ortality data, are quoted in part as follow s:
%

The making, blowing, and engraving o f glass occupies a prom i­
nent place among unhealthy trades for several reasons. In the first
place, the workers are exposed to extreme variations o f tempera­
ture—in some processes, that o f glass blowing especially, the opera­
tives are constantly exposed to the intense heat o f the furnace, as
well as to that which radiates from the pots o f molten glass which
they are engaged in blowing. The intense heat and profuse sweating
naturally induce painful thirst, which the workmen evidently allay
by excessive drinking; this is shown by the fact that their mortality
from alcoholism and from nervous disorders is nearly double that
experienced by operatives in other trades. * * * The compara­
tive m ortality figure for glass makers is 1,487, and is, therefore, in
excess o f the average by 56 per cent. Phthisis and diseases o f the
respiratory system are especially fatal to workmen in this industry,
and they suffer more severely than other occupied males from dis­
eases o f the circulatory, digestive, and urinary systems, as well as
from cancer. Since 1881 the mortality o f glass workers has in­
creased considerably, and this is true o f the younger as well as the
older workers in this industry.
The English m ortality statistics upon which these conclusions rest
include 1,092 deaths o f glass workers, and o f this number 229, or 21
per cent, died from consumption. A t ages 25 to 34, however, out of
177 deaths o f glass workers from all causes, 79, or 44.6 per cent, were
from consumption. O f the mortality from other causes, bronchitis
caused 146 deaths, pneumonia 123, and other respiratory diseases 25.
These combined with deaths due to consumption make a total o f 523,
or 47.9 per cent, from diseases o f the lungs and air passages in the
m ortality o f glass workers from all causes. The most recent English
m ortality statistics o f glass manufacture are for the three years end­
ing with 1902, referred to in the Supplement to the Sixty-fifth
Annual Report o f the Registrar-General, in part as follow s:
In this occupation the death rates exceed the standard for occuied and retired males at all stages o f life by proportions ranging
rom 12 to 32 per cent. In the main working period the comparative
m ortality figure is 1,260, or 25 per cent above the standard. The ex­
cess o f m ortality among these workers is most marked in the case o f
plumbism, phthisis, respiratory diseases, and Bright’s disease; they

E




694

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

also suffer heavily from influenza and from diseases o f the nervous
and circulatory systems. The mortality from alcoholism, accident,
and suicide, however, is below the average.
The recent English m ortality statistics for glass workers are quite
conclusive o f the more or less unfavorable effect o f this industry on
health. In the table which follow s the m ortality from all causes
among men in this group is compared with that o f occupied males
generally, and the result is decidedly suggestive o f conditions in this
trade more or less unfavorable to life and health. The excess in the
general death rate o f glass workers is met with at all ages, but the
relative and actual excesses are greatest with advancing years, being
6.41 per 1,000 at ages 45 to 54, 10.83 at 55 to 64, and 30.99 at 65 or
over.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG GLASS W O R K E R S, COMPARED WITH
THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902,
BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15
20
25
35
45
55
65

to 19 years......................................................................
to 24 years......................................................................
to 34 years......................................................................
to 44 years......................................................................
to 54 years......................................................................
to 64 years.;..................................................................
years or over..................................................................

Death rate for glass workers.
Death rate
Greater(+)
per 1,000
or less (—) Ratio to
for all
occupied Rate per than rate rate for all
for all
males.
1,000.
occupied occupied
males.
males.
2.44
4.41

6.01
10.22

17.73
31.01
88.39

3.22
5.09
a 74
13.14
24.14
41.84
119.38

+

0.78
+ .68
+ .73
+ 2.92
+ 6.41
+10.83
+30.99

132
115

112

129
136
135
135

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison is made in the next table,
in which the m ortality o f glass workers from consumption and other
respiratory diseases is .compared with the normal m ortality o f occupied
males from these diseases, by divisional periods o f life. The com­
parison shows that the m ortality from consumption is excessive at
all ages, 15 to 64 inclusive, the excess being most marked at ages
35 to 54. The table further shows that the m ortality o f glass workers
from other respiratory diseases is excessive at all ages, the excess be­
ing most marked at ages 45 or over. The two tables derived from
English experience fully confirm the previous conclusion that the
m ortality o f glass workers is excessive when comparison is made
with the m ortality o f occupied males generally, and that this excess
is largely because o f the high degree o f consumption frequency at




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

695

ages 25 to 54, and a high mortality from other respiratory diseases at
ages 35 or over. The table which follow s requires no further com­
ment and is otherwise self-explanatory.

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AND FROM OTHER DISEASES OF THE RES­
PIRATORY SYSTEM AMONG GLASS W O R K ER S, COMPARED WITH THAT OF
ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE
GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......
20to 24years. ...
25 to 34 years.......
35 to 44 years.......
45 to 54 years.......
55 to 64 years.......
65 years or over...

Mortality from consumption.

Mortality from other diseases of the re­
spiratory system.

Death rate for glass workers.
Death
rate per
Greater Ratio to
1,000 for
or less rate for
all occu­ Rate (+)
(—) than all
occu­
pied per 1,000. rate
for all pied
males.
occupied males.
males.

Death rate for glass workers.
Death
rate per
Greater Ratio to
1,000 for
or less
all occu­ Rate (+)
for
(—) than rate
all oc­
pied per 1,000. rate
for all cupied
males.
occupied males.
males.

0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.56
1.81
2.88
4.56
4.87
2.97

+0.02
+ .26
+ .85
+1.82
+1.83
+ .81

104
117
142
166
160
138

0.24
.48
.77
1.66
3.32
6.54
17.77

0.28
.60
.99
2.43
5.76
10.75
28.68

+ 0.04
+ .12
+ .22
+ .77
+ 2.44
+ 4.21
+10.91

117
125
129
146
173
164
161

GLASS BLOWERS.

The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f glass blow­
ers include 282 deaths from all causes, o f which 85, or 30.1 per cent,
were from consumption. O f the mortality o f glass blowers from re­
spiratory diseases other than consumption, 17 were from pneumonia,
3 from asthma and bronchitis, and 6 from less frequent respiratory
diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and from other respiratory
diseases are combined, 39.4 per cent o f the mortality o f glass blowers
was from diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The excess in the
consumption mortality o f glass blowers is still more clearly brought
out in the tabular presentation o f the proportionate mortality from
this disease by divisional periods o f life. The consumption mor­
tality was excessive at all ages under 55, but the numbers at ages 55
or over are too small for a safe generalization. The excess in the
mortality was most pronounced at ages 25 to 34, when out o f every
100 deaths from all causes 56.4 were from consumption, against a
normal expected proportion o f 31.3. The analysis o f the consump­
tion mortality o f glass blowers in detail is set forth in the table
follow ing.




696

BULLETIN OF T H E BUREAU OF LABOR.

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG GLASS BLO W ERS,
1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRA­
TION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for glass blowers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census.]
Deaths of glass blow­ Per cent of deaths
ers, 1897 to 1906, due due to consumption
among—
to—
Age at death.

Males in
Glass blow­ registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
ers.
area, 1900
to 1906.

15 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over...................................................................
Total.........................................................................

24
78
59
55
26
40
282

11
44
15
11
1
3
85

45.8
56.4
25.4
20.0
3.8
7.5
30.1

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data confirm the con­
clusion that glass blowers as a class are subject to an excessive mor­
tality from consumption, but in particular at ages 15 to 44, and this
excess, in view o f the conditions o f labor briefly described, is in a
large measure the result o f health-injurious circumstances connected
with the employment.
GLASS CUTTERS.

Glass cutters, including under this term all who are employed in
the manufacture o f crystal or so-called cut glass, constitute a separate
and well-defined occupation division in glass manufacture. The most
important employments are roughing, smoothing, polishing, and
puttying, but o f these the last named is the most injurious, chiefly
because o f a specific liability to lead poisoning. The sanitary aspects
o f the employment have received the special consideration o f a
British committee on dangerous trades, which, in its Third Interim
Report, remarked, with special reference to the injurious effects o f
putty powder in the form o f dust, that—
It w ill thus be seen that all persons employed in places where
“ putty pow der” is used, though themselves not handling it, are
liable, through inhalation o f the dust, to illness and even death
through juxtaposition with those engaged in its use. Under existing
circumstances the wet powder splashes onto the clothes not only o f
the polisher who uses it, but onto those o f his neighbors; it gets
dry after a time, comes off in fine dust, and enters the system either
by inhalation through the lungs or by swallowing or through the
pores o f the skin.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

697

Am ong other recommendations for the amelioration o f the more
or less health-injurious conditions inherent in this employment, the
committee suggested that all persons engaged in the department o f
glass cutting and powdering, where putty powder, so called, is used,
should be examined once a month by the certifying surgeon for the
district, who should be empowered to order temporary or permanent
suspension o f work.
Aside from the exposure to the inhalation o f dust containing lead
or other metallic ingredients, there is a further liability to the inhala­
tion o f considerable quantities o f mineral dust in a large variety o f
forms. It would obviously be very difficult to estimate with even
approximate accuracy the degree o f lung injury resulting from dust
exposure in glass cutting and polishing, but it is the opinion o f quali­
fied authorities that practically every branch o f the trade is more or
less affected, with a resulting excess in the mortality from consump­
tion. Tracy comments briefly upon the health-injurious aspects o f
this occupation in part as follow s:
But the most dangerous work is that o f the grinders and polishers
o f cut glass. About 35 per cent o f them have chronic pneumonia
(phthisis), and their average age at death is variously given at from
30 to 42 years. Putegnat (de Luneville) has described a peculiar
form o f gingivitis which he has observed among glass cutters, and
which, he says, attacks 95 out o f every 100 workmen. It comes on in
about three months after the person begins work, and toward the
sixth month is well developed. It attacks by preference the upper
jaw, and is accompanied by the same blue line that is found in cases
o f lead poisoning. The acid secretion o f the gums destroys the
enamel o f the teeth, which soon become pointed, brittle, and break off
close to the alveoli, leaving a permanent stump. The gums remain
soft and spongy, and the breath is very fetid. A t no time is there
any pain or hemorrhage. He supposes it to be caused by malnutri­
tion, bad air, etc. (Tardieu). These symptoms certainly appear
suspiciously like those o f lead poisoning, and the suspicion is ren­
dered stronger by the fact that French flint glass contains about 20
per cent o f lead, and that other symptoms o f lead poisoning are not
uncommon in glass cutters, as colic, constipation, muscular pains, etc.
Garrod has noticed the frequency o f gout among them, and brings
it forward to support his theory o f a connection between that disease
and saturnine poisoning.
The grinding or etching o f glass by the sand blast fills the rooms
with a dust composed o f particles o f sand and glass mingled. The
business is a comparatively new one, and the workmen so far do not
appear to be injured by it, with the exception o f a slight tickling
cough when they first begin work. The dust is rather coarse and
heavy, and I am inclined to think it does not penetrate very far into
the lungs, perhaps not even getting beyond the trachea, whence it is
easily expectorated.




698

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

Lloyd also considered this employment, holding that—
Flint glass contains lead, being chemically a compound o f silicon
(silicic acid) with an alkaline and an earthy base, the latter being
represented by lead. It is this flint, or lead, glass that is used for cut
glass because o f its brilliancy. The glass cutter’s m ill is a revolving
disk o f wrought or cast iron on which is fed a mixture o f sand and
water, with which the cutting and polishing are accomplished. In
this process, which requires the artisan to bend closely over his m ill,
dust and fine particles o f glass are given off. Emery and putty pow­
der also are used, the latter containing lead. These are the noxious
agents by which these cutters and polishers o f flint glass acquire lead
poisoning.
There are, unfortunately, no official vital statistics o f this occupa­
tion, since the comparatively small group o f cutters o f crystal glass
is included in the census vital statistics with glass workers generally.
Cutters o f crystal glass are continuously and considerably exposed to
the inhalation o f fine particles o f mineral dust, which must indeed
disastrously affect the lungs o f the workmen, but in particular such as
are otherwise predisposed to consumption. The suggestion o f Oliver
and others that crystal glass polishers and cutters should be periodi­
cally medically examined for cases o f lead poisoning applies equally
to the purpose o f discovering incipient cases o f tuberculosis more or
less the result o f the employment^®)
The recorded industrial insurance m ortality statistics o f glass cutters
include 116 deaths from all causes, o f which 40, or 34.5 per cent, were
from consumption. O f the m ortality o f glass cutters from respiratory
diseases, other than consumption, 12 were from pneumonia, 1 from
asthma, and 2 from less frequent respiratory diseases. The numbers
are rather small for a safe generalization, but if the deaths from
consumption and from respiratory diseases other than consumption
are combined 47.4 per cent o f the mortality o f glass cutters was from
diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The excess in the consumption
mortality o f glass cutters is more clearly brought out in the tabular
presentation o f the proportionate m ortality from this disease by divi­
sional periods o f life. W hile the consumption m ortality was excessive
at all ages under 55, the numbers being too small for definite conclu­
sions for older ages, the excess was most pronounced at ages 25 to 34,
when out o f every 100 deaths from all causes 46.7 were from con­
sumption, against a normal expected proportion o f 31.3.
®For additional references to the health-injurious circum stances in glass
cutting and polishing, see the Reports o f the Chief Inspector o f F actories and
W orkshops fo r 1895, Vol. I, p. 36 ; 1896, p. 25; 1899, pp. 16, 313; 1900, p. 207;
1901, Part I, p. 220. For a descriptive account o f the various m anufacturing
processes, see Scientific Am erican fo r A pril 30, 1904.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

699

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG GLASS CUTTERS,
1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION
AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for glass cutters from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census.]
Deaths of glass cut­ Per cent of deaths
ters, 1897 to 1906, due due to consumption
to—
among—
Age at death.

Males in
Glass cut­ registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
ters.
area, 1900
to 1906.

15 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over...................................................................
Total..........................................................................

26
30
27
20
8
5
116

7
14
11
5
1
2
40

26.9
46.7
40.7
25.0
12.5
40.0
34.5

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data confirm the conclu­
sion that glass cutters as a class are subject to an excessive mortality
from consumption, but in particular at ages 15 to 44, and this excess,
in view o f the conditions o f labor briefly described, is in a large
measure the result o f health-injurious circumstances connected with
the employment.
DIAM OND CUTTERS.

Diamond cutting, although an employment o f rather limited
extent in the United States, is o f interest and importance as an occu­
pation with exposure to mineral dust. Hand cutting is very rare
and machine cutting is at the present time the general rule in the
trade, as carried on under American conditions. There has been a
decided improvement as the result o f the active efforts o f the Dia­
mond Polishers’ Union, which has a membership o f about 400 in New
York City alone. The occupation has the advantage o f being well
paid, at least in many individual instances, and some o f the cutters
are reported to receive as much as $80 and polishers as much as $60 a
week.
The process o f diamond cutting and polishing consists o f two parts.
A fter the stone has been cut it is taken to the polishing room, where
the setter selects a suitable sized brass cup, called a dope, fills it with
a mixture o f lead and tin and melts it in a gas flame. A fter working
the solder to its proper shape, he places the diamond in the center,
leaving only a very small part exposed. A mark is made on the
solder before it becomes fairly set, and then the stone is passed on
to the polisher. By the mark made on the solder the latter knows at
once the exact run o f the grain and the way it w ill polish to the best
advantage. The polisher uses a circular disk composed o f very



700

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

porous iron, so that as the diamond is polished away in the form o f
dust it enters the pores o f the iron, the result being that diamond
cuts diamond.
According to H irt, the first-mentioned process is exceedingly unhealthful. The bent position o f the workman, the heat, and the dan­
ger o f lead poisoning all contribute to make the occupation an unhealthful one. The principal bad features o f the second process are
the dust inhalation and the straining o f the eyes. W hile very little
dust escapes into the air, the little, according to H irt, is very bad in its
effects, as the particles are angular, sharp, and, o f course, very hard.
Arlidge in his observations upon the diamond cutter’s trade re­
marks, however, that—
From our own observation o f diamond cutting and polishing we
can scarcely imagine any definite morbid result from the dust o f the
gem. It is far too precious to fritter away into dust by any coarse
grinding likely to give off a tangible quantity o f this substance, and
we suspect that the recorded ill health o f diamond workers is chiefly
attributable to accidental circumstances connected with the charcoal
furnaces form erly used; to overheated and badly ventilated work­
shops, and to dissipated habits among the employees. So far as
diamond dust may possibly be thrown off in the polishing process,
so far, doubtless, would it be an irritant to the respiratory organs by
reason o f the very sharp and angular character o f its atoms.
The employment is divided into cutters, splitters, and polishers.
In Amsterdam, the chief center o f the industry, some 9,000 persons
are employed, according to a report by United States Consul H ill.
The hygienic conditions o f the trade in Amsterdam, however, are
apparently less satisfactory than in the United States. The princi­
pal factors detrimental to health result from the use o f tin and lead
as an alloy, and a prize has been offered by the Dutch Government
for a nonpoisonous composition, but thus far the requirements gov­
erning the award o f the prize appear not to have been complied with.
Tracy comments upon the sanitary aspects o f the employment as
follow s:
In diamond cutting the amount o f dust created is small, and yet
the occupation is a very injurious one. The “ setter ” prepares the
diamond for the cutter by soldering it on the end o f a copper rod
with an alloy o f 4 parts lead to 1 o f tin. He does this with a char­
coal fire, and is exposed to great heat, as well as to poisonous gases.
The setters suffer from headache, tinnitus aurium, impaired diges­
tion, and irregularitv o f the bowels. In Coster’s factory, at Amster­
dam, 73^ per cent o f them were pale and emaciated, 57 per cent had
palpitation, giddiness, prsecordial distress, 56 chronic headache, 36
asthma, etc. The use o f solder produces lead poisoning. Out o f 90
examined, 30 showed traces o f poisoning. In general, they are all
sick men, and suffer from lung troubles. Nine per cent had phthisis.
The cutters or polishers grind the gems on iron wheels covered with




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

701

diamond dust and oil. The dust inhaled by* them, though small in
quantity, is enough to cause frequent chronic lung troubles. In
Coster’s factory, 52per cent o f them were thin and pale, 40 per cent
asthmatic, 33.75 suffered from headaches, etc.
No American vital statistics o f this occupation have been published,
but the occupation is evidently one which requires to be classified
among unhealthy trades and in which the degree o f consumption fre­
quency is the result, more or less, o f the continuous and considerable
inhalation o f mineral dust.
POTTERS.

The pottery industry includes the manufacture o f earthenware,
china, and porcelain. It always has been recognized as one o f the
unhealthiest o f trades, but the health-injurious effects vary widely
according to particular employments. The most seriously exposed
are the dippers, flint-m ill workers, ground layers, mixers, scourers,
and sweepers. In all o f these employments except the first the ex­
posure to health-injurious mineral dust constitutes a serious menace
to health. In the case o f dippers the liability to dust inhalation is
modified and increased in seriousness by the risk o f lead poisoning.
The degree o f dust exposure is also very serious in the case o f kilnmen, mold makers, placers, pug-m ill workers, sagger makers, and slip
makers. In the aggregate the industry gives employment in the
United States to about 16,000 persons, o f whom one-fifth are women.
The sanitary conditions o f the trade have often been investigated, and
the most recent evidence is to the effect that there have been material
improvements within the last few decades. The most careful and use­
ful observations o f the industry were made by Arlidge, who for many
years lived in the Staffordshire pottery district o f England. Before
quoting A rlidge the fact may be briefly referred to that as early as
1705 Ramazzini, in commenting upon the diseases o f potters, pointed
out that “ not all who go by the name o f potters are subject to the
particular diseases o f the trade,” and that discrimination was neces­
sary in the medical treatment o f the different classes o f employees.
Ramazzini made a curious observation bearing upon the question o f
eye strain, which has only received qualified consideration within
recent years, stating, with reference to potters, that “ those who sit
at the wheel and form the vessels by turning it about with their feet
are apt to have a swimming in the head if their eyes are otherwise
weak.”
Arlidge, in discussing the effects o f mineral dust in the manufac­
ture o f pottery before the Sanitary Institute in 1893, remarked at
the outset that—
Scarcely any other manufacture has so strong a claim upon the at­
tention o f sanitarians as has that o f pottery. It stands nearly at the




702

BULLETIN" OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

head o f the list o f unhealthy occupations, and exercises its pernicious
effects almost wholly upon the respiratory organs, by production o f
bronchitis and o f consumption. Thus it is found that while workmen
engaged m other employments have a m ortality from chest diseases
o f 7.86 per cent, potters exhibit one o f 12.29 per cent. Likewise with
respect to phthisis—nonpotters present one o f 9.27 and potters one o f
12.90.
A fter describing the various processes o f manufacture and their
relation to health-injurious circumstances, A rlidge discussed the rela­
tion o f silica dust and its irritating effects upon the mucous membrane
and epithelium o f the lungs, holding the opinion that—
Clinical observation abundantly confirms this fact. F or a consid­
erable time the inhaled dust is arrested in its advance toward the
lung tissue proper by the mucous secretion in the bronchial tubes, and
by the expulsive energy o f the cilia lining o f those tubes. But at
length these resistant forces weaken before the constant entry o f fresh
dust, and in course o f time the noxious material passes into the lymph
channels, and also along the finer bronchi, until it reaches the intimate
structure and the air cells themselves. Here as a foreign substance it
sets up inflammatory action; lymph cells spring up, the air vesicles
become choked with inflammatory products, the tissue around them
gets indurated (lung sclerosis), and useless as breathing tissue.
The history o f these pathological changes is reflected in the symp­
toms exhibited by the sufferers. In the primary stage little incon­
venience is fe lt; there arises a desire to clear the throat o f some im­
peding mucus at the end o f the day’s work, or upon transition to the
outer air from the warm shop, and especially on rising in the morn­
ing. This expulsive act soon develops into a cough, and relief is ob­
tained by the expectoration o f more or less blackish viscid mucus.
Presently there is a feeling o f tightness in the chest, and the breath­
ing grows less free and full. As time goes on these signs o f disturbed
lung function become more pronounced, and in the end the patient
grows asthmatic— a victim o f potter’s asthma.
Until this advanced stage o f disorder is reached, it is singular to
notice how little attention and anxiety are bestowed upon the pul­
monary derangements. This is because the general health is, for the
most part, not seriously affected, and inasmuch as while the sufferer
breathes a warm air in his workshop or home, his lung trouble is felt
as little more than an annoyance; or as something which is to be taken
as a matter o f course, and like his wages, as an unavoidable incident
o f his calling.
As with chronic maladies at large, so with potter’s bronchitis and
asthma; the tendency is to grow worse and the lung lesion to extend,
and soon the damaged respiration reacts upon the whole fram e; the
sufferer can not get proper outdoor exercise, his appetite fails, his
sleep is broken, the expectoration augments and grows muco-purulent,
the body wastes slowly, while the increased effort to breathe entails
strain upon the heart, leading not infrequently to disease o f that or­
gan, with the after consequences in the shape o f dropsical effusions.
W e now have before us the fully developed disease known as pot­
ter’s consumption or potter’s asthma.



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

703

The injurious effects o f silica dust in the pottery industry are mate­
rially increased by minute particles o f flint, and a further factor in­
jurious to health is the extensive use o f plaster o f Paris, employed in
the making o f molds and models. According to Arlidge, the effects
o f plaster o f Paris dust, however, are not apparently as serious as the
very destructive effects o f silica dust and small particles o f flint. He
draws attention to the necessity o f an efficient system o f ventilation
as the only means by which material improvements can be brought
about.
The health-injurious effects o f lead, extensively used in potteries,
which do not properly fall within the present discussion, must here be
passed over. It is true, o f course, that a considerable amount o f lead
dust is inhaled, but the effects are rather upon the system generally
than upon the lungs’. The observations o f Arlidge are so entirely sus­
tained by other qualified observers that it is not necessary to further
enlarge upon the sanitary aspects o f this trade. The evidence, statis­
tical or otherwise, is conclusive that potters as a class suffer more, per­
haps, from phthisis and other diseases o f the lungs than employees
in any other occupation, and their m ortality from bronchitis and
other respiratory diseases is many times as high as the m ortality o f
occupied males generally, but it has been pointed out by Tatham, in
his contribution to Oliver’s Dangerous Trades, that—
Potters succumb to nontubercular disease o f the lungs much more
rapidly than they do to tubercular phthisis; and it is certain that
much o f the so-called potter’s phthisis ought properly to be termed
cirrhosis o f the lung. Deaths from this affection should never be in­
cluded under the head o f phthisis, which term is now restricted, by
universal consent, to the tubercular malady o f that name.
It is also necessary to keep in mind, in discussing the pottery in­
dustry, that it divides itself broadly into two principal departments—
that is, first, the making o f the articles from potter’s clay, and, second,
their ornamentation by painting, gilding, etc. The latter group is
usually defined as decorators, and sometimes as printers, and because
o f this fact many errors occur in occupation statistics as the result o f
erroneous classification—not based upon the industry as such, but
upon the specific title o f the employment.
One o f the most health-injurious employments in the industry is
that o f the brushing, or dusting off, o f the ware after it is taken from
the kilns. Oliver, in discussing at length the sanitary aspects o f
china and earthenware manufacture and in particular potter’s asthma
and consumption, draws special attention to this process as observed
in the porcelain potteries at Limoges. He states that—
The brushing off or epoussetage o f the fired or biscuited ware is
done both by women and men by means o f soft feather brushes. It




704

BU LLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB.

is a very dusty operation, and where there are no fans for its removal,
as in some o f the factories I visited, the air was thick with dust. The
windows were open at the time, but currents o f air obtained by this
means exercised no very appreciable influence upon the dust. It is
not this kind o f ventilation that is required under these circumstances.
In the matter o f the provision o f artificial means for the removal o f
dust and the renewal o f air in the potteries o f Limoges, some o f the
manufacturers seemed to me to be rather behind than in advance o f
the owners o f large factories in Staffordshire. Accordingly I was
not unprepared for the information that among the potters, especially
the brushers off or scourers, in Limoges, the m ortality from pulmo­
nary consumption and chest diseases is high. The harmful operations
in porcelain works are the emptying o f the kilns, the removal o f the
ware from the saggers and the brushing o f this ware, while the hard
dust that rises during the polishing o f the all but finished articles is
equally dangerous. The polishing has fo r its object the removal o f
any roughness from the edges or surfaces o f the ware, and it is gen­
erally done on a revolving wheel by means o f a broken piece o f china,
the workman using this as a smoothing agent. The men and women
employed in these operations are usually well covered with dust, yet
it is seldom that they wear respirators. Fans for the removal or the
dust were present in only very few o f the factories. The employees
objected to them on the ground that they created a strong draft o f
cold air. D octor Raymondaud, one o f the professors in the School
o f Medicine, Limoges, has made a special study o f the diseases o f
porcelain makers, particularly o f pulmonary consumption and
chronic bronchitis. He found that the potteries furnished a larger
number o f patients suffering from lung diseases than did the other
trades o f the district. O f 75 deaths registered in Limoges as occur­
ring among china makers, 36 were due to phthisis, and o f 30 potters
whom Raymondaud examined, 20 were suffering from pulmonary
consumption. Pulmonary phthisis, is regarded as the principal dis­
ease affecting the workers in the Limoges potteries.
The most recent English m ortality statistics o f potters are fo r the
three years ending with 1902, referred to in the Supplement to the
Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the Registrar-General, in part as
follow s:
Between the ages 20 and 35 years the m ortality o f potters falls
below that o f occupied and retired males generally; at every other
age, however, it shows an excess which amounts to no less than 74 per
cent at ages 45 to 55 years, and to 66 per cent at ages 55* to 65 years.
In the main working time o f life the comparative m ortality figure
is 1,493, or 49 per cent above the standard. The principal excess falls
under the head o f respiratory diseases, for which the m ortality figure
is 473, or nearly thrice the standard. There is also a considerable ex­
cess in the m ortality from phthisis, from nervous and circulatory
diseases, and from suicide. These workers are also specially liable
to lead poisoning, but from accident as well as from influenza,
Bright’s disease, and alcoholism their m ortality is low.
In the last decennial supplement the m ortality o f potters was de­
scribed as enormous. From the present report, however, it w ill be
seen that since 1890-1892 their mortality has declined at every stage




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

705

o f life ; and in the main working period the comparative mortality
figure has fallen from 1,970 to 1,420, or by no less than 28 per cent.
It is satisfactory to note that in the recent period the m ortality o f
potters from plumbism has fallen to less than half its form er amount,
while there has also been a substantial decline under most other head­
ings; the m ortality from respiratory and urinary diseases having
fallen by about one-third, that from phthisis, nervous and digestive
diseases by about one-fourth, and that from circulatory diseases by
about one-fifth part. Potters, however, now fall victims in increased
proportion to accident, and to suicide, and the m ortality from cancer
nas increased by more than half. Since 1860, 61, 71 the death rates
o f potters both above and below 45 years o f age have fluctuated some­
what, but the recent modified m ortality figure is by far the lowest on
record. Since 1880-1882 there has been a continuous decline o f mor­
tality from phthisis, from liver disease, and from diseases o f the
nervous and digestive systems.
The English statistics for potters are quite conclusive o f the un­
favorable effects o f this industry on health. In the table which fo l­
lows the mortality from all causes among potters is compared with
that o f occupied males generally, and the result is decidedly sugges­
tive o f conditions more or less unfavorable to life and health, but
in particular at ages 35 or over, when the m ortality rate from all
causes exceeds by from 4.30 to 29.86 per 1,000 the corresponding mor­
tality o f occupied males generally.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG PO TTERS, COMPARED WITH THAT OF
ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE
GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate among potters.
Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+) Ratio to
for all occu­
less (—) rate for all
per orthan
pied males. Rate
rate occupied
1,000. for all occu­
pied males. males.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

2.62
3.68
5.26
14.52
31.64
54.15
118.25

+ 0.18
- .73
- .75
-1- 4.30
+13.91
+23.14
+29.86

107
83
88
142
178
175
134

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison, however, is made in the next
table, in which the m ortality o f potters from consumption and from
other diseases o f the respiratory system is compared with the normal
mortality o f occupied males from these diseases, by divisional periods
o f life. The comparison shows that the mortality from consumption
among potters is decidedly excessive at ages 35 to 64 by 1.05 to 4.10 per
1,000. S till more marked is the excess in the m ortality from respira­



706

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

tory diseases other than consumption among potters at ages 35 or
over, which varies from 1.63 to 17.27 per 1,000. The table which fo l­
lows requires no further comment and is otherwise self-explanatory:

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AND FROM OTHER DISEASES OF THE RES­
PIRATORY SYSTEM AMONG PO TTERS, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL
OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......
20 to 24 years.......
25 to 34 years.......
35 to 44 years.......
45 to 54 years.......
55 to 64 years.......
65 years or over...

Mortality from consumption.

Mortality from other diseases of the res­
piratory system.

Death rate for potters.
Death
rate per
Greater Ratio
1,000 for
or less
all occu­ Rate per (+)
( - ) than toforrate
all
pied
rate
for all
1,000.
males.
occupied occupied
males. mates.

Death rate for potters.
Death
rate per
Greater Ratio
1,000 for
or less
all occu­ Rate per (+)
(—) than toforrate
pied
all
rate
for all
1,000.
males.
occupied occupied
mates. mates.

0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
.1.11

0.62
1.34
2.00
3.79
7.14
4.37
.97

+0.08
- .21
- .03
+1.05
+4.10
+2.21
- .14

115
86
99
138
235
202
87

0.24
.48
.77
1.66
3.32
6.54
17.77

0.46
.58
.64
3.29
10.78
23.10
35.04

+ 0.22
+ .10
- .13
+ 1.63
+ 7.46
+16.56
+17.27

192
121
83
198
325
353
197

W ith further reference, however, to the excessive mortality from
respiratory diseases among potters, which, as subsequently to be
shown, is confirmed by industrial insurance mortality experience,
reference may be made to the discussion o f the occurrence o f potters’
asthma, in the Report o f the Departmental Committee on Industrial
Diseases. The evidence submitted to the committee disclosed a
decided improvement in the disease liability o f potters to the fibroid
form o f phthisis, based upon the records o f the North Staffordshire
Infirmary, at Stoke-upon-Trent, covering the period 1873-1906.
Upon a basis o f 10,000 patients, the number o f cases o f fibrosis o f
the lungs was found to have been 145 during the six years ending
with 1878, 107 during the six years ending with 1897, and only
4 during the six years ending with 1906. (a) In the opinion o f a
qualified medical witness, the diminution was not the result o f a
difference in the practice o f diagnosing, but a real reduction in the
prevalence o f the disease. The improvement in the disease liability
was attributed ta a betterment in the conditions o f work and a more
effective method o f factory supervision, inspection, and control.
Aside from these favorable conclusions, however, the general mor­
tality statistics o f this trade indicate continued unfavorable circum« Minutes o f Evidence, Departm ental Committee on Compensation fo r Indus­
trial Diseases, p. 60.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

707

stances, reflected in the decidedly excessive degree o f consumption
frequency and a correspondingly excessive m ortality from other
respiratory diseases in the more advanced years o f life.
The recorded industrial insurance m ortality statistics o f potters in­
clude 384 deaths from all causes, o f which 127 or 33.1 per cent were
deaths from consumption. O f the m ortality o f potters from respira­
tory diseases other than consumption, 21 were deaths from pneumonia,
18 from asthma, 12 from bronchitis, and 6 from less frequent respiratory
diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and from other respiratory
diseases are combined, 47.9 per cent o f the m ortality o f potters was
found to be from diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The excess
in the consumption mortality o f potters is still more clearly brought
out in the tabular presentation o f the proportionate mortality from
this disease by divisional periods o f life. W hile the consumption
m ortality was excessive at all ages, the excess was most pronounced at
ages 25 to 34, when out o f every 100 deaths from all causes, 52.9 were
from consumption, against an expected normal proportion o f 31.3.
The analysis in detail o f the consumption m ortality o f potters is set
forth in the table below :

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG PO TTER S, 1897
TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION
AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for potters from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures for males
in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States census.]
Deaths of potters, 1897 Per cent of deaths due
to 1906, due to— to consumption among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

All
causes.
46
68
84
78
72
36
384

Males in
Consump­ Potters. registration
tion.
area, 1900
to 1906.
11
36
37
22
14
7
127

23.9
52.9
44.0
28.2
19.4
19.4
33.1

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

Since potters are liable to an excessive mortality not only from
consumption, but also from respiratory diseases generally, the analy­
sis o f the industrial insurance m ortality experience has been extended
to respiratory diseases other than consumption, and the number o f
deaths from such diseases, by divisional periods o f life.
63675—No. 79—09---- 6




708

BULLETIN OF T H E BUREAU OF LABOR.

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
OTHER THAN CONSUMPTION AMONG PO TTERS, 1897 TO 1906, COMPARED
WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA OF THE UNITED
STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
ires for potters from experience of an industrial insurance company: figures for males
lregistration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States census.]
Deaths of potters, 1897
to 1906, due to—
Ige at death.

Per cent of deaths due
to respiratory diseases
other than consump­
tion among—

Respiratory
Males in
diseases
All causes. other than Potters. registration
area, 1900
consump­
to 1906.
tion.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

46
68
84
78
72
36
384

1
8
10
18
17
1
a 57

2.2
11.8
11.9
23.1
23.6
2.8
14.8

9.7
10.9
12.5
12.6
12.2
11.6
11.8

a Including 2, age unknown.
W hile respiratory diseases have been grouped for purpose o f con­
venience, and on account o f the comparatively small number o f deaths
under consideration, the returns in detail disclose the fact that it is
particularly in the number o f deaths from asthma that potters experi­
ence a higher m ortality than occupied males generally.
In summarizing these rather extended observations and statistical
data, including insurance m ortality experience, the conclusion is con­
firmed that potters as a class are decidedly subject to a high m ortality
from consumption and from respiratory diseases other than con­
sumption.
CEMENT WORKERS.

The health-injurious conditions o f cement-making processes are
quite well understood, being on the one hand the dust, and on the
other hand noxious vapors arising through the process o f burning.
The vapors are probably more obnoxious than injurious, but the sub­
ject attracted sufficient attention to suggest an investigation by the
Royal Commission on Noxious Vapors, in 1878. As a result o f the
vapors and the dust generated during the processes, cement works,
as a rule, are located outside o f large cities.
The health conditions in cement works have never been fully
investigated, but it appears to be the consensus o f opinion that the
effects are not as serious as assumed upon the facts o f a casual inspec­
tion. Fatal accidents have occurred as the result o f asphyxiation by
carbon-monoxide gas, but such cases are very rare. Cases o f gassing,
so-called, which do not terminate fatally, are comparatively common.
A rlidge considered the employment o f cement making at some length,




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

709

pointing out that the workmen are exposed to dust in an intense form ,
but the experience would seem to prove that the effect on health is
not as serious as expected. He states that the raw materials o f
cement are clay with flint and lime, and he briefly describes the
process o f manufacture as follow s:
A fter the materials have been well mixed and ground together in
a sort o f mortar m ill to the consistency o f liquid mud, the next busi­
ness is to drive off the water by heat, and then to subject the dried
substance in tins to a still higher temperature. Later all the cement is
withdrawn and then ground between rollers to the requisite fineness.
The primary m ixing and grinding, being done with a free supply o f
water, exhibits no unsanitary conditions. In working the kilns the
workmen suffer from great heat and dust, but the most continuous
dusty work is in the m ill, the air o f which is clouded with cement.
Inquiry among the workmen elicited the fact that after a while they
become short o f breath and suffer cough, though not in a high degree,
and that on arising in the morning they had to clear their chests by
expectorating viscid mucus containing cement dust.
The amount o f dust generated in cement-making processes is
enormous. The workmen take practically no precaution to avoid
this dust, and considerable quantities are o f necessity inhaled. It is
very rare to find employees who use a respirator or even a piece o f
ordinary cloth to provide some protection against the health-injurious
conditions which surround them. The conditions are probably at
their worst in the sacking or packing department, where such pre­
cautions are occasionally adopted. Every department, however, is
filled with dust, and the avoidance o f its inhalation by the m ajority
o f employees is under present methods practically impossible. The
disease problem is complicated by a high degree o f temperature in
some o f the departments, in particular at the kilns. W hile many
descriptive accounts o f the industry have been published, the hygiene
o f the occupation has been practically ignored. Tracy refers to it
very briefly, holding that “ the workmen who make Portland cement
are greatly troubled by the dust, caused by shoveling the mass into
sacks after it has been burned and ground. They have a persistent
cough, and expectorate little lumps o f cement. They find it im­
possible to continue this part o f their labor day after day, and are
obliged to take intervals o f rest.”
Parry, in his treatise on The Risks and Dangers o f Various Occu­
pations, refers to cement workers as follow s:
Those engaged in the manufacture and use o f Portland cement are
very liable to get the dust into their lungs. Portland cement is
made from some substance containing carbonate o f lime, such as
white chalk, existing in such immense quantities in this country, and
some material containing silica and alumina, such as a selected clay,




710

BULLETIN OF T H E BUREAU OF LABOR.

or alluvial mud. These are ground together with water to a muddy
consistency, which is then dried by heating in chambers. This being
a wet process no dust is raised, but during the next stage, the digging
out o f the cement, a great deal o f dust is created. The material raised
is then calcined, ground between rollers, and finally packed in bags.
In the last two operations, the grinding and packing, much dust is
also scattered. The particles are o f a sharp, irritating character,
and therefore dangerous.
In O liver’s Dangerous Trades, the manufacture o f cement from
a hygienic point o f view is briefly discussed and illustrated by a
m icrophotograph o f cement dust by Migerka. Oliver’s description
is as follow s:
Under the microscope are seen a few sharp-edged little plates and
amorphous masses like small clumps. The particles are not o f them­
selves so dangerous as might at first sight appear. Although cement
workers suffer from pulmonary disease, they do not do so to the great
extent that might be expected. Probably the harm ful effects are
largely due to the hygroscopic character o f the particles and their
alkaline reaction.
There are no official vital statistics o f this employment for the
United States or for England and Wales. The recorded industrial
insurance m ortality statistics o f cement workers include only 88
deaths from all causes, o f which 17, or 19.8 per cent, were deaths
from consumption. O f the m ortality o f cement workers from other
respiratory diseases, 5 were from pneumonia and 8 from other dis­
eases o f that class. I f the deaths from consumption and from other
respiratory diseases are combined, it is found that 28.4 per cent o f the
mortality o f cement workers was from diseases o f the lungs and air
passages. The excess in the consumption mortality o f cement workers
is more clearly brought out in the tabular presentation o f the pro­
portionate m ortality from this disease by divisional periods o f life :

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG CEMENT WORK­
ERS, 1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRA­
TION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for cement workers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United
States census.]
Deaths of cement work­ Per cent of deaths due
ers, 1897 to 1906, due to co n su m p tio n
to—
among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................



Males in
Cement registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
workers. area, 1900
to 1906.
10
12
19
15
19
13
88

1
3
4
6
3

10.0
25.0
21.1
40.0
15.8

17

19.3

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

711

The foregoing observations confirm the conclusion that cement
makers as a class are subject to conditions more or less injurious to
health, but the evidence is as yet inconclusive that these conditions
predispose to an excessive mortality from consum ption.^)
PLASTERERS.

The building trades are all more or less exposed to the inhalation o f
mineral dust, the injurious effects o f which are probably most severe
in the case o f plasterers, masons, and allied occupations. This group
o f occupations is not clearly defined, since many plasterers are also
masons, or bricklayers, while others are whitewashes or paper
hangers. The English vital statistics combine plasterers, whitewashers, and paper hangers.
The health conditions in this trade were commented upon by
Ramazzini, who, in the quaint language o f the day, states that “ Lime
and Plaister are likewise offensive to those who bum them or handle
them, or sell them,” and he continues: “ I have frequently observed
that those who boil, prepare, grind, sift, or sell it, do usually labor
under a difficulty o f breathing.” As a safeguard, Ramazzini points
out that: “ Though such workmen have a cover for their mouth, they
can not avoid receiving the flying particles at the mouth and nose,
upon which these particles enter the passages o f respiration and mix
with the lymph, rise up in hard, chalky concretions, or by daubing
the winding passages o f the lungs intercept freedom o f breath. I
found,” he observes, “ that such as continued in this business did die
asthmatic and cachetik.” He refers also to a still earlier author, M or­
ton, who connected the inhalation o f the dust with consumption o f the
lungs. He concludes his observations with the statement that: “ Care
must be taken to observe the caution laid down above, with intent to
guard the mouth as much as possible from receiving the offensive
particles.” A ll this was written more than two hundred years ago.
a H ow w idely qualified opinions differ w ith regard to the health-injurious
effects o f m ineral dust derived from lime and cement is made evident by the
follow in g quotation from the Journal o f the Am erican M edical Association,
Decem ber 12, 1908 :
Selkirk has investigated a general opinion among lim e w orkers that they are
exceptionally free from bronchitis and pulmonary tuberculosis. H e w as unable
to find an instance o f phthisis among them, nor could he learn on inquiry o f
any w orker in lim ekilns having died from tuberculosis. H e asks whether those
w ho inhale and sw allow much lim e are abnormally free from tuberculosis o f
the lungs. H e discusses what is known o f the therapeutics o f calcium salts, and
says it appears that the continued absorption o f calcium from the lungs and
intestines m ight maintain an abnormally high percentage o f it in the blood.
H e suggests that the workingman predisposed to tuberculosis m ight turn his
attention to lim e and cement w orking as an occupation, and even hints at the
organization o f lim e w orks as a curative tuberculosis colony. A rapid increase
o f w eight is commonly observed in new workers at the W arren Cement W orks at
H artlepool.




712

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

Thackrah, writing in 1832, took a more favorable view o f the em­
ployment, holding that bricklayers and their laborers, while particu­
larly exposed to lime dust, suffered from diseases o f the eye and
cutaneous eruptions, but not from internal disease, and he quotes an
adage common to the workmen in the trade o f the period, that “ brick­
layers and plasterers’ laborers, like asses, never die.” Regarding
plasterers and whitewashes, who are also exposed to lime dust, he
states: “ They suffer from no sensible injury,” and that “ they are
more pallid and less robust than bricklayers.” Thackrah, however,
did not sustain his observations by trustworthy data.
In Rhode Island during the ten years ending with 1906, the number
o f recorded deaths o f plasterers from all causes was 25, and o f this
number 5, or 20 per cent, were from consumption, and 4, or 16 per
cent, from other respiratory diseases. O f the total mortality 9, or 36
per cent, were from diseases o f the lungs and air passages.
The most recent English m ortality statistics o f plasterers and
paper hangers are for the three years ending with 1902, referred to in
the Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the RegistrarGeneral, in part as follow s:
Between the ages o f 35 and 65 years the death rate in this industry
exceeds the standard for occupied and retired males, while at ages
outside these limits the rates are below it. In the main working
period o f life the comparative mortality figure is 1,018, or within 1
per cent o f the standard. The m ortality from alcoholism and liver
disease, from phthisis, from respiratory diseases, and from cancer,
slightly exceeds the standard, and except that these workers appear to
suffer but little from influenza, the figures for other diseases agree
closely with the average.
The English occupation m ortality statistics for plasterers are some­
what impaired in value by the fact that paper hangers and whitewashers are combined with this occupation, but the statistics may
safely be accepted as indicating with approximate accuracy the spe­
cific disease liability o f men in this employment to consumption and
respiratory diseases. In the table which follow s the m ortality from
all causes among men in this group is compared with that o f occupied
males generally, and the result is rather suggestive o f conditions in
this trade more or less unfavorable to life and health. The excess in
the general mortality is most marked at ages 35 to 64, when the death
rate o f plasterers from all causes exceeds the m ortality o f occupied
males generally by from 1.30 to 1.52 per 1,000. The m ortality o f
plasterers, however, is below the average at ages under 35, and at 65
years or over.




713

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

, RTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG PLASTERERS, PAPER HANGERS,
COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN
ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
AND WH1TEWASHBRS,

Death rate for plasterers, paper
hangers, and whitewashes.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate
per 1,000
for all occu­
pied males. Rate per
1,000.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

1.52
3.44
4.07
11.52
19.18
32.53
72.18

Greater (+)
or less (—)
than rate
for all oc­
cupied
males.

Ratio to
rate for all
occupied
males.

— 0.92
- .97
- 1.94
+ 1.30
+ 1.45
+ 1.52
—16.21

62
78
68
113
108
105
82

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment, except that it confirms the view that the health-injurious
effects o f this employment are not as pronounced as in many other
dusty trades, but in particular such occupations as stonecutting, pot­
tery manufacture, glass blowing, etc. In the table which follow s
the m ortality o f plasterers from consumption is compared with the
normal m ortality o f occupied males from this disease by divisional
periods o f life. The comparison shows that the m ortality from con­
sumption is above the normal at ages 35 or over, but it is only at ages
terers is set forth in detail in the table below :

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG PLASTERERS, PAPER HANGERS,
AND WH1TEWASH1RS, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN
ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Mortality from consumption.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate for plasterers, paper
hangers, and whitewashes.
Death rate
per 1,000
for all occu­
pied males. Rate per
1,000.
0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.41
1.06
1.22
3.98
3.62
4.01
1.53

Greater (+)
or less (—)
than rate
for all oc­
cupied
males.
-0.13
- .49
- .81
+1.24
+ .58
+1.85
+ .42

Ratio to
rate for all
occupied
males.
76
68
60
145
119
186
138

The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f plasterers
include 577 deaths from all causes, o f which 136, or 23.6 per cent, were



714

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,

from consumption. O f the m ortality o f plasterers from respirator
diseases other than consumption, 67 were from pneumonia, 5 from
asthma, 14 from bronchitis, and 7 from less frequent respiratory
diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and from other respira­
tory diseases are combined, 39.7 per cent o f the m ortality o f plasterers
was from diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The excess in the
consumption mortality o f plasterers is still more clearly brought
out in the tabular presentation o f the proportionate mortality from
this disease by divisional periods o f life. W hile the consumption
m ortality was excessive at all ages under 65, the excess was most
pronounced at ages 25 to 34, when out o f every 100 deaths from all
causes 44.9 were from consumption, against a normal expected pro­
portion o f 31.3. The analysis o f the consumption m ortality o f plas­
terers is set forth in detail in the table below :

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG PLASTERERS, 1897
TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA
OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for plasterers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures for
males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census.]
Deaths of plasterers, Per cent of deaths due
1897 to 1906, due to— to consumption among—
Age at death.

Males in
registration
All causes. Consump­
tion. Plasterers. area, 1900to
1906.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

25
78
107
127
121
119
577

7
35
38
35
16
5
136

28.0
44.9
35.5
27.6
13.2
4.2
23.6

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data, including the
industrial insurance m ortality experience o f this occupation, would
seem to confirm the conclusion that this employment is injurious to
health, and that the degree o f consumption frequency is above the
average at all ages under 65, and decidedly so at ages 25 to 34.
PAPER HANGERS.

Paper hangers, equally with plasterers, are exposed to a consider­
able risk o f mixed-dust inhalation, chiefly o f mineral origin. During
the operation o f removing old wall paper from the walls a large
amount o f dust is created, against which practically no precautions
are taken and no effort is made to reduce the dust to a minimum.
Since wall paper often, i f not as a rule, contains colored pigments
more or less injurious to health and occasionally poisonous metallic



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

715

substances, such as arsenic, there is an additional risk to health from
this source which occasionally has assumed serious proportions. It
would seem that a rational health administration should intervene to
compel a previous disinfection o f premises in which consumptives
have died before the same are permitted to be redecorated by plaster­
ers or paper hangers.
In Ehode Island during the 10 years ending with 1906 the number
o f recorded deaths o f paper hangers from all causes was only 14, but
o f these 3, or 21.4 per cent, were from consumption, and 3, or 21.4 per
cent, from other respiratory diseases. O f the total recorded mortality
6, or 42.8 per cent, were from diseases o f the lungs and air passages.
The recorded industrial insurance m ortality statistics o f paper
hangers include 319 deaths from all causes, o f which 107, or 33.5 per
cent, were from consumption. O f the deaths o f paper hangers from
other respiratory diseases, 30 were from pneumonia and 8 from other
diseases o f this class. The m ortality o f paper hangers from consump­
tion was excessive at ages 15 to 44, but most so at ages 35 to 44, when
o f the deaths from all causes 44.6 per cent were from this disease,
against a normal expected proportion o f 23.6. The follow ing table
analyzes the consumption m ortality o f paper hangers:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG P A P E R H A N G E R S,
1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION
AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for paper hangers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census.]
Deaths of paper hangers, Per cent of deaths due to
1897 to 1906, due to— consumption among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 ye a rs o r o v e r ..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Males in
Paper registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
hangers. area, 1900 to
1906.
33
96
74
55
34
27
319

14
47
33
8
4
1
107

42.4
49.0
44.6
14.5
11.8
3.7
33.5

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

There are no official vital statistics o f paper hangers as a class
separate and distinct from plasterers and similar occupations, and the
only source o f accurate information regarding the degree o f consump­
tion frequency among men in this employment is the industrial insur­
ance mortality statistics, briefly referred to above.
When the insurance mortality statistics o f paper hangers are com­
pared with those o f plasterers, the statistical evidence appears to be




716

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

conclusive that the degree o f consumption frequency among paper
hangers is decidedly higher than the corresponding degree o f con­
sumption frequency among plasterers. W hile at all ages the propor­
tion o f deaths from consumption was 23.6 per cent for plasterers,
it was 33.5 for paper hangers; at ages 15 to 24 the respective con­
sumption percentages were 28.0 for plasterers against 42.4 for paper
hangers; at 25 to 34, 44.9 per cent for plasterers and 49.0 per cent
for paper hangers; at 35 to 44, 35.5 per cent for plasterers against 44.6
per cent for paper hangers. A t ages 45 or over the percentages were
more favorable to paper hangers than to plasterers.
Summarizing the rather limited amount o f statistical information
regarding the m ortality o f paper hangers, the available data would
seem to warrant the conclusion that the degree o f consumption fre­
quency in this occupation is decidedly excessive at ages under 45
when comparison is made with occupied males generally and the
occupation o f plasterers in particular.
FOUNDRYMEN AND HOLDERS.

Foundrymen and molders are to a very considerable degree exposed
to the continuous inhalation o f both metallic and mineral dusts.
W hile the proportion o f metallic dust is quantitatively small, it is
probably the more injurious o f the two, although its effects are m odi­
fied by the relatively much larger amount o f mineral dust. The in­
dustry is varied, o f large extent, and widely distributed throughout the
country. The conditions affecting health naturally vary, and chiefly
so on account o f the metal used in casting, which may be iron, steel,
brass, etc. The employments in foundry practice are chiefly those
o f molders and clay mixers, o f which molders, again, are subdivided
into those who work at a bench, or in the making o f small ware, and
those who work on the floor or in the pits in the making o f castings
o f larger size. W ithin recent years labor-saving appliances have
been extensively introduced into the large foundries, chiefly in con­
nection with iron and steel works, but corresponding progress has
not been made in the smaller establishments. The introduction o f
machinery has led to the employment o f much unskilled labor o f low
grade, which complicates the value o f the available m ortality re­
turns. It is also necessary to take into consideration the not incon­
siderable accident liability o f men employed in foundries, and the
occasional or general exposure to extreme heat and the liability to
overstrain inseparable from the liftin g o f heavy weights o f metal.
An investigation into the sanitary aspects o f this employment
made by the state board o f health o f Massachusetts disclosed the fact
that at fourteen foundries in which castings o f all kinds were made,
in seven the conditions as to light, ventilation, and dust removal were



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

717

very poor. O f nine stove foundries inspected, four presented mod­
erately bad and one distinctly bad conditions affecting the health o f
employees. In the polishing room o f one factory, conducted under
almost ideal conditions, the emery wheels were well equipped with
hoods and exhaust ventilators, but the report states that “ the men,
unmindful o f the protection provided, habitually remove the hoods,
and become covered with emery and iron particles.”
In reporting in some detail upon the establishments found to be
more or less unsatisfactory as to light, ventilation, and dust removal,
the report states that one shop “ employs 275 men, in low-studded,
poorly lighted, unventilated buildings, in which there is no attempt
to remove the dust arising from the processes o f polishing and buf­
fing by hoods and exhaust ventilation. In the tumbling room the
dust is so thick that objects a few feet distant can not clearly be made
out. Many men refuse to work in this establishment in the hot
months, on account o f the excessive heat and general discom fort.”
The vital statistics o f this group o f employments are not conclusive.
In Ehode Island 157 deaths o f molders have been recorded during
the period 1897 to 1906, and o f this number 81, or 19.7 per cent, were
from consumption, 21 were from pneumonia, and 4 were from asthma
and bronchitis, a total o f 35.6 per cent o f the m ortality from all
causes from diseases o f the lungs and air passages. Respiratory dis­
eases other than consumption are shown to have been o f about the
same degree o f relative frequency as consumption.
The high m ortality o f foundrymen and molders from consumption
observed to occur at advanced ages is decidedly suggestive. E vi­
dently the progress o f the disease in these occupations is slow, and
often, i f not as a rule, assumes the form o f fibroid phthisis. There can
be no question o f doubt that there is in these occupations an intimate
connection between the continuous exposure to metallic and mineral
dust inhalation and the relative frequency o f the disease. Consider­
ing the nature o f the dust inhaled, this is what would be expected.
The dust being largely mineral, but partly metallic, the proportion
o f iron dust, while quite considerable, is not so great in quantity as
the iron dust inhaled by men engaged in cutlery grinding or file cut­
ting. No doubt many o f the dangers o f the employment could be
guarded against by attention to safety devices, chiefly respirators, to
be worn during the actual mold-making processes. The employment,
by its very nature, however, precludes very radical methods o f dust
prevention, and the most effective safeguard would be short hours o f
labor and a rational use o f spare hours and vacations.
There are no official vital statistics o f these occupations either for
the United States or for England and Wales. The recorded in­
dustrial insurance m ortality statistics o f foundrymen and molders are
very extensive and include 1,397 deaths from all causes, o f which 311,



718

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

or 22.3 per cent, were from consumption. O f the deaths o f foundrymen and molders from respiratory diseases other than consump­
tion, 14 were from asthma, 21 from bronchitis, 211 from pneumonia,
and 31 from other diseases o f this class. I f the deaths from consump­
tion and from other respiratory diseases are combined, 42.1 per cent
o f the m ortality o f foundrymen and molders was from diseases o f the
lungs and air passages. The m ortality o f foundrymen and molders
was excessive at all ages over 25, but the excess was most pronounced
at ages 25 to 34, when out o f every 100 deaths o f foundrymen from all
causes, 40.4 were from consumption, against a normal expected pro­
portion o f 31.3. The analysis o f the consumption mortality o f foun­
drymen and molders in detail is set forth in the follow ing table:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG F O U N D R Y IREN A N D
jnO L D FR S, 1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGIS­
TRATION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for foundrymen and molders from experience of an industrial insurance
company; figures for males in registration area computed from mortality statistics
of the United States census.]
Deaths of foundrymen Per cent of deaths due to
and molders, 1897 to consumption among—
1906, due to—
Age at death.

Males in
Foundry- registration
All causes. Consump­
men and area, 1900
tion.
molders. to 1906.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years.....................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

122
228
300
292
239
216
1,397

29
92
82
65
27
16
311

23.8
40.4
27.3
22.3
11.3
7.4
22.3

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data, derived chiefly
from industrial insurance m ortality experience, seem to confirm the
conclusion that this employment is more or less injurious to health,
and that the degree o f consumption frequency is excessive at ages 25
or over.
CORE MAKERS.

Core making is an essential branch o f foundry practice. The occu­
pation gives employment to a considerable number o f young persons,
mostly boys, but o f late years girls have been drawn into the trade,
although it is held that the more arduous duties and surrounding con­
ditions o f the occupation are unsuited to the female sex. No qualified
investigation appears to have been made into the health conditions o f
this employment, but in a general way the conditions approximate
those o f foundry practice in general. There is a considerable ex­
posure to both mineral and metallic dust, but the fact that large num­
bers follow this occupation for only a comparatively short time no



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

719

doubt prevents the more serious results which would follow if the
exposure were continued for many years.
There are no official vital statistics o f these occupations either for
the United States or for England and Wales. The recorded industrial
insurance m ortality statistics o f core makers include 162 deaths from
all causes, o f which 48, or 29.6 per cent, were from consumption. O f
the m ortality o f core makers from respiratory diseases other than
consumption, 24 were from pneumonia and 4 were from other diseases
in this group. I f the deaths from consumption and from other respir­
atory diseases are combined, 46.9 per cent o f the m ortality o f core
makers was from diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The excess
in the m ortality from consumption falls almost exclusively upon ages
under 45, since comparatively few deaths have occurred at ages 45 or
over. The analysis o f the consumption mortality o f core makers is
set forth in detail in tabular form below :

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG CORE M A K E R S, 1897
TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA
OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for core makers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures for
males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of United States census.]
Deaths of core makers, Per cent of deaths due to
1897 to 1906, due to— consumption among—
Age at death.

Males in
Core mak­ registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
ers.
area, 1900
to 1906.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

66
42
25
9
119

20
17
9
1
1

30.3
40.5
36.0
11.1
11.1

162

48

29.6

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

W hile statistical information regarding persons employed as core
makers is very limited, the evidence is entirely conclusive that the
degree o f consumption frequency in this occupation is decidedly
excessive at ages 15 to 44, inclusive.
LITHOGRAPHERS.

Lithographers constitute an important branch o f the printing trade.
In the census reports lithographers are included in the occupation
statistics o f printers and pressmen, so that the actual number o f
lithographers in the United States is not known. F or hygienic
reasons the employment o f the lithographer requires to be considered
separately from printing and engraving, since in the form er the ex­
posure is chiefly to mineral dust, while the latter are exposed
prim arily to the inhalation o f metallic dust. Lithographic stone has



720

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

been defined as a fine, compact homogeneous limestone, practically
all o f which is imported from Germany. The small amount o f litho­
graphic stone quarried in the United States varies in its mineral and
metallic constituents from the Bavarian stone, containing nearly 7
per cent o f magnesia. No accurate observations have been made a
matter o f record to determine the degree o f possible lung injury
resulting in the case o f the lithographer’s occupation, but it is safe
to assume that the employment requires to be included in the group
o f dusty trades. This conclusion is fully sustained by a knowledge
o f the technical processes which constitute the lithographic art.
The sanitary conditions o f this employment received consideration
by Sir John Simon in his report as medical officer o f the privy
council. Simon called attention to the dust resulting from the use
o f colors and pigments, against the inhalation o f which only very
few o f the workmen had adopted intelligent precautions. The most
pernicious o f the mineral colors employed in connection with lithogra­
phy were emerald green and bronze. Simon did not connect the
inhalation o f this dust with the occurrence o f phthisis, but the infer­
ence would seem warranted that such a connection exists, at least in
exceptional cases.
Parry, in his treatise on Bisks and Dangers o f Various Occupa­
tions, confirms this earlier opinion, and holds that in lithographing
green arsenical pigments are used, the poisonous dust o f which is
inhaled and conveyed to the stomach. It is evident that the poisonous
character o f the colors or pigments is a more serious factor than the
less injurious dust o f the stone itself, but how far either form o f dust
increases the liability to consumption has not been determined.
The most recent English m ortality statistics o f lithographers are
for the three years ending with 1902, referred to in the Supplement
to the Sixty-fifth Annual Keport o f the Kegistrar-General (p. lix )
in part as follow s:
A t all ages except 20 to 25 and 45 to 55 the death rates among these
workers exceed the standard for all occupied and retired males.
These workers experience a lower m ortality than printers up to the
age o f 45, but beyond that age the mortality in the two occupations
differs but slightly. In the main working period o f life the compara­
tive mortality figure o f lithographers is 964, or 4 per cent, below the
average. Their m ortality from influenza and phthisis considerably
exceeds the standard, while that from respiratory diseases is below
it by about an equal amount.
The English m ortality statistics fo r lithographers are rather incon­
clusive as to a decidedly unfavorable effect o f this industry on health,
and while in the table which follow s a comparison is made o f the
mortality from all causes o f men in this group with occupied males
generally, the death rates are, as a rule, below the average for oc­
cupied males generally except at ages 20 to 24 and 45 to 54, inclusive.



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

721

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES OF LITHOGRAPHERS, COMPARED WITH THAT
OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE
GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate for lithographers.
Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+ ) Ratio to
for all occu­
less (—) rate for all
per orthan
rate
pied males. Rate
1,000. for
all occu­ occupied
pied males. males.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

1.55
5.36
5.62
8.41
19.94
30.84
82.25

-0.89
+ .95
— .39
-1.81
+2.21
- .17
-6.14

64
122
94
82
112
99
93

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment, but a more extended comparison, however, is made in the
next table, in which the m ortality o f lithographers from consumption
is compared with the normal m ortality o f occupied males from this
disease, by divisional periods o f life. This table shows that the mor­
tality o f lithographers from consumption was above the average at
all ages by from 0.23 to 2.17 per 1,000. The excess is not very marked
and does not warrant decidedly unfavorable conclusions. The table
which follow s requires no further comment and is otherwise selfexplanatory.

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG MTMOGRAJPHOBRS, COMPARED WITH
THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE
GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Mortality from consumption.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over...................................................................

Death rsa-te for lithographers.
Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+) Ratio to
for all occu­ Rate per or less (—) rate
for all
pied males. 1,000. than rate occupied
for all occu­ males.
pied males.
0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.77
2.68
2.70
3.13
4.27
4.33
1.44

+0.23
+1.13
+ .67
+ .39
+1.23
+2.17
+ .33

143
173
133
114
140
200
130

The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f lithog­
raphers include 160 deaths from all causes, o f which TO, or 43.8 per
cent, were from consumption. O f the mortality o f lithographers from
respiratory diseases other than consumption, 3 were from bronchitis,



722

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

18 from pneumonia, and 1 from another disease o f this class. I f
the deaths from consumption and from other respiratory diseases are
combined, 57.5 per cent o f the mortality o f lithographers was from
diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The number o f deaths o f
lithographers included in this analysis is sufficiently large to warrant
a more definite conclusion than the corresponding general vital statis­
tics o f this occupation for England and Wales. The excess in the con­
sumption m ortality o f lithographers is still more clearly brought out
in the tabular presentation o f the proportionate mortality from this
disease, by divisional periods o f life. The comparison shows that the
consumption m ortality was excessive at all ages under 65, but decid­
edly so at ages 15 to 34. A t 15 to 24 the proportion o f deaths from
consumption among lithographers was 56.8 per cent against a normal
expected proportion o f 27.8, while at ages 25 to 34 the proportionate
consumption percentage was 62.2 for lithographers against a normal
expected proportion o f 31.3. The analysis o f the consumption mor­
tality o f lithographers is set forth in detail in the follow ing table:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG UTHOGRAPBEBS,
1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION
AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for lithographers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census.]
Deaths of lith o g ra ­ Per cent of deaths duo
phers, 1897 to 1906, among—
to c o n s u m p t i o n
due to—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total........................................, ...............................

Males in
Lithogra­ registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
phers. area, 1900
to 1906.
37
45
29
21
18
10
160

21
28
13
5
3

56.8
62.2
44.8
23.8
16.7

70

43.8

27.8
31.3
23.8
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data confirm the con­
clusion that lithographers as a class are subject to an excessive mor­
tality from consumption, but in particular at ages 15 to 44, and this
excess, in view o f the conditions o f labor briefly described, is in a large
measure the result o f health-injurious circumstances connected with
the employment.
SUM M ARY OF CONCLUSIONS REGARDING OCCUPATIONS W IT H
EXPOSURE TO M IN E R AL DUST.

In the foregoing observations and statistical data twelve occupa­
tions, involving exposure to mineral dust, have been considered, in



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

723

detail. As stated in the summary o f conclusions regarding occupa­
tions with exposure to metallic dust, it is not possible in all cases to
base conclusions upon identical data, as official vital statistics are not
available for some o f the occupations here considered. The census
returns o f 1900 give the age distribution o f marble and stone cutters,
glass workers, potters, plasterers, and paper hangers, the aggregate
number o f such persons being 168,404. This number is exclusive o f
persons under 15 and o f unknown ages. The statistics show that only
4,409, or 2.6 per cent, had attained to an age o f 65 years or over,
against a normal expected proportion o f 4.7. This fact in itself is
decidedly suggestive o f conditions more or less unfavorable to health
and life in occupations exposing to mineral dust. The details o f the
age distribution are given in the follow ing table by divisional periods
o f life, together with the corresponding distribution o f all occupied
males, the data fo r both groups being derived from the census o f 1900.

NUMBER AND PER CENT OF MALES IN EACH AGE GROUP IN OCCUPATIONS
EXPOSED TO MINERAL DUST, COMPARED WITH NUMBER AND PER CENT
IN ALL OCCUPATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1900.
[From report of the Bureau of the Census on Occupations, 1900.]
Age.

Males in occupations
exposed to mineral All occupied males.
dust.
Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.

15 to 24 years ..........................................................................
25 to 34 years.............................................................................
35 to 44 years.............................................................................
45 to 54 years.............................................................................
55 to 64 years.............................................................................
65 years or over.........................................................................
Total................................................................................

40,454
49,987
38,253
24,784
10,517
4,409
168,404

24.0
29.7
22.7
14.7
6.3
2.6
100.0

5,933,720
5,993,847
4,704,682
3,250,259
1,856,181
1,063,856
22,802,545

26.0
26.3
20.6
14.3
8.1
4.7
100.0

According to this analysis, the proportion o f persons aged 15 to 34
was 53.7, or more than half o f the total, against 52.3 expected. A t
ages 35 to 44 the proportion was 22.7 for the group under considera­
tion, against 20.6 among occupied males generally. A t ages 45 or
over the proportion o f persons employed in occupations with ex­
posure to mineral dust was only 23.6, against 27.1 for occupied males
generally. In some o f the trades included in this group a consider­
able amount o f muscular labor is involved, and this is especially true
o f glass blowers and certain occupations in the pottery industry.
It is, doubtless, for this reason that the age distribution in this group
o f employments conforms somewhat more to that o f all occupied
males than was true o f the occupations in the group exposed to
metallic dust.
It is possible to present a combined summary o f the United States
census vital statistics o f persons employed as marble and stone
63675—No. 79—09---- 7



724

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

cutters, glass workers, and plasterers. A comparison o f the death
rates in these combined occupations with the corresponding death
rates o f occupied males generally is very suggestive o f unfavorable
health conditions in occupations exposed to mineral dust. These
unfavorable health conditions manifest themselves in an increased
m ortality at all ages above 25, while at ages 15 to 24 the mortality
rate from all causes is slightly more favorable for the occupations
in this group than for occupied males generally. The number o f
deaths, however, in the earlier age groups is too small to warrant
final conclusions. A t ages 25 to 44 the death rate from all causes
in the occupations o f this group was 9.88, against 8.78 expected; at
ages 45 to 64 the death rate in the group under consideration was
24.04, against 19.91 expected; and at ages 65 or over the rate was
106.87, against 98.44 expected. The death rate from consumption was
4.87 per 1,000, against 2.37 expected, and the death rate from other
respiratory diseases was 1.99, against 1.97 expected. The details o f
the m ortality by ages are given in the follow ing table, together with
the corresponding death rates for all occupied males, the data for
both groups being derived from the census o f 1900:

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG MALES IN OCCUPATIONS EXPOSED TO
MINERAL OUST IN THE REGISTRATION STATES, COMPARED WITH THAT OF
ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN THOSE STATES, 1900, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From report of the Bureau of the Census on Vital Statistics, 1900.]

Males in occupations exposed
to mineral dust.
Age.

15 to 24 years.........................................
25 to 44 years..........................................
45 to 64 years..........................................
65 years or over......................................
Total.............................................

All occupied males.

Number
per Number ofNumber
Rate per
Number of deaths Ratefrom
deaths 1,000
from
employed. from all 1,000
employed. from all all
causes. all causes.
causes. causes.
8,724
24,506
9,899
1,179
44,308

39
242
238
126
645

4.47
9.88
24.04
106.87
a 14.56

1,259,471
2,680,241
1,282,259
283,310
5,505,281

6,486
23,541
25,532
27,888
83,447

5.15
8.78
19.91
98.44
b 15.16

«From consumption there were 216 deaths, or a rate of 4 .8 7 ; from other diseases of
the respiratory system there were 88 deaths, or a rate of 1.99.
»The rate of mortality from consumption was 2 .3 7 ; from other diseases of the
respiratory system 1.97.

The occupation m ortality statistics o f Rhode Island are available
for four specific occupations o f this group and when combined re­
turn 321 deaths from all causes, o f which 79 were from consumption
and 53 from respiratory diseases other than consumption. The
corresponding percentages were 24.6 o f deaths from consumption for
persons employed in occupations with exposure to mineral dust,
against 17.8 for occupied males generally in the State o f Rhode
Island. The percentage o f deaths from respiratory diseases other



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

725

than consumption was 16.5 for the occupations in this group, against
12.5 expected.
The English vital statistics for this group o f occupations are
available for glass workers, potters, paper hangers and plasterers,
and lithographers. When the returns for these occupations are com­
bined they exhibit excessive death rates at all ages over 35.
The details in tabular form are set forth in the follow ing table:

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES, FROM CONSUMPTION, AND FROM OTHER
RESPIRATORY DISEASES IN OCCUPATIONS EXPOSED TO MINERAL OUST,
COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900
TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

rate per 1.000 due to
Death rate per 1,000 due to Death rate per 1,000 due to Death
other diseases of the respir­
consumption among—
all causes among—
atory system among—
Occupations
occupied Occupations
All occupied Occupations
exposed to Allmales.
exposed to All occupied exposed to
males. mineral
mineral dust. males. mineral dust.
dust.

15 to 19 years.........
20 to 24 years.........
25 to 34 years.........
35 to 44 years.........
45 to 54 years.........
55 to 64 years.........
65 years or over...

2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

2.35
4.02
5.24
12.46
23.74
40.23
92.60

0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.55
1.44
2.01
3.96
4.91
3.94
1.13

0.24
.48
.77
1.66
3.32
6.54
17.77

0.27
.50
.78
2.12
6.05
12.86
24.50

The table shows that the mortality from consumption among men
in occupations with exposure to mineral dust was decidedly excessive
at ages 35 to 64, and the m ortality at the other ages was not appre­
ciably lower than for occupied males generally. The m ortality from
respiratory diseases other than consumption was* normal in this
group o f employments at ages 15 to 34, but at ages 35 or over the
m ortality was considerably in excess o f that for all occupied males.
The recorded industrial insurance m ortality statistics are available
fo r 11 occupations included in this group, returning in the aggregate
4,543 deaths from all causes. O f this number 1,299, or 28.6 per cent,
were from consumption. The deaths from other respiratory diseases
numbered 762, or 16.8 per cent. The expected consumption m ortality
on the basis o f the m ortality among males in the registration area o f
the United States for the seven-year period 1900 to 1906 was 14.8 per
cent, and from respiratory diseases other than consumption 11.7 per
cent. When the m ortality from consumption and from other respira­
tory diseases is combined, the proportionate number o f deaths among
males in occupations with exposure to mineral dust was 45.4 against
26.5 per cent expected.




726

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN OCCUPATIONS EXPOSE®
TO MINERAL DUST, 1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE
REGISTRATION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for occupations exposed to mineral dust from experience of an industrial insur­
ance company; figures for males in registration area computed from mortality statis­
tics of the United States census.]

Deaths in occupations
exposed to mineral Per cent of deaths due
dust, 1897 to 1906, to consumption in—
due to—
Age at death.
All
causes.
15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years..................................................... „..............
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

413
821
936
950
795
628
4,543

Occupa­ Males in
ex­ registra­
Consump­ tions
posed
to tion area
tion.
mineral 1900 to
1906.
dust.
131
391
340
265
129
43
ol,299

31.7
47.6
36.3
27.9
16.2
6.8
o28.6

27.8
31.3
2a 6
15.0
8.1
2.7
6 14,8

• There were also 762 deaths from other diseases of the respiratory system, or 16.8
per cent of the deaths from all causes.
6 The per cent of deaths from other diseases of the respiratory system in the regis­
tration area was 11.7.

It is evident from the foregoing observations and statistical data
relating to a representative number o f employments with exposure
to mineral dust that the health-injurious effects o f such exposure
reveal themselves in a high general death rate, especially at ages 35
or over, and with correspondingly high specific death rates from con­
sumption and from other respiratory diseases at ages 35 or over, by
which time the dust inhaled has begun to show its fatal effect.
O CCU PATIO N S W IT H E X P O SU R E TO V E G E T A B L E F IB E R
DUST.
In the group o f occupations exposing to a continuous and consid­
erable inhalation o f vegetable fiber dust resulting from industrial
processes the follow ing representative employments have for the
present purpose been included: Cotton ginning, cotton textile man­
ufacture, spinning, weaving, hosiery and knitting mills, lace mak­
ing, flax and linen manufacture, hemp and cordage manufacture,
manufacture o f jute and jute goods, paper manufacture, cabinetmak­
ing, wood turning and carving. These occupations are all more or less
subject to an excessive death rate from all causes, but in particular
to a decided excess in the proportionate m ortality from consumption,
and in most cases also to a comparatively high degree o f frequency
in the occurrence o f other respiratory diseases. The details o f labor
conditions as far as they could be conveniently included in the follow ­
ing summary o f observations regarding particular trades appear to
fully confirm the opinion that the degree o f excess in consumption fre­



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

727

quency is intimately related and in almost exact proportions to the
degree o f exposure to continuous and considerable inhalation o f vege­
table fiber dust.
COTTON GINNING.

Cotton ginning is the most important preliminary process in cot­
ton manufacture, and is carried on extensively as a separate industry
throughout the Southern States. The process consists o f “ stripping
the fiber o f cotton from the seed” by a most ingenious mechanical
device, the best known o f which is the so-called McCarthy machine,
in common use throughout the United States. (a) An improvement,
however, has been perfected, known as the so-called “ saw gin,” which
has the decided advantage o f a material increase in producing capac­
ity. The object being to secure the largest amount o f lint, or clean
cotton, it is remarkable that from every ton o f raw cotton only about
600 pounds reach the spinner. The amount o f dust and dirt gener­
ated in the ginning process is, o f necessity, very large, and the em­
ployment is, without question, decidedly detrimental to health. It
is mitigated by the fortunate circumstance that it is carried on, as a
rule, only for a portion o f the year, and largely because o f this fact
the health conditions o f the occupation have not attracted so much
attention as would otherwise have been the case.
The enormous extent o f the cotton-ginning industry is measured
by the number o f bales o f cotton ginned during 1904, when the crop
attained to 13,500,000 bales which, at 500 pounds each, represent
6,750,000,000 pounds o f cotton passing through the gins. Most o f the
cotton is short staple, only about 1 per cent being Sea Island or long
staple variety. The gins are either public or private establishments
or merchant gins, all o f which, however, have the essential features in
common. They are now practically all run by steam power, the for­
mer use o f horse or water power having almost disappeared. A
ginnery includes three departments; that is, the ginhouse proper,
the lint room, and the cotton compress, or screw, as it is usually known.
In an early description o f the conditions in the lint room, as a part o f
the United States census report on cotton manufacture for 1880, it
was stated that—
The lint room varies in size from one-third to the fu ll length o f the
end o f the ginhouse to which it is attached. The lint cotton is
thrown by the brush cylinder o f the gin through a flue into this room.
Strange to say, the lint rooms are not brushed or swept out from one
season to another, or from one decade to another, for that matter.
The dirt may accumulate an inch in depth on the floors and walls, but
no broom is ever carried into this room from year to year.(*6)
0 F or an instructive and valuable descriptive account, see the Scientific Am eri­
can Supplement fo r A pril 1, 1905. See also Census Bulletin No. 97, on Supply
and D istribution o f Cotton, fo r the year ending August 31, 1908.
6 R eport o f the Tenth Census, Vol. II, p. 945.




728

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

The ginning process itself is well described in an account o f the
so-called Gullett cotton-ginning system, which is in general use
throughout the Southern States:
The seed cotton is elevated by suction from the wagon or storage
house, and deposited in feeders over each gin. These machines feed
it uniform ly into the roll boxes o f gins, where the lint is separated
from the seed. The lint is then blown by the draft from the brush
through the flue system into the condenser, which forms it into a bat
and deposits it direct in the press, where it is packed by the steam
packer and baled, the dust from the condenser passing out through
the roof by means o f the dust flues. The seed falls from the roll boxes
o f gins into a screw conveyor underneath, through hoppers at each
gins, however, the earlier conditions still prevail, and the dust nuis­
ance during the ginning process constitutes a serious menace to the
health o f the employees.
The claims for this system are economy o f time and labor and the
material reduction o f the dust nuisance. In the large m ajority o f
gins, however, the earlier conditions still prevail, and the dust
nuisance during the ginning process constitutes a serious menace to
the health o f the employees.
The hygienic aspects o f the sanitary problems in cotton ginning
were early commented upon by Daniel Drake, M. D., in his treatise
on the Principal Diseases o f the Interior Valley o f North America,
where, in considering the miscellaneous causes o f pulmonary inflam­
mation, with special reference to the Southern States, he comments
upon cotton fuzz and its effects upon the respiratory organs, referring
in particular to employment in cotton gins. According to Drake—
The gin is a machine o f rapid motion for eliminating the seed
from cotton. It throws an immense amount o f broken fibers or fuzz
into the atmosphere, which are o f necessity taken into the lungs o f
those who conduct the operation, who are generally Negroes. The
period o f ginning does not last very long, nor are a great number o f
operatives necessary to the management o f a gin. When traveling in
the South, I learned that proprietors do what they can to promote
ventilation, avoid their ginhouses, and avoid em ploying men who are
predisposed to pulmonary disease, and often change them, so that
no one shall inhale the fuzz very long. These precautions indicate,
as the public opinion, that it may do harm, as indeed it undoubtedly
does, but to a less extent than might perhaps be expected. («)
The observations o f Drake as to the health-injurious effects o f the
cotton-ginning process were confirmed by other practicing physicians
o f the period and the earlier view is sustained by present-day medical
opinion throughout the South. Since there are no vital statistics o f
persons employed in cotton ginning and no published observations o f
a Principal Diseases o f the Interior V alley o f North Am erica, by D aniel Drake,
Vol. II, p. 799.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

729

medical practitioners at the present time, these brief observations are
concluded by quoting the opinion o f Mr. A . E. Thomas, a cotton
planter before the war, who, with special reference to the suscepti­
bility o f the Negro, who continues to constitute the large m ajority o f
persons employed in connection with cotton-ginning processes, states
that—
This subject is one o f great interest with all our intelligent planters,
as the effect o f cotton ginning on their Negroes is very deleterious; so
injurious, indeed, as to be obvious to the Negroes themselves, who en­
deavor to avoid the ginhouse. Planters select their oldest and least
valuable Negroes for this occupation, knowing that the healthiest and
most robust w ill, in a year or two, become diseased. To prevent these
bad effects, it is not uncommon to make them wear and breathe
through a veil, and give them molasses and water to drink, measures
which appear to be generally effective. I f a person not accustomed
to breathe the air o f a ginhouse goes into it while the machine is run­
ning, he is soon seized with a tickling sensation in his nostrils, fo l­
lowed by sneezing, coughing, and some degree o f hoarseness. Con­
tinuing awhile in this situation, he begins to feel his nostrils stuffed
up. A fter leaving the place he w ill have symptoms o f a cold for sev­
eral days. Remaining there longer, the stuffing o f his nostrils may
become so great as to prevent his breathing through them* The cough
attendant on this affection is often dry, or small quantities o f mucus,
in which the lint and dust floating in the air have been entangled, w ill
be thrown up. A feeling o f soreness pervades the trachea and bron­
chial tubes. I have known several to have chronic bronchitis. I saw
one death preceded by the discharge o f an abscess from the lungs,
and another die o f phthisis, follow ing on bronchitis. It is the custom
every two or three weeks to stop the hands from field labor to bale
the gin and cotton, at which they are commonly occupied two or three
days. Before the end o f this period they are apt to become affected
with sneezing, coughing, and other catarrhal symptoms, which often
continue for several days.(a)
It is evident, even in the absence o f conclusive statistical data, that
cotton ginning is a decidedly health-injurious employment, and that
it would be much more so than actually observed in everyday experi­
ence but for the fact that the occupation extends over only a compara­
tively short period o f the year.
COTTON TEXTILE MANUFACTURE.

In 1905 the manufacture o f cotton textiles in the United States
gave employment to 315,874 wage-earners, o f whom 46.6 per cent were
adult males, 40.6 per cent women, and 12.8 per cent children. ( *6) The
diversity o f the industry is considerable, and the processes o f manu­
0 Principal Diseases o f the Interior Valley o f North Am erica, by D aniel Drake,
Vol. II, p. 801.
6 Census o f M anufactures, 1905, P art I, p. lxxviii.




730

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

facture require a high degree o f specialized labor. Every process
from the so-called “ opening ” o f the cotton in the picker room to the
carding, spinning, and weaving involves a more or less considerable
degree o f exposure to the inhalation o f vegetable fiber dust, but the
exposure varies materially in the different departments. The health
aspects o f the industry are complicated by other injurious factors be­
sides dust, o f which high temperature, excessive humidity, atmos­
pheric electricity, noise, eye strain, and defective ventilation are the
most important. The effects upon health in cotton textile manufac­
ture, with special reference to dust exposure, have been admirably
summed up by Arlidge, who, in his treatise on The Hygiene, Diseases,
and M ortality o f Occupations, remarks:
T o summarize the incidental causes o f ill health among cotton
operatives, they are, dust from the cotton itself in the early processes
ox manufacture; heat with more or less watery vapor, combined in
the weaving department with dust from the Cornish clay employed
fo r sizing; long standing, and a stooping posture in the spinning and
doubling department ; monotony o f w ork; continuous strain upon the
attention; and excessive noise with vibration o f machinery. To these
must be added vitiated air from excessive consumption o f gas, from
overcrowding, and general defects o f ventilation.
W ith special reference to the frequent occurrence o f lung diseases
among cotton workers, Arlidge holds that—
The dust o f cotton is an irritant to the pharynx and larynx, where
it speedily produces a feeling o f dryness and huskiness. I f inhaled
longer, it reaches the bronchi^ and sets up cough with white mucous
expectoration. The cough w ill be for years chiefly a morning phe­
nomenon on first rising, but it is also induced upon leaving the warm
workroom. Fine fibers o f cotton are found, on microscopical exami­
nation, in the sputum, and as these make their way into the pulmonary
tissue, they set up morbid action, resulting in increasing density o f it
on the one hand, and o f emphysematous expansion on the other. These
morbid changes are accompanied by dyspnoea, wastings, and debility,
but rarely with haemoptysis; and together constitute a group o f
symptoms not inappropriately termed “ industrial phthisis.” More­
over, intercurrent diseases o f the lungs, such as acute bronchitis and
pneumonia, often arise and terminate life ; and true tubercular
phthisis is no uncommon cause o f death.
The follow ing is an extract from the observations o f Lloyd, who
confirms the observations o f Arlidge in the statement that—
The dust o f cotton, or “ flue ” as it is called, is composed largely o f
cotton fiber, and it has an appreciable taste and smell, especially to a
person unused to it. It causes irritation to the nose, throat, larynx,
and bronchial tubes. The symptoms are dryness o f the throat, hus­
kiness o f the voice, cough, and expectoration. The cough is said to
be worse in the morning, the expectoration being tenacious and diffi­
cult to be gotten rid of. Fibers o f cotton have been found in the
sputa with the microscope. In time proliferation o f connective tissue



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

731

ensues, as in most cases o f industrial phthisis, and dyspnoea and
emaciation occur. In many cases it is evident that a true tubercular
infection takes place.
Lloyd quotes Dr. F. F. Simpson, o f Spartanburg, S. C., with ref­
erence to an affection o f the tonsils among cotton operatives in that
State, due to the custom o f sucking cotton fiber strongly into the
mouth in some processes o f their work, as follow s:
These fibers become encysted in the crypts o f the tonsils, thus
becoming a source o f constant irritation, and giving rise to what in
that section is not inaptly termed “ weavers’ tonsils.”
In a report o f the Massachusetts state board o f health on danger­
ous trades a similar practice is commented upon as follow s:
A bad, unhygienic habit, common to all weavers who tend oldfashioned looms, is that o f drawing the filling through the shuttle eye
with the mouth. The weaver puts his mouth close to the shuttle, and,
by means o f a quick intake o f breath, sucks the end o f the thread
through the shuttle eye, thus drawing into his mouth more or less fine
lint and dust, which gives rise to spitting, and sooner or later may
cause irritation o f the mucous membrane o f the throat.
It is explained that the gradual replacement o f old-style looms by
the Northrup loom, in which after the drum is filled with shuttles the
action is entirely automatic, has eliminated this practice mechanically
where persuasion and disinterested advice have been o f no avail.
The general dust problem in textile factories is discussed in the
same report at considerable length, and since the observations are
descriptive o f present-day conditions in the textile centers o f New
England, the remarks are quoted almost in their entirety as a most
useful contribution to the knowledge o f this important branch o f
occupation disease:
The presence o f dust in the air o f workrooms is a prominent fea­
ture in its influence on health. Aside from dirt and other impurities
which may be in the stock, it is the opinion o f recognized medical
authorities that vegetable dusts are markedly inimical to health.
Those operatives in cotton mills who are peculiarly sensitive to un­
hygienic influences may become seriously affected through the con­
stant irritation o f cotton dust or “ fly ” in the upper air passages,
giving rise first to dryness o f the throat and later to cough and ex­
pectoration. Flax dust is thought to be even more irritating than
cotton, while dust in the woolen and silk mills (animal origin) is
considered to be less harmful in its effects.
There are many departments in which processes are conducted
which expose the employees to dust; but the weaving, spinning, card­
ing, and waste rooms illustrate the important unhygienic conditions
commonly associated with this disturbing element. In estimating
the effects o f dust upon health, the follow ing considerations, among
others, are to be borne in m ind:
1. Grade o f stock used, e. g., quality o f cotton.
2. Quantity o f dust in a given room.



732

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

3. Whether the dust is constant.
4. Type o f construction o f the room.
5. System o f management.
6. Number and kinds o f other unhygienic influences present.
7. Means o f ventilation.
8. Health and susceptibility o f the individual.
In some weave rooms the air is so filled with minute bits o f dust
as to present a hazy or “ smoky ” appearance throughout the room,
and parts o f the room are covered with the small particles which
have settled thereon; while other weave rooms are practically free
from such dust, there being merely a slight amount o f lint or dust
o f microscopic fineness. Dust in ring-spinning rooms is more con­
stant and is greater in amount than in weave rooms. In a fine-goods
m ill, in which a high quality o f cotton is used in a properly con­
structed and well-regulated room, the amount o f dust present is com­
paratively unimportant, from the point o f view o f health. On the
other hand, in a coarse-goods m ill, where waste stock is used in a
low-studded and generally neglected room, the amount, constancy
and character o f the dust is such as to suggest the probability o f
real danger.
W hile in both weave and ring-spinning rooms there are many
unhygienic factors, the principal features o f the card room are (1)
the amount o f dust and (2) lack o f proper ventilation and effective
means o f removing the dust. Cotton dust in the card room varies
greatly both in quality and quantity. It is always considerable,
owing to the carding process o f freeing and cleaning the material.
In some mills it is enormous in amount, with considerable dirt as
a concomitant. The quantity o f dust is commonly sufficient to cause
a distinct cloudiness o f the atmosphere, which, in a room lacking
proper ventilation, is a serious menace to the health o f the operatives.
It has long been known that work which involves more or less
constant confinement in a dusty atmosphere predisposes to the de­
velopment o f diseases o f the lungs, especially o f pulmonary con­
sumption ; but only in recent years, through the science o f bacteriol­
ogy, has the medical profession and the public been enlightened
as to the specific cause o f consumption, and the method o f its dis­
semination among the susceptible. The people o f to-day, therefore,
in every walk o f life, have a far greater responsibility thrust upon
them with respect to minimizing this source o f danger by the appli­
cation o f all reasonable sanitary measures. W e have to bear in mind,
then, in considering the dust problem, the possibility o f the presence
o f “ infectious dust ” from dried sputum in the air o f different m ill
rooms. Persons suffering from consumption can not always be de­
tected in these rooms, and the habit o f indiscriminate spitting in­
volves the possibility o f infection.
A comparison o f the important constant or possible unhygienic
influences in the ring-spinning and carding departments, with em­
phasis upon the dust in these rooms, is as follow s:
RING S P IN N IN G .

1. Considerable dust (constant).
2. “ Infectious dust ” (dried sputum).
3. Excessive heat (w ith artificial moisture).



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

733

4. Excessive heat (without artificial moisture in some room s).
5. Lack o f provision for a plentiful supply o f fresh air.
6. Poor light.
7. Carbon monoxide gas, and excessive amounts o f carbon dioxide
from respiration and combustion.
CARDING.

1. Dust (abundant and continuous).
2. “ Infectious dust ” (dried sputum).
3. Lack o f provision for a plentiful supply o f fresh air.
4. Carbon monoxide gas, and excessive amounts o f carbon dioxide
from respiration and combustion.
There are, unfortunately, no very satisfactory or trustworthy gen­
eral vital statistics o f the cotton industry in the United States. The
vital statistics o f the census o f 1890 included 1,080 deaths o f male tex­
tile factory operatives, and o f this number 15.4 per cent had attained
to ages 65 or over. The general death rates were slightly above the
average for the manufacturing class at ages 15 to 25, below at ages 25
to 65, and slightly above the average at 65 years or over. The con­
sumption death rate for textile factory operatives was 2.27 per 1,000,
or below the general average, but this in all probability was the result
o f defective enumeration, partly because o f the crude grouping o f all
textile operatives as a class.
The vital statistics o f the census o f 1900 included 1,332 deaths o f
male textile operatives from all causes, and o f this number 232, or 17.4
per cent, had attained to ages 65 or over. The death rates generally
were below the average for males employed in manufacturing and
mechanical industries, except at ages o f 65 or over. Out o f the 1,332
deaths from all causes, previously referred to, 313, or 23.5 per cent,
were from consumption. The corresponding death rate was 2.08 per
1,000, against 2.62 for the manufacturing and mechanical class. The
death rate from other respiratory diseases was 1.07 per 1,000 for tex­
tile factory operatives, against 1.81 for the manufacturing and me­
chanical industry class, so that for both consumption and other respir­
atory diseases the recorded m ortality indicates a lesser liability to these
diseases than is met with among occupied males in more or less sim­
ilar employments. These statistics, however, can not be accepted as
entirely accurate or conclusive, and they are here included only to call
attention to the necessity o f extreme caution in accepting the vital
statistics o f certain occupations where labor conditions materially
interfere with the continuity o f employment and where the oppor­
tunities for change from one occupation to another are rather excep­
tional.
The available occupation mortality statistics o f Rhode Island refer
to textile operatives as a class, regardless o f the kind o f fiber manufac­



734

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

tured, which hardly warrants entirely safe conclusions, and the same
is true o f the corresponding statistics o f the Tw elfth Census o f the
United States, which groups m ill and factory operatives under tex­
tiles, also without distinction o f the kind o f textile manufactured,
such as cotton, wool, flax, jute, etc. The Rhode Island statistics for
the period 1897 to 1906 include 798 deaths from all causes, and o f this
number 218, or 27.3 per cent, were from consumption.
In English occupation m ortality statistics cotton textile operatives
are combined with persons employed in the manufacture o f flax and
linen, which also to a certain degree impairs their value. Since the
proportion o f persons employed in linen and flax manufacture is com­
paratively small, the error is not a very serious one. In the aggregate
the English data for 1890 to 1892 include the observed mortality ex­
perience o f 538,077 occupied males exposed to the risk o f death one
year, among whom there occurred 7,471 deaths from all causes. The
specific death rates have been calculated by divisional periods o f life,
and an instructive comparison is possible with the corresponding
m ortality o f occupied males generally.
MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG MALES EMPLOYED IN THE MANUFAC­
TURE OF COTTON, FLAX, AND LINEN, COMPARED W ITH THAT OF ALL
OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1890 TO 1892, B Y AGE GROUPS.
[From Supplement to the Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births,
Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Death rate for cotton, flax, and
linen employees.

Age at death.

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate
per 1,000
for all
occupied Rate per
males.
1,000.
2.55
5.07
7.29
12.43
20.66
36.66
102.32

&55
5.95
7.17
12.83
24.68
52.55
159.08

Greater (+)
or less (—)
than rate
for all oc­
cupied
males.
+ 1.00
+ .88
- .12
+ .40
+ 4.02
+15.89
+56.76

Ratio to
rate for
all occu­
pied
males.
139
117
98
103
119
143
155

The mortality o f English cotton-mill operatives, including workers
in linen and flax, is shown by the preceding table to have been
excessive at all ages, except 25 to 34. This is probably the result o f
the very heavy death rate prevailing at ages under 20, and the com­
paratively high death rate at ages 20*to 24. The excess in the gen­
eral m ortality o f persons employed in this occupation becomes more
apparent at ages 45 to 54, and decidedly pronounced at ages 55 or
over. It requires no very extended analysis o f the causes o f death
among this class o f operatives to establish the fact that the excess in
the general m ortality is prim arily the result o f a high death rate from
consumption and other respiratory diseases. The facts, as far as they



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

735

are obtainable from the published reports, are set forth in tabular
form below, which shows the m ortality rate by divisional periods o f
life from consumption and from respiratory diseases other than con­
sumption among cotton m ill operatives, including linen and flax, and
among occupied males generally, first from consumption and second
from other respiratory diseases:

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AND FROM OTHER DISEASES OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AMONG MALES EMPLOYED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
COTTON, FLAX, AND LINEN, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED
MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1890 TO 1892, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Supplement to the Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births,
Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Mortality from other diseases of the
respiratory system.

Mortality from consumption.
Death rate for cotton, flax, and
linen employees.
Death
Age at death. rate per
Greater (+) Ratio to
1,000 for
or less (—) rate for
all occu­
pied Rate per than rate all
oecumales. 1,000. for all oc­ • pied
cupied males.
males.
15 to 19 years.......
20 to 24 years.......
25 to 34 years.......
35 to 44 years.......
45 to 54 years.......
55 to 64 years.......
65 years or over..

0.70
1.95
2.63
a 43
a38
2.65
1.50

1.26
2.86
2.91
a 24
4.09
a il
1:2.50

+0.56
+ .91
+ .28
- .19
+ .71
+ .46
+1.00

180
147
111
94
121
117
167

Death rate for cotton, flax, and
linen employees.
Death
rate per
1,000 for
Greater (+) Ratio to
all occu­
or less (—)
for
pied Rate per than rate rate
all oc­
males. 1,000. for all oc­ cupied
cupied males.
males.
0.26
.61
1.13
2.50
a 15
10.32

2a 9i

0.44
.89
1.24
a41
7.71

ia 19
sa 19

+ 0.18
+ .28
+ .11
+ .91
+ 2.56
+ 7.87
+27.28

169
146
110
136
150
176
205

These earlier statistics have been included, since they w ill prove
useful for reference and comparison with the more recently published
occupation m ortality data for males employed in this industry, which
w ill subsequently be referred to in detail. The preceding table shows
that the mortality from consumption among cotton workers was exces­
sive at all ages except the period 35 to 44, when, however, the rates
quite closely approach the average for occupied males generally.
More significant are the pronounced differences in the m ortality o f
cotton workers from respiratory diseases other than consumption,
which is excessive at all ages and which probably includes some
deaths from fibroid phthisis recorded as chronic bronchitis or chronic
pneumonia, or under some similar term.
More trustworthy and conclusive are the corresponding statistics
o f cotton manufacture for England which have been recently made
public for the three years ending with 1902 and which are referred to
in the Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the RegistrarGeneral, in part as follow s:
In the term o f life from the twentieth to the forty-fifth year the
death rates o f cotton workers are below the standard for occupied and
retired m ales; but at other ages they exceed it. In the main working



736

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

time o f life the comparative mortality figure for the industry is 1,114,
or 11 per cent above the standard. Cotton operatives experience an
excess o f about one-fourth in the mortality from nervous and re­
spiratory diseases, and also a slight excess from cancer, phthisis, cir­
culatory diseases, Bright’s disease, and suicide. Their mortality from
influenza is less than the norm al; they appear to be but slightly ad­
dicted to intemperance, and their m ortality figure from accident is
little more than half the standard.
The English occupation m ortality statistics for males employed
in cotton manufacture during the three-year period 1900 to 1902 in­
clude 5,710 deaths from all causes. O f this number o f deaths 1,093,
or 19.1 per cent, were from consumption, and 1,084, or 19.0 per cent,
from respiratory diseases other than consumption; o f the deaths
from all causes 2,177, or 38.1 per cent, were therefore from diseases o f
the lungs and air passages. In the follow ing table a comparison
is made o f the m ortality from all causes among men engaged in cotton
manufacture with that o f occupied males generally, and the result
indicates an excessive m ortality at ages 45 or over, and also a slightly
excessive mortality at ages 15 to 19. A t ages 20 to 44 the mortality
among cotton workers was somewhat less than for all occupied males.
MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG MALES EMPLOYED IN COTTON MANU­
FACTURE, COMPARED W ITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND
AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, B Y AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Death rate for male cotton workers.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate
per 1,000
for all occu­ Rate per
pied males. 1,000.
2.44
4.41
6.01
1(122
17 73
31.01
88.39

2.68
4.32
5.48
9.61
20.46
41.15
127.31

Greater (+)
or less (—) Ratio to
than rate rate for all
for all oc­ occupied
cupied
males.
males.
+ 0.24
- .09
- .53
- .61
+ 2.73
+10.14
+38.92

110
98
91
94
115
133
144

In the table which follow s the m ortality from consumption and
from respiratory diseases other than consumption among men em­
ployed in cotton manufacture is compared with the normal mortality
for all occupied males from these diseases by divisional periods o f life.
The comparison shows that the mortality from consumption was
above the average at all ages except 25 to 34, when the m ortality
was practically the same for cotton workers as for all occupied males.
The excess in the mortality is quite pronounced at ages 45 or over.
The mortality from other respiratory diseases was somewhat ex­
cessive at all ages except 35 to 44, but the excess was most pronounced
at ages 20 to 24 and at 45 or over.



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

737

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AND FROM OTHER DISEASES OF THE RESPIRA­
TORY SYSTEM AMONG MALES EMPLOYED IN COTTON MANUFACTURE, COM­
PARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900
TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Mortality from other diseases of the
Mortality from consumption.
respiratory system.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......
20 to 24 years.......
25 to 34 years.......
35 to 44 years.......
45 to 54 years.......
55 to 64 years.......
65 years or over...

Death rate for male cotton
workers.

Death rate for male cotton
workers.

Greater (+)
or less (—)
than rate
for all oc­
cupied
males.

Greater (+)
or less (—)
than rate
for all oc­
cupied
males.

Ratio to
rate for
all occu­
pied
males.

+ 0.01
+ .12
+ .04
- .15
+ .86
+ 3.26
+10.73

104
125
105
91
126
150
160

Death
rate per
1,000 for
all occu­
pied Rate per
males. 1,000.
0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.82
1.65
2.01
2.89
3.66
2.76
2.13

+0.28
+ .10
- .02
+ .15
+ .62
+ .60
+1.02

Death
rate per
1,000
for
Ratio to all occu­
rate for pied Rate per
all occu­ males. 1,000.
pied
males.
152
106
99
105
120
128
192

0.24
.48
.77
1.66
3.32
6.54
17.77

0.25
.60
.81
1.51
4.18
9.80
28.50

Summarizing these observations and statistical data, they indicate
a somewhat excessive mortality, particularly at the more advanced
ages, undoubtedly due to the inhalation o f vegetable fiber dust, the
health-injurious effects o f which are more slow to reveal themselves
than when the inhalation is o f metallic and mineral dusts. The sta­
tistics available suggest the necessity o f a thorough and qualified in­
vestigation to determine with more accuracy the facts regarding the
m ortality o f cotton workers.
T EXTILE SPINNERS.

Spinning, in cotton and woolen manufacture, is peculiarly an
employment o f women and children, who constitute the large m ajor­
ity o f persons employed in American and foreign mills. It is true,
as pointed out in the census report on cotton manufacture, that in
proportion as the speed o f machinery increases women and children
are displaced by m en,(a) but even under modem conditions out o f
55,488 frame spinners employed in the manufacture o f cotton tex­
tiles only 10,709 were men, or 19.3 per cent. O f the remainder, 25,701
were women and 19,078 children. Mule spinners are almost inva­
riably men, but the number o f mule spinners in the cotton industry
is not large, and in 1905 was only 4,866, o f whom 3,691 were employed
in the New England States. ( 6) In spinning the amount o f visible
dust is not considerable, but large quantities o f fly or flue are pro­
duced during the spinning, twisting, and drawing operations, which
rapidly accumulate on and about the machines, requiring constant
cleaning and dust removal, for which practically no effective provi­
sion is made in most o f the American mills at the present time. The

aCensus o f

Manufactures, 1905, Part II I , p. 30.

6 Census o f Manufactures, 1905, Part III, p. 50.



738

BU LLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

employment has the serious disadvantage o f a comparatively high
and moist temperature, which, according to Arlidge, during the sum­
mer months induces “ exhaustion, sweating, and debility; results the
more felt because spinning entails nearly constant standing, or slight
movements to and fro to follow the 4mule frames.5” A rlidge
observed, further, th a t44what renders the spinning rooms more insani­
tary than they would be otherwise, considering their general spacious­
ness, is that the temperature is maintained night and day, and that
all inlets for air are kept carefully closed. In consequence, there is
not the necessary renewal o f air for healthy breathing. Moreover, in
such close rooms the operatives acquire a particular sensitiveness to
currents o f air and to change o f temperature, and are themselves
opposed to most attempts at ventilation. H appily, these remarks are
not so generally applicable as they were form erly, for the better recog­
nition o f what constitutes ventilation, together with the skill o f engi­
neers, has worked a great reform in the sanitary state o f spinning
rooms.55 The m ortality from consumption among spinners is known
to be high, both among men and women, and, no doubt, in a large
measure this is the direct result o f the employment. The degree o f
consumption frequency among spinners, however, is possible o f a ma­
terial reduction under satisfactory conditions o f light, temperature,
and ventilation. Modern American cotton mills, especially in the
South, are in many respects more hygienic than the old type granite
structures typical o f New England. Compared with certain foreign
countries, the mortality o f cotton spinners, at least, would appear to be
somewhat lower in the United States, due, no doubt, largely to the
more recent development o f the industry and the generally more satis­
factory conditions o f labor and life in this country.
The only really trustworthy general m ortality statistics o f spinners
are the returns for Blackburn, England, prepared annually under the
direction o f Dr. A lfred Greenwood, the medical officer o f health. An
admirable analysis o f these returns by Mr. F. S. Crum was pub­
lished in the New York Medical Kecord for August 11, 1906, and
from the tables there presented are extracted the follow ing compara­
tive death rates o f spinners and weavers, including separately the
rates for consumption and for other respiratory diseases:

MORTALITY OF SPINNERS AND WEAVERS IN BLACKBURN, ENGLAND,
1889 TO 1905.
Age at death.

rate per 1,000
rate per 1.000 Death
Death rate per 1,000 Deathconsumption
from other diseases
of the respiratory
from all causes of— fromamong—
system of—
Spinners. Weavers. Spinners. Weavers. Spinners. Weavers.

15 to 24 years................................................
25 to 34 years................................................
35to44years................................................
45 to 54 years................................................
55 to 64 years................................................
65 years or over...........................................



5.3
7.7
10.3
25.7
43.7
177.7

3.7
4.8
9.1
149
447
139.5

1.3
2.5
2.8
2.4
.8
1.8

1.1
2.4
1.9
1.8
2.8

.8

0.8
1.9
2.2
7.9
17.8

48.8

0.4
.7
1.8
48
15.1
35.8

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

739

In the State o f Rhode Island, during the five years ending with
1906, there were recorded only 71 deaths o f male spinners, and o f this
number 18, or 25.4 per cent, were from consumption, and 5, or 7 per
cent, were from other respiratory diseases. It is quite probable, how­
ever, that the actual mortality was greater than the recorded on ac­
count o f the difficulty in securing, without special inquiry, accurate
information as to decedents’ exact occupation at the time o f death.
The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f spinners
include 189 deaths from all causes, o f which 56, or 29.6 per cent, were
from consumption. O f the m ortality o f spinners from respiratory
diseases other than consumption, 17 were from pneumonia, 6 from
asthma and bronchitis, and 5 from less frequent respiratory diseases.
I f the deaths from consumption and from other respiratory diseases
are combined, 44.4 per cent o f the mortality o f spinners was from
diseases o f the lungs and air passages. Spinners, as grouped fo r the
purpose o f this investigation, include spinners o f textiles generally,
but chiefly those in the cotton industry. Because o f the fact that the
large m ajority o f spinners are women, the mortality experience with
this class o f labor is comparatively small. The excess in the con­
sumption m ortality o f spinners is more clearly brought out in the
tabular presentation o f the proportionate m ortality from this disease
by divisional periods o f life. Although the consumption mortality
was excessive at all ages under 55, the excess was most pronounced at
ages 25 to 34, when out o f every 100 deaths from all causes 50 were
from consumption, against a normal expected proportion o f 31.3. The
analysis o f the consumption mortality o f spinners in detail is set forth
in the table below :

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG SPINNERS, 1897 TO
1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA OF
THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for spinners from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures for
males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census.]
Deaths of spinners, 1897 Per cent of deaths due to
to 1906, due to— consumption among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years............... .......................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................
63675—No. 79—09---- 8




Males in
All causes. Consump­
Spinners. registration
tion.
area, 1900
to 1906.
28
38
36
27
37
23
189

13
19
16
7
1

46.4
50.0
44.4
25.9
2.7

56

29.6

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

740

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

The preceding statistical data, including the industrial insurance
mortality experience, confirm the conclusion that the m ortality o f
spinners from consumption is considerably above the average through­
out practically the entire active working period o f life, but in par­
ticular between the ages o f 15 and 54, inclusive.
TEXTILE W EA VE R S.

W eaving is a more arduous occupation than spinning, but appar­
ently the health conditions affecting this employment are more
favorable than the corresponding conditions in the spinning rooms.
Spinning attracts the less physically strong or those who because
o f their frail physique would be predisposed to consumption.
This, in part, no doubt, accounts for the difference in the m ortality
rates o f the two employments. The census o f 1905 returned the num­
ber o f weavers o f cotton goods in the United States as 98,807, but o f
these 50,559 were women and young persons. (a) Arlidge describes
the conditions in weaving rooms, with special reference to healthinjurious circumstances, in part, as follow s:
W eaving sheds are o f vast dimensions, and, in some instances,
hold 1,000 looms. The noise in the winding and spinning rooms is
very great, but in the huge weaving sheds it is almost deafening. A t
the same time, the places are excessively h o t; and the air is charged
with moisture, and, when there is heavy sizing, with dust o f china
clay, the same material as used in making pottery. Added to these
insanitary circumstances are bodily exhalations o f the workers—
breath and perspiration. The heat and moisture are necessary to
prevent the undue breakage o f the yarn in the act o f weaving, and
the more so where the yarn is o f inferior quality and is heavily sized,
to make it marketable.
Conditions in American weaving rooms are probably somewhat
better than in England, especially on account o f the fact that the
sizing used in the preparation o f the warp is, as a rule, o f common
starch, sago, or some similar vegetable compound, instead o f china
clay dust, which is in common use in English factories. The weav­
ing rooms in American mills are usually high-studded but rarely as
well ventilated as would be necessary to secure the best conditions
favorable to health and life. Effective artificial ventilation is the ex­
ception rather than the rule. The conditions as to temperature and
artificial humidity are probably less favorable in weaving rooms than
in spinning rooms, but in the latter a considerable amount o f fly or
dust is generated during the spinning processes. English mortality
statistics o f weavers indicate a lesser liability to consumption and
other respiratory diseases among this class than among spinners, but
it must always be taken into account that such statistics are likely to
® Census of Manufactures, 1905, Part III, p. 50.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

741

err seriously with advancing age when it becomes very difficult to ac­
count for those who have retired from the textile industry to follow
other and less arduous employments. It is open to question whether
the recent English attempt to account for the entire m ortality o f all
the occupied and retired in certain specified trades really has been a
success and warrants the conclusions arrived at.
In the analysis by Mr. F. S. Crum o f the mortality o f spinners and
weavers a comparison is made o f the death rate o f English weavers
with the general average death rate in the registration area o f the
United States, which is reproduced here to emphasize how even an
admittedly im perfect registration o f the mortality o f this trade indi­
cates a decidedly high death rate among this class:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY OF W E A T E R S FROM CONSUMPTION AND OTHER
RESPIRATORY DISEASES, BLACKBURN, ENGLAND, 1899 TO 1905.

Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over.................................................................

of deaths due
Per cent of deaths due Pertocent
other respiratory
to co n su m p tion diseases
among weavers in— ers in— among weav­
United
United
Blackburn, States reg­ Blackburn, States reg­
England. istration England. istration
area, 1900.
area, 1900.
28.9
50.6
20.8
12.1
6.4
.6

30.9
32.4
22.6
13.3
7.6
2.9

10.8
14.0
19.3
32.0
33.7
25.5

9.5
10.4
12.2
13.4
14.6
14.7

The Rhode Island statistics o f mortality by occupation only record
the deaths o f weavers, beginning with the year 1901. During the
period 1901 to 1906 the recorded m ortality o f weavers from all causes
was 259, and o f this number 67, or 25.9 per cent, were from consump­
tion and 30, or 11.6 per cent, from other respiratory diseases. O f the
total mortality 97, or 37.5 per cent, were from diseases o f the lungs
and air passages.
The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f weavers
include 915 deaths from all causes, o f which 254, or 27.8 per cent, were
from consumption. O f the mortality o f weavers from respiratory dis­
eases other than consumption 78 were from pneumonia, 10 from
asthma, 18 from bronchitis, and 13 from less frequent respiratory
diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and from other respiratory
diseases are combined, 40.8 per cent o f the mortality o f weavers was
from diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The number o f deaths o f
weavers under consideration is exceptionally large and strictly repre­
sentative o f this important occupation. It is difficult, however, to de­
termine the kind o f dust exposure to which this class o f labor was most




742

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

subject, since the term is a general one, including employments in every
branch o f textile manufacture. The excess in the consumption mor­
tality o f weavers is more clearly brought out in the tabular presenta­
tion o f the proportionate mortality from this disease by divisional
periods o f life. W hile the consumption m ortality was excessive at all
ages, the excess was most pronounced at ages 25 to 34, when out o f
every 100 deaths from all causes 53.4 were from consumption, against
a normal expected proportion o f 31.3. I f the proportionate mortality
o f weavers is compared with the corresponding mortality o f spinners,
it appears that while for spinners the proportion was 46.4 per cent at
ages 15 to 24 it was 39.8 per cent for weavers; at ages 25 to 34 the
proportion was 50.0 per cent for spinners, against 53.4 per cent for
weavers; at ages 35 to 44 the proportion was 44.4 per cent for spin­
ners, against 38.1 per cent for weavers, and at ages 45 to 54 the pro­
portion was 25.9 per cent for spinners, against 25.7 per cent for
weavers. A t ages 55 or over the numbers for spinners are too small
for an entirely safe conclusion. The comparison would warrant the
opinion that the occupation o f spinners is somewhat more exposed
to health-injurious conditions, resulting in a somewhat higher pro­
portionate consumption m ortality from this employment. The analy­
sis o f the consumption mortality o f weavers in detail is set forth in
the table below :

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG W E A V E R S , 1897 TO
1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA OF
THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for weavers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures for males
in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States census.]

Deaths of weavers, 1897 Per centof deaths due to
to 1906 due to—
consumption among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total..........................................................................

Males in
All causes. Consump­
Weavers. registration
tion.
area, 1900
to 1906.
108
174
155
144
137
197
915

43
93
59
37
15
7
254

39.8
53.4
38.1
25.7
10.9
3.6
27.8

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and m ortality statistics, including the
insurance experience, confirm the conclusion that the m ortality o f
weavers from consumption is excessive at all ages, but in particular
at ages 15 to 64, or throughout the entire period o f the active working
lifetim e o f persons employed in this occupation.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

743

M A N U F A C T U R E OF H O S IE R Y A N D K N IT GOODS.

The manufacture o f hosiery and knit goods has within recent years
attained to very large proportions in the United States, giving em­
ployment to 103,715 wage-earners in 1905, o f whom 66.4 per cent were
women and 9.3 per cent children and young persons under 16 years
o f age. The rapid growth o f this industry is illustrated by the fact
that during the five years ending with 1905 the number o f wageearners increased 24.4 per cent, while the value o f the product
increased 43 per cent. The number o f knitting machines during the
same period increased from 69,047 in 1900 to 88,374 in 1905. (a) About
one-third o f these are automatic circular hosiery machines, but the
amount o f dust generated during knitting processes is practically the
same, irrespective o f the kind o f machinery in use. The material used
in knitting and hosiery manufacture is chiefly cotton and woolen and
worsted yarn, but considerable quantities o f shoddy, jute, hemp, silk,
and mohair are also used in an endless variety o f combinations, which
vary widely from year to year, according to the demands o f the trade.
It has seemed best, however, for the present purpose to include the
manufacture o f hosiery and knitted goods under the employments
exposing chiefly to the risk o f vegetable dust inhalation, since over
one-half o f the material used is cotton or some other vegetable fiber.
The health conditions in knitting and hosiery mills conform quite
closely to those o f cotton and woolen spinning and weaving rooms.
The health-injurious effects o f the industry are probably most pro­
nounced in the spinning, weaving, knitting, finishing, calendering,
and drying rooms, but no qualified investigation has been made to
warrant final conclusions.
There are no official vital statistics o f hosiery and knit goods manu­
facture for the United States, and thus far no analysis has been made
o f the m ortality o f this class in the cities and towns where the industry
is concentrated and where large numbers are employed. The Rhode
Island statistics for knitters are not o f determining value, since only
8 deaths o f male knitters have been recorded during the ten years
ending with 1906, but o f this small number 5, or 62.5 per cent, were
deaths from consumption.
The m ortality o f hosiery workers in England and Wales is referred
to in the Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the Regis­
trar-General, as follow s:
The death rates o f hosiery workers exceed the standard for occupied
and retired males at ages 20 to 25 and 55 years and upward, while
at other ages the rates are below the standard. In the main working
period o f life the comparative mortality figure is 921, or 8 per cent
below the standard. The mortality from phthisis exceeds the average
0 Census of Manufactures, 1905, Part III, p. 68.




744

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

by one-fifth part, and there is also a slight excess from cancer, circu­
latory diseases, and suicide, whilst from every other cause the mor­
tality is below the standard; the m ortality from influenza, from alco­
holism and liver disease, from Bright’s disease, and from accident,
shows a marked defect as compared with the average. (a)
The English occupation m ortality statistics for persons employed
in hosiery manufacture are o f considerable value, since they include
881 deaths from all causes occurring during the three-year period
ending with 1902. O f this number o f deaths 97, or 11 per cent, were
from consumption, and 161 deaths, or 18.3 per cent, from other respi­
ratory diseases, which combined give 29.3 per cent o f the mortality
from diseases o f the lungs and air passages. In the table which fo l­
lows a comparison is made o f the mortality from all causes among
men in this group with that o f occupied males generally, and the re­
sult is suggestive o f conditions in this trade decidedly unfavorable to
health and life at ages 55 or over:
MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG MALES EMPLOYED IN HOSIERY MANU­
FACTURE, COMPARED W ITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND
AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, B Y AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Death rate for males in hosiery
manufacture.

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years...................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+)
for all
less (—) Ratio to
occupied Rate per orthan
rate rate for all
males.
for all occupied
1,000.
occupied males.
males.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

1.00
5.75
5.39
6.71
16.10
35.11
132.12

- 1.44
+ 1.34
- .62
- 3.51
- 1.63
+ 4.10
+43.73

41
130
90
66
91
113
149

The death rates o f men employed in hosiery manufacture are below
the general average at all ages under 55 except at ages 20 to 24, when,
however, small numbers are in part responsible for a possibly acci­
dental fluctuation in the death rate.
In the table which follow s the m ortality from consumption and
from respiratory diseases other than consumption among men em­
ployed in hosiery manufacture is compared with the normal mortality
o f occupied males from these diseases by divisional periods o f life.
The comparison shows that the mortality from consumption was
above the average at all ages under 65 except at 35 to 44. The re° Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual R eport o f the Registrar-Gen­
eral o f Births, Deaths, and M arriages in England and W ales, p. xc.




745

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

turns are not entirely conclusive and are possibly impaired by the
more or less fluctuating character o f the population and the tend­
ency to leave the manufacture o f hosiery for other branches o f the
textile industry. The mortality from other respiratory diseases was
below that o f all occupied males at all ages under 65.

MORTALITY PROM CONSUMPTION AND FROM OTHER DISEASES OF THE RESPIR­
ATORY SYSTEM AMONG MALES EMPLOYED IN HOSIERY MANUFACTURE,
COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES,
1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......
20 to 24 years.......
25 to 34 years.......
35 to 44 years.......
45 to 54 years.......
55 to 64 years.......
65 years or over..

Mortality from consumption.

Mortality from other disease!3 of the
respiratory system.

Death rate for male hosiery
workers.
Death
rate per
1,000 for
Greater (+) Ratio to
all occu­
or less (—) rate for
pied Rate per than rate all
occu­
males. 1,000.
for all
pied
occupied males.
males.

Death rate for male hosiery
workers.
Death
rate per
1,000 for
Greater (+ ) Ratio to
all occu­
or less (—) rate for
pied Rate per than rate all
occu­
for all
males. 1,000.
pied
occupied males.
males.

0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.60
2.35
2.46
2.48
4.23
3.47
.79

+0.06
+ .80
+ .43
- .26
+1.19
+1.31
- .32

Ill
152
121
91
139
161
71

0.24
.48
.77
1.66
3.32
6.54
17.77

0.20
.26
.70
.75
2.93
6.01
27.06

-0.04
- .22
- .07
- .91
- .39
- .53
+9.29

83
54
91
45
88
92
152

The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f hosiery
and knitting m ill employees include only 65 deaths from all causes, o f
which 24, or 36.9 per cent, were deaths from consumption. The
excess in the consumption mortality o f hosiery and knitting m ill em­
ployees is clearly brought out in the tabular presentation o f the pro­
portionate m ortality from this disease by divisional periods o f life.

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG HOSIERY AND
KNITTING MILL EMPLOYEES, 1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL
MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY
AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for hosiery and knitting mill employees from experience of an industrial insur­
ance company; figures for males in the registration area computed from mortality
statistics of the United States census.]

Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................



Deaths of hosiery and Per cent of deaths due
knitting mill em­
con su m p tion
ployees, 1897 to 1906, to
among—
due to—
Hosiery
and knit­
All causes. Consump­
ting mill
tion.
employees.

Males in
registration
area, 1900
to 1906.
27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

23
22
7
9
31

5
15
2
2

21.7
68.2
28.6
22.2

65

24

36.9

746

BU LLETIN OP T H E BUBEATJ OP LABOB.

It is found, in summarizing these observations and statistical data,
that they do not warrant final conclusions but suggest the necessity
o f a qualified and extended investigation to determine with accuracy
the facts regarding the mortality o f this class o f labor.
LACE MANUFACTURE.

Lace making in the United States has not as yet.attained to con­
siderable proportions, but the perfection o f machinery fo r lace mak­
ing gives promise o f a considerable development o f this industry in
the United States in the future. The subject has attracted the atten­
tion o f the Bureau o f Manufactures, and a very interesting descrip­
tive report on machine-made lace in Europe was recently published
by the Department o f Commerce and Labor. According to this re­
port lace making by machinery is an extremely complicated process,
with resulting labor conditions quite closely resembling those o f
hosiery and knit-goods manufacture.
No very satisfactory account
o f the conditions o f labor in this industry has been published, with
special reference to the different employments, except lace dressing,
which is held to be accompanied by serious health-injurious con­
sequences, but chiefly on account o f the high temperature under which
this process is carried on. In a special report upon lace dressing,
by the medical officer o f health o f the city o f Nottingham, Eng­
land, this process in its relation to health is in part described as
follow s:
The lace, after having been bleached, and, in some cases, dyed, and
then dipped in starch solution, is taken in rough and wet condition
to the dressing (or drying) rooms (usually over 100 yards long by
15 to 20 yards wide and 9 to 10 feet high) and there stretched upon
horizontal frames to dry. In the case o f some fine silk nets, the un­
starched fabric is placed upon the drying and stretching frames,
and the dressing applied to the stretched material on the frames.
The dressing rooms are heated by steam or hot-water pipes, and
their temperature usually ranges, in this country, from 75° to 100° F.
It is made to vary to suit the requirements o f different materials
and according to the condition o f the external air. In very hot
and dry weather, all artificial heat is occasionally dispensed with
for cotton goods; but for silk goods, which are reputed to require
specially quick drying, artificial heat is always employed, and the
temperature o f some silk-lace dressing rooms in Lyon (France) is
said often to be as high as between 130° and 140° F. The drying
rocess is assisted by large revolving fans placed directly over the
rying material.
The Stenter dressing or drying machine calls fo r special* mention,
as its use frequently modifies the distribution o f hot air in the rooms
where it is employed. In this machine, which is used principally for
lace curtains, the fabric is carried by an endless chain into an atmos­
phere heated by multitubular boilers (the air being driven through
the steam-heated boiler tubes), and the whole mechanism, with its

S




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

747

contained lace material, is usually boxed in with wooden casing
furnished with ventilating openings. In rooms where this machine
is in use, the temperature seldom rises above 80° F., except in the
immediate neighborhood o f these openings and at the feeding end
o f the machine.
The investigation at Nottingham was a thoroughly qualified in­
quiry, including a careful consideration o f the available vital statis­
tics referring not only to those who had been continuously employed
in lace dressing, but also to those who had been casually em ployed;
the number o f the latter was found to be considerable. Many o f the
lace factory employees were interviewed and examined, but the opinion
was practically unanimous that lace dressing, even if followed for
many years, is not dangerous to health. Many o f the employees were
found to suffer a good deal from common colds, but such colds did not
appear to be o f greater frequency than among factory workers in gen­
eral. The investigation did not disclose any special tendency to
phthisis or to other lung diseases among the women, who alone work
continuously in the dressing room, and this in the opinion o f Dr.
Philip Boobbyer, the author o f the report, was more remarkable, since
the m ajority were o f a very poor class, living in poor houses and poor
neighborhoods, and many no doubt led irregular and intemperate
lives. The result o f the investigation was summed up in the state­
ment that—
Probably the strongest argument in support o f the contention that
lace dressing, as now carried on in Nottingham, is a healthy occupa­
tion, is to be found in the fact that large numbers o f women have
worked at it for very long terms o f years continuously, have had good
health while doing so, and have lived to advanced old age, either at
work or in retirement. I have alluded elsewhere to the question which
naturally arises, as to how far the case o f these women is to be re­
garded as an illustration o f the survival o f the fittest, but up to this
point have answered it only by general statements.
Although, as I have said, there are a good many people who have
left this work for various causes after having tried it for a time, there
are, on the other hand, large groups o f those who have taken it up and
adhered to it continuously during the whole period o f their working
lives, and the duration o f these has certainly, in the m ajority o f cases,
been remarkably long. The only possible inference to be drawn from
facts and figures like these is that the work people have established
an absolute tolerance o f the abnormal atmospheric conditions which
exist in the lace-dressing rooms, and that life, and vigorous life, can
be maintained to old age under these conditions.
Since lace dressing as carried on in England is practically a
woman’s employment, males employed in the lace industry generally
did not come within the scope o f the inquiry. Dr. Boobbyer, how­
ever, pointed out that the death rate from phthisis among the males
was found to be high in contrast to the low death rate from phthisis




748

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

among the females, but owing to the smallness o f the number o f men
employed, and the continual fluctuation in this number, the expres­
sion o f their phthisis m ortality by means o f a definite rate would, be­
cause o f this fact, be seriously misleading.
Lace making in its relation to health was considered at some length
by Arlidge, who first calls attention to the gradual changes from the
rapid displacement o f handmade lace by machine-made lace, and the
decay o f the industry in Nottingham, which, in his opinion, from a
purely hygienic point o f view was not an unmixed evil on account o f
the high ratio o f phthisis and scrofula observed by him to prevail
among those who follow ed this occupation. He refers to the occupa­
tion divisions in machine-made lace, chiefly lace making proper, fin­
ishing, and mending, the last named process being subdivided into
dressing, gauffering, bleaching, and dyeing. The process o f gauffer­
ing is, in his opinion, a particularly injurious one to health, chiefly on
account o f the fact that the machines are heated by gas. He states
that—
It is a division o f the occupation which is regarded on all hands as
very unhealthy, chiefly on account o f the very great heat connected
with it and, in less measure, o f a sickly smell evolved. The “ finish­
ing ” o f cotton lace entails a higher temperature than that o f silk lace.
The same fact applies when “ Paris ” dressing is done. The presence
o f a large surface o f moist tissue and the elevation o f temperature
necessarily im ply a more or less humid atmosphere and free perspira­
tion. Fortunately the admission o f fresh air is permissible at times
from open windows. F or the most part finishing rooms are heated
by hot water or steam pipes, though in some factories open fires are
found in the making-up departments; the air is dry, and the makingup machines, heated bv gas or by steam pipes, render it very hot, espe­
cially when several ot them are situated in the same apartment.
A summary o f these conclusions o f qualified observers seems to war­
rant the opinion that dust, in relation to lace manufacture, is reduced
to a minimum and apparently is not o f a serious consequence to
the employees. This opinion is confirmed by English vital statistics,
which indicate that the death rates from phthisis are at least not
above the average, and at some divisional periods o f life they are
decidedly below the average o f consumption frequency in other
branches o f textile manufacture.
The most recent English m ortality statistics o f lace manufacture
are for the three years ending with 1902, referred to in the Supple­
ment to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the Registrar-General in
part as follow s:
The number o f male lace workers is comparatively small, and it is
found that as compared with the standard for all occupied and re­
tired males, the death rates at the several groups o f ages fluctuate
considerably, being below that standard at ages 20 to 25 and 35 to 55,




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

749

and above it at all other ages. In the main working time o f life the
comparative mortality figure is 950, or 5 per cent below the standard.
Lace workers appear to suffer little from influenza and respiratory
diseases, and only half the ordinary fatality from accident. They
show, however, a marked excess in the mortality from cancer, and
the m ortality from alcoholism and liver disease as well as from
phthisis, from nervous and circulatory diseases and from suicide also
exceeds the standard. (a)
The recent English mortality statistics for lace workers are not
quite conclusive and do not warrant an entirely definite opinion as
to the health injurious effects o f this employment. In the table which
follow s, a comparison is made o f the mortality from all causes among
men in this group with that o f occupied males generally, and the com­
parison shows that the general death rate o f lace workers was above
the average at ages 15 to 19, 25 to 34, and 55 to 64. Since the number
o f men employed in this industry is comparatively small the statis­
tical data do not warrant final conclusions.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES OF MALE LACE WORKERS, .COMPARED WITH
THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE
GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years.............................. ........................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate for male lace workers.
Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+) Ratio to
for all
or less (—) rate for all
occupied
Rate
than rate
males. per 1,000. for all occupied
occupied males.
males.
106
2*44
+0.14
2.58
61
4.41
-1.72
2.69
112
6.01
+ .70
6.71
82
10.22
-1.84
8.38
17.73
66
11.68
-6.05
105
31.01
+1.55
32.56
99
88.39
- .83
87.56

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison is made in the next table,
in which the mortality o f lace workers from consumption is compared
with the normal mortality o f occupied males generally, by divisional
periods o f life. The comparison shows that the mortality from con­
sumption was excessive at the same age periods at which the general
death rate was above the normal, but the excess was not very marked
and does not warrant a decidedly unfavorable conclusion regarding
the possible health-injurious effects o f this industry.
0 Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the RegistrarGeneral o f Births, Deaths, and M arriages in England and W ales, p. lxxxviii.




750

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG MALE liACE WORKERS, COMPARED
WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902,
BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Mo•rtality from consumption.
Death rate for male lace workers.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+)
or less (—)
for all
occupied Rate per than rate
for all
males.
1,000.
occupied
males.
0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

1.13
1.12
2.84
2.39
2.57
2.22
.74

+0.59
- .43
+ .81
- .35
- .47
+ .06
- .37

Ratio to
rate for all
occupied
males.
209
72
140
87
85
103
67

For a final and entirely conclusive opinion additional information
is required, but at present no trustworthy statistical data are avail­
able for the United States.
F LA X AND LINEN MANUFACTURE.

The manufacture o f flax, hemp, and jute products in the United
States is only gradually assuming large proportions, considering the
enormous demand for the finished product. The United States
Census o f Manufactures o f 1905 enumerates 24,508 wage-earners
employed in this industry, but o f this number only 12,343 were adult
males, while 10,072 were women and 2,093 children under 16 years
o f age. As pointed out in a report on this industry by Mr. Edward
Stanwood, expert special agent o f the census, “ H ardly any general
class o f manufactures is more difficult o f treatment, either as a
whole or in detail, than that o f flax, hemp, and jute. The mate­
rials are closely allied, in that they are all vegetable fibers, and in
that two and sometimes all three are used in the same establishment
and not infrequently introduced into the same fabric. Yet the
products are so diverse, ranging from gunny bags and ships’ hawsers
to fine toweling and sewing thread, that the propriety o f embracing
all these varied industries in a single class, which seems so evident
when materials only are considered, practically disappears.” “ A list
o f the products includes yarn and twine made from each one o f the
three fibers; linen thread; woven fabrics, partly or wholly o f linen;
rope and binder twine o f manila or o f sisal, or o f the two m ixed;
gunny bagging, jute burlaps, carpets, rugs, and other minor prod­
ucts.” ^ )
a Census o f M anufactures, 1905, Part III, p. 187.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

751

O f these products the manufacture o f cordage and twine and o f
jute and jute goods w ill be separately considered, so that it is only
necessary here to refer briefly to linen manufacturers and im por­
tant processes necessary for the manipulation o f flax. The linen
manufacture is a very limited one in the United States, since the
census only enumerates 15 establishments, giving employment to
3,811 wage-earners, and o f this number only 1,260, or 33.1 per cent,
were adult males. As stated in the census report, “ Relatively little
attention is given to the preparation o f the flax fiber for manufacture,
and that which is prepared is adapted only to the coarser processes.
Imported material is employed almost exclusively in the spinning
o f yarns and the weaving o f fabrics in the United States. There has
never been a successful attempt in this country to produce fine goods
at a profit.” (a)
The material used in linen and thread manufacture is the fibrous
portion o f the flax plant, which, in this country, fo r reasons which do
not require to be discussed, is chiefly cultivated fo r the seed. The
preliminary processes are pulling, threshing, and retting, necessary
to prepare the flax straw for the breaking and scutching processes.
The scutching process, whether by hand or machinery, is an exceed­
ingly dusty occupation, subject, however, to material modification by
effective ventilation stacks which carry off much dust which would
otherwise pollute the atmosphere o f the room. W ith the subsequent
processes begins the linen manufacture proper, and the first operation
is called “ heckling,” which also may be performed either by hand or
machinery. Heckling is also an exceedingly dusty process, and the
conditions are not much better in the subsequent operation o f sorting.
Spreading and drawing are intermediary processes, previous to the
sliver being taken to the roving frame, after which the fiber is ready
for spinning, which for practical purposes conform s to the mule
spinning operations in cotton mills, although the amount o f dust
generated during this process is probably greater. Spinning is fo l­
lowed by reeling, drying, warping, sizing, beaming, and drawing
in, previous to the final process o f weaving, all o f which are oper­
ations practically indentical with the corresponding process in cotton
manufacture.
Referring to the health-injurious circumstances o f particular em­
ployments in flax and linen manufacture, Bevan, in his treatise on
Industrial Classes and Industrial Statistics o f the United Kingdom ,
gives a very vivid descriptive account, which is reproduced in part as
follow s:
Heckling, which is perform ed by girls and boys, is always a very
dusty operation, and requires a good deal o f continuous labor. In the
0 Census M anufactures, 1905, P art III, p. 191.




752

BULLETIN OF T H E BUREAU OF LABOR.

report o f Bridges and Holmes, it is said that “ the ill effects o f the
heckling efforts upon the boys (technically called machine boys)
engaged in it are shown in spasmodic attacks o f cough, during which
the boy generally holds on to the machine to assist the efforts o f
coughing; an effort so fam iliar to workers that a boy who is observed
doing so is said to be 6poucey,’ from the ‘ pouce ’ or dust by which the
cough is provoked. This dust is both fibrous and granular, but the
latter very largely preponderates. It is for the most part a fine, soft,
and palpable powder, proceeding evidently in great part from the
putrefying process to which the flax plant has been subjected. Mixed
with these organic particles there is, doubtless, a considerable portion
o f pulverized mud.” This peculiar affection is spoken o f as being
very common in the Belfast mills. (a)
In the preparation o f the flax a separation is made o f the short and
coarse fiber, which is known as tow and which contains the largest
quantity o f dust, dirt, and woody fiber. Bevan states that after being
sorted tow “ is carded just like cotton, except that it is on a rougher
scale, and makes infinitely more dust. The tow-carding room is the
worst place in the m ill, and the clothes o f the workers are generally
loaded with the dust which floats thickly through the room, notwith­
standing the adoption o f powerful exhaust fans in the roof or the ex­
ternal walls. W hat with the dust and the damp from the steam jets,
it is the most unhealthy employment in flax spinning; but, though
efforts have been repeatedly made to induce the women to wear res­
pirators, it has been without success.”
The dusty condition o f the workrooms in tow manufacture is not,
however, the only objectionable feature in this branch o f the industry,
for in the practice o f wet spinning the rove o f the tow is drawn
through a trough o f warm water, which results not only in an exceed­
ingly warm atmosphere, but also a very damp one, owing to the spray
which is sent off from the spindles. Unless atmospheric conditions are
regulated with great care the health o f employees is seriously affected,
particularly in the case o f women. The follow ing quotation gives
the opinion o f Bevan regarding the injurious conditions in the manu­
facture o f flax: products:
The flax trade is the most unhealthy, and no person should work in
it who has any pulmonary weakness. D octor Purdon says, in his evi­
dence, that “ nearly three-fifths o f those that die annually in this
trade are taken off by diseases o f the respiratory organs. In the pre­
paring rooms, the death rate from chest affections is exceedingly
high, being 31 per 1,000, and amongst the hecklers the deaths annu­
ally amount to 11.1 per 1,000, amongst the weavers to 9 per 1,000. In
wet spinning the children often get their clothes wet with the spray
that comes off from the spindles, and on coming out o f the hot room
with their clothes damp m the evening, it brings on bronchial affec° I n this connection reference m ay be made to the recently published report
o f the B elfast H ealth Commission to the L ocal Government B oard o f Ireland,
p. 95. Dublin, 1908.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

753

tions.” The same observer states that the average life o f flax carders
is 45.7 years, and the average length o f time employed 16.8 years; o f
preparers, average o f employment, 28.7; o f dressers, average o f
employment, 16.6. From an analysis o f the fiber it seems that 100
parts o f flax contain 13 o f silica. From the preceding facts it would
appear that the Belfast mills are not in that state o f sanitary
arrangement in which they ought to b e.(a)
These statistical references must be used with caution, since they
refer to an earlier period, when conditions were less satisfactory than
they are at the present time.
The unfavorable conclusions o f Bevan regarding the healthinjurious conditions in flax and linen manufacture are fu lly sus­
tained by numerous investigations which have been made during the
last fifty years. The earliest qualified inquiry was made by D octor
Greenhow, and was included in the privy council’s medical report for
1860. D octor Greenhow’s report is o f special value in that atten­
tion is called to the differences in the health-injurious quality o f d if­
ferent kinds o f flax dust, and from his observations the follow ing
extract is m ade:
O f the several processes carried on in flax mills, hackling, carding,
and line preparing are more or less dusty, so that the atmosphere of
the rooms in which they are going on is loaded with dust in propor­
tion to the quality o f the flax that is being manufactured and the
means employed to prevent the dispersion o f the dust into the air
and its inhalation by the operatives. Several varieties o f flax,
named from the places whence they come, are manufactured in this
country. The most common are the Dutch, Baltic, Irish, French,
and Flemish, which yield dust in the process o f manufacture in the
order in which they have been named, the Dutch being the most, the
Flemish the least, dusty. Flax is also imported from America and
India, both o f which varieties are said to be very dusty. There are,
moreover, several varieties o f each kind o f flax which differ mate­
rially from one another; and it is said that, independently o f other
circumstances, the mode o f preparing the flax causes a difference in
the dustiness o f the article when it comes to be manufactured, that
which has been prepared by exposure to rain upon the grass being
less dusty than such as has been steeped in water. The manufacture
o f the refuse from the hackle, called tow, which is spun into coarser
material, is likewise attended by much dust. The danger to health
w ill differ in different manufactories, according as the least or the
most dusty kind o f flax is manufactured. Several operatives asserted
that they had not suffered sensibly in health from their occupation
until they worked in Dutch flax, when the inhaling o f the dust soon
caused bronchial irritation. O f the several above-named proc­
esses, hand hackling is the most pernicious; this process has now
been partially superseded by machine hackling, which, though still
often injurious to the health o f the operatives, is decidedly less so
than the former. There is likewise a considerable quantity o f dust
«B ev a n ’ s The Industrial Classes and Industrial Statistics, Volum e on T ex ­
tiles and Clothing, p. 44.




754

B U LLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

given off in the processes o f carding and line preparing, from which
the operatives suffer in proportion to its amount.
A fter emphasizing the great value o f an effective system o f venti­
lation, Greenhow includes a discussion o f the pathology o f dust inha­
lation in flax and linen factories, which is one o f the most valuable
references on the subject, and which, in part, reads as follow s:
The effects o f exposure to the dust o f flax are manifested upon the
mucous membranes. The stomach is very apt to become deranged
by the dust swallowed, and hence the flax operatives, more particu­
larly the hacklers, often suffer from dyspepsia, and are sallow and
look sickly; the eyes often become sore, the margins o f the eyelids
being swollen and inflamed, and the sight is said occasionally to
become impaired. But the most serious effect is produced on the
mucous membrane o f the air passages; oppression o f the chest, fo l­
lowed by dyspnoea, cough, and eventually by expectoration, are ordi­
nary results o f inhaling air charged with the dust o f flax. Epistaxis
is an occasional, and haemoptysis a very frequent consequence o f
the same cause. It is remarkable that dyspnoea, sometimes o f an
asthmatic character, often long precedes the accession o f cough and
expectoration, or perhaps, more properly speaking, the cough and
expectoration are in the beginning too slight to attract the notice o f
the sufferer, whilst the dyspnoea reminds him o f its presence when­
ever he attempts brisk locomotion. A s has already been said, many
o f the flax operatives forsake the occupation at an early age on
account o f the injurious influence it exercises over the health;* but
though this is true, the injury to health is commonly very gradual,
and constant discom fort and serious disease only become established
toward middle life, men employed in any dusty department o f the
manufacture rarely attaining the age o f 45 or 50 years without suffer­
ing more or less severely from bronchial disease.
Efforts to induce workmen and women to use respirators had been
a failure, although out o f 107 persons medically examined 79 were
suffering from some degree o f bronchial irritation, ascribed to the
unhealthy nature o f the employment. W hile some had attained to
quite advanced age, Greenhow points out that—
Notwithstanding that men at ages so advanced as 60 years and
upward are sometimes found working as hand hacklers, the attain­
ment o f this age must, from the all but universal statements o f both
employers and operatives, be deemed exceptional. It was stated by
manufacturers, foremen, overlookers, and the operatives themselves
that working in the more dusty departments o f the manufactory
rarely fails to make itself felt toward middle life, few persons being
able to work in an atmosphere loaded with the dusty.particles for
twenty years continuously without sustaining serious injury to health.
The health o f the women employed in the line-preparing room o f
another factory was inquired into in the manner adopted with regard
to the hacklers, already mentioned. It is always difficult to obtain
direct evidence from female operatives; but the inquiry showed that
all those who had worked for a considerable length o f time in this
branch o f manufacture were asthmatical, and that several o f them
had suffered from haemoptysis. The operatives employed in the



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

755

carding rooms, unless the machines be properly protected to prevent
the dispersion o f the dust, frequently labor under habitual dyspnoea,
cough, and expectoration; and it is especially in the carding rooms
that the operatives are accustomed to tie up their mouths to prevent
them inhaling the dust. The effect on a healthy stranger o f entering
these rooms is most unpleasant; the dust floating in the atmosphere
irritates the nasal and bronchial passages, producing sneezing and
a sense o f oppression in the chest, which do not cease until some time
after the visitor has left the apartment. The manager o f a large
factory asserted that remaining for any continuance in one o f the
carding rooms invariably produced in him, for a time, all the symp­
toms and sensations o f catarrh. (a)
W hile the observations o f Greenhow pertain to an early period,
they apply to present-day conditions, although some improvement
has been brought about in the meantime as the result o f rational
factory legislation. The continuous observation o f actual conditions
and the frequent qualified inspections made by medical inspectors
o f flax and linen factories in the United Kingdom have warranted
from time to time modifications in the rules governing the condi­
tions o f employment, and these were finally amended in 1906 with
special reference to processes o f spinning and weaving flax and tow
and the processes incidental thereto. Am ong other provisions, it is
required that “ in every room in which roughing, sorting, or hand
hackling is carried on, and in every room in which machine hackling,
carding, or preparing is carried on, and in which dust is generated
and inhaled in a quantity calculated to cause injury to the health o f
the employees, a sufficient exhaust should be provided to insure that
the dust is drawn away from the workmen at or as near as possible
to the point at which it is generated.” These regulations governing
flax and linen manufacture in the United Kingdom at the present
time were carried into effect upon the results o f a special investiga­
tion made by Hamilton P. Smith, one o f H is M ajesty’s superintend­
ing inspectors o f factories, o f the conditions o f work in flax and
linen m ills as affecting the health o f operatives employed therein,
and from which, in part, the follow ing is quoted, with special refer­
ence to the dust problem.
In roughing, sorting, and machine and hand hackling rooms, and
in all preparing rooms, the source o f danger to health lies chiefly
in the fact that large quantities o f dust ox an injurious nature are
generated in the processes o f manufacture, and accumulated testi­
mony shows that the workers suffer in health. The raw material
after leaving the scutch m ill is subjected to the process o f combing,
laying parallel, and sorting the fibres o f flax. This is done partly
by hand and partly by machinery. Taking a rough handful or
strick o f rough flax, the operative by a swinging motion dashes the
fibers onto the vertical needles form ing the rougher or hackle. The
a P rivy Council M edical Report, 1860, pp. 148-152.
63675— No. 79— 00----- 9




756

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

fiber is drawn through these teeth, separating inferior and short
fibers from the better ones and leaving “ tow ” as the residual. The
subsequent processes o f hand hackling and sorting are, so far as our
purposes are concerned, practically the same. The amount o f dust
varies according to the condition o f the material, but in all much
o f an injurious nature is given o ff.(a)
The report calls attention to the fact that even at the present time
in not a single instance, either in hand-hackling rooms or in machinehackling rooms, are respirators provided for the use o f workmen, and
it is suggested that a special rule be adopted making it mandatory that
“ suitable and efficient respirators shall be provided for the use o f the
persons employed in roughing, sorting, hand or machine hackling,
preparing, and carding.” In the inspector’s opinion, “ Cloth o f open
texture, made o f fine yarn o f woolen material, capable o f being easily
washed, makes an excellent respirator, which can be worn with ad­
vantage and without discom fort.”
A special investigation into the conditions o f work in flax and linen
mills, including a thoroughly qualified scientific analysis o f the air in
flax mills, was made by the Pathological Laboratory o f Louvain,
the center o f the flax industry in France. This investigation proved
that the chief constituent o f flax dust is mineral matter, the pro­
portionate amount o f which varies with the condition o f the flax
in the different processes, being largest during the process o f card­
ing, where it was found to be about four times as large in flax dust
as in the outside atmosphere. In addition, it was ascertained that
the number and proportion o f micro-organisms in flax dust were
enormously in excess o f the corresponding proportion found in the
outside atmosphere, the excess being most pronounced in the dust
produced during the hand hackling. The dusty processes in the order
o f their importance were determined by this investigation to be, first,
carding; second, machine hackling; third, preparing; and fourth,
hand hackling. Those containing the largest amount o f m icro-organ­
isms, in the order o f their importance, were, first, hand hackling;
second, carding; third, machine hackling; fourth, preparing; fifth,
spinning; and sixth, reeling. The cause o f the injurious nature o f
the flax dust previously referred to as being very largely o f mineral
origin was ascertained to be the considerable proportion o f silica.
The health-injurious conditions in the different rooms were discussed
briefly, as follow s:
The hackling rooms, both hand and machine, are described as very
dusty. Their condition explains the ill health o f the workers and the
rapid elimination o f the workers which takes place. As an addi­
tional cause, reference is made (w ith quotations from the writings o f
a Report upon the Conditions o f W ork in F lax and Linen Mills, by Hamilton
P. Smith, p. 10. London, 1904.




MOBTALITY FBOM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TBADES.

757

the late Dr. C. D. Purdon, o f Belfast, and D octor A rlidge) to the
arduous nature o f the work in the machine-hackling rooms, the
nature o f the work not admitting o f a moment’s relaxation on the
part o f the boys employed.
The carding rooms are described as so dusty that the workers ap­
pear to work constantly in a mist. It is held to be the most unhealthy
occupation from which results a rapid elimination o f workers, only
those o f strong constitution being able to continue at it. Despite this,
the unhealthy nature o f the work leads to illness frequently and
causes others to abandon the work. The average duration o f employ­
ment is the shortest, and yet the sickness among the workers is the
greatest. As possibly causing the dust o f the carding rooms to be
more injurious than that o f any other, reference is made to the metal
particles which must be present in the air from the wearing away by
friction o f the numerous teeth on the carding machines.
W ork in the preparing rooms is not considered to be comparable
as regards injury to health with those described, and it is pointed
out that the figures as to the amount o f dust and o f micro-organisms
present in the air are to some extent vitiated by the fact that carding
and preparing are sometimes carried on in the same room.
Reeling is not an injurious occupation; what injury to health there
is arises from the humidity o f the atmosphere. A s a subsidiary cause
o f ill health in these rooms, is the fact that some o f the machines are
only capable o f being kept in motion by the foot being pressed con­
tinually on a bar underneath the machine. This necessitates con­
tinuous strain on the muscular system. (a)
It is a matter o f regret that there should be no very conclusive
statistical data regarding the apparently very serious health-injurious
effects o f linen and thread manufacture, and in the absence o f such
data, especially fo r the United States, no definite and conclusive
opinion would be warranted, although the general observations sus­
tain the conclusion that the labor conditions in this industry are very
far from being what they should be to reduce the health-injurious
effects o f the various employments to a minimum.
HEMP AND CORDAGE MANUFACTURE.

The manufacture o f cordage ranks first in the group o f miscel­
laneous textile products, but the industry never has attained to as
large proportions in the United States as the home market alone
would seem to warrant. W ith the introduction o f machinery the
earlier ropewalks have nearly disappeared and conditions otherwise
a R eport upon the Conditions o f W ork in F lax and Linen Mills, by H am ilton
P. Smith, appendix 7, pp. 22, 23. London, 1904.




758

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

in this employment have undergone material changes. In the ropewalks very common to an earlier period it was the practice, according
to Clark, for a man to walk forward and backward, spinning from
the hemp around his waist, the twist being imparted from a wheel
turned by a boy. Occasionally this practice is still follow ed at the
present time. That the employment was more or less injurious to
health is pointed out by Thackrah, and commented upon in H all’s
Journal o f Health in 1832, where it is stated that “ ropewalkers
suffer inconvenience from their stooping position.” In the modern
rope factory the twist is imparted by rapidly rotating machinery sim­
ilar to that used in textile mills generally, making it possible, in the
words o f Clark, “ to spin a rope several thousand feet in length on an
upright apparatus occupying but a few square feet.”
The descriptive account o f the processes and circumstances under
which the work is carried on fu lly sustains the view that a not incon­
siderable amount o f dust is generated during practically every im­
portant process, and without question more or less to the injury o f
the health o f the employees. In discussing the hygiene o f this occu­
pation much emphasis is placed upon the specific processes necessary
for the successful preparation o f the hemp, flax, jute, and other fiber.
The subject is referred to in a special report o f the Massachusetts
state board o f health, which is in fact the only really trustworthy
account o f present-day conditions in this employment. Referring
to the manufacture o f cordage, twine, carpet yarn, and gunny bags
the report states that:
The raw material in various form s comes in bales, which are opened
and shaken apart, and the contents are then treated according to their
nature. Ordinary jute and hemp, after being shaken out, are run
through softening machines, in which they are moistened with an
emulsion o f oil and water, preparatory to carding. Old rope, gunny
bagging and twine are run through machines which pick the fibers
apart as a preliminary to other processes. Opening, picking, soften­
ing and carding are processes which are exceedingly dusty, and the
dust is very irritating to the air passages. The machines which
straighten and twist the fibers also give rise to much dust.
A rlidge reports upon the conditions in this employwment as fo l­
low s:
The manufacture o f rope and other cordage, form erly carried on
after a prim itive fashion in “ ropewalks,” to be found in every town,
has become greatly transformed by the introduction o f machinery.
The great rope-making establishment at Belfast has almost annihi­
lated every ropewalk m Ireland, and seems in a fair way o f doing
the same thing for England.
The hemp, Russian or Manila, is worked on the same general lines
as flax. It has first to be sorted and picked over by girls, handroughed and heckled, then carded and a sliver form ed, which, after
a certain degree o f twisting in the roving frames, is submitted to the
spinning machines. Both the wet and dry processes are used, the



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

759

form er principally for the fine yarn. The spun yarn is next taken
to large tanks o f boiling tar, through which it is slowly passed; this
done, the superfluous tar is pressed out between iron rollers, and the
yarn afterwards slowly dried. The next business is the twisting o f
the yarn into strands, on the old ropewalk principle, but by the aid
o f machines. Cord made from harsh fibers has to undergo a scouring
process, prior to sizing and polishing, to fit it for market.
This outline o f the processes conveys the general hygienic features
o f rope making, and at two points at least, viz, in the sorting and the
heckling and preparing rooms, the evil o f dust arises just as in work­
ing flax fo r linen, in no small degree, with its inevitable consequences
to the respiratory organs.
Parry also refers to this occupation, and with special reference to
health-injurious consequences incidental to the manufacture o f rope
or cordage. He points out that—
Hemp is used for ropes, cords, and carpets.. The manufacture is
much the same as jute. No heckling machines are used. In carpet
making the hemp is cut into 12-inch lengths, oiled, and then scutched,
carded, and arranged in slivers. The coarse fibers and woody matters
are removed, and the rest converted into tow. The slivers are made
into large bales, which are again passed through the finishing card,
by which fresh tow is separated. W ool is also an important ingredient
in this industry. A fter the hempen foundation is made, short-fibered
coarse w ool, wound on bobbins, is woven in. A ll these processes pro­
duce dust o f hemp and w ool; especially is this noticed during the
emptying o f the tow box, and also during the dressing process, partic­
ularly o f hemp imported into this country.
The hemp must be sorted and picked over, hand roughed and
heckled; then carded and a sliver formed, twisted and spun either
by the wet or dry process. In all the early stages, especially sorting
and heckling, dust is produced just as it is in linen making.
Contrasting present-day conditions in rope manufacture with the
earlier and very primitive processes common to all ropewalks, it is
somewhat doubtful whether the change to the almost universal use
o f machinery has been really a benefit to the occupation. The necessity-of walking forward and backward in the old-fashioned ropewalk
no doubt was o f great value as a matter o f mere physical exercise, but
no conclusive observations have been made a matter o f record which
would warrant a definite opinion as to whether conditions at the pres­
ent time in ropewalks are better or worse than those prevailing at
former periods.
The occupation m ortality statistics o f cordage workers are limited
to English sources since no data have been made public regarding the
mortality o f this occupation in the United States. The number o f
male wage-earners employed in this industry in the United States
in 1905 was 8,646, a sufficient basis for a safe generalization i f the
necessary m ortality data were available. The reference to the mor­
tality o f rope makers in the Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual




760

BULLETIN OE TH E BUREAU OE LABOR.

Report o f the Registrar-General for the three years ending with 1902
is in part as follow s:
The number enumerated in this occupation was only 6,255 at the
last census, the number being too small to warrant detailed examina­
tion. As compared with the standard for occupied and retired males
the death rates fluctuate widely. In the main working time o f life
the comparative m ortality figure is 910, or 9 per cent less than the
standard, and under each heading except phthisis they suffer less
than the average mortality. (a)
The recent English statistics for this occupation are quite conclusive
o f the unfavorable effects o f the employment on health at ages 20 to
34 and at 55 or over. In the table which follow s a comparison is
made o f the m ortality from all causes o f men in this group with occu­
pied males generally, and while the differences are not very pro­
nounced at the earlier ages, they indicate the facts at least with
approximate accuracy, and the comparison is, therefore, quite sug­
gestive.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG MALE CORDAGE M A K E R S, COMPARED
WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902,
BY AGE GROUPS.
[Prom Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate for male cordage makers.
Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+)
for all
or less (—) Ratio to
occupied Rate per than rate rate for all
for all occupied
males.
1,000.
occupied males.
males.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

2.20
5.75
6.47
7.45
13.03
32.49
105.86

- 0.24
+ 1.34
+ .46
— 2.77
- 4.70
+ 1.48
+17.47

90
130
108
73
73
105
120

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison, however, is made in the next
table, in which the m ortality o f cordage makers from consumption
is compared with the normal mortality o f occupied males, by divi­
sional periods o f life. The comparison shows that the m ortality from
consumption is excessive at ages 20 to 34 and 55 or over, or at the
same age period at which the general death rate o f cordage makers is
in excess o f the normal m ortality o f occupied males.
° P a r t II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual R eport o f the RegistrarGeneral o f Births, Deaths, and M arriages in England and W ales, p. lx xx ix .




761

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG MALE C O R D A G E M A K E R S ) COMPARED
WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO
1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Mortality from consumption.
Death rate for male cordage
makers.

Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+)
for all
less (—)
occupied Rate per orthan
rate
males.
for all
1,000.
occupied
males.

Age at death.

0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

0.24
2.09
2.59
2.48
1.18
3.77
1.50

-0.30
+ .54
+ .56
- .26
-1.86
+1.61
+ .39

Ratio to
rate for all
occupied
males.
44
135
128
91
39
175
135

The industrial insurance mortality experience o f rope makers is
limited to 109 deaths from all causes. O f this number, 28, or 25.7
per cent, were from consumption, and 9, or 8.3 per cent, were from
respiratory diseases other than consumption. O f the deaths from
other respiratory diseases, 6 were from pneumonia, 1 from asthma,
and 2 from bronchitis. The follow ing table gives an extended com­
parison o f the mortality o f rope makers from consumption with the
normal m ortality o f all males in the registration area o f the United
States fo r the seven-year period 1900 to 1906.

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG R O P E JXKAKEflS,
1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION
AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for rope makers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census.]
Deaths of rope makers, Per cent of deaths due to
1897 to 1906, due to— consumption among—
Age at death.

Males in
Rope registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
makers. area, 1900
to 1906.

15 to 24 years...................................................................... i
25 to 34 years...................................................................... 1
35 to 44 years...................................................................... i
45 to 54 years...................................................................... 1
55 to 64 years...................................................................... i
65 years or over..................................................................1
Total.........................................................................
i

12
18
17
18
24
20
109

6
9
7
6

50.0
50.0
41.2
33.3

28

25.7

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

These statistics show an excessive mortality from consumption
among rope makers, and this excess is specially high at the younger
ages. One-half o f the total mortality was due to consumption at
ages 15 to 24 and 25 to 34, against an expected proportion o f 27.8



762

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

and 31.3, respectively. W hile the statistics are limited to compara­
tively small numbers, the facts are decidedly suggestive o f healthinjurious conditions in the rope-making industry.
The observations and statistical data regarding the mortality o f
cordage makers, while not entirely conclusive, indicate with at least
approximate accuracy the high degree o f consumption frequency at
ages 20 to 34 and at 55 or over. It is quite probable that changes
in occupation affect the official vital statistics o f this trade to a suffi­
cient extent to understate the true effect o f the employment on
health. There would therefore appear to be unfavorable conditions
in this employment, doubtless largely due to the exposure to vegetable
fiber dust, resulting in a comparatively high degree o f consumption
frequency among the employees.
MANUFACTURE OF JUTE AND JUTE GOODS.

The manufacture o f jute and jute goods in 1905 gave employment
to 6,083 wage-earners, but o f this number only 2,437 were men, while
3,083 were women, and 563 were children under 16 years o f age.(a)
The industry is practically new in the United States, and as yet only
a beginning has been made in its development, but it is significant
that there has been an increase o f 50 per cent in the number o f wageearners employed in the manufacture o f jute and jute goods during
the five years ending with 1905. No vital statistics have been pub­
lished fo r this industry as it is carried on in the United States, but
some reference w ill subsequently be made to the official statistics o f
Scotland, where the industry has attained to very considerable pro­
portions.
A brief description o f jute manufacture was included in Bevan’s
account o f the manufacturing industries o f the United Kingdom ,
and while the description is o f somewhat early date it applies to
present-day conditions, which in the meantime have not undergone
a material change:
Form erly jute used to be spun as flax, which it resembles in fiber,
though much coarser. It was heckled, so as to get as much as possi­
ble o f the fine fiber, and separate it from the coarse. The latter, how­
ever, so greatly predominated that it was found to be a useless expense,
and it was, therefore^ treated like tow, and placed at once in the card­
ing engine. As it is even coarser than tow, one would naturally
think that more dust would arise, and that the trade would surpass
the flax trade in unhealthiness; but this is not so, owing to the neces­
sity for saturating the jute with oil, so as to make the coarse and
brittle fibers flexible. Its very roughness, therefore, has proved a
sanitary safeguard to the workers.
Bevan enumerates 20 subdivisions o f labor in jute manufacture,
but he does not enlarge upon the health-injurious conditions inci­
0 Census o f Manufactures, 1905, Part I I I , p. 190.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

763

dental to the different employments. On the whole, however, the
subdivisions o f labor in jute manufacture correspond to those in
textile manufacture generally The most serious factor injurious to
health in jute manufacture is the dust problem, which under most
favorable circumstances, however, is subject to material modifica­
tion. The dust o f jute under the microscope, according to Oliver,
shows “ vegetable fibers which are often torn and ragged and there­
fore with difficulty detached from the bronchial mucous membrane.”
The hygiene o f this employment has been discussed by various
authorities, and an excellent account o f the conditions affecting the
health o f persons employed in jute manufacture in Dundee, Scot­
land, was contributed to Oliver’s “ Dangerous Trades,” by Mr.
Harry J. W ilson, one o f His M ajesty’s inspectors o f factories, from
which in part the follow ing extracts are made, emphasizing the
more dusty processes o f this occupation:
The first operation in the process o f the manufacture o f jute con­
sists in cutting the binding ropes o f the bale and opening out the
hard, compressed material. This is invariably done by hand, and
immediately afterwards the fiber, still in a compressed state, is passed
through between four heavy deeply-fluted rollers intersecting each
other, which open the material somewhat and facilitate its disen­
tanglement, before it is placed on the feeding table o f the softener.
During these processes, while the fiber is in a dry condition, a con­
siderable quantity o f dust is shaken out, much o f it being o f a gritty
nature and consisting largely o f fine particles o f the sand or mud in
which the plant grows. The latter impurities adhere to the rooty
portion o f the plant, but becomes dispersed when the fiber is shaken
out and disturbed. It is in this dust that tetanus spores have been
found in very considerable quantities. * * * A s matters at pres­
ent stand, the preparing operations in jute factories are much more
dusty than subsequent processes, but the particles thrown off in card­
ing, drawing, and rove spinning are more o f a light, fluffy nature,
and prove less irritating to the respiratory organs than the gritty
dust evolved in handling the dry jute. A fter the material has been
effectively softened, and while in a slightly moist condition, it is fed
into the “ breaker ” card. Here, owing to the splitting and combing
action o f the rapidly-running card teeth, many rooty particles and
other impurities are removed, but the heavier matter falls below the
machines, from which it is taken away periodically, so that only the
lighter dust rises and is breathed by the operators.
The operations subsequent to carding evolve little dust relatively,
but owing to the excessive speed o f spinning-frame flyers and the fric­
tion on the yarn, very light, fluffy particles are continually rising in
spinning rooms, so that the atmosphere becomes charged with ex­
tremely fine portions o f fiber. A ll horizontal surfaces and the cloth­
ing and hair o f the workers in these departments soon become coated
with this dust.
The dirtiest and most objectionable processes in the manufacture
o f the material are undoubtedly those o f preparing and spinning.
The remuneration o f the operatives in these departments is consider


764

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

ably less than that earned by the weavers. Thus a distinctly lower
class o f employees engage in the form er processes, the more selfrespecting taking up weaving as a means o f livelihood.
Where the finer qualities o f fiber are treated, the amount o f dust
evolved is comparatively small, and the factories fairly clean; but in
the coarser varieties it becomes excessive and the whole premises
assume a dirty and objectionable aspect. It may be o f interest to
observe here that many women engaged in the preparing and spinning
operations o f jute manufacture habitually snuff, presumably to rid
the nostrils o f dust. The custom is rarely observed among women
outside Dundee.
The prevention o f the dispersal o f dust in carding and spinning is
extremely difficult, for it appears to rise, more or less, from the fiber,
wherever it is sufficiently disturbed, and from any number o f points,
even in one room. Exhaust fans, however, when placed immediately
above the softening machines and properly erected, undoubtedly
remove much o f the fine, gritty particles shaken out o f the raw ma­
terial, and where a hood is arranged above the exact seat o f dust pro­
duction and communicates with a fan, there is little to complain of.
This particular dust from the raw material is most irritating to
breathe, and is presumably injurious, but fortunately few persons
in any one m ill come in contact with it.
To quote further, the follow ing remarks refer to the high tempera­
ture and other conditions injurious to health in jute spinning room s:
Unquestionably the high temperatures o f spinning rooms are dis­
tinctly harmful, perhaps more so than is usually imagined. In fact,
the writer, from close observation o f operatives in various parts o f
the country and in dissimilar industries exposed persistently to warm
atmospheres, is o f opinion that a general lowering o f the health (in
certain instances marked) very frequently follow s such employment.
The effects o f constantly breathing warm air, quite apart from the
liability to chills which such atmospheres engender, are worthy o f
closer study and scientific investigation. Certainly exposure to great
radiated heat, if the air is not particularly warm, does not affect
workmen in a similar manner.
The opinion o f W ilson, based upon personal investigation, is to the
effect that the weaving o f jute is apparently a healthy occupation,
judging from the general appearance o f the operatives. Most o f these
operatives are women, including sack sewers, who as a rule present a
ruddy and robust appearance. The disease liability o f jute workers
employed in spinning and preparing rooms to pulmonary diseases is
also discussed by W ilson, who incidentally comments upon other fac­
tors injurious to health as follow s:
Investigations reveal a predisposition among factory workers, and
particularly those employed in spinning and preparing rooms, to
develop respiratory troubles, broncho-pneumonia, chronic bronchitis,
and pulmonary emphysema being the most prominent. There is also
a singularly large number o f patients admitted to the local infirmary
suffering from lobar pneumonia. Rheumatism is an extremely com­
mon ailment, and can be partially accounted for by the great varia­
tions o f temperature which operatives have frequently to withstand.



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

765

M ultiple tuberculous lesions are frequently observed in the children
o f the poorer operatives, and thus one finds from time to time young
persons at work with portions o f the hands amputated on account o f
scrofulous or tuberculous diseases o f the bones. Slight deafness is
widespread among jute operatives, but other textile workers may be
afflicted in a similar degree. The excessive noise o f jute-weaving
looms and the persistent loud hum o f spinning frames presumably
account fo r much o f this. The looms, owing to their large size and the
weight and high speed o f the shuttles, are particularly noisy. The
possibility o f the dust inducing the formation o f an obstruction with
the waxy secretion o f the ear is not excluded. Indeed, the fine light
particles o f fiber readily accumulate in the external auditory canal.
A hoarseness or huskiness o f voice is met with frequently, and is
especially marked in preparing and spinning operatives. Whether
this is due to overstraining o f the voice, shouting above the noise o f
the machinery, or to dust irritation o f the vocal chords has never
been clearly demonstrated. Anaemia in its commonest form s is a
frequent ailment among all the operatives, but doubtless careless and
injudicious feeding contributes to this condition o f health.
W ilson describes the occurrence o f “ m ill fever,” so called, which
no doubt contributes in a measure toward a predisposition to respira­
tory and tubercular diseases, as follow s:
An illness locally known as “ m ill fever ” attacks about one-fourth
o f the persons who commence labor in factories for the first time.
The symptoms make their appearance a few days after work is
started and take the form o f one or more o f the follow in g: Headache,
backache, lassitude, thirst, and slight fever. The attack lasts about
from three to four days and yields to antifebrile medicines, followed
by tonics. It has been observed that the patients are usually young
people and are frequently o f weak constitution or badly nourished.
In summing up his conclusions this authority calls attention to the
difficulty o f differentiating with accuracy between the health-injurious
effects properly to be charged to the industry and the effects o f poor
feeding and bad housing, which no doubt are o f considerable im por­
tance in Dundee, since the low physical and social condition o f the
operatives in jute factories is admitted to be a marked feature o f the
industry. In conclusion, W ilson refers to the health conditions in
jute manufacture in East India, where the industry has developed to
large proportions, stating th a t:(a)
The reports o f the inspectors o f jute mills in East India show that
the industry is considered there to have no particularly deleterious
effects on health. The mills, however, are built with very high roofs
and are largely open to the sky. The climate permits o f this, and
accordingly the ventilation gives no trouble. Another fact has to be
borne in mind in comparing Indian operatives with those employed
at home. The form er are migratory, only remaining a year or two at
the industry, and, presumably, insufficient time is given for any ina Mention m ay also be made here o f a recently published report o f the East
India F actory Labor Commission, Y ol. I, Parliam entary Paper CI>-4292. Lon­
don, 1908.




766

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

jurious effects to betray themselves; whereas in Scotland the bulk o f
a lifetim e is spent by a worker in a jute factory.
The conclusions o f W ilson are fully sustained by other qualified
observers, and an account by A rlidge o f this employment is included
in this review o f qualified medical opinions regarding the healthinjurious conditions in this industry:
In general principle the processes resemble those in use in making
linen, but as the fibers o f jute are coarser, longer, and more brittle
than those o f flax slight differences exist in the mechanical opera­
tions. H ackling is, o f recent years, not employed, but the jute is at
once sent to the carding machine. But what would be a most dusty
and injurious operation is rendered comparatively harmless by the
previous profuse sprinkling o f the jute with water and train oil, for
the purpose o f rendering the fibers more flexible. This preparatory
moistening and softening o f the material is an advantage in the sub­
sequent operations o f preparing and spinning, by reducing greatly
the amount o f dust that this harsh substance would otherwise give
off. Nevertheless, I have seen jute in the course o f spinning give off
much coarse dust, and should anticipate that could the statistics o f
the jute manufacture be got at they would, on the whole, exhibit
still more insanitary results than do those o f the linen trade.
It is only for Scotland that the vital statistics o f workers in jute
have been separately recorded, but it is somewhat doubtful whether
employment in the industry is sufficiently permanent to warrant final
conclusions. During the three years ending with 1892 there occurred
in Scotland 132 deaths o f jute workers ages 25 to 64, and o f this
number only 26, or 19.7 per cent, were from consumption. There also
occurred 20 deaths from bronchitis, 15 from pneumonia, and 4 from
other respiratory diseases, a total o f 65 deaths from diseases o f the
lungs and air passages, or 49.2 per cent o f the m ortality from all
causes. In commenting upon the mortality o f persons employed in
the manufacture o f jute, the Supplement to the Thirty-eighth An­
nual Report o f the Registrar-General o f Scotland states that diseases
o f the respiratory system and phthisis are especially prominent as
causes o f death, and that to these diseases may be added diseases o f
the nervous and circulatory systems. I f, however, the general
death rates o f jute workers are compared with the corresponding
mortality o f males generally, the rates are rather below than above
the average except at ages 15 to 19. This rather unexpected result
is no doubt due in part to occupation selection, but as has been pre­
viously pointed out, the class o f labor employed in jute manufacture
in Scotland is o f a decidedly low order. The details o f the mortality
for three years ending with 1892 are set forth in the follow ing table,
which has been abstracted from the report (p. lxxi) previously
referred to;




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

767

MORTALITY OF MALE EMPLOYEES IN JUTE MANUFACTURE IN SCOTLAND,
1890 TO 1892.
[From the Supplement to the Thirty-eighth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of
Births, Deaths, and Marriages of Scotland.]
Age.
15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years.....................................................................
25 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Years of
life, (o)
7,077
3,180
5,259
2,568
441

Deaths.
37
25
38
94
37

Rate per
Rate per 1,000 for aU,
1,000. employed
males.
5.23
7.86
7.23
36.60
83.90

5.72
7.53
9.98
24.34
99.58

«The years of life as used in this table means three times the number of employees
in jute manufacture enumerated at the census of 1891.
The Supplement to the Forty-eighth Annual Report o f the RegistrarGeneral o f Scotland, published in 1905, comments at greater length
upon this employment, and again the statistical data contradict some o f
the previously quoted medical conclusions unfavorable to the industry.
According to the report, males in jute manufacture experienced death
rates at ages 25 to 44 and 45 to 64 below the corresponding death rates
o f all males in Scotland. A t ages 25 to 64 there occurred 145 deaths
from all causes among jute workers, and o f this number 26, or 17.9 per
cent, were from consumption and other tubercular diseases, while 19
were from pneumonia, 12 from bronchitis, and 3 from other respira­
tory diseases, a total o f 60 deaths from diseases o f the lungs and air
passages, or 41.4 per cent o f the mortality from all causes. The facts
in detail regarding the general m ortality o f jute workers, by divi­
sional periods o f life, for the three years ending with 1902, are set
forth in the table below, which has also been abstracted from the re­
port (p. cxxvii) previously referred to :

MORTALITY OF MALE EMPLOYEES IN JUTE MANUFACTURE IN SCOTLAND,
1900 TO 1902.
[From the Supplement to the Forty-eighth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of
Births, Deaths, and Marriages of Scotland.]
Age.
15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over...............................................................

Years
of
life, (a)
12,213
9,294
4,740
888

Deaths.
57
59
86
61

Rate per
Rate per 1,000 for all
1,000. employed
males.
4.67
6.35
18.14
68.69

9.32
26.82

a The years of life as used in this table means three times the number of employees
in jute manufacture enumerated at the census of 1901.

The available statistical data do not warrant a definite conclusion
at the present time, but the observed conditions in the industry sug­
gest that the same may safely be classed among the dusty trades more
or less injurious to health and predisposing to consumption.



768

BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB.

PAPER AND PULP MANUFACTURE.

The manufacture o f paper and wood pulp, according to the census
o f 1905, gave employment to 65,964 wage-earners, the number o f
which had increased 33 per cent during the preceding five years. The
industry is concentrated in large plants, in which, broadly speaking,
the conditions o f work, with particular reference to disease and ex­
posure to other health-injurious circumstances, are more satisfactory
than in small establishments. The industry has undergone a marked
change within recent years, and the predominating material used in
manufacture now consists o f wood pulp, in place o f linen rags, which
in the past constituted the sole material from which paper was made.
Am ong other materials which are at the present time employed in
paper manufacture, aside from wood pulp, are chiefly rags, including
cotton and flax waste and sweepings, manila stock, including jute,
bagging, rope, waste, threads, and straw, which last is being employed
to an increasing extent, including the rice straw o f the Southern
States.
The most important dust-producing material is rags, which, as a
rule, however, are subjected to a preliminary sorting process outside
o f paper mills. A careful sorting process is necessary to eliminate
colored rags, which are not adapted fo r white paper making, all o f
which is carried on in the rag and sorting rooms, which form the
dustiest section .of a paper m ill. The sorting and the transfer o f the
rags to the cylinders in which they are boiled under high pressure
with caustic soda are, according to Arlidge, the only important proc­
esses in which dust is set free except at the tear-up machines and to a
lim ited extent in the bleaching department, where there is often a
diffusion o f the dust o f bleaching powder, which, however, can be pre­
vented by previously moistening it, which is often the case.
The health-injurious aspects o f the industry are referred to in a re­
port o f the Massachusetts state board o f health to the effect that—
The operatives engaged in certain o f the processes o f paper making
are exposed to considerable dust from rags used in the m anufacture;
those engaged in other departments are exposed more or less to w et;
and those in still others are exposed to no industrial dangers whatever.
The most important department o f such a m ill, from a sanitary stand­
point, is the rag-sorting room. In most o f the m ills visited provision
exists for carrying away, by mechanical ventilation, the dust arising
from the handling o f the rags; in some, no provision whatever is
made. On account o f the nature o f the raw material, it is generally
thought that there is some risk o f infection o f those who handle the
rags, and smallpox is everywhere looked upon as one o f the most im­
portant possible dangers o f the paper industry. It would appear,
however, from facts obtainable, that cases o f infection traceable to the
handling o f rags are not common. In some o f the establishments, it is
said, the rag sorters are seldom sick. In the establishments visited
the operatives had generally the appearance o f health and strength.



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

769

In a subsequent report by the same authority the dust problem in
paper manufacture is discussed at greater length, in part as follow s:
The materials from which paper is made include rags, burlap, old
paper and wood pulp. Eags are derived chiefly from foreign coun­
tries, from which they are imported in bales compressed by hydraulic
power. These are opened at the m ill, and the contents are put into
a closed, box-like structure, known as a “ beater ” or “ thresher,” con­
taining a large wooden roller with iron “ fingers,” which revolve several
hundred times per minute. This separates the rags and shakes them
thoroughly, giving rise to much dust, which falls between the long
strips o f iron grating beneath the roller into a specially constructed
receptacle, which may be cleaned out by hand or by means o f an ex­
haust fan and dust pipe. During this process more or less dust com­
monly escapes into the room, and m some instances the amount is very
great, partly because o f the very dirty character o f the rags handled.
From facts gathered with reference to this process in 80 establishments
it appears that, with the usual grade o f stock, no matter what kind o f
“ duster ” or “ thresher ” is used, and in spite o f exhaust fans and dust
pipes, some dust w ill escape. W ith high-grade stock certain dusters
work very well, while with low-grade stock the results are far from
satisfactory. Some very high-grade clean stock gives off little i f any
dust.
In some mills the dust from the threshers is collected and baled.
This work is exceedingly dusty, and the men who perform it are pro­
vided with respirators, which they appear to use with far less re­
luctance than is shown by those to whom they are supplied in other
dusty trades.
From the duster or thresher the rags are conveyed by hand or
through a chute to the sorting room, where they are sorted on tables
with box-like tops provided with bottoms o f wire netting, through
which dust and fine particles escape to receptacles below.
The most recent English m ortality statistics o f paper manufacture
are for the three years ending with 1902, referred to in the Supple­
ment to the Sixty-fifth Annual Keport o f the Kegistrar-General in
part as follow s:
A t ages under 20 years paper makers experience a m ortality con­
siderably above, and at ages over 65 years slightly above, the standard
for occupied and retired males; at all other ages it is below the stand­
ard, the difference being most marked at ages 35 to 55 years. In
the main working period o f life the comparative m ortalitv figure is
730, or 27 per cent below the standard. The mortality from influ­
enza, alcoholism, and liver disease, and accident is in each case less
than h alf the standard, and under every other heading except suicide
there is also an advantage. (°)
The recent English mortality statistics for persons employed in
the paper industry do not indicate a very marked effect o f this em­
ployment on health, but rather to the contrary the general death rate
was below the average at ages 20 to 64. In the table which follow s
° P a r t II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual R eport o f the RegistrarGeneral o f Births, Deaths, and M arriages in England and W ales, p. xci.




770

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

a comparison is made o f the m ortality from all causes among men in
this group with that o f occupied males generally, and the comparison
shows that it is only at ages 15 to 19, and 65 or over, that the general
death rate o f persons employed in paper manufacture exceeds the
general average.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG PAPER MAKERS, COMPARED WITH
THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY
AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths
and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over.............................................. ....................

Death rate for paper makers.
Death rate
per 1,000
Greater
for all
(+) or less Ratio to
occupied Rate per (—) than rate for all
mates.
1,000. rate for all occupied
occupied mates.
mates.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

3.46
4.01
5.02
6.66
11.05
26.38
94.80

+1.02
- .40
- .99
-3.56
-6.68
-4.63
+6.41

142
91
84
65
62
85
107

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison, however, is made in the
next table, in which the m ortality o f paper makers from consumption
is compared with the normal m ortality o f occupied males from this
disease, by divisional periods o f life. The comparison shows that the
mortality from consumption was below the average at all ages.

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG PAPER MAKERS, COMPARED WITH
THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY
AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Mortality from consumption.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over...................................................................




Death rate for paper makers.
Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+)
for all
or less (—) Ratio to
occupied Rate per than rate rate for
males.
1,000.
for aU all occu­
occupied pied males.
mates.
0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.54
1.29
1.95
2.13
1.78
1.86
1.02

— .26
— .08
— .61
—1.26
— .30
— .09

100
83
96
78
59
86
92

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

771

The foregoing comparison indicates a degree o f consumption fre­
quency below the average for paper makers, but the differences are
not very pronounced and at certain periods o f life are very slight.
It is quite probable that occupation changes affect the accuracy o f the
official vital statistics and that the health-injurious effects o f the in­
dustry are more serious than is disclosed by an analysis o f the
available statistical information regarding this employment.
The recorded industrial insurance m ortality statistics o f paper
makers are limited to 115 deaths from all causes, o f which 34, or 29.6
per cent, were from consumption. O f the m ortality o f paper makers
from respiratory diseases other than consumption, 9 were from pneu­
monia and 1 was from bronchitis. There were 44 deaths o f paper
makers from consumption and from other respiratory diseases com­
bined, or 38.3 per cent o f the total m ortality was due to diseases o f
the lungs and air passages. The excess in the mortality o f paper
makers from consumption is clearly brought out in the tabular pre­
sentation o f the proportionate m ortality from this disease, by divi­
sional periods o f life.

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG P A P E R M A K E R S ,
1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION
AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for paper makers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United
States census.]
Deaths of pi
Per cent of deaths due
1897 to 19016, due to— to consumption among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years.....................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.............................................................................

All causes.

C on su m p­

13
28
18
15
23
18
115

6
15
7
2
3
1
34

tion.

Males in
Paper registration
makers. area, 1900 to
1906.
46.2
53.6
38.9
13.3
13.0
5.6
29.6

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

W hile according to this table the consumption mortality o f paper
makers was excessive at all ages except 45 to 54, the excess was most
pronounced at ages 15 to 44. A t ages 15 to 24, out o f every 100 deaths
from all causes, 46.2 were from consumption, against 27.8 expected;
at ages 25 to 34 the proportion was 53.6, against 31.3 expected; and at
ages 35 to 44 the proportion was 38.9, against 23.6 expected.
CABINETMAKERS.

The occupation o f the cabinetmaker is a well-defined and separate
branch o f carpentry practically limited to the manufacture o f furni­
ture, and men in this employment are often separately classified as
furniture makers and repairers. Occasionally the classification in63675— No. 79—09------ 10




772

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

eludes upholsterers, but since the exposure to health-injurious condi­
tions is essentially different in the two occupations, such a grouping
is not in conform ity to the conditions under which the two employ­
ments are carried on. The census o f 1900 returns the number o f
cabinetmakers at *35,641, but in addition the number o f persons em­
ployed in furniture manufacture was 23,078. In the vital statistics
o f the census o f 1900, however, cabinetmakers and upholsterers are
combined into one group, but the mortality returns were limited to
the registration States, giving the combined number o f the two em­
ployments for known ages 15 years or over as 24,695. Am ong this
number there occurred during the census year 446 deaths from all
causes, or at the rate o f 18.06 per 1,000 per annum, against a general
average for all occupations o f only 15.16. The mortality from con­
sumption among cabinetmakers and upholsterers, according to the
census, was excessively high, or 3.59 per 1,000, against 2.37 for all
occupations, and 2.62 for the manufacturing and mechanical indus­
tries class. The consumption m ortality o f cabinetmakers and uphol­
sterers was also decidedly in excess o f the corresponding mortality o f
carpenters and joiners. W hile the consumption m ortality rate for
cabinetmakers and upholsterers was 3.59 per 1,000, as previously
stated, the corresponding rate for carpenters and joiners was 2.31.
It is also o f interest to note that while among cabinetmakers and
upholsterers the proportion o f persons o f ages 65 or over was 6 per
cent, the corresponding proportion for carpenters and joiners was 7.9
per cent. I f the two employments had been separately returned the
value o f the data would have been very materially increased. It is
quite safe to assume, however, that o f the two occupations, that o f the
upholsterer is more injurious to health than the employment o f the
cabinetmaker.
Qualified medical opinion is divided as to the health-injurious
effects o f the continuous inhalation o f wood dust, but it is generally
agreed that the dust o f hard wood is more injurious than the dust o f
soft wood, and that the most injurious o f all is the dust o f so-called
satinwood, or A frican boxwood, which, however, is used in only very
limited quantities for special purposes, which w ill be referred to
again under wood turners and other woodworkers subsequently to be
mentioned.
Ramazzini held the opinion that workers in wood do not suffer
any serious inconvenience on account o f their employment, except
those working in cypress, which produces headache, an opinion which
does not seem to be confirmed by extensive experience in our numer­
ous cypress shingle mills. A t least no qualified medical opinion has
been made a matter o f record, to the effect that employees in cypress
mills are subject to particularly injurious conditions. Thackrah,
writing in 1832, refers to health-injurious consequences among men



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

773

working in particular kinds o f hard wood, and his opinion is here
quoted, since it was fully confirmed by subsequent experience.
“ Cabinetmakers suffer from the dust when they saw A frican, cam,
rosewood, and Spanish mahogany. The first o f these is most inju­
rious. Its dust produces sneezing, headache, sickness, and sometimes
vomiting. This wood, however, is rarely used.”
B. W . Richardson, M. D., also commented upon wood dust as more
or less injurious to health and as a substance injurious to the lungs,
stating that—
The dusts o f some kinds o f wood, to which turners o f wood and
fine cutters o f wood are exposed, are causes o f much irritation o f the
lungs and o f bronchial cough. The dust is fine and penetrating,
and when it is from colored wood it imparts its own peculiar color
to the bronchial secretion. I have seen these phenomena, markedly
in the case o f mahogany carvers, in those who carve ornaments for
couches and other articles o f furniture. The work gives rise to a
great quantity o f wood dust, which is constantly inhaled. In carv­
ing, the artisan has to keep up a blowing process with the lips in
order to blow away the small portions o f wood which he removes
with the chisel. This process is very wearying, but the chief com­
plaint made by the worker is o f the dust he draws back in inhalation.
The m ischief is greatly increased in the rooms where the ventilation
is imperfect. The cough is usually attended with copious secretion
from the bronchial tubes, and I have more than once known the loss
from this cause so copious as to cause other symptoms o f wasting
and exhaustion allied to phthisis pulmonalis and constituting what
has been called bronchial phthisis. As a rule, however, those who
suffer from this form o f disease recover when they are removed
from their occupation and are placed in favorable circumstances for
recovery.
More recent observations are by Parry, who refers to the employ­
ment o f cabinetmakers, but who, in particular, considers the process
o f sandpapering and the resulting mixture o f mineral with organic
dust. In his opinion, “ carpenters, joiners, turners, and cabinet­
makers are exposed to the risks o f breathing in wood dust; but the
lung-disease death rate—337 compared with 402 for all males— does
not seem to prove that much harm is caused by its inhalation.”
Tracy refers very briefly to the occupation, and after stating that
dust o f vegetable origin is on the whole quite harmless, holds, regard­
ing the effect o f wood dust in particular, as follow s: “ The workmen
who inhale vegetable dust do not as a rule suffer in consequence.
The dust o f wood, in particular, is so harmless that it seems more
appropriate to speak o f cabinetmakers and carpenters under another
heading, as their attitude while at work has more to do in bringing
on disease than the atmosphere they breathe. The dust o f the hard
woods, as mahogany, rosewood, etc., may cause slight irritation o f
the larynx and trachea and a tendency to bronchial catarrh.”




774

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU . OF LABOR.

The annual reports o f English factory inspectors contain frequent
references to the health-injurious effects o f A frican boxwood, or
so-called satinwood, rosewood, etc., but since the manufacture o f
small articles in which this ‘w ood is used brings the employment
more properly within the group o f wood turners and carvers, the
peculiar effects o f the dust o f this wood on health w ill there be con­
sidered in more detail.
As previously stated, the United States census returns combine the
m ortality o f cabinetmakers with that o f upholsterers; and the only
official vital statistics are for the State o f Rhode Island for the
decade ending with 1906. The number o f deaths o f cabinetmakers
recorded was only 50 from all causes, and o f this number 12, or 24 per
cent, were from consumption. The number o f deaths from respira­
tory diseases other than consumption among men in this occupation
was 9, which, combined with the m ortality from consumption, re­
turned 21 deaths from diseases o f the lungs and air passages, or 42
per cent o f the mortality from all causes. The corresponding per­
centage o f deaths from consumption and from other respiratory dis­
eases for all males in Rhode Island was 30.3 per cent.
The most recent English mortality statistics o f cabinetmakers
are for the three years ending with 1902, referred to in the Supple­
ment to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the Registrar-General, in
part as follow s:
Cabinetmakers suffer more severely than all occupied and retired
males at ages under 20 and above 65, but at all intermediate ages
the death rates are below the standard, while at every stage o f
life they exceed those o f carpenters. In the main working period
the comparative mortality figure o f cabinetmakers is 956, or 5 per
cent, below the standard. They suffer less than the average from in­
fluenza, alcoholism, and liver disease, as well as from diseases o f the
nervous, circulatory, and respiratory systems; the m ortality from
accident is also low. On the other hand, among these workers both
cancer and phthisis are more fatal than the average, and suicide is
more common. (a)
The recent English m ortality statistics for cabinetmakers are not
quite conclusive as to the generally unfavorable effects o f this industry
on health. In the table which follow s a comparison is made o f the
m ortality from all causes among men in this group with that o f occu­
pied males generally, and while the returns are not entirely conclusive
they are suggestive o f more or less unfavorable circumstances con­
nected with the employment, since at ages 35 to 64 the departure from
the normal is very slight and probably to a not inconsiderable extent
the result o f occupation changes more or less likely to impair the
value o f the available statistical data.
a Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual R eport o f the RegistrarGeneral o f Births, Deaths, and M arriages in England and W ales, p. lxxx.




775

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG CABINETMAKERS, COMPARED WITH
THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY
AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-Genera!
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate for cabinetmakers.
Death rate
Greater
per 1,000
for all oc­
(+) or less Ratio to
cupied Rate per (—) than rate for all
males.
1,000. rate for all occupied
occupied males.
males.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

2.61
3.73
5.20
9.84
17.34
30.65
82.99

+0.17
— .68
—
.81
— .38
— .39
— .36
—5.41

107
85
87
96
98
99
94

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison is made in the next table, in
which the mortality o f cabinetmakers from consumption is compared
with the normal mortality o f occupied males from this disease, by
divisional periods o f life. The comparison shows that the mortality
from consumption was excessive at all ages, but in marked contrast
to a low general death rate at ages 20 to 64. The corresponding death
rates from consumption were excessive for cabinetmakers at all ages
15 or over. W hile the excess was not very marked, the departure
from the normal is quite significant at ages 35 to 44.

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG CABINETMAKERS, COMPARED WITH
THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902,
BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Mortality from consumption.
Death rate for cabinetmakers.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................




Death rate
per 1,000 for
all occupied Rate per
males.
1,000.
0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.69
1.65
2.18
3.79
3.83
2.71
1.86

Greater (+)
or less (—)
than rate
for all oc­
cupied
males.
+0.15
+ .10
+ .15
+1.05
+ .79
+ .55
+ .75

Ratio to
rate for all
occupied
males.
128
106
107
138
126
125
168

776

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

The recorded industrial insurance m ortality statistics o f cabinet­
makers include 817 deaths from all causes. O f this number 162, or
19.8 per cent, were from consumption. In the mortality from respira­
tory diseases other than consumption there were 75 deaths from pneu­
monia, 14 from asthma, 14 from bronchitis, and 17 from other less
frequent respiratory diseases. O f the total m ortality 84.5 per cent
was from diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The mortality from
consumption was excessive at all ages, but most so at 25 to 34, when
out o f every 100 deaths from all causes 55.7 were from consumption
against a normal expected proportion o f 31.3. The analysis o f the
mortality from consumption in detail is presented in the follow ing
table:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG C A B IN E T M A K E R S,
1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA
OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for cabinetmakers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United
States census.]
Deaths of cabinetmakers Per cent of deaths due to
1897 to 1906, due to— consumption among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Males in
Cabinet­ registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
makers. area, 1900
to 1906.
39
61
82
136
197
302
817

14
34
40
31
29
14
162

35.9
55.7
48.8
22.8
14.7
4.6
19.8

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.0

The observations and statistical data regarding the mortality o f
cabinetmakers confirm the conclusion that the degree o f consumption
frequency in this employment is decidedly excessive, and without
question directly connected with the health-injurious circumstances
o f the trade. The excess in the degree o f consumption frequency is
most marked at ages 35 or over, which would make it probable that
the type o f the disease as met with in this employment assumes, in
many cases, the fibroid form , or that o f a distinct occupation disease.
WOOD TURNERS AND CARVERS.

W ood turning and carving are industries in which the conditions
affecting health and life are much the same as in cabinetmaking
and other woodworking industries. The amount o f wood dust in­
haled is probably larger, but no very conclusive inform ation is availa­
ble, with the exception o f the health-injurious effects o f working
on so-called A frican boxwood, or satinwood, much o f which is used
for shuttle making. The effects o f the dust, however, are probably not
as serious to the lungs as to the system generally, and the most im­



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN .DUSTY TRADES.

777

portant effect o f the dust o f A frican boxwood is paralysis o f the
nerves. The whole subject was carefully considered before the com­
mission on industrial diseases, and rules have been issued prohibiting
the use o f this wood, except under certain specified restrictions.
The symptoms, as defined by Oliver, are similar to those occurring
among cabinetmakers and joiners, who saw, chip, and otherwise
manipulate the sequoia wood o f our Pacific coast. It is stated that
they resemble those exhibited by persons who are suffering from a
bad cold in the head and chest, including irritation in the throat
and bronchial tubes, accompanied by cough, labored breathing, and
quickened pulse. The symptoms usually last only for a day or two
and are usually seen only among men who are working with the wood
for the first time. A tolerance seems to be established in regard
to it, except in the case o f men who are liable otherwise to bronchi­
tis and asthma.
Oliver enlarges upon the subject and, after pointing out that certain
kinds o f wood have a bad reputation among joiners and that some
sawdusts are more irritating than others, probably from the large
amount o f inorganic matter which they contain, he refers to condi­
tions in Lancashire, where “ the dust given off during the manufac­
ture o f shuttles for weaving purposes is a cause o f malaise to the
workmen employed. Many o f them suffer from headache, coryza,
excessive secretion o f tears, and attacks o f asthma.” “ The men
who suffered presented a pale and jaundiced appearance; their breath
had a peculiar camphor-like odor. Several o f them had attacks o f
difficulty o f breathing and o f precordial pain accompanied by cold
sweating. There was also marked slowing o f the heart’s action.”
The health-injurious effects o f wood working in hard woods, such
as ebony and rosewood, have been recognized by different authorities
on occupation diseases, and according to Arlidge o f all woods rose­
wood produces the most obnoxious dust, emphasizing the fact that
physical conform ation and density o f dust particles are not the sole
factors governing the health-injurious effects on the human system.
The most recent English m ortality statistics o f wood turners and
coopers are for the three years ending with 1902, referred to in the
Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the Registrar-Gen­
eral in part as follow s:
A t every group o f ages except 15 to 20 years, the death rate exceeds
the standard fo r all occupied and retired males, the excess being
greatest in middle life. In the main working period the comparative
m ortality figure is 1,181, or 18 per cent above the standard. From
all the principal causes, except accident, the mortality exceeds the
average. W ood turners and coopers are specially liable to phthisis,
as well as to diseases o f the respiratory system and to Bright’s disease.
The recent English statistics o f wood turners are quite conclusive
o f the unfavorable effects o f this industry on health. In the table



778

BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OP LABOR.

which follow s a comparison is mad© o f the m ortality from all causes
among men in this group with that o f occupied males generally, and
the result is decidedly suggestive o f conditions in the trade more or
less unfavorable to life and health. The excess in the general death
rate o f wood turners is met with at all ages, but is most pronounced
at ages 45 or over.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG WOO® TURNERS, COMPARED WITH THAT
OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE
GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Death rate of wood turners.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate
per 1,000
for all occu­ Rate per
pied males. 1,000.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

1.94
4.46
6.23
11.69
24.98
34.70
92.82

Greater (+)
or less (—)
than rate
for all occu­
pied males.

Ratio to
rate for all
occupied
males.

-0.50
+ .05
+ .22
+1.47
+7.25
+3.69
+4.43

80
101
104
114
141
112
105

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison, however, is m ade. in the
next table, in which the mortality o f wood turners from consumption
is compared with the normal m ortality o f occupied males from this
disease, by divisional periods o f life. The comparison shows that
the m ortality from consumption was excessive at all ages, but decid­
edly so at ages 35 to 54, when the excess was 1.05 per 1,000 at ages
35 to 44 and 2.48 per 1,000 at 45 to 54.

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG WOO® TURNERS, COMPARED WITH
THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY
AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Me•rtality from consumption.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................



Death rate for wood turners.
Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+) Ratio to
for all occu­ Rate per or less (—) rate
for all
pied males. 1,000. than rate occupied
for all occu­ males.
pied males.
0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.63
1.54
2.89
3.79
5.52
2.96
1.36

+0.09
- .01
+ .86
+1.05
+2.48
+ .80
+ .25

117
99
142
138
182
137
123

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

779

The recorded industrial insurance mortality experience o f wood
turners includes 127 deaths from all causes, o f which 25, or 19.7 per
cent, were from consumption. O f the m ortality o f wood turners
from other respiratory diseases, 3 were from asthma, 2 from bron­
chitis, 11 from pneumonia, and 5 from less frequent diseases o f this
class. I f the deaths from consumption and from other respiratory
diseases are combined, 36.2 per cent o f the mortality o f wood turners
was from diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The number o f
deaths o f wood turners included in this analysis is not quite suffi­
cient for a final conclusion, but is decidedly suggestive o f healthinjurious circumstances destructive o f life and health at an early
period o f life. The excess in the consumption m ortality is more
clearly brought out in the tabular presentation o f the proportionate
mortality from this disease by divisional periods o f life. The com­
parison shows that the consumption mortality was decidedly excessive
at all ages under 65, but most so at 15 to 34, when the proportionate
mortality was 70 per cent at ages 15 to 24, and 62.5 per cent at 25
to 34.

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY PROM CONSUMPTION AMONG WOOD TURNERS,
1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OP ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION
AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for cabinetmakers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United
States census.]
Deaths of wood turn­ Per cent of deaths due
ers, 1897 to 1906, due to c o n s u m p t i o n
to—
among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Males in
Wood registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
turners. area, 1900
to 1906.
10
8
17
24
33
35
127

7
5
3
4
5
1
25

70.0
62.5
17.6
16.7
15.2
2.9
19.7

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The recorded industrial insurance mortality experience o f wood
carvers may be separately considered, and the statistics available
include 123 deaths from all causes. O f this number, 27, or 22.0 per
cent, were from consumption, and 16, or 13.0 per cent, from respira­
tory diseases other than consumption. O f the mortality from other
respiratory diseases, 9 deaths were from pneumonia, 2 from asthma,
2 from bronchitis, and 3 from less frequent respiratory diseases.
I f the deaths from consumption and from other respiratory diseases
are combined, 35 per cent o f the total mortality o f wood carvers
is shown to have been from diseases o f the lungs and air passages.



780

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

The follow ing table gives the details o f the comparative mortality o f
wood carvers from consumption in the recorded industrial mortality
experience:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG WOOD C A R V E R S,
1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION
AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for wood carvers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United
States census.]
of deaths due
Deaths of wood carvers, Perto cent
consumption
1897 to 1906, due to— among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Males in
Wood registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
carvers. area, 1900
to 1906.
11
20
23
31
21
17
123

3
9
9
5
1

27.3
45.0
39.1
16.1
4.8

27

22.0

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The statistics for wood carvers do not show as great an excess in
the m ortality from consumption over the normal expected as was true
o f wood turners, but the excess is considerable, especially at ages 25
to 34 and 35 to 44. A t ages 25 to 34, out o f every 100 deaths from all
causes 45 were from consumption, against 31.3 expected; at ages 35
to 44 the proportion was 39.1 for wood carvers, against 23.6 expected.
The observations and statistical data regarding the m ortality o f
wood turners and wood carvers confirm the conclusions that the
degree o f consumption frequency in this employment is decidedly ex­
cessive and without question directly connected with the health-in­
jurious circumstances o f the trade. The excess in the degree o f con­
sumption frequency is most marked at advanced ages, which would
make it probable that the type o f the disease assumes in many cases
the fibroid form or that o f a distinct occupation disease.
SUM M ARY OE CONCLUSIONS REGARDING OCCUPATIONS W ITH
EXPOSURE TO VEGETABLE FIBER DUST.

The occupations involving exposure to vegetable fiber dust have been
considered in more or less detail. In this group, as in those exposing
to metallic and mineral dusts, it has not been possible in all cases to
base conclusions upon identical data, but the returns from the various
available sources are sufliciently complete to be o f considerable value.
The census returns o f 1900 give the age distribution o f cotton-mill
operatives, hosiery and knitting-m ill operatives, paper and pulp m ill




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

781

workers, and cabinetmakers, the aggregate number o f such persons
being 184,245. This number is exclusive o f males under 15 and o f
males o f unknown ages. The statistics show that only 4,342, or
2.4 per cent, had attained to an age o f 65 or over, against a normal
expected proportion o f 4.7. This fact is quite suggestive o f conditions
unfavorable to health and life in occupations exposing to vegetable
fiber dust. The details o f the age distribution are given in the fo l­
lowing table, by divisional periods o f life, together with the corre­
sponding percentage distribution o f all occupied males, the data for
both groups being derived from the census o f 1900.

NUMBER AND PER CENT OF MALES IN EACH AGE GROUP IN OCCUPATIONS EX­
POSED TO VEGETABLE FIBER OUST, COMPARED WITH NUMBER AND PER
CENT IN ALL OCCUPATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 1900.
[From report of the Bureau of the Census on Occupations, 1900.]
Age.

Males in occupations
exposed to vegetable
fiber dust.

All occupied males.

Number. Percent. Number. Per cent.
15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over...................................................................
Total.........................................................................

73,209
47,213
31,584
19,115
8,782
4,342
184,245

39.7
25.6
17.1
10.4
4.8
2.4
100.0

5,933,720
5,993,847
4,704,682
3,250,259
1,856,181
1,063,856
22,802,545

26.0
26.3
20.6
14.3
8.1
4.7
100.0

According to this analysis, the proportion o f persons aged 15 to
34 was 65.3, or nearly two-thirds o f the total, against 52.3 expected.
A t ages 45 or over, the proportion was 17.6 for the group under con­
sideration, against 27.1 for occupied males generally. This favor­
able age distribution is due to the fact that in the textile industries
a considerable proportion o f the employees are comparatively young
persons, the work being such that no great amount o f muscular effort
is required.
It is, unfortunately, not possible to present a combined summary o f
the United States census vital statistics o f persons employed in
occupations included in this group, since the vital statistics o f the
census deal only with cabinetmakers and upholsterers. A comparison
o f the rates for cabinetmakers and upholsterers with the m ortality
rates o f occupied males generally indicates an excessive m ortality
among cabinetmakers at ages 25 to 44 and at ages 65 or over. The
death rate from consumption for cabinetmakers and upholsterers
was 3.59, against 2.37 expected, and the death rate from other respira­
tory diseases was 2.54, against 1.97 expected. The details o f the
m ortality by ages are given in the follow ing table, together with the
corresponding death rates for all occupied males, the data fo r both
groups being derived from the census o f 1900:



782

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG CABINETMAKERS AND UPHOL­
STERERS IN THE REGISTRATION STATES, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL
OCCUPIED MALES IN THOSE STATES, 1900, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From report of the Bureau of the Census on Vital Statistics, 1900.]
Cabinetmakers and
upholsterers.

All occupied males.

Age.

Number Rate per
Number Rate per
Number of deaths 1,000 Number of deaths 1,000
employed. from all from all employed. from all from all
causes. causes.
causes. causes.
6,486
5.15
4.59 1,259,471
19
15 to 24 years..........................................
4,135
8.78
128 10.46 2,680,241 23,541
12,239
25 to 44 years..........................................
19.91
45 to 64 years..........................................
135 19.78 1,282,259 25,532
6,825
98.44
65 years or over......................................
164 109.63 283,310 27,888
1,496
446
018.06
615.16
Total.............................................
5,505,281
83,447
24,695
° From consumption there were 89 deaths, or a rate of 3.59. From other diseases
of the respiratory system there were 63 deaths, or a rate of 2.54.
6 The rate of mortality from consumption was 2.37; from other diseases of the respir­
atory system, 1.97.
The occupation m ortality statistics o f Ehode Island are available
for five specific occupations included in this group, and when com­
bined returned 927 deaths from all causes, o f which 253 were from
consumption and 87 from respiratory diseases other than consump­
tion. The corresponding percentages were 27.3 o f deaths from con­
sumption for persons employed in groups with exposure to vegetable
fiber dust, against 17.8 for occupied males generally in the State o f
Ehode Island. The percentage o f deaths from other respiratory
diseases was 9.4 fo r the occupations in this group, against 12.5
expected.
The English vital statistics for this group o f occupations include
textile operatives generally—hosiery workers, lace workers, cordage
workers, paper-m ill employees, cabinetmakers, and wood turners.
W hen the statistics for these occupations are combined, they exhibit
rather high death rates at all ages over 45. The details in tabular
form are set forth in the follow ing table:

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES, FROM CONSUMPTION AND FROM OTHER RE­
SPIRATORY DISEASES IN OCCUPATIONS EXPOSED TO VEGETABLE FIBER
DUST, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND
WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales. ]
rate per 1,000 due to
Death rate per 1,000 due to Death rate per 1,000 due to Death
other diseases of the res­
all causes among—
consumption among—
piratory system.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years........
20 to 24 years........
25 to 34 years........
35 to 44 years........
45 to 54 years........
55 to 64 years........
65 years or over...

Occupations
All occupied exposed to All occupied
vegetable
males.
males.
fiber dust.
0.54
2.44
2.59
1.55
4.41
415
2.03
6.01
5.49
2.74
10.22
9.57
304
19.08
17.73
2.16
35.47
31.01
1.11
104 00
8&39




Occupations
Occupations
exposed to All occupied exposed to
vegetable
vegetable
males.
fiber dust.
fiber dust.
0.24
0.26
0.75
.54
.48
1.63
.77
.73
2.18
1.46
1.66
3.16
361
3.32
3.80
8.33
6.54
2.79
23.35
17.77
1.63

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

783

The table shows that the mortality from consumption among males
with exposure to vegetable fiber dust was excessive at all ages, but
particularly so at ages 25 or over. The m ortality from respiratory
diseases, other than consumption, was about normal at ages 15 to 44,
somewhat excessive at ages 45 to 54, and considerably above the nor­
mal expected at ages 55 or over.
The industrial insurance mortality statistics are available for eight
occupations included in this group, returning in the aggregate 2,460
deaths o f males from all causes at ages 15 years or over. O f this
number 610, or 24.8 per cent, were from consumption. The deaths
from respiratory diseases other than consumption numbered 326, or
13.3 per cent. The expected consumption m ortality, on the basis o f
the m ortality o f males in the registration area o f the United States
for the seven-year period 1900 to 1906, was 14.8 per cent, and from
other respiratory diseases 11.7 per cent. When the m ortality from
consumption and from other respiratory diseases is combined, the
proportionate percentage o f deaths o f males in occupations with ex­
posure to vegetable fiber dust was 38.0, against 26.5 per cent expected.
The follow ing table gives the summary statistics in detail for the
eight occupations in this group for which the industrial insurance
mortality experience has been sufficiently large to warrant their
inclusion:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN OCCUPATIONS EXPOSED
TO TEOETABLE FIBER OUST, 1897 to 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF. ALL
MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 to 1906, BY
AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for occupations exposed to vegetable fiber dust from experience of an Industrial
insurance company; figures for males in registration area computed from mortality
statistics of the United States census.]
Deaths in occupations
exposed to vegetable Per cent of deaths due
fiber dust, 1897 to to consumption in—
1906, due to—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Occupa­
tions ex­
All causes. Consump­
posed
to
tion. vegetable
fiber dust.
244
369
355
404
475
613
2,460

97
199
143
94
54
23
a 610

39.8
53.9
40.3
23.3
11.4
3.8
o24.8

Males in
registra­
tion area,
1900 to 1906.
27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
514.8

a There were also 326 deaths from other diseases of the respiratory system, or 13,3 per
cent of the deaths from all causes.
b The per cent of deaths from other diseases of the respiratory system in the registra­
tion area was 11.7.




784

BU LLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

It is evident from the foregoing observations and statistical data
relating to a representative number o f employments with exposure
to vegetable fiber dust that the effects o f such exposure are decidedly
health injurious. The summary table shows that the mortality from
consumption among employees in this group o f occupations is very
much higher at all ages than would normally be expected.
O CCU PATIO N S W IT H E X P O SU R E TO A N IM A L AN D
M IX E D F IB E R D U ST.
In the group o f occupations exposing to a continuous knd consid­
erable inhalation o f animal and mixed fiber dusts resulting from
necessary industrial processes have been included for the present
purpose the follow ing representative employments: Furriers, hatters,
silk manufacture, woolen and worsted manufacture, carpet and rug
manufacture, shoddy manufacture, rag industry, upholsterers and
hair-mattress makers. These occupations are all more or less subject
to an excessive death rate from all causes, but in particular to a de­
cided excess in the proportionate mortality from consumption, and in
most cases also to a comparatively high degree o f frequency in the
occurrence o f respiratory diseases. The details o f labor conditions, as
far as they could be conveniently included in the follow ing summary
o f observations regarding particular trades, appear to fully confirm
the opinion that the degree o f excess in consumption frequency is inti­
mately related and in almost exact proportion to the degree o f ex­
posure to continuous and considerable inhalation o f animal and mixed
fiber dusts.
FURRIERS AND TAXIDERM ISTS.

Fur dressing and dyeing are preliminary manipulations o f the fur
material for a large variety o f subsequent industrial processes, o f
which the most important is the manufacture o f felt hats. W hile the
census o f manufactures o f 1905 returns the nujnber o f wage-earners
employed in the dressing o f fur at only 1,105, (a) the total is much
larger when persons are included who manipulate fur as a prelim­
inary process in hat manufacture, where the most important opera­
tions are pulling, blowing, and forming. A ll o f these are employ­
ments exposing considerably and continuously to the inhalation o f
fine fur dust. The material used in felt hat manufacture is almost
exclusively the fur o f Belgian hares, which is imported for this pur­
pose in enormous quantities. The preliminary process o f fur pulling
as carried on in Belgium and England is described in considerable
detail by Rose E. Squire, one o f H is M ajesty’s inspectors o f factories,
whose observations and conclusions are o f exceptional interest and
value. Most o f the fur pulling in Belgium is done by women, who
° Census o f Manufactures, 1905, Part I, p. 232.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

785

work under very trying conditions, and the haze o f floating hair, the
sickly, disgusting odor o f uncleaned skins, and other unfavorable cir­
cumstances, attract to this employment only the lowest class o f labor.
According to Miss Squire, “ Fur pullers and openers belong to the
poorest class o f women. The dirty and repulsive nature o f the work,
and the low scale o f wages, attract none but those who, for one reason
or another, can get no other employment.” Fortunately, as this
observer points out, “ Machines are taking the place o f hand pulling
to a certain extent, but the chief part o f the work is done in Belgium,
where men do the pulling for a low wage. The manufacturer here
finds it cheaper to pay the carriage o f British rabbit skins to Belgium
and back than to have them pulled in England. Fur pullers are, as
a class, irregular workers, and, being paid by the piece, the employer
has no hold upon them.” W hile the circumstances o f labor in fur
pulling and kindred employments are apparently very objectionable
and in all probability injurious to health, this conclusion has not been
established by such investigations as have been made by Miss Squire
and others, and in fact the form er observes that “ when the workers
in any industry are drawn only from that class whose standard o f life
is the very lowest, when insufficient food and clothing and all the
other sad accompaniments o f deep poverty have made their mark upon
them, it is almost impossible to point to any one physical condition as
a result o f their occupation. Hoarseness, cough, and a bronchitic
condition are common among fur pullers; such are also observed in
the old and middle-aged women o f the same class who are not fur
pullers. One would certainly expect to find evidence among them o f
suffering caused by inhaling the down present in the air o f the
workroom s; but, except for occasional complaints that “ it stuffs up
the chest,” most o f the workers consider fur pulling’ a healthy occu­
pation. It may be that the fur being so fine and light is not inhaled;
the danger is probably more to be found in swallowing it, and the
symptoms o f ill health arising from this are, from their nature, not
easily discoverable, and must be related by the sufferer; but the poor
fur pullers look with suspicion on any inquiry touching their health,
fearing that they may be deprived o f their work, which, although
they say it is not worth the doing, is all they have.” (a)
Aside, however, from the question whether the industry is really
injurious to health or not, the sanitary conditions can be materially
modified to improve the com fort, and with practical certainty the
health o f the employees, for, according to Miss Squire, “ Much more
than has yet been attempted might be done to improve, by specially
applied ventilation, the condition o f fur-pulling rooms in factories
and workshops. The drawing away o f the pulled hair from the
°S e e article on “ R abbit down,” by Miss Squire, in Oliver’s Dangerous
Trades, p. 724.




786

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

worker in a downward direction by means o f a properly constructed
flue under the troughs and an extracting fan would seem to be practi­
cable, and the down could be collected outside in a receptacle for the
purpose.”
The dressing and dyeing o f aquatic furs has been described at
length in a bulletin o f the United States Fish Commission, in which
the various processes are illustrated, with special reference to Amer­
ican conditions. It is evident that in most o f the processes the risk
o f dust inhalation is a very considerable one, chiefly, o f course, o f fine
particles o f hair, wood, fur (properly so called), and animal down,
which is usually a waste product. There is, in addition, a not in­
considerable risk o f exposure to the inhalation o f other healthinjurious kinds o f dust, o f which arsenic is the most important
metallic substance, combining poisonous qualities. From this de­
scriptive account the follow ing is extracted, as emphasizing the more
important circumstances which give rise to the production o f healthinjurious dust and which, no doubt, can be materially modified by
improved methods o f dust removal at the point o f origin :
“ I f the overhairs are to be removed, that process is next in order,
except in the dressing o f muskrat skins, when it is usually postponed
until after the dressing. In preparing for plucking, the hair side is
dried and warmed by artificial heat, the membrane being kept moist
in the meantime. Each skin is placed flesh side down on a flat, hard­
wood beam, similar to that used in breaking except that it is covered
with thick, elastic leather. Chalk is first sprinkled over the hair, and
then, using a knife similar to that employed in breaking, a workman
rubs or works most o f the overhairs out o f the membrane. Those not
removed in this manner are subsequently plucked out with a dull
knife o f soft metal. W ith this knife in his right hand and his thumb
protected with a rubber cot about 4 inches in length, the picker grasps
the hairs between the edge o f the knife and his protected thumb and
with a quick, jerking motion pulls them out, going over the entire
pelt in this manner. The fur seal is quite difficult to unhair, and the
process is more complicated.”
The process o f fur manufacture in felt-hat making is, for the pres­
ent purpose, the most important one. The number o f men employed
as fur blowers and cutters in the felt-hat industry is not known with
accuracy, but it forms an important branch o f the industry. The
processes, in their relation to health-injurious circumstances, have
been described in some detail in a special report o f the Massachusetts
state board o f health on dangerous occupations, from which the fo l­
low ing extract is m ade:
In the manufacture o f derby and felt hats the essential material
is fur, and that used for the best product is from cony and allied spe­
cies. This comes to the factory clipped from the skin and treated



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

787

with cyanide o f mercury. The different kinds o f fur are mixed to­
gether in large covered machines, in which the coarse hair is sepa­
rated from the soft, downy fur, which latter is taken to the felt
machine. This consists o f a revolving copper cone, perforated with
numerous small holes, through which the air is drawn by suction ap­
paratus. The cone is inclosed in a barrel-like covering, open at the
top, which has a door in the side for the removal o f the felt as made.
The fine hairs are blown into the upper part o f the inclosure, and they
are attracted toward the perforated cone by the air currents going
thereto. They are then deposited in a thin layer on the outside o f
the cone, and when the deposit has gone on to a sufficient extent a
cloth wrung out in hot water is applied, and the cone and its covering
are removed and plunged into hot water for a short time, the heat and
moisture causing the individual hairs to become more intimately
m atted; then the conical layer is pulled off and sent to the shrinking
room.
The most recent English mortality statistics o f furriers are for the
three years ending with 1902, referred to in the Supplement to the
Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the Registrar-General in part as
follow s:
The numbers comprised in this occupation are too limited to war­
rant more than general statements concerning them. Except at the
age group 20 to 25 years, the death rates are considerably above the
standard for all occupied and retired males, and at every age group
their m ortality very. considerably exceeds that o f tanners, being more
than double as great at some stages o f life. In the main working
period their comparative m ortality figure from all causes is 1,332,
or 33 per cent above the standard, and no less than 72 per cent above
the corresponding figure for tanners. The mortality from accident
and from suicide is less than the standard for all occupied and retired
males, and is also less than that for tanners, but from all other causes
furriers suffer excessively, the mortality from cancer being three
times as great, and that from influenza and phthisis, as well as from
nervous and circulatory diseases, being about twice as great as that
for tanners. (a)
The recent English statistics for furriers are quite conclusive o f the
more or less unfavorable effect o f this industry on health. In the
table which follow s a comparison is made o f the m ortality from all
causes among men in this group with that o f occupied males generally,
and the result is decidedly suggestive o f conditions in this trade more
or less unfavorable to life and health. The excess in the general death
rate o f furriers is met with at all ages. The excess in the death rate
o f furriers at ages 25 to 54 is between 2.29 and 2.69 per 1,000, increas­
ing suddenly to astonishing proportions at ages 55 or over. W hile
the excess at the age period 55 to 64, or 20.27 per 1,000, may be in
part the result o f comparatively small numbers, the comparison is,
nevertheless, decidedly suggestive.
° Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the Registrar-Gen­
eral o f Births, Deaths, a n d M arriages in England and W ales, p. Ixv.
63675— No. 79—09------11




788

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG FURRIERS, COMPARED WITH THAT OF
ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE
GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate for furriers.
Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+)
for all oc­
or less (—) Ratio to
cupied Rate per than rate rate for all
1,000. for all oc­ occupied
males.
cupied
males.
males.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

a72
4.42
a52
12.91
2fi 02
51.28
107.84

+ 1.28
+ .01
+ 2.51
+ 2.69
++20.27
2.29
+19.45

152
100
142
126
113
165
122

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison, however, is made in the
next table, in which the mortality o f furriers from consumption is
compared with the normal mortality o f occupied males from this
disease by divisional periods o f life. The comparison shows that the
mortality from consumption was excessive at all ages 20 or over, the
excess being most marked at ages 35 to 44 and at ages 55 or over.

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG FURRIERS, COMPARED WITH THAT
OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE
GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Mortality from consumption.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.............................:...............: ......................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate for furriers.
per 1,000
for all oc­
cupied Rate per
males.
1,000.
0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

1.77
&46
4.74
3.86
7.33
5.88

Greater (+)
or less (—)
than rate
for all occu­
pied males.

Ratio to
rate for all
occupied
males.

+ .22
+1.43
+2.00
+ .82
+5.17
+4.77

114
170
173
127
339
530

The recorded industrial insurance m ortality statistics o f furriers and
taxidermists include 105 deaths from all causes, o f which 34, or 32.4
per cent, were from consumption. O f the m ortality o f furriers from
respiratory diseases other than consumption, 9 were from pneumonia,
5 from bronchitis, and 3 from less frequent respiratory diseases. I f
the deaths from consumption and from other respiratory diseases



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

789

are combined, 48.6 per cent o f the mortality o f furriers was from
diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The excess in the consump­
tion m ortality o f furriers is still more clearly brought out in the
tabular presentation o f the proportionate mortality from this dis­
ease by divisional periods o f life. W hile the consumption mortality
was excessive at all ages, the excess was most pronounced at 35 to 44,
when out o f every 100 deaths from all causes 63.3 were from con­
sumption, against a normal expected proportion o f 23.6. The num­
bers are too small for other periods o f life to warrant entirely safe
conclusions. The analysis o f the consumption m ortality o f furriers
in detail is set forth in the table below :

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG FURRIERS AND
TAXIDERMISTS, 1897, TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE
REGISTRATION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for furriers and taxidermists from experience of an industrial insurance com­
pany ; figures for males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics
of the United States census.]
Deaths of furriers and Percent of deaths due to
taxidermists, 1897 to consumption among—
1906, due to—
Age at death.

Furriers Males in
All causes. Consump­
and taxi­ registration
tion.
1900
dermists. area,
to 1906.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 years
to 64 years......................................................................
65
or over...........................................................—

Total.........................................................................

3
18
30
13
24
17
105

1
7
19
4
2
1
34

33.3
38.9
63.3
30.8
8.3
5.9
32.4

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
&1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data regarding the mor­
tality o f furriers confirm the conclusion that the degree o f consump­
tion frequency in this employment is decidedly excessive and without
question directly connected with the health-injurious circumstances
o f the trade. The excess in the degree o f consumption frequency in
England and Wales is. most marked at advanced years, which would
make it probable that the type o f the disease assumes in many cases
the fibroid form , or that o f a distinct occupation disease.
HATTERS.

A ll who have written on the diseases o f occupation have included
felt hat manufacture among the trades specifically injurious to health
and life. The conditions which give rise to a high death rate and the
degree o f disease frequency above the normal are prim arily due to the




790

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

continuous and considerable exposure to the inhalation o f irritating
dust, which is produced during nearly every important process o f hat
manufacture except the sizing, where steam and vapor, combined with
high temperature, increase considerably the liability o f the workmen
to respiratory diseases. Mercurial poisoning is another serious risk
o f the industry, but limited to finishers and a few other departments,
and, fortunately, less common at the present time than in former
years. The felt hat making industry is concentrated in a few States,
chiefly New Jersey, New York, and Connecticut. The industry, ac­
cording to the census o f manufactures o f 1905, gave employment to
22,047 wage-earners, and o f this number 15,432 were males 16 years
o f age or over.(°) ♦In addition, however, the manufacture o f wool
hats gave employment to 1,503 wage-earners, and the manufacture
o f hat and cap materials to 2,414.
The concentration o f the industry in New Jersey early attracted
the attention o f qualified medical observers, and as far back as 1860
Dr. J. A . Freeman, o f Orange, prepared an address on Mercurial
Diseases among Hatters for the New Jersey state medical society. In
1878 Dr. L. Dennis, o f Newark, prepared a report on H atting as
Affecting the Health o f Operatives, at the request o f the state board
o f health, which was published that year in the annual report o f the
board. In 1886, by request o f the same authority, Dr. J. W . Stickler,
o f ' Orange, prepared an extended account o f the Hygiene o f Hat
Manufacture and the Diseases o f Hatters, including the personal
examination o f a large number o f workmen for evidences o f phys­
ical impairment in consequence o f the industry. The medical investi­
gations were amplified during the years 1889 to 1895 by an elaborate
inquiry through the state bureau o f labor statistics into the effects
o f the occupation on the trade life o f persons employed in tKe indus­
try, as part o f a general investigation, including many other danger­
ous and unhealthy employments. The various investigations all con­
firm the generally accepted view o f qualified authorities, that the
manufacture o f felt hats is attended with more or less health-injuri­
ous circumstances, but that some departments o f the industry are
decidedly more exposed to this risk than others. W hile the investi­
gations have never been entirely conclusive, in the absence o f
thoroughly trustworthy statistics o f mortality for the more im por­
tant employments, felt cutters, hat makers, and sizers are apparently
the most liable to respiratory and pulmonary diseases and subject to
a death rate above the average for persons generally employed in
felt hat manufacture. Other employments decidedly injurious to
health are pouncing, singeing, steaming, drying, hardening, and

aCensus




o f M anufactures, 1905, P art I, p. 252.

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

791

mixing, in all o f which considerable dust or other health-injurious
circumstances increase the liability to respiratory and pulmonary
diseases. Finishers, dangers, and curlers are important employ­
ments apparently less liable to these diseases, but the degree o f
difference is, in all probability, not great, since these occupations are
often carried on under about the same conditions as other employ­
ments previously enumerated, the three occupations being frequently
conducted in the same or in adjoining rooms. The improvements
which have been introduced into the industry, including the inclosure
o f dust-producing machinery and the more effectual control o f the
dust generated during pouncing and finishing at the point o f origin,
has, no doubt, resulted in a marked improvement during very recent
years. Many o f the hat factories have been rebuilt and the conditions
in the modern factories are decidedly better than in those constructed
in former years.
The general vital statistics regarding hatters are very lim ited but
fairly conclusive. According to the vital statistics o f 1890 there were
enumerated 14,222 hat and cap makers in the registration States o f
the United States, and o f this number 356, or 2.5 per cent, had at­
tained to the age o f 65 years or over. The number o f deaths from all
causes in this group was 277, and o f this number 94, or 33.9 per cent,
were from consumption. The m ortality from all causes for hatters
was considerably higher in each age group than the corresponding
average for this class o f occupations, and at ages 25 to 44, inclusive,
the death rate o f hat and cap makers was 19.27 per 1,000, or more
than twice the average rate in occupations o f this class, which was
returned as 9.18. The specific death rate from consumption was 6.61
per 1,000, and from respiratory diseases other than consumption, 2.95
per 1,000. The rates were high for all diseases except heart disease
and suicide. The death rate from consumption was more than twice
the average rate and extremely high in the cities o f the registration
States only, for which it was returned as 7.8 per 1,000. (a)
The vital statistics o f the census o f 1900 included the mortality
occurring among 12,680 males o f known ages 15 or over enumerated
as being employed in this group o f occupations. The number o f
deaths from all causes in this group was 228, and the corresponding
death rate 18 per 1,000. The death rates per 1,000 o f population, by
divisional periods o f life, were, at ages o f 15 to 24, 5.40; at ages 25
to 44, 13.10; at ages 45 to 64 the rate was 32.96; and at ages 65
or over it was 173.8. The death rates o f hat and cap makers were
generally above the average for the manufacturing and mechan­
ical industries class, being highest from consumption, heart disease,
« V ital Statistics, Eleventh Census, P art I, p. 138.




792

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

and pneumonia. (a) F or reasons not stated in the census report, the
details regarding the mortality in this occupation were less fully
reported in connection with the census o f 1900 than in connection
with that o f 1890.
F or some years the vital statistics o f the United Hatters o f North
America have been published in semiannual reports, and combining
their returns for the period June 1, 1898, to November 30, 1901,
there occurred 412 deaths from all causes, and o f this number 133,
or 32.3 per cent, were from consumption. The number o f deaths
from respiratory diseases other than consumption was 52, or 12.6 per
cent. Combining the deaths from consumption and from other re­
spiratory diseases, there were 185 deaths from diseases o f the lungs
and air passages, or 44.9 per cent o f the m ortality from all causes.
The most recent English mortality statistics o f hatters are for the
three years ending with 1902, referred to in the Supplement to the
Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the Registrar-General, in part, as fo l­
low s:
The mortality in this occupation shows an excess at every stage o f
life, the excess being most marked at ages 20 to 25 and 65 and up­
ward. In the main working period the comparative mortality fig­
ure is 1,137, or above the standard for all occupied and retired males
by 13 per cent. Hatters appear to be specially liable to phthisis, the
m ortality from that disease exceeding the normal by 50 per cent, and
also to other diseases o f the respiratory system and to Bright’s dis­
ease, the m ortality from which is above the average by 40 per cent.
Suicide is also frequent. On the other hand, the m ortality from in­
fluenza, nervous diseases, and accident is below the average. (*)
The recent English m ortality statistics o f hatters are entirely con­
clusive o f the unfavorable effects o f this industry on health. In the
table which follow s a comparison is made o f the m ortality from all
causes among men in this group with that o f occupied males gener­
ally, and the result is suggestive o f conditions in this trade more or
less unfavorable to life and health. The excess in the general death
rate o f hatters is met with at all ages, but the relative and actual
excess is most pronounced at ages 45 or over. In this respect the mor­
tality o f hatters quite closely resembles the corresponding mortality
o f furriers and taxidermists.
a V ital Statistics, T w elfth Census, Part I, p. cclxxxiv.
6 Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual R eport o f the Registrar-Gem
eral o f Births, Deaths, and M arriages in England and W ales, p. Ixii.




793

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG HATTERS, COMPARED WITH THAT OF
ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Death rate for hatters.
Death rate
per 1,000
for all occu­ Rate per
pied males. 1,000.

Age at death.
15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

Greater (+)
or less (—)
than rate
for all occu­
pied males.

2.90
6.19
6.70
11.44
19.82
35.97
103.42

Ratio to
rate for all
occupied
males.

+ 0.46
+ 1.78
+ .69
+ 1.22
+ 2.09
+ 4.96
+15.03

119
140
111
112
112
116
117

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison is made in the next table, in
which the mortality o f hatters from consumption and other respira­
tory diseases is compared with the normal m ortality o f occupied
males from these diseases, by divisional periods o f life. The com­
parison shows that the m ortality from consumption is excessive at all
ages, but the excess is most marked at ages 20 to 54. The table fur­
ther shows that the m ortality o f hatters from other respiratory dis­
eases is above the average fo r occupied males generally at ages 45 or
over, by from 1.60 to 6.10 per 1,000. The two tables derived from
English sources fully confirm the previous conclusion that the mor­
tality o f hatters is excessive when proper comparison is made with
the corresponding mortality o f occupied males generally, and that
this excess is largely because o f the high degree o f consumption fre­
quency at ages 20 to 54. The table which follow s requires no further
comment and is otherwise self-explanatory:

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AND FROM OTHER DISEASES OF THE RE­
SPIRATORY SYSTEM AMONG HATTERS, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL
OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]*65

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......
20 to 24 years.......
25 to 34 years.......
35 to 44 years.......
45 to 54 years.......
55 to 64 years.......
65 years or over..

Mortality from consumption.

Mortality from other diseases of the
respiratory system.

Death rate for hatters.
Death
rate per
Greater (+) Ratio to
1,000 for
less (—) rate for
all occu­ Rate per orthan
rate
pied
occu­
1,000.
for
all allpied
males.
occupied males.
males.

Death rate for hatters.
i/esia
rate per
Greater (+) Ratio to
1.000 for
less (—) rate for
all occu­ Rate per orthan
rate
pied
occu­
1,000.
for
all allpied
males.
occupied males.
males.

0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11




0.61
3.47
3.70
4.11
4.76
2.17

+0.07
+1.92
+1.67
+1.37
+1.72
+ .01

113
224
182
150
157
100

0.24
.48
.77
1.66
3.32
6.54
17.77

0.30
.77
1.33
4.92
10.85
23.87

-0.18
- .33
+1.60
+4.31
+6.10

63
100
80
148
166
134

794

BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR.

The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f hatters in­
clude 832 deaths from all causes, o f which 278, or 33.4 per cent, were
deaths from consumption. O f the m ortality o f hatters from respira­
tory diseases other than consumption, 71 were from pneumonia, 4 from
asthma, 12 from bronchitis, and 10 from less frequent respiratory
diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and from other respira­
tory diseases are combined, 45.1 per cent o f the mortality o f hatters
was from diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The excess in the
consumption mortality o f hatters is still more clearly brought out in
the tabular presentation o f the proportionate m ortality from this dis­
ease by divisional periods o f life. W hile the consumption mortality
was excessive at all ages, the excess was most pronounced at ages 25 to
34, when out o f every 100 deaths from all causes 55.4 were from con­
sumption, against a normal expected proportion o f 31.3. Very few
deaths from consumption occurred among hatters at ages 65 or over,
but the proportionate m ortality was exceptionally high at young ages,
having been 53.8 per cent at ages 15 to 24. The analysis o f the con­
sumption m ortality o f hatters in detail is set forth in the follow ing
table:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG HATTERS) 1897 TO
1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA OF
THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for hatters from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures for
males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United States
census. ]
Deaths of hatters, 1897 Per cent of deaths due to
to 1906, due to— consumption among—
Age at death.

Males in
All causes. Consump­
Hatters. registration
tion.
area, 1900
to 1906.

15 to 24 years...’..................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

78
175
185
127
135
132
832

42
97
84
34
20
1
278

53.8
55.4
45.4
26.7
14.8
.8
33.4

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data confirm the con­
clusion that hatters as a class are subject to an excessive mortality
from consumption, but in particular at ages 15 to 64, and this excess,
in view o f the conditions o f labor briefly described, is in a large
measure the result o f health-injurious circumstances connected with
the employment.
SILK MANUFACTURE.

Silk manufacture in the United States is a highly diversified in­
dustry, giving employment in 1905 to some 79,601 wage-earners, in
624 manufacturing establishments. O f the number employed 27,037



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

795

were adult males, or 34 per cent.(a) A large number o f women, and
children under 16 years o f age, are employed in this industry, which
offers exceptional opportunities for light and fairly remunerative em­
ployment particularly adapted to women and children. W hile the
number o f persons employed in the industry has materially increased
within recent years, the principal increase has been chiefly in the
number o f women wage-earners, or to be specific, from about 35,000
in 1900 to a little over 45,000 in 1905. The actual extent o f the silk
industry, however, is greater than indicated by these statistics, since
the manufacture o f silk hosiery and silk knit goods is included in the
hosiery and knitting industries generally. By products, the industry
divides itself into the manufacture o f broad silks o f many varieties,
ribbons, velvets, plushes, tapestry and upholstery goods, machine
twists, floss, etc. How far the conditions affecting health vary in the
different branches o f the industry has not yet been determined with
the required accuracy to warrant entirely safe conclusions.
The most important processes in silk manufacture are winding,
reeling, spinning, throwing or twisting, warping, weaving, picking,
cleansing, and dyeing. On account o f the very large variety o f goods
manufactured and the admixture, according to requirements, o f the
silk with other textile materials, chiefly cotton and wool, the degree
o f dust exposure in the different employments varies considerably,
so much so that no definite rule can be laid down which would clearly
differentiate the health-injurious processes from those which are com­
paratively innocuous. The hygiene o f employment in silk mills was
carefully considered by Arlidge, whose opinion was decidedly in favor
o f silk manufacture as compared with the corresponding conditions
affecting health in the manufacture o f cotton, linen, or wool. In his
opinion the silk industry stands lowest in the list o f textile manu­
factures as a dust-producing and a health-destroying occupation, and
is, apart from the general insanitary features surrounding all textile
operations, practically devoid o f evils originating in the quality o f
the material and its manipulation, excepting in one department, and
that is where waste silk is worked or manipulated for subsequent man­
ufacturing purposes. The processes o f winding, twisting, reeling,
and spinning, in the opinion o f Arlidge, are accompanied by little or
no dust where the best silk is in use, and he regards all o f these as
harmless to health. Since these observations were made a matter o f
record, however, it is necessary to keep in mind that the admixture
o f other textile fibers in the manufacture o f mixed goods has very
considerably increased—so much so that nearly 10,000,000 pounds o f
yarn other than silk were used by silk mills, according to the census
o f manufactures o f 1905.
c Census o f M anufactures, 1905, Part II I , p. 161.




796

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

Regarding the manufacture o f silk waste, A rlidge states that this
material is derived either from mills where the best silk is employed,
o f which it represents, in a certain sense, the refuse; or else from a
certain grade o f cocoons received from abroad and differing widely
in quality. Many o f these are so mixed with dirt as to offer, to the
uninstructed eye, no semblance o f being silk at all, and it is these im­
pure cocoons that give rise, in the preparatory stages o f manufacture,
to foul smells and dust. A rlidge refers to a report by Redgrave in
1872, to the effect that, “ The dressing o f waste silk is one o f the most
nauseous o f occupations,” which, however, may be rendered compara­
tively inoffensive and harmless by proper ventilating appliances.
The preparatory processes after the boiling o f the cocoon are, ac­
cording to Arlidge, conducted in what are called the dressing rooms,
and it is almost exclusively in these rooms that dust is encountered
W hile many carding machines are inclosed and only give rise to dust
at intervals when opened for any purpose, there are horizontally
acting machines not admitting o f inclosure by their present construc­
tion, which do throw off fine dust traceable on surrounding objects
and perceptible as a haze in the atmosphere around. In addition to
the dressing process, so-called gassing is decidedly injurious to health,
since the burned minute particles o f silk float in the air, producing
the smell o f combustion o f animal matter to a perceptible degree and
likewise a dust visible as a thin haze. The temperature in these rooms
is, as a rule, excessive, while the atmosphere is grossly polluted unless
artificial ventilation is provided. These observations o f Arlidge are
in marked contrast to the earlier conclusions o f Doctor Greenhow,
who conducted an inquiry into the m ortality o f towns in which the
silk industry was concentrated during the early sixties. The m ortality
from consumption in these towns at that time was extremely high, but
during the intervening period vast improvements have taken place
and the m ortality from consumption has been reduced to the normal
o f English towns generally. No really qualified investigation, how­
ever, has been made into the actual conditions affecting the health o f
workers in silk mills at the present time, and even A rlidge is forced
to the conclusion that—
A certain amount o f asthmatic breathing and bronchitis is, after
long employment, set up by the dust o f the dressing department and
by that o f gassing. And judging from the experience or the Maccles­
field Infirmary, a considerable number o f silk workers break down
as age advances with symptoms o f fibroid phthisis. Unfortunately
there appears to have been no medical research into the pathology o f
such cases, and no statistical record kept. Further, the high tempera­
ture existing in certain workrooms can not be without effect on health.
Indeed, the aspect o f many o f the women, their anaemia and other
signs, betray the ills attending their calling.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

797

The very favorable conclusions o f A rlidge are also in contrast to the
conclusions o f Dr. Pierre Givre, who in 1890 published a treatise on
tuberculosis among silk workers, chiefly in the silk district o f Lyon.
According to these researches, among a very considerable number o f
deaths o f silk workers during a long period o f years, including both
sexes, the m ortality from tuberculosis had equaled 35.6 per cent o f the
m ortality from all causes. On contrasting the male with the female
workers, the latter exhibited a decidedly higher proportion, while at
the same time the deaths occurred at an earlier age. D octor Givre’s
opinion was particularly unfavorable to the employments o f winders
and carders, compared with other branches o f the industry. A ddi­
tional statistical evidence regarding the hygiene o f silk manufacture is
referred to by Arlidge, who obtained from Dr. Henry Fernie, o f Mac­
clesfield, the statistics o f 922 persons engaged in the silk trade treated
as out-patients at the infirmary. Am ong this number 25 per cent
were cases o f either tubercular or respiratory diseases.
F or a really conclusive opinion more data are required than thus
far have been brought together, with special reference to essential
differences in methods o f manufacture according to the kind o f goods
manufactured. As previously stated, the industry lends itself pecul­
iarly to the employment o f women and children, and an examination
o f the age distribution proves that there are comparatively few per­
sons o f advanced ages employed in silk manufacture. The age dis­
tribution o f 49,422 silk workers, 15 years o f age or over, with distinc­
tion o f sex, was as follow s:

NUMBER AND PER CENT OF MALE AND OF FEMALE SILK WORKERS IN EACH
AGE GROUP, 1900.
[From report of the Bureau of the Census on Occupations, 1900.]
Age.
15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Male silk workers.

Female silk workers.

Number. Percent. Number. Per cent.
9,022
5,301
3,380
1,563
785
250
20*301

44.4
26.1
16.7
7.7
3.9
1.2
100.0

21,884
5,082
1,519
461
127
48
29,121

75.1
17.5
5.2
1.6
.4
.2
100.0

The table emphasizes the concentration o f employments in silk
manufacture at the younger ages and the comparative infrequency o f
employment at ages over 45. Whether the comparatively small
number o f persons employed in old age is the result o f heavy mor­
tality follow ing the early years o f employment, or whether it is
because o f labor requirements more favorable to the employment o f




798

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

young persons, can not be determined at the present time. The table,
however, is decidedly suggestive and it probably has some connection
with the higher mortality o f silk workers than is normal to the gen­
eral population, although a large number, no doubt, after suffering a
temporary impairment, leave the industry for other employments,
and they are thus lost sight o f in the vital statistics o f the trade.
W hile no conclusive investigation has been made to determine
the health conditions in the different branches o f the industry, it is
probably quite safe to assume that employment in plush and velvet
mills is a more dusty occupation than that in mills manufacturing
sewing silk or the usual grade o f ribbons and broad goods. In the
plush mills, employment in the finishing rooms exposes to a con­
siderable amount o f dust. Also, in the shearing rooms there is con­
siderable dust, which, however, is reduced by the required hu­
midity o f the atmosphere. In the brushing rooms there is consider­
able dust, and there is probably even more dust at the pegging and
so-called tagging machines, which are difficult o f exact description.
Thus far no thorough investigation has been made, either in this
country or abroad, which would warrant final conclusions as to
whether the decidedly favorable opinion o f Arlidge is warranted by
present-day conditions, but as far as it is possible to judge the mor­
tality o f silk-m ill workers and their liability to tubercular and respira­
tory diseases is somewhat below the average for persons employed in
cotton and woolen mills. The most recent English mortality statis­
tics o f silk manufacture are for the three years ending with 1902,
referred to in the Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the
Registrar-General, in part, as follow s:
The mortality o f these workers is below the standard for occupied
and retired males at all ages up to the fifty-fifth year, the de­
fect being especially noticeable at the age group 25-35 years. Above
the age o f 55 years the rates exceed the standard. The comparative
mortality figure in the main working period o f life is 964, or 4 per
cent below the average. These workers are liable to less than onethird o f the standard mortality from accident, to one-half o f that
from influenza, and to two-thirds o f that from respiratory diseases,
and their m ortality from alcoholism and liver disease, as well as
from cancer, is also low. On the other hand, they show excessive
mortality from phthisis, nervous diseases, Bright’s disease, and sui­
cide, especially from the two causes last mentioned. (a)
The recent English mortality statistics for silk workers are quite
conclusive o f the more or less unfavorable effects o f this industry on
health as regards the more advanced periods o f life. In the table
which follow s a comparison is made o f the m ortality from all causes
o f men in this group with occupied males generally, and the com­
parison shows that the death rates o f silk workers were below the av0 P art II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the RegistrarGeneral o f Births, Deaths, and M arriages in England and W ales, p. lxxxvii.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

799

erage at ages 15 to 44, slightly above the average at ages 45 to 54, and
decidedly so at 55 years or over, when the excess in the death rate
was 5 per 1,000 at ages 55 to 64 and 19.16 at 65 or over.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG MALE SILK WORKERS COMPARED WITH
THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE
GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement of the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate for male silk workers.
Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+)
for all
or less (—) Ratio to '
occupied Rate per than rate rate for all
males.
1,000.
for all occupied
occupied males.
males.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

2.30
3.27
4.12
8.56
17.90
36.01
107.55

- 0.14
- 1.14
- 1.89
- 1.66
4* .17
+ 5.00
+19.16

94
74
69
84
101
116
122

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison is made in the next table,
in which the mortality o f silk workers from consumption is com­
pared with the normal mortality o f occupied males from this dis­
ease, by divisional periods o f life. The comparison shows that the
m ortality from consumption is excessive at ages 20 to 84, inclusive,
and at ages 45 or over. The exceptions are o f minor importance,
but the comparison suggests a degree o f consumption frequency ma­
terially above the average, or by from 0.27 to 1.53 per 1,000. The
table which follow s requires no further comment:

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG MALE SILK WORKERS COMPARED
WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY
AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Mortality from consumption.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over...............................................................



Death rate for male silk workers.
Death rate
per 1,000
Greater (+) Ratio to
for all
less (—) rate for all
occupied Rate per orthan
males.
1,000. for all rate
occu­ occupied
pied males. males.
0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.23
1.82
2.40
2.05
3.95
3.69
2.00

-0.31
+ .27
+ .37
- .69
+ .91
+1.53
+ .89

43
117
118
75
130
171
180

800

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f silk
workers include 295 deaths from all causes, o f which 106, or 35.9 per
cent, were from consumption. O f the m ortality o f silk workers
from respiratory diseases other than consumption 21 were from pneumonia, 5 from asthma and bronchitis, and 7 from less frequent respir­
atory diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and from other re­
spiratory diseases are combined, 47.1 per cent o f the mortality o f silk
workers was from diseases o f the lungs and air passages. The ex­
cess in the consumption m ortality o f silk workers is still more clearly
brought out in the tabular presentation o f the proportionate mor­
tality from this disease by divisional periods o f life. W hile the
consumption m ortality was excessive at all ages, the excess was most
pronounced at ages 35 to 44, when out o f every 100 deaths from all
causes 60 were from consumption, against a normal expected propor­
tion o f 23.6. The analysis o f the consumption m ortality o f silk-m ill
workers in detail is set forth in the follow ing table:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG SILK WORKERS,
1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA
OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for silk workers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United
States census.]

Age at death.

15 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
4i5 years or over...................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Deaths of silk work­ Per cent of deaths due
ers, 1897 to 1906, due to c o n su m p tio n
among—
to—
Males in
Silk registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
workers. area, 1900
to 1906.
82
61
55
31
37
29
295

28
32
33
7
4
2
106

34.1
52.5
60.0
22.6
10.8
6.9
35.9

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data confirm the conclu­
sion that silk workers as a class are subject to an excessive mortality
from consumption, but in particular at ages 15 to 44, and this excess,
in view o f the conditions o f labor briefly described, is in a large meas­
ure the result o f health-injurious circumstances connected with the
employment.
WOOLEN AND WORSTED MANUFACTURE.

The manufacture o f woolen and worsted goods has, during recent
years, developed into an American industry o f very considerable pro­
portions, and in 1905 gave employment to 143,458 wage-earners. O f



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

801

this number 75,717 were males, 56,749 females, and 10,992 children
and young persons under 16 years o f age. W hile an exact division
o f the industry into woolen and worsted manufacture is some­
what difficult, in approximate numbers there were 72,747 employed
in the manufacture o f woolen goods, 69,251 in the manufacture o f
worsted goods, in addition to vhich there were enumerated 681 wool
pullers and 779 wool scourers. (a) The importance o f the woolen
industry is gradually declining, while the manufacture o f worsted
goods is taking its place. Although the processes o f manufacture are
very much the same as in cotton textiles generally, the worsted indus­
try is a very much more technical process, including some fifty welldefined subdivisions o f labor. The most important o f these are sort­
ing, scouring, carding, combing, spinning, weaving, dyeing, and fin­
ishing. In nearly all o f these processes the exposure to animal fiber
dust is quite considerable, being somewhat greater in the manufacture
o f woolen than o f worsted goods. The processes o f scouring, dyeing,
and fulling are comparatively free from dust, but steam, vapor, and
dampness increase the disease liability o f the workmen in these em­
ployments.
W ool sorting is quite a dusty employment, but the risk o f so-called
“ wool-sorter’s disease ” is limited to the handling o f certain grades o f
foreign wool, chiefly van-mohair, alpaca, East Indian cashmere, and
camel’s hair, all o f which are imported from the Far East. Since
these wools are usually imported by way o f England they are there,
under factory regulations, subjected to a disinfecting process, by
which the risk o f anthrax is reduced to a minimum. In no branch o f
the woolen industry is artificial ventilation and dust removal o f
greater importance than in wool and rag sorting, which, in common
with the general risk o f dust injury, has the additional risk o f trans­
mission o f infectious diseases, chiefly anthrax and smallpox. An
effective device for removing the dust in wool sorting has been de­
scribed by Haldane in his lecture on the removal o f dust and fumes
o f factories before the Koyal Society o f Arts.
The woolen and worsted industries are o f such great com plexity
that only a few o f the more important occupations can be considered
at this time. Thackrah, in his comments upon the diseases peculiar
to persons employed in the manufacture o f woolen and worsted goods,
observes:
W ool combers work in apartments which, from the fire employed
to heat the combs, are kept at the temperature o f about 80°. The
fires are made o f charcoal. From the evolution o f carbonic-acid gas,
when the windows are not sufficiently open, the men are occasionally
affected with headache. In some or the manufactories an attempt

aCensus




o f M anufactures, 1905, Part I II, p. 128.

802

BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR.

has been made to heat the combs by means o f steam, but the workmen
complain that by this mode the rooms are made hotter and the combs
colder; in other words that the increase o f temperature is more d if­
fused. A light dust arises from the wool, or rather perhaps from the
soap retained by the wool after washing. It annoys the air tube and
obliges some persons to leave the employ. The men, however, whom
we found in the rooms appeared quite healthy, and we were informed
that out o f 100 individuals only 2 or 3 were absent from illness.
* * * The heat o f the apartments does not appear to shorten life.
W e have repeatedly seen at work men from 60 to 70 years o f age.
The same authority says with reference to worsted spinners that—
Spinners o f worsted, chiefly young persons, are exposed to consider­
able heat in rooms traversed by steam pipes and often deficient in
ventilation. The thermometer, in November, we have found in the
spinning rooms at 65° and 70°, and in the warping rooms, where steam
pipes are not introduced, 58°, while in the open air it was 48°. In
summer, o f course, the temperature, particularly o f the spinning
rooms, is considerably higher. The rooms in most mills, though
spacious, are too low. The windows are about the middle o f the
walls and no apertures are made above them fo r the admission o f air.
The labor is light and the posture varied. * * * The operatives
have generally the appearance o f health. Many, however, particu­
larly at the commencement o f the employ, suffer from headache and
siclmess, the result, I conceive, o f the want o f ventilation rather than
the temperature o f the rooms. Some can not bear the employ. The
m ills are generally in the c o u n t r y or at the o u t s k ir t s o f the t o w n .
A t the time, however, when Thackrah reported his observations the
worsted industry had developed to only very small proportions,
chiefly the manufacture o f worsted handkerchiefs, fancy goods, and
worsted stockings. The weavers employed in the manufacture o f
these goods were, in the opinion o f Thackrah, subjected to some dust,
which affected the respiration and rendered the employment less
healthful than the corresponding occupation in cotton manufacture.
This opinion has not been sustained by subsequent investigation,
which would appear to prove conclusively that the manufacture o f
woolen and worsted goods is less injurious than employments in the
manufacture o f cotton goods.
During recent years the conditions o f labor in the woolen and
worsted industries have undergone a material improvement, largely
as the result o f the concentration o f the industry in the elimination
o f many small factories not built in conform ity to modern sanitary
requirements as to air space, light, and ventilation. W hile important
improvements have been made, it is still rare, however, to find an
effective system o f artificial dust removal, chiefly in the processes
generating the largest quantities o f dust—that is, the carding and
combing branches o f the industry. The amount o f fly resulting from
the various operations is considerable in both woolen and worsted
manufacture and continuous cleaning is necessary, and this is practi­



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

803

cally all done by means o f the ordinary sweeping process, much o f
which results in dust disturbance rather than in dust removal.
The woolen and worsted industries were very carefully considered
by A rlidge in his treatise on the diseases o f occupation. He calls
attention to the fact that most o f the health-injurious processes are
those which have to do with the preparatory stages, and he describes
these processes in their relation to health, in part, as follow s:
In the first place, the bales have to be opened, and their contents
being heaped upon large tables have to be sorted in order to separate
their different qualities. A long with more or less dirt removed with
the fleeces, the wool holds a considerable quantity o f greasy matter.
From this last it has to be freed by careiul and repeated washings
in alkaline fluids and by specially constructed machines. It has, m
the next place, to be subjected to “ w illyin g” (w innow ing), “ scrib­
bling,” and “ carding machines ” to remove every portion o f dirt and
to deliver it, as in the cotton manufacture, in the form o f a “ sliver ”
o f fine fibers collected in a loose rope-like form. In the preliminary
combing processes considerable dust is thrown off, but by the use o f
inclosed machines and o f fans to withdraw it as fast as it is generated
little escapes into the apartment to annoy or to injure. W e owe it to
the ingenuity o f modern engineers that these preliminary operations
have well-nigh ceased to be unhealthy.
Arlidge, as the result o f his investigations, held that the dust from
wool was more innocuous than that o f cotton, and very much more so
than the dust o f flax, because o f the inherent structure o f the wool
fiber and the fact that its animal origin makes it less irritating and
less foreign to living animal tissue. Moreover, he held that when the
woolen fibers reached the spinning frames they had to be lubricated
with oil, which materially reduced the amount o f dust generated dur­
ing the subsequent manipulation. This conclusion, however, is sub­
ject to material modification in many mills, where the evidence o f a
considerable amount o f dust being generated during the spinning
process is readily observed by the amount o f dust under and on the
machinery and present in the atmosphere.
W ith special reference to worsted spinning and weaving, Arlidge
observed that—
Other advantages attending the worsted spinning are that it is
done dry and does not need the same degree o f moist heat required
in the other textile trades. Further, in the weaving o f worsted a far
lower and less humid temperature is called for than in the case o f
cotton weaving; while, what is o f still greater moment, clay sizing
and its emitted dust have no place.
Arlidge sums up his general conclusions regarding the health o f
persons employed in the woolen and worsted industry as follow s:
The general conclusion respecting the worsted manufacture is
that it is a healthy occupation. The artisans look less anaemic and
sallow than cotton operatives, while their social and domestic position
63675— No. 79— 09----- 12




804

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

appears more favorable. They likewise suffer less with respiratory
diseases and consumption; but the proportion in which these prevail
is in some degree regulated by the quality o f wool used, that from
Australia and the Cape being more dusty than English and therefore
more provocative o f bronchial irritation. D octor Greenhow could
not find that chest diseases and the m ortality therefrom occurred in
a higher ratio among the woolen workers o f Bradford than with the
general population.
Other writers on occupation diseases have given equally extended
consideration to the industry, but, on the whole, the conclusions coin­
cide with those o f Arlidge, that employment in woolen and worsted
manufacture, with the resulting exposure to animal fiber dust, is less
dangerous to health than the corresponding employment in the manu­
facture o f cotton and other vegetable fiber textiles.
Dr. B. W . Richardson held that the dust or fly o f wool appeared to
produce no really deleterious effects on the lungs, and that, in fact, the
m ortality o f the workers in wool seemed to warrant the opinion that
they were favorably exempted from disease, probably because the soft,
oily dust o f the wool protected the bronchial surfaces from irritation
rather than that it irritated them. Tatham, writing with a better
knowledge o f the m ortality statistics o f the trade, confirms this opin­
ion in his discussion o f dust-producing occupations in Oliver’s Dan­
gerous Trades, from which the follow ing is quoted:
W ool workers suffer much less severely from their occupation than
do cotton operatives. In the weaving o f woolen materials a lower and
drier temperature is required than in the case o f cotton weaving, and
the m ischief caused by “ sizing ” with china clay and other irritants
has no place in woolen manufacture. Nevertheless, in certain o f the
processes, especially where inferior foreign wools are manufactured,
a good deal o f dust is disengaged, and this produces its ill effect on
the lungs o f the workers. It is also in connection with dirty or blood­
stained foreign wools that the m ajority o f cases o f anthrax or wool
sorters’ disease have been observed from time to time which have
been the subject o f inquiry in past years by the medical department
o f the local government board.
It is worthy o f notice that wool sorters are even more careless as
regards exposure to cold and drafts than are even cotton workers,
and their m ortality from rheumatic fever is much higher, being dou­
ble that experienced by agriculturists as a class. W ool workers have
a comparative m ortality figure from all causes which is somewhat
above the average for occupied males generally, but is below that o f
other textile trades. Workers in wool appear to be remarkably free
from intemperance, their mortality figure being less than one-fourth
o f the average. From diseases o f the digestive system other than the
liver wool workers die half as fast again as do occupied males gener­
ally, while from diseases o f the nervous, respiratory, and urinary
systems, as well as from cancer, the* m ortality o f these workers is from
10 to 22 per cent in excess o f that standard.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

805

The Rhode Island occupation mortality statistics return specifically
only wool sorters. During the ten years 1897 to 1906 there were
37 deaths from all causes recorded in Rhode Island under the title
o f wool sorter. O f this number 5, or 13.5 per cent, were from con­
sumption, and 5, or 13.5 per cent, were from respiratory diseases
other than consumption. The combined m ortality from diseases
o f the lungs and air passages was 10, or 27 per cent, against 30.3
per cent expected on the basis o f the m ortality o f all occupied males
in Rhode Island. The numbers are too small to warrant a final con­
clusion, but the facts are presented to make the analysis complete.
The most recent English m ortality statistics o f woolen and worsted
manufacture are for the three years ending with 1902, referred to in
the Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the RegistrarGeneral, in part, as follow s:
The m ortality among these operatives exceeds the standard for
occupied and retired males at ages 20 to 25, and over 55 years, but is
below that standard at other ages. In the main working period o f
life the comparative mortality figure for wool workers is 984, or
less than the standard figure by only 2 per cent. The m ortality
from alcoholism and liver disease is less than three-fourths ana
that from accident is less than half the standard. The mortality
from cancer, phthisis, respiratory diseases, and suicide is also in each
case below the average. On the other hand, the m ortality from nerv­
ous and circulatory diseases slightly exceeds, and that from diabetes
mellitus and from Bright’s disease considerably exceeds the stand­
a rd .^ )
The recent English mortality statistics for persons engaged in woolen
and worsted manufacture are fairly conclusive o f the somewhat un­
favorable effects o f this industry on health, and decidedly so as re­
gards the more advanced periods o f life. In the table which follow s
a comparison is made o f the mortality from all causes among men in
this group with that o f occupied males generally, and the result is
suggestive o f conditions in this trade more or less unfavorable to life
and health. An excess in the general death rate o f woolen and
worsted workers is met with at ages 20 to 24, but at all other ages
below 55 the m ortality is below the normal, while at ages 55 to 64
the excess in the general death rate o f woolen and worsted workers is
6.09 per 1,000, and at ages 65 or over it is 40.53 per 1,000.
a P art II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the Registrar-Gen­
eral o f Births, Deaths, and M arriages in England and W ales, p. lx xxvii.




806

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG MALE WOOLEN AND WORSTED WORK­
ERS, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND
WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Death rate for male woolen and
worsted workers.

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years.....................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate
per 1,000,
Greater (+)
lor all oc­
less (—)
cupied Rate per orthan
rate
males.
1,000.
lor all
occupied
males.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

2.19
5.03
5.18
8.90
17.14
37.10
128.92

- 0.25
+ .62
- .83
- 1.32
- .59
+ 6.09
+40.53

Ratio to
rate lor all
occupied
males.
90
114
86
87
97
120
146

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison is made in the next table,
in which the mortality o f woolen and worsted workers from consump­
tion and other respiratory diseases is compared with the normal mor­
tality o f occupied males from these diseases, by divisional periods o f
life. The comparison shows that the mortality from consumption was
excessive at ages 15 to 24 and at 55 years or over. The table further
shows that the mortality from other respiratory diseases was excessive
at ages 15 to 19 and at 65 years or over. The two tables, derived from
English experience, would seem to warrant the conclusion that the
woolen and worsted industry as such is not decidedly injurious to
health. The data, however, are subject to a word o f caution, in that
the woolen and worsted industry includes many employments which
permit o f a comparatively easy transfer to other industries and occu­
pations, so it is quite possible that a fair proportion o f those impaired
because o f continuous exposure to animal and fiber dust, leave the em­
ployment and seek more congenial and healthful occupations in other
branches o f industry. This view is in part susceptible o f statistical
proof by the comparative mortality data o f occupied and o f occupied
and retired males in the woolen industry o f England and Wales, which
for the first time were tabulated for the three years ending with 1902.
The excess in the death rate o f occupied and retired males employed
in this industry over the occupied only was very slight at ages under
35, but 0.32 per 1,000 at ages 35 to 44, 0.86 at 45 to 54, 3.83 at 55 to 64,
and 18.19 at 65 years or over.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

807

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AND FROM OTHER DISEASES OF THE RE­
SPIRATORY SYSTEM AMONG WOOLEN AND WORSTED WORKERS, COM­
PARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO
1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]

Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......
20 to 24 years.......
25 to 34 years.......
35 to 44 years.......
45 to 54 years.......
55 to 64 years.......
65 years or over..

Mortality from consumption.

Mortality from other diseases of the respir­
atory system.

Death rate for woolen and
worsted workers.
Death
rate per
1,000 for
Greater (+) Ratio to
all occu­
less (—) rate for
pied Rate per orthan
rate all occu­
males. 1,000. for
all occu­ pied
pied males. males.

Deathrate forwoolen and worsted
workers.
Death
rate per
1,000 for
Greater (+) Ratio to
all occu­
(—) rate for
pied Rate per or lessrate
all occu­
males. 1,000. forthan
all occu­ pied
pied males. males.

0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.69
2.38
1.81
2.25
2.84
2.27
1.86

+0.15
+ .83
- .22
- .49
- .20
+ .11
+ .75

128
154
89
82
93
105
168

0.24
.48
.77
1.66
3.32
6.54
17.77

0.31
.23
.75
1.45
3.08
6.46
25.44

+0.07
- .25
- .02
- .21
- .24
- .08
+7.67

129
48
97
87
93
99
143

The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f woolen and
worsted m ill workers include 106 deaths, o f which 26, or 24.5 per cent,
were from consumption. O f the mortality o f woolen-mill workers from
respiratory diseases other than consumption, 8 were from pneumonia,
7 from asthma and bronchitis, and 2 from less frequent respiratory
diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and from other respiratory
diseases are combined, it is found that 40.5 per cent o f the mortality
o f woolen-mill workers was from diseases o f the lungs and air pas­
sages. The excess in the consumption mortality o f woolen-mill work­
ers is still more clearly brought out in the tabular presentation o f the
proportionate mortality from this disease by divisional periods o f
life. W hile the consumption m ortality was excessive at all ages, the
excess was most pronounced at ages 25 to 34, when out o f every 100
deaths from all causes 43.8 were from consumption, against a normal
expected proportion o f 31.3. The analysis o f the consumption mor­
tality o f woolen-m ill workers in detail is set forth in the follow ing
table:




808

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG WOOLEN AND
W O R S T E D W O R K E R S , 1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES
IN THE REGISTRATION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE
GROUPS.
[Figures for woolen and worsted workers from experience of an industrial insurance
company; figures for males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics
of the United States census.]
Deaths of woolen and Per cent of deaths due to
worsted workers,1897 consumption among—
to 1906, due to—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total............................. ..........................................

Woolen Males in
and registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
worsted area, 1900
workers. to 1906.
20
16
14
19
24
13
106

7
7
5
4
3

35.0
# .8
35.7
21.1
12.5

26

24.5

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data confirm the con­
clusion that woolen and worsted workers in the United States as a
class are subject to a high m ortality from consumption, but in par­
ticular at ages 15 to 44, and this excess, in view o f the conditions
o f labor briefly described, is in a large measure the result o f healthinjurious circumstances connected with the employment.
CARPET AND RUG MANUFACTURE.

Carpet and rug manufacture may properly be considered a branch
o f the woolen and worsted industry, but it is only the weaving and
finishing processes which require special consideration. The grade
o f yarn used probably has some bearing upon the quantity o f dust
generated during the process o f manufacture, but it is in the so-called
shearing and brushing that atmospheric pollution occurs in excess
o f similar conditions in woolen and worsted mills. The report o f
the Massachusetts state board o f health on dangerous trades con­
tains a brief reference to the sanitary aspects o f the industry, from
which the follow ing is quoted:
The operation o f carpet weaving is accompanied by much dust, and
requires constant attention and keen watching for flaws and “ skips ”
in the weaving. A fter a carpet or rug is woven it is inspected,
sheared, and brushed. The shearing machines cut off all bits o f
fiber and other irregularities, and in so doing create considerable dust,
much o f which is coarse and heavy and does not long remain sus­
pended in the air.
Five carpet factories visited employ about 6,000 persons, about 10
per cent o f whom are between the ages o f 14 and 16. The largest o f
these shows some departments in which poor light, excessive heat,
moisture, and dust constitute the objectionable conditions. One large,



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

809

fairly well lighted room, 220 by 120 by 16 feet, and occupied by 33
persons, has so much fine cotton dust and fiber in the air that it is
with difficulty one can see across it. This dust is very irritating to
the nose and throat.
Some o f the rooms are poorly lighted, some are overheated, and
some are badly ventilated; and one large basement room, 285 by 60
by 13 feet, occupied by 150 women and girls winding yarns on bob­
bins, combines all three o f these objectionable conditions.
The wool-picking room is well lighted, but the air is heavy with
wool fiber, and is at the same time excessively hot. One large dust­
ing machine is equipped with a fan and exhaust dust pipe which
never have been used; indeed, there is no shafting to run the fan.
The machine has been in use upward o f five years, and the person
who operates it has worn a handkerchief over nose and mouth ever
since it was started. The work is exceedingly dusty and dirty.
The weaving rooms o f the next largest o f the five factories are
large and well lighted, but the air contains a noticeable amount o f
dust. Most o f the departments o f this m ill show commendable con­
ditions.
In the third, many o f the children between 14 and 16 are very
small and poorly developed for their age, and are far too poorly
developed to be allowed to work ten hours and twenty minutes for five
days in the week. In many rooms the windows are too far apart,
ana the light is barely sufficient even in good clear weather. The
older weavers complain o f failing eyesight, due to working with poor
light.
One o f the mills o f this establishment, although comparatively
new, is poorly lighted in the picking, carding, winding, drawing,
and roving rooms, but otherwise the conditions are good. In four
o f the weave rooms the ventilation is very inadequate, the light is
poor, and the air is very dusty. ~
The fourth establishment in order is, in the main, poorly lighted
and inadequately ventilated, and the weave rooms are very dusty.
In four rooms m which yarns are dressed the steam boxes are so
loosely constructed that much steam escapes and causes extreme heat
and moisture. About one-tenth o f the employees in this establish­
ment look sickly.
The smallest factory o f all, one which employs ordinarily 500 per­
sons, has good light, adequate ventilation, and commendable weave
rooms. The employees appear to be in good health.
The hygiene o f carpet manufacture has not attracted much atten­
tion, probably because o f the fact that most o f the processes are
practically identical with the corresponding processes in woolen and
worsted manufacture. The occupation classification in the carpet
industry, however, includes a number o f employments peculiar to the
trade, o f which mention may be made o f art-square weavers, cutters
o f chenille cloth, fringe knotters, jute binders, plush weavers, shearers,
steamers, willowers, and wire sharpeners. O f these occupations, em­
ployment at the willowing machines is probably the most dusty, since
it is here that the wool fibers are torn apart and the dust and dirt




810

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

removed. It is also probable that conditions in carpet-weaving
rooms are less favorable on account o f the coarser grade o f yarn used
and the material differences in loom construction. The weaving
process itself is also quite different from the corresponding process
o f weaving in woolen and cotton textiles, and as far as it is possible
to judge, the amount o f dust generated during the weaving processes
is greater in carpet and rug mills than in the corresponding processes
o f other branches o f the textile industry. No qualified investigation,
however, has been made which would warrant a final conclusion, nor
has it been determined whether the amount o f dust in the manu­
facture varies according to the varieties o f carpets made, o f which
the most important are W ilton, Axminster, Kidderminster or ingrain,
tapestry Brussels, and Venetian. The manufacture o f matting is a
separate industry, with exposure to vegetable fiber and mineral dusts,
while in the manufacture o f door mats the principal exposure is to
mixed fiber dust. A rlidge sums up his conclusions regarding the
hygiene o f carpet making, briefly, as follow s:
The wool used for carpet making is o f coarse and short fiber; it
is formed into a yarn, which is next wound on bobbins by child labor
in readiness for the weavers’ looms. Hand-loom weaving has been,
for the most part, supplanted by the power loom, with the ad­
vantage o f materially lessening the labor o f the weavers. The manu­
facture o f carpets is attended with considerable dust o f a mixed
character o f wool and hemp, but no data are within reach to furnish
information as to the extent in which it operates as a cause o f disease.
The m ortality o f males employed in carpet manufacture was re­
ported upon in the Supplement to the F ifty-fifth Annual Report o f
the Registrar-General o f England and Wales. The number o f men
employed was comparatively small, having been only 8,532 at ages 15
or over, hardly warranting definite conclusions in view o f the short
period o f three years for which the mortality data were returned. In
general terms it was held that the death rates o f carpet makers at the
various age groups compared favorably not only with those o f other
textile workers but also with those o f other occupied males. The com­
parative m ortality was 873, which is 8 per cent below the standard.
Am ong the causes o f death o f numerical importance consumption was
22 per cent in excess o f the normal, and diseases o f the respiratory
system other than consumption were 11 per cent in excess. The
m ortality o f carpet makers from diseases o f the nervous, circulatory,
digestive, and urinary systems appears to be below the average.
One fact which requires to be taken into consideration, however, is
that in carpet weaving considerable physical strength is required,
which accounts for the comparatively small proportion o f women
weavers. This, at least, is true o f the weaving o f Brussels carpet
and probably applies to other grades. It is the opinion o f those
who are thoroughly fam iliar with the industry that men o f excep­



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

811

tional physique are required, and naturally among such a class the
death rate should be low unless very abnormally increased by special
causes. The most recent English mortality statistics o f carpet and
rug manufacture are for the three years ending with 1902, referred
to in the Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the
Registrar-General in part as follow s:
Here again the workers are too few in number to justify more than
general examination. It appears that the mortality in this industry
is below the standard for occupied and retired males at ages 25-45
years, but above it at all other ages. In the main working time o f life
the comparative m ortality figure is 1,044, or 4 per cent above the
standard. These workers show a fatality in excess o f the average
from cancer and from diseases o f the nervous and circulatory systems,
but in defect o f the average from influenza, alcoholism, and liver
disease, as well as from accident and suicide. (a)
The recent English mortality statistics o f carpet and rug makers
are quite conclusive o f the more or less unfavorable effect o f this
industry on health. In the table which follow s a comparison is made
o f the m ortality from all causes among men in this-group with that
o f occupied males generally, and the result is decidedly suggestive
o f conditions in this trade more or less unfavorable to health and life,
but in particular at very advanced ages, when at 65 years or over the
excess in the death rate o f carpet and rug makers was 28.38 per 1,000.

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG MALE CARPET AND RUG MAKERS,
COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES,
1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Death rate of male carpet and rug
workers.

Age at death.

15 to 19 years......................................................................
20 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................

Death rate
per 1,000 for
all occu­
pied males. Rate per
1,000.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

Greater (+)
or less (—)
than rate
for all occu­
pied males.

Ratio to
rate for all
occupied
males.

2.89
+ 0.45
5.19 + .78
5.86 - .15
9.43 ’ - .79
18.30 + .57
33.94 + 2.93
116.77
+28.38

118
118
98
92
103
109
132

The preceding table is self-explanatory and requires no further
comment. A more extended comparison is made in the next table, in
which the mortality o f carpet and rug makers from consumption is
compared with the normal mortality o f occupied males from this dis° P a r t II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report o f the RegistrarGeneral o f Births, Deaths, and M arriages in England and W ales, p. xc.




812

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

ease, by divisional periods o f life. The comparison shows that the
mortality from consumption was above the average at ages 15 to 24,
35 to 44, and 55 to 64. Making allowance for the rather small num­
bers from which this table is derived, it is probably safe to assume
that if the numerical basis were larger it would more conclusively
indicate a comparatively high degree o f consumption frequency
among men in this employment, at least throughout the active work­
ing period o f life.

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG MALE CARPET AND RUGMAILERS,
COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN ENGLAND AND WALES,
1000 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
Mortality from consumption.
Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......................................................................
20 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 yea rs.....................................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
95 years or over...................................................................

Death rate of male carpet and rug
makers.

Death rate
per 1,000
for all occu­
pied males. Rate for
1,000.
0.54
1.55
2.03
2.743.04
2.16
1.11

0l64
2.59
1.41
3.14
2.94
2.42
1.00

Greater (+)
or less (—)
than rate
for all occu­
pied males.

Ratio to
rate for all
occupied,
males.

+0.10
+1.04
— .62
+— .40
.10
+ .26
- .11

119
167
69
115
97
112
90

The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f carpet and
rug makers include 155 deaths from all causes, o f which 37, or 23.9
per cent, were from consumption. O f the m ortality o f carpet and
rug makers from respiratory diseases other than consumption, 16
were from pneumonia, 6 from asthma and bronchitis, and 4 from less
frequent respiratory diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and
from other respiratory diseases are combined, it is found that 40.6
per cent o f the m ortality o f carpet and rug makers was from diseases
o f the lungs and air passages. The excess in the consumption
m ortality o f carpet and rug makers is still more clearly brought out
in the tabular presentation o f the proportionate mortality from this
disease by divisional periods o f life. W hile the consumption mor­
tality was excessive at all ages, the excess was most pronounced at
15 to 24, when out o f every 100 deaths from all causes, 52.9 were from
consumption, against a normal expected proportion o f 27.8. The
analysis o f the consumption mortality o f carpet and rug makers in
detail is set forth in the follow ing table:




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

813

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG CARPET AND RUG
M A K E R S, 1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRA­
TION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for carpet and rug makers from experience of an industrial insurance company;
figures for males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the
United States census.]
Deaths of carpet and Per cent of deaths due
rug makers, 1897 to to c o n s u m p t i o n
1906, due to—
among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years.......................................................................
25 to 34 years.......................................................................
35 to 44 years.......................................................................
45 to 54 years.......................................................................
55 to 64 years.......................................................................
65 years or oxer..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Males in
Carpet and
All causes. Consump­
tion. rug makers. registration
area, 1900
to 1906.
17
22
17
24
34
41
155

9
10
6
5
4
3
37

52.9
45.5
35.3
20.8
11.8
7.3
23.9

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The preceding observations and statistical data confirm the conclu­
sion that carpet and rug makers in the United States are as a class
subject to an excessive m ortality from consumption, but in particu­
lar at ages 15 to 44, and this excess, in view o f the conditions o f labor
briefly described, is in a large measure the result o f health-injurious
circumstances connected with the employment.
SHODDY MANUFACTURE.

Shoddy manufacture is an important branch o f the woolen and
worsted industry, although the number o f wage-earners employed is
comparatively sm all.' In 1905 there were 97 establishments manufac­
turing shoddy in the United States, em ploying 2,089 wage-earners,
compared with 1,926 in 1900, an increase o f 8.5 per cent during the
intervening quinquennial period. O f the number o f persons employed,
1,625 were adult males, 458 were women, and 6 were children under
16 years o f age.(a) The materials used in shoddy manufacture are
chiefly woolen and worsted rags, including tailors’ clippings and wool
extract, which is the wool fiber derived from rags, freed by a process
known as carbonizing o f the vegetable material with which it may
have been intermixed, such as cotton and other vegetable fiber. Most
o f the shoddy made at the present time is all wool, and it is an error
to assume that all shoddy goods are really undesirable for wearing
purposes, since a very considerable proportion is cloth made wholly o f
wool but produced at a price which affords to poor people a satisfac­
tory article o f wear. It is also an error to assume that through shoddy
loathsome diseases are conveyed to the wearer, except possibly in ex­
ceedingly rare instances, since the process o f shoddy manufacture i
« Census o f M anufactures, 1905, Part II I , p. 116.




814

BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR.

such as to insure absolute cleanliness and the destruction o f all active
germs whether innocuous or pathogenic. This statement o f facts is
derived in part from the special census report on textiles, in which
the shoddy industry is considered at some length. It is pointed out
in that report that new wool or animal hair is always the basis o f the
yarn intermixed with a certain amount o f shoddy, the fiber o f which
is too short to be carded and spun alone. W hile the completed cloth
is not as durable as the cloth made from new wool, it is by no means
lacking in wearing quality, as is commonly supposed, for as pointed
out in the census report just referred to, shoddy in fact is one o f the
most useful o f modern by-products in manufacture, in which the utili­
zation o f waste is an important item o f economy. 44Shoddy is not,”
in the words o f the report, 44woolen rags ground to powder, but
rags that are picked, leaving a good staple suitable for spinning.
Some o f the most substantial o f goods that are made, doing service­
able work for a number o f years, contain a portion o f shoddy
mixed with wool.” The process o f converting the rags into wool
fiber suitable for carding consists o f a picking process in a ma­
chine known as a 44shoddy-picker,” and this constitutes a very
dusty process which no doubt gives rise to health-injurious circum­
stances, to which, in part, reference has been made in the discus­
sion o f the hygiene o f the paper industry, to which subsequent refer­
ence w ill be made in discussing rag collecting and rag sorting as a
separate occupation. An essential difference, however, has to be kept
in mind, and that is that only woolen and worsted rags are used in
shoddy manufacture, while cotton and linen rags are used in paper
manufacture.
%
In discussing the whole subject o f rags and their products in rela­
tion to health, Mr. John A . E. Stuart, medical officer o f health, Batley,
Yorkshire, refers to the manufacture o f shoddy, in part, as follow s:
The dust which rises from rag machines consists o f particles o f
wool and also o f filth adherent to the various kinds o f rags. It is
highly irritating to all the respiratory passages, especially in those
who are novices at the trade, but older hands become inured to it
and tolerate it well. A train o f symptoms is developed, called
44shoddy fever.” It is accompanied by high fever, with nasal catarrh
and frontal headache, and a certain amount o f bronchial catarrh. It
is ushered in by shivering, malaise, and general muscular pain. It
is almost indistinguishable from epidemic influenza, and i f treated
on similar lines recovery is soon secured. The only difference is that
the catarrhal symptoms are the result o f local irritation, and, con­
sequently, when that is removed, the febrile condition soon subsides.
Shoddy fever is easily induced in persons who have been out o f the
m ill for a few weeks and return to work, in persons suffering from
general catarrh, or in habitual drunkards.
A distinction is made by English writers between shoddy and
mungo, the form er being made from soft rags and the latter from



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

815

cloth rags, while the commoner kind o f flocks, so called, are manufac­
tured from a variety o f raw materials, including the refuse o f the
shoddy trade, while the superior qualities are manufactured from the
better grade o f raw material. The lowest class o f flocks is made
from old carpets, with a backing o f hemp or other vegetable fiber,
and the product is used for stuffing beds and articles o f furniture.
The preliminary methods o f manufacture o f shoddy, mungo, and flocks
are practically the same. “ Flock fever” may here be referred to.
This is met with in flock manufacture, and upholsterers working with
flocks are occasionally sufferers from the dust. According to Stuart,
workers in shoddy mills suffer from bronchitis and emphysema o f
the lungs, but those who do so are the older men, who* began to work
before so much oil was used with the rags as is at present the case,
at least in English shoddy factories. The process is known as car­
bonizing, which is applied to rags which have a certain amount o f
cotton in them, and is stated to be occasionally the cause o f bron­
chitis and emphysema, but men working in carbonizing mills state
that it is quite exceptional for men to be off on account o f illness. (a)
Arlidge has described the process o f shoddy manufacture in more
detail than any other writer on the subject, and his observations and
conclusions are quoted, in part, as follow s:
The first operation consists in a more careful separation o f the
woolen from cotton and linen rags, as received from the rag dealers.
It is one attended by the evolution o f much dirty dust obnoxious to the
respiratory organs, and now and then charged with animal poisons o f
a contagious or infectious nature. As an entirely unskilled operation,
bringing small reward, sorting is undertaken by a lower class o f
female workers, indifferently careful o f their own sanitary well-being.
The sorted rags are next torn up by a machine called a “ d ev il/’
into small fragments. This process is necessarily a most dusty and
otherwise objectionable one, but as it is done in an inclosed machine,
comparatively little dust escapes into the surrounding air. The
heavier particles fall to the bottom, whilst the lighter are driven by
a strong blast o f air, blown through the machine by a fan, along a
capacious tube or conduit, and disposed o f in an outside place. * * *
A further tearing apart, scribbling, or grinding is accomplished
by a rough carding process, whereby a disintegrated mass o f finely
broken up wool fibers is obtained. A fter the free addition o f vege­
table oil to this material, it is transferred to “ w illying ” and roving
machines, from which it emerges as a filmy sheet, which is immedi­
ately, by a semirotary action o f the machine, converted into a
“ shiver, ready for future spinning and weaving.
The addition o f the oil to the carded material has the great sani­
tary gain o f obviating the emission o f dust in the subsequent opera­
tions. W hilst in the disintegrated shape, additions o f new wool and*4
6
a F or a technical description o f the process o f carbonizing and the manu­
factu re o f shoddy, see Principles o f W oolen Spinning, by H ow ard Priestman, p.
46 et seq. New York, 1908.




816

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

o f cotton are made. The wool used for cloth making is what is known
as short wool, and is not suitable to the worsted spinners.
A fter the cloth is woven it passes through m anifold other opera­
tions. Those first pursued are intended to remove defects in the
tissue, and to fit it for dyeing and pressing. Others that follow are
fulling (beating the cloth by heavy w eights), dressing, raising the
pile by teazles fixed in revolving frames, drying in hot chambers,
shearing or cutting down the pile, and some finishing processes, such
as subjecting the cloth to steam in order to remove the gloss con­
sequent on previous pressure between steam rollers.
The only sanitary conditions to be found in these sundry proceed­
ings requiring notice are the dust given off when the pile is raised
in dry d o th ; the elevated temperature o f the drying room, reaching
as it does 180° and upward, and the steam generated in the last
operation described. Shearing is a comparatively leisurely proceed­
ing, and the fine shavings cut off have a cohesive nature which
opposes their diffusion in, the form o f dust. In the other depart­
ments enumerated, the work is perform ed by adult men, who are also
few in number.
These observations are in part not quite applicable to American
conditions, but no descriptive account o f shoddy manufacture in this
country has been made a matter o f record with special reference to the
hygienic circumstances o f the occupation. In a large measure, o f
course, the processes subsequent to the preparation o f the material
fo r spinning and weaving are identical with those o f woolen and
worsted manufacture, but it is quite probable that the amount o f dust
generated during these processes is somewhat larger in shoddy manu­
facture. The investigations o f A rlidge do not confirm similar in­
quiries as to the frequency o f shoddy fever at the present time, but it
is quite probable that there are sufficient variations in the methods o f
manufacturing, especially in the grades o f rags handled, which may
easily account for the absence o f shoddy fever in one locality and its
occurrence in another.
These brief observations are concluded by an extract on the manu­
facture o f shoddy, included in a report on dangerous occupations by
the state board o f health o f Massachusetts, published in 1907:
Shoddy is made from woolen rags, which come ordinarily to the
m ill in the form o f bales. The first process, after the bales are
opened, is that o f sorting, which is done by women, who pick out all
cotton rags, silk mixtures, buttons, and other foreign matters. The
selected rags are treated in a large vat with dilute sulphuric acid,
which attacks and destroys all cotton fibers which may be present, and
then they are removed from the bath and allowed to drain. Next
they are spread on racks over steam pipes, and dried at a temperature
o f about 100° F. in a confined space, which, before the dried rags are
removed each day, is thoroughly ventilated, by opening the windows
and operating a blower, so that the men who do the work may not be
exposed to the fumes. The rags are next washed, and then are picked
apart by machinery. The product is a pure wool o f short fiber and




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

817

very clean, which is sold either dyed or undyed. Two establishments
o f this class were examined, one o f which is poorly lighted, inade­
quately ventilated, dusty, and ill kept; the other is light, clean, and
well ventilated. Some o f the women employed appeared to be in poor
physical condition.
There are no official vital statistics o f this' occupation, but it is evi­
dent that while the circumstances o f the employment are apparently
decidedly objectionable, and while the dust generated during certain
processes is considerable, the evidence that the employment itself is
distinctly injurious to health is not a matter o f trustworthy record,
nor is it even conclusively evident that there is any particular
amount o f disease caused by employment even in the most objection­
able branches o f the industry which have to do with rag sorting and
grinding, which w ill be subsequently considered as a separate occu­
pation.
THE BAG INDUSTBY.

Rag collecting, sorting, and grinding, for subsequent use in paper
mills, shoddy factories, and for other industrial purposes, include a
group o f occupations peculiarly exposed to the risk o f dust inhala­
tion, but where the dust is o f such a mixed character that it is ex­
tremely difficult to define with accuracy the quality o f the dust or the
character o f its ingredients. The conditions under which this work
is carried on vary so widely, according to locality and circumstances,
that no definite line can be drawn. The employment has always
attracted the attention o f those who have written on the hygiene o f
occupations, chiefly because o f the low status o f the persons employed
and the high degree o f theoretical risk to infectious diseases, and the
probably health-injurious results otherwise due to the continuous and
considerable inhalation o f health-injurious dust. Since previous
references have been already made to this employment in discussing
paper and shoddy manufacture, it is only necessary here to very
briefly restate the general facts o f the sanitary aspects o f the industry
as they have been presented by the most recent authorities on the
subject.
Dr. B. W . Richardson, w riting in 1876, referred to an earlier
article in the Journal o f Public Health for January, 1859, by Mr.
J. J. Murray, o f Edinburgh, who had investigated the health o f those
who worked among rags, including such as collected junk and other
second-hand materials. According to Richardson, “ Mr. Murray
expected, very naturally, that he should find amongst the workers in
these tattered and filthy stores some suffering from contagion, others
from the products o f decay o f the animal and vegetable constituents
o f the rags; others from inhaling and swallowing dust. An inquiry
made by him at twenty-three paper mills to which rags were sent and




818

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

o f twenty-three rag collectors in Edinburgh led to the curious return
that epidemic or contagious disease from this source was practically
unknown amongst workers in rags, that there was no evidence o f
disease from the decomposition, but that some workers suffered from
bronchial affections, cough, and shortness o f breath from inhaling
the dust which is cast off in large quantities from the rags, when
they are made to revolve in the wire-cloth cylinder which is used
to free them from dirt and dust.” The paper makers o f whom
inquiry was made as to diseases met with among workers in rags
were o f the opinion that, with the exception o f the effects o f dust,
there was no unfavorable circumstance, and they referred to one
employer who, during thirty years, with an average o f 10 employees
handling 200 tons o f rags a year, reported only one death during a
period o f ten years. (°) Many similar investigations made during
the intervening period have led to very much the same conclusions.
There is no doubt that infectious diseases are conveyed through rags,
and the experience in Massachusetts, at least at Holyoke, has been to
the effect that outbreaks o f smallpox have been o f greater frequency
in that locality than in any other portion o f the State, while according
to D ’A rcy Power, writing in Oliver’s Dangerous Trades, “ anthrax
or charbon, sometimes known as splenic fever, or malignant postule,”
is occasionally conveyed through rags to rag sorters, upholsterers,
mattress makers, etc., but cases o f this disease, in this country at
least, have been extremely rare.
Dr. John A . E. Stuart, in an article on “ Eags and their products
in relation to health,” contributed to the same work on dangerous
trades, expressed the opinion that people who sorted rags were
occasionally bronchitic and asthmatic from the dust which arises
from them, but he had seldom met with this condition in rag sorters,
although he had known individuals who had been compelled to wear
respirators when sorting on account o f the dust met with in the occu­
pation. He states that—
In the case o f very dirty rags derived from dust heaps, rags which
have been exposed to rain in many cases, it is probable that after
drying the dust would be o f a septic character and might induce
sore throat. Eags from surgical hospitals are decidedly dangerous.
Most persons who work as sorters are infested with fleas, which
simply swarm among the rags, especially the mungo variety.
Thomas Oliver, M. D., in his treatise on Diseases o f Occupation,
after observing that rag sorters in England are generally women and
that the work is anything but pleasant, states that—
This is especially the case with woolen rags, for they so fre­
quently harbor fleas and other pests. A ll bundles o f rags before being
opened ought, therefore, to be first disinfected so as to destroy para-*
* Scientific A m erican Supplement, No. 10, M arcli 4 ,1 8 7 6 .




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

819

sites, and since rags from the surgical wards o f hospitals and private
patients often contain septic material, the importance o f making dis­
infection obligatory is at once apparent. It is when the bundles are
first opened that the danger is greatest. The dust given off is irri­
tating to the respiratory passages and causes dryness o f the throat.
During the grinding o f the rags by machinery considerable quantities
o f dust are thrown off, inhalation o f which is extremely trying to
new hands, but which has little or no immediate effects on the older
work people. Those persons who are new to the trade develop what
is known as “ shoddy fever,” the symptoms o f which are a rise o f
temperature, severe headache, signs o f bronchial catarrh, and run­
ning at the nose. The work people shiver as i f they were going to
have a severe fever, and they complain o f muscular pains. The
symptoms are not unlike those met with in influenza. They rapidly
decline on the work people absenting themselves from the factory for
a few days, but they are apt, in many people, to recur on their return
to work. Kags which contain a good deal o f cotton have to be car­
bonized by being plunged into a bath o f sulphuric or hydrochloric
acid. By this means the cellulose or vegetable part o f the fiber is
destroyed and the wool can be thus extracted from cotton fabrics.
When the rags are subsequently heated to dryness and are beaten, a
considerable quantity of fine dust is evolved, some o f which is inflam­
mable and may be the cause o f an explosion.
In this connection a brief reference may be made to the handling
o f old paper received at paper mills for the purpose of being recon­
verted into new paper, and which in all essentials resembles the
handling, sorting, and grinding of cotton and linen rags. Old
paper, according to the report of the Massachusetts state board of
health, is received in the form of bales, which are opened by men
and sorted by women and girls. It is then conveyed to the duster
on an endless belt, and in this machine it is freed from dust and torn
into pieces by means o f revolving wooden rolls bearing iron pins.
The pieces o f paper are then sorted over like rags, but are not put
through the choppers, passing immediately from the dusters, so
called, to an open cooking tub, subsequent to which the dust factor
is reduced to a minimum. The results of the investigations by the
Massachusetts state board of health are summed up as follow s:
From the above description it will have been noted that from the
opening o f the bales of rags or paper to the cooking process the vari­
ous steps involve exposure to varying quantities o f dust, the greatest
amount being given off in the earliest operations. It appears that,
no matter how constructed, how carefully inclosed, how well provided
with blowers and dust flues, a certain amount o f dust is inevitable
in the rooms where the threshers and choppers are installed and
operated, excepting when unusually clean materials are being
handled. I f the machines are loosely sheathed or are not adequately
equipped with dust-removal devices, the amount given off may be
considerable to enormous, according to material. Unless the most
dusty rooms are tightly partitioned off from other less dusty ones—
63675— No. 79—09---------- 13



820

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

as, for example, a threshing from a sorting room—the amount of
dust in the air in the latter must necessarily be augmented. In a
number o f the mills visited the air o f the whole rag department was
observed to be filled with dust and lint.
The character o f the dust brought in with rags varies consid­
erably, as would naturally be surmised from their many different
places o f origin. Some o f the employees state that while at first they
suffered from sore throat, cough, and loss o f sleep, after a time they
became so habituated that only an occasional bale causes any discom­
fort. In some mills it was observed that the dust was far more
irritating than that met with in others; especially is this true o f those
in which burlap is used. Some men assert that the dust from rags
o f one color may be worse than that from the same kind o f cloth
differently dyed. Some say that some bales are sickening in their
effects, even to old hands.
O f the threshing rooms visited, a very small number, in which the
machines were exceptionally good and where the cleanest grade o f
rags were being handled, showed no dust; somewhat more, equipped
with the same grade o f machines and working on the same kind o f
material, showed but little dust; and the remainder showed consider­
able to much. About 11 per cent of the sorting rooms were dust­
less, about 25 per cent were not very dusty, and the balance showed
considerable to much. O f the cutting rooms, about 7 per cent showed
little or none and the remainder considerable to much. In a num­
ber o f establishments sorting is conducted in large, airy, welllighted, mechanically ventilated rooms; but in some o f these cutting
machines have been installed, and they create considerable dust.
Indeed, in the matter o f separation o f the several processes mills
vary; in some the duster and cutter machines are installed in sepa­
rate rooms, in some they are in the same room.
In a majority o f the mills visited a portion o f the employees are
exposed to an excessive quantity o f dirt, dust, and lint; and in most
o f this majority the persons so exposed show not a few who are pale
and sickly in appearance. In 19 mills girls under 18 years o f age
were noted as being employed, in no great numbers, in rooms which
were very dusty.
In the department where the paper is actually made there is no
dust, but the temperature is sometimes excessive and the air satu­
rated with moisture. The latter condition is not only promotive o f
discomfort, but exposes the paper to damage through condensation
and dropping, wherefore exhaust ventilation is commonly resorted to.
The paper industry, being one which exposes its followers to every
kind o f dust and dirt which can be carried in rags, is naturally looked
upon by many as a dangerous trade. It is unfortunate that it is
impossible from statistics available to determine in what relation
this industry stands to others o f the dusty occupations. The death
certificates o f the city o f Holyoke, the center o f the business in this
State, were examined; but they proved to be too indefinite for use,
since the terms “ paper worker ” and “ mill hand ” are commonly
applied to all employees, whether engaged in the dusty or nondusty
processes. Comparing, however, the death rates from tuberculosis,
pneumonia, and bronchitis during the years 1901-1904 with those of




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

821

the State at large, it was found that the Holyoke rates were under,
rather than over, the average.
There are"no vital statistics o f this employment nor any published
industrial mortality experience, but the foregoing observations, based
upon careful inquiry into the actual conditions under which work
is carried on in this branch o f industry, would seem to warrant the
opinion that there are serious health-injurious circumstances con­
nected with the employment, but for a definite conclusion there are
at present no satisfactory statistical data for the United States.
UPHOLSTERERS AND H A IR MATTRESS MAKERS.

Upholstering is a well-defined trade, including the making and
renovating o f mattresses, but in occupation vital statistics the employ­
ment is, as a rule, included with other more or less dissimilar occupa­
tions. In the vital statistics o f the census o f 1890 and that o f 1900, as
well as in the occupation mortality statistics for England and Wales,
upholsterers are included with cabinetmakers, for which there is but
very slight warrant in practical experience. As a result the statistics
are not entirely determining for cabinetmakers any more than they
are conclusive for upholsterers. Since it is rare that a cabinetmaker
also performs the duties o f an upholsterer, and vice versa, it would
seem advisable to consider this occupation entirely separate and dis­
tinct, and more so in view o f the fact that the exposure to healthinjurious dust is chiefly that o f vegetable and animal fiber dust in
contrast to the exposure to wood and mineral dusts in the work of
the cabinetmaker. It is fortunate that in the occupation statistics
o f the census the employment has been kept separate, and it is of
both interest and value to note that out o f 28,001 male upholsterers,
aged 16 or over, 977, or 3.5 per cent, had attained to ages 65 or
over.(a)
The work o f the upholsterer consists chiefly in the covering, lining,
and stuffing o f upholstered furniture, while mattress making and
renovating practically constitutes a separate trade. To a limited
extent upholsterers are employed in the renovating o f feather pillows
and mattresses, but this practice never has attained to considerable
proportions in this country, though it is extensively followed abroad.
Mattresses are made chiefly o f curled hair, moss, corn husks, straw,
and flock, and the conditions vary so much that it is very difficult, if
not next to impossible, to define with accuracy the kind o f dust to
which upholsterers are chiefly exposed. Both Arlidge and Oliver
have discussed the hygiene o f the upholsterer’s trade. Arlidge points
® Report o f the Tw elfth Census on Occupations, page 18.




822

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

out that the upholsterer’s occupation is one which is concerned with
the handling o f feathers, flock, down, hair, etc., each and all being
materials laden with dust and almost necessarily productive o f respira­
tory troubles, particularly in the preparatory operation o f cleansing by
means o f beating and washing. Arlidge treats at some length o f flock
making, which has been referred to under “ shoddy manufacture.”
O f the large number o f miscellaneous materials used by upholsterers,
all o f which are more or less productive o f dust during the necessary
manipulation, Arlidge mentions horse and cow hair, feathers, wool
waste, cotton, flock, refuse o f raw cotton, straw, cocoanut fibers, and
seaweed. Most o f these substances, in his opinion, are harmless un­
less they have been previously used or in some other way have ac­
quired infectious qualities. Oliver is also o f the opinion that the
dust o f feathers, flock, hair, etc., as produced in the upholsterer’s
occupation, is provocative o f respiratory troubles. He holds that if
the rags, feathers, and hair have not been previously cleansed the dust
not only causes bronchial irritation, but may be the means of causing
infectious diseases, such as smallpox, erysipelas, and intestinal derange­
ments, such aswomiting and diarrhea.
Oliver refers to the manufacture o f mattresses as an unhealthful
occupation on account o f the dust that escapes from wool and horse­
hair during the operation o f carding, causing cough, difficulty in
breathing, and retching, and if the materials have not been prop­
erly sterilized the dust may, in his opinion, cause blood poisoning. He
refers to a well-known reference in the treatise by Ramazzini on the
diseases o f the Jews, who were at that time engaged chiefly in the
handling or remaking o f old materials, just as at the present time the
secondhand trade is practically limited to the Hebrew race. Ramazzini states that in the beating o f the old wool, which had been daubed
with filth, a great deal o f dust was inhaled, which disposed the work­
men to a violent cough and a difficulty o f breathing, and that he him­
self had observed those who had followed this occupation to have
reduced themselves to an incurable consumption.
The reference to this aspect of the employment by Oliver is as
follow s:
Mattresses that have been lain upon by persons who have died of
infectious diseases occasionally find their way into third-rate uphol­
sterers’ shops, where their contents are picked and mattresses are
remade. It is very dusty work when the picking is done by hand,
and, besides, there escapes an unpleasant, sickening odor which causes
headache and a feeling o f malaise. When mattresses have become
fouled in places by discharges from patients suffering from infectious
diseases, considerable risk is incurred by those who by hand tease the
contents o f such bespoiled bedding.
In the Southern States large quantities of so-called Spanish moss
are gathered and subjected to a process known as moss ginning, to



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

823

prepare the material for mattress making and other purposes in up­
holstery, either alone or as a mixture with hair or other products.
The work is extremely dusty, and the character of the dust inhaled
has not been properly determined, consisting, however, chiefly of
earthy matter and vegetable fiber.
The upholsterer’s employment has been already referred to in the
discussion o f the vital statistics o f cabinetmakers, and while the statis­
tical facts can not be separately stated the employments, as a group,
are evidently subject to a decidedly high mortality from consumption.
The results o f the census investigation in 1890 were fully confirmed
by the subsequent census returns for 1900, proving that the death rate
o f cabinetmakers and upholsterers as a group was excessive from con­
sumption and other diseases o f the respiratory system. Since only
the rates for 1900 were referred to under cabinetmakers, the rates for
1890 are here included. The consumption death rates o f cabinet­
makers and upholsterers during that year were 4.57 per 1,000 in the
registration States, and nearly 5 per 1,000 in the registration cities
only, while the mortality from other respiratory diseases as a group
was 3.03 per 1,000 in the registration States and 3.45 in the registra­
tion cities.
The occupation mortality statistics o f Rhode Island for the decade
1897 to 1906 returned only 25 deaths o f upholsterers from all causes.
O f this number, 6, or 24 per cent, were from consumption, against
17.8 per cent expected on the basis o f the mortality o f all occupied
males in the State. The mortality from respiratory diseases other
than consumption was returned as 3 deaths, or 12 per cent o f the total,
against 12.5 per cent expected. O f the total mortality of upholsterers,
9 deaths, or 36 per cent, were from diseases o f the lungs and air
passages, against a normal expected proportion of 30.3 per cent for
all occupied males in Rhode Island.
The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f upholster­
ers include 381 deaths, of which 118, or 31 per cent, were from con­
sumption. O f the mortality of upholsterers from respiratory dis­
eases other than consumption, 33 deaths were from pneumonia, 5
from asthma and bronchitis, and 8 from less frequent respiratory
diseases. I f the deaths from consumption and from other respiratory
diseases are combined, it is found that 43 per cent o f the mortality of
upholsterers was from disease of the lungs and air passages. The
excess in the consumption mortality o f upholsterers is still more
clearly brought out in the tabular presentation of the proportionate
mortality from this disease by divisional periods of life. While the
consumption mortality was excessive at all ages, the excess was most
pronounced at 25 to 34, when, out of every 100 deaths from all causes,
58.5 were from consumption, against a normal expected proportion




824

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

of 31.3. The analysis of the consumption mortality o f upholsterers
in detail is set forth in the following table:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG UPHOLSTERERS,
1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION
AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for upholsterers from experience of an industrial insurance company; figures
for males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the United
States census.]
Deaths of upholsterers, Per cent of deaths due to
1897 to 1906, due to— consumption among—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

All causes. Consump­
tion.
39
65
79
73
62
63
381

15
38
38
18
3
6
118

Males in
Uphol­ registration
sterers. area, 1900
to 1906.
38.5
58.5
48.1
24.7
4.8
9.5
31.0

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The recorded industrial insurance mortality statistics o f mattress
makers include 41 deaths, of which 16, or 39 per cent, were from con­
sumption. There were 6 deaths of mattress makers from respiratory
diseases other than consumption, all o f these having been caused by
pneumonia. I f the deaths from consumption and from other respir­
atory diseases are combined, it is found that 53.7 per cent of the total
mortality o f mattress makers was from diseases o f the lungs and air
passages. While the aggregate number o f deaths o f mattress makers
is too small to warrant final conclusions, the statistics are given
in detail for the reason that mattress making and upholstering are
closely related and the consideration of the two employments may
very properly be combined. The consumption mortality o f mattress
makers is shown to have been in excess of the normal at all ages and
in this respect the statistics confirm those for upholsterers. The
analysis o f the mortality o f mattress makers from consumption is set
forth in detail in the table below:




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

825

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION AMONG MATTRESS MAK­
ERS, 1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRA­
TION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for mattress makers from experience of an industrial insurance company ^
figures for males in the registration area computed from mortality statistics of the
United States census.]
Deaths of mattress Per cent of deaths due to
makers, 1897 to 1906, consumption among—
due to—
Age at death.

16 to 24 years......................................................................
25 to 34 years......................................................................
35 to 44 years......................................................................
45 to 54 years......................................................................
55 to 64 years......................................................................
65 years or over..................................................................
Total.........................................................................

Males in
Mattress registration
All causes. Consump­
tion.
makers. area, 1900
to 1906.
9
7
11
5
81

4
3
4
2
3

44.4
42.9
36.4
40.0
37.5

41

16

39.0

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
14.8

The available information confirms the conclusion that upholsterers
and mattress makers as a class are subject to an excessive mortality
from consumption, but in particular at ages 15 to 54, and this excess,
in view of the conditions of labor briefly described, is in a large
measure the result of health-injurious circumstances connected with
the employment.
SUM M AR Y OF CONCLUSIONS REGARDING OCCUPATIONS W IT H
EXPOSURE TO A N IM A L AN D M IXED FIBER DUST.

In the preceding observations and statistical data nine specific occu­
pations with exposure to animal and mixed fiber dusts have been
considered in more or less detail. The data for some of the occupa­
tions are too meager to warrant final conclusions, but the information
here presented is decidedly suggestive of health-injurious conditions
in certain of these occupations.
The United States census returns o f 1900 give the age distribution
o f hat and cap makers, silk operatives, woolen mill operatives, carpet
factory operatives, and upholsterers, the aggregate number o f the
males o f known ages 15 years o f age or over being 114,485. O f this
number only 2,805, or 2.5 per cent, had attained to the age o f 65 years
or over, against a normal expected proportion of 4.6. This fact is
decidedly suggestive of conditions more or less unfavorable to health
and life in occupations exposing to animal and mixed fiber dusts.
The details o f the age distribution are given in the following table,
by divisional periods o f life, together with the corresponding per­




826

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

centage distribution o f all occupied males, the data for both groups
being derived from the United States census of 1900:

NUMBER AND PER CENT OF MALES IN EACH AGE GROUP IN OCCUPATIONS
EXPOSED TO ANIMAL AND MIa ED FIBER DUSTS, COMPARED WITH THE
NUMBER AND PER CENT IN ALL OCCUPATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1900.
[From report of the Bureau of the Census on Occupations, 1900.]

Age.

Males in occupations
exposed to animal
' and mixed fiber All occupied males.
dusts.
Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.

65 to 24 years............................................................................
15 to 34 years..
...............................................................
25 to 44 yeans...........................................................................
35 to 54 years.............................................................................
45 to 64 years.............................................................................
55 years or over.........................................................................
Total................................................................................

38,748
31,928
22,096
12,532
6,376
2,805
114,485

33.8
27.9
19.3
10.9
5.6
2.5
100.0

5,933,720
5,993,847
4,704,682
3,250,259
1,856,181
1,063,856
22,802,545

26.0
26.3
20.6
14.3
8.1
4.7
100.0

According to this analysis the proportion o f males aged 15 to 34
was 61.7 per cent, or nearly two-thirds o f ths total number in occupa-r
tions exposed to animal and mixed fiber dusts, against 52.3 per cent
for all occupied males.
The percentage o f occupied males in this
group o f occupations living at age 35 or over was therefore much less
than would be expected on the basis o f all occupied males. The actual
age distribution would indicate that the conditions of employment in
the various occupations considered predispose more or less to a high
mortality largely the result o f exposure to health-injurious dust.
It is impossible to present a combined summary o f the United
States census vital statistics o f persons employed in the occupations
considered in this group. The only occupation for which the facts
are given in the census returns is the group entitled hat and cap
makers. The vital statistics for this class o f employees, when com­
pared with those for occupied males generally, are very suggestive of
unfavorable health conditions in occupations exposing to animal and
mixed fiber dusts. The death rates o f male hat and cap makers are
shown to be higher than for all occupied males at all the divisional
periods o f life for which the facts are obtainable in the census returns.
A t ages 15 to 24 the general death rate per 1,000 o f hat and cap makers
was 5.4 against 5.1 expected; at ages 25 to 44 the rate was 13.1 against
8.8 expected; at ages 45 to 64 the rate was 32.9 against 19.9 expected;
and at ages 65 or over the death rate o f hat and cap makers was
173.1 against 98.4 expected. The death rate per 1,000 employees
from consumption was 4.2 for hat and cap makers, according to the
census returns, against 2.4 expected; and the death rate from respir­
atory diseases other than consumption was 2.6 against 2.0 expected.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

827

The details o f the mortality of male hat and cap makers by age
groups are given in the following table, together with the correspond­
ing death rates for all occupied males, all o f the data being derived
from the United States census o f 1900:

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES AMONG MALE BEAT AND CAP MAKERS IN THE
REGISTRATION STATES, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED MALES IN
THOSE STATES, 1900, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From the report of the Bureau of the Census on Vital Statistics, 1900.]
Male hat and cap makers.
Age.
15 to 24 years........................................
25 to 44 years........................................
45 to 64 years........................................
65 years or over....................................
Total...........................................

All occupied males.

Number Rate per
Rate per
Number ofNumber
deaths 1,000 Number of deaths 1,000
employed.
from
all
from
all
from all from all
employed.
(a)
causes. causes.
causes. causes.
3,148
7,023
2,249
260
12,680

17
92
74
45
228

5.4
13.1
32.9
173.1
618.0

1,259,471
2,680,241
1,282,259
283,310
5,505,281

6,486
23,541
25,532
27,888
83,447

5.1
8.8
19.9
98.4
cl5.2

° The actual numbers employed in each age group are not given in the census report on
irital statistics. The numbers here given are estimated by dividing the number of deaths
by the death rate, as shown in the census, and multiplying the quotient by 1,000.
6 From consumption there were 53 deaths, or a rate of 4 .2 ; from other diseases of the
respiratory system there were 33 deaths, or a rate of 2.6.
c The rate of mortality from consumption was 2 .4 ; from other diseases of the respira­
tory system, 2.0.

The occupation mortality statistics o f Rhode Island are available
for only two specific occupations in this group, upholsterers and
wool sorters. A considerable number o f persons are employed in
woolen and worsted mills in Rhode Island, but they are returned in
the mortality statistics under general terms, such as operatives, spin­
ners, weavers, etc., and the more important o f these groups have
been already considered in the discussion of cotton mill employees.
In Rhode Island during the decade 1897 to 1906, upholsterers and wool
sorters combined returned only 62 deaths from all causes. O f this
number 11, or 17.7 per cent, were from consumption, against 17.8 ex­
pected on the basis of occupied males generally in Rhode Island. The
mortality from respiratory diseases other than consumption in the two
occupations o f this group was 8, or 12.9 per cent, against 12.5 per cent
expected. These numbers are too small to form the basis for a final
conclusion, but the facts are presented to make the analysis complete.
The English vital statistics for this group o f occupations are
available for furriers, hatters, silk mill employees, woolen and
worsted mill employees, and carpet and rug makers. When the
statistics for these occupations are combined they exhibit high death




828

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

rates from all causes at ages 20 to 24 and at ages 45 or over.
details are set forth in the following table:

The

MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES, FROM CONSUMPTION, AND FROM OTHER DIS­
EASES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN OCCUPATIONS EXPOSED TO ANI­
MAL AND MIXED FIBER DUSTS, COMPARED WITH THAT OF ALL OCCUPIED
MALES, IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General
of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales.]
rate per 1,000 due to
Death rate per 1,000 due to Death rate per 1,000 due to Death
other diseasesoftheresp irall causes among—
consumption among—
atory system among—
Age at death.

15 to 19 years.......
20 to 24 years.......
25 to 34 years.......
35 to 44 years.......
45 to 54 years.......
55 to 64 years.......
65 years or over...

Occupations
Occupations
Occupations
exposed to All occupied
All occupied animal
All occupied anSnal and
and
animal
and
males.
males.
males.
mixed fiber
mixed fiber
mixed fiber
dusts.
dusts.
dusts.
2.44
4.41
6.01
10.22
17.73
31.01
88.39

2.38
5.07
5.56
9.48
17.78
37.33
120.64

0.54
1.55
2.03
2.74
3.04
2.16
1.11

0.61
2.49
2.20
2.68
3.24
2.65
1.81

0.24
.48
.77
1.66
3.32
6.54
17.77

0.32
.29
.72
1.45
3.13
7.02
25.12

The table shows that the mortality from consumption among men
in occupations with exposure to animal and mixed fiber dusts was
excessive at all ages except 35 to 44, when the consumption mortality
rate was 2.68 for the occupations o f this group, as against 2.74 for all
occupied males. The excess in the mortality from consumption was
highest at ages 20 to 24, when the rate was 2.49 for the occupations
o f this group against 1.55 for all occupied males. The mortality
from respiratory diseases other than consumption was somewhat
fluctuating when compared with the corresponding rates for all occu­
pied males; nevertheless the differences were slight, except at ages
65 or over, when the mortality for the combined occupations o f this
group was 25.12 per 1,000 against 17.77 for all occupied males.
The industrial insurance mortality statistics are available for seven
occupations included in this group, returning in the aggregate 1,915
deaths o f males from all causes at ages 15 or over. O f this number
615, or 32.1 per cent, were from consumption. The deaths from re­
spiratory diseases other than consumption numbered 242, or 12.7 per
cent. The expected consumption mortality on the basis o f the mor­
tality o f males in the registration area of the United States for the
seven-year period 1900 to 1906 was 14.8 and the expected mortality
from other respiratory diseases was 11.7. When the mortality from
consumption and from other respiratory diseases is combined the
proportionate percentage o f deaths o f males in occupations with
exposure to animal and mixed fiber dusts is found to be 44.8 against
26.5 expected. The following table gives the summary statistics in




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

829

detail for the seven occupations in this group for which the industrial
insurance mortality experience is available:

PROPORTIONATE MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN OCCUPATIONS EXPOSED
TO ANIMAL AND MIXED FIBER OUSTS, 1897 TO 1906, COMPARED WITH
THAT OF ALL MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA OF THE UNITED STATES,
1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Figures for deaths in occupations exposed to animal and mixed fiber dusts are from ex­
perience of an industrial insurance company; figures for males in registration area are
computed from mortality statistics of the United States census.]
Deaths in occupations
exposed to animal Per cent ofdeaths due to
and mixed fiber consumption among—
dusts, 1897 to 1906,
due to—
Age at death.

15 to 24 years.....................................................................
25 to 34 years.....................................................................
35 to 44 years.....................................................................
45 to 54 years.....................................................................
55 to 64 years.....................................................................
65 years or over.................................................................
Total........................................................................

Occupa­
tions ex­ Males in
Consump­
posed
to registration
All causes. tion. animal and
area, 1900
mixed fiber to 1906.
dusts.
248
364
391
292
324
296
1,915

106
194
189
74
39
13
a 615

42.7
53.3
48.3
25.3
12.0
4.4
o32.1

27.8
31.3
23.6
15.0
8.1
2.7
614.8

a There were also 242 deaths from other diseases of the respiratory system, or 12.7 per
;ent of the deaths from all causes.
b The per cent of deaths from other diseases of the respiratory system in the registra­
tion area was 11.7.
i t is evident from the foregoing observations and statistical data
relating to typical employments with exposure to animal and mixed
fiber dusts that the effects o f such exposure are injurious to health,
and particularly so in early life. The summary table shows that the
mortality from consumption o f employees in this group o f occupa­
tions is from 50 to 100 per cent higher at all ages than would nor­
mally be expected.
G E N E R A L SU M M AR Y OF RESU LTS.
A general summary o f the preceding observations and statistical
data does not seem necessary for the present purpose, which is to
emphasize the degree o f consumption frequency in different occupa­
tions rather than the differential degree of lung injury resulting from
exposure to particular kinds o f dust. In an address on “ Tuberculo­
sis as an industrial disease,” read before the Sixth International Con­
gress on Tuberculosis, by the writer, the latter aspect o f the problem
was enlarged upon to a certain extent. The discussion was limited,
however, to industrial insurance mortality experience, at the same
time including occupations exposing also to general organic and mu­
nicipal or street dust, which it was not feasible to include in the pres­



830

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

ent discussion. From the address referred to the following extract
is made:
When all the occupations for which the information is available,
inclusive o f many other than the thirty employments considered in
this discussion, are combined, the proportionate mortality from con­
sumption is 28.0 per cent o f the mortality from all causes at ages 15
and over. In the group o f occupations exposing chiefly to the inhala­
tion o f metallic dust the proportionate mortality from consumption
was 37.4 per cent; in occupations exposing to animal and mixed
fiber dust, 32.3 per cent; in occupations exposing to mineral dust, 28.6
per cent; in occupations exposing to municipal or street dust, 27.5
per cent; in occupations exposing to vegetable fiber dust, 27.4 per
cent; and in occupations exposing to organic dust, 23.7 per cent.
These percentages o f consumption frequency are derived from an
analysis o f 22,987 deaths from all causes in the occupations included
in the investigation.
The analysis may be extended to divisional periods o f life, to em­
phasize the more immediate effects o f health-injurious dust inhala­
tion, and beginning with ages 15 to 24 the proportionate mortality
from consumption was highest in occupations exposing to the inhala­
tion o f animal and mixed fiber dust, or 49.6 per cent o f the mortality
from all causes. In occupations exposing to metallic dust it was 47.1
per cent; to organic dust, 40.9 per cent; to municipal or street dust*
39.8 per cent; to vegetable fiber dust, 39.1 per cent; and to mineral
dust, 31.7 per cent.
A t ages 25 to 34 the proportionate mortality from consumption
was highest in occupations exposing to the inhalation o f metallic
dust, or 56.7 per cent of the deaths from all causes. In occupations
exposing to the inhalation o f vegetable fiber dust it was 53.3 per cent;
o f organic dust, 50.1 per cent; o f animal and mixed fiber dust, 49.7
er cent; o f mineral dust, 47.6 per cent, and of municipal or street
ust, 43.5 per cent.
A t ages 35 to 44 the proportionate mortality from consumption
was highest in occupations exposing to the inhalation o f metallic
dust, or 43.0 per cent o f the deaths from all causes. In occupations
exposing to the inhalation o f animal and mixed fiber dust it was 40.4
per cent; o f vegetable fiber dust, 39.8 per cent; o f mineral dust, 36.3
per cent; o f organic dust, 36.2 per cent, and o f municipal or street
dust, 34.6 per cent.
A t ages 45 to 54 the proportionate mortality from consumption
was highest in occupations exposing to the inhalation of mineral
dust, or 27.9 per cent o f the deaths from all causes. In occupations
exposing to the inhalation o f metallic dust it was 23.6 per cent; o f
animal and mixed fiber dust, 23.2 per cent; o f vegetable fiber dust
22.9 per cent; o f organic dust, 21.9 per cent, and o f municipal or
street dust, 14.2 per cent.
A t ages 55 to 64 the proportionate mortality from consumption
was highest in occupations exposing to the inhalation of mineral
dust, or 16.2 per cent o f the deaths from all causes. In occupations
exposing to the inhalation o f vegetable fiber dust it was 11.6 per cent;
o f metallic dust, 11.5 per cent; o f organic dust, 11.4 per cent; of
animal and mixed fiber dust, 11.2 per cent, and o f municipal or street
dust, 10.8 per cent.

S




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

831

A t ages 65 and over the proportionate mortality from consumption
was highest in occupations exposing to the inhalation o f mineral dust,
or 6.8 per cent o f the deaths from all causes. In occupations expos­
ing to the inhalation o f organic dust it was 4.6 per cent; o f metallic
dust, 3.8 per cent; o f animal and mixed fiber dust, 3.7 per cent; o f
vegetable fiber dust, 3.7 per cent, and o f municipal or street dust,
2.9 per cent.
From the same address is quoted the following concluding portion
summarizing the social and economic aspects o f the tuberculosis prob­
lem in its relation to American industry:
The problem o f occupation mortality and tuberculosis, with spe­
cial reference to that period o f life at which the degree o f consump­
tion frequency is most excessive, may now be briefly restated as fol­
lows: The census mortality rate of 1900 for men in gainful occu­
pations was 15.0 per 1,000 and the consumption death rate 2.4 or 16.0
per cent o f the mortality from all causes. Among men in manufac­
turing and mechanical industries the general death rate was 13.8 per
1,000, and the consumption death rate 2.6, or 18.8 per cent o f the
mortality from all causes. Among men in agricultural, transporta­
tion, and other outdoor occupations (including, however, a consider­
able proportion o f persons o f advanced years) the general death rate
was 15.8 per 1,000, and the consumption death rate 1.5, or 9.5 per cent
o f the mortality from all causes. Contrasting the consumption death
rates in these two groups o f employments, the enormous waste of
human life in industry becomes readily apparent. I f the consump­
tion mortality in dusty trades could be reduced to the corresponding
proportion for men in outdoor occupations, a very large number of
lives would be saved and continue for many years, which are now, to
a large extent, needlessly wasted. The problem may be emphasized
by a few specific illustrations o f occupations exceptionally exposed
to the risk o f dust inhalation. The census mortality rate for marble
and stone cutters was 14.9 per 1,000, and the consumption death rate
5.4, or 36.2 per cent of the mortality from all causes. The general
death rate o f cigar makers was 18.7 per 1,000, and the consumption
death rate 4.8, or 27.7 per cent o f the deaths from all causes. The
general death rate o f printers and compositors was 12.1, and the con­
sumption death rate 4.4, or 36.4 per cent of the mortality from all
causes, while for the strictly outdoor labor class, that is, farmers,
planters, and farm laborers, the general death rate was 17.6 per 1,000,
but the consumption death rate was only 1.1, or 6.25 per cent o f the
mortality from all causes. Granting that these rates are not entirely
trustworthy, and that the census method of mortality investigation
at that time was not as technically perfect as it is at present, and
granting further that all occupation mortality data have their in­
herent defects, when derived from general methods o f population
enumeration and the methods in vogue in the registration o f deaths,
there is not the slightest reason to question the approximate accuracy
o f the foregoing rates and conclusions, which are in strict conformity
to the other facts previously presented.
Estimating the wage-earning population (males and females) o f
the United States at ages 15 or over for 1908 at 31,768,943, and assum­
ing a consumption death rate among this element of the population



832

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

o f 2.2 per 1,000, (a) the number o f deaths from consumption among
wage-earners during 1908 would be approximately 69,892.
Since
it is possible by intelligent factory inspection and control, and with
special regard to ventilation (that is, the removal o f injurious dust
particles at the point o f their origin) to almost entirely eliminate the
conditions injurious to health and life in factories and workshops and
industry generally, it is not going too far to advance it as a funda­
mental principle o f sanitary legislation that the consumption death
rate among wage-earners can be reduced, by intelligent methods, to
a ratio as low as 1.5 per 1,000. ( *6) On the above basis such a reduction
would result in an annual saving o f approximately 22,238 human
lives. Since the average age at death of persons 15 years of age or
over dying from consumption in the registration area of the United
States is 37.4 years and probably not much more than 32 years for
persons employed in strictly dusty trades, and since the normal aver­
age age at death in the mortality from all causes for persons 15 years
o f age or over is 52.8 years, there would be an average expected gain
o f at least 15.4 years o f life for every death from consumption
avoided by rational conditions of industrial life. Such a gain would
represent a total o f 342,465 years o f additional lifetime, and by just
so much the industrial efficiency o f the American nation would be
increased. I f we place the economic value or net result o f a year’s
lifetime at only $200, the total average economic gain to the nation
would be $3,080 for every avoidable death o f a wage-earner from con­
sumption, representing the enormous total o f $68,493,000 as the ag­
gregate annual financial value in the probable saving in years o f adult
human life. With such results clearly within the range of practical
attainment, nothing within reason should be left undone as a national,
This rate is based upon the number o f gainfully employed persons (m ale
and fem ale) 10 years o f age or over in the registration States in 1900 and the
number o f deaths am ong that element o f the population during the census year.
U nfortunately it has not been possible to calculate the corresponding consump­
tion death rate fo r persons gainfully employed o f ages 15 or over, as the nec­
essary data were not included in the census reports. The consumption death
rate o f 2.2, however, w ould be raised rather than low ered i f it w ere possible
to get at the facts, because the consumption death rate is low er at ages 10 to 14
than at ages 15 or over. The calculations based upon the consumption death
rate o f 2.2 per 1,000 o f the gainfully employed are therefore conservative,
being in all probability rather an under than an over statement o f the facts.
6 See article on “ M ortality from consumption in sm all cities,” by Frederick
S. Crum, in Quarterly Publications o f the Am erican Statistical A ssociation fo r
December, 1907, pp. 448-479. In this article, w hich is based on the m ortality
statistics o f the United States census, it is shown that the average annual death
rate from consumption in 209 small cities in the United States fo r the years 1901
to 1905 w as 1.58 per 1,000, and in 30 o f these cities the rate w as below 1.0
per 1,000. I f nine cities w ith over 15 per cent o f Negro population are dis­
carded it is shown that the consumption m ortality fo r the remaining 200 small
cities w as 1.51 per 1,000.




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

833

state, and individual, or social duty to prevent that needless, but now
enormous, loss o f human life from consumption due to unfavorable
conditions in American industry.
T H E PR O B LE M O F V E N T IL A T IO N AN D D U ST R E M O V A L
IN IN D U STRY .
The statistical evidence presented in the preceding discussion o f
dusty trades is entirely conclusive that an excessive degree o f con­
sumption frequency in any particular occupation depends primarily
or largely on the kind and quantity o f dust inhaled by the workmen.
A ll who have written upon the subject with authority emphasize the
importance o f adequate ventilation and dust reduction or removal by
artificial means and methods, but the most conclusive evidence has been
presented in two reports o f an English departmental committee ap­
pointed to inquire into the ventilation o f factories and workshops, the
first being published in 1902, the second in 1907. The reports war­
rant the conclusion that effective ventilation o f factories and work­
shops and the artificial removal o f dust at the point o f origin is en­
tirely practicable and possible at moderate expense. Since these re­
ports are not generally accessible, they are here quoted from at some
length. The committee in its first report, in part, said as follows:
It is evident that the air breathed by the employees in a factory or
workshop can be kept pure in two ways: (1) By constantly renewing
from outside the whole o f the air o f the room in which work is carried
on; (2) by removing impurities locally, or otherwise preventing them
from ever mixing with the air breathed. The former process may be
distinguished as general and the latter as local ventilation. As a
general rule, dust and fumes can best be dealt with by local ventila­
tion or by other means, whereas impurities due to the presence o f
employees and o f lights burning must be got rid o f by general ven­
tilation.
The first report was limited to considerations o f general ventilation,
while the second considered at length the problem o f local ventilation
and other means of preventing injury to health by dust and fumes.
The committee called attention to the agreement o f authorities that
health depends to a large extent on a constant and abundant supply o f
air which is uncontaminated by any substances which would cause
discomfort or which contain poisonous, infective, or otherwise harm­
ful material. By section 7 o f the Factory and Warkshop Act, 1901,
it was provided that “ in every room in any factory or workshop
sufficient means o f ventilation shall be maintained,” and, further,
that “ the secretary o f state may, by special order, prescribe a stand­
ard o f sufficient ventilation for any class o f factories or workshops,
and that standard shall be observed in all factories and work­
shops o f that class.” A large number o f orders have been issued



834

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

under the provisions o f this act, which unquestionably have resulted
in a very material improvement in the conditions affecting health and
industry.
Since the present discussion is limited to dusty trades, the observa­
tions and recommendations o f the committee with reference to the
purity o f the atmosphere in factories and workshops otherwise than
by the impairment o f such purity through dust-generating processes
as cause or effect inseparable from the conditions under which work
is carried on, are passed over. One very suggestive paragraph from
the report with reference to the practical difficulties confronting
efforts at adequate ventilation in the case o f sedentary occupations
is quoted, but the objection on the part o f employees to proper
ventilation depends sometimes on the absence o f proper warming
arrangements during cold weather. The committee points out that—
This often leads to further vitiation o f the air through the lighting
o f gas-burners for heating purposes during the day, a wasteful and
objectionable plan. The establishment o f a legal maximum limit o f
carbonic acid would probably conduce to the provision and use o f
proper heating appliances in such cases. W e are o f opinion that
heating arrangements capable o f maintaining in case of necessity
a temperature at least 25° F. above that o f the outside air, in the
absence o f lights and employees, but along with adequate ventilation*
should be provided in all factories and workshops where the occu­
pation is sedentary or involves little muscular exertion, and should
be regularly used in the colder weather. In such occupations the
temperature should not be less than about 60° F., particularly where
the work involves delicate manipulations with the hands.
In the evidence appended to the first report the committee in­
cluded the results o f a scientific examination o f the problem o f
ventilation in clothing factories, tailoring workshops, dressmaking
and millinery workshops, boot and shoe workshops, laundries, cabi­
net and upholstery works, in establishments engaged in the making of
bread, confectionery, and articles o f food, letterpress printing, book­
binding, the manufacture o f stationery and cardboard boxes, en­
gineering and metal trades, file cutting, and the manufacture o f the
different varieties o f textiles. The evidence collected was o f a highly
scientific and conclusive character, and the methods o f inquiry em­
ployed are suggestive o f the corresponding methods required for the
proper determination o f the circumstances injurious to health and
life in all dusty trades.
In the second report the committee dealt with the application o f
fans to factory ventilation in connection, more particularly, with the
removal o f dust, steam, fumes, and other impurities associated with
other manufacturing processes, and also with the very important ques­
tion o f the use of respirators by workmen engaged in occupations
which can not be successfully subjected to artificial methods o f ven­



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

835

tilation and dust removal. The committee discussed at considerable
length the highly technical aspects of ventilating engineering, in­
cluding the selection of fans and the relative utility o f low and high
pressure fans according to particular circumstances inseparable from
the conditions under which given industries are carried on. It con­
sidered the volume of air required for different purposes of ven­
tilation and the arrangement of inlets and outlets, fully illustrating
its observations by a large number o f charts and diagrams which
clearly emphasized the strictly scientific manner in which the in­
vestigations o f the committee were made to secure the practical
solution o f the problems which confronted them. From the remarks
regarding general ventilation some o f the more important and sug­
gestive extracts are here quoted:
Certain impurities can hardly be prevented from becoming gener­
ally distributed in the air o f a room, and can thus only be dealt with
by general ventilation o f the room. In most cases this is true o f the
products o f respiration and o f combustion o f gas, the water evapo­
rated in wet processes, and the heat given off from moving or artifi­
cially heated machinery, and in some cases of the production o f dust.
In removing these impurities, or sources o f inconvenience, the supply
pf air must be sufficient for the particular purpose in view. If, for
Instance, heat or dust has to be removed, the ventilation must be suffi­
cient to effect this removal, and not merely to dilute the products of
respiration.
The quantity o f air required to remove excessive heat and moisture
can not well be calculated in the same way, as the loss o f heat through
walls and roof is usually not known, and in any case varies with the
weather. The air supply must therefore be regulated with the help
o f thermometers. A ir in which the reading by the wet-bulb ther­
mometer exceeds about 70° begins to cause serious inconvenience with
ordinary clothing, and this limit ought not to be exceeded in fac­
tories or workshops except under exceptional conditions.
Experiments show that i f the wet-bulb reading rises beyond about
88° in fairly still air, the body temperature can no longer be pre­
vented from rising seriously even in persons stripped to the waist and
doing no w ork; and with muscular work under the same conditions
the body temperature may rise rapidly at a wet-bulb temperature o f
80°. W ith ordinary clothing this effect is considerably greater. A t
the upper limits it is not the temperature o f the air, but that o f the
wet-bulb thermometer, that matters; and, provided that the air is so
dry that the wet-bulb temperature does not exceed the limits specified,
air temperatures up to 130° or more can be tolerated without rise of
bodily temperature. Much higher wet-bulb temperatures can o f
course be borne for short periods, but the body temperature soon rises
seriously.
In removing steam from rooms it must be borne in mind that cold
air is apt to cause condensation o f aqueous vapor. Thus i f air
saturated with moisture at 80° is mixed with even ten times its vol­
ume o f air from outside at 40° condensation will nevertheless usually
occur, and will always do so, whatever the dilution, i f the incoming
air is saturated with moisture at the outside temperature. If, how­
ever, the incoming air be warmed to a moderate extent as it enters,

63675—No. 79—09----- 14


836

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

this condensation will be prevented, and the ventilation will serve
the double object o f cooling the room and preventing condensation.
I f it is only necessary to prevent condensation of vapor and not to
remove heat, the object can often be best attained by. providing not
extra ventilation, but heating arrangements. In the case of dye
works, etc., where the building is often filled with steam from the
vats, experience shows that the atmosphere is best cleared and conden­
sation avoided by blowing in air heated by passing through a coil or
other form o f radiator.
As regards removal o f dust, the standard o f purity aimed at should
always be sufficient to prevent injury to health, and should also be
such as to prevent inconvenience and enable those employed to be
clean when they leave work, after washing, if necessary. Dust from
the disintegration o f hard stone, steel grinding, etc., is extremely
deleterious, and the same may be said o f dust containing any poison­
ous constituent, such as lead. In such cases the dust should, by
special means, apart from general ventilation, be entirely prevented
from mixing with the general atmosphere of a room ; and the same
remark applies to all poisonous gases and fumes.
The effect o f ventilation on the temperature o f a working room
during cold weather needs careful regulation. For sedentary work and
fine manipulations a temperature of not less than about 60° is required.
With lower temperatures the working powers o f those present be­
come impaired; and the effects o f the low temperature are much
increased by drafts. On the other hand, if the work implies active
exertion, lower temperatures are permissible; and some kinds of work
associated with dust, fumes, etc., can best be performed in sheds open
to the air. In general, the more nearly open-air conditions can be
attained in any class o f work, the better; and, whenever possible,
windows should be thrown widely open in summer weather.
Commenting upon the dust problem in particular and its relation
to health, it is pointed out in a,footnote to the report that it is some­
times difficult to say whether the inhalation of a given variety o f dust
is definitely injurious. The committee, therefore, held that—
Dust from any hard stone (such as flint, granite, sandstone, etc.)
is undoubtedly very injurious to the lungs, producing a marked pre­
disposition to phthisis. On the other hand, coal dust, cement dust,
and probably many other varieties o f organic and inorganic dust have
by no means the same serious effects. During our inquiry many ex­
periments have been made by Professor Bitchie with a view to find­
ing a means o f experimentally distinguishing the more injurious
from less injurious dusts, but unfortunately no satisfactory results
have as yet been reached.
In the discussion of the problem o f local ventilation, the com­
mittee came to the conclusion that—
Dust, fumes, steam, and other impurities unavoidably given off into
the air should, wherever possible, be removed locally, and thus pre­
vented from mixing with the general air o f the room. Ventilation
with this object in view may be distinguished as “ local ventilation.”
Local ventilation is best carried on by means o f exhaust fans, which



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

837

may be o f the propeller type if large ducts and low velocities of air
will suffice. In many cases, however, centrifugal fans are essential,
and usually they are preferable on account of the liability o f pro­
peller fans to be interfered with by wind, etc. Fans used for the
removal o f corrosive fumes should be efficiently protected from their
action. The question o f possible injury to bearings or other parts by
gritty material, and o f possible blockage by fibrous material, should
also be borne in mind in selecting a fan.
I f dust or fumes are allowed to escape in any quantity into the gen­
eral atmosphere o f a room enormous volumes o f air are required to
remove or dilute them sufficiently. Great discomfort from cold or
else great expense in heating are thus entailed, so that it is in every
way preferable to remove them by local ventilation. The nearer to
their points o f production they can be removed the less will be the
quantity o f air required, and consequently the less will be the discom­
fort and expense which they cause.
Dusty machines which can not be completely boxed in should, if
possible, be provided with an exhaust sufficiently powerful to draw
the dust from exposed parts inward through the machine to an ex­
haust opening. Wheels used in dry grinding, polishing, etc., should,
wherever possible, be inclosed and provided with an exhaust from a
centrifugal fan capable of giving a current at high velocity around
the exposed part of the wheel. The part of the wheel left open should
be as small as is consistent with efficient working.
Dusty operations, such as the transference and packing o f dry and
lusty material, should, if possible, be carried out by mechanical
arrangements boxed in so as to prevent the escape o f dust, and com­
bined, i f necessary, with local exhaust ventilation. This is extremely
important where the material contains some poisonous or harmful
substance, such as lead, bichromate o f potash, powdered flint, etc.
Where such arrangements are not possible thoroughly efficient
respirators should be used in the case o f dangerous material.
For manipulations by hand in which dust, poisonous spray, or
objectionable fumes are given off, working places provided each with a
separate exhaust opening can often be arranged. The table at which
the work is done should have an exhaust opening cut through it or
placed behind it and so arranged that the dust arising from the
work is drawn away from the mouth o f the person working and into
a duct placed beneath or behind the table. The provision o f a hood,
which may be made of glass, so as not to obstruct the light, greatly
helps the action o f the exhaust, which must be sufficient to actually
prevent the dust from reaching the mouth o f the worker. Where
the dust requires to be collected a settling chamber under the exhaust
opening can sometimes be provided.
O f the important and suggestive remarks o f the committee regard­
ing matters o f technical detail in the installation o f local ventilation,
mention is made only o f those regarding operations in wool sorting
and rag sorting. In these occupations the committee thought the best
way to manipulate the dusty material was on a flat-wire grating
through which air is exhausted from below. It was held that in such
a case the rate o f flow at every part o f the grating must be sufficient




838

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

to draw the dust downward, and that the whole arrangement, includ­
ing inlet ventilation to the room, must be such that this purpose is
effected under all conditions, for it was explained that—
It often occurs that a large dusty machine can not be sufficiently
inclosed for the effective application o f direct-exhaust ventilation, or
that dusty work by hand can not be confined to the immediate neigh­
borhood o f an exhaust opening. In these cases air inlets and outlets
should be so arranged as to carry off the dust in such a direction as
to contaminate as little as possible the air in positions where persons
have to be present. The most generally available plan is to have
the exhaust openings in the floor around each dusty machine, or as
close as possible to whatever the source of the dust may be, and to
allow air to enter in an abundant stream from the roof above, warmed
if necessary to prevent impact o f cold draft on workers. As dust
tends naturally to fall to the floor, it is best to remove it downward
unless a rapid air current, sufficient to draw it in any direction, is
available. I f the machine is placed near a wall and no person is
required to work between the wall and the machine, the dust may
be advantageously exhausted through a fan placed low down in the
wall and securely guarded.
In the case o f machines which can not be boxed in it will often be
found that the dust is produced at some particular point where it ivs
capable o f being locally removed. Thus, for illustration, the com
mittee stated that i f the dust is produced as the material is passed
through rollers, as in the operation performed by a machine known
as a spread board in flax spinning, exhaust ventilation applied close
to each roller will remove it completely with a minimum of trouble
and expense. In continuation o f the discussion the committee pointed
out that—
With regard to all exhaust openings for extraction o f dust, etc., it
must be clearly borne in mind that in whatever direction the opening
may point the air feed is from all round; hence the radius within
which a perceptible draft is produced toward the opening is
extremely limited. The air current toward an exhaust opening can
not be directed except by cumbrous air guides, whereas the current
from an inlet can be directed just like the water issuing from a fire­
man’s hose.
It is held that hitherto hardly any advantage has been taken of
the latter fact in connection with the removal o f dust and fumes,
but the committee was confident that many difficult cases can be suc­
cessfully dealt with by utilizing the momentum o f air issuing from
an inlet opening, and i f compressed air in small tubes is available,
fine jets of it directed across any source o f dust and fumes toward
a large outlet opening would be decidedly effective. It, therefore,
suggested as a plan to test the efficiency o f any arrangement for the
local removal o f dust or fumes the simple method o f a piece of
smoking brown paper or other material held at the place where the
dust or fumes are given off.



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

839

In the case o f dust which may not be discharged into the open air
on account o f the nuisance or damage which it would cause to the sur­
rounding locality and which must, therefore, be separated from the
discharged air, the “ Cyclone separator ” is often extremely effective,
and this separator the committee describes by illustrations in the ap­
pendix. The invention requires little space and is easily erected at a
point either near to or remote from the fan. It was stated, however,
that—
The dust may also be separated in a settling chamber, taking the
form o f a room or an outhouse set apart for the purpose. In this case
the addition o f steam from a jet will often greatly facilitate the pre­
cipitation o f light dust. Heavier metallic particles can be blown into
a tank o f water. A common defect in settling chambers is the neglect
to provide a sufficient outlet for the spent air, by which means the
whole arrangement for exhausting and settling the dust is rendered
ineffective.
As it is evident that the circumstances under which fan ventilation
needs to be applied vary greatly in different rooms and different proc­
esses o f manufacture, we would, in conclusion, take this opportunity
o f pointing out the necessity o f carefully considering the special con­
ditions requiring to be dealt with in each individual case, and the
desirability o f obtaining competent skilled advice in all cases of
doubt, or o f employing, in the installation o f fan ventilation, only
such firms as are known to have at their disposal the requisite knowl­
edge and experience.
Finally, in concluding its extremely valuable report, the committee
considered the use o f respirators, as follow s:
The use o f respirators capable o f arresting dust is often recom­
mended in connection with factory work as a substitute for efficient
removal o f dust. Experience has, nowever, shown that it is extremely
difficult to enforce the use o f respirators, as they are all more or less
uncomfortable and inconvenient, besides being unsightly. It is also
very difficult to keep respirators in working order and closely applied
to the face. Often enough it is found that most o f the air breathed
by a person wearing a respirator leaks in between the face and the
respirator, and is consequently unfiltered. This is particularly apt
to happen after a respirator has been worn sufficiently long for the
filtering material to become damp and clogged with moisture. E x­
cept, therefore, where dust is definitely dangerous and can not be
dealt with by exhaustion, or by using wet processes, or in other ways,
we are unable to recommend the use o f respirators as an alternative
to keeping the air clear o f dust.
For the exceptional cases in which it is necessary for men to work
in air containing poisonous or otherwise dangerous dust, the mouth
and nose may be kept covered by a sheet o f fresh cotton wool kept
closely applied all round by suitable fastenings passing round the
neck. This forms a reliable and efficient respirator, and is commonly
used by men who have to perform such work as the removal o f arsenic
from arsenic flues, or o f white lead from lead chambers.
F or cases where work has to be done in an atmosphere containing
poisonous gases or fumes, a smoke helmet, with air supplied from



840

BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOB.

outside through a pipe, may be used. The air supply should be not
less than 2 cubic feet per minute and may be provided either from a
bellows worked by hand or from a mechanically driven air pump or
high-pressure centrifugal fan. A self-contained breathing apparatus,
such as is used in mines, is less convenient for factory work and more
expensive.
The importance and great practical value o f preventive measures
in efforts to reduce the health-injurious circumstances o f different
trades has made it seem advisable to make rather extended abstracts
from the admirable and thoroughly scientific report of the committee
on ventilation o f factories and workshops. The conclusions and
recommendations o f the committee were, however, anticipated by Sir
James Crichton-Browne, who, in his address on The Dust Problem,
held that—
In dealing with industrial dust generally the one universal and
potent remedy is, o f course, ventilation. In contending with certain
special kinds o f dust special appliances and arrangements are neces­
sary ; but for dust, as a whole, our aim should be to intercept and
remove it at its point o f origin and to insure a bounteous supply o f
fresh air, and many contrivances for this purpose, more or less
efficient^ are already in use.
After referring to the then pending report o f the departmental
committee on the ventilation o f factories and workshops, Sir CrichtonBrowne summed up his own conclusions in the statement that—
What is wanted is a code o f precise instructions to be placed in
the hands o f a manufacturer who is required to provide fans, indi­
cating the number.
'J
*
speed, and position o f the fans
which will most
economically secure the desired
result, together with directions as to the number and position o f
openings into the outer air, and also a judgment on the physiological
effects o f existing respirators and proposals for the construction o f
one more convenient and trustworthy and less cumbrous than any
yet known.
English opinion is decidedly in favor o f a clear statement o f the
scientific principles that should underlie all methods o f factory
ventilation and dust removal, but so framed in clear and specific
language for the guidance o f inspectors that the legal requirements
can be carried into effect with the least amount o f interference with
the industrial methods and conditions o f the present day. Sir
Crichton-Browne also expressed the hope that the report o f the
departmental committee would offer suggestions to architects for
the construction o f factories, since many, if not most of the factories
now existing, are so built as to render almost impossible a proper sys­
tem o f ventilatibn, which should have been a primary consideration in
their erection. He was confident in his prediction that rational fac­
tory legislation, with special reference to ventilation and dust removal,




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

841

would greatly tend to reduce the death rate among many different
classes o f operatives, improve their health, and augment their produc­
tive power. He quoted the evidence o f factory inspectors and
managers who had testified to the improvement in health and the
increased vigor of the workers subsequent to the improved methods
o f ventilation. One leading manufacturer, replying to inquiries o f
the inspector o f cotton-cloth factories, expressed the opinion that
“ the effect o f improved ventilation on the health o f the workers has
been good. We have had less staying away through sickness than
before we had artificial humidity and ventilation in our sheds. The
earnings have been more regular, but we do not find that they have
increased as much as we expected; but the effect o f the change has
been advantageous to the manufacturer, the quality o f the work being
better and more perfect.”
Thus upon both humanitarian and economic grounds the effect of
scientific ventilation o f factories and workshops, and in particular
the effective removal o f industrial dust, combine to emphasize the
need o f more or less radical changes in the conditions as they exist
at the present time.
The entire subject o f the removal o f dust and fumes in factories,
with special reference to the health-injurious circumstances o f dusty
trades, has also been presented in an admirable summary account by
J. S. Haldane, M. D., F. R. S., in one o f the Shaw lectures on “ Indus­
trial hygiene,” before the Royal Society of Arts, delivered February
28, 1908. Doctor Haldane was one of the most important members
o f the departmental committee on the ventilation o f factories and
workshops, and his views, in part, have already been included in the
extended account o f the report and recommendations o f the com­
mittee. The following remarks restating his conclusions as to the
causes responsible for more or less health-injurious conditions among
factory workers and his recommendations as to the methods most
likely to bring about a material improvement in those conditions are
important and are quoted from his lecture:
Whether or not any variety o f dust is known to cause dangerous
effects when habitually inhaled, I think that every kind of dust pro­
duced in manufacturing process ought, as far as practicable, to be pre­
vented or removed from the atmosphere in which the work people are
present. The reason for this is not only that dusty air is, at the best,
unpleasant to breathe, but that when dust is present the clothes,
skin, and hair become dirty, untidy, and uncomfortable. This inev­
itably tends to lower the social status and self-respect o f work people
if, at any rate, they have to go back to their homes in the same untidy
condition. Where dust and dirt can not be avoided the provision of
overalls, or o f means o f washing and changing clothes on leaving
work, is extremely desirable.




842

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

O f dusts which are definitely harmful, one very important class is
that from the disintegration o f hard stone or other material. As
instances o f this we may take the dust from siliceous or other hard
stone, which has to be disintegrated in the mining o f gold, tin, lead,
and other metals, and the dressing of hard stone, or the ground flint
dust used in pottery work, or the dust from dry grinding in the metal
trades, or the steel dust produced in file cutting and other work.
In many cases the best way o f dealing with dust is to prevent its
formation altogether. This can be effected by substituting wet for
dry processes, and, fortunately, much o f the most dangerous dust can
be dealt with in this way—in particular the dust from disintegration
o f hard stone or steel. Thus the use of a jet o f water prevents dust
formation in rock-drill and other work in tin and ganister mining,
special rules to the effect being now in force. It is to be hoped that
in all cases where dust from disintegration o f hard stone, fire-clay
bricks, and similar material is apt to be inhaled, wet methods will
also be adopted where possible. The substitution o f wet for dry
grinding and for dressing o f grindstones is another important step
in the right direction, and I have little doubt that in many other
dusty processes it would be practicable to use wet methods, though,
unfortunately, wet processes are quite out o f the question in very
many cases.
m ien dust formation can not be avoided, its escape can sometimes
be prevented by entirely boxing in the dusty process. Where the
dust is itself the product o f the process, as in the grinding or break­
ing up o f material, efficient boxing in is an advantage to the process
itself as well as to the persons employed in it.
In most cases it is unfortunately not possible to either prevent the
formation o f dust or to box in the dusty process completely, and the
only method available is to draw the dust by means o f an air current.
There are certain general principles applicable to the removal of dust
in this way. In the first place, the dust ought to be removed at, or
as near as possible to, the point o f origin. The advantages of this
are evident, for by this means the dust is prevented from getting into
the general atmosphere o f the room and being inhaled by those pres­
ent, as well as settling everywhere. A far smaller volume o f air is
also sufficient to remove the dust. This is important, not only from
the point o f view o f expense, but because drafts and cold are also
prevented. When dust is permitted to get into the general atmos­
phere o f a factory, enormous volumes o f air are required to carry it
away, which means that equal volumes have to come in from outside,
so that warming or prevention o f drafts may be quite impracti­
cable. As a good example o f the advantage o f removing dust locally
I may instance a device for removing the dust produced by rollers in
a process preparatory to flax-spinnmg. The dust produced at the
rollers is sucked in by small exhaust openings applied close to the
rollers. A quite small air current applied in this way is far more
effective than one hundred times as great an air current a few feet
off would be.
A second general principle is that the air current from the source
o f dust to the exhaust opening should, as far as possible, envelop the
source o f dust, and be o f sufficient velocity to carry the dust with it
in spite o f the ordinary slight drafts existing in the room, or pro­
duced by the dusty machine. It is unfortunate that in whatever



MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

843

direction an exhaust opening may point, the air entering it is sucked
in from all sides. Hence the linear velocity o f the draft toward
the opening diminishes very rapidly with increasing distance, and
at a distance o f 2 or 3 feet an exhaust opening, unless very large,
will fail to carry off dust efficiently, particularly from a machine
which itself causes drafts.
The lecture by Doctor Haldane was fully illustrated to bring its
more technical portion within the ready understanding o f the lay­
man, and the address should be consulted by all who desire to become
thoroughly informed as to the most advanced and qualified opinion
regarding the effective and practical removal o f dust and fumes in
factories and workshops. The remarks and conclusions are decidedly
practical, and applicable to American establishments, in which thus
far the problem o f scientific ventilation and effective dust removal
has been almost entirely neglected.




844

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR*

APPEN D IX.
T able I .

—NUMBER OF MALES EMPLOYED IN VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS IN THE UNITED
STATES, 1900, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Computed from report of the Bureau of the Census on Occupations, 1900.]
Number of male employees in each age group.
Occupation.

15 years
or over..

15 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 years
years. years. years. years. years. or over.

26,997 7,258
3,261
1,666
666
Tool and cutlery makers........
8,335 5,811
19,474
3,913 2,009
477
6,493
5,443
1,139
Gold and silver workers.........
1,034
25,557
8,016 8,531
5,188 2,428
360
Brass workers..........................
Printers, lithographers, and
pressmen.............................. 136,923 50,669 44,191 24,210 10,993 5,059
1,801
10,628 3,227 3,498 2,124
1,020
509
250
Engravers................................
Total—Occupa t i o n s
with exposure to me­
3,554
9,407
tallic dust................... 219,579 75,663 69,998 41,246 19,711
1,498
54,039
Marble and stone cutters........
8,579 16,566 14,555 9,075 3,766
392
7,625
44,396 17,882 13,314
3,838
1,345
Glass workers.........................
208
12,856 4,536 3,825 2,545
1,259
483
Potters.....................................
8,839
7,791
1,899
35,506
3,971
9,205
Plasterers.................................
3,801
412
7,077 4,689 2,821
21,607
1,122
Paper hangers.........................
5,486
Total—Occupa t i o n s
with exposure to min­
168,404 40,454 49,987 38,253 24,784 10,517
eral dust.....................
4,409
Cotton-mill operatives............ 110,953 53,622 28,129 16,031
8,887 3,346
938
Hosiery and knitting mill
operatives............................
607
111
11,372
1,355
6,350 2,699
250
5,154
8,445
2,764
Paper and pulp makers..........
26,485
8,747
1,042
333
Cabinetmakers.......................
6,857 4,144
2,960
35,435 4,490 7,940 9,044
Total—Occupa t i o n s
with exposure to vege­
table fiber dust.......... 184,245 73,209 47,213 31,584 19,115 8,782
4,342
Hat and cap makers.......
14,948 4,110 4,655 3,415
1,702
29
768
Silk-mill operatives.........
9,022
5,301
2”
20,301
3,380
1,563
785
Woolen-mill operatives..
7
40,768 15,042 10,956 7,446 4,340 2,189
4*
10,034 3,180 2,654
Carpet-factory operatives
1,842
1,182
691
28,434
7,394
Upholsterers....................
8,362
9'
3,745
6,013
1,943
Total—Occupa t i o n s
with exposure to ani­
mal and mixed fiber
dust............................. 414,485 38,748 31,928 22,096 12,532
6,376
l
All occupied males—Contitinental United States....... 22,802,545 5,933,720 5,933,847 4,704,682 3,250,059 1,856,181 1 '




MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES*
T able I I . —

845

PER CENT OF MALES EMPLOYED IN EACH AGE GROUP IN VARIOUS
OCCUPATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1900.
[Computed from report of the Bureau of the Census on Occupations, 1900.]
Per cent of male employees in each age group.

Occupation.
Tool and cutlery makers...........
Goldikand
silver workers.............
M
wnrlrArs.............................
Printers, lithographers, and
pressmen..................................
Engravers....................................
“ otal—Occupations with
exposure to metallic
dust................................
Mafcble and stone cutters...........
Glass workers..............................
Posters.......................................
Plasterers.....................................
Paper hangers.............................
Total—Occupations with
exposure to mineral
dust................................
Cotton-mill operatives...............
Hosiery and knitting mill operJatives ..........._......................._.
Jpaper and ^pulp nmirers............. '
Total—Occupations with
exposure to vegetable
fiber dust.......................
Hat and cap makers...................
Silk-mill operatives....................
Woolen-mill operatives..............
Carpet-factory operatives_____
Upholsterers................................
Total—Occupations with
exposure to animal and
mixed fiber dust............
AH occupied males—Conti­
nental United States..............




15 years 15 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 years
or over. years. years. years. years. years. or over.
100. .0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

.26.9
33.3
31.4
37.0
30.4

30.9
28.0
33.4
32.3
32.9

21.5
20.1
20.3
17.7
20.0

12.1
10.3
9.5
8.0
9.6

6.2
5.8
4.0
3.7
4.8

2.4
2.5
1.4
1.-3
2.3

100.0^
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

34.4 ‘
15.9
40.3
35.3
11.2 :
25.4

31.9
30.6
30.0
29.7
25.9
32.7

18.8
26.9
17.2
19.8
24.9
21.7

9.0
16.8
8.6
9.8
21.9
13.1

4.3
7.0
3.0
•3.8
10.7
5.2

1.6
2.8
0.9
1.6
5.4
1.9

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

24.0
48.3
55.9
33.0
12.7

29.7
25.4
23.7'
31.9
22.4

22.7
14.5
11.9
19.5
25.5

14.7
5.3
10.4
19.3

6.3
3.0
2.2
3.9
11.7

2.6
0.8
1.0
1.3
8.4

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

39.7
27.5
44.4
36.9
31.7
26.0

25.0
31.1
26.1
26.9
26.4
29.4

17.1
22.9
17.7
18.3
18.4
21.2

10.4
11.4
7.7
10.6
11.8
13.2

4.8
5.1
3.9
5.4
6.9
6.8

2.4
2.0
1.2
1.9
4.8
3.4

100.0

33.8

27.9

19.3

10.9

5.6

2.5

100.0

26.0:

26.3

20.6

14.3

8.1

4.7

ao

846

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,

NUMBER OF DEATHS IN VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS IN THE REGISTRATION
STATES OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From report of the Bureau of the Census on Vital Statistics, 1900.]

T able I I I —

Number of deaths due to—
Occupation.

Compositors, printers, and pressmen.........
Marble and stone cutters.............................
Glass blowers and workers..........................
Plasterers and whitewashes.......................
Toted—Occupations with exposure
to mineral dust...............................
Cabinetmakers and upholsterers...............
Hat and cap makes....................................

All causes in each age group.

Consumption
ages
15 to 24 25 to 44 45 to 64 65 yeas 15atyeas
yeas. yeas. yeas. or over. or over.

Other
respira­
tory
diseases
at ages
15 yeas
or over.

91
13
17
9

333
143
48
51

142
155
29
54

89
81
13
32

237
142
35
39

84
53
10
25

39
19~
17

242
128
92

238
135
74

126
164
45

216
89
53

88
63
33

DEATH RATE PER 1,000 IN VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS IN THE REGISTRATION
STATES OF THE UNITED STATES, 1900, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From report of the Bureau of the Census on Vital Statistics, 1900.]

T able I V .—

Death rate per 1,000 due to—
Occupation.

Compositors, printers, and pressmen__
Marble and stone cuttes.............................
Glass blowes and workes..........................
Plasteres and white washes......................
Total—Occupations with exposure
to mineral dust...............................
Cabinetmakes and upholsterers,..............
Hat and cap makes....................................
All occupied males—Registration States..




All causes in each age group.

Con­
sump­
tion at
ages 15
15 to 24 25 to 44 45 to 64 65 yeas yeas
yeas. yeas. yeas. or over. over.or

Other
respira­
tory dis­
eases at
ages 15
yeas or
over.

5.0
3.4
4.6
7.8

12.3
9.3
10.9
10.7

20.0
24.7
21.8
23.5

108.8
122.9
82.3
88.4

4.4
5.4
3.7
4.5

1.6
2.0
1.0
2.9

4.5
4.6
5.4
5.1

9.9
10.5
13.1
8.8

24.0
19.8
32.9
19.9

106.9
109.6
173.1
98.4

4.9
3.6
4.2
2.4

2.0
2.6
2.6
2.0

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

847

V .—NUMBER OF DEATHS FROM ALL CAUSES, FROM CONSUMPTION, AND FROM
OTHER RESPIRATORY DISEASES AMONG OCCUPIED MALES IN RHODE ISLAND,
COMPARED, 1897 TO 1906.
[From reports of the Rhode Island state hoard of health.]

T able

Number of deaths due to—
Occupation.

Polishers......................................
Tool makers.................................
Jewelers.......................................
Brass workers..............................
Printers........................................
Compositors.................................
Pressmen.....................................
Engravers....................................
Total—Occupations with
exposure to metallic dust
;tone cutters and marble work­
ers.............................................
Plasterers.....................................
Paper hangers.............................
Molders........................................
Total—Occupations with
exposure to mineral
dust................................
Operatives...................................
Spinners.......................................
Weavers.......................................
Knitters.......................................
Cabinetmakers............................
Wood turners and finishers........
Total—Occupations with
exposure to vegetable
fiber dust........................
Wool sorters................................
Upholsterers................................
Total—Occupations with
exposure to animal and
mixed fiber dust............
All occupied males—State of
Rhode island...........................




All
causes.

Other
Con­ -respira­
sump­ tory
tion. eases.dis­

Per cent of deaths due to—

Con­
Con­
sumption
Other sumption
and
Con­ respira­
and
other sump­
other
dis­ respira­
respira­ tion. tory
eases. tory dis­
tory dis­
eases.
eases.

42
44
557
5
81
12
5
45

14
9
173
1
21
3
8

20
.5
51
15
2
2
4

34
14
2241
36
5
2
12

33.3
20.5
31.1
20.0
25.9
25.0
17.8

47.6
11.4
9.2
i8.5
16.7
40.0
8.9

80.9
31.9
40.3
20.0
44.4
41.7
40.0
26.7

791

229

99

328

29.0

12.5

41.5

125
25
14
157

40
5
3
31

21
4
3
25

61
9
6
56

32.0
20.0
21.4
19.7

16.8
16.0
21.4
15.9

48.8
36.0
42.8
35.6

321
798
71
259
8
50
38

79
218
18
67
5
12
5

53
73
5
30
9
10

132
291
23
97
5
21
15

24.6
27.3
25.4
25.9
62.5
24.0
13.2

16.5
9.1
7.0
11.6
18.0
26.3

41.1
36.4
32.4
37.5
62.5
42.0
39.5

1,224
37
25

325
5
6

127
5
3

452
10
9

26.6
13.5
24.0

10.4
13.5
12.0

37.0
27.0
36.0

62

11

8

19

17.7

12.9

30.6

19,314

3,429

2,420

5,849

17.8

12.5

30.3

848

BULLETIN* OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR,

—YEABS OF LIFE LIVED BY OCCUPIED MALES IN CEBTAIN OCCUPATIONS,
IN ENGLAND AND WALES DUBING THE YEABS 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.(o)
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths
and Marriages in England and Wales.]

T able V I .

Years of life lived by males in each age group during 1900 to 1902. (a)
Occupation.
Tool and instrument makers__
Brass workers.............................
Printers.......................................
Total—Occupations with
exposure to .metallic
dust...............................
Glass workers..............................
Potters.........................................
Paper hangersandwhitewashers
Lithographers.............................
Total—Occupations with
exposure to mineral
dust................................
Cotton manufacture...................
Hosiery-mill employees............
Lace makers..............................
Cordage makers..........................
Paper makers..............................
Cabinetmakers............................
Wood turners..............................
Total—Occupations with
exposure to vegetable
fiber dust.......................
Furriers.......................................
Hatters........................................
Silk workers................................
Woolen and worsted min em­
ployees.....................................
Carpet and rug makers..............
Total—Occupations with
exposure to animal and
mixed fiber dust............

15 to 19 20 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 years
years. years. years. years. years. years. or over.
17,721
28,815
56,076

15,942
23,010
46,080

29,904
33,078
78,153

24,387
21,420
48,465

18,522
13,443
28,542

11,415
6,585
13,752

5,067
2,256
4,383

102,612
17,700
19,455
19,704
5,163

85,032 141,135
11,589 20,166
17,112 29,463
21,786 29,490
4,848 8,898

94,272
13,167
20,043
27,162
6,066

60,507
9,030
12,894
20,181
3,510

31,752
4,374
6,408
10,236
.1,848

11,706
1,290
2,055
3,921
693

62,022 55,335 -88,017 66,438 45,615
107,298 82,881 135,507 98,739 59,079
8,049
3,825 8,541
6,150
4,989
4,461
8,790 8,358 4,281
6,201
1,914 3,093
2,820 2,532
4,095
7,512 5,070
9,237 6,984 10,749
54,741 46,614 72,924 55,869 39,957
15,975 13,008 22,161 19,254 15,774
w■
202,536 159,687 261,765 200,601 132,843
2,151
2,265 4,341
3,795
6,561
9,006 2,847
6,627 12,981
6,306
5,829 5,373
3,798
4,350 2,751
39,249 30,222 56,322 44,046 33,132
3,114 2,313 4,947 4,134
3,060

22,866
27,948
4,329
2,703
2,124
2,691
22,842
10,806

7,95{
7,965
3,807
1,359
1,332
981
10,194
4,428

73,443
1,365
3,225
3,249
20,268
1,650

30,066
510
1,257
2,994
8,610
1,002

29,757

14,373

55,425

44,178

84,420

66,354

49,143

a The years of life as used in this table means three times the number of occupied males enumerated
at the census of 1901.




849

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

MORTALITY DUE TO ALL CAUSES AMONG OCCUPIED MALES IN CERTAIN
OCCUPATIONS IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[Prom Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Animal Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths,
Mid Marriages in England and Wales.]

T able V I I —

Deaths due to all causes in each age group.
Occupation.
»1and instrument makers............................
workers.....................................................
,rs..............................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
metallic dust.........................................
Ciass workers..........- .........................................
Potters................................................................
Paper hangers and whitewashes................... Lithographers.....................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
mineral dust.........................-..............
Cotton manufacture..........................-..............
Hosiery-mill employees.................... _..............
Lace makers........................................................
Cordage makers..................................................
Paper makers......................................- .............
Cabinetmakers...................................................
Wood turners.................................................. Total—Occupations with exposure to
vegetable fiber dust.............................
Furriers...............................................................
Hatters...............................................................
Silk workers.......................................................
Woolen and worsted mill employees...............
C'rpet and rug makers.....................- ...........-.
Total—Occupations with exposure to
q.nima.1 and mixed fiber dust.-............




15 to 19 20 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 years
years. years. years. years. years. years. or over.
37
64
179

53
118
278

189
194
505

480
241
423

510
189
384

280
57
51
30
8

449
59
63
75
26

888 1,101 1,269 1,144
136 173 218
183
155 291
408 347
120 313 387 333
50
70
51
57

1,083
154
243
283
57

146
2885
16
9
32
143
31

223
358
22
12
11
28
174
58

461
742
46
59
20
54
379
138

828 1,083
920
949 1,209 1,150
54
99 152
50
70
88
21
33
69
56
50
71
550 693 700
225 394 375

737
1,014
503
119
141
93
846
411

524
8
19
10
86
9

663 1,438 1,919 2,534 2,605
10
37
49
57
70
41
87
103 125 116
9
24
46
68 117
152 292 392 568 752
12
56
29
39
56

3,127
55
130
322
1,110
117

132

224

1,734

469

333
274
494

629

481
281
507

874 1, 111

850

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,

—MORTALITY DUE TO CONSUMPTION AMONG OCCUPIED MALES IN CER­
TAIN OCCUPATIONS IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths,
and Marriages in England and Wales.]
T able V I I I

Deaths due to consumption in each age group.
Occupation.
Tool and instrument makers............................
Brass workers.....................................................
Printers...............................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
metallic dust.........................................
Glass workers....................................................
Potters.........................................................
Paper hangers and whitewashers.....................
Lithographers.....................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
mineral dust.........................................
Cotton manufacture...........................................
Hosiery-mill employees.....................................
Lace makers.......................................................
Cordage makers..................................................
Paper makers.....................................................
Cabinetmakers..................................................
Wood turners.....................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
vegetable fiber dust..............................
Furriers...............................................................
Hatters.............................................................
Silk workers........................................................
Woolen and worsted mill employees................
Carpet and rug makers......................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
animal and mixed fiber dust______ _




15 to 19 20 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 years
years.' years. years. years. years. years. or over.
3
14
58

25
50
157

88
97
285

144
97
235

132
62
122

60
17
47

101
7

75
10
12
8
4

232
21
23
23
13

470
58
59
36
24

476
60
76
108
19

316
44
92
73
15

124
13
28
41
8

18

34
88
3
17
5
38
10

80
137
9
5
4
9
77
20

177
273
21
25
8
21
159
64

263
285
20
20
7
16
212
73

224
216
26
11
3
9
153
87

90
77
15
6
8
5
62
32

9
17
31
2
1
19
6

152
41
27
2

261
4
23
5
72
6

571
15
48
14
102
7

633
18
37
11
99
13

505
11
30
15
949

205
107
12
464

49
3
6
16
1

34

110

186

178

159

79

26

2
6
1

851

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

I X .—MORTALITY DUE TO OTHER DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
AMONG OCCUPIED MALES IN CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS IN ENGLAND AND WALES,
1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths,
and Marriages in England and Wales.]

T able

Deaths due to other respiratory diseases In each age group.
Occupation.
Tool and instrument makers............................
Brass workers.....................................................
Printers..............................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
metallic dust.........................................
Glass workers....................................................
Potters................................................................
Paper hangers and whitewashers.....................
Lithographers.....................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
mineral dust.........................................
Cotton manufacture..........................................
Hosiery-mill employees.....................................
Lace makers.......................................................
Cordage makers..................................................
Paper makers.....................................................
Cabinetmakers...................................................
Wood turners.....................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
vegetable fiber dust..............................
Furriers..............................................................
Hatters................................................................
Silk workers........................................................
Woolen and worsted mill employees...............
Carpet and rug makers__•................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
animal ana mixed fiber dust..............
63675—No. 79—09-----15




15 to 19 20 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 years
years. years. years. years. years. years. or over.
4
7
20

9
12
17

34
20
43

49
44
60

100
53
62

119
62
71

129
43
91

31
5
9
3

38
7
10
101

97
20
19
237

153
32
66
37
6

215
52
139
79
6

252
47
148
91
8

263
37
72
67
19

17
271
3
17
5

28
501
2
33
20
8

69
110
6
33
7
47
16

141
149
6
4
29
72
51

276
247
187
8
14
118
68

294
274
26
21
19
13
166
93

195
227
103
24
39
16
183
110

53
2
3
121

87
3
2
7
1

192
4
10
42
5

293
9
12
7
64
4

480
5
31
9
102
7

612
16
35
12
131
15

702
8
30
75
219
29

18

13

61

96

154

209

361

852

BULLETIN OE THE BUREAU OE LABOR,

X .—DEATH RATE PER 1,000 DUE TO ALL CAUSES AMONG OCCUPIED MALES IN
CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths,
and Marriages in England and Wales.]
T able

Death rate per 1,000 due to all causes in each age group.
Occupation.
T o o ! and instrum ent, -plainer??. ...............................

Brass workers.................................................
Printers...............................................................
Total—Occupations
with exposure to
mp.ta.llip. dust.........................................
Glass workers.....................................................
Potters................................................................
Paper hangars and whitewashers.....................

L ith og r a p h er s ...............................................................

Total—Occupations with exposure to
mineral dust..........................................
Cotton manufacture...........................................
Hosiery-mill employees.....................................
Lace makers.......................................................
Cordage makers..................................................
Paper makers.....................................................
Cabinetmakers...................................................
Wood turners.....................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
vegetable fiber dust..............................
Furriers..............................................................
Hatters..............................................................
Silk workers.......................................................
Woolen and worsted mill employees................
Carpet and rug makers......................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
anim al ana mixed fiber dust...............
All occupied males—England and Wales.........




15 to 19 20 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 years
years. years. years. years. years. years. or over.
2.09
2.22
3.19

3.32
5.13
6.03

6.32 13.65 25.97 42.05 100.65
5.86 12.79 20.90 36.60 83.78
6.46 10.19 17.76 30.76 87.61

2.73
3.22
2.62
1.52
1.55

5.28
5.09
3.68
3.44
5.36

6.29
6.74
5.26
4 07
5.62

2.35
2.68
1.00
2.58
2.20
3.46
2.61
1.94

4.02
4.32
5.75
2.69
5.75
401
3.73
446

5.24 12.46 23.74 40.23 92.60
5.48 9.61 20.46 41.15 127.31
5.39 6.71 16.10 35.11 132.12
6.71 8.38 11.68 32.56 87.56
6.47 7.45 13.03 32.49 105.86
5.02 6.66 11.05 26.38 94 80
5.20 9.84 17.34 30.65 82.99
6.23 11.69 24 98 34 70 92.82

2.59
a 72
2.90
2.30
2.19
2.89

415
442
6.19
3.27
5.03
5.19

5.49 9.57 19.08 35.47 104 00
8.52 12.91 20.02 51.28 107.84
6.70 11.44 19.82 35.97 103.42
412 8.56 17.90 36.01 107.55
5.18 8.90 17.14 37.10 128.92
5.86
9.43 18.30 33.94 116.77

2.38
2.44

5.07
4 41

5.56 9.48 17.78 37.33 120.64
6.01 10.22 17.73 31.01 88.39

11.68
13.14
14 52
11.52
8.41

20.97
2414
31.64
19.18
19.94

36.03 92.52
41.84 119.38
5415 118.25
32.53 72.18
30.84 82.25

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

853

—DEATH RATE PER 1,000 DUE TO CONSUMPTION AMONG OCCUPIED MALES
IN CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths,
and Marriages in England and Wales.]

T able X I .

Death rate per 1,000 due to consumption in each age group.
Occupation.
Tool and instrument maters............................
Brass workers.....................................................
Printers...............................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
metallic dust.........................................
Glass workers.....................................................
Potters................................................................
Paper hangers and whitewashers.....................
Lithographers.....................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
mineral dust.........................................
Cotton manufacture...........................................
Hosiery-mill employees.....................................
Lace makers.......................................................
Cordage makers..................................................
Paper makers.....................................................
Cabinetmakers...................................................
Woodturners......................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
vegetable fiber dust..............................
Furriers...............................................................
Hatters................................................................
Silk workers.......................................................
Woolen Mid worsted mb! employees...............
Carpet and rug makers......................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
anim al and mixed fiber dust.. . . . . . . .
All occupied males—England and Wales.......




15 to 19 20 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65years
years. years. years. years. years. years. or over.
0.17
.49
1.03

1.57
2.17
3.41

2.94
2.93
3.65

5.90
4.53
4.85

7.13
4.61
4.27

5.26
2.58
3.42

1.97
.44
1.60

.73
.56
.62
.41
.77

2.73
1.81
1.34
1.06
2.68

3.33
2.88
2.00
1.22
2.70

5.05
4.56
3.79
3.98
3.13

5.22
4.87
7.14
3.62
4.27

3.91
2.97
4.37
4.01
4.33

1.54

.55
.82
.60
1.13
.24
.54
.69
.63

1.44
1.65
2.35
1.12
2.09
1.29
1.65
1.54

2.01
2.01
2.46
2.84
2.59
1.95
2.18
2.89

3.96
2.89
2.48
2.39
2.48
2.13
3.79
3.79

4.91
3.66
4.23
2.57
1.18
1.78
3.83
5.52

3.94
2.76*
3.47
2.22
3.77
1.86
2.71
2.96

1.13
2.13
.79
,74
1.50
1.02
1.86
1.36

.75
.61
.23
.69
.64

1.63
1.77
3.47
1.82
2.38
2.59

2.18
3.46
3.70
2.40
1.81
1.41

3.16
4.74
4.11
2.05
2.25
3.14

3.80
3.86
4.76
3.95
2.84
2.94

2.79
7.33
2.17
3.69
2.27
2.42

1.63
5.88
2.00
1.86
1.00

.61
.54

2.49
1.55

2.20
2.03

2.68
2.74

3.24
3.04

2.65
2.16

1.81
1.11

.97
1.53
1.44

854

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,

DEATH RATE PER 1,000 DUE TO OTHER DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM AMONG OCCUPIED MALES IN CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS IN ENGLAND AND
WALES, 1900 TO 1902, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From Part II, Supplement to the Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths,
and Marriages in England and Wales.]

T able XII.—

vccupanon.
Tool and instrument makers............................
Brass workers.....................................................
Printers...............................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
metallic dust.........................................
Glass workers.....................................................
Potters................................................................
Paper hangers and whitewashes.....................
Lithographers.....................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
mineral dust..........................................
Onttryn m a n u fa c t u r e ............................. ....................

Hosiery-mill employees.....................................
Lace makers.......................................................
Cordage makers..................................................
Paper makers.....................................................
Cabinetmakers...................................................
Wood turners.....................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
vegetable fiber dust..............................
Furriers............
.................................................
Hatters..............................................................
Silk workers.......................................................
Woolen and worsted mill employees...............
Carpet and rug makers....................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
animal and mixed fiber dust...............
All occupied males—England and Wales........




Death rate per 1,000 due to other respiratory diseases In
each age group.
15 to 19 20 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 years
years. years. years. years. years. years. or over.
0.23
.24
.36

0.56
.52
.37

1.14
.60
.55

2.01
2.05
1.24

5.40 10.42
3.94 9.42
2.17 5.16

25.46
19.06
20.76

.30
.28
.46
.15

.45
.60
.58
.46
•21

.69
.99
.64
.78
.79

1.62 3.55 7.94
2.43 5.76 10.75
3.29 10.78 23.10
1.36 3.91 8.89
.99 1.71 433

22.46
28.68
35.04
17.09
27.42

.27
.25
.20
.32
.31
.31

.50
.60
.26
.45
1.57
.43
.43
.62

78
.81
.70
.34
.97
.65
.64
.72

2.12
1.51
.75
.48
.71
1.20
1.29
2.65

6.05 12.86
4.18 9.80
2.93 6.01
1.64 7.77
3.16 a 95
2.76 483
2.95 7.27
4.31 8.61

2450
28.50
27.06
17.66
29.28
16.31
17.95
2484

.26
.93
.69
.31
.32

.54
1.32
.30
.23
.43

.73
.92
.77
.75
1.01

1.46
2.37
1.33
1.30
1.45
.97

3.61 8.33
1.76 11.72
4 92 10.85
2.37 3.69
3.08 6.46
2.29 9.09

23.35
15.69
23.87
25.05
25.44
28.94

.32
.24

.29
.48

.72
.77

1.45
1.66

3.13
3.32

7.02
6.54

25.12
17.77

855

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

—DEATHS DUE TO ALL CAUSES AMONG OCCUPIED MALES IN CERTAIN
OCCUPATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1897 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.

T able XIII

[From the experience of an industrial insurance company.]

Deaths due to all causes in each age group.
Occupation.
G rin d ers..........................................................................
P olish er s .........................................................................
Tnnl and in stru m en t m a k e r s .. ...................... ........

15 years 15 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 years
or over. years. years. years. years. years. or over.
128
279
303
403
25
414
1,590
168
192

Jewelers..............................................................
Gold-leaf makers................................................
Brass workers.....................................................
P rin ters ....................................................... ...................
Compositors........................................................
Engravers...........................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
metallic dust......................................... 3,502
Stone workers.................................................... 858
Marble workers.................................................. 200
Glass blowers..................................................... 282
Glass cutters....................................................... 116
Potters................................................................ 384
88
Cement
workers................................................. 577
P lasterers............... ........................................................
Paper h a n g ers............................................................... 319
Foundrymen and molders................................ 1,397
Core makers........................................................ 162
Lithographers.................................................... 160
Total—Occupations with exposure to
mineral dust......................................... 4,543
189
Spinners..............................................................
W e a v e r s ......... ................................................................
915
65
Hosiery and knitting mill employees..............
Rope makers...................................................... 109
115
Paper makers..................................................... 817
Cabinetmakers...................................................
Wood turners..................................................... 127
Wood carvers..................................................... 123
Total—Occupations
with exposure to
V egetable fiber d u s t ....... ............_ _............ 2,460
Furriers and taxidermists................................. 105
Hatters............................................................... 832
Silk-mill employees........................................... 295
Woolen and worsted mill employees............... 106
Carpet and rug m a k e rs ............................................. 155
Upholsterers....................................................... 381
41
Mattress makers.................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
anim al a n d mixed fiber dust...............
1,915




7
48
40
60
2
66
344
21
31

24
75
59
74
8
112
439
54
47

38
68
68
50
4
91
346
32
42

30
48
56
59
3
58
211
19
34

20
19
32
77
2
54
142
* 33
19

9
21
48
83
6
33
108
9
19

619
21
3
24
26
46
10
25
33
122
66
37

892
114
30
78
30
68
12
78
96
228
42
45

739
172
40
59
27
84
19
107
74
300
25
29

518
232
46
55
20
78
15
127
55
292
9
21

398
199
50
26
8
72
19
121
34
239
9
18

336
120
31
40
5
36
13
119
27
216
11
10

413
28
108
23
12
13
39
10
11

821
38
174
22
18
28
61
8
20

936
36
155
7
17
18
82
17
23

950
27
144
9
18
15
136
24
31

795
37
137
3
24
23
197
33
21

628
23
197
1
20
18
302
35
17

244
3
78
82
20
17
39
9

369
18
175
61
16
22
65
7

355
30
185
55
14
17
79
11

404
13
127
31
19
24
73
5

475
24
135
37
24
34
62
8

613
17
132
29
13
41
63
1

248

364

391

292

324

296

856

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

DEATHS DUE TO CONSUMPTION AMONG OCCUPIED MALES IN CERTAIN
OCCUPATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1897 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From the experience of an industrial insurance company.]

T able X I V . —

Deaths due to consumption in each age group.
Occupation.

15 years 15 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 years
or over. years. years. years. years. years. or over.

Grinders.............................................................
63
Polishers............................................................. 108
Tool and instrument makers............................ 101
Jewelers.............................................................. 113
Gold-leaf makers................................................
7
Brass workers.................................................... ' 161
Printers.............................................................. 613
Compositors...................................................... .
59
67
Engravers......................................................... .
Total—Occupations with exposure to
metallic dust....................................... . 1,292
Stone workers.................................................... 302
Marble workers..................................................
56
Glass blowers.................................................... .
85
Glass cutters.....................................................
40
Potters................................................................ 127
17
Cement workers.................................................
Plasterers.......................................................... . 136
Paper hangers...................................................
107
Foundrymen and molders................................ 311
Core makers.......................................................
48
Lithographers....................................................
70
Total—Occupations with exposure to
mineral dust......................................... 1,299
Spinners................................................
56
Weavers................................................
254
Hosiery and knitting mill employees.
24
Rope makers.........................................
28
Paper makers........................................
34
Cabinetmakers......................................
162
Wood turners........................................
25
Wood carvers........................................
27
Total—Occupations with exposure to
vegetable fiber dust.............................
610
34
Furriers and taxidermists...................
Hatters.................................................
278
Silk-mill employees.............................
106
Woolen and worsted mill employees.
26
Carpet and rug makers.......................
37
Upholsterers........................................
118
Mattress makers..................................
16
Total—Occupations with exposure to
animal and mixed fiber dust............... 615




4
22
13
24
1
39
167
6
12

17
42
35
44
4
56
247
36
29

24
29
24
22
2
41
140
12
19

12
11
21
13
14
42
3
5

5
4
4
7
11
13
1
2

1
4
3

288
10
ii
7
11
1
7
14
29
20
21

510
60
15
44
14
36
3
35
47
92
17
28

313
82
16
15
11
37
4
38
33
82
9
13

121
91
16
11
5
22
6
35
8
65
1
5

47
52
7
1
1
14
3
16
4
27
1
3

13
7
2
3
2
7

131
13
43
65
6
14
7
3

391
19
93
159
15
34
5
9

340
16
59
72
7
40
3
9

265
7
37
26
2
31
4
5

129
1
15

43

3
29
5
1

1
14
1

97
1
42
28
7
9
15
4

199
7
97
32
7
10
38
3

143
19
84
33
5
6
38
4

94
4
34
7
4
5
18
2

54
2
20
4
3
4
3
3

23
1
1
2
3
6

106

194

189

74

39

13

4
1

5
1

16

7

MORTALITY PROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.
T abus X V .—

857

PER CENT OF DEATHS DUE TO CONSUMPTION AMONG OCCUPIED MALES
IN CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS, 1897 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From the experience of an industrial insurance company.]

Per cent of deaths due to consumption in each age group.
Occupation.
Grinders.......................................................... .
Polishers.............................................................
Tool and instrument makers.........................
Jewelers..............................................................
Gold-leaf makers................................................
Brass workers.....................................................
Printers..............................................................
Compositors........................................................
Engravers..........................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
metallic dust.........................................
Stone workers....................................................
Marhle workers...................................................
Glass blowers......................................................
Glass cutters.......................................................
Potters................................................................
Cement workers.................................................
Plasterers............................................................
Paper hangers....................................................
Foundrymen and molders................................
Core makers.......................................................
lithographers....................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
mineral dust.........................................
Spinners.............................................................
Weavers..............................................................
Hosiery and knitting mill employees..............
Rope makers......................................................
Paper makers.....................................................
Cabinetmakers ..................................................
Wood turners.....................................................
Wood carvers.....................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
vegetable fiber dust.............................
Furriers and taxidermists.................................
Hatters...............................................................
Silkmill employees...........................................
Woolen and worsted mill employees...............
Caipet and rug makers.....................................
Upholsterers.......................................................
Mattress makers.................................................
Total—Occupations with exposure to
animal and mixed fiber dust..............




15 15 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65
or over. years. years. years. years. years. or over.
49.2
38.7
33.3
28.0
28.0
38.9
38.6
35.1
34.9

11.1
8.3
3.6

57.1
45.8
32.5
40.0
50.0
59.1
48.6
28.6
38.7

70.8
56.0
59.3
59.5
50.0
50.0
56.3
66.7
61.7

63.2
42.6
35.3
44.0
50.0
45.1
40.5
37.5
45.2

40.0
22.9
37.5
22.0
24.1
19.9
15.8
14.7

25.0
21.1
12.5
9.1
20.4
9.2
3.0
10.5

36.9 46.5
35.2 47.6
28.0
30.1 45.8
34.5 26.9
33.1 23.9
19.3 10.0
23.6 28.0
33.5 42.4
22.3 . 23.8
29.6 30.3
43.8 56.8

57.2
52.6
50.0
56.4
46.7
52.9
25.0
44.9
49.0
40.4
40.5
62.2

42.4
47.7
40.0
25.4
40.7
44.0
21.1
35.5
44.6
27.3
36.0
44.8

23.4
39.2
34.8
20.0
25.0
28.2
40.0
27.6
14.5
22.3
11.1
23.8

28.-6
29.6
27.8
36.9
25.7
29.6
19.8
19.7
22.0

31.7
46.4
39.8
21.7
50.0
46.2
35.9
70.0
27.3

47.6
50.0
53.4
68.2
50.0
53.6
55.7
62.5
45.0

36.3
44.4
38.1
28.6
41.2
38.9
48.8
17.6
39.1

27.9
25.9
25.7
22.2
33.3
13.3
22.8
16.7
16.1

11.8
3.9
--26.1
6.5
14.0
7.5
3.8
12.5
40.0
19.4
19.4
15.8
4.2
13.2
3.7
11.8
7.4
11.3
11.1
16.7 ............
6.8
16.2

24.8
32.4
33.4
35.9
24.5
23.9
31.0
39.0

39.8
33.3
53.8
34.1
35.0
52.9
38.5
44.4

53.9
38.9
55.4
52.5
43.8
45.5
58.5
42.9

40.3
63.3
45.4
60.0
35.7
35.3
48.1
36.4

32.1

42.7

53.3

48.3

3.7
1L1

10.9

3.6

13.0
14.7
15.2
4.8

5.6
4.8
2.9

23.3
30.8
26.7
22.6
21.1
20.8
24.7
40.0

11.4
8 jf
14.8
10.8
12.5
11.8
4.8
37.5

3.8
5J0
0.8
6.9
7.3
9.5

25.3

12.0

4.4

858

BULLETIN OF THE BUEEAU OF LABOR,

T able X V I.—NUMBER AND PER CENT OF DEATHS DUE TO OTHER DISEASES OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AMONG OCCUPIED MALES IN CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS
1897 TO 1906.
’
[From the experience of an industrial insurance company.]

Deaths due to respiratory diseases other than consumption.
Occupation.

Grinders...................
Polishers...................
Tool and instrument
makers...................
Jewelers...................
Gold leaf makers__
Brass workers..........
Printers....................
Compositors..............
Engravers.................
Total —Occu­
pations with
exposure to
metallic dust
Stone workers..........
Marble workers........
Glass blowers......... 1
Glass cutters............
Potters......................
Cement workers.......
Plasterers.................
Paper hangers..........
Foundrymen a n d
molders.................
Core makers..............
Lithographers..........
Total — Occu­
pations with
exposure to
mineral dust
Spinners...................
Weavers...................
Hosiery and knitting
mill employees__
Rope makers............
Paper makers...........
Cabinetmakers.........
Wood turners...........
Wood carvers...........
Total —Occu­
pations with
exposure to
vegetable fi­
ber dust___
Furriers and taxi­
dermists................
Hatters.....................
Silk-mill employees.
Woolen and worsted
mill employees__
Carpet and r u g
makers...................
Upholsterers............
Mattress makers.......
Total — Occu­
pations with
exposure to
animal and
mixed fiber
dust.............

Number due to—

Per cent of deaths from all causes.

All
Other All
Other
respi­
respi­ respi­ Asth- Bron­ Pneu­ respi­
Bron­ Pneu­ ratory
ratory Asthratory
ratory
ma.
chitis.
monia.
chitis.
ma.
monia.
dididisdi15
25
25
37
3
36
169
19
18

22
35
39
49
5
51
221
25
22

162
36
26
15
57
8
93
38
277
28

24

347
26
17

12
21

5
67
30

14

211

24
18

22

762
28
119

60

56

91

526

89

10

120

21

16

326

34

41

206

45

17.2
12.6
12.9
12.2
20.0
12.3
13.9
14.9
11.5

2.3
.7
1.3
.5

13.4
18.9
18.0
9.2
12.9
14.9
9.0
16.1
11.9
19.8
17.3
13.8

.7
1.5
1.5
.4
.9
4.7

1.1
1.0

1.2
2.1
1.1

13.3




27

164

34

12.7

1.1

3.5
2.0
.7
3.1
1.1
2.4
.9
1.5
.6
1.9
2.0
1.1

1.6
1.8
1.7
.5
8.0
2.9
1.5
3.0

9.9

1.7
2.8
1.5
2.1
1.7
1.6
1.1
1.2
1.6
2.2
1.9

11.1

13.0
6.0
10.3
5.5
5.7
11.6
9.4
15.1
14.8
11.3
11.6

1.7
2.4
1.6

1.8
.9
1.7
1.6
1.6

1.4

1.7

8.4

4.8
1.5
1.0
1.9
1.9
.5

8.6
8.5
7.1
7.5
10.3
8.7
14.6

1.4

8.6

11.2

17

.2

11.7
9.0
8.2
9.2
12.0
8.7
10.6
11.3
9.4

9.0
8.5
1.5
5.5
7.8
9.2
8.6
7.3

16.2
11.7

242

1.7

2.0
1.2

16.8
14.8
13.0
4.6
8.2
8.7
14.7
16.5
13.0

16.0
16.7
12.1
14.6

1.6
1.1

4.7
1.9
.8

2.0

1.6

.6

2.0

2.6
1.4

3.1
2.1

3.9
2.5

1.8
2.8
1.2

2.4
1.9

2.6
2.1

1.8

MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

859

DEATHS DUE TO ALL CAUSES, TO CONSUMPTION, AND TO OTHER
RESPIRATORY DISEASES AMONG MALES IN THE REGISTRATION AREA OF THE
UNITED STATES, 1900 TO 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
[From reports of the Bureau of the Census on Mortality.]
Deaths due to Deaths due to other
consumption. respiratory diseases.
Deaths due
to all
Age at death.
Per cent
Per cent
causes.
of deaths Number. of deaths
Number. due
to all
due to all
causes.
causes.

T able X V I I . —

15 to 24 years............................................................... 134,700 37,495
25 to 34 years............................................................... 186,530 58,424
35 to 44 years............................................................... •205,930 48,500
45 to 54 years............................................................... 205,497 30,781
55 to 64 years............................................................... 218,151 17,707
65 years or over......................................................... . 435,228 11,949
Total.................................................................. 1,386,036 204,856

27.8 13,010
31.3 20,298
23.6 25,655
15.0 25,869
8.1 26,575
2.7 50,603
14.8 162,010

9.7
10.9
12.5
12.6
12.2
11.6
11.7

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864

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New York, 1899.




MORTALITY PROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

873

Smith, Watson, F. I. C .: Manufacture of Alkalis and Acids. Transactions Sani­
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Sommerfeld, Dr. T h .: Handbuch der Gewerbekrankheiten (Handbook of In­
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Sommerfeld, Dr. T h .: Article on Hygiene der Steinmetzen und Maurer (H y ­
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Special Regulations for Dangerous and Unhealthy Industries Enforced by the
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874

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

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MORTALITY FROM CONSUMPTION IN DUSTY TRADES.

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and Professions, pp. 499-535. London, 1860.




CH ARITY RELIEF AND W AGE EARNINGS.

BY S. E. FORMAN.
IN TRO D U CTIO N .
This article is a study of the relief given by the Associated Chari­
ties in the city o f Washington, D. C., in 1905. The investigation deals
with the cases o f several thousand persons who sought relief at the
door o f charity. The aim of the study is to determine the relation
which exists between the charity relief and the earnings of the
recipients, and to discover to what extent this distress was due to
low wages or to a lack o f employment, and to what extent other causes
figured in the distress.
The result o f the study will be better understood i f consideration is
first given to the aims and methods o f the Associated Charities.
Those aims and methods have been recently formulated as follow s:
1. To bring about the adequate treatment o f each needy individual
or family upon the basis of an adequate understanding of the needs
and resources.
2. To promote cooperation between all the philanthropic forces,
the public and private charities, the churches, municipal authorities,
and benevolent individuals o f the community, in order that the
efficiency o f all may be increased and each enabled to do its own
best work in its own best way.
3. To obtain and administer material aid where necessary, endeav­
oring to secure the assistance from appropriate organizations and
individuals, and not to interfere with or unnecessarily decrease in
any case the responsibility o f agencies or persons from whom the
relief should be derived.
4. To enlist, organize, and direct volunteer workers, including
division conference members, friendly visitors, savings collectors,
conductors o f outing parties, office assistants, and helpers in other
lines.
5. To prevent pauperism and dependence, to discourage begging
and the giving o f alms without adequate investigation, to expose
deliberate imposture or fraud, to not merely palliate distress but to
relieve it permanently, and in every case to develop all the possibili­
ties o f self-help.
6. To improve home life, develop character, and elevate the stand­
ards o f life, to prevent children from growing up as paupers, and to
aid needy families in securing for ruptured and deformed children
such treatment as will prevent permanent disabilities and depend­
ence.

876




CHAEITY RELIEF AND WAGE EARNINGS.

877

7. To aid in the diffusion of knowledge as to conditions o f life in
neglected neighborhoods or among needy families and as to the best
methods o f philanthropic work. To suggest, stimulate, inaugurate,
or undertake such efforts for remedial, preventive, or constructive
social service as shall from time to time seem wise.
8. To maintain a careful, thorough system o f confidential records
so that all the essential knowledge obtained regarding needy families
may be immediately available, in confidence, for the guidance of
persons having a legitimate charitable interest.
9. To exclude from every department o f its work all questions as
to sectarian religious belief, politics, or nationality, and to allow no
representative o f the association to use his or her position for the
purpose o f proselytism.
From the above official statement it will be seen that an office of
the Associated Charities is not primarily a relief station. It is rather
a clearing house where various charitable influences are so coordi­
nated and directed that overlapping, waste, and fraud are either
wholly prevented or reduced to a minimum. Relief o f some kind is
given to almost every family that applies to the Associated Charities,
but it is not always material relief—such as money, food, or clothing.
The chief object o f the association is to enable the applicant to help
himself, “ Every case is studied carefully, unnecessary relief is re­
fused, employment is secured, the good influence o f relatives, employ­
ers, and other natural helpers is enlisted, and every possibility o f
self-help is as far as possible discovered and emphasized.” (a) Such a
policy reduces the giving of material aid to the lowest point. O f
the 4,377 families dealt with in the charity year ending June 30,1906,
only 1,050 were given material relief. After such a sifting process a
family is not likely to receive material aid unless there is actual
distress.
A phase o f the society’s work that is of great interest is its system
o f gathering and recording all pertinent facts relating to the family
applying for aid. This inquiry begins when application for assist­
ance is made. The investigation is informal and unobtrusive, but
thorough and painstaking. Information about the family is sought
from the most direct sources. Letters o f applicants and the repre­
sentations o f proxies may set in motion an investigation, but they will
not suffice to place the family upon the roll of recipients. A personal
inspection o f home conditions by the charity agent must be made
before the merits or demerits o f an application are passed upon. In
cases o f emergency or when the work o f the office is heavy this rule
is not always strictly followed. A t such times the giving o f aid may
precede the investigation; but the general policy and the habitual
®Annual Report of the Associated Charities of the District of Columbia,
1906, p. 6.




878

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

practice o f the society is to furnish aid only in the light o f the fullest
knowledge possible.
The investigation into the merits o f an application usually begins
in the charity office. When a request is made that aid be given to a
family, if the person asking for aid is not a member o f the family,
or is a child, the agent probably will not entertain the request at all,
but will demand that a responsible member o f the family come to the
office. I f the wife or husband or grown child comes and makes known
the needs o f the family, the agent in a conversational way draws from
the applicant everything about the family that may have a bearing
upon the subject in hand. Inquiry is made as to the size of the family,
the ages o f the children, the conjugal conditions that prevail, the
occupations o f the members o f the family, the wages received, the
names o f employers and friends, and church affiliations. Having
noted these and other relevant facts, the agent, withholding aid for
the time being, promises to visit the home o f the applicant at the
earliest possible moment. Only in rare instances does the first inter­
view result in the immediate giving o f doles. As soon as it can be
arranged the agent goes to the home o f the applicant, where the in­
quiry is continued far beyond the point to which it was carried at
the office and until sufficient information is obtained regarding the
family to make it possible to deal with the case intelligently.
The facts brought out by the investigation are arranged in order,
typewritten, and placed in a large envelope which becomes the recep­
tacle for the charity record of the family and for all documents
bearing upon that record. In this envelope are found letters apply­
ing for aid, letters expressing thanks for aid received, letters from
friends and relatives o f the family, letters o f recommendation, cor­
respondence o f charity officials, newspaper clippings containing in­
formation about the family, ejectment notices, evidences o f chattelmortgage transactions, and notes of promise. ^Every item throwing
light upon the charity side o f the family’s history is carefully pre­
served. In the majority of cases the record is brief and the contents
o f the envelope are small, but in many cases where the charity record
extends over many years the contents o f the envelope, i f printed,
would make a good-sized volume.
The conclusions o f this article are based upon a study o f 19,000
envelopes found in the 8 charity offices o f the city o f Washington.
Every envelope containing a record of material relief, such as money,
food, clothing, or shelter given in 1905 has been examined. The work
has been conducted in the charity offices, and in numerous cases when
there was perplexity or doubt the writer has been assisted by the
charity agents.




CHARITY RELIEF AND WAGE EARNINGS.

879

NUM BER, N A T IV IT Y , AND SIZE OF T H E F A M ILIE S.
In dealing with charity cases the efforts of the organization are
directed toward the family regarded as a social unit. Likewise in
studying these charity cases the family has been regarded as a unit,
but strictly as an economic rather than as a domestic unit. A man
living alone in a shanty or in a single room has been regarded as
constituting a family o f one, even though he has children living.
Where a husband is serving a term in jail and the wife is left to take
care o f herself and several children, the family is regarded as con­
sisting o f the wife and children, and the husband is not included in
the enumeration. In dealing with the subjects o f delinquencies and
o f causes, however, it has often been found necessary to look outside
the economic group.
O f the 1,256 families for which the records showed that material
relief was given in 1905, 73 have not been considered in this article.
In a number o f cases it was impossible to determine the composition
o f the family in 1905. In such cases the record extended over a num­
ber o f years, but the changes that came with the years were not fully
recorded. In other cases, because of a rush o f applications, aid was
given without any investigation at all. In a few instances the records
were too meager to serve the purposes o f this study. There remained
for consideration the charity records o f 1,183 families, 452 o f these
being white families and 731 colored.
The nativity o f the recipients is shown in the following table. It
is seen that nearly all who were assisted were Americans. Only 40
families, or 3.4 per cent o f the total, were o f wholly foreign extrac­
tion. This element is so small as to be without special significance,
yet it is noticeable that whereas the foreign population o f the city
is about 7 per cent o f the total population foreign charity recipients
constitute a percentage only about half as great. When the number
o f white families is compared with the number o f Negro families it
is found that the former comprise 38.2 per cent and the latter 61.8
per cent o f all the families receiving aid. In 1900 the white popula­
tion of the District was 68.7 per cent and the Negro population was
31.1 per cent o f the whole population.




880

BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.

NUMBER OF WHITE AND OF NEGRO FAMILIES RECEIVING AID IN 1905, BY
NATIVITY OF HEAD OF FAMILY.
Nativity of—
Husband or male
head of family.

Wife or female
head of family.

WHITE.
United States.......... United States.......
United States..........
United States.......
England.........
United States
Germany...............
United States..........
United States_____ Ireland..................
United States........- Italy......................
United States...... Scotland...............
United
Austria States..........
., , Sweden.................
Austria ...........T
Denmark................. Denmark..............
bfinmarlr
Sweden..............T
England.................. Germany...............
England................... Ireland..................
France..................... France...................
France.....................
Germany................. United States.......
Germany................. Germany...............
Germany................. ■. Poland..................
Hungary..................
U n ited States
Ireland
Ireland.....................
Ireland..................
I t a ly ..
.,
Italy...............
Italy.........................
Norway................... United States.......

Number
of
families.

Nativity of—
Husband or male
head of family.

Number
of
Wife or female families.
head of family.

white—conc’d.
Poland..................... Poland..................
Russia....................
Scotland..................
Turkey.................. United States.......
England................
France...................
Germany...............
Ireland..................
(0
Total white
NEGBO.
United States.......... United States.......
United States..........
United States.......
Bahama Islands...
Germany...............
West Indies............. United States.......
3
Total Negro..
x
Grand total...
n

o236
&20
cl421
2
2x
1
1
x
x
x
2
X
2
<1
2
7
X
«x4
i

1

el
ai
ffl
h
i
i 4

2
X
*3
m2
452
293
390
X
X
X
73X
X,X83
n 45
o
P
V

* Including 2 families in which the husband is white and the wife colored.
6 Comprising 4 widowers, 13 single men, 2 separated men, and 1 man conjugal condition
not reported.
9 Comprising 83 widows, 34 separated women, 17 single women, 2 divorced women, 5
married women whose husbands were not at home, and 1 woman conjugal condition not
reported.
* Widower.
* Single man.
t Separated man.
9 Wife a Negress.
* Comprising 1 widow and 1 woman whose husband was in jail.
* Separated woman.
J Comprising 2 widows and 2 separated women.
* Single women.
* Nativity not reported.
* Comprising 1 widow and 1 separated woman.
n Comprising 24 widowers, 5 men conjugal condition not reported, 4 separated men,
10 single men, and 2 married men whose wives were not at home.
9 Comprising 215 widows, 90 separated women, 64 single women, 13 married women
whose husbands were not at home, 2 divorced women, and 6 women conjugal condition not
reported.
9 Widow.
The number o f persons in the 1,183 families receiving material
aid from the Associated Charities in 1905 was 4,365. O f these 1,860
were white persons and 2,505 were colored persons. I f the 73 families
which were eliminated on account o f imperfect records had been in­
cluded the total number o f persons would have approximated 5,000.
The number receiving material aid, however, by no means fully meas­
ures the work o f the organization in Washington. In addition there
are thousands who are assisted by the organization but who do not
actually receive money, food, or clothing. A very large number of
applicants desire free medical treatment, and this they receive at




C H A R I T Y R E L IE F A N D W A G E E A R N I N G S .

881

public dispensaries upon the recommendation o f the charity agents.
A great many seek employment and the charity agents find work for
them. Some who seek material aid are shown a way by which they
may help themselves and thus avoid being enrolled as objects of
charity. It is probable, taking the official reports o f the association
as a guide in making an estimate, that 15,000 persons per annum are
affected in one way or another by the work o f this organization.
The 4,865 recipients o f material aid, it should be clearly understood,
are for the most part the floating, unattached poor. In a very true
sense they are the derelicts o f society. The ties that morally bind
the individual to society have been in a large degree severed. They
rarely belong to a union or to a lodge; they have no friends or rela­
tives to whom they can turn for help; they have no church connec­
tions. Industrially and socially they are without moorings, and
when the hour o f distress overtakes them they drift to the charity
office, because they have nowhere else to go.
The isolation o f this class of charity recipients is brought out
when the subject o f the membership o f the wage-earners in labor
organizations and in fraternal and beneficial associations is con­
sidered. The records are not entirely satisfactory, though efforts
are made to secure as much information as possible about the lodges
and societies to which the applicants belong. In nineteen cases out of
twenty there is nothing to learn. O f 1,775 wage-earners only 81 made
any statement as to whether they belonged to labor organizations, and
o f these only 23 stated that they were members o f such organizations.
In only 40 families was there evidence o f membership in fraternal
or beneficial societies. The reason for not belonging to labor organi­
zations and the result o f nonmembership appear frequently in notes
and comments o f the agent like the follow ing:
“ He (the wage-earner) does not belong to the union, and for that
reason finds it difficult to get work.”
“ The husband said he thought X could get him work to do if he
( X ) cared to do so, but the husband does not belong to a union and
X does.” (Here X was the father-in-law of the applicant.)
“ Man (a carpenter) had gone to a job of work but when the
other workmen found he was a nonunion man, they objected. Man
made inquiry about union and found he would have to pay $10 to
join. This he could not do.”
In the table which follows is shown the size o f the families re­
ceiving relief. The average is 3.7 persons for each family. In 1900
the average size o f the family in the District o f Columbia was 4.9
persons. The charity family is therefore considerably smaller than
the normal family. The lower average of the charity family is due
to the fact that among the very poor there is an unusually large num­




882

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E B U R E A U

OF L A B O B .

ber o f families consisting o f but one or two persons. The father or
the mother, or both father and mother, either childless or forsaken
by their children, live alone until old age comes on and the earnings
become so scant that resort must be made to charity. The table
shows that nearly 40 per cent of the families receiving aid were
families o f one or two persons. In the District o f Columbia in 1900
not quite 20 per cent of the whole number o f families belonged to
this class. I f the families consisting o f one and of two persons are
excluded, the average number of persons in the charity family is
increased to 5, which is about normal. The figures bearing upon the
size o f the family, therefore, contain nothing o f great significance.
The poverty-stricken family on the average is about the same size
as the prosperous family.

NUMBER OF WHITE AND OF NEGRO FAMILIES RECEIVING AID IN 1905, BY
SIZE OF FAMILY.
Size of family.
One person..................................................
Two persons.................................................
Three persons...............................................
Four persons.................................................
Five persons.................................................
Six persons...................................................
Seven persons...............................................
Eight persons...............................................
Nine persons.................................................
Ten persons..................................................
Eleven persons.............................................
Fourteen persons..........................................
Total...................................................

White.

Negro.

Total.

Families. Persons. Families. Persons. Families. Persons.
67
71
56
72
56
58
34

22
8
7
1

452

67
ol42
cl68
288
<280
348
238
176
72
70

11

<1,860

156
145
139
88
67
67
29
23
9

156
417
352
<*335
402
203
184
81
6
60
1
11
14
1
731 /2,505
6290

d

223
216
195
160
123
125
63
45
17
13

2
1

1,183

223
432
585
640
615
750
441
60
353
130
122
14
4,365

Including 1 Negro, member of white family.
6 Not including 1 Negro, member of white family.
Including 4 Negroes, members of white families.
Not including 4 Negroes, members of white families.
• Including 9 Negroes, members of white families.
t Not including 9 Negroes, members of white families.
a

e
d

A G E AN D CONJUGAL CONDITION.
The following table shows the leading facts in respect to the ages
o f the charity recipients and to the conjugal conditions which pre­
vailed among them. When collecting facts with respect to age the
charity agent meets with the same difficulties that perplex the census
agent. The ages, particularly of children, are often not known and
ages o f very old people must frequently be guessed. Still, taken all
in all, the age records, especially those of children, are full and fairly
satisfactory.




883

C H A R I T Y R E L IE F A N D W A G E E A R N IN G S .

NUMBER OF WHITE AND OF NEGRO PERSONS OF EACH SEX RECEIVING AID IN
1905, BY CONJUGAL CONDITION AND AGE PERIODS.
White.
Conjugal condition and age period.
Single:
Under 10 years.........
10 or under 16 years.
16 years or over........
Age not reported___
Total.
Married:
16 years or over..
Separated (deserted):
16 years or over..
Age not reported.
Total.
Widowed:
16 years or over ..
Age not reported.
Total.
Divorced:
16 years or over......................
Conjugal condition not reported:
16 years or over......................
Age not reported....................
Total............
Grand total.

Negro.

Total.

Fe­ notSexre­ Male. Fe­ notSexre­ Male. Fe­ notSexre­
Male. male.
male. ported.
male. ported.
ported.
253
162
91

267
162
93

516

532

10

10

96

291
159
13
561

365
229
187
35
816

544 632
321 391
189 280
23 45
116 1,077 1,348

316

576

171
23
1
17
212

597
136

1

39

137

102

26

102

26

236
2
238

12

804

901 1,482

33

338

33

340

2

15
11
122 1,705 2,442

218

An analysis o f the age periods brings out the fact that there is a
much larger percentage o f children under the age of 16 in the charity
population than there is in the population at large. In 1900, 26.6 per
cent o f the entire population o f the District o f Columbia was under
the age o f 16, while in the charity population studied 47.7 per cent
was under the age of 16. Analysis further shows that the percent­
age o f children under 10 years o f age was 30.9 per cent in the
charity families, while the percentage o f children under 10 in the
entire District was only 16.8 per cent o f the total population. Young
children, therefore, are relatively very numerous among charity
dependents in the District of Columbia, a fact o f considerable signifi­
cance. In families where there are many small children much of
the time and energy that might be given to breadwinning is of
necessity given to the care o f the children. In some o f the families
a care taker— usually an old woman who could do nothing else—was
provided for the children and all the older persons were thus per­
mitted to go out and earn something.
Not only do children under 10 years of age predominate in these
families, but the female children are proportionally more numerous
63675— No. 79— 09------17




884

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E

BUREAU

OF L A B O R .

than they are in the average family. In 1900 in the District of
Columbia the number of males under 16 years of age was 36,517, and
the number o f females 37,683, the excess o f females over males being
3.2 per cent. A comparison o f the figures given in the preceding
table shows that the females under 16 years o f age are in excess of
the males by 18.3 per cent. I f comparison is made only for the chil­
dren of 10 or under 16 years it is found that in the District the
excess o f females over males is 8.1 per cent, whereas in the charity
population the excess is 21.8 per cent. In whatever way they are
considered the figures point to a large proportion o f girls in the
charity families. In so far, then, as the boy is a better wage-earner
than the girl, so far this excess of female children must be regarded
as a handicap in the struggle for subsistence. Not the actual number
o f children in these families, but the sex o f the children is significant.
In respect to the con jugal conditions prevailing among these charity
recipients the table gives information regarding separation (deser­
tion), widowhood, and divorce. It is seen that in the 1,183 families
there were 144 deserted persons. In 137 o f these cases the wife was
reported as having been deserted and in 7 cases the husband was
deserted. I f only those cases are considered in which abandonment
was possible, that is, those in which both husband and wife were
living, this matter o f desertion may be brought out more plainly.
There were in all 736 families in which both husband and wife were
living, and in these, as above stated, there were 144 cases o f desertion,
or 19.6 per cent. Among the Negroes desertion was much more
frequent than among the whites. In the 322 white families which
had both husband and wife living there were 42 cases of desertion,
or 13.0 per cent; in the 414 Negro families o f this class there were
102 cases o f desertion, or 24.4 per cent.
The number o f families in which either the husband or the wife
was dead is also strikingly large, nearly 30 per cent of all the families
belonging to this class. O f the 452 white families receiving aid 6 had
widowers and 89 had widows at the head. O f the 731 colored families
24 had widowers and 218 had widows at the head. In these families
there were 923 persons, 256 whites and 667 colored.
The figures show that the charity family is very often the fatherless
family. There were 307 families in which the husband was dead.
Including with these the 137 families that were abandoned by the
husband it is found that 444 families, or 37.5 per cent o f the total,
were without male supporters at their head.
Divorce among the charity families played practically no part at
all, there being only 6 divorced people among 4,365. This paucity
o f divorce cases is easily explained. The very poor can not afford
divorcement. Separation is the cheap substitute for divorce.




C H A R I T Y R E L IE F A N D W A G E E A R N IN G S .

885

O CCU PATION S.
A study o f the occupations of the charity recipients shows that they
are by no means an idle or nonwage-earning class. O f the 2,186
persons reported as being 16 years of age or over, 1,687, or 77.2 per
cent, were engaged in some kind o f gainful occupation. O f those
over 16 who had no gainful occupation the greater part consisted o f
old people and o f women who as wives spent their time in house­
work. The number of families in which both husband and wife
were gainfully employed was very large. O f the 271 white families
in which there were both a husband and a wife living at home there
were 95 in which both the husband and wife were gainfully employed,
while of the 291 colored families having both husband and wife liv­
ing at home there were 222 in which both the husband and the wife
were gainfully employed. In respect to the employment of married
women the broad facts o f the charity world resemble the broad facts
of the world at large. The white married woman does not expect to
work as a wage-earner, while marriage has little effect in reducing the
number o f Negro women at work. Extreme poverty, however, drives
many white married women into the ranks of wage-earners, for the
percentage o f white wives with occupations in the charity families
is much greater than the percentage o f white married women gain­
fully employed in the District at large.
Among the children o f the charity recipients 88, or 12 per cent, o f
those 10 or under 16 years o f age were gainfully employed. In
1900 o f 27,819 children in the District o f Columbia from 10 to 15
years o f age, 2,144, or 7.8 per cent, were reported as engaged in gain­
ful occupations. (a) Thus child labor among the charity recipients is
seen to be a considerably greater factor than it is among the people at
large. But the statements of the charity records bearing on this
topic do not tell the whole story. They show merely the number of
children who were employed for a definite wage, whereas hundreds
o f children in the families receiving charity helped their mothers to
do the washing and ironing which was so often the chief source o f
income; these have not been included in the enumeration here given,
yet plainly they were engaged in gainful occupations.
The occupations of the chief wage-earners and o f other wageearners in the families receiving charity relief and the number of
persons engaged in each occupation are shown in the two tables which
follow :
a See Bulletin o f the Bureau o f the Census, No. 68, p. 5.




886

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E

BUREAU

OF L A B O R ,

NUMBER OF CHIEF WAGE-EARNERS IN WHITE AND IN NEGRO FAMILIES
RECEIVING AID IN 1905, BY OCCUPATION, SEX, AND REGULARITY OF EMPLOY­
MENT AT NORMAL TIMES.
White.
Occupation and sex.

Negro.

Total.

Regu­
Regu­
Regu­
larity
larity
Regu­ Irreg­ not To­ Regu­ Irreg­ not To­ Regu­ Irreg­ larity
To­
lar. ular. re­ tal. lar. ular. re­ tal. lar. ular. not
re­ tal.
port­
port­
port­
ed.
ed.
ed.

MAL£S.
Art critic............................
Artists..................................
Ash mnn..............................
Bakers..................................
Barbers................................
Blacksmiths........................
Boatmen..............................
Bookkeeper..........................
Brewers T..............................
Bricklayers..........................
Butchers..............................
Carpenters...........................
Caterer.................................
Cement worker....................
Cigar maker.........................
Chair caner..........................
Clergymen...........................
Clerks...................................
Clothing cleaners.................
f!n-mpr>sitors.........................
Conductors.........................
Cooks....................................
Coopers................................
Electrician...........................
Engineers...........................
Expressmen.........................
Foreman of laborers............
Gardeners............................
Government clerk.............
Government employee
Herb doctor.......................
Hod carriers.......................
Horse trader.......................
Hostlers...............................
Hucksters............................
Inspectors of lumber...........
Ironworkers.........................
Janitors................................
Jobbers.................................
Junk dealers.....................
Laborers...............................
Machinists...........................
Marble worker.....................
Mechanic.....................
Merchants............................
Metal worker.......................
Missionary............................
Motormen__ T ....................
Musicians.............................
Newspaper work.................
Oyster shucker.................
Painters...............................
Paper hangers......................
Peddlers...............................
Physicians...........................
Plasterers.............................
Plumbers.............................
Rag pickers..........................
Railroad employee..............
Sailors...................................
Rn.iesmn.ri..........................
Sawyer.................................
Scullion.............................
Sexton..................................
Shoemakers..........................
Steam fitter..........................
Stonebreaker.......................
Stonecutters........
Stonemason........................



1
1
1
1

6
2

1

1

1
2

1
2

2

3

1
1

1
2
1
2

1

5
2
26

5
2
26

1

1

1
2
1

1

5

2
1
2
1

1

2

1
1

1
1
1
1

3

1
1

1
2

13

12
1
6

3
83

2
1
1
2
1

1
1
1
1

5
1
1

2
1
1
2
1

1

23
3

5
4

1

1

2
1
2
1

2

1
1

1
1
1

4

7

2

1

1

2

1
1

6

3

51

51
1

1
1

8
1

2

1

1
2
1

7
6
16 183

9
2
2

1

4
7
6
7 206

1

4

1

1

1

2

2

1
1

1
1

5

5

i
i
!

1

1
3
1

____

2

1
1
3
1

2
2
1
1

5

3

2
2

i

2
2

x
7
2
271
2

1

1

4

6
1
2
1

14

1
6
1
10
6

2
1
1
2
1
1

1

1
1
1
8

2

2
1

1
5
1
1
2

X
5
7X
2
X
X
X
9
X
2
14
2
7
6
11
6

303

2
1
1
2
1
1

5

2
1

23
4

93
5
2V

8
2

2
1

1
8
1
1

1

1
1
1

2

5
5

4

i
1

3
4

1

7
2
271

2
1
10

1

1
2
1

1

29 266

1
1

2

1
2

1
1

3

5
4

2
1
2

2

1

1
2

2
1
1

4

1

1

25
3

1
2
1
1

1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
2

1
1

1

2

1

12
2

7
2
4
97

1

1
2

5

1
1

1

1
1

1

91
5

1
2
1

3

1

2
1
1

1
1

25
4

2
2
10

4

2
1
2
1
1

1
1
5
1
1
2
1

C H A R IT Y

887

R E L IE F A N D W A G E E A R N IN G S .

NUMBER OF CHIEF WAGE-EARNERS IN WHITE AND IN NEGRO FAMILIES RE­
CEIVING AID IN 1905— Concluded.•
White.
Occupation and sex.

males—concluded.
Street sweeper.....................
Tailors__ T...........................
Teamsters............................
Tinsmiths............................
Traveling salesman.............
Typewriter..........................
Waiters................................
Watchmen...........................
Occupation not reported...
Total males...............

Negro.

Total.

Regu­
Regu­
Regu­
larity
larity
Regu­ Irreg­ not To­ Regu­ Irreg­ larity
not To­ Regu­ Irreg­ not To­
lar. ular. re­ tal. lar. ular. re­ tal. lar. ular. re­ tal.
port­
port­
port­
ed.
ed.
ed.

4
4

1

i
7
5

1
1
1

3

1

49 241

1
1

1
2
11

5

1

1
1
1
8

4 6
13 303

9

18

2

6

2

29

13

8

2

1

*

255

1
1
2

1

272

4 5
17 327

1

1

1

38

4

x
7

3

1
405
2

1
1

9

8

2

1
8

11

87 513

30

630

1

FEMALES.

Boarding-house keeper
Canvasser.............................
Cash girl...............................
Caterer..................................
Charwomen..........................
Clerks....................................
Cooks....................................
Domestics............................
Dressmaker...................... ..
Factory operators................
Folder, printing office
Laborer................................
Laundresses..............................
M illin er.......................................

Nurses..................................
Seamstresses........................
Telephone g ir l .......................
Waitresses............................
Occupation not reported
Total females...............
Total, both sexes..........
Families for which no chief
wage-earner was reported
T otal fa m ilies...................

1

51

1

31

4 a34
1

1
1

1
1
1

4

15
5
33

1

1

1
1

1
1

19

o96

68

a337

8

1

1

1

3
1
38
1
f

11

161
5
37

13 134
5

1
1

1

1

6156

1

6 173

1

1

11

1
2
1

4 119
17 422
30
452

1

2
26

1
1

6 310

64 6 582

6 153
5
11

31

1

1

15 1901
2

6

14 149
1

6

61

1
1

10

4

44

1
2
406

5

7

1

18

354

45

35 681 132 919
50
731

• Including 1 Negro woman, chief wage-earner in a white family.
6 Not including 1 Negro woman, chief wage-earner in a white family.




1

1
1

1
1
1
9

1
1

3
2

211
1
2
1
1

1691
10
481
1
2
6
8
22
473
52 1,103
80
1,183

B U L L E T IN

888

OF T H E

BUEEAU

OF LABO E.

NUMBER OF WAGE-EARNERS OTHER THAN CHIEF WAGE-EARNERS IN WHITE
AND IN NEGRO FAMILIES RECEIVING AID IN 1905, BY SEX AND OCCUPATION.
White. Negro. Total.

Occupation.
MALES.
Apprentice.........................
Attendants at club............
Barber................................
Bather’s helper..................
Bootblack. T......................
Chair caner.........................
Clerks.................................
Domestics..........................
Driver.................................
Dyer and Meaner...............
Errand boys......................
Jobbing...............................
Laborers.............................
Messengers.........................
Musician.............................
Naval employee...............
Newsboys...........................
Painters.............................
Painter’s apprentice..........
Plumber’s apprentice.......
Porter.................................
Teamsters..........................
Not reported......................
Total males.............

1
2

8

8

'1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1

13
19
5

26
19

1

4

5

3

1
12

2
1
1
6

74

2
1

9
84

1
2
1
1
1
1

9

2
1
1
8

39
38
7

1
1

9

2
1
1
1

15
15
158

Occupation.

White. Negro. Total.

FEMALES.
1
Agent................................
1
Art work..........................
Bookkeeper...................... ‘ l
1
Bundle wrapper...............
2
Canvassers........................
1
Charwoman......................
Clerks................................
14
Domestics......................... a561
Dressmaker......................
1
Errand girl.......................
2
Factory operatives..........
1
Governess.........................
1
Government employee ..
3
Jobbing.............................
Laundresses.....................
26
Messenger.........................
1
Musician...........................
31
Nurses...............................
Paper-mill operatives___
1
Rents rooms.....................
Seamstresses.....................
321
Stenographer....................
2
Telephone
WaitrA<5SP.<j operators........
2
N ot reported....................
13
Total females.......... 168
Grand total............ a 242

1
1
1
1
2
1

6166

139
1

71

14

222
1
1
2
1
1

3
1651
1
10
2
1

7

391

25
346
6 430

38
514
672

2
2

* Including 2 Negroes, members of white families.
6 Not including 2 Negroes, members of white families.
These occupations represent almost every ordinary vocation. In
the same list with laborers and domestics are art critics, musicians,
physicians, missionaries, newspaper men, and clergymen. A couple,
who in their younger days had kept at their own expense what was
known as a “ Tramps’ Rest,” where penniless wayfarers might receive
food, raiment, and shelter, were in their old age compelled to become
the objects o f charity.
Although the list o f occupations is long the distress was confined
to a very few classes o f people. The occupations o f more than 60
per cent o f the chief wrage-earners were those of laborers, laundresses,
and domestics, while among others than chief wage-earners these
three classes formed 64 per cent o f the whole. This was a result to
be expected, for Washington on its industrial side is above all places a
city o f laborers, laundresses, and domestics. (a) While this is true the
table shows a number o f charity recipients from the organized and
well-paid trades. Twenty-seven carpenters, 25 painters, 10 plas­
terers, 9 clerks, 7 ironworkers, 5 shoemakers, and 4 plumbers were
chief wage-earners in families that were driven to charity.
EAR N IN G S O E C H A R IT Y R E C IP IE N T S.
The subject o f the earnings o f charity recipients is one o f the most!
important connected with the subject o f poverty and at the same
time one o f the most difficult to treat satisfactorily. When a family
0 See Bulletin o f the Bureau o f Labor, No. 67, pp. 782-784.




889

C H A R I T Y B E L IE F A N D W A G E E A R N IN G S .

applies for aid the earnings are inquired into at the outset. The
inquiry as to the amount and source of income is painstaking and
thorough, for aid must be given or withheld on the basis of the family
income; yet the facts obtained by the inquiry are in most cases such
as can not be conveniently tabulated. The period of charity seeking
is a period when earnings are either irregular or abnormally low or
when there are no earnings at all.
The following table gives the number of families in which the
earnings o f the chief breadwinner were normal at the time o f the
first application in 1905, the number in which the earnings were less
than normal, and the number in which the chief wage-earner was
earning nothing at all:

NUMBER OF WHITE AND OF NEGRO FAMILIES RECEIVING AID IN 1905 IN WHICH
THE EARNINGS OF THE CHIEF WAGE-EARNER WERE NORMAL, LESS THAN
NORMAL, OR NOTHING, BY SEX OF CHIEF WAGE-EARNER.
[This table does not include 80 families for wbicb no chief wage-earner was reported.]
Earnings.
Normal........................................
Less than normal........................
Nothing.......................................
Not reported...............................
Total..................................

White families in Negro families in All families in Total
which chief wage- which chief wage- which chief wage- families
earner was—
earner was—
earner was—
reporting
chief
wageMale. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. earners.
24
1
243
35
303

14
1
76
«28
oll9

17
1
260
48
326

23
3
220
6109
6 355

41
2
503
83
629

37
4
296
137
474

78
6
799
220
1,103

* Including 1 Negro woman, chief wage-earner in a white family.
6 Not including 1 Negro woman, chief wage-earner in a white family.
The above table shows 220 cases as not reported. This does not
mean that the records in these cases give no facts at all bearing upon
the earnings o f the chief wage-earner. It means that while the rec­
ords give some kind o f an account o f the earnings they do not state
their exact amount. For example, the record may say that the
husband, a laborer, was at work with a construction company, but
may say nothing whatever about, the amount o f his earnings. In
this case it was certain that there were earnings, but it could not be
determined whether they were normal or less than normal. Such a
case, therefore, had to be classified in the tables “ not reported.”
The most significant item in the table is the one showing the
number o f families in which the chief wage-earner at the time o f
application was earning nothing. In more than two-thirds o f the
families the wages of the chief wage-earner had entirely ceased. I f
the 80 families in which there was no chief wage-earner at all are
included, the proportion o f families deprived of a regular bread­
winner at the time o f application was three-fourths of the whole
number o f families relieved. In the majority o f cases distress was
contemporaneous with the cessation o f the earnings o f the chief
breadwinner, a fact which indicates prima facie, at least, that the



890

B U L L E T IN

OE T H E

BUREAU

OF L A B O R .

poverty o f these poor is not chiefly a moral problem, but is chiefly an
economic or financial problem.
The rates o f wages of the 78 chief wage-earners wThose wages at
the time o f application were normal are shown in the following
table. This table, like all tables which give merely the rates of wages,
shows very little about the living conditions of these families. It
is not the wages that a person earns in a day or in a week, or even
in a month, that throws light upon living conditions. In order to
determine standards o f living from earnings it is necessary to ascer­
tain the earnings for a long period o f time. An examination of the
table produces at least one result, although a negative one; it causes
little or no surprise that these families should have applied for
charity even though the earnings at the time o f application were
flowing in regularly.

CHIEF WAGE-EARNERS PAID BY THE DAY, BY THE WEEK, AND BY THE MONTH,
WHOSE EARNINGS WERE NORMAL AT THE TIME OF APPLICATION, BY REGU­
LARITY OF EMPLOYMENT AND SIZE OF FAMILY.
Chief wage-earners.

Per­
Per­
Employ­ sons
Employ­ Employ­ sons
ment,
ment,
ment,
in
Normal
earnings.
in
irregular. fam­
regular. irregular. fam­
ily.
ily.
Fe­ Male. Fe­
Fe­ Male. Fe­
Male.! male.
Male. male.
male.
male.
Employ­
ment,
regular.

NEGRO.

WHITE.

$0.20 per day.....................
$1.00 per day.......... 1
$1.00 per day....................
$1.50 per day.......... 1
$1.50 per day......... 1
$1.65 per day.......... 1
$2.00 per day.......... 1
$1.25 per week...................
$1.35 per week...................
$2.00 per week...................
$2.50 per week...................
$3.00 per week........ 2
$3.00 per week..................
$3.00 per week....... oi
$3.50 per week...................
$4.00 per week...................
$4.00 per week....... 1
$4.00 per week....... 1
$5.00 per week........ 1
$5.00 per week....... 1
$5.00 per week..................
$5.25 per week........ 1
$6.50 per week........ 1
$9.00 per week...................
$9.00 per week....... 1
$9.00 per week....... 1
$9.00 per week....... 1
$10.00 per month..............
$15.00 per month... 1
$20.00 per month..............
$20.00 per month.............
$25.00 per month..............
$25.00 per month.............
$30.00 per month (6 )........
$40.00 per month... 1
$55.00 per month... 1
$75.00 per month... 1
21
Total,

1
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1

13

3

4 $1.00 per day......... 1 .........
7 $1.25 per day. *—
1 .........
11 $1.50 per day.........
1 .........
a l .........
6 $1.75 per day.........
9 $2.00 per day......... 1 .........
9 $0.50 per week............................
6 $0.75 per week..................
1
1 $1.25 per week............................
1 $1.25 per week................
1
al
6 $1.50 per week.................
2 $1.50 per week...........................
$1.50
per
week...........................
2
3 $1.75 per week.................. 1
5 $2.00 per week............................
5 $2.00 per week................. 2
4 $2.00 per week................ «1
5 $2.50 per week.................. 1
6 $2.50 per week...........................
2 $2.75 per week.................
1
6 $3.00 per week............................
7 $3.00 per week...........................
3 $3.00 per week__ 1 .........
5 $3.00 per week................. 1
5 $4.00 per week___ 1 .........
1 .........
6 $4.00 per week__
7 $5.00 per week___ o l .........
8 $6.00 per week___
1 .........
3 $7.50 per week.. . . 1 .........
5 $7.50 per week__ 1 .........
3 $8.00 per week............................
4 $9.00 per week............................
4 $9.00 per week__ 1 .........
7 $2.00 per month.........................
1 4 $10.00 per month.............
1
10 $12.00 per month.............
«1
6 $12.00 per month............
2
6 $20.00 per month..
1 .........
$40.00 per month.. 1 ........
1
15 14
Total

Not reported whether regular or irregular.




1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

1

2

1
i

9

6 $18.00 at time of application.

oot*,cofcoc*i*.-<icc©«o«*a»-'Joooi-a©«i*.c*90io«t*.ooi*k.fcOi4>.<»c*coc*i*.i*.MWfca®cwo«

Normal earnings.

Chief wage-earners.

CHARITY RELIEF AND WAGE EARNINGS.

891

In the following table are shown the normal daily earnings of the
chief wage-earner in those families where the normal rate o f wage
was in some form or other stated in the record, whether the normal
rate was received at time of application or not. This table, like the
one preceding it, fails to give a picture of the 269 families to which
it relates. Before any comparison can be made, it is necessary to
know how much money each family received in a year. Nevertheless
the table has one feature that is worthy o f notice. In over two-fifths
o f these families the chief wage-earner was a male working at a
normal wage ranging from $1 to $2 per day, the wage most often not
exceeding $1.50 a day. Nearly all o f these wage-earners were day
laborers—men with the pick and shovel. Some of them were work­
ing for the city, digging the sewers and mains, and sweeping the
streets.

NORMAL DAILY EARNINGS OF CHIEF WAGE-EARNERS, BY SEX AND SIZE OF
FAMILY.
Chief wage-earners in—

Chief wage-earners in—
Per­ Earnings
Per­ Earnings
White families. Negro families. sons in per(a)day. White families. Negro families. sons in per day.
family.
family. (a)
Male. Female. Male. Female.
Male. Female. Male. Female.
1 $0.08
2
21
.08
2
21
4
.08
5
.13
4
1
1
1
1
1
.19
1
1
4
.20
1
1
.21
1
2
1
1
3
.21
11
.21
11
4
.21
2
5
1
1
1
.23
1
1
1
.25
.25
1
2
1
1
1
1
.25
3
3
1
.25
1
4
1
1
1
.25
5
1
.29
1
3
1
1
.29
4
1
1
.29
6
1
1
.31
2
1
.31
1
4
1
1
1
.33
1
1
1
2
.33
1
2
3
.33
1
1
1
4
.33
3
1
6
.33
2
1
1
.33
8
1
1
3
.35
1
1
1
2
.38
1
1
1
3
2
.38
1
5
3
.38
1
1
.42
2
1
1
1
.42
2
1
1
.42
3
1
1
4
.42
3
i
1
1
5
.42
.46
2
2
2
2
3
4
2
.46
1
5
3
.46
.46
1
6
i
i
"Earnings per day shown in this column are computed in some cases
weekly earnings by 6 and in other cases by dividing monthly earnings by 26.
6 And board.




1
1
1
1
1

23 $0.50
.50
4
.50
5
.50
7
.50
2
.58
5
.58
6
.58
3
.60
6
.62
3
.63
1
.67
2
.67
3
.67
4
.67
5
.67
6
.67
7
.67
8
.67
8
6.67
3
.75
4
.75
3
.77
4
.77
2
.83
3
.83
4
.83
.83
5
.83
6
7
.83
8
.83
3
.88
4
.96
7
.96
2
1.00
3
1.00
4
1.00
5
1.00
6
1.00
7
1.00
by dividing

892

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E

BUREAU

OF L A B O R .

NORMAL DAILY EARNINGS OF CHIEF WAGE-EARNERS, BY SEX AND SIZE OF
FAMILY— Concluded.
Chief wage-earners in—
Per­ Earnings
Per­ Earnings
sons in per(a)day.
White families. Negro families. sons in per(a)day. White families. Negro families. family.
family.
Male. Female. Male. Female.
Male. Female. Male. Female.
Chief wage-earners in—

i

1
1
i
i
l
i
l
2
1 !............
1
1
1
1
1
5
3
5
4
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1

1
1
1
1
11
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
5
2
3
2
2
1
3
1

1

2 $1.08
1.08
5
1.10
5
4
1.15
5
1.15
6
1.16
5 1 1.17
6
1.17
2
1.25
1.25
3
1.25
4
1.25
5
1.25
6
7
1.25
8
1.25
1.25
9
1.33
3
1.33
5
10
1.33
3
1.35
4
1.35
1
1.50
2
1.50
3
1.50
4
1.50
5
1.50
6
1.50
7
1.50
8
1.50
9
1.50
10
1*50
8
1.52
2
1.54
8
1.54
10
1.54
9
1.65
2
1.67
4
1.67
5
1.67
9
1.67

1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
3
1
1
3
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

3
1
i
1
1
1

1
1

1

_______ 1_______

2
3
7
6
7
6
2
3
5
6
7
8
6
7
10
-2
4
5
6
8
5
6
4
5
6
8
11
3
4
5
2
4
5
6
7
4
4
5
10

$1.75
1.75
1.75
1.83
1.85
1.92
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.12
2.31
2.31
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.75
2.88
a
a
a
a
a
a

oo
oo
oo
oo
oo
20

3.50
a 50
4.00
4.00
4.00
4 00
400
417
5.00
5.00
5.00

• Earnings per day shown in this column are computed in some cases by dividing
weekly earnings by 6 and in other cases by dividing monthly earnings by 26.
In 206 o f the families there was evidence o f a normal income addi­
tional to that derived from the labor of wage-earners. In many cases
the reports told o f assistance given by neighbors, in other cases the
family could rely upon regular donations from a church, occasionally
an absent child or a near relative would regularly pay the rent; upon
the whole, however, assistance by relatives and kinsmen was rare—
not so frequent perhaps as assistance by friends. In 43 families a
monthly pension supplemented the regular earnings. These pensions
ranged from $8 to $12 a month and were in a few cases practically
the sole income o f the recipient. With the exception of the pensions
the element o f additional income constituted but an insignificant
factor in the finances o f the families. In a great majority o f cases
when the regular earnings o f members o f the family were cut off
practically everything was gone.




C H A R IT Y

R E L IE F A N D

893

W A G E E A R N IN G S .

FAMILIES HAYING ADDITIONAL INCOME (OR HELP), AT NORMAL TIMES AND
AT TIME OF APPLICATION.
At time of application.

At normal times.

Class.

White. Negro. Total. White. Negro. Total.

Total families having some income in addition to earn­
ings.................................................................................
Families (included in above) having pensions..............

91
29

115
14

206
43

99
29

124
14

223
43

K IN D OF A ID GIVEN.
The following table, showing the kind of aid received by these
families, gives an insight into the pressing needs of the distressed
poor:

FAMILIES RECEIVING AID IN 1905, BY KIND OF AID FIRST GIVEN.
Kind of aid first given.
Clothing.............................................................................................................
Clothing and food.............................................................................................
Clothing and fuel.......................................................................................
Clothing, food, and fuel....................................................................................
Food...................................................................................................................
Food and cash for rent..................................................................................
Food and lodging.......................................................................................
Food and fuel....................................................................................................
Food, fuel, and rent........................................................................................
Fuel................................................................................................................
Medicine.....................................................................................................
Sanitarium treatment...................................................................................
Supplies..........................................................................................................
T r a n s p o r ta tio n ........................................... ..................................................................
Transportation and rent..........................................................................
Not reported.....................................................................................................
Total........................................................................................................

Families.
White.

Negro.

1
685
7
3
1751
1
711
981
8
1
9
1
1
452

1
57
134
2
270
164
204
4
i
8
3
731

Total.
2
125
18
11
5
4451
1
2351
3021
121
171
1
4
1,183

This table shows that lack o f food was the most potent factor in
driving people to seek charity. In 60 per cent o f all the cases tabu­
lated food constituted either the whole or a part o f the donation.
Next to food, fuel is most frequently sought by charity applicants.
In nearly half the cases o f relief given in 1905 fuel was one o f the
articles first given. Frequently recourse is made to charity because
the usual supply o f fuel is cut off by severe weather. Many very poor
families are accustomed to get their fuel in a haphazard way, pick­
ing coal and cinders from public dumps and private ash heaps and
gathering stray pieces o f wood here and there. (*) The charity records
bring out this fact. In 40 families it wras the custom to gather fuel
wherever it could be secured for nothing, and in a number o f cases
° See Bulletin o f the Bureau o f Labor, No. 64, p. 610.




894

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

distress was due to the fact that cinders could not be picked from the
dump because o f the ice and snow.
After food and fuel, clothing is most frequently given. A word
o f explanation about the frequent giving of clothing is necessary.
In a great many instances the clothing consisted of shoes given to
children in order that bare feet might not prevent attendance at
school. Cases happen where a family that can afford most things
can not buy shoes for the children, and without shoes the children can
not attend school. In such a case the charity organization comes to
the relief o f the family and gives the necessary shoes, even though
there be no acute distress. This policy, with respect to the giving of
shoes to enable children to attend school, materially increases the
number o f times clothing is given and adds to the charity roll quite a
number o f families who ordinarily would not belong there.
The number o f times rent appeals in the table by no means meas­
ures the distress that is connected with the arrears o f rent. Next to
the food problem the rent problem is unquestionably the one that
presses most heavily upon the poor. The charity reports give many
instances o f arrears of rent. Notices o f ejectment, costing the tenant
$1.85 for service, are constantly appearing. Sometimes a letter from
the landlord appears, as follow s: “ You have six days from the 25th
o f this month, which was last Tuesday, the day that judgment was
rendered against you, to vacate the room you occupy. The constable
will be there when the six days are out i f you are not by that time
removed.” The records show that the constable knows how to fulfill
his duty. The following are from the charity agents’ reports:
“ Yesterday woman and her children were set out o f doors. A ll
slept on the porch last night.”
“ Put out on street on a rainy day.”
“ Put out on street in spite o f agent’s protest.”
“ The rent not having been paid, the family were set out in the
midst o f a heavy snowstorm.”
The records, however, do not always show the landlord to be cruel
and hard-hearted. “ I have given,” says a landlord in a letter to the
agent, “ notice to Mrs. X to move. I wish it could be accomplished
in such a way as to avoid the publicity which might hinder her from
getting another house.” In this note can be seen the real nature of
the hardship o f being turned out o f doors for nonpayment o f rent.
Ejectment not only puts a family out on the street, but it also at the
same time closes all doors against the family. No landlord wants a
freshly ejected tenant. The poor know this and make every effort to
avoid ejectment. In the archives o f poverty nothing is sadder than
the accounts o f the efforts that are made to meet the rent.
“ Said that she had to pay her last cent to-day on her rent and was
now out o f food and fuel and would have to wait until she has another
week’s work before she could buy food and fuel.”



895

CHARITY BELIEF AND WAGE EARNINGS.

“ Sold feather bed and pillows for enough to pay the rent.”
“ Said she was going to pawn her skirt to pay for rent.”
“ They had just gotten enough money for rent and i f they could
keep that without paying anything for groceries they would be able
to pay up rent on the following day.”
In the above excerpts can be discerned the policy of the poor in re­
spect to rent; they will pay the rent money even if it takes every cent
they have to do so and they afterwards have to go to charity for food
or for fuel. The serious results o f ejectment cause them to do this.
This policy goes far in explaining why so few cases o f assistance in
rent appear in the table. There is another reason why the table does
not show a larger number of rent cases: The charity organization does
not make it a practice to pay the rent o f applicants. Only in extreme
cases will it undertake to furnish relief o f this kind. An old woman
on her deathbed had an ejectment notice served on her. There was
nothing to do but pay the rent. In such cases the charity organization
will meet the arrears, but in ordinary cases it does not undertake to
do this.
Since the 12 cases o f rent relief found in the table on page 893 give
no idea o f the magnitude o f the rent problem in the lives of these
families, a separate study bearing on the subject was made, and the
results embodied in the following table. In this table is given the
number o f families in which financial pressure, due to rent, figured
either directly or indirectly in the distress:

NUMBER OF WHITE AND NEGRO FAMILIES HAVING ARREARS OF RENT AND
CHATTEL-MORTGAGE LOANS, BY DESCRIPTION OF FAMILIES.
Number of families haying—
Description of family.

Arrears of rent.

Chattel-mortgage loans.

White. Negro. Total. White. Negro. Total.
Husband and
Hnshandj
wife,wife............................................................
and 1 child.............................................
Husband, wife, and 2 children........................................
Husband, wife, and 3 children........................................
Husband, wife, and 4 children.......................................
Husband, wife, and 5 children.......................................
Husband, wife, and 6 children.......................................
Husband, wife, and 7 children.......................................
Husband, wife, and 8 children.......................................
Husband, wife, 2 children, and sister-in-law.................
Husband, wife, 3 children, and mother-in-law..............
Husband, wife, 3 children, son, wife, and child..............
Husband, wife, 6 children, and grandmother................
Husband (separated) and 3 children..............................
Widower...........................................................................
Widower and 1 child.......................................................
Widower and 4 children and grandmother....................
Widower and 6 children and woman.............................
Man (single).....................................................................
Man (single) and mother................................................
Man, woman, and 5 illegitimate children......................
Widow..............................................................................
Widow
and 1 child...........................................................
W id o w an d 2 c h ild r e n ................................................................
Widow and 3 children.....................................................
Widow and 4 children.....................................................



5
10
18
14
18
10
6
3
31
1
2
1
1
1
1
3
3
i

5
9
2
4
7
7
3
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
7
5
3
5
4

10
19
1
20
2
18
25
3
10
i
13
1
6
41
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1 «
1
1
1
1
1
8
2
68 i1
51
i
5l

1
2
1

1

i

1
2
5
2
1

1

1
1

1

3

1

896

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

NUMBER OF WIUTE AND NEGRO FAMILIES HAVING ARREARS OF RENT AND
CHATTEL-MORTGAGE LOANS, BY DESCRIPTION OF FAMILIES— Concluded.
Number of families having—
Description of family.

Arrears of rent.

Chattel-mortgage loans.

White. Negro. Total. White. Negro. Total.
Widow and 5 children....................................................
Widow and 6 children.....................................................
Widow and 7 children.....................................................
Widow and 4 children and dependent...........................
Widow, 1 child, and mother...........................................
Wife (separated)..............................................................
Wife (separated) and 1 child...........................................
Wife (separated) and 2 children.....................................
Wife (separated) and 3 children.....................................
Wife (separated) and 4 children.....................................
Wife (separated) and 5 children.....................................
Wife (separated) and 6 children.....................................
Woman (single)................................................................
Woman (single) and niece...............................................
Woman (single) and 2 children......................................
Woman (divorced)..........................................................
Total.......................................................................

1
1
4
2
2
1
1
1
115

3
1
1
1
1
4
4
3
31

4
1
1
1
1
1
5
6
6
1
4
1
31

93

208

1
1
1
16

1

1

2

3
i

1

1
1
26

10

O f the 1,183 families, 208 at some time(a) and to some extent found
arrears for rent associated with their appeal to charity. Nearly a
third o f the families thus distressed were fatherless; that is, they had
as heads either widows or wives whose husbands had abandoned
them.
Arrears o f rent is the most frequent form o f debt among those
stricken by poverty,.but there are other forms that are accompanied
by acute distress. One kind o f debt frequently met with is the un­
paid grocery bill. This is sometimes quite as pressing as an unpaid
rent bill. Another form o f debt that presses sorely upon these fami­
lies is the chattel-mortgage loan. This is a debt that constantly
threatens to take the furniture out of the house. The charity organi­
zation helps the poor in many ways with their chattel-mortgage trou­
bles, but they seldom pay the debt outright. This form o f relief,
therefore, does not appear in the table on page 893 showing kind o f aid
first given. In the preceding table, however, can be seen the extent
to which the chattel mortgage entered into the poverty o f these poor.
In 26 families the exactions o f the loan company were felt. The rates
o f interest were those usually charged in similar transactions. In
one case there was a loan o f $25 to be paid in 18 fortnightly payments
o f $2.50—$20 for the use o f $25.00 for nine months. In another case
a widow was behind two months in the payment o f a loan. She had
all the money except $1, but the company, which had sent a notice o f
foreclosure threatening seizure the following day, demanded payment
in full. Every cent o f the debt had to be paid or the furniture would
This enumeration was not confined to the year 1905.




C H A R I T Y R E L IE F A N D

897

W A G E E A R N IN G S .

be taken. In this case the charity agent gave the needed dollar.
widow paid $4.40 for the use o f $10 for four months. (a)

The

D ELIN Q U EN CIES OF C H A R IT Y R E C IPIE N TS.
Statistics as to the moral conditions which prevailed in these fami­
lies and the extent to which vice and crime were associated with the
poverty o f these charity recipients are shown in the following table:
N UM BER OF W H IT E AND NEGRO F A M IL IE S FOR W HICH S P E C IF IE D MORAL
D ELIN Q U EN C IES W ER E REPO RTED.

Moral delinquencies.
Brutality, by husband.......................................................................
Cocaine habit, by husband................................................................
Desertion, by husband.......................................................................
Desertion, by son-in-law....................................................................
Desertion, by wife............................................................................. .
Desertion, by husband and wife.......................................................
Desertion and gambling, by husband...............................................
Desertion and intemperance, by husband.......................................
Desertion and licentiousness, by husband.......................................
Desertion, by husband: licentiousness, by daughter......................
Desertion, by husband; licentiousness, by wife..............-............
Desertion, by husband; lawlessness, by wife...................................
Dishonesty, by husband....................................................................
Dishonesty and licentiousness, by husband.....................................
Dishonesty and lying, by husband...................................................
Disorderly conduct, by husband.......................................................
Forgery, by husband..........................................................................
Gambling, by husband......................................................................
Intemperance, by daughter...............................................................
Intemperance, by husband................................................................
Intemperance, by man.......................................................................
Intemperance, by son.........................................................................
Intemperance, by wife.......................................................................
Intemperance, by woman..................................................................
Intemperance, by husband and wife.................................................
Intemperance and criminality, by husband....................................
Intemperance and lawlessness, by husband.....................................
Intemperance and lawlessness, by son..............................................
Intemperance and licentiousness, by husband................................
Intemperance and lying, by husband...............................................
Intemperance and neglect of family, by husband............................
Intemperance and neglect of parents, by son...................................
Intemperance, by husband; morphine habit, by wife....................
Intemperance, by husband and wife, desertion, by husband........
Intemperance and desertion, by husband; licentiousness, by wife.
Intemperance and lawlessness, by husband and son.......................
Lawlessness, by husband...................................................................
Lawlessness, by man..........................................................................
Lawlessness, by son............................................................................
Lawlessness, by wife..........................................................................
Lawlessness and licentiousness, by children....................................
Licentiousness, by child.....................................................................
Licentiousness, by daughter..............................................................
Licentiousness, by granddaughter....................................................
Licentiousness, by husband...............................................................
Licentiousness, by niece.....................................................................
Licentiousness, by wife......................................................................
Licentiousness, by woman.................................................................
Licentiousness, by husband and wife...............................................
Licentiousness, by man and woman.................................................
Licentiousness, by woman and daughter.........................................
Licentiousness, by daughter; lawlessness, by son...........................
Licentiousness and mendicancy, by daughter..................................
Licentiousness, by wife; neglect, by husband..................................
Lying, by wife.....................................................................................
Mendicancy, by family.......................................................................

Families.
White. Negro. Total.
20

1
1

1
1
1
3
1

2

6

3

1
1
2
1
1
1

3

67

23

4

1
1
1
1
1
1
1

2

2

6

4

1
1

2

3

1
1
1
1
2
4

1
6

2

3

1

1

1
1

2

3
1
1
9
4
1
4
1
1

2

1
1

2

1
1

1

1

1

1
1
90

1
8
3

1
1
1
10
1
1
2
9
15

2
2
2

1
1
1

2

2

5
1

2

7
1
5

2

3
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
8

2

3
1

1
1
1

14

2

2

15
17
5

1
2
2
1
1
2
2

a For a fu ll account o f the conditions o f borrowing among the poor, see Bulletin
o f the Bureau o f Labor, No. 64, pp. 622-633.




898

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

N UM BER OF W H IT E AND NEGRO F A M IL IE S FOR W H ICH S P E C IF IE D MORAL
D ELIN Q U EN C IES W ER E REPO RTED — Concluded.

Moral delinquencies.
Mendicancy, by husband...........................................................................................
Mendicancy^ by wife...................................................................................................
Mendicancy, by woman.............................................................................................
Mendicancy and intemperance, by husband and wife............................................
Murder, by husband...................................................................................................
Neglect of parents, by children..................................................................................
Neglect of parents, by daughter................................................................................
Neglect of parents, by son..........................................................................................
Neglect, by mother.....................................................................................................
Neglect, by son-in-law................................................................................................
Neglect of mother, by children..................................................................................
Neglect of mother, by son..........................................................................................
Neglect of family, by husband...................................................................................
Neglect of family, by husband; mendicancy, by family.........................................
Thievery, by husband................................................................................................
Thievery, by sister.....................................................................................................
Thievery, by son.........................................................................................................
Thievery, by wife.......................................................................................................
Thievery and general immorality, by husband.......................................................
Total...................................................................................................................

Families.
White. Negro. Total.
1
21
1
2
2
71
1
3
174

1
1
5
29
1
1
1
2
10
1
1
21
1
220

1
3
11
1
7
2
111
1
1
2
17
.1
2
1
51
1
394

In almost exactly two-thirds o f the families there was no palpable
delinquency whatever. This is to say, that a fairly decent standard
o f morals prevailed in a very large majority of the families. In
almost exactly one-third of the families there was marked delin­
quency o f some kind. O f the 394 families tainted by delinquency
174 were white and 220 colored, these numbers representing 38 per
cent o f the total white families and 30 per cent o f the total colored
families, respectively.
In charging delinquency against a family its whole charity record
was taken into consideration, and in locating a fault it was some­
times necessary to go outside the economic group. In some cases it
was exceedingly difficult to say whether there was delinquency or not.
It was difficult to determine, for instance, in a case where the chief
wage-earner— a widow—was arrested and incarcerated for stealing
bread for her children whether there was delinquency. Because it
was lawlessness it was decided that the woman was a delinquent.
A man at the age o f 59 married a young woman of 28. After the
birth o f several children there was a separation. Then the husband
returned, another child was born, and there was another separation.
This alternation o f desertion and home-staying continued until the
time o f the investigation, when the husband, then at the age o f 72,
was a deserter and when there were seven children in the family.
The husband was not charged with moral delinquency on account of
the desertion, for the reason that at no time had the man been able
t.o contribute much to the family support. In another very interest­
ing case a man and a woman, who had never been legally joined in
marriage, were living together and raising a family of children.




CHARITY RELIEF AND WAGE EARNINGS.

899*

There seemed to be perfect loyalty, and the adulterous relation seemed
to have no kind o f effect upon the affairs o f the household. Econom­
ically it was the same as i f there had been a marriage certificate..
The family was stamped of course with licentiousness, but the action
o f the couple contrasts favorably with the many cases where women
with illegitimate children were abandoned. The facts bearing upom
delinquency, besides being difficult to interpret, are also sometimes:
exceedingly difficult to ascertain. In one case, after a certain family
had been scheduled as being without delinquency, the information
was unearthed that the husband was a drunkard and for several years:
had been going on long sprees. During these years the charity agent
had been patiently trying to learn the cause of the trouble, but her in­
quiries had been skillfully eluded.
The leading delinquencies as shown by the table are intemperance*,
desertion, licentiousness, neglect by natural supporters, lawlessness,,,
thievery, and mendicancy. First among the delinquencies stands in­
temperance. In 128 families, more than 10 per cent o f the wholenumber receiving charity and nearly one-third o f all those in which
delinquency was visible, intemperance was present. In the families:
afflicted by intemperance the husband was the delinquent in 114 cases*.
In not one family in a hundred is a drunken woman found. In 96cases the intemperance was in white families and in 82 cases it was in.
colored families.
Next to intemperance stands the vice o f desertion. In 144 cases
there was wanton abandonment o f the family, and in 187 o f thesecases the offender was the husband. In 102 cases the desertion oc­
curred in colored families and in 42 cases in white families.
After intemperance and wanton abandonment the evil most ap­
parent was licentiousness. Evidence o f this delinquency was in many
cases, o f course, largely a matter o f inference. Sometimes when theevidence was direct and clear it was still hard to brand the family with
moral turpitude, as in the case o f an old colored woman of 70 years*'
who had never been married and who yet was the mother o f childrenHer error, however, was o f another age and was committed in slavery
times. The circumstance that most frequently supported the chargeo f licentiousness was the presence o f illegitimate children. O f these
there was an unusually large number— 11 illegitimate white children
and 68 illegitimate colored children. O f the 64 cases in which licen­
tiousness is the principal charge women were the offenders in 61
cases. This disproportion between the sexes is due to the fact that
the male offender was most frequently an outsider who could not beincluded in the enumeration. In 17 cases this vice was found in
white families and in 47 cases in colored families.
63675— No. 79— 09------18




900

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E

BUREAU

OF LA B O R *

O f the 43 cases o f neglect by natural supporters shown in the table
more than a third were chargeable to husbands and were therefore
similar to cases o f desertion. This neglect very often consisted in
staying away from home for several days and nights at a time and
spending whatever cash might be on hand. Sometimes the neglect
took the form o f intermittent desertion; the husband would go and
come, supporting the family when at home and leaving it to shift
for itself when away. Next to husbands, the greatest offenders in the
way o f neglect were grown sons. In 11 cases sons who were able to
help their parents ungratefully withheld the sorely needed aid*
Mendicancy can not figure largely among delinquencies o f charity
recipients, for the reason that the charity organization withholds aid
from mendicants. This evil, however, is one that the charity people
have to deal with constantly, and now and then, as the table shows, a
family in which there are beggars succeeds in securing doles. This
is not surprising when the methods to which mendicants resort are
considered. One family succeeded in exploiting fifteen different
churches and organizations, the charity organization among the
number. There were eight in the family, five being over 15 years
o f age, but nobody worked, not even the male head o f the family.
Another instance was that o f an oily-tongued person who posed as a
preacher and who received aid for several years before he was dis­
covered to be a beggar and a fraud. In another case a mendicant
family was holding membership in three different churches and pass­
ing under a different name in each church. The ruse was not dis­
covered until the charity organization had been for some time a
victim o f the deception.
But more troublesome than mendicancy itself is a certain reliance
upon charity, a certain inclination to pauperism, which crops out in
many charity recipients. Such a spirit of dependence was visible in
69 families, 40 o f which were white and 29 colored. The reliance
upon charity here referred to did not quite assume the form of a posi­
tive delinquency. The dependence sometimes took on the aspect of
faith, as in the case o f an old man who, when asked why he did not go
to the poorhouse, said that he relied on God to take care o f him and
keep him out of the poorhouse. When applying for charity it seemed
to him that he was only falling in with a divine scheme. In some
cases it is plain that the feeling of reliance is due to the unwise action
o f friends or of churches. “ I fear the family has been too much
petted by the church people ” is the impression o f one agent in respect
to a family that was accustomed to haunt the charity office. Quite
often the person put down as relying upon charity was an old colored
woman who was used to getting help here and there from white peo­
ple and who regarded the charity agent simply as one of her “ white
folks.” A remarkable case o f dependence was that o f a woman who
relied on an ex-slave to support her. The faithful domestic worked



CHARITY RELIEF AND WAGE EARNINGS.

901

only to keep her former mistress from want, and when the earnings
were too scant for this it was the ex-slave and not the mistress that
visited the charity office.
Farther removed from delinquency than reliance on charity is a
certain perversity of pride which figures in these cases with sufficient
frequency to warrant mention here. In at least a dozen cases the ap­
plicants went to the charity office because they were too stubborn or
too proud to appeal to natural supporters who were able and willing
to help them. “ A rich brother would give aid,” is the agent’s note in
one case, “ but because she thinks he would give grudgingly she would
rather take charity.” In another case a woman applicant had rela­
tives who would have helped her gladly. The agent wrote to the ap­
plicant suggesting that she appeal to her relatives for aid. The ap­
plicant refused, saying in the letter of reply: “ It is very easy for you
to advise me to do what Heaven and earth couldn’t make you do if
you were in my place.”
In a very few cases the delinquency was so comprehensive and mul­
tifarious as almost to warrant its being classified as total depravity,
but that classification was of course not practicable. In such cases
poverty and delinquency are indissolubly united. The records in
cases o f this kind usually extend over many years—in one case over
twenty years—and the account is a long story of crime, licentiousness,
intemperance, and mendicancy.
CAU SES O F D IST R E SS OF C H A K IT Y R E C IPIE N TS.
Consideration is next given to the causes which operated to produce
in more than a thousand families a distress so deep that relief could
be found only in a charity office.
In characterizing the causes o f poverty it is well to use only such
terms as the poverty-stricken person himself would understand. In
doing this the word “ inefficiency ” should rarely be used. A machine
that does not fulfill the purpose for which it was constructed may be
said to be inefficient and, by a metaphor, a man who does not do well
the work for which he has been trained may be charged with in­
efficiency, but it is seldom that the charity seeker can justly be called
inefficient. The conditions o f life which surround the povertystricken class are incompatible with anything like efficiency. “ It
is the bitterest portion o f the lot o f the poor that they are deprived
o f the opportunity o f learning to work well. To taunt them with
that incapacity and to regard it as the cause o f poverty is nothing
else than a piece o f blind insolence. Inefficiency is one o f the worst
and most degrading aspects o f poverty; but to regard it as the




902

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

leading cause is an error fatal to a true understanding o f the
problem.” (a)
The same reasons that dissuade from assigning “ inefficiency ” as
a cause o f poverty dissuade from assigning “ ignorance ” as a cause.
It is true that large numbers o f charity seekers are ignorant o f the
art o f right living, and the poverty o f these might be ascribed to
“ ignorance,” meaning that they were ignorant o f the art o f right liv­
ing, but such a classification would not throw much light on the sub­
ject o f poverty. Nor would it tell the charity seeker any useful
things about himself. I f a man is told that his poverty is due to
drunkenness, or licentiousness, or lawlessness, or mendicancy, he will
understand and may respond morally to what is said, but if he is told
that it is due to ignorance he will not, can not, have the faintest
notion o f what is meant. Ignorance, like inefficiency, is one o f the
ugly aspects o f poverty, but it can not be usefully regarded as one o f
the causes o f poverty.
There is a phase o f ignorance that may sometimes be rightly
characterized as a cause o f poverty. This is illiteracy. Modern life
demands a knowledge o f reading and writing, and a person who is
ignorant o f these arts is often as seriously impeded in the race for
a livelihood as one who has a lame foot. The matter o f illiteracy
was therefore not disregarded in this investigation. As far as the
records gave an account o f the literacy o f a family the facts were
carefully noted. But the account was in many instances unsatisfac­
tory and incomplete, and taking them altogether the facts relating
to illiteracy were not full enough to tell the whole story. A correct
picture o f the literacy of those families was desirable, but even if
one had been obtained, the additional knowledge thereby furnished
would not have influenced the analysis now being made, for it hap­
pens that in these charity cases illiteracy, pure and simple, figures
hardly at all as a cause of poverty. In one case a boy could not get
employment as a messenger because he could not read and write.
In another case a delicate man could not get a clerkship in a store
for the same reason. Here ignorance in the sense o f illiteracy was
unquestionably a cause contributing to the poverty. In neither case,
however, did it happen to be a cause o f such weight as to deserve
notice in the schedules.
“ Irregularity o f employment ” is another expression that has been
avoided in the characterization o f the causes o f poverty, although
this cause is at the bottom o f so much distress that it might be jus­
tifiable to call irregularity o f employment the “ causing cause” o f
poverty.. But such language is too broad to be useful. Industrial
0 J. A. H u lson : Problem s o f Poverty, p. 167.




CHARITY RELIEF AND WAGE EARNINGS.

903

society, especially that segment of it wherein these charity recip­
ients are comprised, is organized on the basis o f irregularity o f em­
ployment. Among these workers there is no certainty that employment
o f any kind, regular or irregular, will be secured, and even when
regular employment has been secured, many things, like sickness,
severe weather, accident, fire, flood, panic, dullness of trade, strikes,
or lockouts intervene to make it irregular. T o say, therefore, that a
man’s poverty is due to irregularity o f employment is hardly more
than to say that it is due to the adverse conditions which prevail in
the industrial world.
But, while irregularity o f employment has not been used as a con­
venient term in the enumeration o f the causes o f poverty, the subject
has nevertheless received careful attention in this study. In every
case examined this question was asked: Does the chief wage-earner
o f this family seem to have a steady job? In those cases where the
employment seemed to be o f a kind that usually continues right along
without serious break, the employee was regarded as being regularly
employed. In all other cases the employment was put down as irregu­
lar. The result is seen in the table on pages 886 and 887. O f the
1,051 cases in which it was possible to characterize the employment of
the chief wage-earner as regular or irregular, 919 were irregular.
That is to say, in about one family in eight the chief wage-earner
could feel that he had steady work, while in seven-eighths o f the cases
the chief wage-earner was liable to loose his job at any moment.
“ The curse o f the American workman,” says Dr. T. S. Adams, “ is
irregular employment.” (°) I f this is true of the whole class o f work­
men, how distressingly true is it o f the workmen among these charity
recipients.
The expression “ financial element ” is used in this discussion as a
comprehensive phrase referring to a certain restricted class o f causes
which operate to produce distress. A t first thought “ financial ele­
ment ” would seem to be at the bottom o f every case o f distress. In
a certain sense this is true, but for the purpose o f this analysis a case
o f distress can not be so easily disposed of. For instance, there was
a man whose wages were $5 a day, whose services were in demand,
and who worked quite regularly, but he squandered his money by
drinking and gambling, and his wife and children were thrown upon
charity. It would not be correct to ascribe this distress to a lack of
money, and the case shows that there is a nonfinancial as well as a
financial element which operates to produce distress. The financial
element, as used here, includes one, or several, or all o f the following
causes: Insufficient earnings, lack o f employment, sickness, accident,
old age, and severe weather. A ll o f these in the last analysis operate
° T. S. A d a m s: Labor Problems, p. 170.




904

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.

like a financial cause in producing distress. In 28 o f the families the
“ financial element ” was not visible at all. In these families it was
not possible to point to insufficient earnings, nor to lack of employ­
ment, nor to sickness, nor to accident, nor to old age, nor to severe
weather, as contributing to the poverty; the financial element figured
neither openly nor in disguise. O f the 28 families in which only the
nonfinancial element appeared as the cause o f distress 20 were white
and 8 were colored.
IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF DISTRESS*

Usually a case o f distress acute enough to drive a family to charity
is complicated. The following is typical o f many: “ The husband
has been out o f work for two months; they are back in their rent and
notice has been served and they are likely to be set out on the street.
There is nothing in the house to eat, while the wife expects to be con­
fined in a very short time.” A t first glance it appears that the cause
o f distress in this case can be expressed by a single phrase. Lack of
employment would seem to account satisfactorily for the distress.
If, however, the record went on to show that a prolonged spell of cold
weather prevented the husband from following his usual vocation,
an indirect or contributing cause, namely, severe weather, would have
figured in the account. I f further study of the record showed that
the wife was an invalid with tuberculosis and that for years the
family had been kept down by reason o f her condition, still another
fact would have to be reckoned with, and sickness might have to be
set down as the underlying, permanent cause o f the destitution.
This typical case, then, foreshadows three classes o f causes, direct
or immediate causes, indirect or contributing causes, and dominant
or persistent causes.
Immediate causes are those catastrophies—the debauch of the father,
the confinement o f the mother, the sudden and unexpected loss o f
work, the visitation o f death—which overtake the family. The imme­
diate cause is the one that impinges directly upon the consciousness of
the applicant and the one that seems to hurry him to the charity office.
It is the cause which the applicant himself is apt to assign as a reason
for making an appeal to charity. wWhat brings you here asking for
aid P inquires the charity agent o f the applicant. In the answer to
this question will usually be found what is here called the immediate
cause.
The direct causes of distress in all the families are shown in the
table which follows:




905

CHARITY RELIEF AND WAGE EARNINGS.

NUMBER OF WHITE AND OF NEGRO FAMILIES RECEIVING AID IN 1905, BY
IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF DISTRESS.
Immediate cause of distress.
Accident................................................. ..........................
Blindness..................................................................... ,..
Death in family................................................................
Desertion...........................................................................
Incarceration.....................................................................
Insufficiency of earnings..................................................
Intemperance...................................................................
Lack of employment........................................................
Lack of employment and old age....................................
Lameness..........................................................................
Loss by fire.......................................................................
Loss oi horse.....................................................................
Loss of income from roomers...........................................
Loss of money...................................................................
Neglect by natural supporters.........................................
Old age..............................................................................
Old age and blindness.....................................................
Severe weather.................................................................
Sickness.............................................................................
No eood ca u s e ................................................................................
Total......................................................

White.

Negro.

Total

Fam­ Per­
ilies. sons.

Fam­ Per­
ilies. sons.

Fam­ Per­
ilies. sons.

17

85

5
6
26
12
196
1
2
1

21
16
126
77
«821
3
8
4

4
18
9
11
2
10
1701 «659
1
452 «1,860

38
155
55
4
4
15
3
16
3
7
24
12
7
22
13
81
55 241
12
2011 6 831 3971
3
1
3
2
9
5
3
1
1
1
3
1
1
2
11
7
26
53
49
40
•1
1
2
4
6
12
525
355 d 1,081
2
3
7
731 / 2,505 1,183

240
15
16
45
38
367
77
1,652
3
6
17
4
3
2
44
64
2
22
1,740
8
4,365

Including 4 Negroes, members of white families.
* Not including 4 Negroes, members of white families.
0 Including 5 Negroes, members of white families.
d Not including 5 Negroes, members of white families.
• Including 9 Negroes, members of white families.
t Not including 9 Negroes, members of white families.

a

Sickness easily leads the list. In nearly half the families that
applied for aid for the first time in 1905 the distress was directly
connected with some form of bodily ailment. (°) There was almost
every kind o f disease which flesh is heir to, but the greatest distress
was caused by rheumatism and tuberculosis, the latter leading by
far all the other diseases.
Figures can not tell the complete story o f the ravages made by
sickness in these families. In one case the whole family was pros­
trate at one time. In another case a teamster regularly employed
at fairly good wages by a great express company was brought to
charity by a prolonged illness. In still another case where the regu­
lar wages o f the husband was $60 a month the sum o f $800 had been
saved. Sickness came and remained for many months and before
it departed every cent o f the savings was wiped out, and the family
a The cases o f sickness include 71 cases o f childbirth. Confinement, physio:
logically considered, is not sickness, but its econom ic result is the same as that
o f sickness. In the records o f some fam ilies confinement time is the only
time when charity is resorted to. The aid given upon the occasion o f confine­
ment is quite frequently clothing fo r the new-born babe. “ Found woman
needed a few articles o f clothing fo r the baby that was to be born,” is the
note o f the agent in one case. “ W ould you be w illing to see that the mother
has an outfit fo r the baby? I f you do not I fear the little thing w ill have
to be wrapped up in rags,” are the w ords o f a letter written to the agent in
respect to another case.




906

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

was reduced to charity. Good wages, thrift, and regularity o f
employment, all combined, availed not to save the family from the
havoc o f a long illness.
Next to sickness among the causes o f immediate distress is the
lack o f employment, more than one-third of the families having
sought relief for this cause. It will be understood that lack o f
employment is to be taken here as meaning an entirely different
thing from irregularity o f employment. The latter expression as
employed in this article has been used to denote a certain unsteadiness
in the nature o f the man’s job or a certain insecurity in his tenure o f
it. Lack o f employment on the other hand refers to the man’s
definite inability to get work during a definite period of time whether
his usual vocation is classed as regular or irregular. For example,
a man whose occupation is that o f a clerk in a store loses his
position and before he can secure another place becomes an object o f
charity. Here the man’s employment is classed as “ regular ” but
the immediate cause o f his distress is put down as “ lack o f employ­
ment.”
The charity records are constantly referring to the evil resulting
from lack o f employment:
“ X has been out o f work nine weeks and has used up all he saved.”
In this case X was a sober man and a member o f a union, with a
wage o f $3.50 per day—when he could get work.
“ While the husband was at work his wages, together with those of
his wife, were sufficient to support his family, but when the husband
lost his job for only a week the family was thrown upon charity.”
“ The man earned $4 a day at structural ironwork, but a longcontinued spell o f bad weather exhausted the funds and brought the
man to poverty.”
“ The father had tramped all over the city looking for work until
his feet were sore.”
In the last excerpt the reference to feet made sore by tramping in
search for work calls attention to one o f the most serious phases o f
the distress that is wrought by lack o f employment. I f a period
o f enforced idleness were a season o f recuperation and rest there
would be a good side to lack o f employment. But enforced idle­
ness does not bring recuperation and rest. The search for labor is
much more fatiguing than labor itself. An applicant sitting in one
o f the charity offices waiting for the arrival o f the agent related his
experiences while trying to get work. He would rise at 5 o’clock
in the morning and walk 3 or 4 miles to some distant point where
he had heard work could be had. He went early so as to be ahead
o f others, and he walked because he could not afford to pay car fare.
Disappointed in securing a job at the first place, he would tramp to an­
other place miles away, only to meet with disappointment again. Then



CHARITY RELIEF AND WAGE EARNINGS.

907

would follow long journeys to other places. After a day consumed
in useless tramping he would make his way home, exhausted in body
and depressed in spirit. The next day would be a repetition o f the
day before, and every day it became more and more difficult to go
home to his family without anything to give them. “ It almost
grieves a man to death,” he said, 64not to have something to give his
wife and children.” As the man told his story he drove home the
truth that lack o f employment means far more than simply a loss in
dollars and cents; it means a drain upon the vital forces that can not
be measured in terms o f money.
Next to sickness and lack o f employment in the list, but a long
way behind both, stands insufficient wages as a direct cause o f dis­
tress. Insufficient wages means that the rate o f wages was so low
that the family could not live upon the earnings, even though the
full wage was being received at the time o f the application. The
preceding table shows that 81 families whose wage-earners were
regularly employed were compelled to supplement their earnings by
doles from the charity office.
In determining whether the wage was sufficient for subsistence
or not, a calculation was made based upon the supposition that an
adult male requires at least $1 per week for food (uncooked ) .( a) In
estimating for rent in the calculation, a monthly sum ranging in
amount from $5 to $8, according to the size o f the family, was
allowed. When these allowances for food and rent consumed all (or
practically all) the earnings o f the family visible at the time o f the
application, the immediate cause o f the distress was determined to be
insufficient wages. A glance at the earnings shown in the tables on
pages 890 to 892 will show that the methods o f determination here
adopted would very frequently result in finding insufficient wages as
the cause o f the distress. But the conclusions embodied in the table
on page 905 were not drawn from the preceding tables. In these
tables account was taken only o f the wages o f the chief earner,
whereas in the later table the earnings o f all the members o f the
family were taken into account. In making the table on page 905,
very frequently a family was regarded as receiving insufficient earn­
ings, even though the exact amount o f these earnings was not stated.
Thus where the applicant was a widow with 6 small children and
her earnings consisted only of what she made at the washtub, the
cause o f distress was put down as insufficient earnings, for the reason
that the regular work o f one woman at washing and ironing will not
bring in enough to support a family o f 7. When forming conclu­
sions as to whether the wages received were sufficient or not, hard
and fast rules were often found to be impracticable. Each case was
® See Bulletin o f the Bureau o f Labor, No. 64, p. 603. The consuming power
o f a fam ily w as estimated by the method indicated on page 602 o f Bulletin 64.




908

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

studied in its entirety and judgment was based upon all the facts.
A few illustrations will serve to show how this subject was treated
in cases where wages were indefinitely stated:
1. A family o f 8 persons. The rate o f wages is not stated, but the
records show that when it was a family of 6 persons the husband wars
earning $1.52 per day as a laborer and that this was not sufficient at
times to keep them from charity. Although the rate of wages at the
time o f application in 1905 is not given, the occupation o f the hus­
band was in that year still that o f a laborer, and since the family had
increased to 8 persons there was no hesitation in ascribing the distress
to insufficient earnings.
2. A family o f 9 persons. The father is a waiter, the wife a
laundress. A girl o f 16 nurses and a boy o f 15 earns a little now and
then at jobbing. The young children go to school. When all the
wage-earners are at work, there is no need for charity, but when the
wages o f a single member o f the family are cut off or interfered with
recourse to charity had to be made. For the reason that it was only
normal and inevitable that some untoward events should arise, the
destitution was put down to insufficient wages. Where the wages
are so low that the least ripple o f adversity brings a family to poverty,
wages may be fairly regarded as insufficient.
3. A case extending over many years. An aged couple work and
make what they can. Their work was irregular and sometimes they
earned so little that they were compelled to visit the charity office.
Here not insufficient earnings but old age was regarded as the direct
cause.
4. A family o f two—man and wife—both quite old. The man
served as a watchman at $5 per week, a sum not sufficient to keep
himself and wife from charity. The man worked regularly and
performed his work well. Not old age, but insufficient wages was
here assigned as the direct cause.
5. A family o f 9 persons. Husband’s salary $9 per week. Oldest
boy clerks at $3 per week, but his earnings are not regular. Agent
states that “ man has regular work, but family is so large that it is not
sufficient for their needs.” The distress in this case was determined
tube due to insufficient wages, the conclusion being based in part upon
the comment o f the agent.
In 55 families the immediate cause o f distress was accident. This
cause in its economic results is quite like that o f sickness, and viewed
in this light the cases of accident might very properly have been class­
ified with those o f sickness. One phase, however, of the subject o f
accidents among the poor requires special notice—the phase bearing
upon the question o f the employer’s liability. As the cases are
studied one is impressed with the justness o f liberal liability or com­




C H A R I T Y R E L IE F A N D W A G E E A R N IN G S .

909

pensation laws for workmen. A few of the agents’ notes descriptive
o f accidents may suffice to show present conditions:
1. A man was working, helping in the building o f a house. While
wheeling a wheelbarrow he stepped aside to let a fellow-workman
pass. In passing he was jostled and was caused to lose his balance.
He fell and was made a permanent cripple. He received no com­
pensation.
2. A man was working for a large transportation company, hand­
ling boxes. A t 3 p. m. he hurt his foot severely. Nothing was al­
lowed in the way o f liability, and the statement is made that the man
was paid for only three-fourths of a day’s work.
3. A man was injured by an explosion while working on a sewer for
the city. In this case a small indemnity was allowed, but the au­
thorities explicitly stated that the city was under no obligations to
give anything, although the disability caused by the accident was
permanent.
4. A man was working at a freight depot and while in the per­
formance o f his labors met with an accident which cut off his earnings
for several weeks, and which sent him to charity. No compensation.
5. A man was caught in a rope and crushed before the machinery
could be stopped. The accident, it was alleged, was due to the fact
that there were not proper appliances o f safety to the machine. No
compensation.
Fifth among the causes that urged these families to seek the charity
office was old age. In 49 families the applicant’s earning power had
been exhausted by the weight o f years. “ I am worn out,” was the
way one applicant, a physician o f four score and seven, expressed it.
In many o f the old-age eases there is a record o f but one visit to the
charity office. This often meant that the applicant had found a
permanent home either in the grave or in the poorhouse.
The five leading direct causes that operate to throw the poor upon
charity have been pointed out. It is seen that sickness, lack o f em­
ployment, insufficient wages, accident, and old age constitute nearly
94 per cent o f all the direct causes. This is to say that in nearly
nineteen cases out o f twenty the impelling cause o f the application is
directly referable to a financial factor; either the rate o f wage is too
low for subsistence, or there is a stoppage o f income due to a lack o f
employment, to sickness, to accident, or to old age.
Most o f the remaining direct causes are so remotely connected with
the question o f wages that they may be regarded as nonfinancial.
Sudden desertion may plunge a family into temporary distress even
when the deserter is receiving high wages. A spree will often cause
a resort to charity even though the husband is in receipt o f a fairly
good income. A man whose family is subsisting upon charity may
be lying in prison for the commission o f a crime, yet his incarceration,
the direct cause o f his family’s distress, may have had nothing what­
ever to do with the question o f wages. The nonfinancial direct




910

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E

BUKEAU

OF L A BO R,

causes, however, form but an insignificant portion o f all. In only
about one case out of twenty can it be said that a financial element
did not figure as an immediate cause o f distress.
CONTRIBUTING OR INDIRECT CAUSES OF DISTRESS.

Usually the story o f a charity case is only begun when the direct
cause has been stated. In the following table it is shown that in 854 o f
the families a contributing cause might be added to the cause that
appears on the surface. In 329 families the direct cause told the
whole story. The case was simply due to a temporary loss o f employ­
ment, to a debauch, to a spell o f cold weather, or to some other isolated
and perhaps nonrecurring circumstance.

NUMBER OF WHITE AND OF NEGRO FAMILIES RECEIVING AID IN 1905, BY
CONTRIBUTING CAUSES OF DISTRESS.
White.
Contributing cause.
Accident............................................................................
Affliction of children........................................................
Blindness..........................................................................
Blindness (partial)...........................................................
Death in family................................................................
Deformity.........................................................................
Desertion...........................................................................
Disability..........................................................................
Dullness of trade.............................................................
Feeble-mindedness..........................................................
Imbecility........................ 1..............................................
Incarceration of husband.................................................
Insanity............................................................................
Insufficient earnings........................................................
Insufficient earnings and neglect....................................
Insufficient earnings and shiftlessness............................
Intemperance...................................................................
Intemperance and old age...............................................
Lack
of employment........................................................
T.rymp.npss..........................................................................
Lawlessness......................................................................
Lawlessness and licentiousness.......................................
Licentiousness..................................................................
Loss of money..................................................................
Maltreatment....................................................................
Mendicancy......................................................................
Morphine habit.................................................................
Neglect by natural supporters........................................
Old age..............................................................................
Old age and lawlessness...................................................
Old age and neglect..........................................................
Old age and sickness........................................................
Severe weather.................................................................
Severe weather and old age.............................................
Shiftlessness......................................................................
Shiftlessness and intemperance.......................................
Shiftlessness and neglect..................................................
Shiftlessness and thievery................................................
Sickness.............................................................................
Sickness and intemperance.............................................
Sickness and neglect........................................................
Sickness and severe weather...........................................
Thievery............................................................................
None apparent..................................................................

Negro.

Total.

Fam­ Per­ Fam­ Per­ Fam­ Per­
ilies. sons. ilies. sons. ilies. sons.
1
1
1

4
2
1

261
1
4

95
33
11

3
151
1
501
12
1
4
1
1
31
8
361

4
798
9
o251
4
65
1
9
31
15
3
36
601

22
37
1
90
1

106
146
6
c404
7

1
2
126 521
452 «1,860

51
5
2
31
61

18
3
15
8
171
212

2
1
3
37

12
4
16
211

6102
17
29
97
4
10
2
10
20
63
1
4
2
7
24
58
76 140
1
2
1
3
57 188
2
4
18 ‘ 72
1
9
1
2
146 <*601
21
12
2
1
8
4
1
203 590
731 /2,505

• Including 2 Negroes, members of white families.
6 Not including 2 Negroes, members of white families.
c Including 7 __egroes, members of white families.
d Not including 7 Negroes, members of white families
• Including 9 Negroes, members of white families.
1 Not including 9 Negroes, members of white families.



61
6
3
31
871
1
61
3
3
521
1
671
41
4
1
2
24
21
15
32
1121
1
1
79
2
551
1
1
236
31
1
2
329
1,183

223
17
9
171
3073
3
23
4
16
4
2908
9
353
4
162
101
10
72
71
223
94
2001
23
294
4
218
9
26
1,005
19
2
8
6
1,111
4,365

CHARITY RELIEF AND WAGE EARNINGS.

911

The list o f contributing causes differs essentially from that of
immediate causes. Sickness, insufficient earnings, lack o f employ­
ment, and accident figure very much less than they did in the direct
causes, while desertion, intemperance, and neglect by natural sup­
porters figure very much more. New causes, too, appear. Among
these are licentiousness, shiftlessness, mendicancy, and thievery.
Plainly none o f these could very well appear as direct causes. The
applicant could hardly say that he made the appeal for charity
because he was a beggar or because he was a thief.
A broad survey of the surface causes o f distress showed that in a
vast majority o f cases the trouble was at bottom due to financial
adversity. A broad survey o f the contributing causes shows that the
undercurrent o f distress is strongly colored with moral delinquency.
Desertion, intemperance, licentiousness, neglect by natural supporters,
mendicancy, and thievery constitute about 25 per cent o f all these
contributing forces. The subject o f contributing causes is therefore
closely interwoven with the subject o f moral delinquencies.
Among the contributing causes is one which has not been set down
as a delinquency but which in quality closely approaches delinquency,
namely, shiftlessness. In 55 families this has been given as the con­
tributing cause. Shiftlessness is here regarded as consisting in a
failure to make the best o f opportunities. It is not exactly laziness.
Laziness does not appear in any o f the tables as a cause o f distress,
for the reason that the charity agents will not give to lazy people.
I f the wage-earner is suspected o f being lazy a “ work test” is ap­
plied. When the industry o f a man is a question o f doubt he is sent
to the municipal workhouse where he can earn some money at sawing
wood. A woman suspected o f being lazy is given an opportunity to
earn something by sweeping or cleaning or scrubbing. I f the appli­
cant will do the work provided for him he is not regarded, as being
lazy. I f he will not do the work he is put down as lazy and relief
it withheld. Thus lazy applicants are not enrolled among the recip­
ients and, theoretically, laziness is not discoverable in the records.
Because shiftlessness is not downright laziness it has not been
set down in this study among the moral delinquencies, the class in
which laziness undoubtedly belongs. But shiftlessness is very simi­
lar to laziness. For instance, a family comes from the country to live
in the city. It can not stir itself to meet the demands o f city life.
There are girls in the family old enough to work, but they shrink
from work because they have not been accustomed to earn a living
and are unable to adjust their notions to urban conditions. Positions
are secured for them, but they work in a half-hearted way and soon
find themselves out o f employment. The wages o f the father are
insufficient to feed all the mouths, and the family finds itself in dis­
tress. In the records o f such families there is an habitual failure



912

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

to take hold and do the best that can be done, and where such failure
is evident it has been characterized as shiftlessness.
One other cause contributing greatly to the poverty o f these fami­
lies must receive notice here. This is severe weather. In 79 fami­
lies nature itself operated to produce distress. “ Please be kind
enough,” said one applicant in a note wrritten to the agent, “ to send
me some groceries and fuel, as I am very much in need. It is very
hard to get on now with all this family, and my husband has not
been working this cold weather when the ground is frozen. Remem­
ber me, please, and God will remember you.” Lack o f employment
was put down in this case as the direct cause, but a cause almost as
direct was severe weather. Some of the agents’ notes show the ways
in which the cold weather contributes to poverty
“ The family was in need of fuel, as they were unable to pick up
any cinders on account of snow.”
“ It was simply impossible to get out and do work, there was so
much snow on the ground.”
u He (a blind man) couldn’t stand on the street and; sell shoe
strings and peanuts, it was so cold.”
“ Impossible to do her washing, as the pipes and hydrants are
frozen and she has to walk three squares for water.”
“ He (a ragpicker) can not work in the ice and snow.”
The connection between severe weather and poverty in Washing­
ton is brought out in the following table. It is found that in nearly
three-fourths o f the cases aid was given for the first time in the
months o f December, January,, and February, whether the first aid
given for the year 1905s or the first recorded aid for any year is
considered.

NUMBER OF WHITE AND OF NEGRO FAMILIES RECEIVING AID IN 19Q5, BY
MONTHS IN WHICH THE FIRST AID FOR THAT YEAR WAS GIVEN.
Families to which first relief was given in the month of—
Not To­
Race.
re­ tal.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. port­
ed.
White.............. 134 102
Negro................. 266 248
Total........ 400 350

36
41
77

13
20
33

11
8
19

11
9
20

15
5
20

16
12
28

12
6
18

11
10
21

27 64.
26 79
53 143

452
731
I 1,183

.....

NUMBER OF WHITE AND OF NEGRO FAMILIES RECEIVING AID IN 1905, BY
MONTHS IN WHICH THE FIRST RECORDED AID FOR ANY YEAR WAS GIVEN.
Families to which first relief was given in the month of—
Not To­
Race.
re­ tal.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. port­
ed.
White................ 100 86
Negro................. 223 223
Total........ 323 309



47
49
96

15
10
25

g
11
19

13
10
23

14
5
19

14r
9
23

12
6
18

15
12
27

34 93
36 136
70 229

1 4521
1 731
2 1,183’

913

CHARITY RELIEF AND WAGE EARNINGS.
P E R S IS T E N T CA U SE S OF D ISTR E SS.

When determining what was the underlying or persistent cause or
causes o f a family’s distress it was found necessary to reckon with a
time element. In the case o f a family where the records showed only
one application for aid, or where the distress continued for only a
short period o f time, the dominant or persistent cause was o f course
not discernible. The records revealed a persistent cause only when
the charity history extended through several years. When looking for
the persistent cause, therefore, it became necessary to confine the
search to those families whose charity career was o f considerable
duration.
In the following table it is seen that in 683 cases, for which reports
were made as to the year in which relief was first given, the record
went back o f 1905. In 307 cases the family had been upon charity
for five years or more; in 56 cases for ten years or more; in 13 cases
for fifteen years or more, and in 3 cases for twenty years or more. In
one case the year was not reported.

NUMBER OF WHITE AND OF NEGRO FAMILIES RECEIVING AID IN 1905, BY YEAR
IN WHICH AID WAS FIRST RECEIVED.

Race.
White.................
Colored..............
Total.........

Number
Families receiving relief in 1905 who were first given relief in—
of
families
receiving
relief in
1905. 1905. 1904. 1903. 1902. 1901. 1900. 1899. 1898. 1897. 1896. 1895. 1894.
452 183 72 41
731 316 98 63
1,183 499 170 104

20
46
66

16
20
36

11
21
32

16
32
48

24
28
52

18
39
57

23
39
62

12
6
18

5
9
14

Families receiving relief in 1905 who were first given relief in—
Race.

White..................................
Colored_____
_ _____ .
Total__ _.

Year
not
1893. 1892. 1891. 1890. 1889. 1888. 1887. 1886. 1885. ,1884. 1883. report, ed.
5

3

1
1

1

8

2

1

1
1
2

1
1

1
1
2

2
2

1
2
3

1
1

1

1

1

1

1

1

It was found convenient to classify the cases as temporary, inter­
mittent, or permanent. When it is said that a case is temporary, it
is meant that the records show no occasion of distress previous to
the first application in 1905 and no further recourse to the Associated
Charities for aid after the distress of that year was relieved. This
does not mean, however, that in a temporary case there was only one
act o f relief, for many cases designated as temporary involved records




914

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

extending over several months and showed that numerous doles were
given. They were put down as temporary because they covered one
definite season o f distress and that not a very long one. Nor must
it be thought that because a case wras classified as temporary that the
family was no longer a recipient o f charity. In some cases temporary
relief marked only a step on the road to the poorhouse. More often,
however, it marked only a short period o f misfortune and one that
was safely tided over. A tailor with his wife and two small children
drifted to Washington to search for work. Employment was not
speedily found and the funds were exhausted. The wife applied
to charity. Correspondence brought out the fact that the man’s
record was excellent. A former employer wrote that the applicant
was a first-class workman, upright, sober, and anxious to work. The
charity people helped him a little with provisions and secured him
suitable employment, and that was the beginning and the end
o f his experience with charity. In the temporary case we some­
times get a glimpse of a family at the lowest ebb o f its fortunes—
just when it is in the trough of adversity. For example, a husband
works at $5 a week while his wife earns what she can at the washtub.
The combined earnings do not meet the demands o f the family, and
charity is sought. But at the very time o f distress two boys large
enough to work begin to earn something, and the family makes no
further appeal for aid. Sometimes the temporary case marks simply
a sharp short crisis in domestic affairs. A chief wage-earner de­
serts his family, leaving it penniless. A t first there is nothing to do
but to go to the charity office. When new adjustments have been
made, however, and the wife and children have found employment,
no further appeal for aid is made.
The immediate and contributing causes o f distress in temporary
cases are set forth in the following tables. It is seen that o f all the
charity cases more than one-third (415) mark only a fleeting period
o f adversity. The tables show, too, that the immediate causes o f
these temporary appeals to charity are mainly sickness and lack of
employment, the distress in more than three-fourths o f the cases
being due to these two causes alone. Among the contributing causes
o f the temporary cases sickness still holds the lead, although de­
sertion, intemperance, and licentiousness are much more conspicuous
among the contributing than among the direct causes o f temporary
distress.




91!>

CHARITY RELIEF AND WAGE EARNINGS.

NUMBER OF WHITE AND OF NEGRO FAMILIES RECEIVING AID FOR TEMPO­
RARY DISTRESS IN 1905, BY IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF DISTRESS.
White.
Immediate cause.

Negro.

Total.

Fam­ Per­ Fam­ Per­ Fam­ Per­
ilies. sons. ilies. sons. ilies. sons.

Accident............................................................................
Accident to husband........................................................
Accident to wife...............................................................
Desertion by husband.....................................................
Incarceration....................................................................
Incarceration of husband.................................................
Incarceration of widow....................................................
Insufficient earnings........................................................
Intemperance of husband................................................
Lack of employment........................................................
Lameness of wife............... ..............................................
Loss by fire.......................................................................
Loss of money...................................................................
Neglect by husband.........................................................
Neglect of family by husband.........................................
Old age..............................................................................
Old age, blindness............................................................
Severe weather.................................................................
Sickness.............................................................................
Sickness of child, pneumonia..........................................
Sickness of children..........................................................
Sickness of daughter........................................................
Sickness of grandchild.....................................................
Sickness of husband.........................................................
Sickness of husband and wife.........................................
Sickness of mother...........................................................
Sickness of mother, heart disease....................................
Sickness of son, tuberculosis...........................................
Sickness of sons................................................................
Sickness of wife................................................................
Sickness of wife, la grippe...............................................
Sickness of wife, pneumonia...........................................
Sickness of woman...........................................................
Sickness of woman, tonsilitis..........................................
Total........................................................................

2

8
20
181
2
30
5
229
8

4
4

1
1
71
60
2
1
1

4

19
2
1
201

21
10
6
96

8

26

1

2

21
16
801
3
1
2
1
9
1
2
381
1
3
1
351
1
1
1
2
511
1
31

136

496

279

4

6

4

3
317
12
2
4
82
2793
9
2
H
3
10
2
8
41
7
7
7
5
118
5
3
4
7
6
155
2
3
10
3
851

3
83

5
123
81
3
1
231
1401
5
1
1
3
1
9
1
2
571
3
4
1
55
2
1
1
1
2
591
1
41

11
517
30
1
4

4
n r

&
5083
17
4
2

17
3lfr
%
r
62
7
17"
135*
214
9‘
3
4
7
6
181
2
3
12
3
1,347

415

NUMBER OF WHITE AND OF NEGRO FAMILIES RECEIVING AID FOR TEMPO­
RARY DISTRESS IN 1905, BY CONTRIBUTING CAUSES OF DISTRESS.
White.
Contributing cause.

Fam­
ilies.

Accident..........................................................
Accident to husband..........................................
Affliction of children...........................................
Blindness of husband..........................................
Childbirth........................................................
Death in family.................................................
Deformity of face...............................................
Desertion.........................................................
Desertion by husband.........................................
D esertion by son -in -la w .......................................
D is a b ility o f w ife ...............................................
Feeble-mindedness.............................................
Insufficiency of earnings.....................................
Intemperance...................................................

In tem p er a n ce and nld age

.... ............... ...........

Intemperance of husband....................................
Lack of employment..........................................
Lack of employment of daughter...........................
Lack of employment of wife.................................
Lameness of husband.........................................
Lameness of sons...............................................
Law lessness.

........ ......................................................

Licentiousness..................................................

1

4
1
1
1

Negro.

Per­
sons.

2

4
1
6
2

15
6
3
1
11
16
4
26
7

1

4

1
1

1
1

i

2

3

L icentiousness o f d a u gh ter.......................................................
L icen tiou sn ess o f w ife ...............................................................

Licentiousness of woman.....................................
63675— N o. 79— 09------ 19




Total.

Fam­
ilies.

Per­
sons.

Fam­
ilies.

1
2
1
1
1
1
1
3
15

1
9
3
2
3
6
1
7
49

1
2
1
2
1
1
1

12

60

3
5
1
1
1
1

22
13
3
3
3
3

7
2
1

17
8
2

Per­
sons.
1
9
3

4
3

6
1

3

7

19
1
1
1
15
4
1
9
7
1
2
1
1
1
8
2
1
1

64
6
3

1
71
16
4
48
20
3
7
3
3

1
18
8
2
2

916

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

NUMBER OF WHITE AND OF NEGRO FxlMILIES RECEIVING AID FOR TEMPO­
RARY DISTRESS IN 1905, BY CONTRIBUTING CAUSES OF DISTRESS— Concluded.
White.
Contributing cause.
Loss of money...........................................................".___
Maltreatment of employer...............................................
Morphine habit of wife'...................................................
Neglect by children..........................................................
Neglect by husband.......................................................
Old age..............................................................................
Old age and lawlessness...................................................
Old age of mother.............................................................
Partial blindness of daughter..........................................
Partial blindness of wife..................................................
Severe weather.................................................................
Shiftlessness....................... ...............................................
Shiftlessness and intemperance.......................................
Shiftlessness of sons........................................................
Sickness.............................................................................
Sickness and intemperance.............................................
Sickness and severe weather...........................................
Sickness of aunt..............................................................
Sickness of child...............................................................
Sickness of daughter........................................................
Sickness of husband.........................................................
Sickness of mother...........................................................
Sickness of son..................................................................
Sickness of wife.................................................................
Sickness of wife and neglect by son................................
None apparent..................................................................
Not reported.....................................................................
Total.......................................................................

Negro.

Total.

Fam­ Per­ Fam­ Per­ Fam­ Per­
ilies. sons. ilies. sons. ilies. sons.
1
1
1
2
1
6
1

3
1
3
10
5
12
1

8
4
1

8

36
13
3
21

1
1
1
15
551

3
4
5
74
2021

136

496

1
8
3
17
2
1
1
19
4
1
3
1
1
1
6
4
1
5
281
1074
279

4
15
9
30
8
5
3
47
15
9
9
6
8
5
18
13
5
21
100
2
293
11
851

2
1
1
10
4
231
2
1
1
27
8
1
1
11
1
1
1
1
6
5
1
6
431
1625
415

7
1
25
14
421
8
5
3
83
28
9
3
30
6
8
5
3
18
17
5
26
174
2
495
12
1,347
3

The intermittent case is where the appeal for aid is made only at
intervals, sometimes o f long and sometimes o f short duration. In
many a family prosperity alternates with adversity. For example, a
large family is mentioned, which, in its whole career, has enjoyed
much o f prosperity, but has not been able altogether to keep its
name from the charity roll. In 1902 a cold snap drove it to the
charity office. In 1904 the husband lost his job for several weeks and
appeal for aid had to be made again. In 1905 a prolonged spell of
sickness caused a third appeal to be made. The family tried hard to
keep its head above water, but once in a long while it was unable to
do so unaided. Sometimes an intermittent case shows a strange
regularity in the recurrence o f the date of application. In one case
application was made and aid was given January 6,1904, January 12,
1905, January 12,1906, January 17,1907. In another family aid was
given January 20, 1905, February 51, 1906, February 5, 1907. In
these cases coal was given each time, and the periodicity o f the distress
gave rise to a suspicion that the applicants were something of frauds,
and that the charity office was visited merely because experience had
taught that at about a certain time in the year a little fuel could be
secured. Sometimes, in the intermittency o f the distress, there can
be read the varying fortunes of the family. A widow was left in 1892
with 7 children, the ages of the children being respectively 15, 18, 10,
7, 6, 5, 3. During the years 1892, 1893, 1894, and 1895 her applica­



917

CHARITY RELIEF AND WAGE EARNINGS.

tions for relief were frequent. In 1896 they became less frequent and
by 1899 they had ceased, not to begin again until 1905, when the sick­
ness and death o f one child and the loss o f the wages o f another
brought the family again to charity. In this case it was plain that
the applications for charity decreased in number as the children grew
older and thus made an increase in the labor resources o f the family.
Frequently the charity record ends altogether when the children get
large enough to bring in some money.
A ll cases that were neither temporary nor intermittent were classi­
fied as permanent. A permanent case differs from an intermittent
case only in the continuity of the relief. Where aid was given right
along, week after week for months and years, without serious break,
the case was designated as permanent.
Where the relief was either permanent or intermittent, some domi­
nant or persistent cause was usually discoverable. In the fol­
lowing table, where the persistent causes in both permanent and
intermittent cases are given, it is seen that in 768 cases, or in nearly
two-thirds o f all, it was possible to assign a persistent or underlying
cause o f the poverty.
NUM BER OF F A M IL IE S R EC EIV IN G PERM AN EN T OR IN T ER M IT T EN T A ID IN
1905, BY PER SIST EN T CAUSES OF D IST R ESS.

Persistent cause
Accident.......................................................................................................
Accident and sickness..................................................................................
Blindness.......................................................................................................
Criminality....................................................................................................
Criminality and shiftlessness.......................................................................
Desertion.......................................................................................................
Disability.......................................................................................................
D ish on esty and licentiousness.....................................................................
Incarceration of husband.............................................................................
Injured arm...................................................................................................
Insanity.........................................................................................................
Insufficient wages........................................................................................
Insufficient wages and desertion.................................................................
Insufficient wages and intemperance..........................................................
Insufficient wages and licentiousness..........................................................
Insufficient wages and mendicancy............................................................
Insufficient wages and neglect.....................................................................
Insufficient wages and old age.....................................................................
Insufficient wages and shiftlessness............................................................
Insufficient wages and sickness...................................................................
Intemperance................................................................................................
Intemperance and lack of employment......................................................
Intemperance and neglect............................................................................
Intemperance and lawlessness.....................................................................
Intemperance and old age............................................................................
Intemperance and shiftlessness...................................................................
Intemperance and sickness..........................................................................
Lack of employment....................................................................................
Lack of employment and disability............................................................
Lack of employment and sickness..............................................................
Lameness........................................................................................-•.............
Licentiousness....................................................................... ......................
Licentiousness and desertion.......................................................................
Lunacy..........................................................................................................




Permanent aid. Intermittent
aid.
Fam­ Per­
ilies. sons.
2
51
2
9
31

3
12
10
4
38
11

1
1
1
1
1
1
1

9
9

2
33
9
4
9
8
2
9
51
53

2
2
3
.3
1
10

5
10
13
18
1
38

7

5

Fam­ Per­
ilies. sons.
41
1
1
54
4
31
421
1
1
1
10
46
7
1
1
1
2
5
471
43
2
1
1

16
8
4
2
194
15
16
1
244
4
8
5
2
52
252
46
3
3
1
6
28
226
5
216
5
3
1

918

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

N UM BER OF F A M IL IE S R EC EIV IN G PERM AN EN T OR IN T ER M IT T EN T A ID IN
1905, BY PER SIST EN T CAUSES OF D IST R ESS— Concluded.

Persistent cense.
Mendicancy...................................................................................................
Mental weakness...........................................................................................
Neglect by natural supporters.....................................................................
Neglect and desertion...................................................................................
Not discoverable...........................................................................................
Old age............................. .............................................................................
Old age and mendicancy.............................................................................
Old age and neglect by natural supporters................................................
Old age and shiftlessness..............................................................................
Shiftlessness..................................................................................................
Shiftlessness and desertion..........................................................................
Shiftlessness and feeble-mindedness...........................................................
Shiftiessness and lack of employment........................................................
Shiftlessness and lawlessness.......................................................................
Shiftlessness and licentiousness...................................................................
Shiftlessness and neglect by natural supporters........................................
Sickness.........................................................................................................
Sickness and desertion.................................................................................
Sickness and neglect.....................................................................................
Sickness and old age.....................................................................................
Sickness and shiftlessness............................................................................
Thievery........................................................................................................
Unbalanced mind.........................................................................................
No good cause shown..................................................................................
Total....................................................................................................

Permanent aid. Intermittent
aid.
Fam­ Per­ Fam­ Per­
ilies. sons. ilies. sons.
3

18

2

6

37
1
2
3
19

50
2
4
6
80

1

2

1

4

59
3

238
8

10
2

19
10

1

1

220

796

1
1
10
1
3
64

3
6
43
4
13
113

63
1

262

2
2

19
9

1
88
2
1
18
4
1
1
1
548

5

6
8

287

4

47
16
4

1
2

2,218

In this list o f deep-seated, persistent causes we find the nonfinancial or moral element figuring as it has figured in no previous
comparison. It is true that sickness leads, as always, and lack of
employment is responsible for much, but shiftlessness, desertion, in­
temperance, and licentiousness here answer for much more than has
elsewhere been charged against them. As direct impelling causes
o f distress these moral, or as we might very well say, immoral, ele­
ments prevailed in hardly 5 per cent o f all the cases; as contributory
causes they prevailed in about 25 per cent o f all the cases; but as the
underlying cause of prolonged distress they prevail in a third o f
all the cases. As knowledge o f a case becomes more comprehensive the
greater does the relative importance o f the moral element appear. A
consideration, then, of the deeply seated causes o f the poverty o f these
768 families shows that in the final analysis the distress was due in
one-third o f the cases to moral elements, and in two-thirds o f the cases
to financial elements. (a) The poverty o f charity recipients would
therefore seem to present a problem that is something less than onethird moral and something more than two-thirds economic. This at
least is the conclusion drawn from the charity records in Washington.
a In 49 cases the persistent cause w as o f a m ixed nature containing both
the financial and the m oral elements. These were excluded in the above cal­
culation.




C H A R I T Y R E L IE F A N D W A G E E A R N IN G S .

919

SUM M ARY.
The results o f the study may be summarized as follow s:
Material aid, consisting o f money, food, and clothing, was given
in 1905 to 1,256 families in all. The charity records o f 1,183 o f these
families were taken as the basis o f this study. The number o f per­
sons in these 1,183 families was 4,365. These recipients constitute the
floating, unattached, isolated poor of the city. This isolation is seen
in the fact that o f the 1,775 wage-earners among the recipients only
23 o f the 81 who reported on the subject stated that they belonged to
labor organizations, and in only 40 families was there evidence o f
membership in fraternal or beneficial societies.
The average size of the charity family is 3.7 persons, as against
an average o f 4.9 persons o f the District o f Columbia. Excluding
that large class o f charity families consisting o f only 1 person or
only 2 persons, the average o f the charity family is brought up to 5,
a normal average. The charity family therefore is neither much
larger nor much smaller than the prosperous family.
The number o f children under 16 in the charity families was 47.7
per cent o f the charity population, whereas this class o f children in
the District o f Columbia at large constituted only 26.6 per cent of
the population. Children under 10 constitute 30.9 per cent o f the
population o f the charity families, while o f the total population of
the District only 16.8 per cent were under 10 years o f age. In the
District the excess o f females over males among children under 16
was 3.2 per cent; in the charity families the excess was 18.3 per cent.
Among children 10 or under 16 the excess o f females over males in
the charity population was 21.8 per cent, and in the District the
excess was only 8.1 per cent. So in the charity families the number
o f helpless children was relatively great, and the excess in the number
o f female children was strikingly large.
In 12 per cent o f all the families there was desertion. Counting
only the families in which the husband and wife were both living,
there was desertion in nearly 20 per cent o f the cases. Desertion was
found in 13 per cent o f the white families in which there were both
a husband and wife, and in 24.4 per cent o f the colored families.
In nearly 30 per cent o f all the families either the husband or the wife
was dead, and in 37.5 per cent of all the cases the family was without
a male supporter at its head. The charity family is therefore very
often a fatherless family. Divorce does not prevail to any appreciable
degree among the charity receiving families.
O f all the persons in the charity families 16 years o f age or over,
77.2 per cent were employed in gainful occupations. In the 271
white families in which both husband and wife were at home both
husband and wife were gainfully employed in 95 cases, and in the 291




920

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E

BUREAU

OF L A B O R .

colored families having both a husband and a wife at home both
husband and wife were employed in 222 cases. Extreme poverty
has relatively a greater effect in drawing white married women into
the ranks of wage-earners than it has in the case of colored married
women. O f the children under 16 years of age in the charity families,
12 per cent were gainfully employed, a much larger percentage than
obtained in the District at large.
On the charity roll many occupations are represented, although
laborers, laundresses, and domestics comprised more than 60 per cent
o f all the chief wage-earners. Among the wage-earners in the
families driven to charity were 27 carpenters, 25 painters, 10 plas­
terers, 9 clerks, 7 iron workers, 5 shoemakers, and 4 plumbers.
The actual earnings o f a family receiving charity is a most difficult
matter to determine, for at the time o f charity seeking there is in
most cases only financial chaos. In more than two-thirds of the
families the wages of the chief wage-earner at the time of application
had entirely ceased. In 80 families there was no wage-earner at all.
Altogether three-fourths o f the families were deprived o f a regular
breadwinner at the time o f the application, a circumstance that prima
facie at least indicates that the poverty o f these poor is chiefly an
economic or financial and not a moral problem.
In 78 families the chief wage-earner was earning the normal rate
o f wage at the time o f application. In 269 cases the normal wage o f
the chief wage-earner was reported in dollars and cents. This nor­
mal daily wage varied from 8 cents a day to $5 a day. In over twofifths o f the families in which the normal wages were definitely known
the rate o f the male worker ranged from $1 to $2 per day, the wage
most often not exceeding $1.50 per day. These workers were for the
most part day laborers, some o f them being employed on the streets
o f the city. In 206 o f the families there was evidence o f income
additional to that derived from labor. In 43 cases pensions were
received. W ith the exception o f pensions the element o f additional
income was insignificant; when the regular earnings o f the members
o f the family were cut off practically everything was gone.
Belief in 60 per cent o f the cases consisted in giving food. Next to
food, fuel was most frequently given. In nearly half the cases fuel
was one o f the articles given. The payment o f rent does not figure
largely in the relief extended, for the reason that the charity organiza­
tion will seldom undertake to meet arrears in rent, and for the further
reason that the applicants adopt the policy o f getting tjie rent paid
first and then going to the charity office for food and fuel. The real
magnitude o f the rent problem in the lives o f these recipients is seen
in the fact that 208 o f the 1,183 families at some time and to some
extent found arrears o f rent associated with their appeal to charity.
The chattel-mortgage loan figured in the distress o f 26 families.



C H A R I T Y R E L IE F A N D W A G E E A R N IN G S .

921

In two-thirds o f the families there was no marked delinquency
whatever. O f the 394 families tainted with delinquency 174 were
white and 220 colored, these numbers representing 38 per cent of the
total white families and 30 per cent o f th^ total colored families,
respectively. The leading delinquencies were intemperance, deser­
tion, licentiousness, neglect by natural supporters, lawlessness,
thievery, and mendicancy. In nearly one-third of all the families in
which delinquency was visible intemperance was the evil. In 96
cases the intemperance was in the white families and in 32 cases in
colored families. Next to intemperance is the vice o f desertion. In
102 cases desertion occurred in colored families and in 42 cases in
white families. Licentiousness is third on the list o f delinquencies.
This vice was discoverable in 17 white families and in 47 colored
families. The evidence supporting the charge o f licentiousness con­
sisted in part o f the presence of illegitimate children, o f whom there
were 11 in white families and 68 in colored families. Neglect by
natural supporters—not including cases of outright desertion— oc­
curred in 12 white families and 31 colored families. Akin to delin­
quency, but not included among the delinquencies, was a certain
reliance upon charity, a certain inclination to pauperism. This spirit
o f dependence cropped out in 69 families, 40 o f which were white and
29 colored.
When considering the causes o f the distress o f the recipients it
was found practicable to avoid using the terms “ inefficiency,” “ ignor­
ance,” and “ irregularity of employment ” to denote causation. The
subject o f regularity and irregularity of employment, however, re­
ceived careful attention, and it was found that of the 1,051 cases in
which it was possible to characterize the employment o f the chief
wage-earner as regular or irregular, 919 were irregular.
In the discussion o f causes the expression “ financial element ” is
used to include one or several or all of the following elements of
causation: Insufficient earnings, lack o f employment, sickness, acci­
dent, old age, and severe weather. In 28 families (20 white, 8 colored)
the financial element did not enter at all into the explanation o f the
causes o f distress.
Among the immediate causes o f distress—those that impinged
directly on the consciousness o f the applicant and hurried him to the
charity office—sickness figured in nearly one-half o f the families,
rheumatism and tuberculosis leading all the other diseases. Next to
sickness, lack o f employment was the immediate cause o f most dis­
tress, more than one-third o f all the cases being assigned to this cause.
Third in the list of immediate causes stands insufficient wages. In 81
families the wages were so low that the family could not live upon the
earnings, even though the full wage was being received at the time
o f the application. In 55 cases the immediate cause o f distress was



922

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E

BUREAU

OF L A B O R .

due to accident. Illustrations o f the circumstances attending these
accidents show plainly enough the need o f a liberal liability law. In
49 cases old age was the direct cause o f the appeal to charity.
Sickness, lack o f employment, insufficient wages, accident, and old
age constituted 94 per cent o f all direct causes. That is to say, in
nineteen cases out o f twenty the impelling cause o f the application is
directly referable to a financial factor.
In the immediate causes of 329 cases could be seen a full explana­
tion o f the distress. In 854 the immediate cause was supplemented
by a contributory cause. As contributory causes sickness, insufficient
earnings, lack o f employment, and accident figure very much less than
they did as immediate, causes, while desertion, intemperance, and
neglect by natural supporters figured very much more. Among the
contributory causes there appear also certain causes that did not ap­
pear among the direct causes, such as licentiousness, shiftlessness,
mendicancy, thievery. While the immediate causes were in the vast
majority o f cases due to financial adversity, the undercurrent o f dis­
tress was strongly colored with moral delinquency— desertion, intem­
perance, licentiousness, neglect by natural supporters, mendicancy,
arid thievery constituting about 25 per cent o f all the contributory
forces. In 55 families the controlling cause o f distress was put down
as shiftlessness, a fault that was regarded as consisting in a failure
to make the best o f opportunities. In 79 cases severe weather oper­
ated as a contributing cause.
When studying the subject o f underlying or persisting causes, it
was convenient to classify the cases as temporary, intermittent, or
permanent. More than one-third o f the cases were found to be tem­
porary, and in these, of course, no deep-seated cause was discernible.
In 768 cases it was possible to assign a persistent or underlying cause
o f the poverty. Here the nonfinancial or moral element figured
much more prominently than in any previous comparison. As
direct impelling causes shiftlessness, desertion, intemperance, and
licentiousness had to answer for hardly 5 per cent o f all the cases.
As contributory causes they prevailed in about 25 per cent of all the
cases, but as the underlying cause o f prolonged distress they pre­
vailed in one-third o f all the cases.




RECENT REPORTS OE STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR STATISTICS*

M AIN E.

Twenty-first Annual Report of the Bureau of Industrial and Labor
Statistics for the State of Maine, 1907, Thomas J. Lyons, Commissioner.

520 pp.

The following subjects pertaining to the labor interests of the State
are presented in this report: Factories, mills, and shops built during
1907, 4 pages; labor unions, 95 pages; women and children in sardine
factories, 17 pages; women wage-workers o f Portland, 30 pages;
school-teachers, 121 pages; opportunities for new industries, 172
pages; labor laws, 32 pages; report of the inspector of factories,
workshops, mines, and quarries, 5 pages.
F actories, M ills , and S hops B uilt .— Returns show that in 1907
in 95 towns 133 buildings were erected or enlarged, remodeled, etc.,
at a total cost o f $4,140,960. These improvements provided for 3,566
additional employees. A summary o f improvements o f this character
is presented for the ten years 1898 to 1907:

FACTORIES, MILLS, AND SHOPS BUILT OR ENLARGED, ETC., DURING THE TEN
YEARS 1898 TO 1907.
Year.
1898 ...........................................................................................
1899............................................................................................
1900..........................................................................................
1901............................................................................................
1902............................................................................................
1903............................................................................................
1904............................................................................................
1905............................................................................................
1906............................................................................................
1907............................................................................................

Number Number
New em­
build­ Aggregate
of towns. ofings.
cost.
ployees.
64
103
114
94
91
96
91
93
104
95

72
138
167
121
129
124
113
114
131
133

$675,100
6,800,700
2,174,825
5,638,200
2,776,930
1,436,990
1.175.500
2,303,410
2.637.500
4,140,960

2,024
4,990
5,539
6,337
5,017
3,343
3,276
3,329
3,674
3,566

L abor U nions .—Under this title is given a list o f all federations
and unions reporting, together with the addresses of the secretaries.
There were 2 state and 11 central federations and 225 local unions
in 68 cities, towns, and plantations. O f the local unions known to
exist in 1907, 4 failed to report membership and 5 sent no report.
The reports from the unions give, by cities and towns, the date of
organization, membership, qualifications for membership, initiation
fees, dues, benefits allowed, hours o f labor, rates o f wages, etc.
The 215 local unions reporting comprised an aggregate membership
o f 16,804. Compared with 1906, a net gain o f 10 unions is shown and




923

924

B U L L E T IN

OE T H E

BUREAU

OF L A B O R .

a gain in reported membership of 2,032. There were 117 unions
which reported that they were working under trade agreements with
employers and 100 which were not.
To the question, “ What have you accomplished for labor by organi­
zation?” a wide range of replies was returned by the unions; but a
majority o f them asserted that higher wages and a shorter workday,
as well as improved working conditions and social benefits, had been
gained. To the question, “ Do nonunion men enjoy the same condi­
tions as to labor, wages, and steady employment as union men?” 172
unions made reply, 69 indicating that nonunion men enjoy equal con­
ditions with union men and 103 that they do not.
Under this chapter is also given historical sketches o f the Granite
Cutters’ International Association o f America and the Lobster
Fishermen’s National Protective Association (national organizations
originating in Maine), together wTith an account of the labor demands
and differences occurring in the State during the year.
W omen and C hildren in S ardine F actories.—This chapter is
devoted to the industrial conditions surrounding the women and chil­
dren employed in the sardine packing factories of Washington County,
the principal center of the industry. The pounds o f sardines packed
in the State in 1905 amounted to 86,218,610, or 98.8 per cent of the
total pounds for the United States, and were valued at $4,291,324.
The report briefly describes the workings o f the various stages of the
industry in addition to considering living expenses, wages, and hours
o f employment, the irregular nature of the work (as everything de­
pends upon “ the catch” ), and other employment available when
the packing season closes. The 30 sardine factories within the towns
o f Eastport and Lubec employed in the canning of fish during
the 1906 season over 1,600 women and children. O f this number
about two hundred were children of various ages, one-half of whom
wrere probably under 14 years o f age. The work is mostly paid for
by the piece.
W omen W age-workers of P ortland.— The purpose of this report
is to present facts pertaining to the lines o f work in which women are
numerously employed in the city o f Portland, together with figures
showing the average financial returns and the cost of living, and an
account o f representative societies which are the outgrowth o f ex­
isting business and industrial conditions. A ll occupations, both of
an industrial and clerical nature, in which women are employed
are considered, the number of women finding employment in each,
with the weekly wages paid, being given. For most of the industrial
occupations hours of labor are also given. According to the United
States census o f 1900 there were employed in the city of Portland
5,531 women wage-earners. During the years since then the number
has largely increased. Tenement houses, child labor, and night



R E P O E T S OF S T A T E B U R E A U S OF L A B O R -----M A I N E .

925

schools are also given consideration in addition to the welfare work o f
various establishments of the city and of different societies and
organizations.
S chool T eachers.—This presentation consists o f letters, arranged
by counties, from school superintendents and school teachers through­
out the State giving personal expression respecting existing condi­
tions in the public schools and the necessity for higher salaries than
are at present paid, especially in the rural and village schools. In
addition, there are given compilations o f 1,100 returns from rural
and village teachers, out of over 1,600 returns which were received
from teachers o f all grades. These 1,100 returns from teachers are
grouped, by counties, in four classes—rural schools taught by female
teachers with no normal training and with normal training; village
schools taught by female teachers with no normal training and with
normal training—and give statistics as to salaries, living expenses,
length o f school year, number o f years they had been engaged in
teaching, number o f years they had attended high schools or acad­
emies, etc. These returns are summarized in the statement which
follow s:

STATISTICS OF TEACHERS IN RURAL AND IN VILLAGE SCHOOLS.
Items.

Female teachers, with no nor­ Female teachers, with normal
mal training, in—
training, in—
Rural schools. Village schools. Rural schools. Village schools.

464
222
210
204
Number of teachers.................................
1 da. 31 wks., 4 da. 29 wks., $7.21
0 da. 32 wks. 3 da.
Average
length ofwages............................
school year................ 29 wks., $6.70
$8.94
$9.71
Average weekly
$196.21
$284.29
$209.09
$316.55
Average gross salary................................
$2.20
$3.06
$2.31
$3.29
Average weekly cost of board................
$64.24
$97.31
$66.99
$106.25
Average cost of board for school year...
$16.81
$25.95
$16.14
$24.56
Average incidental expenses..................
$115.16
$161.03
$125.96
$185.74
Average net salary..................................
Average weekly income on the basis of
$4.02
$3.77
$5.47
$6.09
52 weeks in the year............................
O f the 1,100 teachers in rural and village schools, both with
and without normal training, 559, or 50.8 per cent, remained at
home during vacations, and 541, or 49.2 per cent, supplemented their
incomes by other gainful occupations. O f the 541 at work, 283, or
52.3 per cent, were engaged in hotel and house work, and 258, or 47.7
per cent, in other avocations.
O pportunities for New I ndustries.— This presentation, which is
arranged by counties, towns, and plantations, is designed to show
as far as possible the nature and extent of the industrial oppor­
tunities o f the State as yet undeveloped and the advantages each
town has to offer in the way of new business openings. There is also
given the number o f towns which contain a good supply o f various
specified natural products, together with a list of the industries




926

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E B U R E A U

OF L A B O R .

wanted, or those best suited to the several towns, which are named
under each industry.
L abor L aws .— This section of the report reproduces the labor laws
o f the State, compiled from the Revised Statutes for 1903 and from
the public laws o f 1905 and 1907.
C hild L abor.—In the report on factory inspection a table is pre­
sented in which it is shown that the number of children working
under certificates in certain manufacturing establishments o f the
State was 877 in 1906 and 1,111 in 1907. The legislature in 1907
made some changes in the law regulating the employment of children
in manufacturing and mechanical establishments, the most important
o f which was fixing the age limit at 14 years, with no chances of
excuse coming from any source. Also, the form of the employment
certificate was changed.
M ICH IGAN.

Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Labor and Industrial
Statistics, including the Fifteenth Annual Report of State In­
spection of Factories. 1908. Malcolm J. McLeod, Commissioner,
xxi, 539 pp.
This report contains 19 chapters, o f which Chapters I to I X , 325
pages, are devoted to inspection o f factories, stores, hotels, tenement
shops, etc. Labor and industrial statistics are presented in Chapters
X to X I X under the following titles: Technical papers, 28 pages;
report o f the state commissioner o f labor to the International Asso­
ciation o f Factory Inspectors, 5 pages; labor disagreements, 1907, 9
pages; statistics o f penal and reformatory institutions, 16 pages;
miscellaneous industries, 19 pages; beet-sugar and Portland-cement
industries, 13 pages; the coal industry, 21 pages; furniture, boot and
shoe, corset, and refrigerator industries, 19 pages; free employment
bureaus, 22 pages; statistics of electric railways and of the motive
power used in manufacturing in Michigan, 17 pages; laws coming
under the jurisdiction o f the state bureau of labor, 30 pages.
T echnical P apers—Under this title two papers are presented.
The first paper, “ What our labor laws need to make usproud,” dis­
cusses in reference to the state child labor, legislation affecting work­
ing women, guarding o f dangerous machinery, mining laws, factory
inspectors, employment bureaus, etc. The second paper deals with
the subject “ Cost o f living, wages, and rising prices.” Comparisons
are made between the years 1907 and 1902, and also between earlier
years, o f income and expenditure that enter into the living o f the
average workingman’s family. The cause o f rising prices is attrib­
uted, by the author o f the paper, to the increase in the world’s out­
put o f gold rather than to the influence o f trusts.



R E P O R T S OF S T A T E

B U R E A U S OF L A B O R -----M I C H I G A N .

927

L abor D isagreements, 1907.— The report o f the work o f the state
court o f mediation and arbitration for the year 1907 in dealing with
11 labor disagreements is given in this chapter.
P enal and R eformatory I nstitutions .— Under this title appear
the reports o f the wardens and superintendents o f these institutions.
Tables are given showing the number o f officials and salary o f each,
number o f inmates, cost of clothing, and feeding o f inmates, number
o f inmates employed at contract labor, rate per day o f contract labor,
and hours o f labor, and number o f inmates employed in systems o f
labor other than contract.
M iscellaneous I ndustries.— The statistical information contained
in this chapter is reproduced from the reports of the United States
Census Bureau, and covers 15 industries of the State. In addition to
data for 1905, the presentation gives for 10 o f the 15 industries com­
parative figures for 1900.
B eet S ugar and P ortland C ement I ndustries.— In the beetsugar industry 16 factories were in operation during the year 1907,
the same number as in 1906. These 16 factories represented a total
cost o f $10,700,000. The acreage devoted to beet raising in 1907 was
99,586, an increase over 1906 o f 3,069 acres. The tons o f beets grown
in 1907 were estimated at 723,880, and the pounds o f sugar made at
165,074,900. There were 1,495 skilled laborers and 2,306 other labor­
ers employed in the factories, with an average daily wage of $2.93
for the former, and of $1.86 for the latter.
In the cement industry 15 o f the 17 plants in the State were in
operation at the time o f the investigation. The aggregate cost o f the
plants in operation was $8,320,000, and their aggregate daily capacity
19,160 barrels. The output for 1907 was 3,644,473 barrels. There
were on the pay rolls 609 skilled laborers, at an average daily wage
of $2.84, and 1,253 other laborers, at an average daily wage o f $1.85.
The average daily wage of all employees was $2.17, and the annual
wage pay roll amounted to $1,365,960.
T he C oal I ndustry.— In this industry there were 34 coal mines in
operation during the year 1907, as compared with 38 mines during
the year 1906. A condensed summary o f the operations o f the mines
for the two years is presented in the following table:

COAL MINE STATISTICS, 1906 AND 1907.
Items.

Year.
1906.

Mines in operation.......................................................................................................
38
2,119
Average number of employees...................................................................................
Average hours worked per dav..................................................................................
7.8
22.3
Average days worked per month...............................................................................
$2.40
Average daily wages....................................................................................................
Tons of coal mined...................................................................................................... 1,372,854
$1.50
Average cost of mining per ton..................................................................................



1907.
34
2,881
8
20.4
$3.24
1,898,426
$1.64|

928

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E

BUREAU

OF L A B O R .

A personal canvass was made of 2,023 miners, employed in 24
mines, o f which 1,300 were married and 723 were single. There were
1,138 o f the miners who had 5,051 others besides themselves to sup­
port. The average daily wages o f the miners canvassed was $3.11.
As to nationality, 50 per cent o f the miners were American or English
born; those foreign born had lived in the United States an average
o f 22J years.
In 19 mines 54 accidents were reported—7 fatal, 7 serious, 27 se­
vere, and 13 slight.
F urniture , B oot and S hoe, C orset, and R efrigerator I ndus­
tries.— These

four industries were the subjects of a special canvass
marde in 1907.
In the investigation of the furniture industry 150 establishments
(in 40 towns) were visited, the establishments representing an in­
vested capital o f $13,802,402. They employed 16,310 adult males, at
an average daily wage o f $1.92; 513 adult females, at an average daily
wage o f $1.40; 542 boys between 14 and 16 years o f age, at an average
daily wage* of $1.10; and 61 girls between 14 and 16 years of age, at
an average daily wage o f $0.80. The cost of material used by the fac­
tories aggregated $11,801,370 and the value o f product $26,662,414.
Seventeen establishments engaged in the manufacture o f shoes (in
11 towns) were canvassed, the establishments representing an invested
capital o f $1,901,400. They employed 1,413 adult males, at an average
daily wage o f $1.85; 815 adult females, at an average daily wage o f
$1.18; 126 boys between 14 and 16 years o f age, at an average daily
wage o f $0.84; and 111 girls between 14 and 16 years of age, at an
average daily wage o f $0.67. The cost o f material used aggregated
$3,176,945 and the value o f the product $6,176,771.
Seven establishments engaged in the manufacture o f corsets (in 4
towns) were canvassed. They employed 257 adult males, at an aver­
age daily wage o f $2.25, and 1,081 adult females and 176 females
under 16 years o f age, at an average daily wage o f $1.10. The cost
o f material used aggregated $1,225,500 and the value of product
$2,457,880.
Ten establishments engaged in the manufacture o f refrigerators
(in 9 towns) were canvassed. They employed 1,596 adult males, at
an average daily wage o f $1.69, and (in 5 factories) 58 boys under 16
years o f age, at an average daily wage o f $0.92. The cost o f material
used aggregated $1,483,126 and the estimated value o f product
$2,739,662.
F ree E mployment B ureaus.—Under this title is presented a
detailed report o f the work done in the four free employment bureaus
o f the State. Two o f the bureaus (one at Saginaw and one at Kala­
mazoo) were opened during 1907. The following table summarizes




REPOETS

OF S T A T E

BUREAUS

OF L A B O R -----M I C H I G A N .

929

the work done at the Detroit and Grand Rapids bureaus for the year
ending November 30, 1907, at the Saginaw bureau for the period July
19 to November 30, 1907, and at the Kalamazoo bureau for the period
August 7 to November 30, 1907:

OPERATIONS OF FREE PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT OFFICES.
Situations wanted.

City.

Help wanted.

Positions secured.

Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females.

Detroit...........................................................
Grand Rapids...............................................
Saginaw........................................................
Kalamazoo....................................................
Total....................................................

9,831
4,172
1,234
800
16,037

1,581
2,553
294
259
4,687

10,363
3,933
1,510
452
16,258

2,007
3,202
406
267
5,882

9,831
3,465
878
379
14,553

1,581
2,346
214
140
4,281

E lectric R ailw ays .— In 1907 there were 23 electric railways in
Michigan, with a total invested capital of $38,031,000, and paying in
wages to 6,534 employees the sum o f $4,692,762. The statement fol­
lowing gives the number o f employees connected with these railways,
together with their average daily wages and daily hours o f w ork:

NUMBER, HOURS OF LABOR, AND DAILY WAGES OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY
EMPLOYEES, 1907.
Occupation.
.................................................................................
....................................................... .......
Foremen...................................................................... ...................................
Office employees..............................................................- ...............................
Conductors...........................................................- ...........................................
Motormen........................................................................................................
Electricians.......................................................................................................
Engineers...........................................................................................................
Firemen.............................................................................................................
Oilers...............................................................................................................
Linemen............................................................................................................
Motor inspectors.............................................................................................
Machinists..............................- .........................................................................
Carpenters........... .............................................................................................
Painters.............................................................................................................
Car-house men................................................................................................
Track laborers...................................................................................................
Other employees.............................................................................................

D iv ision s u p erin ten d en ts
Assistant d ivision su p erin ten d e n ts

Number Average
Average
of em­ daily
daily
ployees. ofhours
labor. wages.
16
24
71
324
1,405
1,399
90
43
74
44
75
148
38
99
55
210
2,280
139

9
10n
10
10*
10
11
ioi
10
10
9
10
10*
10
10

$3.55
2.59
2.35
1.66|
2.21
2.20|
2.28
2.94
1.96
2.11
2.22
2.07
2.42
2.28
2.15
1.73
1.74*
1.52

P ower U sed in M anufacturing in M ichigan .— O f the 8,335 man­
ufacturing establishments embraced in this presentation 3,327 used
steam power, 1,478 used electric power, 924 used gas or gasoline power,
270 used water power, 372 used rented power (kind not reported),
and 1,964 establishments required no power to operate. The total
power generated in the 6,371 power-using establishments was 906,979
horsepower. Also, statistics are given o f steam boilers and their
equipment and kind o f alarms in use and their condition. The data
in detail are presented by counties.




930

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E

BUREAU

OF L A B O R .

N EW JE R S E Y .

Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Statistics of Labor and
Industries of New Jersey, for the year ending October 31, 190?.
Winton C. Garrison, Chief,

xiv, 675 pp.

This report consists o f 4 parts, in which the following subjects
are presented: Statistics o f manufactures, 123 pages; steam rail­
roads, 12 pages; cost o f living, 17 pages; fruit and vegetable can­
ning, 10 pages; New Jersey as a manufacturing State, 33 pages;
economic changes in the building trades o f Essex County, 60 pages;
historical review o f the bureau o f statistics o f labor and industries,
40 pages; industrial chronology, 369 pages.
S tatistics of M anufactures.—This presentation o f the statis­
tics o f manufactures is based on returns for the year 1906, secured
from 2,120 establishments, 2,039 representing 88 specified industries
and 81 grouped as unclassified. None o f the establishments consid­
ered employed fewer than 10 persons or had an invested capital
o f less than $5,000. The facts are set out in ten tables, which show
by industries character o f establishment management (whether
corporate or private), amount of capital and the various forms in
which it is invested, value o f stock or materials used and of goods
produced, number o f wage-earners (men and women, and children
under 16 years o f age) and wages and earnings, days in operation
during the year and hours worked per day and per week, percentage
of business done of total productive capacity, and character and
measure o f power used.
The returns show that o f the 2,120 establishments reporting 1,326
(in 1,321 of which were 71,876 stockholders) were under the corporate
form o f ownership and management and 794 (with 1,407 partners and
proprietors) were owned and managed by partnerships and private
individuals. Capital invested (by 2,113 establishments) showed an
aggregate o f $579,705,607, value of materials or stock used (by 2,115
establishments) an aggregate of $428,030,730, and value o f products
or goods made (by 2,111 establishments) an aggregate of $705,489,666.
The total paid out in wages amounted to $131,587,332. During the
year there was an average o f 260,072 wage-earners employed, 191,208
males 16 years o f age or over, 62,189 females 16 years o f age or over,
and 6,675 children under 16 years o f age. Under normal conditions
the average number o f hours worked per day in the 2,120 establish­
ments was 9.58, and the average number of hours worked per week
55.32. The average number o f days in operation during the year was
289.02, and the average proportion o f business done o f total produc­
tive capacity was 78.22 per cent.
The table following presents the number and per cent o f males
and females 16 years o f age or over and of children under 16 years



R E P O R T S OF S T A T E B U R E A U S O F L A B O R -----N E W

JE R SE Y .

931

of age employed in 1906 in all industries (2,120 establishments) at
each specified weekly rate of wages:

NUMBER AND PER CENT OF MALES AND FEMALES 16 YEARS OF AGE OR OYER
AND OF CHILDREN UNDER 16 YEARS OF AGE IN ALL INDUSTRIES (2,120
ESTABLISHMENTS), RECEIVING EACH CLASSIFIED WEEKLY RATE OF
WAGES, 1906.
Number.
Classified weekly
wages.

Males
16 years
of age
or over.

Females
16 years
of age
or over.

Under $3........................ 1,212
$3 or under $4............... 3,224
$4 or under $5............... 6,004
$5 or under $6............... 7,183
$6 or under $7................ 8,675
$7 or under $8............... 12,800
18 or under $9............... 18,380
$9 or under $10.............. 31,528
$10 or under $12............ 33,541
$12 or under $15............ 34,838
$15 or under $20............ 38,312
$20 or under $25............ 11,240
$25 or over..................... 6,977
Total.................... 213,914

1,712
4,565
10,146
12,603
12,088
8,761
5,673
4,309
3,917
2,280
564
87
11
66,716

Per cent.

Children
Males
under
16 years
16 years Total. of age
of age.
or over.
3,952
10,917
18,238
20,517
20,921
21,597
24,063
35,837
37,458
37,118
38,876
11,327
6,938
7,179 287,809
1,028
3,128
2,088
731
158
36
10

0.6
1.5
2.8
3.4
4.0
6.0
8.6
14.7
15.7
16.3
17.9
5.2
3.3
100.0

Females
16 years
of age
or over.

Children
under
16 years Total.
of age.

2.6
6.8
15.2
18.9
18.1
13.1
8.5
6.5
5.9
3.4
.9
.1

14.3
43.6
29.1
10.2
2.2
.5
.1

100.0

100.0

1.4
3.&
6.3
7.1
7.3
7.58.4
12. 5
13.0
12.9
13.5
3.9
2.4
100.0’

The following comparative table shows for selected industries, fo r
the years 1905 and 1906, the average number of persons employed per
industry and the average yearly earnings per employee:

AVERAGE NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES PER INDUSTRY AND AVERAGE YEARLY
EARNINGS PER EMPLOYEE, 1905 AND 1906, BY INDUSTRIES.
Industry.

Average employees
per industry.
1905.

1906.

Average yearly
earnings per
employee.
1905.

Artisans’ tools................................................................................. 2,037 2,445 $543.17
1,996 472.18
Boilers, steam.................................................................................. 2,249
Brewery products........................................................................... 1,964 2,065 894.37
Brick and terra cotta...................................................................... 6,742 7.419 448.40
Chemical products.......................................................................... 6,546 6,839 487.49
Cigars and tobacco.......................................................................... 7,223 8,376 316.70
1,867 541.00
Drawn wire and wire cloth............................................................
Electrical appliances....................................................................... 5,462 6,739 510.23
Furnaces, ranges, and heaters....................................................... 1,885
1,915 659.50
Glass, window and bottle.............................................................. 6,263 6,190 539.97
5.832
5,563
586.47
Hats, men’s ....................................................................................
3,482 645.97
Jewelry............................................................................................ 3,091
Leather, tanning and finishing...................................................... 5,616 5,722 523.60
Lamps, electric and other.............................................................. 2,042 2,317 401.71
Machinery........................................................................................ 19,154 24,393 599.06
Metal goods...................................................................................... 5,654 6,751 471.95
Oils................................................................................................... 3,683 3,753 635.67
Paper................................................................................................ 2,287 2.419 497.34
Pottery............................................................................................. 4,646 4.833 593.91
Rubber products, hard and soft.................................................... 5,761 6,280 480.11
3,822 568.89
Shipbuilding.................................................................................... 3,523
Silk goods, broad and ribbon......................................................... 22,456 21,543 438.54
3,429 598.08
Steel and iron, structural............................................................... 3,295
2,882 615.10
Steel and iron, forging.................................................................... 2,569
8,965 373.43
Woolen and worsted goods............................................................ 8,531
Twenty-five industries......................................................... 138,242 152,274 511.06
Other industries.............................................................................. 100,871 107,798 456.58
All industries......................................................................... 239,113 260,072 488.49
63675— No. 79— 09------ 20




1906.
$585.24
629.14.
898.31
469.02.
513.49
294.7a.
596.21
519.52.
686.32
569.69
581.5J
682.31
617.59
433.75
631.37
450.45'
644.10'
502.27
629.95
489.76
677.56*
434.72.
627.34
649.35*
385.30
534.42
465.76
505.96

932

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E

BUKEAU

OF L A B O R .

S team R ailroads.— For the year ending June 30, 1907, the 7
railroads in the State employed 45,810 persons for an average o f 292
days per person, each working an average of 10.6 hours per day. The
total paid in wages amounted to $28,987,303, the average wages per
day being $2.17 and the average yearly earnings per employee $632.99.
Five o f the companies reported the number of employees injured
during the year as 1,567, the injuries o f 90 resulting in death.
C ost of L iving .—This is a continuation of the presentation o f
previous years, and shows the retail prices o f 50 items of food and
2 other commodities (common soap and kerosene oil) in the principal
markets in all counties o f the State in the month of June, 1907.
Comparisons with retail prices in 1906 and in 1898 (the year the
investigation was begun) are also given. Taking the list o f com­
modities together, the prices in 1907 as compared with the prices in
1906 show an increase o f 9.7 per cent, which is the largest increase
in the cost o f living shown by the records of any one year since the
annual cost o f living inquiry was begun, in 1898. The total net in­
crease, however, was largely due to advances in the price o f first and
second quality flour per 25-pound bag and in the price of new and
old potatoes per bushel. Apart from these 4 items the remaining
46 articles o f food show an advance in 1907, as compared with 1906,
o f only 2.9 per cent.
F ruit and V egetable Canning .— In 1906 there were 44 canneries
from which returns were received. Invested capital to the amount of*
$920,045 and wages paid to the amount of $341,883 were reported by
the canneries. The 44 canneries gave employment to 4,865 wageearners—2,121 males and 2,744 females. The selling value o f the
product amounted to $1,581,418.
N ew J ersey as a M anufacturing S tate .— A brief historical re­
view o f the growth o f the manufacturing industries o f the State for
the fifty-five-year period 1850 to 1905 is presented in this section.
The capital invested in manufactures in 1850 was $22,293,258, as con­
trasted with $715,060,174 in 1905; the number o f wage-earners in
1850 was 37,830, as contrasted with 266,336 in 1905; the amount paid
in wages in 1850 was $9,364,740, as contrasted with $128,168,801 in
1905, and the total value o f the manufactured product in 1850 was
$39,851,256, as contrasted with $774,369,025 in 1905.
E conomic C hanges in the B uilding T rades.— The purpose of
this inquiry was to ascertain what changes had taken place in wages
and working hours during the period between the years 1896 and
1906, and incidentally how far rents for the different classes of build­
ings had been affected thereby. The field o f inquiry was limited to
Essex County, and the information presented was derived entirely
from statements made by employers who had been in business, with
but one exception, for periods ranging from 8 to 40 years. The
trades or occupations considered are 15 in number. The questions



R E P O R T S O F S T A T E B U R E A U S O F L A B O R -----N E W

JERSEY.

933

submitted were designed to bring out the fullest information possible
relating to the comparatively new form of business organization that
has resulted from the almost complete unionization o f the building
trades.
Eelative to rents, the inquiry led to the conclusion that, funda­
mentally, the general advance may be safely said to be due to the
general and widely diffused prosperity o f recent years, which has
created a desire for better homes, the supply o f which, partly by
reason o f large increases in the cost o f land, material, and labor, has
not as yet been sufficient to meet the demand. These circumstances,
together with a rapidly growing population competing for homes,
account fully for the advance in rents.
B ureau of S tatistics of L abor and I ndustries.— Under this title
is presented a historical review o f the work of the various state
bureaus o f labor statistics, with special reference to and detail o f that
o f the New Jersey bureau, which has had an organization for thirty
years.
I ndustrial C hronology.—This record is for the year ending
September 30, 1907. During the period there were 581 corporations
organized in the State for industrial purposes, having an aggregate
capitalization o f $88,750,500; 165 new buildings were erected and
equipped for manufacturing purposes and 156 old plants more or less
enlarged; 10 manufacturing plants were moved into New Jersey from
other States (6 from New York and 4 from Pennsylvania); 18 manu­
facturing plants were permanently closed and 35 closed for a period
ranging from two weeks to one month or over; 117 plants suffered
from fire, some being totally destroyed, the losses of 108 reporting
that item amounting to $2,217,717, all but a small part o f which was
covered by insurance; there were 149 instances in which employees
received an increase in wages (ranging from 2| to 15 per cent), and 4
firms reduced the hours o f weekly labor (five hours in 2 cases and
three hours in 2 cases); 1,898 wage-earners (440 being railroad em­
ployees) were injured while at work, of which number 425 (180 being
railroad employees) died from the injuries received; 162 strikes of
greater or less duration occurred, 84 being for increase in wages, 4
for reduction o f working hours, 12 for increase of wages and reduc­
tion o f working hours combined, 11 against the employment of non­
union men, 7 for the reinstatement of discharged union men, and the
remainder for various other causes. There were 34 new labor unions
organized during the chronological period covered. In addition to
these there was 1 organization o f women formed for the purpose
of assisting, as far as possible, all labor unions and the members
thereof by pledging themselves to buy only such goods as are the
products o f union labor and to prevail upon their friends to do
likewise.



934

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E

BUREAU

OF L A B O R .

OHIO.

Thirty-'first Annual Report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the
State of Ohio, for the year 1907. M. D. Ratchford, Commissioner.
523 pp.
This report consists of four parts in which are presented the follow­
ing subjects: Laws governing the bureau, laws to license and regu­
late private employment agencies, and recent court decisions, 13
pages; manufactures, 444 pages; coal mining, 20 pages; free public
employment offices, 18 pages; chronology of labor bureaus, 3 pages.
M anufactures.—Tables are given for 1906, showing, by industries,
for each o f the five principal cities, the remaining cities and villages,
and totals for the State, the number of establishments reported, cap­
ital invested, value o f goods manufactured, amount paid for rent,
taxes, and insurance, total amount paid in wages, number and
monthly pay o f salaried employees, number o f male and o f female
wage-earners, number employed by occupations, and average number
o f days worked, average daily wages, average yearly earnings, and
average hours o f daily labor. Other tables show, by industries, the
number in each occupation affected by a change o f wages during the
year.
The 9,337 establishments from which returns were received for
1906 reported an invested capital o f $494,559,455, and goods pro­
duced or manufactured to the value o f $1,008,535,149.22. Wages paid
358,292 males and 66,140 females, or a total of 424,432 wage-earners,
aggregated $219,039,431.58, and salaries aggregating $44,240,675.16
were paid to 38,878 persons employed as superintendents, office help,
etc. During the year 113,014 employees received an average increase
in wages of 8.7 per cent, and 8,702 employees suffered an average
reduction in wages of 5.2 per cent.
The number of establishments reporting in 1906 was 823 more than
in 1905, the value o f manufactured products was $134,836,655.62
more than that o f 1905, and the amount paid in wages during the
year was increased by $29,062,032.35. The aggregate invested capital
exceeded that reported for 1905 by $44,857,267, and the salaries paid
superintendents, office help, etc., showed an increase of $5,732,229.
C oal M in in g .— Tables are given, by counties, showing number of
mines reporting, average number o f employees, capital invested,
value o f production, wages and salaries paid, average daily wages,
average yearly earnings, average days worked, average hours of
daily labor, number in each occupation affected by a change o f wages
during the year, etc. The following comparative table presents a
summary o f mining statistics for the years 1905 and 1906:




935

R E P O R T S OF S T A T E B U R E A U S OF L A B O R -----O H IO .

STATISTICS OF COAL MINING, 1905 AND 1906.
1905.

Items.

1906.

Increase (+) or
decrease (—).

587
574 13
Number of mines reporting...............................................
«37,673
b 42,080 +
4,407
Number of employees........................................................
970
953
Number of salaried employees..........................................
17
Invested capital.................................................................. $36,630,252.00 $35,761,855.00 - $868,397.00
Value of product................................................................. $24,986,266.90 $26,864,427.70 +$1,878,160.80
Amount paid for rent, taxes, and insurance.................... $610,508.94 $611,116.79 +
$607.85
Amount paid in wages....................................................... $18,872,894.72 $19,467,843.63 + $594,948.91
Amount paid in salaries...................................................... $973,388.40 $989,840.76 + $16,452.36
2
Average days worked per employee.................................
171 173
$2/61 +
Average daily wages per employee...................................
$0.13
$2.48
$446.31 +
Average yearly earnings per employee.............................
$429.04
$17.27
Average hours of dailv work.............................................
8
8
Number affected by advance in wages.............................
164
40,634 +
40,470
2
Number affected by reduction in wages.........................
2
3.2
Average percent advance in wages..................................
8.9
5.7 13.2
13.2
Average per cent reduction in wages................................
« Average for the year, taken from monthly returns.
b Number for the year, taken from yearly returns.
F ree P ublic E mployment O ffices.— In addition to a text report
and an itemized statement of the expenses of each o f the five offices
for the year ending October 31, 1907, tables are given showing, by
years, the results of the operations of each office from date o f organi­
zation, and for each week of the period October 26, 1906, to October
31, 1907.
The following table shows the operations o f the five free public em­
ployment offices o f the State for the period October 26,1906, to Octo­
ber 31,1907:

OPERATIONS OF FREE PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT OFFICES, OCTOBER 26, 1906, TO
OCTOBER 31, 1907.
City.
Cleveland......................................................
Columbus......................................................
Cincinnati.....................................................
Dayton..........................................................
Toledo........................................................
Total...................................................

Situations wanted.

Help wanted.

Positions secured.

Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females.
4,935
2,462
4,030
4,215
3,223
18,865

3,274
2,442
1,989
2,778
1,782
12,265

6,894
4,863
3,724
4,211
4,850
24,542

4,370
3,605
2,266
5,146
2,220
17,607

4,703
2,353
3,661
3,720
2,767
17,204

3,151
2,364
1,679
2,719
1,425
11,338

Since the organization in 1890 o f the five free public employment
offices there has been a total o f 464,109 applications for situations
wanted, 434,396 applications for help wanted, and 292,627 positions
secured. O f applications for situations 63.1 per cent were filled, and
o f applications for help 67.3 per cent were filled.
The expenses o f the five offices for the year ending October 31,
1907 (excluding salaries), were $2,292.90, of which the expenses of
the Cleveland office were $507.37, the Columbus office $340.78, the
Cincinnati office $507.05, the Dayton office $511.67, and the Toledo
office $426.03.



RECENT FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS.

CH ILE.

La Oficina de Estadistica del Trabajo.
Obras Publicas.

Ministerio de Industria i
75 pp.

The Chilean ministry o f industry and public works publishes in
this report an account o f the creation and initiatory work o f the
office for the collection o f labor statistics, which has recently been
organized as a branch o f that executive department. The pamphlet
comprises three chapters, the first o f which is devoted to a considera­
tion o f the disturbed economic and industrial conditions resulting
from the earthquake o f August 16, 1906, which occasioned a con­
siderable advance in the cost o f living and a general scarcity of
labor due to the greatly increased activity in the building industry
following that catastrophe. The chapter also enumerates the various
measures employed by the minister o f industry and public works in
furtherance o f his plan for the organization o f a bureau o f labor
statistics, and includes the draft o f a law providing for such an office,
which was submitted to the Chilean Congress on January 16, 1907,
but upon which no action was taken.
The second chapter gives an account of the creation by ministerial
decree o f April 5, 1907, o f a bureau within the ministry o f industry
and public works with the following functions, the task o f organiza­
tion being delegated to the chief of the division o f agricultural
statistics:
To collect, classify, and publish information relating to labor, par­
ticularly that employed in industrial establishments; to inquire into
the number and class o f operatives employed in each industry and the
number and class o f those whom the development of each industry
would require; to ascertain the wages paid to workingmen, estimated
by the day and by the hour; to collect information in regard to acci­
dents to labor; to study the length o f the working day and the general
condition o f employment; to investigate the cost o f workingmen’s
houses; and to undertake such other investigations as the Govern­
ment may desire to commit to its charge.
A circular requesting information concerning the principal sub­
jects enumerated in the decree was addressed to the chief officials
o f the several provinces and departments comprising the Republic,
and from returns received tables were prepared which show for those
subdivisions the number o f persons employed in industrial estab­
lishments, the average daily wages paid in various occupations and
industries during the months o f November and December, 1906, in
936




937

FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS----CHILE.

some instances figures for 1903 being also given by way o f compari­
son. From the information thus collected the total number of per­
sons industrially employed is estimated at 43,044.
Copies o f the blanks used in the collection o f the data, together with
the correspondence relating to that and other matters concerning
the work o f the bureau, are reproduced in the report.
The last chapter contains a discussion of the organization and
functions o f bureaus of labor statistics in other countries and a brief
statement o f the usefulness and importance o f the Chilean bureau.
IT A L Y .

I Lavoratori delle Miniere. Ministero di Agricoltura, Industria e
Commercio. Ufficio del Lavoro. Parte Prima, 287 pp. 1907.
This report presents the results o f an investigation into the con­
dition o f the employees in the mines and quarries o f Italy, under­
taken in 1906, by the bureau o f labor o f the ministry o f agriculture,
industry, and commerce at the request o f the Mine Labor Congress of
1904. The superior council o f labor in the same year expressed its
approval o f such a study. The topics discussed are the age, conjugal
condition, days lost on account o f sickness, daily wages, and occupa­
tions o f the workers.
According to data published in the annual mineral statistics for
1905, the total number o f persons in the Kingdom in 1905 employed
in mining was 63,996 and in quarrying 59,342.
The age grouping o f employees in mines and quarries is shown in
the following table :

PER CENT OF EMPLOYEES IN MINES AND IN QUARRIES IN EACH AGE GROUP,
AT THE BEGINNING OF 1906.

Industry.

Per cent of employees—
Num­
ber
of em­ 15 years 16 to 21 22 to 30 131 to 40 41 to 50 51 to 60 Over 60
ployees. oforage years years ■ years years years years
under. of age. of age. of age. of age. of age. of age.

Mining.................................................. 53,795
Quarrying............................................. 11,646

6.1
4.5

22.1
18.5

25.8
23.2

21.1
22.1

15.1
17.2

7.5
10.1

2.3
4.4

The largest percentage o f workers in mining is shown to be between
the ages o f 22 and 30, with a rapid decrease in the number o f workers
in the higher ages. In quarrying the distribution among the groups
is more uniform, but also shows the same general features.




938

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR*

The following table shows the results o f the investigation in regard
to the conjugal condition o f the workers in the two industries:

CONJUGAL CONDITION OF EMPLOYEES IN MINES AND IN QUARRIES, BY AGE
GROUPS, AT THE BEGINNING OF 1906.
Employees in quarries.

Employees in mines.
Age group.

Num­
ber.

15 ywars or u n d e r ...................... *

16 to 21 years...........................
22 to 30 years...........................
31 to 40 years...........................
41 to 50 years...........................
51 to 60 years...........................
Over 60 years..........................
Total.............................

Per cent of—
Wid­
Single. Married. owed.

3,161 100.0
11,116 96-. 6
12,582 60.6
10,375 19.3
7,514 10.0
7.4
3,765
1,182 5.8
49,695 49.5

3.4
39.1
79.4
87.1
87.2
83.5
49.0

0.3
1.3
2.9
5.4
10.7
1.5

Num­
ber.

Per cent of—
Wid­
Single. Married. owed.

572 100.0
2,144 95.2
2,705 47.6
2,579 11.8
2,008 8.1
1,184 6.5
515 5.8
11,707 38.1

4.7
51.6
86.6
88.8
86.9
81.9
59.5

o .i
.8

1.6
3.0
6.6
12.2
2.3

The table indicates that there is an apparent tendency for mar­
riage to occur earlier in life among the quarry workers than among
the mine workers.
The number o f working days lost on account o f sickness during
the year 1905 by the mine and quarry workers is as follow s:

AVERAGE NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES IN MINES AND IN QUARRIES AND AVERAGE
NUMBER OF WORKING DAYS LOST PER EMPLOYEE ON ACCOUNT OF SICKNESS,
BY AGE GROUPS, 1905.
Age group.
15 years or under.............................................................................
16 to 21 years...................................................................................
22 to 30 years....................................................................................
31 to 40 years....................................................................................
41 to 50 years....................................................................................
51 to 60 years....................................................................................
Over 60 years......... .........................................................................
Total.......................................................................................

Employees in
mines.

Employees in
quarries.

Average Number. Average
Number. days
lost.
days lost.
1,984
7,581
9,114
7,479
5,363
2,577
800
34,898

3.7
4.6
6.0
6.7
6.9
9.5
9.3
6.2

185
705
906
890
765
437
206
4,094

7.9
7.9
7.8
8.6
9.0
13.6
10.2
9.0

While the total number of quarry workers investigated is much
smaller than the number of mine workers, the data may, however, be
regarded as representative. According to the preceding table, the
rate o f sickness is uniformly higher for quarry workers for each o f
the age groups. For both the mine and the quarry workers there is a
general tendency to a higher sickness rate with increasing age. Both
classes o f workers show a lower rate for the ages over 60, but this is
probably due to special influences.
The two following tables show by age groups the per cent o f
workers in mines and in quarries receiving each classified daily rate



FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS----ITALY,

939

o f wages at the beginning of the year 1906. The tables are based on
data for 53,795 employees in mines and 11,646 employees in quarries.

PER CENT OF MINE EMPLOYEES RECEIVING EACH CLASSIFIED DAILY RATE
OF WAGES AT BEGINNING OF 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
Per cent of employees in each wage class—
Daily wage rate.

15
to 31 to 41 to 51 to Over All
years 16 to 3022years
40 years 50 years 60 years 60 years ages.
of age or 21ofyears
age.
of
age.
of age. of age. of age. of age.
under.

0.1
0.2
0.50 lira (10.097) or under................... 0.8 0.1
2.2
.3
0.51 lira (*0.098) to 0.75 lira ($0,145) .. 8.4
.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
7.3
1.0
1.2
0.76 lira (10.147) to 1.00 lira ($0,193) .. 28.1
.8
.9
2.7
1.01 lire ($0,195) to 1.25 lire ($0.241)... 27.1 13.0
1.9
1.0
.9
1.5 2.3
6.2 3.7 3.5
1.26 lire ($0,243) to 1.50 lire ($0.290)... 27.2 28.3
3.6
5.0
7.2
1.51 lire ($0,291) to 1.75 lire ($0.338)... 4.2 16.1 11.8
7.4
9.3
6.8
1.7(Uire ($0,340) to 2.00 lire ($0.386)... 2.4 13.5 19.1 15.9 15.7 17.1 17.8
.6
2.01 lire ($0,388) to 2.25 lire ($0.434)...
9.0
5.7 13.7 12.6 10.6 10.7
6.1 17.1 19.9 18.7 19.1 15.8
2.26 lire ($0,436) to 2.50 lire ($0.483)...
.4
5.1 17.0 21.1 22.3 20.9 21.4
2.51 lire ($0,484) to 3.00 lire ($0.579)...
.5
7.6 11.8 13.0 11.2 10.7
3.01 lire ($0,581) to 4.00 lire ($0.772)...
1.7
.3
.6
4.1
2.9
5.4
4.2
4.01 lire ($0,774) to 5.50 lire ($1.062)...
5.7
.2
1.1
5.51 lire ($1,063) to 7.00 lire ($1.351)...
.8
1.3
1.1
.9
.1
.4
.5
7.01 lire ($1,353) or over.......................
.7
.8
.5
Total........................................... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

0.1
1.1
4.1
5.6
11.2
10.1
15.4
10.1
14.6
15.4
7.9
3.1
.8
.5
100.0

PER CENT OF EMPLOYEES IN QUARRIES RECEIVING EACH CLASSIFIED DAILY
RATE OF WAGES AT BEGINNING OF 1906, BY AGE GROUPS.
Per cent of employees in each wage class—
Daily wage rate.

15 years 16 to 22 to 31 to 41 to 51 to Over All
of age or 21 years 30 years 40 years 50 years 60 years 60 years ages.
under. of age. of age. of age. of age. of age. of age.

0.50 lira ($0,097) or under..................... 11.3 0.6
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.51 lira ($0,098) to 0.75 lira ($0.145)... 12.5 2.6
0.2
.8
.3
.3
0.76 lira($0,147) to 1.00 lira ($0.193)... 31.7
2.6
7.1
5.4
1.9 2.0
2.3
1.01 lire ($0,195) to 1.25 lire ($0.241)... 13.0 5.8
1.3
.9
1.2
1.0 3.7
1.26 lire ($0,243) to 1.50 lire ($0.290)... 12.9 11.5 3.4
3.1 3.2
3.9
7.5
1.51 lire ($0,291) to 1.75 lire ($0.338)... 5.9
4.0 2.4
4.2
6.9
4.4 5.7
1.76 lire ($6.34® to 2.00 lire ($0.386)... 4.6 16.2
7.0
7.3
7.1
7.8 12.4
2.01 lire ($0,388) to 2.25 lire ($0.434)... 1.5 8.1
5.8
6.1
5.4
7.5
8.3
2.26 lire ($0,436) to 2.50 lire ($0.483)... 2.5 13.3 12.5 12.1 12.0 12.8 14.5
2.51 lire ($0,484) to 3.00 lire ($0.579)... 2.7 15.7 25.9 21.4 22.0 23.9 21.9
3.01 lire ($0,581) to 4.00 lire ($0.772)...
.8 11.6 32.6 35.1 32.3 27.6 18.2
7.2 8.8
2.5
3.5
4.01 lire ($0,774) to 5.50 lire ($1.062)...
.4
5.8
.6
5.51 lire ($1,063) to 7.00 lire ($1.351)...
.7
1.8
1.1
1.0
.4
.1
.5
7.01 lire ($1,353) or over.......................
.1
.3
.5
.3
Total........................................... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

0.7
1.2
4.6
2.6
5.5
4.5
9.0
6.3
12.2
20.9
26.6
4.7
.9
.3
100.0

The table for mine workers shows that the most frequent rates for
persons 15 years o f age or under are from 0.76 to 1.50 lire (14.7 to
29.0 cents) per day; for persons 16 to 21 years of age the most fre­
quent rates are from 1.01 to 2.00 lire (19.5 to 38.6 cents) per day; for
persons 22 to 30 years of age the most frequent rates are from 1.51 to
3.00 lire (29.1 to 57.9 cents) per day; for persons 31 to 40 years of
age the most frequent rates are from 1.76 to 4.00 lire (34.0 to 77.2
cents) per day, and the same rates occur most frequently for persons
over 40 years o f age, though there is a tendency to a decrease in the




940

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,

ages over 60. For all mine workers the most frequent rates are from
1.26 to 3.00 lire (24.3 to 57.9 cents) per day.
The table for quarry workers shows that the higher wage rates
occur more frequently than in the case o f the mine workers. For
persons 15 years of age or under the rates from 0.50 lira (9.7 cents) or
under to 1.50 lire (29.0 cents) occur for over 80 per cent of the work­
ers; for persons 16 years to 21 years of age the most frequent rates
are from 1.26 to 4.00 lire (24.3 to 77.2 cents) per day; for persons 22
years to 60 years or over there is a tendency for uniformity in rates,
2.26 to 4.00 lire (43.6 to 77.2 cents) per day being the predominating
rates. The same rates also predominate for all the quarry workers.
The following table shows the distribution o f the mine workers
among the various occupations, as well as the number of days worked
and the average wages.

NUMBER OF PERSONS EMPLOYED IN MINING IN EACH OCCUPATION, AVERAGE
DAYS WORKED, AND AVERAGE DAILY WAGES RECEIVED IN EACH OCCU­
PATION, 1905.
Average number of persons employed.
Occupation.

Females.

862
492
95
628
1,564
1,410
15,885
13,391
1,494
25
727
8 36,573

313
306
323
297
314
239
253
268
250
281
265

$0.66

48
160 1,208

342
296
283
285
277
284
287
302
261
269
280
304
278
278
327
283
277

.54
.52
.69

1,075
31
104 1,769
1,237 14,857

682
660
94
707
409
292
26
1,729
6,359
888
2,146
147
295
1,076
31
1,921
17,462

.55
.39
.71
.36
.43
.24
.33
.34
.43
.52
.43
.43

4,093 48,566

160 1,216 54,035

269

.43

37
2,776
43
2,856
2

8

56
28
3
19
740
267
6
3

1

862
492
95
628
1,527
1,410
15,885
10,607
1,494
25
684
33,709
671
652
94
651
381
289
26
1,710
5,473
843
102
202

00

Workers below ground:
Overseers, foremen, etc...................
Pumpmen.......................................
Engineers, firemen, etc...................
Timbermen, etc...............................
Masons and helpers..........................
Miners, maintenance men, etc.......
Miners, pick .men, drill men...........
Laborers, carrying boys, trammers.
Engine tenders, brakemen, etc.......
Sifters................................................
Miscellaneous...................................
Total.
Workers above ground:
Overseers, foremen, watchmen, etc...........
Engineers, nremen, pump men.................
Machinists, lathe men, etc.........................
Blacksmiths, fitters, apprentices...............
Masons and helpers.....................................
Carpenters and apprentices...................... .
Road men, etc.............................................
Pick men, drill men....................................
Laborers, carrier boys, trammers, furnace
men...........................................................
Engine tenders, brakemen, etc................. .
Sifters...........................................................
Screeners......................................................
Washery workers........................................
Kiln men, etc..............................................
Weigh men................................................. .
Miscellaneous...............................................
Total.
Workers below ’ground and workers above
ground.............................................................

Aver­ Average
number
of
days
Under 15years Under 15 years Total. worked.
15 years of age 15 years of age
of age. or over. of age. or over.
Males.

9

13
146
1

133
890
39
89

.33
.55
.52
.37
.43
.32
.43
.37
.42
.44

The largest number of workers was employed as miners, pick men,
etc., and as laborers. The average number o f days worked by both



941

FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS--- ITALY.

below ground and above ground workers was 269, with a slightly
higher number for the above ground workers.
The same data are given in the following table for the quarry
workers:

NUMBER OF PERSONS EMPLOYED IN QUARRIES IN EACH OCCUPATION, AVER­
AGE DAYS WORKED, AND AVERAGE DAILY WAGES RECEIVED IN EACH
OCCUPATION, 1905.
Average number of persons employed.
Aver- Avernumber
of days
Under 15 years Under 15 years Total. worked.
15years of age 15 years of age
of age. or over. of age. or over.
' Females.

Occupation.

Superintendents, contractors.
Foremen, bosses, etc...............
Carpenters................................
Masons......................................
Machinists................................
Blacksmiths, etc......................
Firemen...................................
Miners......................................
Quarrymen..............................
Laborers...................................
Apprentices..............................
Clearers, diggers, etc................
Chiselers, squarers...................
Carters, loaders, etc.................
Stone breakers, etc..................
Kiln men..................................
Miscellaneous...........................
Total.

26
99
208
23
6
4
71
444

659
37
21
28
64
117
33
1,341
4,169
2,483
287
58
1,878
466
58
40
650
12,389

4

11
15

16
20

26
52

37
21
28
64
124
33
1,341
4,195
2,597
495
58
1,901
487
62
763
12,905

249
266
275
244
253
246
268
243
233
242
243
266
239
243
240
245
209
238

$0.81
.58
.56
.52
.62
.58
.44
.55
.56
.44
.25
.47
.61
.49
.53
.36
.49
.53

The occupations in which the largest number of workers was en­
gaged were miners, quarrymen, laborers and chiselers, etc. The aver­
age number o f days worked was 238.

Salari ed Orari nei Lavori Edilizi, Stradali, Idraulici e di Bonifica,
1906. Ufficio del Lavoro, Ministero di Agricoltura, Industria e
Commercio.

1907.

I l l pp.

Since October, 1905, the bureau o f labor o f the Italian department
o f agriculture, industry, and commerce has conducted monthly in­
quiries into the amount, character, and conditions o f labor performed
upon the various kinds o f construction and repair work carried on
by or on behalf o f the State. This information is collected through
the offices o f the government, engineers charged with the direction of
the work.
The present report shows the wages and hours of labor o f the
different classes o f employees for the year 1906. The volume com­
prises three chapters of descriptive matter, followed by a detailed
tabular presentation of the data gathered, the latter being arranged
by occupations and localities. The first chapter contains a general
account o f the plan and scope of the inquiry and o f the method em­
ployed in the collection o f the information. The second chapter
relates to wages and hours o f labor in general and contains a table



942

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

showing, by months and by localities, the usual length o f the workday
in a number o f specified occupations. The third chapter is devoted
to a consideration o f the wages paid and working time most generally
observed upon public works in each of the 16 principal subdivisions
o f the Kingdom.
An appendix shows, for the same territorial groups, the aggregate
days o f work during each month o f the year 1906, classified by char­
acter o f the enterprise and occupation o f the persons employed.
RU SSIA.

Ckislennost i Sostav rabochikh v Rossii na osnovanii clannykh pervoi
vseobshehei perepisi naselenia Rossiiskoi Imperii 1897 goda (Num­
ber and distribution of wage-workers in Russia, based upon the
data of the first general census of population of the Russian Empire
in 1897). Prepared according to the requests o f the Ministries of
Finance and o f Commerce and Industry, and published by the
Ministry o f Interior. 2 vols., xx, 300; 600 pp. St. Petersburg,
1906.
This report includes a detailed analysis o f the data relating to
wage-workers employed in Russian industry and commerce, according
to the first Russian census o f 1897, and in less detail to the wage­
workers employed in agriculture and other branches o f rural indus­
try, in personal and domestic service, and to unskilled (common)
laborers. It represents the results o f an effort to study the wage­
earning class as distinguished from salaried employees in Russia, and
is o f the utmost importance in any study o f labor conditions in that
country.
The reports o f the first Russian census o f 1897, published in 1905,
contain tables showing the distribution o f the population by ^occu­
pation and also analyzing these data by nationality, religion, age,
educational standard, etc. In addition the original schedule also
contained the question as to the economic status o f the individual,
i. e., whether the person was an independent producer, employer,
salaried employee, or wage-worker. It may be added that in view
o f the low level o f wages the distinction between a salaried employee
and a wage-worker is much more definite in Russia than it is in the
United States. The elaboration o f the data showing the distribu­
tion o f the population according to economic status was not under­
taken, however, because o f the expense. After the publication of
the general census reports, the ministry o f finance, in view o f the
growing importance o f the labor problem, suggested the desirability
o f a report on the wage-earners in manufacturing, mining, transpor­
tation, construction, and commerce. The report was prepared through
the cooperation o f the ministry o f interior, o f which the central
statistical commission (intrusted with the entire work of the first



FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONSJ— RUSSIA.

943

census) is a part, the ministry o f finance, and the ministry o f com­
merce and industry, the latter having been organized in 1905. To
this very exhaustive statistical report briefer data were added con­
cerning the agricultural wage-workers, common laborers, and em­
ployees in domestic service, thus furnishing material for the study of
the entire wage-earning class.
This report consists mainly o f three general tables relating to the
wage-workers o f the first group (manufactures, mining, transporta­
tion, commerce, etc.). Table I shows the total number o f wage­
workers and o f children under 15 years, by sex, for each industry and
by the larger geographical divisions and separate provinces (93
pages). Table I I shows the distribution of the wage-workers, by
sex, conjugal condition, and size o f family for each o f 28 industrial
groups and each geographical division and province (144 pages),
Table I I I is the most elaborate, occupying 50 pages in the first volume
and the entire 600 pages of the second volume. It shows the wage­
workers by sex and age groups, and under age and sex groups, the
number o f literates for each industry (classified by 28 principal indus­
tries and by 149 branches of those industries) and for each province.
The data for the other wage-earning groups are stated briefly in 12
pages, giving total number and distribution by age, sex, and large
geographical division, and using a very simple classification o f 10
groups.
The following table shows the number o f wage-earners in Russia
by sex, main industry groups, and geographical divisions:

NUMBER OF WAGE-EARNERS BY SEX, MAIN INDUSTRY GROUPS, AND GEO­
G R A P H IC A L D IV IS IO N S , 1897.

Industry and sex.
Mining, manufacturing, transporta­
tion, and commerce:
Male.................................................
Female.............................................
Total.............................................
Agricultural pursuits:
Male.................................................
Female.............................................
Total.............................................
Common laborers:
Male.................................................
Female.............................................
Total.............................................
Servants:
Male.................................................
Female.............................................
Total............................................
All occupations:
Male.................................................
Female.............................................
Total............................................



European
Russia.

Wage-earners in each group in—
Total
wageCau­ Siberia. Middle earners.
Poland. casus.
Asia.
37,484 2,776,503
936 . 445,062
38,420 3,221,565

2,254,099
384,079
2,638,178

259,871 118,390 106,659
4,540 4,328
51,179
311,050 122,930 110,987

1,281,626
554,376
1,836,002

297,711 159,620 124,134 106,362 1,969,453
142,890 21,413 29,911
4,580 753,170
440,601 181,033 154,045 110,942 2,722,623

479,307
206,558
685,865
593,434
1,054,304
1,647,738
4,608,466
2,199,317
6.807.783

103,415 90,491
50,477 12,253
153,892 102,744

55,442
12,415
67,857

80,771 809,426
3,719 285,422
84,490 1,094,848

95,553
177,931
273,484

25,419
44,611
70,030

16,564 776,601
13,639 1,336,034
30,203 2,112,635

45,631
45,549
91,180

756,550 414,132 311,654 241,181 6,331,983
422,477 83,755 91,265 22,874 2,819,688
1.17 9 .0 2 7
497,887 402,919 264,055 9,151,671
1

944

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.

The total number o f wage-earners, as determined by this investiga­
tion, was 9,151,671, o f whom 69.2 per cent were male and 30.8 per cent
female. In the table is shown the distribution of these wage-earners
by sex, main industry groups, and geographical divisions. The wageearners engaged in mining, manufacture, transportation, and com­
merce constituted 35.2 per cent, the agricultural laborers 29.7 per cent,
the common or unskilled laborers 12.0 per cent, and the servants 23.1
per cent. The greatest proportion o f wage-earners were in European
Eussia, with 74.4 per cent, and Poland, with 12.9 per cent, leaving
only 12.7 per cent for the entire expanse o f Asiatic Eussia and the
Caucasus. I f the industrial wage-earners alone (those employed in
mining, manufacturing, transportation, and commerce) are taken into
consideration, a still smaller portion was found in Asiatic Eussia and
Caucasus, as European Eussia had 81.9 per cent, Poland 9.7 per
cent, Caucasus 3.8 per cent, Siberia 3.4 per cent, and Middle Asia 1.2
per cent.
Women constituted a very important element in the wage-earning
population o f Eussia, namely, over 30 per cent. Naturally the great­
est number o f women wage-earners belonged to the servant group,
o f which they constituted 63.3 per cent, while of the agricultural
laborers 27.7 per cent were women, o f the unskilled laborers 26.1 per
cent, and in industrial pursuits 15.8 per cent.
The degree o f participation o f women in separate industries is
shown in greater detail in the following table, from which the nature
o f the wage-work o f women can be better studied:

NUMBER AND PER CENT OF WAGE-EARNERS OF EACH SEX, BY INDUSTRIES,
1897.
Industry.

Total wageearners.

Males.

Number. Percent. Number. Percent.

Mining:
Miners............................................................ 163,738 155,020
42,638
40,940
Smelters.........................................................
Total........................................................... 206,376
195,960
Manufacturing:
Textiles.......................................................... 530,138 310,439
74,270
Animal products...........................................
71,246
Wood working.............................................. 173,043
166,295
Metal working............................................... 370,933 364,720
83,138
Minerals..........................................................
74,469
61,094
Chemical products........................................
45,247
Beverages—
Alcoholic liquors.....................................
38,723
36,918
Other......................................................
4,220
4,035
Food products............................................... 194,703 183,941
27,994
Tobacco..........................................................
10,620
Paper and printing.......................................
52,175
46,550
Instruments...................................................
7,722
8,030Jewelry, etc....................................................
25,767
25,213
Clothing..........................................................i 326,470 256,889
Building......................................................... 345,724 345,724
Carriages and wooden boats.........................
8,793
8,768
Other.............................................................
65,357
54,029
Total........................................................... 2,390,572 2,012,825



Females.

94.7
96.0
95.0

8,718
1,698
10,416

5.3
4.0
5.0

58.6
95.9
96.1
98.3
89.6
741
95.3
95.6
945
37.9
89.2
96.2
97.8
78.7
100.0
99.7
82.7
84.2

219,699
3,024
6,748
6,213
8,669
15,847
1,805
185
10,762
17,374
5,625
308
554
69,581
25
11,328
377,747

41.4
41
3.9
1.7
10.4
25.9
47
4.4
5.5
62.1
10.8
3.8
2.2
21.3
.3
17.3
15.8

945

FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— BUSSIA.

NUMBER AND PER CENT OF WAGE-EARNERS OF EACH SEX, BY INDUSTRIES,
1897— Concluded.
Industry.
Transportation:
Post, telegraph, and telephone....................
Water transportation__*.............................
Railroads...*..................................................
Carting...........................................................
Otherr...........................................................
Total...........................................................
Commercial pursuits:
Commerce......................................................
Hotels, restaurants, etc................................
Liquor trade..................................................
Cleaning, laundry work, etc.......................
Total...........................................................
Agricultural pursuits, etc.:
Agriculture....................................................
Cattle raising.................................................
Forestry.........................................................
Other rural industries..................................
F ish in g and hunting.....................................
Total...........................................................
Common (unskilled) laborers.............................
Servants:
In institutions..............................................
In factories, etc............*...............................
House servants (janitors, etc.).....................
Domestic servants.........................................
Total...........................................................
Grand total................................................

Total wageearners.

Males.

Females.

Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.

5,463
44,141
175,246
118,423
25,756
369,029

5,439
43,885
162,784
117,761
25,391
355,260

99.6
99.4
92.9
99.4
98.6
96.3

24
256
12,462
662
365
13,769

7.1
.6
1.4
3.7

118,787
76,970
17,336
42,495
255,588

113,171
72,266
15,270
11,751
212,458

95.3
93.9
88.1
27.7
83.1

5,616
4,704
2,066
30,744
43,130

4.7
6.1
11.9
72.3
16.9

2,132,899 1,467,302
411,817 341,596
83,404
84,714
44,820
57,990
32,331
35,203
2,722,623 1,969,453
1,094,848 809,426

68.8
82.9
98.5
77.3
91.8
72.3
73.9

665,597
70,221
1,310
13,170
2,872
753,170
285,422

31.2
17.1
1.5
22.7
8.2
27.7
26.1

167,240 142,706
226,743 205,720
160,089
162,053
1,556,599 268,086
776,601
2,112,635
6,330,983
9,151,671

24,534
85.3
21,023
90.7
1,964
98.8
17.2 1,288,513
36.7 1,336,034
69.2 2,819,688

14.7
9.3
1.2
82.8
63.3
30.8

.4

.6

O f all the wage-earning women, domestic servants constituted 45.7
per cent, agricultural laborers 23.6 per cent, common laborers 10.1
per cent, textile workers 7.8 per cent, those employed in cattle rais­
ing 2.5 per cent, in manufacture o f clothing 2.5 per cent, and in all
other industries 7.8 per cent, so that in 6 industries were over 90 per
cent o f the female wage-earners. Looking at the same facts from the
point of view o f the proportion between male and female workers,
women were found to predominate in domestic service, comprising
82.8 per cent o f all persons employed in this occupation, while other
classes o f servants showed a very small proportion o f women. In
cleaning, laundry work, etc., the proportion of women, 72.3 per cent,
was almost as great; but somewhat surprising was the very high per
cent of women, 62.1 per cent, in the tobacco industry and 41.4 per
cent in the textile industry, while in agricultural and other unskilled
labor the proportions were lower, being 31.2 per cent and 26.1 per
cent, respectively. Female labor was also important in the manu­
facture of chemical products (soap, candles, matches) and in the
clothing industry. It was very limited in mining, in transportation,
and in commerce.




946

BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR.

The number of children employed under 15 years o f age of each
sex, and the proportion to the total number o f persons employed, are
given in the next table:

NUMBER OF WAGE-EARNERS UNDER 15 YEARS OF AGE AND PER CENT OF
TOTAL WAGE-EARNERS, BY SEX AND INDUSTRIES, 1897.
Children under 15 years of age.
Industry.
Mining:
Miners...................................................................
Smelters................................................................
Total..................................................................
Manufacturing:
Textiles................................................................
Animal products..................................................
Wood working.....................................................
Metal working......................................................
Minerals................................................................
Chemical products...............................................
Beverages—
Alcoholic liquors...........................................
Other.............................................................
Food products......................................................
Tobacco................................................................
Paper and printing..............................................
Instruments..........................................................
Jewelry, etc..........................................................
Clothing..........................................................
Building...............................................................
Carriages and wooden boats...............................
Other....................................................................
Total..................................................................
Transportation:
Post, telegraph, and telephone...........................
Water transportation..........................................
Railroads..............................................................
Carting..................................................................
Other....................................................................
Total..................................................................
Commercial pursuits:
Commerce.............................................................
Hotels, restaurants, etc.......................................
Liquor trade.........................................................
Cleaning, laundry work, etc...............................
Total..................................................................
Agricultural pursuits, etc.:
Agriculture...........................................................
Cattle raising........................................................
Forestry................................................................
Other rural industries..........................................
Fishing and hunting............................................
Total..................................................................
Common (unskilled) laborers....................................
Servants:
In institutions......................................................
In factories, etc.....................................................
House servants (janitors, etc.)...........................
Domestic servants................................................
Total..................................................................
Grand total.......................................................




Total wageearners.

163,738
42,638
206,376

Males. Females. Total.
1,522
521
2,043

530,138 9,152
74,270 3,444
173,043
9,758
370,933 14,475
83,138 3,435
61,094
920
38,723
268
4,220
80
6,453
194,703
27,994
625
4,650
52,175
1,125
8,030
25,767 3,977
326,470 40,535
345,724 5,197
592
8,793
684
65,357
2,390,572 105,370

238
46
284

Per cent
of total
wageearners.

1,760
567
2,327

1.1
1.3
1.1

7,835 16,987
236 3,680
501 10,259
327 14,802
792 4,227
658 1,578
41
309
4
84
520 6,973
1,170
1,795
880 5,530
31 1,156
74 4,051
17,606 58,141
5,197
i
593
309
993
30,985 136,355

3.2
4.1
5.9
4.0
5.0
2.6
.8
2.0
3.6
6.4
10.6
14.4
15.7
17.8
1.5
6.7
1.5
5.7
,7
.3
.2
.7
.3
.4

5,463
44,141
175,246
118,423
25,756
369,029

42
160
273
858
70
1,403

3
55
15
2
75

42
163
328
873
72
1,478

118,787
76,970
17,336
42,495
255,588

18,176
5,362
1,533
1,062
26,133

520
107
77
620
1,324

18,696
5,469
1,610
1,682
27,457

36,705 107,923
30,756 123,271
44
951
1,225 2,428
96
708
68,826 235,281
8,011 23,672

15.7
7.1
9.3
4.0
10.7
■
5.1
29.9
1.1
4.2
2.8
8.7
2.2

178 1,289
1,111
167,240
916 3,279
226,743 2,363
98 1,385
162,053
1,287
1,556,599 14,182 154,615 168,797
2,112,635 18,943 155,807 174,750
9,151,671 336,008 265,312 601,320

.8
1.4
.9
10.8
8.3
6.6

2,132,899 71,218
411,817 92,515
84,714
907
57,990
1,203
25,203
612
2,712,623 166,455
1,094,848 15,661

F O R E IG N

947

S T A T IS T IC A L P U B L I C A T I O N S -----R U S S IA ,

The total number of wage-earning children under 15 years of age
was 601,320, or 6'.6 per cent of the total wage-earners. O f this num­
ber 336,008, or 56 per cent, were boys. The classes o f domestic service,
agricultural labor, and cattle raising numbered 399,991, or 66.5 per
cent of all the children. Domestic service was the main occupation
o f the girls, employing 58.3 per cent, and agriculture and cattle rais­
ing the main occupation o f the boys, employing 48.7 per cent. In
manufactures children constituted 5.7 per cent of the total number o f
wage-earners. The principal manufacturing industries employing
child labor were clothing, textiles, metal working, wood working,
food products, and paper and printing, named in the order of their
importance as to the numbers employed.
The age distribution o f the industrial workers is shown by sex, con­
jugal condition, and the educational standard in the following table:

NUMBER OF MALE AND FEMALE WAGE-EARNERS AND PER CENT MARRIED AND
LITERATE, BY INDUSTRY AND AGE GROUPS, 1S97.
Males.
Industry and age.

Total.

Mining, manufacturing, transporta­
tion, and commerce:
33,240
12 years or under...........................
13 to 14 years................................... 101,709
15 to 16 years................................... 195,077
17 to 19 years................................... 361,747
20 to 39 years................................... 1,519,096
40 to 59 years................................... 494,506
69,733
60 years or over...............................
1,395
Age unknown..................................
Total............................................. 2,776,503
Agricultural pursuits:
77,400
12 years
13
to 14 yoora under............................
rs................................ ..........
89,055
141,509
15 to 16 years................................... 257,862
17 to 19 years...................................
20 to 39 years................................... 897,103
40 to 59 years................................... 389,495
60 years or over............................... 115,316
1,713
Age unknown..................................
Total............................................. 1,969,453
Common laborers:
6,077
12 years or under...........................
9,584
13 to 14 years...................................
24,523
15 to 16 years...................................
59,611
17 to 19 years................................... 412,992
20 to 39 years...................................
40 to 59 years................................... 227,185
68,344
60 years or over...............................
1,110
Age unknown..................................
809,426
Total.............................................
Servants:
12 years or under...........................
7,606
11,337
13 to 14 years...................................
22,500
15 to 16 years...................................
55,692
17 to 19 years...................................
20 to 39 years................................... 384,763
40 to 59 years................................... 206,452
87,289
60 years or over...............................
962
Age unknown..................................
Total.............................................| 776,601
63675— No. 79— 09------ 21




Females.

Per cent Per cent
married. literate.

Total.

Per cent Per cent
married. literate.

0.1
4.5
63.6
83.2
68.7
41.4
51.9

54.5
69.5
69.6
65.6
55.4
42.1
33.7
37.9
55.4

9,917
22,761
47,335
81,369
215,685
59,584
8,226
185
445,062

0.9
8.7
54.0
45.8
17.4
41.6
34.3

40.6
56.2
47.5
39.8
25.4
13.3
15.3
23.8
30.5

.2
2.8
54.1
77.1
65.6
30.9
44.1

21.3
28.4
28.6
31.5
25.9
24.5
22.5
18.1
26.3

31,875
36,951
67,394
124,887
309,084
145,306
37,184
489
753,170

.5
5.3
40.6
38.0
19.6
19.0
25.9

22.7
28.1
27.8
31.7
33.2
24.1
23.5
17.4
29.5

.5
3.8
59.8
77.6
69.6
18.6
58.5

13.0
26.1
29.5
34.8
30.8
24.4
17.9
12.9
27.9

2,976
5,035
13,344
26,346
113,155
96,184
28,150
232
285,422

1.0
7.7
43.6
29.2
13.5
22.0
29.3

9.8
15.1
16.4
17.5
15.0
11.2
10.3
12.9*
13.0

.6
4.8
64.9
82.5
66.1
46.6
61.9

27.5
68,840
47.4
86,967
49.6 131,950
50.0 213,943
540,111
51.0
40.9 218,643
74,096
29.7
40.2
1,484
45.5 1,336,034

.3
3.5
30.3
25.9
10.4
16.6
17.7

13.8
21.4
24.1
27.7
27.8
15.4
11.0
17.7
23.3

948

B U L L E T IN

OF

THE

BUREAU

OF L A B O R .

There is a considerable difference in the age distribution of the two
sexes for employees engaged in industrial pursuits (mining, manu­
facturing, transportation, and commerce). O f the male employees
o f known ages 24.9 per cent were under 20 years of age, and of the
females 86.3 per cent; 54.8 per cent o f the males, and 48.5 per cent of
the females were from 20 to 39 years o ld ; 20.3 per cent of the males,
and 15.2 per cent o f the females were 40 years old or over. Hired
labor o f aged women is not therefore an unusual occurrence. A com­
parison o f the number o f married o f each sex shows a large propor­
tion o f married women as wage-workers; of all female employees 34.3
per cent were married, and of those 15 years o f age or over, 37.0 per
cent. O f the female employees 20 to 39 years old, 54.0 per cent were
married. This is partly explained by the frequency of husband and
wife being employed in the same factories, which furnish lodgings
to their married employees.
The male employees have a higher educational standard than the
female employees, as 55.4 per cent o f all male employees and only
30.5 per cent o f the female employees could read and write. The
younger employees show a much higher percentage o f literacy than
the older generation, which indicates a marked improvement o f edu­
cational facilities.
Among the male employees of known ages in agriculture and rural
industries 28.8 per cent were under 20 years of age, as against 24.9
per cent in industrial pursuits; the unskilled labor group had 12.3
per cent under 20 years o f age; among the male servants the propor­
tion was 12.5 per cent. It is characteristic that the highest percentage
o f literacy is not shown by the youngest age groups, but by the group
17 to 19 years; many o f the agricultural or unskilled laborers evi­
dently acquired the ability to read and write at a more advanced age
than the industrial workers who live in the cities.




F O R E IG N

949

S T A T IS T IC A L P U B L I C A T I O N S -----R U S S IA .

The following table shows the household relations for the four
large groups o f wage-earners:

NUMBER AND PER CENT OF WAGE-EARNERS LIVING ALONE, AS MEMBERS OF
FAMILIES, AND AS HEADS OF FAMILIES, BY SEX, 1897.
Industry and relation to household.
Mining, manufacturing, transpor­
tation, and commerce:
Living alone.................................
Living as members of a family..
Head of family.............................
Total.........................................
Agricultural pursuits:
Living alone.................................
Living as members of a family..
Head of family.............................
Total.........................................
Common laborers:
Living alone.................................
Living as members of a family..
Head of family.............................
Total..........................................
Servants:
Living alone.................................
Living as members of a family..
Head of family.............................
Total..........................................
All classes:
Living alone.................................
Living as members of a family..
Head of family.............................
Total..........................................

Males.

Females.

Total.

Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
1,622,448
461,005
693,050
2,776,503

58.4
16.6
25.0
100.0

217,488
197,837
29,737
445,062

48.9 1,839,936
44.4 658,842
722,787
6.7
100.0 3,221,565

57.1
20.5
22.4
100.0

1,175,899
275,944
517,610
1,969,453

59.7
14 0
20.3
100.0

419,483
255,893
77,794
753,170

55.7 1,595,382
34.0 531,837
10.3
595,404
100.0 2,722,623

58.6
19.5
21.9
100.0

325,622
143,734
340,070
809,426

40.2
17.8
42.0
100.0

113,518
105,310
66,594
285,422

39.8
439,140
36.9 249,044
23.3
406,664
100.0 1,094,848

40.1
22.8
37.1
100.0

483,106
35,139
258,356
776,601

62.2 1,247,357
72,846
4.5
15,831
33.3
100.0 1,336,034

93.4 1,730,463
5.4
107,985
1.2
274,187
100.0 2,112,635

81.9
5.1
13.0
100.0

3,607,075
915,822
1,809,086
6,331,983

57.0 1,997,846
14.4 631,886
28.6
189,956
100.0 2,819,688

70.9
22.4
6.7
100.0

5,604,921
1,547,708
1,999,042
9,151,671

61.3
16.9
21.8
100.0

The interesting fact brought out by this table is the very large pro­
portion o f wage-earners living alone, namely, 57 per cent o f the male
workers, and 70.9 per cent o f the female workers (the latter figure
including all the female servants living in the home o f the em ployer);
14.4 per cent o f the male wage-earners and 22.4 per cent o f the female
wage-earners lived at home as members of the family, the latter figure
including the working women living with their husbands. The re­
maining 28.6 per cent o f men and 6.7 per cent o f women were living
in their own households as heads of families. Thus the number o f
males living as heads of families, 1,809,086, was much smaller than
the number o f married men, 3,264,930, indicating a very large number
o f married men living apart from their families. This condition is
partly explained by the fact that many workingmen’s wives remain
in the agricultural villages while their husbands are employed else­
where; in many such cases the workingmen have not altogether sev­
ered their connection with their families. An examination o f similar
data for each large group o f wage-earners shows this condition to be
particularly common among the industrial workers.



OPINIONS OP THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL ON QUESTIONS AFFECT­
ING LABOR.
[I t is one o f tlie duties o f the Attorney-General o f the United States to fur­
nish opinions advising the President and the heads o f the executive departments
in relation to their official duties when such advice is requested. Opinions on
questions affecting labor w ill be noted from time to time under the above head.]
E i g h t - H o u r L a w — A p p l i c a t i o n to L o c k T e n d e r s , e t c .— Advance
sheets, 26 Op., page 605.— The Secretary o f War addressed an inquiry

to the Attorney-General “ as to whether certain classes of employees,
variously designated as lock masters, lock keepers, lock helpers, lockmen, watchmen, firemen, enginemen, stokers, teamsters, etc.,” are
mechanics or laborers within the meaning o f the eight-hour law of
August 1, 1892. The reply is reproduced practically in fu ll:
It seems from the inclosed memorandum that, at certain locks and
dams, persons are employed whose duties are performed at irregu­
lar hours and do not require their attention for eight hours in the
calendar day. These employees are liable to be called upon at any
hour in the day for a service lasting but a few minutes; but, as a
fact, the whole sum o f the time in which they are engaged is but a
fraction o f eight hours. The rest o f the day is entirely their own.
The question is whether the service and employment o f such persons,
under such circumstances, is legal and proper within the limit and
restriction o f the statute.
As to laborers employed in a similar manner, I refer you to what
was said by my predecessor, Attorney-General Moody (26 Op., 6 7 ):
“ But I think that the eight-hour day means eight hours o f effective
labor, and therefore so far as your questions present the case o f
laborers and mechanics who, from the exigencies of the situation,
must wait until after the completion o f the regular day to finish their
work, I am o f the opinion that the blasting, cleaning o f trucks, repair
o f machinery, and all other similar work essential to prompt and
continuous service in the regular day may be legally done before and
after the regular hours. To be more specific, laborers and mechanics
who are called upon to do two hours’ work, for example, before or
after the regular day begins or ends have no just cause for complaint
that the law is violated if they are only called upon to work six more
hours during the regular hours. The law gives no countenance to
the conception that the interval between the beginning and end o f
the regular day is a controlling convention which excludes labor at
any other time and entitles workmen to stand around idle if their
services can not be fully availed o f during that interval. The law
limits the working day to eight hours, but it does not prescribe in
what hours o f the day the work shall be done. Practically, no
doubt, there should be a real necessity, as is obviously the case here,
950




O P IN IO N S OF A T T O R N E Y -G E N E R A L O N L A B O R Q U E S T IO N S .

951

for work during other hours than the regular day; and there should
be scrutiny and care lest abuses arise which, however, the right o f
contract, subject to the law, between laborer and employer ought to
prevent.”
The cases mentioned in the memorandum o f the Judge-AdvocateGeneral come fully within these principles. Under the Cincinnati
office are included locks on the Muskingum, Kentucky, and B ig Sandy
rivers. The employees live at the locks, in Government houses, and
none is required to work an aggregate time in excess o f eight hours
though they are subject to call.
A t Milwaukee are included 21 locks at canals o f Fox River; the
number o f lockages averaging less than 2 per day and rarely exceed­
ing 8 for the twenty-four hours.
Other localities at which similar conditions prevail were mentioned,
and the opinion continues:
In these cases to require that a sufficient number o f men should be
employed to prevent any o f them from being liable to duty except
within a determined and arbitrary period of eight continuous hours
would be to put an unreasonable construction upon the statute. It
would recognize a favored condition o f employment not intended by
the law.
A familiar rule is, that where a particular construction o f a statute
will occasion great inconvenience or produce inequality and injustice,
that view is to be avoided, i f another and more reasonable interpreta­
tion is present in the statute.
Other instances mentioned in the memorandum are upon different
footing. A t places under the control o f the Pittsburg office men
are sometimes required to work more than eight hours “ when dam
is being raised or lowered; ” and the service is one “ requiring skill
and training and could not safely be entrusted to inexperienced
men.” This does not make a case o f extraordinary emergency. The
act includes skilled as well as unskilled workmen. The need is for
more men; not for the employment during more hours.
At other places, employees are classed as watchmen, dam tenders,
custodians, etc. With respect to the legal status o f such employees
under the eight-hour law, it is impossible to speak with certainty
without very full information as to the nature of their employment.

E

ig h t -H our

L

aw

—A

p p l i c a t i o n to

W

atchm en,

M

e s s e n g e r s , e t c .—

Advance sheets, 26 Op., page 623.—The Secretary of W ar submitted
an inquiry as to the application o f the eight-hour law to employees
stationed at Washington, D. C., and engaged in certain described
duties, to which inquiry the Attorney-General replied as follows:
1. I am o f opinion that “ a watchman, whose duty is to watch the
entrance o f one o f the public buildings occupied by the War Depart­
ment, executing instructions with regard to admitting persons into
the building and permitting public property to be taken out o f the
building, reporting to his chief any violation o f law, disturbance o f
the peace, etc., that may be brought to his attention, or to guard the



952

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E

BUKEAU

OF LABO R.

building and property therein during the night,” is not either a
laborer or mechanic within the meaning of the eight-hour law.
2. I am o f opinion that “ a laborer, whose duty is to perform
manual labor in the removal of furniture and office fixtures, cutting
grass, washing floors and windows, and general office cleaning,” is
not a laborer within the meaning of the eight-hour law. The serv­
ices required seem to be more those of a domestic servant than those
of a laborer in the usual meaning o f the term.
3. I am o f opinion that a hostler, “ whose duty is to feed, drive, and
care for horses, and to clean carriages, harness, and stables,” is rather
a domestic servant than a laborer within the meaning of the eighthour law, and therefore not subject to the provisions of that law.
4. I am o f opinion that a “ messenger, whose duty is to sweep
floors and do general office cleaning, attend to fires, and carry mes­
sages,” is not a laborer or mechanic within the meaning o f the eighthour law.




DECISIONS OP COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
[E xcept in cases o f special interest, the decisions here presented are restricted
to those rendered by the Federal courts and the higher courts o f the States and
Territories. Only material portions o f such decisions are reproduced, introduc
tory and explanatory matter being given in the w ords o f the editor. Decisions
under statute law are indexed under the proper headings in the cum ulative
index, page 1005 et seq.]

DECISION S U N D E R STA TU T E L AW .
E mployers’ L iability — E mployment of C hildren — V iolation of
S tatute— D efenses— D iscovering A ge— Syneszewski v. Schmidt

et al., Supreme Court of Michigan, 116 Northwestern Reporter, page
1107.— Czeslau Syneszewski, a minor, sued by his next friend to re­
cover damages for injuries received while employed in a tannery in
violation o f the child labor law o f the State. Judgment was in his
favor in the circuit court o f Wayne County, whereupon the defend­
ants appealed, the appeal resulting in an affirmation o f the decision
o f the court below.
The law in question prohibits the employment o f children under
14 years o f age in manufacturing establishments, or under 16 years
o f age in dangerous employments. It also requires an age certificate
to be procured for children under 16 years of age. Syneszewski was
less than 14 years o f age at the time of his injury. He was helping
his boss clean a machine, when the latter unexpectedly started it and
caught the plaintiff’s fingers in some cogs, causing the injury com­
plained of. The contentions on which the appeal was based were
that the employers were not liable, the injury having been caused by
the act o f a fellow-servant o f the plaintiff; that the court below had
erred in refusing to instruct the jury that i f the plaintiff had repre­
sented himself, at the time he was hired, as being above 16 years o f
age, and his employers in good faith believed him to be so, they were
not liable; and that in any case, it was