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DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR
BULLETIN
OF THE
BUREAU OF LABOR
NO. 8 6 - JANUARY, 1910
ISSUED EVERY OTHER MONTH
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1910
CONTENTS.
Canadian Industrial Disputes Investigation Act of 1907, by Victor S. Clark,
Ph. D.:
Introduction. . .............. . ...........................................................................
Description of the act...............................................................................
Disputes considered..................................................................................
Public opinion toward the act..................................................................
Suggested amendments.............................................................................
Bills presented in New York and in Wisconsin.......................................
Conclusion.................................................................................................
Applications for boards of conciliation and investigation, January, 1908,
to August, 1909................................
Phosphorus poisoning in the match industry in the United States, by John B.
Andrews, Ph. D.:
Editorial note.................................................................................. ........
Introduction..............................................................................................
Summary of the results of the investigation.............................................
Summary of European experience...........................................................
Processes of manufacture and phosphorus poisoning................................
Development of the match industry in the United States.......................
Employees of match factories in the United States.............................. ..
Wages of em ployees...........................................................................
Employees exposed to dangers of phosphorus poisoning..........................
Description of processes in match manufacture........................................
Phosphorus used in match manufacture and its effect upon the health of
the workers...........................................................................................
European experience with phosphorus poisoning—
Finland..............................................................................................
Denmark............................................................................................
France................................................................................................
Switzerland.................... ..................................................................
Netherlands........................................................................................
Luxemburg.........................................................................................
Italy...................................................................................................
Germany...................... . ....................................................................
Great Britain.....................................................................* ...............
Belgium..............................................................................................
Austria-Hungary................................................................................
Norway.................................................................................... .
Sweden...............................................................................................
Spain..........................................................
Russia.................................................................................................
Japan..................................................................................................
hi
Page.
1
1-3
3-9
9-16
17-21
21
21,22
24-29
31
32
32-36
36-39
39-42
42-45
45-50
48,49
50
50-57
57-66
67
67,68
68, 69
69,70
70
70
71
71,72
72-76
76, 77
77-81
81,82
82-84
84
84, 85
85
IV
CONTENTS.
Phosphorus poisoning in the match industry in the United States—Concluded.
PageFactory conditions and phosphorus poisoning in American factories—
Maine..................................................................................................
86-98
Wisconsin........................................................................................... 98-106
Minnesota........................................................................................... 106-110
Indiana............................................................................................... 110-117
Ohio.................................................................................................... 118-124
Pennsylvania...................................................................................... 124-133
New Jersey.........................................................................................
135
New York........................................................................................... 133-137
Michigan............................................................................................. 137-139
Illinois................................................................................................ 139,140
Appendix A. Regulation of the match industry in Switzerland.............. 141-144
Appendix B. British White Phosphorus Matches Prohibition Act, 1908..
145
Appendix C. International convention respecting the prohibition of the
use of white phosphorus in the manufacture of matches.
146
List of industrial poisons, prepared for the International Association for Labor
Legislation, by Dr. Th. Sommerfeld in collaboration with Sir Tho3. Oliver,
M. D., and Dr. Felix Putzeys:
Introduction.............................................................................................. 147-150
Nature of industrial poisons......................................................................
150
Methods of entry of industrial poisons into the system...........................
151
Extent of the danger of industrial poisons............................................... 152,153
Methods of combating industrial poisons.................................................. 153,154
List of industrial poisons.......................................................................... 155-168
International Association for Labor Legislation and its publications............ 169-184
British Trade Boards Act, 1909........................................................................ 185-191
Earnings and hours of labor in British clothing industries:
General summary...................................................................................... 192-195
Dressmaking, millinery, and mantle-making industries........................... 196-198
Shirt, blouse, underclothing, etc., industry............................................. 198,199
Tailoring industries................................................................................... 199-202
Boot and shoe industry............................................................................. 202,203
Silk and felt hat industry......................................................................... 203,204
Miscellaneous clothing industries..............................................................
204
Dyeing and cleaning................................................................................. 204,205
Laundries.................................................................................................. 205,206
Digest of recent reports of state bureaus of labor statistics:
Louisiana—Fourth Biennial Report.........................................................
207
Massachusetts—
Thirty-ninth Annual Report on the Statistics of Labor for the year
1908: Strikes and lockouts for the year 1908—Labor organizations—
Changes in rates of wages and hours of labor.................................. 207-210
Twenty-third Annual Report on Statistics of Manufactures for the
year 1908......................................................................................... 210,211
Minnesota—Eleventh Biennial Report: Child labor—Free employment
offices—Labor organizations—Railroad switch yards—Mining.............. 211-213
New York—
Seventh Annual Report of the Department of Labor........................
213
Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics: State
of employment—Wages and earnings—Cost of living—Hours of
labor—Trade unions—Union fees and dues...................................... 213-218
CONTENTS.
V
Digest of recent reports of state bureaus of labor statistics—Concluded.
Page.
North Carolina—Twenty-second Annual Report, 1908: Condition of
farmers—Condition of the trades—Miscellaneous factories—Cotton,
woolen, and knitting mills—Furniture factories—Railroad employees.. 218-220
Virginia—Eleventh Annual Report, 1908: Industrialstatistics............ 221,222
Washington—Sixth Biennial Report, 1907-8: Accidents to labor—Strikes
and lockouts—Cost of living—Organized labor—Free employment
offices—Statistics of manufactures......................................................... 223,224
West Virginia—Tenth Biennial Report, 1907-1908: Statistics of manufac
tures—New industries established—Free employment bureau............ 224-226
Digest of recent foreign statistical publications:
Reports on strikes and lockouts:
Austria, 1907....................................................................................... 227-232
France, 1907....................................................................................... 233-239
Germany, 1907.................................................................................... 239-244
Great Britain, 1907............................................................................. 245-252
Italy, 1905.......................................................................................... 252-264
Netherlands, 1906............................................................................... 264-269
Norway, 1903-1906............................................................................. 269,270
Russia, 1905 ........................................................................................ 270-284
Spain, 1906......................................................................................... 284-288
Sweden, 1903-1907............................................................................. 288-294
Opinions of the Attorney-General on questions affecting labor:
Compensation for injuries to employees—accidents—construction of
statute.................................................................................................... 295-300
Eight-hour law—laborers cutting timber on Indian reservations.............
300
Immigration—inducements by States and Territories—alien laborers—
construction of statutes.......................................................................... 300-305
Leaves of absence for employees of the United States—who entitled—
arsenals—per diem employees—pieceworkers...................................... 306-309
Decisions of courts affecting labor:
Decisions under statute law:
Employers’ liability—railroad companies—acceptance of relief
benefits—construction of statute (Potter v. Baltimore and Ohio Rail
road Company)................................................................................ 310-313
Employers’ liability—railroad companies—federal statute—injuries
causing death—damages (Duke v. St. Louis and San Francisco
Railroad Company).......................................................................... 313-315
Employers’ liability—railroad companies—federal statute—injuries
causing death—survival of right of action (Fulgham v. Midland
Valley Railroad Company).................................................................315,316
Employers’ liability—railroad companies—federal statute of 1906—
validity in Territories and District of Columbia (El Paso and North
eastern Railroad Company v. Gutierrez).......................................... 316-319
Employers’ liability—railroad companies—fellow-servants—instan
taneous death—survival of right of action—construction of statute
(Dillon v. Great Northern Railway Company)................................. 319-322
Employers’ liability—railroad companies—powers of Federal Gov
ernment—constitutionality of statute (Hoxie v. New York, New
■Haven and Hartford Railroad Company).......................................... 322-328
Employers’ liability—railroad companies—powers of Federal Gov
ernment—constitutionality of statute ( Watson v. St. Louis, Iron
Mountain and Southern Railway Company).................................... 328-331
TL
CONTENTS.
decisions of courts affecting labor—Concluded.
PageDecisions under statute law—Concluded.
Hours of labor on public works—municipal corporations—constitu
tionality of statute {Byars v. State)................................................. 332-334
Injunction — strikes — boycotts — secondary boycotts — picketing
{Pierce v . S tablemen9s Union, Local N o . 8760, e ta l.) ..................... 334-340
Payment of wages—semimonthly pay day for railroad companies—
constitutionality of statute {New York Central and Hudson River
Railroad v. Williams)...................................................................... 340-347
Railroads—safety appliances—equipment and repairs ( United States
347
v. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company).....................................
Railroads—safety appliances—equipment and repairs ( United States
v. Illinois Central Railroad Company)............................................. 347-349
Decisions under common law:
Assignment of wages—future earnings—future employment—revo
cation of power of attorney—interest—equity {Coxv. Hughes et al). 349-353
Employers' liability—evidence of negligence—excessive hours of
labor {McCrary v. Southern Railway Company).............................. 353-355
Injunction—contempt—nature of proceedings—appeals {Gompers et
al. v. Buck Stove and Range Company).......................................... 355-370
Intimidation—interference with employment—injunction—rights
of bondholders to sue {Carter et al v. Fortney et al.)...................... 370-372
Labor organizations—municipal corporations—discrimination in let
ting public contracts {Miller et al v. City of JDes Moines et a l ) . . , 372-375
Index................................................................................................................ 377-381
B U L L E T IN
OF THE
B U R E A U OF LA BOR.
No. 86.
WASHINGTON.
January,
1910.
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES INVESTIGATION ACT
OF 1907.
BY VICTOR S. CLARK, PH. D.
INTRODUCTION.
The purpose of this article is to review the operation of the Cana
dian Industrial Disputes Act from April, 1908, to August, 1909. An
earlier report, published in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor for
May, 1908, describes the purpose, administration, and results of the
law, and sentiment toward it during the first year it was in force, and
contains a detailed commentary on its provisions. Since then the
act has not been amended, but subsequent experience enables a
maturer judgment to be formed of its strong features, as well as of
the deficiencies that accompany such experimental legislation, and
makes possible a fairer estimate of its usefulness. On the whole it
does not seem necessary to revise the conclusions of the previous
report, which the following observations will supplement rather than
supersede. But the nearness of Canada, the similarity of its indus
trial conditions to our own, the fact that this law directly affects trade
unions and corporations on both sides the border, and the advocacy
of like legislation in the United States make of value to Americans
current information upon this subject.
DESCRIPTION OF THE ACT.
The act applies to all public utilities, including municipal service
corporations, transportation companies of all kinds, and occupations
(like stevedoring) subsidiary to transportation, and also to coal and to
metal mines. In these industries and occupations it is unlawful for
employers to lock out their workmen or for employees to strike until
1
2
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
an investigation of the causes of the dispute has been made by a
government board appointed for this particular case and the board’s
report has been published. After the investigation is completed and
the report made, either party may refuse to accept the findings and
start a lockout or a strike. The investigating board usually tries by
conciliation to bring the parties to an agreement, so that the functions
of the board considerably exceed those of a body appointed solely to
procure information.
The law does not aim at compulsory arbitration or to force men to
work against their will after all chance of an amicable settlement has
disappeared. Neither employer nor employee is compelled to become
party to a bargain he does not voluntarily accept. The purpose of the
act is limited to discouraging strikes and lockouts in industries that
serve immediately the entire public, and to preventing the cessation
of such industries through the arbitrary or unwarranted acts of either
employers or workmen. I t seeks to enforce the right of the people
who use railways and burn coal, for instance, to know on how just
grounds, in case of an industrial dispute, they are deprived of so neces
sary a service or commodity.
The procedure and machinery for accomplishing this end are as
follows: In the industries in question any change in working condi
tions affecting hours or wages, whether demanded by employers or
workers, must be preceded by thirty days’ notice. If such a content
plated change, or if any other point at issue between the parties,
threatens to end in a strike or a lockout, either party may upon affi
davit to that effect apply to the Dominion Labor Department, which
has recently become a separate ministry, for a board of investigation
and conciliation. Thereupon the minister of labor or his deputy ap
points a board of three members, one upon the recommendation of the
employers, another upon the recommendation of the workers, and a
chairman selected either by the first two members of the board, or,
in case* they fail to agree, by the government. If the workers or the
employers, either through indifference or in order to block an investi
gation, refuse to recommend a representative for appointment, the
minister of labor selects at his discretion a suitable person to fill the
place. The members of the board are paid for the time they serve
and for the necessary traveling expenses incurred. The government
also provides for necessary clerical expenses and for the fees of wit
nesses called by either party.
Each board controls its own procedure, which varies greatly under
different chairmen and in different cases. Usually the most infor
mation is obtained and the quickest settlements are made where
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT.
&
the board discusses informally with committees representing both
sides in joint session the various points at issue without laying much
stress on technical evidence. Such informal meetings are apt to
• reveal sentiment, air grievances, and explain misunderstandings.
But some boards, on account either of the judicial training of their
members or of the technical character of the points at controversy,
have conducted their proceedings like a law court. If the board
succeeds in bringing the parties to an agreement, it embodies the
terms of this agreement in its findings. But if it is unable to end the
controversy it presents a report, or majority and minority reports,
describing the conditions that cause the dispute and usually recom
mending what appear fair terms of settlement. The report or reports
are at once published by the government, and the employers and
employees involved, if unable otherwise to agree, may then resort
to the last measures of industrial warfare.
The penalty for causing a lockout before the board has reported
is a fine upon the employer ranging from $100 to $1,000, and the
penalty for striking, under like conditions, is a fine of from $10 to $50
upon each striker. Prosecutions are brought by the aggrieved party,
not by a public officer.
DISPUTES CONSIDERED.
Statistics only imperfectly present what has been accomplished
by the law during two years and a half of operation. There is a
record of the number of boards appointed and of the number of
agreements and disagreements following their sessions, of approxi
mately the number of workers affected by the disputes investigated,
and the number, .and duration of lockouts and strikes, lawful and
unlawful, which have occurred in industries subject to the act. But
it is not possible to measure the margin between these statistics and
the figures which would have represented corresponding data if the
act had not been in existence. It'c an not be assumed that every
settlement made by a board stands for a case where a strike would
have occurred if no board had been appointed or that these settle
ments were in each instance better than a settlement would have
been without government intervention. It is not absolutely certain
but that in exceptional cases a strike or lockout is a more wholesome
culmination of an aggravated dispute than a series of temporizing
and unsatisfactory compromises.
4
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
The following table shows the interventions with and without
strikes from March 22, 1907, when the law went into force, to the
latest information obtainable, in August, 1909:
NUMBER OF BOARDS APPOINTED, EMPLOYEES AFFECTED, STRIKERS IN ILLEGAL
STRIKES AND IN LEGAL STRIKES, AND SETTLEMENTS WITHOUT STRIKES, BY IN
DUSTRIES.
Industry.
Coalmines.........
Metal mines.......
Railways...........
Electric railways.
Shipping............
City employees..
Cotton mills (/)..
Shoe factories (/)
Illegal
strikes
Legal
(begun
strikes
Settle
Em
Boards ployees
before Strikers (begun Strikers ments
ap affected.
or
in illegal after in legal with
pointed.
pend strikes. report strikes.
out
(a )
ing inof a
strikes.
vestiboard).
gation).
27,400
900
27,600
65
6,450
3
*2,200
2
1
2,700
300
5,200
300
59
65,500
25
5
17
4
<5
1
1,100
2
2
1
c4,700
»625
5,000
18
3
16
4
2
1
1
8,650
10,325
45
a On account of the difficulty of distinguishing uniformly between those affected directly and those
affected indirectly by a dispute, these figures are far from exact.
6 These strikes were as follows: (1) April, 1907, Alberta, 7 companies, 3,600 strikers, act not yet familiar
to strikers; (2) May, 1908, Fort Hood, N. S., 300 men struck 4 days; (3) spring of 1909, Nicola Valley, B. C.,
150 men struck during formation of board, which was delayed by fault of employers; (4) April 1 to July,
1909, Alberta and British Columbia, 2,100 to 2,500 men on strike; (5) April 22 to August 2,1909, Taber,
Alta, 300 men on strike; also at Inverness Mines, N. S.,200 to 300 men In strike in July, 1909, no board
reported appointed.
c August 1 to October 31,1907, Spring Hill, N. S., 1,700 men; and July 6 to September, 1909, Glace Bay,
N. S., about 3,000 men, strike not ended at date of writing.
d January, 1908, Moyie, B. C., 400 men 3 days; June 26, till late in July, 1909, Greenwood, B. C., 225 men.
e All were wharf laborers, most of whom were probably ignorant of the act.
/N o strikes are illegal in these industries, and intervention occurs at the consent of both parties. One
cotton mill strike was terminated by the appointment of a board.
The number of boards appointed corresponds only by legal defini
tion with the number of disputes investigated. During the first
nine months the act was in force three boards were established, and
others have been in session more recently, to settle a perennial dis
pute or series of disputes at a single Nova Scotia coal mine. On the
other hand, among the small mines of Alberta several independent
controversies are sometimes referred, upon the application of the
parties interested, to one board.
In a majority of cases, though this is not invariable, the applica
tion for a board is made by employees. Employers have sometimes
refused to recommend a member for appointment, so that the gov
ernment has been obliged to select their representative on these
bodies. Likewise employers have in a few instances refused to appear
at proceedings, and it has been necessary to subpoena them as wit
nesses to enable the board to procure information needed in making
up its findings. But more frequently both sides have cooperated
cordially to make the proceedings a success. When reluctance to do
this appears, it is usually caused by distrust of the personnel of the
board, or because one side is prejudiced by an earlier unfavorable
decision.
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT.
5
In appraising the value of board intervention, mere numerical
statements of the number of hearings resulting in settlements and the
number followed by strikes may be more misleading than enlighten
ing. The probability of reaching an agreement is much greater in a
case affecting a weak union or a small number of employees than it is
in one backed by a strong organization and reaching a large body of
workers. (Yet if the strong union has prestige and a well-established
policy of collective bargaining, and exercises sufficient control over
its own members and the industry to avoid frequent or petty strikes,
the work of the board is often made very easy; In possibly four dis
putes out of five, or nine out of ten (in case of such a union), govern
ment intervention simply substitutes a public for a private agency
in making a bargain. But the tenth dispute may threaten conse
quences of vital concern to the whole community, quite justifying
what would be unnecessary precautions in the other nine disputes,
finally, in dealing with a large body of unorganized and unskilled
workers, of lower intelligence as a rule—such as wharf laborers—a
board faces a problem of unusual difficulty, because the men have no
responsible representatives and because the unenlightened and undi
rected sentiment of such workers veers with the uncertainty of the
wind. The relative success of the act in avoiding actual cessation
of work has been greatest where it has dealt with strong unions of
educated and highly skilled employees, and least where it has dealt
with unorganized or 'partly organized common laborers. Between
these classes come the metal and coal miners, who are well organized,
but not sufficiently skilled to be protected from the competition of
the unspecialized labor market. Most miners' unions adopt col
lective bargaining, but employ the strike as subsidiary to their nego
tiations more frequently than do the railway orders; so mining dis
putes usually threaten a strike in good earnest and the intervention
of a board in such disputes seldom is a perfunctory service.
In Canada the two principal coal-mining districts are Nova Scotia
in the east, and in the west a region in southern Alberta and British
Columbia close to the American boundary. The Nova Scotia mines
fall into three main groups, in the vicinity of Spring Hill, around
Pictou, and in Cape Breton Island. The Cape Breton collieries,
which are the most important of the three, employ from 7,000 to
10.000 men. Some of the mines have been in operation for threequarters of a century, supplying the markets of the St. Lawrence and
the maritime provinces, accessible by water, and of recent years the
neighboring steel works. They also ship some coal to New England.
The Alberta and British Columbia field normally gives work to about
4.000 miners and furnishes fuel to the western sections of the Canadian
Pacific and Great Northern railways, to the boundary smelters, and
to domestic consumers throughout the prairie districts of Canada.
6
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
A stoppage of these mines, which are the only accessible source of
coal supply in this section, not only seriously embarrasses transpor
tation and local manufactures, causing a shortage of merchandise and
provisions as well as throwing other labor out of employment, but in
winter imposes an extreme hardship upon the farmers of the northern
Provinces.
The organized coal miners of Alberta and of British Columbia have
for some years belonged to the United Mine Workers of America, while
those of Nova Scotia up to last year belonged to a long-established
and conservative local society known as the Provincial Workers'
Association. The latter was formerly a composite union embracing
many trades, but gradually became a specialized miners' society.
Its lodges are incorporated under a special provincial act. The asso
ciation has had large influence in shaping the labor and mines legisla
tion of Nova Scotia and its leaders are understood to have held inti
mate relations with the local government and the party in power.
In 1908 a factional fight in this organization, said to have been caused
partly by party politics, partly by personal differences among leaders,
and in no small degree by a feeling among the rank and file of the
members that the organization officially was too closely allied with
employing and government interests, caused disaffection among a
large element, who invited organizers of the United Mine Workers of
America to enter the district and form branches. Several entire
lodges by referendum vote, and a considerable part of the member
ship of other lodges, separated from the local society and became
unions of the international body. But the Provincial Workers'
Association still remains strong enough to play an important part in
labor matters. Consequently, while in the west the United Mine
Workers of America has a monopoly as a labors organization, in the
east it meets strong competition.
Meantime, in these two fields the condition of employers is almost
the reverse of this, the control of mining property in the east—
especially at Spring Hill and in Cape Breton—being centralized, while
in the west it is dispersed. The western operators have an asso
ciation which is intended to deal as a unit with labor matters; but the
strongest mines in the district have withdrawn from this association
on account of a difference of labor policy and deal directly with the
unions. Out of these general conditions of organization of both
workers and employers have followed crises at these two extremities
of the Dominion in which the Disputes Act has failed to prevent a
stoppage of work at the mines.
In Nova Scotia the Provincial Workers' Association and the Do
minion Coal Company, which is the largest employer in the Province,
made an agreement over a year ago, as the result of the intervention
of a board appointed under the act, by which the terms of employ
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT.
7
ment of 7,000 miners were to be governed from March 16, 1908, to
December 31,1909. Soon after this agreement, which has not proved
fully satisfactory to the workers, had been concluded the United
Mine Workers, as just stated, entered the district and enrolled in
their own numbers a large part of the Provincial Workers’ Associa
tion membership. Consequently what was probably a majority of
the workers in these mines came to be employed under an agreement
which did not receive their support and which had been made with a
rival union. The company refused to recognize or even to deal in
directly with representatives of the United Mine Workers of America,
on the ground that its agreement with the Provincial Workers’ Asso
ciation was and should continue to be the only basis of contract with
its employees. The members of the international union also claimed
that they were discriminated against in receiving work and in the
assignment of places in the mines. These and other grievances
caused them to apply for a board, which heard their case and pre
sented two reports, the chairman siding with the representative of
the employers. This majority report dealt unfavorably with inter
national unionism, making the latter a factor in its decision, and by
these animadversions was calculated under the existing conditions to
aggravate rather than to alleviate the controversy. As a result, early
in July, 1909, some 3,000 or more employees of the company struck
and at the present writing, two months later, have not returned to
work. The outbreak of the strike was accompanied by some violence,
the troops were called out, and the conditions that usually attend a
severe and protracted labor disturbance prevailed in the district.
Under the law this strike was quite legal, because the required hear
ings of the points at issue had been made and the board had reported.
While the strike fever was at its height, however, a smaller and ap
parently illegal strike occurred in connection with another dispute at
some neighboring mines. In the larger trouble, though the act was
not directly violated, yet it was a failure to the extent that an un
fortunately constituted board seems to have lost view of its first
object—to conciliate the disputants and compromise their difficulties—
and judging from the sentiment of the strikers this had an influence
toward widening rather than narrowing the breach between employ
ers and employed. This in turn reacted upon the status of the law
itself, which in July, 1909, was decidedly less popular in Cape Breton
than it was when the same district was visited sixteen months
previously.
In the Alberta coal district the regular agreement between the
operators and the United Mine Workers of America terminated last
March, when it was subject to modifications and renewal. While
negotiations looking to this end were in progress delays occurred and
issues were raised by some of the operators that seemed likely to
8
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
lead to a disagreement. As a result the Crow’s Nest Pass Company,
the largest single employer in the district, withdrew from the opera
tor’s association and made an independent contract with the United
Mine Workers of America, granting the union concessions which the
other operators were not ready to allow. As a result the United
Mine Workers of America stood out for similar concessions from the
companies remaining in the association and brought the matter to an
issue by suddenly declaring a strike at the expiration of the old
agreement. Between 2,000 and 2,500 miners immediately ceased
work in the mines affected. No board had been applied for by either
side and the strike was directly in violation of the disputes act.
After the mines had been closed several weeks the strikers applied
for a board, which was granted, and early in July an agreement based
upon the board’s recommendations was finally signed and the miners
went back to work. This important violation of the law passed
officially unnoticed, and up to the time the district was visited
(August, 1909) no proceedings had been instituted or were reported
in contemplation against the strikers. Employers do not care to
start suits from which they foresee no benefit to themselves or to
their business whatever the court’s decision, the general public was
not during the summer sufficiently interested to agitate the matter,
and the government avowedly leaves the enforcement of the penal
clauses of the act to the parties directly affected by its violation.
The application of the law to railway disputes covers what would
be the chief field of jurisdiction of a similar federal statute, should one
ever be enacted, in the United States. The Canadian boards have
investigated seventeen such disputes, and in only one instance has
their decision been followed by a strike. No strikes have occurred
prior to the publication of a board’s decision. These disputes have
been the most important, in respect to the number of employees
affected, the seriousness of the points at issue, and the prospective
disturbance of business that have arisen in Canada since the law
was passed. The settlements have applied not only to railways in
that country, but also to considerable sections of railway in the United
States, and they have covered every organized branch of the railway
and railway telegraph service. While most of these controversies
might have been settled by direct negotiation without the disputes
act, yet two or three of the crises thus tided over were so acute that
an extended, protracted, and bitter strike vras seriously to be appre
hended. There seems to be little question that the boards averted
these strikes, with one exception to be mentioned, and in so doing they
performed a service of greatest value not only to the disputants but
also to the general public, and saved money losses far exceeding the
cost of administering the law.
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT.
9
The only railway strike that has occurred in Canada since the act
went into operation was called by the machinists and other mechanics
employed on the Canadian Pacific, after a board had investigated
their grievances and reported. The men struck early in August, 1908,
and two months later went back to work on the terms that had been
recommended by the board. The dispute originated in a thirty-day
notice, posted by the company in accordance with the law, abrogating
its old agreements with the complainant unions and reducing wages.
The employees invoked the act, and two reports were presented as a
result of the investigation that followed. The majority report, con
curred in by the chairman and the representative of the railway,
sustained the company on many points, but in certain matters
supported the contentions of the men. The strike involved 5,000
employees, and their defeat was attributed in part, by both the unions
and the officers of the railway, to the adverse public sentiment caused
by their rejection of the board’s findings.
In several instances a strike already under way has been terminated
by the appointment of a board of conciliation and investigation under
the terms of the act, or such a board after appointment has succeeded
in bringing the parties to an agreement. At Montreal, at Owen’s
Sound, and at Fort William unorganized or partly organized wharf
laborers have struck at different times without applying for a board
or waiting for an investigation of their grievances. Most of the
strikers, many of whom were foreigners, probably knew nothing of
the law. In all these cases a board has ultimately been appointed.
The one at Fort William has not yet reported, but the others succeeded
in bringing the parties to an agreement. A strike at the Valleyfield
cotton mills was ended by both sidles agreeing to refer the dispute to
a board.
PUBLIC OPINION TOWARD THE ACT.
The attitude of public opinion in Canada toward the disputes act
can not be determined precisely, because it has not been a dominant
political issue at any electioii, and any estimate of general sentiment
regarding it needs qualification. Approval or disapproval is often
conditioned by some pet theory or demand for amendment made by
the speaker. Political affiliations have a decided influence in deter
mining the favor or disfavor with which the law is viewed. In case
of an act so closely identified with the policy of the present govern
ment, it is as difficult for a Conservative cordially to commend as it is
for a Liberal unreservedly to condemn. Many people know nothing
definite about the act, or too little to form an intelligent judgment
of its merits. A mere poll of opinions, giving each equal weight, has
no value under such conditions except to persons interested in votes.
10
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
In the class not identified either with organized labor or with the
industries to which the act applies, the law has generally been viewed
with favor. Newspaper readers regard it as a measure intended to
protect them from the inconvenience of arbitrary strikes. Sober
business men welcome any attempt to keep the railways running
and to prevent a coal famine. Little men of capitalistic bias speak
of it as a wholesome device to curb the power of irresponsible labor
agitators. Broad-minded men with enlightened social sympathies
believe that the hardships of labor, as well as of capital, will be
lessened by its mediation. A popular belief prevails that the law
reaches out in the logical line of development toward the coming
better way of adjusting the relations of capital and labor. This favor
able sentiment, in its various forms, seemed to be stronger and more
general in the summer of 1909 than in the spring of 1908, principally
because in the meantime people had become better informed about
the provisions, purpose, and operation of the act. Some Canadians
appeared to regard the law with added complacency as an evidence
of superior governmental and industrial conditions in the Dominion,
as compared with similar conditions in the United States. Thus it
happened that, though some were lukewarm, hardly a person belonc
ing to this neutral class was met who seriously opposed the law or who
advocated its repeal. However, several persons suggested amend
ments or pointed out what they considered defects in its administra
tion. But such criticism was entirely of details, not of the central
principle or of the general provisions of the statute.
Employers showed almost equal unanimity in favor of the la
Railway officers without an exception supported it, as did nearly
every employer not directly affected by the act. I t has many warm
friends among mine managers, especially in the east. But her
there was more difference of opinion, and in the west some operators
of both coal and metal mines, while not actively hostile, were skep
tical as to its value. The indorsements of employers, like those of
employees, were usually accompanied by some demand for amend
ment, and often the amendments suggested by the two sides were
incompatible with each other. Upon the whole, during the last six
teen months, taking the whole Dominion into account, the act has
probably gained rather than lost in the esteem of employers, though
in some cases unexpected weaknesses—from their point of view—
have developed. However, these defects have been more than coun
terbalanced by the gradual disappearance of that distrust with which
a new law interfering in industrial matters is always regarded by
those immediately affected. A year and a half ago this distrust had
a marked influence on the attitude of many large employers, while in
the summer of 1909 it was hardly observable.
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT.
11
On the labor side there is less unanimity of opinion and more posi
tive opposition to the statute. Here the trend of sentiment is more
difficult to detect. The views of different unions differ, and in each
union there is an official opinion and an opinion of the rank and file,,
which do not always correspond. Finally, nothing whatever is known
of what unorganized labor thinks about such legislation, if it think®
about it at all.
As the law applies only to a limited number of industries many
unions are not directly affected by its provisions, and the opinion
of their members and officers is almost as much the opinion of out
siders as is that of the general public. Most of these unions are
members of the Trades and Labor Congress of Canada, which a t
its last two annual meetings has discussed the act, at the first meet
ing indorsing it and at the second suggesting amendments and!
taking a rather equivocal attitude. In both congresses the law
has evoked vigorous debate and a strong minority opposition. Mostof the unions represented in this congress are affiliated with the*
American Federation of Labor, which is not officially in sympathy
jvith this legislation.
-grJust at present the question of international unionism is a live
issue in Canada—at least with a small section of the general public
outside of labor ranks but interested in labor questions, with some
employers, and with a minority of uncertain strength among trade
.unionists themselves. A movement exists, which is watched with
significant sympathy by some employing and political interests,,
,;#ward organizing exclusively Canadian unions. The importance
of this issue in the Nova Scotia coal fields has been mentioned. I t
has given rise to a group of small organizations in central Canada,*
including several French speaking societies, which is associated in
the National Trades and Labor Congress of Canada. This assembly
is now seven years old and is a rival of the more important Trade®
and Labor Congress, which has reached its twenty-fifth year. A
national union has also been discussed and may have been the object
of some factional scheming among the leaders, in the western district,,
.of the United Mine Workers of America. The objects and interest®
involved in this agitation and the arguments used in its support
have nothing to do with the disputes act; but they have incidentally
brought out certain points of conflict between international unionism
and a regulative statute of this character. The first of these arises
from a possible difference of policy with regard to such legislation
between the branches of an international union within a particular
country and the larger organization of which they are a part. B ut
this is a matter affecting chiefly the internal affairs of the union.
A practically more important point is that some international unions
38697—-No. 86—10----2
12
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
lodge in their executive authority to call a sympathetic or supporting
strike in any district, in order to enforce demands made in another
district. Suppose the Grand Trunk switchmen were ordered by
the international to strike in order to enforce a demand on con
necting railways at Chicago, for instance, to prevent the handling
of freight from such roads. If the strike were called without first
applying for a board and having an investigation, it would be illegal,
though the first offenders might be without the reach of Canadian
law. But if a board were appointed and made an investigation,
it would find no grievance existing on the railway for which it was
appointed and could not justify the intending strikers. Such an
order, under the present constitution of most railway unions, would
be impossible, but it might occur in case of other international
organizations. The board in the Dominion Coal Company dispute,
which was followed by the present strike in Cape Breton, quoted
in this connection the following extract from the constitution of the
United Mine Workers of America:
The international officials shall at any time they deem it to the best
interests of mine workers in a district that is idle, for just and suffi
cient reasons order a suspension in any other district or districts that
would not in any way impede the settlement of the districts affected,
rovided such action would conserve to the best interests of theU .
[. W. of America.
A law has been seriously proposed in Canada making any society
the constitution of which contains provisions contrary to the laws of
the country an illegal society within the Dominion. The main pur
pose of such an act would be to meet such situations as the one here
suggested. What influence such a law would have upon the atti
tude of organized labor in Canada toward the disputes act is impos
sible to predict, and might depend on the yet uncertain strength of
the present movement in favor of national as contrasted with inter
national unionism.
When the disputes act was passed the railway unions opposed it
in principle and detail. These unions held that since their policy
was to resort to strikes only in extreme cases, and they normally ne
gotiated peaceably with their employers and observed the contracts
made, there was no need for such a law to interpose its machinery
in place of their own well tried system of adjustment committees
and trained negotiators. They also felt that they were weakened
in treating with the companies by the postponement of a strike until
after an investigation, during which period the railways could procure
new employees. These unions and their members were more respon
sible financially than many other classes of workers, and so realized
more vividly the burden of the penalties which the act imposed. Con
sequently in the spring of 1908 uncompromising opposition to the
E
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT.
13
law was nearly universal among the official representatives of the
large railway unions. Some local officials were more favorable, and
among the rank and file there were supporters of the act. However,
with longer experience this opposition seems to be lessening, and
officers who were vigorously hostile to the law last year now only
criticise mildly some of its provisions. A leading union official,
whose jurisdiction covers nearly the whole Dominion, said: “ To
give the devil his due, the act has worked very well.” The demand
for certain amendments affecting procedure is as strong as ever, but
these would not affect the principle of the law. The judgment of
men whose whole interest is absorbed in the welfare of their union
and in bettering the terms of employment of its members depends al
most wholly on concrete results obtained by applying the act. There
fore, an unfavorable decision in an important dispute might change
sentiment back to its former unfavorable position. The union
officials point out that hitherto boards have for the most part dealt
with questions involving the equalizing of working conditions on differ
ent roads or different sections of the same road. Several decisions
have been obtained leveling up conditions in a poorer district to those
in a better district. But when the best existing standard has been
reached by all the roads and there are practically uniform terms of
employment throughout large regions then, these officials fear, it
will be very difficult to get a board to advance beyond that standard
and to recommend a general increase of wages or- a shortening of
hours. But this is at present a theoretical difficulty. In short, it is
safe to say that a change of sentiment in favor of the disputes act
has occurred among railway employees and their officers during the
past year. This change might easily be overestimated on the basis of
a few interviews in particular districts. But it is appreciable, and
where it has not won positive supporters of the law, it has at least
mitigated the previous opposition to it.
Among miners, if opinion has shifted at all, it has been rather
adversely to this legislation than in its favor. Perhaps it would be
better to say that latent opposition which always existed has in some
quarters become more active and apparent. This is due to special
causes, peculiar to each particular locality, such as the failure of cer
tain boards to remedy grievances in Cape Breton and in the west.
In Nova Scotia the Provincial Workers’ Association, though it rather
opposed the passage of the law, has cooperated cordially with the
government and with employers to make it a success; and the
general officers of the union commend its influence. The members
of the United Mine Workers of America in the same Province might
be expected to oppose a measure indorsed by the rival union, and
their brief experience with the law has not been of a kind to win
their favor. However, in the midst of a big strike, such as has
14
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
disturbed this Province the present summer, it is difficult to get
candid opinions from labor leaders. The United Mine Workers of
America officials at Glace Bay professed to have much respect for
the disputes act, its main virtue at that moment being that it did
not interfere with the strike then in progress. Since the union was
fighting for recognition in the contract between employers and miners,
its interest might lie in supporting a law that afforded the most likely
agency for future negotiations to secure this end. Among the rank
and file of the miners were many who thought that because there
was a strike the law was a failure. Such comments as “ You can see
for yourself all the good the law is ” were the usual reply of work
ingmen to an inquiry as to its value. Some few suggested amend
ments, a larger number were unthinkingly hostile, and a majority
were indifferent to the act. The strike was the absorbing and real
thing in their minds, the strike weapon the only remedy for labor
grievances in which they had real confidence, and such legislation
as the disputes act was something dim, far off, academic, in which
they had no vital interest.
The United Mine Workers of America in the west, while part of the
same international organization as the eastern unions, are affiliated
with the latter only through the Indianapolis executive and the gen
eral convention, and in matters of local policy are to all intents and
purposes a distinct organization. The western members are mostly
Socialists, while the eastern miners still preserve conservative trade
union ideals. Principally upon the Socialist issue the Alberta dis
trict of the United Mine Workers of America recently withdrew from
the Trades and Labor Congress. The official paper of that district
is a Socialist organ. In this section union leaders were agreed that
a referendum of their members would be overwhelmingly against
the disputes act, and this was confirmed by talks with the miners
themselves. Back of this opposition lay Socialist doctrine and dis
trust of the fairness of the government, which was believed to have
a class bias in favor of capital. I t was not unusual to meet miners
who thought the law would be an excellent measure if it could be
administered with absolute impartiality. In spite of this attitude,
however, the miners in this district are continually applying for
boards. The recent president of the district has served as labor
member on some 12 boards, or nearly every one appointed to consider
coal mine disputes in this region since the act went into operation,
including the important board named, to settle this summer’s strike;
and he has on occasions commended the influence of the law.
The United Mine Workers of America and the Provincial Workers’
Association are the only unions of coal miners in Canada. The metal
miners belong to a single international union, the Western Federation
of Labor, which is strongly intrenched in British Columbia and
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT.
15
has several branches in the Cobalt silver district of Ontario. The
policies of the United Mine Workers of America and the Western
Federation of Labor differ in this important respect, that while the
former union usually works under written contracts with employers,
running for a specific term, and many of its strikes are to secure such
an agreement, the Western Federation of Labor by its constitution
forbids all forms of agreements with employers except a wage scale.
The purpose of the latter policy is to leave the union free to strike
at any favorable moment, in the belief that it can thus most quickly
force wages up to the highest point. I t is hardly necessary to add
that the general organization of the Western Federation of Labor is
Socialist, while, in spite of divergent policies in particular districts,
the international United Mine Workers of America are old-style trade
unionists.
Both the constitution and the general policy of the Western Fed
eration of Labor array it against the disputes act. Being a Socialist
society, it opposes any governmental propping up of the wage
system by facilitating agreements and preventing strikes; and since
its unions can not make contracts with employers the only form of
settlement that a boarid can arrive at must remain for them in the
air, so to speak, and for that reason hardly worth obtaining. Never
theless the union has applied for boards in a few instances and wage.
scales have been adopted based on board recommendations. But in
two cases out of the five heard the decision was followed by a strike.
The officers and members of this union, both in British Columbia and
in Cobalt, oppose the disputes act without qualification and advo
cate its repeal. This has been their settled attitude from the first
and there is no present indication that it will be modified.
Both the Western Federation of Labor and the United Mine Work
ers of America have at their last general conventions officially con
demned the Canadian law, and they are reported to have taken this
action at the instance and upon the information of Canadian dele
gates. This is clearly stated in the resolution unanimously adopted
by the United Mine Workers of America at their Indianapolis con
vention last January, which reads as follows:
Whereas, From press reports and other sources it would appear
that several States are contemplating the introduction of a bill to
be modeled from the Industrial Trades Disputes Bill of Canada; and
Whereas, I t would appear that the workers of the United States,
misled by false reports as to the workings of this bill, are viewing it
with favor; therefore, be it
Resolved, That we, the delegates from Canada, having had almost
two years’ experience with said bill, herewith advise our brothers on
this side of the line to oppose any such measure of like nature to the
utmost of their powers; and be it further
Resolved, That we, the United Mine Workers of America, in
twentieth annual convention assembled, emphatically resent any
16
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
interference with our right to quit work, and will in no wise tolerate
any legislation which will force us to submit our grievances to a court,
which must in the very nature of things be prejudiced against us, if
we can prevent it.
Without questioning that these resolutions fairly represent the sen
timent of the coal miners, the formal action of labor conventions,
either in opposing or in supporting this legislation, does not always
stand for an active, settled, and permanent conviction. Clever com
mittee manipulators and ready speakers can usually procure the pre
sentation and the adoption of resolutions suiting their personal views
and objects by a good-natured and not vitally interested assembly.
Labor men who have never viewed the act directly in operation and
who know of its influence and provisions only from hearsay conceive
it as an attempt to curtail their right to strike, and instinctively
oppose it for that reason alone. The Canadian Socialists are in the
west a political party, and it belongs as much to their tactics as to
those of the Conservatives to discredit the legislation of their Liberal
opponents. These extraneous and sometimes accidental influences
qualify the candor of the formal public utterances of labor bodies
as they do those of other popular organizations. I t is by talking
man to man that one gets the best measure of sentiment and learns
whether that sentiment is intelligent or uninformed. Such interviews
suggest that while labor in masses is inclined to oppose this law, the
individual workman who has studied it and forms an independent
judgment of its merits and deficiencies is not unqualified in his dis
approval, and in many cases indorses its purpose and effect.
In resume, therefore, observation and interviews with different
classes of people in all parts of Canada indicate that the disputes
act has with some exceptions the support of the general public and
of employers and of the parliamentary “ laborists” and of the unions
not directly affected by its provisions. The officials of the railway
orders are divided in their opinion, but on the whole are more favor
ably inclined toward the law than when it first went into operation,
and the rank and file of these orders is probably even more friendly.
The leaders and the aggressive membership of the western mining
unions are vigorous opponents of the act, although there is a con
siderable quiet element in these organizations that probably regards
it with more favor. The Nova Scotia miners officially indorse the
law, and it has support among their members, but the result of a
referendum vote upon it would be difficult to predict. Some public
men regard as significant that at the last general elections the Liberal
party lost seats in several important labor centers, such as Glace Bay,
Cobalt, Winnipeg, and one or two points farther west, where the act
had recently been applied to serious local disputes.
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT.
17
SUGGESTED AMENDMENTS.
The experience of the last sixteen months has not materially
changed the arguments upon which the law is supported or opposed
by different persons, and the demand these persons make for amend
ments. Such arguments and amendments were fully discussed in a
previous report and require only summary repetition here. The
practical value of the law depends almost wholly upon the tact and
skill of the boards appointed. Personnel and procedure are the kernel
around which the rest of the law is merely a dry husk. The principal
service of a board is in bringing the parties to the controversy
together for an amicable discussion and in guiding their negotiations
to a voluntary settlement. If the parties can not agree in this way,
the board seldom presents a unanimous report. Two and sometimes
three contradictory findings in one case do not have a remarkable
influence upon public opinion. Neither is public opinion alone so
decisive in preventing strikes, though it may influence their results,
as social optimists sometimes imagine. The trouble is that the public
opinion that reaches the worker is not the public opinion that ema
nates from the well-to-do citizen who reads his newspaper on the
front porch. The chief merit of the law, then, lies not so much in
its compulsory or penal features as in its conciliatory provisions;
though its original and interesting element is the temporary prohibi
tion of strikes and lockouts in order that conciliation may not be
sacrificed by default.
Those trade unionists who oppose this legislation on principle ob
ject mainly to the provision making strikes illegal pending investiga
tion. They urge that the delay enables employers to prepare for a
strike by bringing in strike breakers, curtailing penalty contracts, and
other measures, thus blunting the edge of labor’s most effective
weapon. They say they are forced by the law to sell their labor on a
future market when they could get a better price for it a t current
quotations. Most unionists, also; distrust the fairness of the investi
gating boards, asserting that a chairman appointed by the govern
ment always has a class bias in favor of capital and that the majority
report, if the board fails of an agreement, consequently sides with the
employers and places the workers at a disadvantage in any strike their
union may order after the investigation has been held. This fear of
bias or improper influence is one of the greatest difficulties a board
encounters in its proceedings. In case of a British Columbia mining
dispute recently the mere fact that the chairman of the board and the
representative of the employers left town on the same train—the only
one leaving that day in the direction of their homes—subjected the
former to considerable criticism from the labor people of the Province.
18
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The most important amendment not affecting the vital principle
of the act has been suggested and advocated by the railway orders.
The law at present requires the party applying for a board to file an
affidavit that a strike or lockout will occur unless a board is granted.
The purpose of this provision is to avoid the expense and trouble of ap
pointing boards for trivial disputes. But by their constitution the
railway unions are required to take a referendum vote before making a
strike issue of any demand upon their employers. Such a vote costs
the larger orders several thousand dollars and causes unrest among the
members. Therefore, these unions want this clause of the act modi
fied so as to allow the representatives of the organization to apply for a
board without the formality of a vote. Parliament may consider such
an amendment, applying to cases where the members of the union
are widely dispersed in different parts of the country.
The strike of the Canadian Pacific machinists, in 1908, was caused
by changes in the conditions of employment made by the railway
company, but the board, as was to be expected in such a case, was
applied for by the employees. When the latter refused to accept the
decision of this board they were placed at an additional disadvantage
by the fact that it was a board of their own seeking. The public
erroneously confused the proceedings with an arbitration and assumed
that the applicants were especially obligated to abide by the decision.
In order to prevent being prejudiced in this manner, the unions advo
cate an amendment requiring the party asking for or making a
change in existing conditions of employment to apply for the board;
so that the aggressor, so to speak, in a dispute may be additionally
bound, in public opinion, to abide by the settlement recommended.
The main modification of the present law suggested by employers
relates to the constitution of the boards. Sentiment in favor of
permanent boards, or at least of permanent chairmen, seems to be
growing, especially in the west. A permanent board with local
assessors representing the two sides, to be appointed for each dispute,
was in some instances recommended. One railway manager said he
would prefer to present his case to a board presided over by an
outright labor man, provided the latter had had an extended experi
ence in arbitrating disputes and occupied his office by secure and inde
pendent tenure, than to present it to a temporary and inexperienced
chairman appointed from the employing or the professional class.
A mine manager in another part of the country, in referring to a recent
dispute, said both parties gambled on the ignorance of the chairman.
Yet as the law stands at present, the same person is appointed
repeatedly to preside over different boards, and both employers and
employees recognize the advantage of having an experienced arbi
trator represent them on these bodies. Men sometimes are selected
to serve in these capacities, even when such service will entail a
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT.
19
personal and financial sacrifice, because they are thought particularly
equipped to adjust the dispute in question. Labor men distrust
permanent boards, as likely in time to become subject to influences
hostile to their interests.
I t will be recalled that if either an employee or an employer violates
the law by causing a strike or lockout before an investigation has
been held, he is practically immune from prosecution unless the
other party to the dispute brings action in the court to punish him.
In districts where the law has been violated or evaded in these
respects ,there is a demand by the party that has suffered by the
violation that the government assume these prosecutions. The
Cobalt miners, in Ontario, are urgent that the federal authorities
prosecute some of the mining companies for locking out their
employees in order to enforce lower wages. The law has been
evaded several times by metal mining companies, who have dis
charged all their men at the end of a week, and reemployed such as
wished to come back at lower pay the following Monday morning.
Whether such an obvious evasion of the law could be defended in the
courts is uncertain; but in face of the probable expense of a pro
tracted suit, and their distrust of the fairness of the courts, the miners
are unwilling to venture their funds in a prosecution. In the west
a mine manager has been fined several hundred dollars for a lockout,
and the judgment was sustained on appeal.
On the other hand, in the Alberta and British Columbia coal
region, where the men have recently been on a three months’ strike
in defiance of the act, the employers insist that the government
should punish the strikers. Managers assert that they can not afford
personally to institute criminal proceedings against their workmen
on account of the permanent ill will this would occasion. Mine
superintendents are in charge of valuable property, with weak police
protection, in a country with little resident population except the
miners themselves and store and saloon keepers and professional
men in sympathy with them. Naturally these superintendents do
not wish to push matters to a point that might result in open vio
lence or in covert injury to the mines. Besides they want their
laborers in the mines, and not in jail or in neighboring States and
Provinces dodging fines. Employers in this district cherish as an
additional grievance that last summer the application of these law
breaking strikers for a board to be established under the act they
were violating was favorably considered by the government.
This situation in Alberta and British Columbia raises an important
question as to the continued application of the disputes act in that
part of the Dominion. If men can strike with impunity in disregard
of the law, what is the value of the latter in preventing or postponing
strikes? Will the act not fall into abeyance except in those minor
20
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
and less acute disputes where there is least call for government
intervention ? Has a law any force at all that operates only by the
tolerance of lawbreakers ? I t should be recognized that expediency
must constantly be consulted in administering such an act; but it
would seem that the latter, though it may retain some residuary
value as providing convenient machinery for public mediation, must
lose its distinctive character and its interest as experimental legisla
tion unless some way is discovered to secure the observance of the
clauses deferring strikes and lockouts until after an investigation has
been held. Unless these clauses are enforced, the law becomes an
ordinary conciliation act, burdened by the discredit of its unenforced
provisions.
It is hoped that some remedy will be found for this difficulty, which
has become serious only during the present year. In eastern and in
central Canada there has not been so much disposition to disregard
the prohibitions of the act, and in those sections there might be less
tolerance of outright violations. At Cobalt two union officers were
indicted, convicted, and heavily fined for inciting a strike contrary
to law; , but the case was appealed, and though not reversed, the
penalties were never enforced.
The interpretation of the law by the provincial courts has revealed
some anomalies in its application. The first effort of a board ap
pointed in any dispute is naturally to get the parties to agree upon some
sort of a contract covering the conditions of employment in question.
The desirable end of these negotiations, then, is a formal agreement
or contract. But when the United Mine Workers of America tried
in the courts of Alberta to enforce an agreement made under the
auspices of a board, the court ruled that as the union was neither an
individual nor a corporation it had no power to make agreements,
and the contract in question was therefore void, and the union had
#no remedy against the mining company that had violated it. More
over, in an obiter dictum, the judge expressed the opinion that an
agreement under the act had no more validity than a private agree
ment between an employer and a labor organization; that there was
no special way of enforcing the agreements signed before the boards,
and that as the union was incompetent to contract under any condi
tions the observance of such understandings must rest solely upon
the good will of the parties making them. Because of this decision
workers in the western Provinces advocate an amendment to the law,
making agreements entered into through the mediation of a board
enforceable like ordinary business contracts between corporations or
individuals. Such an amendment, if practicable, would add much
to the authority of the law, especially in that part of the Dominion
where at present it particularly needs strengthening.
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT.
21
The law is better established than it was sixteen months ago, but it
is still regarded as experimental legislation and does not occupy the
same position of assured authority as older statutes. The amend
ments now proposed are fewer than they were at the earlier date, but
they are more clearly of a constructive character. There is no
observable tendency to extend the law in the direction of compulsory
arbitration or state regulation of industry. A few persons advocate
broadening its application to other industries than public utilities and
mines. One or two petitions to this effect have been presented by
employers, and two years ago the Trades and Labor Congress recorded
itself in favor of such an amendment. However, this demand is not
general or urgent enough to make its serious consideration in the near
future very probable. But, though the scope of the law does not
promise to be extended, amendments may be presented in Parliament
in the near future to strengthen the application of the law within
present limits and to perfect its administration. Hitherto the min
istry have been waiting for sufficient experience with its working
to guide them wisely in making changes.
BILLS PRESENTED IN NEW YORK AND IN WISCONSIN.
During the last session bills embodying some of the provisions of
the Canadian legislation were introduced into the state assemblies of
New York and of Wisconsin. The New York project, which appears
not to have got out of committee, provided for a single permanent
board, and in detail followed the Canadian law chiefly in making a
strike or lockout subject to injunction and penalty if the parties in
case of any industry had previously bound themselves by a written
contract not to strike or lockout. The Wisconsin bill received more
consideration from the legislature. I t followed very closely the pro
visions of the Canadian act, except that in case of disputes affecting
public utilities the board was to be appointed by the state railway
commission, and at the option of the parties the dispute might be
referred to a permanent board of arbitration, provided for in the bill,
or to a special board appointed for the occasion. The bill is reported
to have been opposed by organized labor on the ground that it would
weaken the unions. Up to the present there is nothing in Canadian
experience to suggest that this fear is well grounded. In fact it has
been found so difficult to apply the law to disputes where the workers
are not well organized that a strong union seems almost essential to
the success of such legislation.
CONCLUSION.
In conclusion, the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act seems to
be gaining support in Canada with longer experience, and has veiy
few opponents outside of labor ranks. The labor opposition is strong
22
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
est where socialism is strongest. There seems to be less unqualified'
opposition to the law among the members of the unions than among
the officials, but this is stated as a conjecture rather than as an
assured fact. The act has afforded machinery for settling most of
the disputes that have occurred in the industries to which it applies;
but in some cases it has postponed rather than prevented strikes,
and in other cases strikers have defied the law with impunity. Most
of the amendments proposed look toward perfecting details rather
than toward revising the structure of the law. There is no likelihood
that the act will be repealed, or that it will be extended to other
industries or toward compulsory arbitration. The most serious
danger it faces is the nonenforcement of the strike and lockout
penalties in cases where the law is violated for the express purpose of
weakening its authority. The adoption of a similar statute in any
State or by the United States Government, whether desirable or not,
is likely to be opposed by organized labor, and probably could be
secured only after some industrial crisis profoundly affecting public
opinion had centered popular attention upon the question of strike
prevention. The enforcement of the penal clauses of the law would
probably be more difficult in the United States than it is in Canada,
and for that reason the success of such a statute somewhat less pro
bable. Under the conditions for which it was devised, however, the
Canadian law, in spite of some setbacks, is useful legislation, and it
promises more for the future than most measures—perhaps more
than any other measure—for promoting industrial peace by govern
ment intervention.
The statement following, taken from reports published in the Labor
Gazette, issued by the Canadian Department of Labor, shows the
proceedings under the act from January, 1908, to August, 1909.
24
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
APPLICATIONS FOR BOARDS OF
A.—MINES, AGENCIES OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMIT
Coal mines.
Date of
receipt
of appli
cation.
1908.
Jan. 4
Feb. 10
Mar. 16
Mar. 16
Mar. 25
Party
making
application.
Parties to dispute.
Locality.
Num
ber of
per
sons af
fected.
Dominion Coal Co. (Lim- Employees. Dominion, C. B .......
ited) and members of
the Provincial Work
men’s Association.
John Marsh, John How- Employers. Woodpecker, Alta...
ells, Stevens Bros., coal
mine operators, dealt
with as a whole, and
employees.
7,000
Western Dominion Col- Employees. Taylorton, Sask___
lieries (Limited) and
employees.
Manitoba and Saskatch- .......do........ Bieufait, Sask.........
ewan Coal Co. (Lim
ited) and employees.
Cumberland Railway and .......do........ Springhill, N. S .......
Coal Co. (Limited) and
employees.
90
Nature of dispute.
Concerning wages and
conditions of em
ployment.
100 .......do..........................
Concerning wages and
hours.
50 .......do.........................
1,600
Concerning wages.......
20
Concerning wages and
conditions of labor.
2
Standard Coal Co. and .......do........ Edmonton, Alta___
employees.
May 12
.......do........ North Sydney, N. S.
1,750 .......do..........................
.......do........ Westville, N. S .......
800 .......do..........................
.......do........ Stellarton, N. S .......
800 .......do..........................
.......do........ Port Hood, N. S ___
300 .......do..........................
Maritime Coal, Railway .......do........ Chignecto, N. S .......
and Power Co. (Lim
ited) and employees.
Galbraith Coal Co. (Lim .......do........ Lundbreek, Alta___
ited) and employees.
200 .......do..........................
May
Nova Scotia Steel and
Coal Co. and employ
ees.
May 14 International Coal and
Coke Co. and em
ployees.
May 15 Acadia Coal Co. and em
ployees.
May 18 Port Hood and Richmond
Railway Coal Co. and
employees.
July
2
Oct. 19
1909.
Mar. 4
30 .......do..........................
Dominion Coal Co. and .......do........ Glace Bay, N. S...... 63,000
employees, members of
U. M. W. of A.
Alleged discrimination
against members of
U. M. W. of A.
Mar. 19
Nicola Valley Coal and .......do........ Middlesboro, B. C...
Coke Co. and em
ployees.
150
Dismissal of men........
Apr. —
Nova Scotia Steel and .......d o ....... Florence, C. B .........
Coal Co. and employees,
members of U. M. W.
of A.
Western Coal Operators’ .......do........ Alberta and British
Association and em
Columbia.
ployees.
c 460
Concerning w a g e s ,
recognition of union,
etc.
2,100
Conditions of labor
and for closed shop.
Cumberland
Railway .......do........ Springhill, N. S .......
and Coal Co. and em
ployees.
1,550
Conditions of labor
and recognition of
union.
June — Canada West Coal Co. .......do........ Taber, Alta.............
(Limited) and em
ployees, members of
theU . M. W. of A.
300
Conditions of labor___
May —
May -
oC, chairman; E, employer; M,men.
&Directly, 3,000; indirectly, 6,500.
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT,
25
CONCILIATION AND INVESTIGATION.
NICATION, AND OTHER PUBLIC-SERVICE UTILITIES.
Coal mines.
Date on
Names of members of which
board
board.(a)
was con
stituted.
Date of
receipt
of report
of board.
1908.
Feb. 18
1908.
Mar. 23
Feb. 25
Apr.
6
Judge Myers, C; J. O.
Hannah, E; F. H.
Sherman, M.
Judge Dawson, C; G.
C. Crowe, E; F. H.
Sherman, M.
Judge Wallace, C;
John Armstrong, E;
R. B. Murray, M.
Apr. 10
May
5
Apr. 22
Dec.
8
Apr. 29
May 26
Judge Taylor, C; F. B.
Smith, E; F. H.
Sherman, M.
June 19
July 22
Prof. A. Shortt, C;
J. Dix Fraser, E;
Dr. A. Kendall, M.
P. P., M.
Mr. Justice Stuart, C;
W. E. Bullock, E;
F. H. Sherman, M.
Prof. A. Shortt, C; . . . do. . . . Aug. 1
Dr. D. Allison, E;
J. W. Maddin, M.
Judge McGillivray, C; June 8
Geo. S. Campbell, E;
Jas. Macdonald, M.
July
Rev. Chas. Wilson, C;
B. Barnhill, E; R.
B. Murray, M.
Chas. Simister, C; F.
B. Smith, C. E., E;
Jas. A. Macdonald,
M.
6
July 27
Nov. 25
Dec. 14
1909.
Mar. 22
1909.
Apr. 14
May
June 3
Judge Wallace, C; G.
S. Campbell, E;
Daniel McDougall,
M.
Judge Lampman, C;
Thos. Kiddie, E;
Thos. Chas. Brooke,
M.
July
6
2
Judge J. P. Chipman, June — July 23
C; Judge McGilli
vray, E;
Daniel
McDougall, M.
Rev. H. R. Grant, C; May — June 21
Colin MacLeod, E;
F. H. Sherman, M.
Justice Longley, C.;
Chas. Archibald, E.;
E. B. Paul, M.
June — July 23
Judge Winter, C.; Co July
lin MacLeod, E.; W.
C. Simmons, M.
2
July 19
Differences adjusted and an agreement concluded before
the board, effective from March 16,1908, to December 31,
1909, a strike thereby being averted.
The report of the board stated that the act did not apply
in this case, the mines having closed down for lack of
orders before the investigation occurred. A wage scale
was, however, recommended. The report was accomanied by a minority report, making other recommendaon.
Differences adjusted and agreement concluded before
board, effective from May 1,1908, to May 1,1909, a strike
being thereby averted.
The board disagreed in its findings, but no cessation of
work was reported.
S
The report found against the claims of the men, and was
accompanied by a minority report, finding generally, but
not wholly, in favor of the men; the employees declared
the minority report acceptable to them. No cessation
of work was reported.
Board decided to leave intact existing agreements between
company and individual employees, and the arrangement
appears to have been satisfactory, a strike being thereby
averted.
An agreement concluded before the board on all points,
and a strike was thereby averted.
No board was established, the parties having come to an
amicable agreement subsequent to forwarding the appli
cation, a strike being thereby averted.
Do.
Unanimous report was made bv board, with recommenda
tions for a settlement of all differences, which is under
stood to have been accepted as a basis of working opera
tions, a strike being thereby averted.
An agreement was effected before the board on all points
at issue and covering the period of two years from July 31,
1908, a strike being thereby averted.
The board presented a unanimous report, recommending
a basis of settlement, which was subsequently accepted
by both parties to the dispute, a strike being thereby
averted.
The report found against the men and was accompanied
by a minority report finding generally in favor of the men.
Men went on strike July 6, there being no settlement to
date ^September).
The men went on strike April 28, before the board was con
stituted. The company stated, in writing, that it was
unwilling to be bound by the decision of the board and
the men were willing to be bound only in case of a unan
imous decision. The board disagreed, and no settlement
was effected.
The report found against the men and was accompanied
by a minority report finding generally in favor of the
men. No strike, however, occurred.
Employees went on strike before applying for a board.
The board disagreed in its findings, but dispute was
settled by independent agreement, which will be in effect
until March 31,1911.
The report of the board was signed by the three members,
but was accompanied by a footnote signed by the repre
sentative of the men modifying his acquiescence in the
findings. There was no cessation of work.
The employees went on strike April 23, before an applica
tion for a board was made. After the report of the board,
in which a compromise was suggested, an agreement was
signed on July 31, and work in the mines was resumed
August 2.
c Directly, 340; indirectly, 120.
26
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
APPLICATIONS FOR BOARDS OF CON
A.—MINES, AGENCIES OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICA
Metalliferous mines.
Date of
receipt
of appli
cation.
1908.
Jan. 9
July 20
1909.
Mar. 30
Parties to dispute.
Party
making
application.
Locality.
Temiskaming and Hud Employees. Cobalt, Ont.............
son Bay Mining Co.
(Limited) and em
ployees.
Num
ber of
per
sons af
fected.
50
Nature of dispute.
Concerning wages and
hours.
Cobalt Centred Mining Co. .......do........ .......do......................
(Limited) and employ
ees.
105 .......do..........................
British Columbia Copper .......do........ Greenwood, B. C___
Co. and employees.
225
Concerning dismissal
of men, etc.
800
Concerning wages and
condition of labor.
Railways.
1908.
Jan. 8
Grand Trunk Railway
Co. and car men in its
employ.
Employees. G. T. R. system......
Apr. 28
Canadian Pacific Rail .......do........ C. P. R. system.......
way Co. and various
trades in its mechanical
departments.
8,000 .......do.........................
May 14
Intercolonial Railway of .......do........ Halifax, N. S., and
Canada and station
St. John, N. B.
freight clerks* unions
Nos. 1 and 2, of Halifax,
N. S., and St. John,
N.
.......do.........................
May 29
Canadian Pacific Rail .......do........ C. P. R. system.......
way Co. and railway
telegraphers in its em-
1,605
Concerning a l l e g e d
wrongful dismissal
of certain employees.
Aug. 21
Canaclian Northern Rail .......do........ Lake St. John divi
sion, C. N. R.
way Co. and car men on
its Lake St. John divi
sion.
49
Concerning wages and
conditions of labor.
Aug. 22
Canadian Pacific Rail .......do........ C. P. R. system.......
way Co. and firemen
and engineers in its em
ploy.
7,000
Concerning a l l e g e d
wrongful dismissal
of certain employees.
. Do.. Canadian Northern Rail .......do........ C. N. R. system.......
way Co. and locomotive
engineers in its employ.
341
Concerning wages and
condition of labor.
Dec. 26
Dec. 29
Kingston and Pembroke .......do........ K.and P.Ry.system d 1,619 .......do.........................
Railway Co. and em
ployees, members of
Order of Railroad Te
legraphers.
Michigan Central
«75 Abolition of commis
Great Northwestern Tel
sion by commercial
Rwy. system.
egraph Co. and certain
business on M. C. R.
railroad telegraphers on
system by G. N. W.
the M. C. R. system.
Co. without due no
tice.
a Mr. Fullerton, finding himself at an early stage of the proceedings unable to agree with his colleagues,
resigned from the board, and the company declining to make a further recommendation, the minister
appointed Mr. Galt without recommendation.
_ _
6 Owing to inability of Mr. R. E. Finn to ct as member of the board, Mr, J. G. O’Donoghue was
appointed in his stead.
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT,
27
CILIATION AND INVESTIGATION—Continued.
TION, AND OTHER PUBLIC-SERVICE UTILITIES—Continued.
Metalliferous mines.
Date on
Names of members of which
board
board.
was con
stituted.
Prof. S. J. Maclean, C.;
M. F. Pumaville,
E.; C. B. Duke, M.
Prof. S. J. Maclean, C.;
E. L. Fraleck, E.;
C. B. Duke, M.
Judge P. E. Wilson,
C.; Edward Cronyn,
E.; John Mclnnes,
M. P. P., M.
Date of
receipt
of report
of board.
1908.
Jan. 31
1908.
Feb. 13
Aug. 22
Aug. 29
1909.
Apr. 29
1909.
May 21
Unanimous report was presented by board making recom
mendations lor the settlement of the dispute. The find
ings of the board were accepted by the men, but not by
the company. No cessation of work, however, was re
ported.
Unanimous report was presented by the board making rec
ommendations for the settlement of the dispute, and no
cessation of work was reported.
Each member of the board made a separate report, no two
agreeing. This was followed by a strike—beginning June
26 and ending July 24—which resulted favorably to the
employees.
Railways.
1908.
Jan. 28
1908.
Feb. 28
P. A. Macdonald, C.; May 13
C.F.Fullerton, E.: («)
G. F. Galt, E.; Jas.
Somerville, M.
July 16
Judge McGibbon, C.; Sept.
H. Holgate, F. E.,
E.; J. G. O’Dono
ghue, M.; R. E.
Finn, M.(&)
Oct.
Prof. A. Shortt, C.;
Wallace Nesbitt, E.;
J. G. O’Donoghue,
M.
8
6
Differences amicably adjusted before a board and a strike
thereby averted.
The board did not present a unanimous report, Mr. Somer
ville presenting a minority report. The board made cer
tain recommendations for settlement of dispute which
were accepted by company with some demur. Men re
fused-to accept findings of board and ceased work on
August 5. They returned to work on October 5, accept
ing finally recommendations of board.
The proceedings in this case were under the Conciliation and
Labor Act by request of the employees and were subject to
delay through the inability to act of the member of the
committee of mediation and investigation first appointed
on the recommendation of the men. The committee was
finally constituted and a settlement of all differences
effected, a strike being thereby averted.
Unanimous report was made by the board with recom
mendations for a settlement of all differences, which were
accepted by both parties, a strike being thereby averted.
Justice Fortin, C.; C.
Campbell, K. C., E.;
W. T. J. Lee, M.
June 17
Sept. 26
Ludovic Brunet, C.;
E. A. Evans, E.; P.
J. Jobin, M.; A.
Chartrain, M.(c)
Sept. 30
Nov. 19
Do.
1909.
Jan. 5
1909.
Jan. 25
Do.
1908.
Sept. 14
1908.
Nov. 16
Do.
1909.
Jan. 15
1909.
Apr. 22
Do.
Feb.
Mar: 22
Judge Fortin, C.; W.
Nesbitt, K. C., E.;
J. G. O’Donoghue,
M.
Judge Gunn,C.; F .H .
Richardson. E.; J.
Harvey Hall, M.
Judge Gunn, C.; J. L.
Whiting, K. C., E.;
J. G. O’Donoghue,
M.
Judge McGibbon, C.;
J. F.Mackay,E.; J.
G. O’Donoghue, M.
Unanimous report presented by the board, making certain
recommendations for the settlement of the dispute. The
report was substantially in favor of the employees. The
company had refused to nominate to the board, and
claimed irresponsibility in the matter. The inquiry,
though not resulting in the agreement, is understood to
have modified the situation to such a degree that danger
of the threatened strike was averted.
c Owing to inability of A. Chartrain to act as member of the board, P. J. Jobin was appointed in his stead.
d Directly, 19; indirectly, 1,600.
« Directly, 26; indirectly, 50.
8
38697—No. 86—10--- 3
28
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
APPLICATIONS FOR BOARDS OF CON
A.—MINES, AGENCIES OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICA
Railways—Concluded.
Date of
receipt
of appli
cation.
1909.
Feb. 10
Parties to dispute.
Party
making
application.
Locality.
Manitoba Cartage Co. Employees. Winnipeg, Man.......
(Limited) and employ
ees.
Num
ber of
per
sons af
fected.
a 300
May — Canadian Pacific Rail .......do........ C. P. R. system....... 1,600
way Co. and railroad
telegraphers on its sys
tem.
June — Grand Trunk Pacific .......do........ Western lines of G. 61,100
T. P. R.
Railway Co. and its
employees (several or
ders).
June — Canadian Northern Rail .......do........ C. N. R. system....... «1,800
way Co. and its em
ployees. (M a i n t e nance of way.)
Nature of dispute.
Concerning alleged dis
crimination against
men connected with
the union.
Concerning dismissal
of man and alleged
breach of contract.
Concerning conditions
of labor.
Street railways.
1908.
May 8
Sept. 3
1909.
Apr. 16
Ottawa Electric Railway
and its employees.
Employees. Ottawa, Ont............
256
Concerning wages and
conditions of labor.
Quebec Heat, Light, and .......do........ Quebec, Que............
Power Co. and its street
railway employees.
116
Concerning a l l e g e d
wrongful dismissal
of certain employees.
Winnipeg Street Railway .......do........ Winnipeg, Man.......
Co. ana Its employees.
*600
Concerning wages and
hours of labor.
450
Concerning wages and
conditions of labor.
250
Concerning wages and
time of payment.
Shipping.
1908.
Mar. 6
Dominion Marine Asso Employees. Kingston, Ont., and
ciation and Lake Sea
ports of Great
men’s Union.
Lakes.
1909.
May — Canadian Pacific Rail .......do........ Owen Sound, Ont...
way Co. and longshore
men in its employ.
B.—INDUSTRIES OTHER THAN MINES, AGENCIES OF TRANSPORTA
1908.
Dec. 17
1909.
Apr. 26
The John Ritchie Co.
(Limited) and certain
employees (lasters).
Employers Quebec, Que........
and em
ployees.
300
Concerning introduc
tion of certain ma
chine, and wages.
Dominion Textile Co. and Employees. Montreal, Que......... « 3,070
certain of its employees
(mule spinners).
Concerning wages and
the abolition of
black list.
July — City of Saskatoon and
members of Federal
Labor Union.
Saskatoon, Sask.......
o Directly, 40; indirectly, 260.
6 Directly, 300; indirectly, 800.
c Directly, 1,100; indirectly, 700.
/ 300
Concerning wages and
conditions of labor,
etc.
CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT,
29
CILIATION AND INVESTIGATION—Concluded.
TION, AND OTHER PUBLIC-SERVICE UTILITIES—Concluded.
Railways—Concluded.
Date on
Names of members of which
board
board.
was con
stituted.
Date of
receipt
of report
of board.
1909.
1909.
Rev. C. W. Gordon, Mar. 2 Apr. 1
C.; Prof. R. Coch
ran, E.; T. J. Mur
ray, M.
Justice Fortin, C.; May — June 11
Wallace Nesbitt, K.
C.,E.; W .T .J. Lee,
W. P. Sutherland, M.
P., C.; F. H. McGuigan, E.; John
G. O’Donoghue, M.
Judge Myers, C.; W.
J. Christie, E.; J. G.
O’Donoghue, M.
Differences amicably arranged before the board, and strike
thereby averted.
Unanimous report bv the board in favor of the company,
which was accepted by the employees, and strike thereby
averted.
June 24
Proceedings unfinished.
June 14 July 21
In the main the findings of the board were in favor of the
men. There was no cessation of work.
Street railways.
Prof. A. Shortt, C.; J.
F. Henderson, E.;J.
G. O’Donoghue, M..
Omer Brunet, M.; W.
H. Moore, E.
1908.
May 22
1908.
June 15
Oct.
6
Differences amicably arranged before the board and strike
thereby averted.
The two members of the board, appointed respectively on
the nomination of employing company ana employees,
presented a joint statement making certain recommenda
tions for a settlement of the disputed points, which recom
mendations were accepted by both parties to the dispute,
a strike being thereby averted.
1909.
1909.
Rev.C.W. Gordon, C.; May — May — The board recommended a change in the running schedules
to conform as nearly as possible to a nine-hour day instead
W .J. Christie, E.;J.
of the ten-hour day in operation. There was no cessation
G. O’Donoghue, M.
of work.
Shipping.
Prof. A. Shortt, C.;
Jas. Stewart, E.;
John A. Flett, M.
1908.
Apr. 1
1908.
Apr. 14
1909.
1909.
Donald Ross,C.; Wal May — June 17
lace Nesbitt, E.; J.
G. O’Donoghue, M.
Differences amicably arranged before the board and strike
thereby averted.
Men went on strike before applying for board. After the
board had reported in favor of the men only as regards a
higher rate ofpay, all recommendations were accepted by
both parties to tne dispute and work resumed.
TION AND COMMUNICATION, AND OTHER PUBLIC-SERVICE UTILITIES.
Dr. Chas. Cote, C.;
Felix Marois, E.; Z.
BSrubd, M.
1908.
Dec. 31
1909.
Feb. 17
1909.
Justice Fortin, C.; F. May — May 27
G. Daniels, E.; Ar
thur A. Gibeault, M.
E.J.Meilick,C.; Alex Aug. 4
ander Smith, E.; Ed
ward J. Stephenson,
M.
An agreement was concluded before the board covering all
matters in dispute effective from February 12, 1909, to
May 1,1910, a strike being thereby averted.
Unanimous report in favor of the company in general,
although one member’s opinion was that the company
*'‘ought to increase the present schedule by 5 per cent.’’
The findings were accepted by the men, a strike being
thereby averted.
Proceedings unfinished.
d Directly, 500; indirectly, 100.
« Directly, 70; indirectly, 3,000.
/ Directly, 150; indirectly, 150.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY IN
THE UNITED STATES.
BY JOHN B. ANDREWS, PH. D.
In connection with the general investigation of the employment of
women and children, visits were made by agents of the Bureau of
Labor in December, 1908, and during the early part of 1909 to 15
match factories in the United States, and information was seemed
in regard to the labor force, the hours of work, the wages, the con
ditions under which the work was carried on, etc. Although in this
investigation the inquiries of the agents of the Bureau were for the
most part limited to the factory officials and to employees inter
viewed in the factories, 16 definite cases of phosphorus poisoning
were found, and it was learned that many other cases had occurred,
not only running through a long period of years, but also during
recent years in some of the factories where the best conditions pre
vailed. It was clearly evident that in all factories there was among
both the workers and the employers an imperfect realization of the
dangers of working with phosphorus and that in but few factories
were the necessary precautions fully observed. Before the field work
in connection with the investigation as to working conditions in
match factories had been completed it was learned that the American
Association for Labor Legislation had begun through its secretary,
Dr. John B. Andrews, a study of the extent of phosphorus poisoning
from the use of white phosphorus in the manufacture of matches in
the United States. The facts disclosed by the Bureau’s investiga
tion in connection with the woman and child labor work, when con
sidered in the light of known European experience in the use of
white phosphorus, warranted a more extended study of the subject
in this country. In order to avoid duplication of work a plan of
cooperation was arranged between the Bureau and the American
Association for Labor Legislation, and the investigation of the secre
tary of that association was carried out under the auspices of the
Bureau of Labor. The results of the entire investigation are pre
sented in the report which follows.—C. P. N.
31
32
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
INTRODUCTION.
Those who have followed the results of studies of the conditions
surrounding industrial employments with reference to the effect
upon the health of the employees are impressed by the possibilities
of a scientific movement to improve working conditions and reduce
occupational dangers. The manufacture of matches in the United
States beyond any other industry presents an opportunity to improve
conditions and easily to make a most dangerous industry entirely
harmless. Peculiar to this industry is a disease which, without great
expense, without a long struggle against poverty, indifference, igno
rance, and neglect, may be absolutely eliminated by the prohibition
of the use of white phosphorus. This disease, known to the medical
and dental professions as phosphorus necrosis, continually threatens
those who work in match factories where poisonous phosphorus is
used. The phosphorus most frequently attacks the jaw bones, and
sometimes necessitates the removal of an entire jaw by surgical
operation. A harmless substitute for the poison that is commer
cially practicable is readily available. Why, then, do our manufac
turers not use this substitute? Many would gladly do so, but it
costs just a little more to make the nonpoisonous matches. Compe
tition is so keen that a single manufacturer can not place himself at
a natural disadvantage with his rivals in business.
In the leading countries of Europe the governments have come to
the aid of both workers and manufacturers by requiring all manu
facturers to discontinue the use of the poison. In these countries
the manufacturers are all on an equal footing in competition and the
danger of phosphorus poisoning is entirely eliminated.
SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATION.
The investigation of 15 of our 16 match factories during the year
1909 proved conclusively that in spite of modern methods and pre
cautions phosphorus poisoning not only occurs in this country but
exists in a form so serious as to warrant legislative action to eliminate
the disease. Sixteen definite cases of phosphorus poisoning were dis
covered by special agents of the Government who visited these fac
tories and talked with the factory managers, and it was learned that
many other cases had occurred. An intensive investigation by the
writer in the homes of the work people of 3 of the factories yielded
a total of 82 cases. In 2 factories at least 8 perfectly authenticated
serious cases are known to have occurred during the year 1909, and
references have been found to 3 more. The records of more than
100 cases of the disease were discovered by the writer of this report
within a very short time, though it has been the claim of some of
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
33
the match manufacturers and there is a popular impression that the
trouble has not existed in a serious form for twenty years in this
country.
In 1 small factory records were secured of more than 20 serious
cases during the past thirty years, many of them requiring the
removal of an entire jaw. This factory has been under its present
ownership since 1892. In one of the most modern establishments,
owned by the same company since 1880, records of 40 cases of phos
phorus poisoning were secured. Of this number 15 resulted in
permanent deformity through the loss of one or both jaws, and sev
eral cases resulted in death. One death occurred at this factory in
June, 1908. In another factory the records of 21 cases were secured,
6 of which were in the year 1909.
For an account of phosphorus poisoning in a modern well-equipped
factory owned and operated by the same company during a period
of thirty years—under conditions of careful dental supervision—the
reader is referred to the report of a study of the Wisconsin factory,
beginning with page 98 of this report.
Detailed investigation in the 15 factories showed that 65 per cent
were working under conditions exposing them to the fumes of phos
phorus and the dangers of phosphorus poisoning. The women and
children are much more exposed than the men. Ninety-five per cent
of the women and 83 per cent of the children under 16 years of age
are so exposed. The 15 factories investigated, according to state
ments by the manufacturers, employed 3,591 persons, of whom
2,024 were men, and 1,253 were women 16 years of age and over.
Children under 16 numbered 314—121 boys and 193 girls.
At the beginning of this investigation the dentist of the principal
manufacturing company in the United States stated that cases of
necrosis were not uncommon twenty years ago, but that this com
pany has had no bad cases during the past four years. He spoke,
however, of some recent trouble at the factory of another company
where but little effort had been made to regulate factory conditions,
and remarked that a dentist told him of two recent cases there, one
of which was operated upon in a hospital and resulted in the loss of
a jaw.
This dentist also mentioned an old woman who as a result of phos
phorus poisoning for twenty years has had no lower jaw, but masti
cates her food by pressing it against her upper jaw with her thumb.
He also mentioned an Italian who had a tooth drawn by a physician
and then upon going back to work got phosphorus necrosis and had
to endure an operation.
The difficulties encountered in securing information concerning the
existence of phosphorus poisoning are in some respects unusual. The
34
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
labor element, particularly the female employees, in match factories
appears to be constantly changing. Some there are among the
hundreds of match-factory girls who have worked ten, fifteen, or even
more years in a single establishment, but such cases are uncommon.
I t is difficult, therefore, to find among the employees one whose
memory goes back over many years to recall cases of necrosis that
may have occurred several years ago, important as the knowledge
of such cases is in determining the degree of danger in any partic
ular factory. Girls who formerly worked in match factories are
usually difficult to find, because of change of name by marriage
or because of change of occupation and residence. And when
finally located these older women often, from reasons of social
pride, reluctantly admit that they ever worked in a match factory
or they disclaim any interest in the subject of phosphorus poisoning
on the ground that they are no longer personally concerned in the
matter.
Employees now at work in the factories frequently express the
greatest alarm, even when met at their homes, lest the giving of in
formation cost them the loss of their positions. Sometimes, however,
starting with the statement that they never heard of more than one
case, they are later able to recall, after some careful thinking, half a
dozen or more specific instances and to give names and even approxi
mate dates. This, too, when it is a fact that employees leave the
factory immediately upon learning the nature of their trouble, often
without telling their most intimate friends at the bench the true
cause of their leaving.
Ignorance of the dangers involved and of the practice of the most
fundamental precautions is one of the difficult features of the problem.
A physician in one of the towns where a match factory is located had
under treatment a very serious case of phosphorus necrosis, and when
asked what kind of phosphorus was used in the factory where the
disease was contracted, replied that he did not know. Several den
tists interviewed stated that they had been unable to find anything
written on the subject of phosphorus poisoning, and several confessed
that they had been “ experimenting” and hoping in that way to learn
what to do for their patients.
The manager of one factory even stated th a t they had gone on for
five years, in no way suspecting that there was anything dangerous
about the material they were using. Their attention was first called
to the dangers of the industry by an “ epidemic” of necrosis, which
broke out almost simultaneously among their employees. The fore
woman in one factory believed that sulphur was the cause of the
disease, and another old employee declared the poisonous element
was brimstone.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
35
There is no doubt that the manufacturer in some instances leaves
the employees in ignorance of the serious dangers of the occupation.
Whether from selfish personal interest in maintaining regularity of
employment and a relatively low wage or from ignorance on his own
part, it is nevertheless true that an employer sometimes fails utterly
to instruct properly his employees concerning the most fundamental
precautions to minimize the dangers of this disease.
In several factories visited, for some years owned and operated by
a company which has for many years prided itself (and to a large
extent justly) upon its extraordinary forethought and expenditures
in the interest of the health of the workers, the writer was unable to
discover a single placard upon the walls warning the employees of
the peculiar dangers that were imminent. Furthermore, in more
than one case, while an obvious and fairly successful attempt had
been made to ventilate generally the packing room by means of air
pipes from the outside, there was no provision for directly carrying
away the fumes which rose visibly from the wooden benches at which
the packers, worked. The wash-room facilities were insufficient and
uninviting. Lunches were kept in paper bags in the wash room,
which was also the cloakroom and closet and opened directly through
an open corridor into the packing room. The girls, it was said, are
forbidden to carry food to their benches, but several girls were seen
carrying glasses of water from the wash room to the benches, and they
drank it freely. A woman who had worked in one factory for many
years was asked if mouth wash was used by the girls and if the comrpany had ever furnished it at the factory, and she replied: “ No.”
Several years ago t h e -------- Match Company demonstrated the
practicability of manufacturing the nonpoisonous ‘‘strike-any where ’*
match in this country and put thousands of boxes upon the market.
With each box of ordinary matches they then inclosed an advertise
ment of the “ new discovery,” and upon the box containing the latter,
they printed the following words:
“ These matches do not contain phosphorus. A new discovery.”
These matches, manufactured no less than four or five years ago,
are found, after many experiments, to strike perfectly on wood and
cloth and other ordinary objects, completely refuting the statement
that has been made that while successful in Europe they can not be
manufactured and used in America “ owing to climatic conditions.”
One match factory superintendent spoke feelingly of the possibili
ties of the harmless substitute and expressed great regret when the
company discontinued its use. “ There was a great satisfaction in
working without a lot of poison around,” he said, “ and then it was
worth a whole lot to know you were putting out a match with a heacj
that a baby might suck and still not die.”
36
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
But the public at that time, ignorant of the dangers involved, did
not demand the nonpoisonous match, and since it was a little
more expensive than the poisonous kind the former was abandoned.
The president of this company, however, recently stated that the ad
ditional expense involved in the manufacture of the nonpoisonous
variety was less than 5 per cent. The company owning the patent
rights for the use of sesquisulphide of phosphorus in the manufacture
of matches in America, “ believing this article to be a remedy for the
prevailing trouble in manufacturing matches, namely phosphorus
necrosis, ’ ’ has expressed (in writing) its willingness to permit the use
of the sesquisulphide of phosphorus by other match manufacturers
on equal terms, if the use of white phosphorus is prohibited by law.
All manufacturers of matches would thus be put upon equal terms.
Two other large manufacturers of matches—one in Ohio and one in
Pennsylvania—have also stated that they would be glad to conform
with any uniform law on the subject. As no expensive changes in
factory equipment would be called for, and as no one company would
have an advantage over another, the obstacles in the way of the pro
hibition of the use of white phosphorus do not appear to be serious.
Entirely aside from the evidence which appears irresistibly to favor
the prohibition of the poison, as a reasonable protection for the em
ployees in this country, the importance of the international aspects
6f the question should not be neglected. Very desirable are uniform
regulations, in order that we may aid working people by raising the
standard of legislation in the less advanced countries and States and
at the same time aid capitalists and employers by placing them on
similar footing in international and interstate competition.
From all of the facts the conclusion appears unavoidable that the
only practicable and reasonable thing to do is to absolutely prohibit
the use of poisonous phosphorus in the manufacture of matches,
and as a protection to our own manufacturers connect with it the
prohibition of the importation or sale of matches made from white
phosphorus.
SUMMARY OF EUROPEAN EXPERIENCE.
The early manufacture of matches was often carried on in work
rooms ill ventilated and dirty, and exposing the employees to every
danger of contact with phosphorus. As a result many employees
contracted the disease which they called “ phossy jaw.” The doctors
called it phosphorus necrosis and proceeded to operate forthwith.
With the increasing demand for matches conditions grew worse, and
within eleven years after the phosphorus match was discovered gov
ernment investigators were studying the conditions which brought
on the disease.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
37
Finally, in one country, Austria, and in one particular city, Vienna,
a few small match factories within ten years sent to the hospital one
hundred and twenty-six sufferers from phosphorus necrosis. About
this time, the various governments of Europe began to make rules
and regulations for the manufacture of matches. The infant industry
was driven out of the cellars. Better ventilation and better oppor
tunities for bathing in the factories were insisted on. But, while
conditions were greatly improved, phosphorus necrosis was not elimi
nated. In 1872 Finland gave up attempts at regulation and pro
hibited the use of white phosphorus in her match factories. Den
mark, in 1874, with a similar experience, followed this lead. For
thirty-five years they have had no cases of phosphorus necrosis. In
other countries as long as investigations were followed by more and
more strict regulations, but the use of white phosphorus was not
given up, phosphorus necrosis has continued to occur.
In an attempt to “ regulate” the effect of the poison upon the
health of workers, the various governments necessarily made rules
so strict that they aided in forcing the smaller manufacturers out of
business. These regulations included such provisions as medical and
dental inspection at the expense of the employer, factories built
according to architectural plans furnished by the government, and
separate dressing rooms, wash rooms, and lunch rooms, with mouth
wash and soap and towels furnished by the employer. The hours of
labor were also strictly regulated and women and children were
rigidly excluded from many departments. The percentage of phos
phorus in the paste was limited until many manufacturers rebelled
and made matches in defiance of the laws. Notices warning employ
ees of the dangers involved in the handling of phosphorus matches
were posted, and employers were required to read the warnings to
their employees at stated intervals. Partly as a result of these ex
traordinary and expensive precautions the industry was rapidly con
centrated in the hands of a comparatively few employers, and condi
tions were improved. But so serious was the result of the use of
poisonous phosphorus, even under such careful and expensive regula
tions, that within the last few years the leading countries of Europe
have abandoned the attempt to regulate, and have prohibited abso
lutely the use of the dangerous ingredient in the manufacture of
matches.
In France, where the manufacture of matches is a state monopoly,
the elimination of the occupational disease through prohibition came
quickly as a matter of business policy. The French Government,
called upon to bear the expense of the cases of poisoning, discovered
the substitute for white phosphorus and lost no time in adopting its
use, prohibiting the use of white phosphorus in 1897. Switzerland
38
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
decided upon prohibition in 1898, the Netherlands followed three
years later, and in 1906, on account of the difficulties of ehminating
the use of phosphorus in countries with an important export trade,
the International Association for Labor Legislation secured an Inter
national Conference at Berne, which resulted in an international
treaty providing for the absolute prohibition of the manufacture,
importation, or sale of matches made from white phosphorus. This
treaty was signed by France, Denmark, Luxemburg, Italy, Switzer
land, the Netherlands, and Germany.
Great Britain, after a most thorough scientific investigation twelve
years ago, drew up particularly stringent regulations and with an
inspection system far superior to our own gave another decade to
another experiment with regulation. In December, 1908, regulation
having failed to eliminate phosphorus necrosis, Great Britain enacted
a law prohibiting the manufacture or importation of matches con
taining white phosphorus, to be effective January 1, 1910, and joined
the other countries in signing the Berne treaty.
Belgium’s vigorous attempt to properly regulate the industry
became so irksome to manufacturers that as early as 1895 they
expressed a desire for prohibition just as soon as other countries
would take the same step.
In Austria, after investigations which proved that in spite of
“ compulsory notification” the majority of cases of phosphorus
necrosis remained unknown, the House of Representatives in July,
1908, passed a resolution requesting the Austrian Government to
prohibit the use of the poison. Hungary has strict regulations for
the protection of workers in her match factories, but is considering
the advisability of absolute prohibition.
In Norway the danger of phosphorus poisoning has accelerated
the movement for the substitution of safety matches, until in 1904
there were only 88 people employed under conditions exposing them
to danger, and it is said to be probable that a prohibitive act will be
signed within the near future.
Sweden, the home of the safety match, does not permit the use of
poisonous matches at home, but she allows their manufacture for
export to other countries, including the United States. This temp
tation to manufacture and export a commodity recognized as too
dangerous for home consumption suggests the need of greater uniform
ity in labor legislation.
In Spain the question of prohibition is under serious consideration
by the Government. Portugal has only a small interest in the man
ufacture of matches, which is there carried on under the direct con
trol of the Government.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
39
In Russia an attempt has been made, since 1892, to tax white
phosphorus matches out of existence. In 1905 the tax was doubled,
and in 1906 only one Russian match in fifty contained the poison.
Thus the leading countries of Europe have gone on record as favor
ing the absolute elimination of this occupational disease.
No American State has yet made adequate provision for the pro
tection of the health of workers in her match factories, although for
over fifty years the dangers of working with white phosphorus have
been known. As early as 1855 a surgeon published a pamphlet
giving the history of nine serious cases of phosphorus poisoning in
New York City.(a) One of these earliest cases required the removal
of an entire jaw.
From that time to the present, phosphorus necrosis has claimed its
victims in the United States. In 1864, twelve more serious cases
from the match factories in New York City were recorded in a letter
to the New York Evening Post. (b) At that time there were seventyfive match factories scattered through the Eastern States, but the
toll taken by phosphorus from these many establishments is unknown.
That phosphorus necrosis, however, was a common malady twenty
years ago among workers in match factories in this country is not
denied by anyone. I t has already been said that conditions in
recent years have been greatly improved by the introduction of
modern methods of ventilation to carry away the phosphorus fumes,
by modern improved machinery bringing the worker less in contact
with the phosphorus, and by better lavatory facilities for removing
particles of phosphorus from the hands and mouths of the workers.
But wherever special study has been made of phosphorus poisoning,
the malady has been found to exist in serious form. I t has existed,
moreover, year after year, in some factories during all of the past
generation, and in spite of modem attempts on the part of the most
intelligent and humane employers to minimize and regulate, it still
exists and claims its victims one by one. When everything is con
sidered, it appears almost criminal to permit longer the use of a
poison for which there is a harmless substitute.
PROCESSES OF MANUFACTURE AND PHOSPHORUS POISONING.
Although complicated by modern methods and machines, the
fundamental processes in the manufacture of matches may be de
scribed in a few words. The wooden match splint is prepared; the
phosphorus composition for the head of the match is mixed; one end
a Removal of the entire lower jaw for necrosis caused by phosphoric acid gas, by
James R. Wood, M. D. New York, Miller & Holman. 1856.
&Quoted in Fincher’s Trades, Review of April 9, 1864, Philadelphia, Pa.
40
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
of the splint is dipped into this paste; the “ green” match is allowed
to dry; and finally it is boxed and wrapped.
The processes which are especially dangerous in this industry are
all those which bring the employee within range of the poisonous
phosphorus. In the mixing, dipping, drying, and packing rooms the
danger from breathing the phosphorus fumes and from contact with
the phosphorus is always present, although it may be much dimin
ished by thorough ventilation and by the rigid enforcement of pre
ventive measures. Also particles of phosphorus become attached to
the hands and later are transferred to the mouth by the employees.
Poisoning from phosphorus has many evil effects. Some are local,
others general. The general effect most frequently noted in cases of
chronic phosphorus poisoning is anaemia. The daily breathing of
air laden with phosphorus fumes and continual contact with the par
ticles of phosphorus result in a gradual lowering of vitality, which in
turn invites other forms of disease. This is one of the most prevalent
and most serious results of phosphorus poisoning. But such general
effects are much more difficult of actual determination, and conse
quently the local effects which are more conspicuous receive the
greater attention.
Phosphorus necrosis, the peculiar local form of the disease, is
caused by the absorption of phosphorus through the teeth or gums.
The generally accepted theory is that minute particles of the poison
enter, usually, through the cavities of decayed teeth, setting up an
inflammation which, if not quickly arrested, extends along the jaw,
killing the teeth and bones. The gums become swollen and purple,
the teeth loosen and drop out, and the jawbones slowly decompose
and pass away in the form of nauseating pus, which sometimes breaks
through the neck in the form of an abscess or, if not almost continu
ally washed out, oozes into the mouth where it mixes with the saliva
and is swallowed.
Treatment is largely preventive, but when the disease is once
established a serious surgical operation is often the only means of
arresting the process of decay. In many instances of poisoning it is
necessary to remove an entire jaw, and in several cases both jaws
have been removed at a single operation. A number of cases of
necrosis have resulted in death.
It is the awfulness of this disease and the ease with which it can be
prevented that has led many countries, where the effects of the dis
ease and the means for its prevention have been studied, to do away
with the disease forever.
Two kinds of phosphorus are used in the manufacture of matches.
One is the red or amorphous variety contained in the friction surface
of safety-match boxes. This, when pure, is entirely harmless. It is
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
41
made by baking in a closed vessel the poisonous or white (yellow)
phosphorus, and is consequently more expensive. The poisonous
phosphorus is made from bones, and when sold for commercial pur
poses is usually in the form of sticks in appearance not unlike lemon
candy. A very small amount of this poison is sufficient to cause
death.
Broadly speaking, three kinds of matches are manufactured. One
is the “ safety” match, which must be struck on a prepared surface
on the box. This match contains no phosphorus and is harmless.
The igniting composition is painted on the box and contains red
phosphorus, which, when pure, is nonpoisonous. Although used
almost exclusively in one or two countries of Europe, their manu
facture in this country is still very limited, and requires no more than
passing comment.
The second kind of match can be struck on any ordinary rough
surface, and is called the “ strike-anywhere” phosphorus match.
This is the familiar parlor match. As made in America the paste for
the head of this ordinary match contains poisonous phosphorus,
which is the cause of the peculiar occupational disease, phosphorus
necrosis, among workers in match factories. The use of this poison
ous element is now prohibited in the leading civilized countries of the
world, but no special action has yet been taken for the protection of
working people in this country. (°)
The third variety of match also possesses the desirable quality of
striking anywhere and is at the same time nonpoisonous. This is the
strike-anywhere match, now manufactured and used in those countries
where public sentiment has been sufficiently aroused to prohibit the
use of the white phosphorus in match making. In France, where
the substitute for white phosphorus was discovered and where it was
first used, the match business has been a government monopoly for
more than twenty years, and as such threw upon the Government the
burden of bearing the human loss resulting from the peculiar hazards
of the industry. French government officials noticed that the profit
they had hoped to receive from this business was rapidly drawn away
in the form of compensation for sickness and death from phosphorus
poisoning. Experts were set to work to find a substitute for the
poisonous element, and they found it in the sesquisulphide of phosa At the time of this investigation only one State—Ohio—had any specific provision
restricting the employment of children in match factories. More recently, several
other States—New York, Pennsylvania, and Oklahoma—have endeavored to prevent
employers from using children of tender years in match manufacture, but the admin
istration of these provisions offers no adequate protection for older workers. In one
State visited, the chief factory inspector and his chief clerk were unaware of the
existence of two match factories in their State, although the factories were not new.
42
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
phorus. For twelve years, in France, this substitute has been suc
cessfully employed, and its use has been extended to several other
countries, which have absolutely prohibited the manufacture, impor
tation, and sale of matches made from white phosphorus.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MATCH INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES.
The first patent granted in the United States for a friction match
was to Alonzo D. Phillips, of Springfield, Mass., in 1836.(a) The
manufacture of matches in this country began the same year, and
in 1842, Reuben Partridge invented the first splint cutting machine.
From that time to the present the principal inventions of machinery
in this industry have been made by Americans.
The industry developed slowly for a short time. In 1850 there
were only 250 wage-earners engaged in the manufacture of matches.
All of these were free males 15 years and over. But ten years later
there were 75 establishments employing a total of 1,252 wage-earners,
of whom 648 were women. The capital employed was given as
$361,750, and the value of product as $698,566. At the end of another
decade, in 1870, the number of establishments was the same, but
the number of employees was more than doubled. Out of a total
of 2,556 wage-earners, only 609 were men 16 years of age and over.
There were 858 children under 16 years of age and the remainder,
1,089, were women 16 years of age and over. (b) By 1870, too, the
capital invested was more than one and one-half millions, the cost of
materials used was over one million dollars, and the value of the
product exceeded three and one-half millions of dollars.
During the decade 1860 to 1870, however, a new influence began to
affect the match industry. As a result of the civil war the Federal Gov
ernment required manufacturers of matches to place a 1-cent revenue
stamp on each ordinary small box of matches. A discount was given
to manufacturers who purchased stamps in large quantities, and the
discount increased with the amount of the purchase. If the manu
facturer furnished his own design for the stamp, the Commissioner
of Internal Revenue was authorized to give 5 per cent discount on
purchases ranging from $50 to $500 and of 10 per cent on purchases
in excess of $500.
A credit of sixty days was specially given to those manufacturers of
matches who could offer satisfactory security for payment. Formerly
« One Hundred Years of American Commerce, edited by Chauncey M. Depew,
LL.D., v. 2, pp. 460-465. New York, 1895.
& A committee which visited the match factories of Detroit in 1866 found a large
number of girls, many of them not over 10 and some even as young as 7 years of age.—
Detroit Daily Union quoted in Boston Daily Evening Voice, May 3, 1866.
4$
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
it was a simple matter for anyone to manufacture matches in a smalt
way in the home or a little shop, but the entire business fell into thehands of a monopoly. (a)
The tax was removed in 1883, and in Baltimore the retail price of
matches immediately decreased 50 per cent more than the amount
of the tax.
In 1880, at the time of the organization of the Diamond MatchCompany, the number of factories had been reduced from seventyfive to thirty-seven. Ten years later, in 1890, the number had been
further reduced to twenty-seven, and in 1900 there were twenty-two^
At present (1909) the number is but sixteen.
The following table, drawn from the reports of the United States*
Census Office, shows how the concentration of the industry has been,
accompanied by a remarkable development until in 1905, with fivo
and one-third millions of dollars of capital invested, and with an an.
annual product valued at a little more than the capital invested, only
3,185 wage-earners were employed:
NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS, CAPITAL INVESTED, WAGES AND AVERAGE NUM BER
OF WAGE-EARNERS, COST OF MATERIAL USED AND VALUE OF PRODUCTS, IN TH E
MANUFACTURE OF MATCHES IN THE UNITED STATES, EACH CENSUS YEAR 1850 TO
1900 AND IN 1905.
[From United States censuses of 1850,1860,1870, and census Report on Manufactures, 1905, Part 1.]
Average number of wage-earners.
Census.
1850..............
1860.......... .
1870.............
1880..............
1890.............
1900.............
1905.............
Num
ber of
estab
lish
ments.
75
75
37
27
22
23
Capital.
Men 16 Women Chil
dren
years 16 years under
and
and
16
over.
over. years.
$361,750
1,521,820
2,114,850
1,941,092
3,893,000
5,334,035
a Free males 15 years and over.
5 Males.
« 250
c648
&604
<*609 «1,089
868
780
1,054
1,764
1,120
847
793
1,248
*/ 858
231
69
200
173
Cost of ma Value of
terials used. products.
Wages.
Total.
250
1,252
2,556
2,219
1,696
2,047
3,185
c Females.
<*Males over 16.
$179,450
616.714
535,911
473,556
612.715
1,100,890
$229,720
1,179,666
3,298,562
935,008
3,420,740
3,284,855
$698,566*
3,540,008*
4,668,446
2,193,636
6,005,937
5,646,741
« Females over 15.
/ Youths.
The value of domestic-made matches exported in 1908 ($68,426)
was not much more than one-half of the value of the product exported
in 1869. The value of matches imported in 1908 ($220,708) was
considerably higher than in any year except one (1904) since the
beginning of the industry.
The following table compiled from the Statistical Abstracts of the
Bureau of Statistics shows the volume of matches imported and
exported during the past eighteen years, together with the incon
el Taxation in American States and Cities, R. T. Ely, p. 84.
38697—No. 88—10--- 4
44
BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOB,
siderable value of foreign-made matches reexported from the United
States:
VALUE OF MATCHES IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED STATES AND VALUE OF MATCHES
OF DOMESTIC AND OF FOREIGN MAKE EXPORTED EACH YEAR 1891 TO 1908.
[From the Statistical Abstracts of the Bureau of Statistics.!
Value of matches.
Exported.
Year, (a)
Im
ported.
1891 .......................
1892
............
1893
...............
1894........................
1895 .......................
1896 .......................
1897........................
1898 .......................
1899........................
Value of matches.
$93,180
94,368
135,250
156,495
203,890
157,486
207,671
135,611
128,873
Of do
mestic
make.
Of foreign
make.
$73,220
73,666
67,974
66,614
94,799
90,315
70,988
78,548
103,693
$3,297
2,993
3,562
2,983
2,990
4,201
2,118
2,832
2,992
Exported.
Year, (a)
Im
ported.
1900........................ $156,705
1901........................ 165,113
1902........................ 184,819
1903........................ 161,197
1904........................ 230,867
1905........................ 187,951
1906........................ 193,802
1907........................ 201,927
1908........................ 220,708
Of do
mestic
make.
$95,422
88,739
57,742
56,330
68,003
52,834
72,297
71,035
68,426
Of for
eign
make.
$1,C56
1,131
724
8S5
1,518
6, f42
2,475
1,740
1C4
a Fiscal year ending June 30.
The Annual Reports on the Commerce and Navigation of the United
States for the principal countries from which the $200,000 worth of
foreign-made matches now come each year into this country reveal
the following data:
VALUE OF MATCHES ENTERED FOR CONSUMPTION IN THE UNITED STATES, BY
PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF EXPORT, EACH FISCAL YEAR 1894, 1900, 1905, AND 1907.
[From Annual Reports on the Commerce and Navigation of the United States, Bureau of Statistics.!
Matches entered for consumption during
fiscal year ending June 30—
Countries.
1894.
1900.
1905.
1907.
Austria-Hungary.........................................................................
Belgium.......................................................................................
Canada.........................................................................................
Denmark.....................................................................................
Germany......................................................................................
Italy.............................................................................................
Japan...............................a...........................................................
Netherlands.................................................................................
Sweden and Norway...................................................................
United Kingdom (England).......................................................
$2,915
7,786
64
19
7,392
4,092
476
9,545
116,962
7,244
$195
18,057
44
238
7,590
872
553
95,875
12,269
$5,743
17,840
27
342
27,665
2,506
636
174
116,665
15,417
$14,852
23,532
2,216
563
19.886
3,016
972
24
128,637
7,788
Total..................................................................................
156,495
156,704
187,015
201,486
21,011
The value of domestic matches annually exported from the United
States to foreign countries is almost inconsiderable. The following
table, drawn from the same sources as the above, serves to emphasize
the unimportance of the export item of domestic matches:
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
45
VALUE OF DOMESTIC-MADE MATCHES EXPORTED FROM THE UNITED STATES, BY
PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF IMPORT, EACH FISCAL YEAR 1880, 1890, 1900, AND 1905.
{From Annual Reports on the Commerce and Navigation of the United States, Bureau of Statistics.]
Countries.
Value of domestic-made matches
exported during fiscal year
ending June 30—
1880.
1890.
1900.
British Honduras.....................................................................................
British West Indies.................................................................................
Canada.....................................................................................................
Central American States..........................................................................
Colombia, South America........................................................................
Cuba.........................................................................................................
French Guiana.........................................................................................
Haiti.........................................................................................................
Hawaii......................................................................................................
Japan.......................................................................................................
Mexico.................... ................................................................................
Russia (Asiatic).......................................................................................
$1,999
19,459
3,867
3,609
32,585
1,275
1,024
10,373
$1,035
4,031
3,675
5,843
7,018
257
1,520
8,133
12,709
1,760
1,632
$3,502
8,078
18,983
8,825
12,339
1,976
$7,826
6,069
8,660
7,195
17,638
3,309
10,346
2,358
1,907
Total...............................................................................................
85,020
88,882
50,469
2,202
845
2,278
5,504
1,102
48,715
1905.
10,120
9,530
690
The export of foreign-made matches from the United States in 1905
was of still less importance. The principal values were reshipments
of $1,805 worth to the Central American States and $4,500 worth
to Venezuela.
Practically all of the more than five and one-half millions of dollars
worth of matches manufactured in the United States in 1905 were
consumed here, and only about $200,000 worth more were imported.
The consumption of matches has increased proportionately much
more rapidly than the population. Prices, it may be added, have
been reduced through the improvement of machinery which literally
counts matches into the boxes by the.million. The factories have
been established with special reference to timber supply as well as
to convenience in distributing the finished product.
EMPLOYEES OF MATCH FACTORIES.
Full reports in regard to the employees in 15 factories (all but one
of those known to exist in the United States) in 1909 show 3,591
persons, of which 2,024 are males and 1,253 females 16 years of age
and over. Children under 16 years of age numbered 314—121 boys
and 193 girls. These figures are those furnished by the establish
ments as the usual number employed.
Reports in greater detail covering employees on the pay rolls at a
particular date were secured for 3,383 employees. For these employ
ees the facts in regard to sex, age, race, conjugal condition, occupation,
etc., were secured. As in a few cases not every employee reported
as to each particular item, the total number reporting is in some
cases somewhat less than the total number on the pay rolls—3,383.
46
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
The following table shows the age distribution of males and females
employed in the 15 factories:
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF EMPLOYEES OF SPECIFIED AGES IN 15 MATCH FAC
TORIES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1909, BY SEX.
Number of employees.
Per cent.
Age.
Females.
Males.
44
62
119
90
14 years.......................................................................
15 years.......................................................................
16 years..................................................................... *
17 years.......................................................................
18 years.......................................................................
19 years.......................................................................
20 years.......................................................................
21 years.......................................................................
22 years.......................................................................
23 years.......................................................................
24 years.......................................................................
25 to 29 years..............................................................
30 to 34 years...............................................................
35 to 39 years...............................................................
40 to 44 years..............................................................
45 to 54 years...............................................................
55 to 64 years..............................................................
65 years and over........................................................
Total.
66
111
110
173
316
267
316
243
187
146
115
98
84
345
217
187
137
197
177
194
150
97
63
39
38
24
70
31
31
14
19
4
122
93
90
83
76
60
60
275
186
156
123
202
80
Males.
221
84
20
20
Total age reported.............................................
Age not reported.........................................................
1,941
47
1,325
70
3,266
117
Total..................................................................
1,988
1,395
3,383
Females.
2.27
3.19
6.13
4.64
6.28
4.79
4.64
4.28
3.91
3.09
3.09
14.17
9.58
8.04
6.34
10.41
4.12
1.03
4.98
8.38
14.87
13.36
14.64
11.32
7.32
4.76
2.94
2.87
1.81
5.28
2.34
2.34
1.06
1.43
.30
100.00
100.00
A second table shows the number of males and females of each race
and of each age in the 15 match factories investigated. I t will be
seen from the table that approximately one-third of all the employees
were Americans, there being only a slight difference between the males
and females in this respect. The children, as well as the adult
workers, represented many races, although for some races no child
workers were reported.
NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES IN 15 MATCH FACTORIES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1909, BY
AGE AND RACE.
[47 males and 70 females age reported and 5 males race not reported are omitted from this table.]
Age (years).
Sex and race.
MALES.
American, white........
Austrian....................
English......................
English Canadian___
French.......................
French Canadian.......
German.....................
Greek.........................
Hungarian.................
Irish...........................
Italian........................
Polish........................
Russian.....................
Scandinavian.............
Scotch........................
Servian......................
Slav...........................
Welsh........................
All others...................
Total................
14.
15.
16.
18.
19.
20
17.
to
24.
25
to
29.
30
to
34.
35
to
39.
40
to
44.
45
to
54.
55 65
to and Total.
64. over.
11
20
53
29
47
37
130
99
71
51
23
8
4
2
6
5
3
16
16
7
48
4
69
1
7
2
91
i
17
34
381
18
98
74
171
1
1
18
19
1
1
1
21
1
1
5
4
7
5
9
1
3
1
22
3
4
4
62
8
22
2
12
1
9
49
11
21
1
3
2
1
5
17
3
4
4
1
5
1
2
1
2
2
6
5
1
4
4
16
1
1
2
17
20
2
2
11
6
2
1
2
2
5
3
1
2
2
1
41
3
16
32
31
20
10
2
1
1
8
20
2
2
4
13
4
1
11
4 ‘'
2
8
2
3
40
1
8
7
8
4
3
3
10
1
1
1
8
2
4
6
1
6
24
9
9
5
2
1
2
1
1
3
1
2
3
1
4
10
5
4
2
2
1
43
62
117
89
122
93
369
274
186
156
123
1
21
2
1
11
7
3
5
44
13
14
4
9
12
1
3
3
18
2
10
1
1
3
3
5
8
4
14
28
17
19
5
1
21
122
1
3
696
5
2
1
1
202
80
20
66
14
43
1,936
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
47
NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES IN 15 MATCH FACTORIES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1909, BY
AGE AND RACE—Continued.
(Age (years).
Sex and race.
20
to
24.
25
to
29.
30
to
34.
35
to
39.
32
H
13
6
99
4
8
3
5
80
3
8
2
25
1
2
14
1
5
150
261
70
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
17
2
1
1
33
1
1
3
2
44
73
2
3
4
8
50
1
6
3
35
67
1
5
1
4
66
6
2
2
17
59
1
3
4
4
12
1
6
1
3
i
4
2
1
5
53
6
4
3
5
56
2
5
3
27
1
1
8
2
1
111
197
177
194
40
to
44.
45
to
54.
55
65
to and Total.
64. over.
FEMALES.
American, white........
Canadian...................
English......................
English Canadian___
French Canadian.......
German.....................
Hungarian.................
Irish...........................
Italian.......................
Polish........................
Scotch........................
Scandinavian............
Slav...........................
Welsh........................
All others...................
Total................
36
1
7
1
66
5
g
10
1
2
51
4
4
3
11
3
12
3
5
1
2
1
3
1
7
4
3
5
2
1
1
5-
7
1
2
3
3
7
1
2
2
1
1
31
31
2
1
1
2
3
1
5
1
3
2
1
19
4
1
1
14
471
17
28
20
27
410
26
52
32
136
5
16
44
7
34
1,325
Another table shows the conjugal condition of all employees, male
and female, in the 15 match factories investigated, classified by race.
It will be seen from the table that nearly half of the males were mar
ried, while of the females only about 7.5 per cent were married.
Considerable differences will be noticed between the several races as
to the per cent of those who are married. Among the males, for
example, for several of the foreign races, as Greeks, Italians, Polish,
and Scandinavians, the per cent of married workers is very low.
Among the females of certain races, also, scarcely any married
women workers were found.
CONJUGAL CONDITION OF EMPLOYEES IN 15 MATCH FACTORIES, BY SEX AND RACE.
Sex and race.
Single.
Married.
Wid
owed.
MALES.
American, w h ite........................................................
Austrian.....................................................................
English.......................................................................
English Canadian.......................................................
French........................................................................
French Canadian
...........................................
German.......................................................................
Greek ........................................................................
Hungarian..................................................................
Irish............................................................................
Italian.........................................................................
Polish
.............................................................
Russian..................... __.............................................
Scandinavian
......................................
Scotch.......................................................................
Servian
........................................................
Slav
......................................
Welsh
........................................................
AH others...................................................................
343
2
35
7
5
16
193
14
41
26
128
78
6
20
3
9
34
5
18
345
9
47
14
11
18
187
4
56
40
41
44
8
8
14
9
32
9
25
8
1
7
Total.................................................................
983
921
30
Race not reported......................................................
Grand total.......................................................
1
2'
1
7
2
1
Total.
696
12
89
21
17
34
382
18
98
73
171
122
14
28
17
19
66
14
43
1,934
i, 988
Conjugal
condition
not re
ported.
1
2
1
4
50
48
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOB.
CONJUGAL CONDITION OF EMPLOYEES IN 15 MATCH FACTORIES, BY SEX AND
RAC E—Concluded.
Sex and race.
Single.
Married.
Wid
owed.
Total.
FEMALES.
American, white..........................................................
Canadian.....................................................................
English.......................................................................
English Canadian.......................................................
French Canadian........................................................
German.......................................................................
Hungarian..................................................................
Irish............................................................................
Italian.........................................................................
Polish..........................................................................
Scotch.........................................................................
Scandinavian........... , .................................................
Slav............................................................................
Welsh.........................................................................
All others....................................................................
420
17
25
18
25
392
9
47
20
131
4
16
33
6
22
34
18
3
1
1
12
14
2
7
5
1
1
1
4
3
3
5
1
11
2
1
1
472
17
28
20
27
408
26
52
32
137
5
16
44
7
34
Total.................................................................
1,185
100
40
1,325
Race not reported.......................................................
Grana total........................................................
9
1,395
Conjugal
condition
not re
ported.
1
1
69
WAGES OF EMPLOYEES.
A study of the record of weekly earnings of the employees of the
15 match factories indicates that the dangers connected with the
employment in match factories have not made it necessary to pay a
high wage in order to secure an adequate working force. Thus, of
1,888 male employees whose earnings and ages were ascertained in
the 15 factories investigated, 23.26 per cent earned under $6 per week
in the pay roll period reported, and only 33.52 per cent earned $10 or
more. For the 1,278 female employees whose earnings and ages were
reported, 53.75 per cent earned under $6, and only 4.47 per cent
earned $10 and over. These figures apply to employees of all ages, but
an examination of the table will give full information in regard to the
variation in earnings according to age groups. An examination of
the second of the tables following shows that there was considerable
variations in the earnings in the various factories. Thus, while in one
of the larger factories only 20.8 per cent of the females earned less
than $6 in the representative week covered by the reports as to earn
ings, in other factories over 70 per cent, and in one case over 90 per
cent, earned less than $6.
49
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY,
PER CENT OF EMPLOYEES IN 15 MATCH FACTORIES IN THE UNITED STATES EARNING
LESS THAN SPECIFIED AMOUNTS IN A REPRESENTATIVE WEEK, 1909, BY SEX.
Females.
Males.
Establishment
number.
Total
ployees.
Per cent earning under—
$4.00.
$6.00.
$8.00.
$10.00.
ployees.
62.5
79.5
65.5
79.0
78.9
20.0
83.3
81.9
36.9
72.0
41.5
24.1
69.1
67.0
87.5
60.5
1.............................
2 .............................
3.............................
4.............................
5.............................
6.............................
7.............................
8 .............................
9 .............................
10.............................
11.............................
12.............................
13.............................
14.............................
15.............................
48
39
298
38
57
10
18
441
184
• 132
65
58
237
255
8
11.1
5.7
1.6
22.0
8.3
30.8
8.8
18.5
29.8
10.0
50.0
14.8
4.3
34.9
8.6
30.8
25.9
25.0
10.3
48.9
45.5
75.0
39.6
66.7
34.3
42.2
63.1
10.0
72.2
44.3
11.9
56.1
24.6
18.9
61.1
53.3
87.5
Total, 15 facto
ries..............
1,888
11.4
23.3
43.4
10.3
.7
5.3
3.5
Per cent earning under—
Total
$4.00.
$6.00.
$8.00.
65
33
100
20
38
4
22
161
115
93
56
57
221
169
64
35.4
15.2
1.9
50.0
15.8
31.8
18.0
1.7
43.0
5.4
22.8
11.8
5.9
71.9
86.2
69.7
21.9
85.0
76.3
75.0
77.3
68.3
20.8
79.6
44.7
52.6
54.3
38.4
92.2
100.0
97.0
58.2
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
96.3
39.1
94.6
' 94.7
84.2
100.0
76.3
95.3
100.0
100.0
82.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
99.4
80.8
100.0
96.5
94.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
1,278
17.5
53.8
84.1
95.6
$10.00.
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF EMPLOYEES IN 15 MATCH FACTORIES IN THE UNITED
STATES EARNING SPECIFIED AMOUNTS IN A REPRESENTATIVE WEEK, BY AGE
AND SEX, 1909.
NUM BER.
Females.
Males.
Actual weekly Un 16
25
Not
Not Un 16
25
earnings.
der and 1820to 2124to years Total. re der and 1820to 2124to years Total. re
port
port 16
16
17. years. years. and
17 years. years. and
over.
ed.
ed. years. years.
over.
years. years.
Under $3.00...
$3.00 to $3.99...
$4.00 to $4.99...
$5.00 to $5.99...
$6.00 to $6.99...
$7.00 to $7.99...
$8.00 to $9.99...
$10.00 to $11.99
$12.00 and over
20
19
34
22
6
32
16
47
30
37
18
11
5
4
30
8
12
18
38
73
81
22
15
Total....
Earnings not
reported......
101
200
297
5
6
9
24
6
3
10
30
44
76
46
38
151
64
114
110
132
248
436
274
359
21
2
4
3
3
1
6
1
4
277 1,013 1,888
45
4
45
15
18
30
21
113
268
201
302
30
54
1
25
27
69
32
11
3
1
108
115
215
249
195
192
147
55
2
24
5
7
6
6
11
10
159 1,278
70
10
5
15
26
21
29
33
20
424
159
16
5
10
47
3.77
6.61
10.61
18.16
18.16
19.81
16.51
6.13
.24
........
6.29
3.14
9.43
16.35
13.21
18.24
20.76
12.58
8.80
8.18
14.47
15.72
14.47
16.98
15.09
5.66
.63
8.45
9.00
16.82
19.48
15.26
15.02
11.50
4.31
.16
168 • 368
9
14
13
23
25
23
27
24
9
1
16
28
45
77
77
84
70
26
1
43
42
63
89
63
49
19
7
1
P E R CENT.
Under $3.00...
$3.00 to $3.99...
$4.00 to $4.99...
$5.00 to $5.99...
$6.00 to $6.99...
$7.00 to $7.99...
$8.00 to $9.99...
$10.00 to $11.99.
$12.00 and over
19.80
18.81
33.67
21.78
5.94
......
16.00
8.00
23.50
15.00
18.50
9.00
5.50
2.50
2.00
10.10
2.69
4.04
6.06
12.80
24.58
27.27
7.41
5.05
8.66
2.17
1.08
3.61
10.83
15.88
27.44
16.61
13.72
4.44
1.48
1.78
2.96
2.07
11.16
26.46
19.84
29.81
8.00
3.39
6.04
5.83
6.99
13.14
23.09
14.51
19.01
Total.... 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
......
......
14.88
16.07
41.07
19.05
6.55
1.79
.59
11.69
11.41
17.12
24.19
17.12
13.31
5.16
..... .
......
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 ........
50
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The following shows the proportion of the total employees exposed
to the dangers of phosphorus poisoning, by age and sex:
NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES EXPOSED TO PHOSPHORUS FUMES AND NUMBER NOT SO
EXPOSED IN 15 MATCH FACTORIES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1909, BY AGE AND BY
SEX.
Age.
Total.
years Not
14
16
15
17
18
19 20and
re
years. years years. years. years. years. over.
port
ed.
Males:
Not exposea to phosphorus fumes...
28
16
42
20
80
39
44
46
62
60
53
40
541
870
31
16
881
1,107
Total..............................................
44
62
119
90
122
93
1,411
47
1,988
Females:
Exposed to phosphorus fumes..........
Not exposea to phosphorus fumes...
60
6
102
9
186
11
171
6
188
6
146
4
406
24
67
3
1,326
69
Total..............................................
66
111
197
177
194
150
430
70
1,395
All employees:
Exposed to phosphorus fumes..........
Not exposed to phosphorus fumes...
88
22
144
29
266
50
215
52
250
66
199
44
947
894
98
19
2,207
1,176
T o ta l_____________________________
110
173
316
267
316
243
1,841
117
3,383
■ RTrnospd to ■ nhos-nhorns fn m ps_______
I t will be seen from the above table that of the 3,383 employees
65 per cent were working under conditions exposing them to the
fumes of phosphorus and the dangers of phosphorus poisoning. The
female employees were much more largely exposed than the males,
95 per cent of the former being so exposed against only 44 per cent
of the latter. The 283 children employed were very largely in
occupations bringing them in contact with the phosphorus fumes,
82 per cent of all children being so exposed.
DESCRIPTION OF PROCESSES IN MATCH MANUFACTURE.
A modern up-to-date match factory is an establishment of many
different activities which are so related as to bring under one roof the
processes of converting a rough unpeeled log into a neatly printed,
pasted, and labeled box of 1,000 matches for 5 cents.
The rear of a match factory might easily be mistaken for a sawmill.
And it is a sawmill. It is also a planing mill, a blacksmith shop, a
machine shop, a paint shop, a carpenter shop, a paper-box factory, a
printing establishment, and a chemical laboratory. One match fac
tory in this country employs men exclusively in 52 distinct occupa
tions. It employs women exclusively in four more distinct occupa
tions, and back 1,000 miles in the woods it keeps a big gang of lumber
jacks busy bringing out one of the raw products.
The lumber from which match splints are made is usually pine,
poplar, or basswood. White pine makes the best splints, but it is
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
51
hard to get and poplar and basswood are now commonly used in
making the round and square splints for parlor matches.
The head of the match is formed by dipping that end of the wooden
splint into a paste which usually contains glue, powdered glass, oxide
of zinc, chlorate of potassium, and a coloring mixture, in addition to
white phosphorus. (a) The phosphorus element is usually only about
5 to 7 per cent of the composition.
Broadly speaking, there are only three kinds of matches. One,
the “ safety” match, which lights only when struck on a prepared
surface, contains no phosphorus, and consequently is not dangerous
to the health of the workers. Two factories in this country employ
a part of their establishments in manufacturing safety matches, both
the box and the book variety, but it is still a relatively unimportant
industry in this country, and on account of the nonpoisonous nature
of the composition used, requires little attention in this report.
The second kind of match, and the one with which this report
deals almost exclusively, is the lucifer, or parlor, or strike-anywhere
match. This is the ordinary match, made either with a square or
round splint and headed with a paste containing white phosphorus,
which ignites when struck anywhere. An older form of the phos
phorus match, now nearly forgotten outside of New England and
California, is the sulphur or card (or block) match, so named on
account of the presence of sulphur in the head and the card (or block)
form in which the matches are sold. The card (or block) match,
however, is no longer manufactured except in two factories, and its
sale in this country is practically confined to New England and the
Pacific coast. A brief description of the distinctive processes of its
manufacture will be given when the Maine factory is described.
The common phosphorus match, so common that we have ceased
to wonder at its intrinsic marvels, is manufactured in modern factories
by processes little less marvelous than the product itself. Mechanical
invention has worked wonders in the* substitution of nearly auto
matic devices in place of the work of the human hand.
The actual processes through which the rough log passes before
it emerges neatly boxed for the retail trade vary somewhat in different
factories according to the standards of method and machine.
Methods of handling differ even in the making of a single variety
of match, and several kinds are manufactured. But on the whole
the fundamental process is the same. The splint is prepared by
machinery; the paste is mixed; the splint is dipped in this paste; the
“ green” match is dried, and then finally it is wrapped and boxed.
The process, however, in a modern establishment is complicated.
A description of one factory of modern type will answer for all, and
a Also called yellow phosphorus, because when exposed to the light it becomes
yellowish.
52
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
the degree to which less modern- establishments fail to measure up
to this standard will be indicated hereafter in connection with the
description of local conditions.
The product of this factory is matches of several trade varieties,
which may be divided into two kinds, safety matches which can only
be struck on the prepared surface, and matches which may be struck
anywhere.
The work is continuous throughout the year.
The labor force concerned in the turning out of the product is
unskilled.
I t is a machine industry, as highly organized as the character of
the product will permit.
In this factory no children are employed and the employment of
women is limited to the occupations of packer, wrapper, slider, and
dining-room attendant. In these occupations no men are employed.
Men are employed exclusively as—
Blacksmith,
Block surveyor,
Block feeder,
Case maker,
Composition man,
Composition mixer,
Paper cutter,
Printer,
Pressman,
Box maker,
Slide maker,
Scorer,
Strip cutter,
Shuck machine operator,
Slip maker,
Auto driver,
Teamster,
Janitor,
Porter,
Laborer,
Filer, saw,
Gauger, composition,
Block sorter,
Case coverer,
Glue carrier,
Printer,
Book machine operator,
Book match dipper,
Planer,
Machinist,
Fitter, pipe,
Die maker,
Oiler,
Painter,
Electrician,
Plumber and steam fitter.
Carpenter,
Trucker,
Sweeper,
Cleaner,
Elevator man,
Press feeder,
Box feeder,
Ink maker,
Lumber sorter,
Engineer,
Electrician,
Chemist,
Fireman,
Steam fitter,
Gateman,
Dressing-room attendant.
The match machines in this factory, while they are called auto
matic are not really so, for attention is required at various operations
and adjustment of many of its parts. The machine actually is made
up of five different parts, viz:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Block cutting into match splints.
Dipping splints in paraffin.
Dipping splints in composition paste.
Drying matches.
Filling boxes.
Blocks of white pine, which have been selected so as to be free
from knots and of a certain dimension, are fed into the machine by
an operative called a u block feeder.” The machinery of this sec
tion holds the block against knives, which cut out the splints and
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IK THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
53
force them into the perforations in a series of hinged iron plates,
which move as an endless chain over the entire length of the ma
chine. These iron plates leave the front end of the machine .where
the splints have been inserted, projecting from their under surfaces.
They are now passed through a bath of melted paraffin and finally
over a roller which is coated with the phosphorus paste by running
in a trough containing the composition, which trough is in turn
supplied by a pipe leading from a covered tank on the machine
holding a supply properly heated. This last operation puts the head
on the match. The finished match is now ready to be dried, which
in this factory is accomplished by the movement of the endless
chain of plates over a series of drums, bringing them during their
transit in contact with currents of air and drying them, an opera
tion which may vary in time with the weather, but which usually
would take an hour. Arriving again at the front of the machine,
the matches are punched out of the plates by a mechanical feature
of the machine, and are then handled by the filling mechanism,
passing finally to a revolving table at which girls are seated, who
slide the covers on the boxes.
Different machines in this establishment have a different com
position of crew, due to the character of the packing. On the pack
ing of “ searchlights” there are the following:
1 block feeder.
1 straightener.
1 slider.
1 wrapper to two machines.
1 composition man, gauging and tending rolls and composition on 7 machines.
3 porters at work in this department.
In this factory the automatic machine is used in which the match
remains on the machine until it is ready to be packed. On some
new machines the boxes are filled also.
Block feeder.—The block feeders are adult males who may either
sit or stand at their work. They feed dimension blocks into the ma
chine, and use a hatchet to cut knots out of blocks before feeding*
There is no dangerous feature of the work, and they are paid an hourly
rate.
Straightener.—An adult male who attends to the automatic box
filling section of the match machine. He stands at his work, and is
paid an hourly rate.
“ Sliders” are adult females who do their work seated at the side of
the automatic machine, and their work is to slide the outer box cover
over the filled box of matches. They handle no matches directly,
as the box is filled at the machine. The rate of pay varies from 1
to 5i cents per case, piecework, to 8 and 9 cents per hour, day work.
They have nothing to do with machinery.
54
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Wrapper.—The wrappers, who are adult females, wrap in paper a
certain number of boxes of matches (usually 12). They work stand
ing at a table and use paste and brush. They have to do no heavy
lifting, nor do they operate any machine. The rate paid ranges from 1
to 5J cents per case and from 25 to 80 cents per 100 gross, piece rate, and
from 8 to 10 cents per hour, time rate. They are frequently changed
from one variety of packing to another, as the needs of the factory
may require. At times one girl wrapping will take care of the output
of two match machines.
Composition man.—One man, called a composition man, attends
to the supply of composition on seven automatic machines, and
also to the temperature of the paraffin and its supply. He has noth
ing to do with the operation of the machine. He is paid an hourly
rate.
Porters.—Porters are male adults, who attend to sweeping the floor
and general work of cleaning.
On the automatic match machine, packing 200,s on a circular
table with revolving outer side and a hopper in the center of the
table holding a supply of slides, the following persons are employed:
One block feeder, 1 box feeder, 2 pickers, 1 straightener, 2 sliders, 1
wrapper.
Box feeder.—The box feeder is an adult male, who stands at work
and feeds into the machine, by hand, pasteboard boxes which are
automatically filled. He is not exposed to any dangerous machinery,
and the work requires no skill.
Straightener.—When the filled boxes come from the machine they
are in disorder, and the top of the filled box must be arranged before
it goes to the packer. Adult females do this work, which is paid for
at an hourly rate. They use no machine and they stand at their
work.
PicTcers are adult females, who sort out imperfect matches. They
are paid an hourly rate. There is no dangerous machinery; they
stand at worktable.
Sliders.—The boxes of filled matches pass in front of the “ sliders”
on the revolving table, and a supply of the pasteboard slide covers
are in a hopper in the center, which is stationary. The “ slider”
takes a slide and slips it over the filled box, and the box of matches
is then ready for the wrapper. They do not have anything to do
with machinery.
jBox-machine operator.—The operators on paper box machines are
all adult males, who stand at their work. One man attends three or
four machines. The strawboard is fed from a roll of proper dimen
sion, and the various parts of the box are glued and the machine
finishes the box. I t does not require continuous attention, as it is
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
55
automatic after the feed is adjusted. They are paid from 12£ to 17J
cents an hour.
Slide-machine operator.—The operators on these machines are all
adult males, who stand at their work, and each attends three
machines. This machine from printed strip makes slide covers, and
lays the sand strip on the side of the cover. The machine is auto
matic, and the attendant is protected by the needful guards. They
are paid an hourly rate.
Strip cutter.—This machine cuts strips of strawboard into lengths
used to lay over the matches in box. The operator is an adult male,
who is paid an hourly rate.
Shuck-machine operator.—The shuck machines are operated by
adult males, who stand at their work. The machine is fed by a
continuous roll of strawboard, which it scores, folds, forms, prints,
and lays a sand line, finishing a slide for a match box. A single
operative attends each machine and is paid from 16 to 20 cents an
hour. The operations are automatic, and there is no dangerous
feature.
Stripper-machine operator.—The stripping-machine operators are
adult males, who attend cutting machines, which cut strawboard into
strips of a size to be used in box machine. They are paid a rate of
16 to 18 J cents an hour. The machines have no dangerous feature.
The operation of the “ stick ” machine differs from the other auto
matic machines for the reason that the block is not fed into the
machine, but the splints are prepared and fed to the machine.
The other operations do not differ. The force is composed of the
following persons:
1 splint feeder.
2 box feeders..
1 straightener.
Male.
Males.
Male.
6 sliders...
2 wrappers
1 shaker...
Females.
Females.
Male.
The occupations concerned in the operation of the stick match
machine are not sufficiently different from others which have been
described to warrant giving the details. The composition used has a
white phosphorus base.
The book matches, as made in this establishment, are not made for
sale to consumers, but for free distribution as an advertising device.
They are made entirely of paper, and the composition is a safety head,
with the striking surface laid on the cover. Each match strip is
printed, and the holder is also ornamented and printed. The force of
this department is composed of the following:
Cutting and printing machine attendant.........................................................Male.
Packers........................................................................................................... Females.
Dippers, paraffin.............................................................................................. Males.
Dippers, composition....................................................................................... Males.
Cutter............................................................................................................. Male.
56
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Cover feeder.
Match feeder
Taker-off___
Packers........
Porters........
Male.
Male.
Male.
Females.
Males.
In the composition used in making the heads of book matches,
which in this establishment are “ safeties,” there is no white phos
phorus, and consequently there is no suspicion of its being injurious.
The processes which are particularly dangerous to health in the
manufacture of matches are those which bring the worker into con
tact with the white phosphorus or its fumes. With imperfect venti
lation, the fumes pervade the air of the mixing, dipping, drying, and
packing room. With handling of matches the particles of phosphorus
become attached to the hands and are transferred to the mouths of the
workers. Without proper wash-room and lunch-room facilities, both
fumes and particles of phosphorus are likely to cause necrosis of the
jaw and other ailments of a serious nature. Without frequent and
careful dental examination the disease is likely to fix itself upon the
workers and result in death, or disfigurement and agony worse than
death. It is now agreed by practically all qualified students of this
question that the only certain way to eliminate the danger of disease
in all processes is to prohibit the use of white phosphorus.
There is a third variety of match which has the desirable feature of
striking anywhere, and which is at the same time nonpoisonous. It
was brought into existence to abolish phosphorus necrosis, and the
manner of its coming was as follows:
The French Government conceived the idea of getting a revenue by
making the manufacture of matches a state monopoly. But soon it
was found that state compensation to the sufferers from phosphorus
poisoning was eating up this revenue. Therefore the Government of
France asked its scientists to find a substitute for poisonous phos->
phorus in the manufacture of matches, and after many attempts,
it was discovered. It was found that one of the phosphorus salts,
namely, the sesquisulphide, could be substituted for the white phos
phorus. At first, as with most discoveries, there were unsatisfactory
results, but it has now been thoroughly demonstrated that the sub
stitute is in every way practicable.
The new process does not involve any great amount of additional
expense either in the production of the substitute or in the rearrange
ment of factory equipment. It makes possible the elimination of
many expensive and annoying regulations. It absolutely eliminates
the occupational disease, phosphorus necrosis.
The formula from which these nonpoisonous, strike-anywhere
matches are made is as follows:(°)
o Diseases of Occupation, by Thomas Oliver, 1908, p. 50.
57
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
Parts.
Sesquisulphide of phosphorus.................................................................................
Chlorate of potassium..............................................................................................
Oxide of zinc..........................................................................................................
Red ocher................................................................................................................
Powdered glass........................................................................................................
Glue........................................................................................................................
Water......................................................................................................................
6
24
6
6
6
18
34
The exclusive right to the use of this formula in the United States
is owned by a single company, but this company has offered to grant
the use of its patents on equal terms to independent manufacturers,
if by governmental action the use of poisonous phosphorus in the
manufacture of matches is prohibited.
PHOSPHORUS USED IN MATCH MANUFACTURE AND IT S EFFECT
UPON THE HEALTH OF THE W ORKERS.
Two kinds of phosphorus are used in the manufacture of matches.
One is harmless. The other is a deadly poison. The harmless
variety is known as red or amorphous phosphorus and is used in the
manufacture of the paste which, when painted on the outside of the
box, furnishes the friction surface for safety matches. All of the
phosphorus used in the safety-match industry is of this kind. It is
obtained by exposing the white or poisonous phosphorus to a high
temperature in a closed vessel. It is insoluble in the juices of the ali
mentary canal and when pure is regarded as harmless. Unfor
tunately the manufacture of safety matches is still too small an
item in this country to merit much consideration.
It is the manufacture of the ordinary parlor or poisonous phos
phorus match, the predominating part of the match industry in this
country, that demands attention. The element which makes this
ordinary match “ light” when struck on a rough surface, the element
which is so dangerous to the health of workers in match factories and
also to small children who now and then innocently suck off the heads,
is white or yellow phosphorus.
Before presenting the factory conditions in the United States and
for the purpose of showing the results which have attended the use of
white phosphorus elsewhere, the results of expert investigations in
foreign countries are herewith epitomized, together with some of the
remedial measures adopted.
Prof. T. E. Thorpe, principal chemist of the government laboratory
and one of the British government commission reporting in 1898 on
the use of phosphorus in the manufacture of matches, made the fol
lowing statements in regard to the chemical nature of the kinds of
phosphorus at that time used in the manufacture of matches, and
58
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
which are now used by the factories for the manufacture of matches
in the United States:
The phosphorus employed in the manufacture of matches is of two
kinds. The first is the ordinary or so-called white or yellow phos
phorus, discovered by Brand, or Hamburg, in 1669. * * *
Commercial phosphorus is obtained from bone ash by treating it
with sulphuric acid, filtering and evaporating the product, heating
this with charcoal, and afterwards distilling it.
When pure it is a colorless, transparent, highly refractive crystalline
substance, forming regular dodecahedrons, of specific gravity 1.836,
melting at 44° C. (111.2° F.), practically insoluble in water, but readily
soluble in carbon disulphide, less so in benzene and oil of turpentine.
I t readily becomes yellow when exposed to light, and absorbs oxygen
from the air if moist. The absorption under ordinary atmospheric
tension is accompanied by a feeble greenish-white light, or phosphor
escence, which is at once arrested by traces of many essential oils,
such as turpentine, eucalyptus, peppermint, etc. The products of
the oxidation are phosphorous oxide and phosphoric oxide. The
glow is invariably accompanied by, and is probably dependent on,
the formation of ozone. Phosphorus is very inflammable, igniting
at a temperature of 34° C. (93.2° F.) and forming, with a plentiful
supply of air, phosphoric oxide P4O10. If the supply of air is limited,
more or less phosphorous oxide P40 6 is produced. The so-called
white or yellow phosphorus is sensibly volatile at the ordinary tem
perature of the air, and is readily volatilized in a current of steam.
It boils at about 270° C. (518° F.), and is highly poisonous.(a)
This poisonous phosphorus is usually purchased by match manu
facturers in the United States in the form of sticks of about half an
inch in diameter and nearly one foot in length. These yellow sticks,
which look like lemon candy, are shipped to the factory in cans
weighing about 11 pounds, and are kept submerged in tanks of water
until needed in the mixing room.
Continuing Professor Thorpe wrote:
The second kind of phosphorus used by the matchmaker is the red
or so-called amorphous modification, the existence of which was first
definitely established by Schrotter, of Vienna, in 1845. I t is a micro
crystalline powder obtained by heating the ordinary form at a tem
perature of 230° C. (446° F.) in a closed space or in an atmosphere
incapable of acting chemically upon it. I t differs in all its physical
attributes from the ordinary variety. I t has a specific gravity of
2.2 and is insoluble in carbon disulphide, turpentine, etc. I t is noninflammable, and may therefore be handled with impunity. I t may
be heated to 350° C. (662° F.) without inflaming. I t is nonvolatile
and absorbs oxygen at ordinary temperatures only with extreme
slowness. In hot, damp climates, however, it is more prone to
change. I t has been alleged that it tends to revert to the ordinary
«Reports to the Secretary of State for the Home Department onthe Use of Phos
phorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, Prof. Thomas
Oliver, M. D., and Dr. George Cunningham. London, 1899, p. 5.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY,
59
modification, but the statement requires confirmation, and is prob
ably based upon observations made with imperfectly purified material.
In any case the process must be extremely slow, ana has no practical
significance to the manufacturer of matches.
All authorities agree that pure red phosphorus is not acted upon
by the solvent fluids of the alimentary canal, and therefore it lias
no poisonous effects when swallowed. (°;
According to Dr. Thomas Oliver, also a member of the British gov
ernment commission already referred to—
Swedish, or safety matches, are manufactured from red phosphorus.
These only strike on the box, upon a specially prepared surface. The
matches themselves do not contain the red phosphorus. This is present
along with antimony sulphide in the paste that has been applied to
the side of the match box. The match heads contain potassium
chlorate, or chromate, and other compounds rich in oxygen, from
which the oxygen necessary to induce conflagration is evolved. (b)
The head of an ordinary strike-anywhere match contains glue,
phosphorus, chlorate of potassium, powdered glass, and magenta, or
some such coloring agent. The paste, or “ composition,” contains
on an average 5 per cent of phosphorus. * * * Thorpe found
0.02 milligram of phosphorus in 100 liters (3.53 cubic feet) of air in
the dipping room of a match factory, and in the same quantity of air
in the boxing room 0.12 milligram of phosphorus. Since during
several hours of each working dav the dippers and boxers are inhaling
this poisonous atmosphere, the fumes become dissolved in the saliva
of the mouth and exercise a solvent action upon the teeth. I t is
not alone the air breathed that is the source o f danger. The poison
clings to the fingers and hands of the work people. On examining
the nands of a boxer they are seen to be deeply stained by the dye
given off by the heads of the matches, and they emit the character
istic garlicky odor. They glow in the dark. On analyzing the water
in which 22 work people had washed their hands on leaving the
factory, Thorpe found 37.3 milligrams of phosphorus, an amount
equal to 4.2 milligrams of phosphorus per person for each ten hours’
work.(c)
The manufacture of matches had gone on for a few years without
any mishap occurring, until 1838, when Doctor Lorinser, of Vienna,
diagnosed phosphorus necrosis in a female worker, Marie Jankovits.
This is the first authentic case of industrial phosphorus poisoning on
record. Three years previously the manufacture of lucifer matches
had been forbidden by several of the German States as being too dan
gerous, not so much to the health of the work people as to the safety
of the community on account of fire. Shortly after 1838, Doctor
Knolz having reported other cases of the malady, the Austrian Gov
ernment appointed a commission to make an inquiry into the condi
tions of work in the seven match factories that at that time existed*&
o Reports to the Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Use of Phos
phorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, Prof. Thomas
Oliver, M. D., and Dr. George Cunningham. London, 1899, p. 5.
&Diseases of Occupation, by Thomas Oliver, 1908, p. 35.
cldem , pp. 42-44.
38697—No. 86—10--- 5
60
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
in Vienna. Although certain recommendations were made by the
committee and were given consent to by the states council in 1846,
they never became effective, for between 1866 and 1875 there occurred
126 cases of phosphorus necrosis in the hospitals of Vienna alone. (a)
The 22 match manufactories in Great Britain give employment to
upward of 4,000 persons, of whom three-fourths are females. I t was
the death of a lucifer-match maker in London about eleven years ago,
and the announcement in the daily papers of a considerable amount
of ill health among lucifer matchmakers, that brought the subject of
industrial phosphorus poisoning before the public and gained ror the
trade an unenviable reputation. Out of the human suffering that
was then experienced and the stigma under which the trade labored,
good has come.(6&
)
The subject of phosphorus poisoning, after having been much dis
cussed in Parliament, was referred by the home secretary to a small
committee, composed of Prof. T. E. Thorpe, principal chemist of the
government laboratory, Prof. Thomas Oliver, M. D., and Dr. George
Cunningham, senior dental surgeon to the London Hospital, to make
an inquiry into and report upon (1) the nature and extent of the
dangers attending the use of yellow and white phosphorus; (2) the
means whereby these can be lessened; and (3) the practicability of
discontinuing the use of yellow and white phosphorus. The English
report on the “ Use of Phosphorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer
Matches,” published in 1899, presents in detail the results of the ex
haustive investigations of this committee.
The malady of the lucifer-match maker that is most dreaded is,
according to Doctor Oliver, what is known in this countiy as phos)horus necrosis, or “ phossy jaw,” and in France as mal chimique, a
ocalized inflammatory affection of the jawbone, extremely painful in
the early stages, which lasts a long time, and invariably ends in death
of the Done. As it is only within the last few years that cases of
phosphorus necrosis have been reported to the home office it is difficult
to say how many lucifer-match makers in this countiy have suffered.
The total number of cases of industrial phosphorus poisoning reported
in this countiy until the year 1899 was 102, of which 19 were known
to have terminated fatally. Three other cases occurred in 1900, so
that 105 cases of phosphorus necrosis are known to have occurred
during the latter part of the last century. Since then only eight or
nine fresh cases of phosphorus necrosis have been notified. Dr. T.
M. Legge, medical inspector of factories, informs me (Dec., 1907) that
since 1900, inclusive, there have been 12 cases of phosphorus necrosis
notified, and of these 5 proved fatal. In Great Britain all cases of
phosphorus necrosis, whether mild or severe, are reported. (b)
The dearth of literature on the effect of poisonous phosphorus upon
the health of workers in match factories in the United States has been
most unfortunate, and since dentists and physicians as well as non
professional people have frequently expressed a desire for such infor
1
Diseases of Occupation, by Thomas Oliver, 1908, p. 39.
&Idem, p. 36.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
61
mation, an extensive extract from Doctor Oliver's discussion is here
quoted :(a)
Phosphorus necrosis, or phossy jaw, is the unique malady of lucifermatch makers. I t is a localized manifestation of phosphorus poison
ing. That the system, generally speaking, is also affected as well is
more than probable. French physicians describe a general morbid
condition or the body, or a cachexia, met with principally in female
workers, characterized by pallor of the face, dyspepsia, albuminuria,
and a tendency to bronchitis, to which the term “ phosphorisme” has
been applied. During my visits to the French match works I had
the opportunity of discussing with Doctor Arnaud, of Marseille, the
liability of young female workers to bronchitis, as it is not a common
affection in this country. In his opinion 28 per cent of the young
women suffered from bronchitis. * * *
In Great Britain phosphorisme, or the constitutional form of phos
phorus poisoning, is not of common occurrence. The malady that is
dreaded is phosphorus necrosis. The presence of decayed teeth
predisposes a matchmaker to the disease, for the phosphorus fumes
penetrate carious teeth, and readily induce a periostitis or acute
xnflamation of the covering of the jawbone. The gum becomes
swollen, and both it and the jawbone painful. Sooner or later pus
forms, and although the tooth, or teeth, are extracted, the pain con
tinues, but in a less severe form. The inflammation gradually
extends to the bone, which undergoes a process of slow destruction.
For months pus keeps oozing out into the mouth in minute quantities,
some of which is swallowed, and tends to induce a chronic toxaemia.
By means of the use of antiseptic mouth washes the morbid process
gradually ceases by a piece of dead bone being thrown off, or the
decayed bone is removed by surgical operation, when the patient
recovers, with or without facial deformity.
Opinions are divided as to the cause of phosphorus necrosis in
lucirer matchmakers. Is it the result solely of phosphorus fumes
acting upon the jawbone through decayed teeth setting up inflam
mation of the bone and allowing, therefore, the micro-organisms
present in the mouth to carry the morbid processes further; or is
phosphorus necrosis, as Professor Stockman, of Glasgow, informs us,
a tuberculous affection of the jawbone, and due to mfection by the
tubercle bacillus ? My own opinion is that the disease of the bone is
the result of a mixed infection, and that phosphorus fumes by pri
marily inducing pathological changes in the teeth and jawbone make
it possible for micro-organisms to carry on their baneful opera
tions. * * *
Stubenrauch maintains that the first stage in the morbid process
is thrombosis of the small blood vessels of the bone (Archiv. r. Klin.
Chir., Berlin, April 7, 1899). Lewin, of Berlin, does not believe that
it is primarily necessary for a lucifer matchmaker to have decayed
teeth. The phosphorus fumes, in his opinion, inflame the gums in
the first instance, and as a consequence there is induced a septic
gingivitis, which is followed by disease of the bone. In Wegner's
experiments with phosphorus upon animals the cancellous part of
the bone became hard and sclerosed. Although phosphorus has
« Diseases of Occupation, by Thomas Oliver, 1908, pp. 44-51.
62
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
some special predilection for bone, the fact that in animals exposed
to it necrosis of the jawbone does not follow suggests that in the
human subject there is probably, over and above the phosphorus
fumes, some other factor in operation.
Phosphorus when absorbed is only slightly altered in the blood.
When exposed to the air phosphorus is slowly oxidized, but this
occurs hardly at all in the blood vessels. If, for example, to freshly
drawn arterial blood phosphorus is added, and the glass tube is her
metically sealed, the bright red arterial color is not lost earlier than
in a control experiment where none of the metalloid is used. Phos
phorus, therefore, can not be said to absorb oxygen from the blood,
so that the amount of phosphoric acid formed m the blood must be
too small to cause poisoning. The blood loses its power of clotting,
probably owing to the action of phosphorus upon the blood ferment.
Lucifer matchmakers are liable to another affection of the bones,
one of which has a special relation to the constitutional effects of
phosphorus poisoning. When visiting the match works in Grammont, Belgium, I had the opportunity of meeting Doctor Brocoorens,
who has had large experience of matchmakers and their diseases.
He drew my attention to the fact that several of the men who have
been employed as dippers in the factories, and who in their earlier
years had suffered from phosphorus necrosis and had recovered,
exhibited an unusual tendency to fracture of their long bones, espe
cially the femur, often on the slightest exertion. The town of
Grammont contains six match factories, which give employment to
upwards of 1,100 persons. During the thirty years Doctor Brocoorens
has resided there he has treated upwards of 30 cases of spontaneous
fracture of the long bones consequent upon such simple muscular
effort as that required when walking to lift the foot from the roadway
to the pavement. Spontaneous fracture of the bones has not occurred
in England with anything like tl^e frequency as in Belgium, but Doctor
Garman, of Bow, ror many years medical officer to Messrs. Bryant
and May’s works, informs me that he had known of 9 cases, and
Doctor t)earden, of Manchester (Brit. Med. Journ., 1899, Yol. II, p.
270), has reported the occurrence of the accident in two dippers,
“ each of whom has had separately and at different times both thighs
broken in a ridiculously simple fashion.” Doctor Kocher, of Berne,
has had experience of a matchmaker who broke his thigh bones five
times. The readiness with which the long bones snap in match
makers indicates that the bony tissue is in some Way or other influ
enced by phosphorus or its compounds, whereby they are unable to
withstand external violence. It is Dearden’s opinion that the bones
of match dippers contains an excess of phosphoric acid, which com
bines with the preexisting neutral phosphate of lime to form a slightly
acid salt and thereby to cause the “ fragilitas ossium” of lucifer
matchmakers.
In Great Britain less than 1 per cent of the matchmakers have
suffered from phosphorus necrosis, in Switzerland it was formerly
1.6 to 3 per cent, and in France 2 to 3 per cent. Of 51 cases of phos
phorus necrosis communicated to me by Doctor Garman 9 ended
fatally. Eighty-three per cent of his patients recovered and returned
to work. Of the 51 cases 31 were females and 20 were males. In
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
63
the women the upper jaw was effected 15 times and the lower 16. In
the men the numbers were respectfully 11 and 9. Doctor Brocoorens
found that the dippers were more liable to necrosis of the upper jaw,
and that in boxers, who are usually females, it was the lower jaw
that was more frequently affected. When phosphorus necrosis has
attacked the upper jaw the inflammatory process is apt to extend
to the brain and induce a septic inflammation, which in every
instance has been fatal. A person may follow his occupation in a
match works for years without suffering, or he may have left the
works for two years or more when unexpectedly symptoms and
physical signs of phosphorus necrosis show themselves. The ages
at death of Garman’s patients were 19, 19, 21, 22, 22, 22, 23, 27, and
27. I t does not always require an exposure of many years to the fumes
of phosphorus for a fatal result to follow. In two of the patients
included above pulmonary consumption doubtless contributed to
the fatal result.
The questions submitted [for investigation by the English home
secretary] were briefly whether anything could be done to render
lucifer matchmaking from white phosphorus a more healthy employ
ment and whether a harmless substitute could be found for the dan
gerous metalloid. Since it has been recognized that the fumes of
white phosphorus by penetrating carious teeth must play some part
in causing necrosis of the jawbone, periodical examination of the
teeth of the work people by a qualified dentist, and treatment when
necessary, improved ventilation of the workrooms, reduction of the
amount of phosphorus in the paste for heading the lucifers, and sus
pension from the factory of all workers on the slightest appearance of
symptoms, have done much to diminish phosphorus necrosis in match
makers. Only 12 cases of phosphorus poisoning have been reported
to the home office since 1900, and in three of these the disease prob
ably existed before the new rules were drafted. The introduction of
machinery whereby the wooden splints are cut, the matches dipped,
dried, and boxed without being handled by the workers, has in the
Diamond Match Works, Liverpool, been followed by the greatest
success. When these processes are carried on in large, well-ventilated
workrooms and the mixing of the paste takes place in covered iron
vessels provided with ventilating shafts, the risk from phosphorus
necrosis is considerably diminished. The fact remains, however, that
so long as white phosphorus is used absolute freedom from risk to
health can not be assured.
Manufacturers have, therefore, been obliged to turn their attention
to the use of a harmless substitute for white phosphorus. The diffi
culty at first was to produce a satisfactory strike-anywhere match, for
valuable as the Swedish or safety rnatcli is, the public demand for
this hand of a match does not increase in the same proportion as for
the ordinary lucifers. * * * Meanwhile the Belgian Government
had offered a prize of 50,000 francs ($9,650) to any person who would
invent a safety strike-anywhere match free from white phosphorus.
France solved the problem. After many trials MM. Sevene and Cahen
demonstrated that in sesquisulphide of phosphorus was to be found
a substitute practically capable of accomplishing all that white phos
phorus could do without causing symptoms of poisoning. * * *
64
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
I t was thought at first that matches made from sesquisulphide of
phosphorus would not carry well across the ocean and that they would
not Keep well in all climates, but experience has not confirmed these
forebodmgs. The sesquisulphide is almost an inodorous powder, and
is, practically speaking, nonpoisonous. I t may contain a trace of red
or amorphous phosphorus and at times give off a slight odor of sul
phur. The results of the substitution of phosphorus sesquisulphide
for the harmful white phosphorus at Pantin-Aubervilliers were at once
apparent in the improved health of the work people and in the cessa
tion of monetary claims for injured health. Doctor Courtois-Suffit,
medical inspector of the French match factories, informs me that
lucifer matchmaking is no longer regarded as a dangerous trade by his
Government. The sesquisulphide has found its way into tfreat
Britain and its use has been followed by success. One good, but quite
unexpected result of the substitution of the harmless for the danger
ous form of phosphorus in matchmaking is the diminution in the
severity of the symptoms and in the number of cases of fatal suicide
due to the use of matches. Phosphorus poisoning, which was the
cause of a few deaths every year in the Royal Infirmary, Newcastle,
has, practically speaking, disappeared from our statistical tables, and
in the patients admitted the symptoms are usually less serious, a cir
cumstance which shows that in this city, at any rate, the matches that
are sold have been mostly prepared from the sesquisulphide. * * *
Since the introduction into France of the manufacture of the
sesquisulphide match there has not been in the factories one case of
phosphorus poisoning, nor has there been any explosion or fire in any
of the match works. The slight trace of sulphuretted hydrogen given
off by the new material has not produced illness of any moment.
Readiness to catch fire and the evolution of unwholesome gases have
been prevented by the regulations requiring that the sesquisulphide
shall contain 3 to 4 per cent of red phosphorus; this prevents the
formation of unstable subsulphides. * * *
In our country [England] a similar improvement has been observed.
Mr. Bartholomew, managing director of Messrs. Bryant and May’s
works, London, writes to me that “ we are well satisfied with our long
trial of the new composition. There has not been, and there can not
be, from the nature of the composition, any sickness among the
work people.” In the future we shall hear less and less of the
frightful ravages of white phosphorus. The manufacture of luci
fer matches is therefore an illustration of at least one industry
which, from being of a dangerous and unhealthy nature, has become
by vigilance and scientific invention, comparatively speaking, healthy.
Trtiis change for the better has been secured without great cost to the
manufacturers, for it has not necessitated any great change of plant,
and yet what a gain it has been to hundreds of work people who have
to earn their living in the trade.
The conclusions of the three scientific experts who studied the
question of phosphorus poisoning in the match industry and reported
to the British home office ten years ago were made from widely differ
ing standpoints. One member of the commission was a chemist,
another a dentist, and the third a medical expert. The latter of these
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY*
65
three men, Doctor Oliver, in discussing means of prevention reported
as follows: (®)
The treatment of phosphorus necrosis is mainly preventive. New
workers on being taken on at the factory should be medically exam
ined, special attention being paid to the state of their teeth. There
ought to be periodical examination by a dentist of the teeth of all
workers in a match factory, with power to suspend when necessary.
Personal cleanliness is a requisite, and the frequent use of antiseptic
mouth washes a desideratum. The workrooms should be well ven
tilated, and fans should be running to withdraw all fumes away from
the face of the workers. Washing accommodation should be ample,
hot and cold water being provided along with plenty of soap and
towels. On complaint of pain in the jaw, the mouth should be
examined by a dentist, loose and carious teeth should be extracted,
and the use of antiseptic mouth washes encouraged. Once phoshorus necrosis has developed, the malady may be treated simply
y keeping the affected part clean as far as possible by mouth washes,
and by maintaining the general health of the patient by good food
and fresh air; but healing is a slow process, for the disease may go
on for several months before it is arrested or the piece of dead bone
thrown off. To expedite recovery, surgeons occasionally remove by
operation the dead bone. Eighty per cent of the cases of phos
phorus necrosis recover, whether dealt with surgically or treated by
antiseptic washes. The most fatal cases are those where the disease
extends from the upper jaw into the base of the skull and sets up
septic meningitis, or those in which, owing to rather profuse and
protracted suppuration of the jawbone, pus keeps escaping into the
mouth, mixes with the food, and causes toxaemia, or gains access to
the respiratory canals and lights up pulmonary disease.
The question of the total prohibition of white phosphorus has
frequently been discussed. Elsewhere I have expressed the opinion
that nothing short of its total abolition will render the manufacture
of lucifer matches a safe industry from a health point of view, but
there are economic and commercial considerations which can not be
altogether ignored even in the lucifer-match trade. * * *
In these pages I have dealt with the signs and symptoms of
industrial phosphorus poisoning. When persons have accidentally
swallowed phosphorus, or drunk a solution of match heads with
suicidal intention, they have usually become jaundiced by the third
day, and most of them have died shortly afterwards from toxaemia.
After death the liver and kidneys have been found to have under
gone fatty degeneration. Recently a child 2 years of age was ad
mitted into the. Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastle, who had
sucked several match heads. She died within thirty hours of the
event, and although she was never jaundiced, there was yet found
at the autopsy advanced fatty degeneration of the liver and kidneys.
The case is exceptional as regards the rapidity of death, absence of
jaundice, and the presence of extreme fatty degeneration of the
internal organs in the short time. The matches had been made in
Flanders and contained white phosphorus.
E
a Diseases of Occupation, by Thomas Oliver, 1908, pp. 52, 53.
66
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The recommendations which were submitted by Doctor Oliver at
the close of the match investigation are as follows :(a)
If white phosphorus is to continue to be used in this country it is
absolutely necessary that such structural alterations should be made
in factories which will separate the mixing, dipping, drying and boxing
rooms from each other, and that each should be thoroughly venti
lated by fans; * * *
that the boxing rooms should be lofty, and ventilated by fans; that
ventilating hoods or shafts should be placed above each bench so
that the fumes are drawn away from the worker as she fills the boxes.
* * *
Provision should be made for washing; soap and towels should be
provided by the firm and facilities for washing should be offered to
the work people. * * *
Gargles should be provided and each worker should have his own
mug.
Overalls should be worn, and there should be dental and medical
inspection of the work people on entering the factory and at stated
intervals afterwards.
There should be a change of occupation for the workers; men and
women should not be allowed to remain more than a few weeks at
any time in any one department.
The mixing of the phosphorus paste should be done in closed vessels
and the paste kept until required in covered iron tanks. * * *
A meaical and dental register should be kept in the factory.
In the same reports the recommendations of Doctor Cunningham
who approached the question from the standpoint of the dentist
were that:
The dangers to the work people of phosphorus poisoning could be
met by proper precautions, and the strengthening of the rules affect
ing the trade. (*6)
The home office and Parliament at first accepted Doctor Cunning
ham’s optimistic view that special rules be strengthened, medical
and dental examinations be made periodically and that those measures
with other precautionary features would be sufficient to safeguard
the health of persons in the industry.
But under these improved conditions and during the period from
1899 to 1908, cases of necrosis continued to appear, with such insist
ence, (c) that in 1908, Parliament considered the feasibility of enact
ing legislation which would absolutely prohibit the use of white or
yellow phosphorus and prohibit the importation and sale of matches
in which the poisonous element was used. An act of Parliament
embodying all of these features was unanimously passed in December,
1908, taking effect as law January 1,1910. (d)
a Reports to the Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Use of Phos
phorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, p. 96.
6 Idem., p. 215.
c Between August, 1908, and the summer of 1909 in spite of every precaution, there
were at least four cases of phosphorus necrosis in England.
4 For a copy of the text of this act, see Appendix B, p. 145.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
67
EUROPEAN EXPERIENCE W ITH PHOSPHORUS POISONING.
In Europe, for seventy years and more, the effect of white phos
phorus upon the health of workers in match factories has been recog
nized as a serious problem. One country after another has attempted
to minimize the poisonous effects of the phosphorus by strict govern
ment regulations, and, one by one, those countries which have taken
an interest in improving the conditions of workers have now reached
the conclusion that the only safe method is to prohibit absolutely
the manufacture, importation, or sale of matches made from white
phosphorus.
FINLAND.
As early as 1872 Finland prohibited the use of poisonous phos
phorus in her match industries.
DENMARK.
In Denmark, for the last thirty-five years, no matches made from
poisonous phosphorus have been manufactured, imported, or used.
The circumstances which induced the Danish Government to take
this early step are of special interest. As early as 1866 the health
commission of Denmark had drawn up stringent regulations to be
observed in match factories. These regulations, after a fair test,
proved ineffective. The ministry of justice instituted an investiga
tion, and found that a disproportionate number of cases of necrosis
occurred in one factory which lived up to the regulations in all
respects.
The Royal College of Health, when requested to express an opinion
on the subject, came to the conclusion that since “ no regulations had
ever sufficed to prevent the danger to health from the manufacture of
matches with ordinary phosphorus, and, in view of the carelessness
of children and adults employed, its use should be prohibited/7
The Government, upon careful consideration, decided that regula
tion would be impracticable, since the employers would regard addi
tional restrictions as burdensome, while by prohibition, on the other
hand, the employers would merely be required to use nonpoisonous
processes in the same factories. The Government also pointed out
that out of 5,041 fires which occurred in the ten years from 1862 to
1872 no less than 291 could be set down to the use of strike-anywhere
matches, and that the prohibitive act would encourage the use of
safety matches. It also looked with favor upon the prohibition of
poisonous phosphorus matches, as a means of removing one conven
ient method of suicide. Of 32 cases of poisoning between the years
1857 and 1872, in Denmark, 18 were due to phosphorus matches.
With all of these considerations in mind the ministry of justice
thought the simplest method to adopt was the entire prohibition of
68
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
the manufacture of matches made with poisonous phosphorus.
Since the enactment of the law in 1874 not a single case of phosphorus
necrosis has been known in Denmark. During the thirty-five years
the act has been in force the people have become wholly accustomed
to the use of safety matches, and practically neither know of, nor
have any desire for, any other kind.
The bill absolutely forbidding the manufacture or sale of matches
containing ordinary phosphorus received the royal assent February
14, 1874. Its provisions follow:(a)
S e c t io n 1. After January 1,1875, the manufacture of matches con
taining ordinary phosphorus, or of any other matches, except such as
are intended to strike on surfaces specially prepared for that purpose,
is forbidden.
The importation into the country of matches made with ordinary
phosphorus is also prohibited from the same date, and the sale of
them is prohibited after July 1, 1875.
Sec. 2. In match manufactories, where red phosphorus and potas
sium chlorate are used, the room where the work with red phosphorus
goes on shall be well separated from the places where the work: with
potassium chlorate takes place.
Sec. 3. Violations of this law shall be punished by fines of from
20 to 200 kroners [$5.36 to $53.60] ana confiscation of the pro
hibited matches. The offenses to be treated as ordinary police cases.
The circumstances which induced the Danish Government to in
troduce the bill of 1874 were—
(1) The recognized danger to the health of the workers from the
use of the ordinary phosphorus.
(2) The danger from fires in houses and buildings.
(3) The fact that a ready means of poisoning was placed in the
hands of everyone.
Denmark signed the international phosphorus prohibition treaty
in 1906.
FRANCE.
The manufacture of matches in this country is a state monopoly.
The regulations in force are as follows:
h y g ie n ic r e g u l a t io n s .
I t is forbidden to bring food or drink into the workshops. These
articles of consumption must be left in the refectory.
Work people who desire to make a fight repast during the day or
to take their meal in the establishment during cessation of work must
attend at the refectory at the hours fixed for that purpose, and having
previously conformed to the following regulations:
1. To leave in the cloakroom their working costumes.
a Reports to the Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Use of Phos
phorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, Prof. Thomas
Oliver, and Dr. George Cunningham. London, 1899, p. 37.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
69
2. To wash their hands with soft soap.
3. To rinse the mouth with the mouth wash which the management
provides. Similar precautions must be taken at the time of leaving
off work.
The heads of departments and the foremen and forewomen will
see that all those under their charge have rigorously observed these
regulations; they will take care that the vessels which contain the
mouth wash as well as those containing the essence of turpentine are
kept clean and filled each day; they will take care that the mouth
wash is always in perfect condition.
Finally, they wul make the necessary arrangements for the work
people being examined regularly by the dentist on the days appointed.
These rules will be posted in all the workshops and will be read
aloud on the first Saturday of each month; the foreman of each
workshop will inscribe in his memorandum book the date on which
the monthly reading of the rules has been made.
Since 1897, France has prohibited the use and manufacture of
poisonous phosphorus matches, and in 1906 she signed the inter
national phosphorus prohibition treaty.
SWITZERLAND.
In Switzerland, the Medical Society of Berne, directed the attention
of the Federal Assembly to the subject of phosphorus poisoning as
early as 1870. Eight years later provision was made for govern
ment regulation, with the command to report methods used and
results obtained. At the end of one year the factory inspectors pre
sented a report urging the prohibition of the use of poisonous phos
phorus in the match industry, and six months later a bill was
approved by the General Assembly, prohibiting the manufacture,
importation, and sale of such matches. The law went into effect in
January 1881, but on account of the protest raised because of the
poor quality of matches that could then be made without the ordinary
phosphorus, the law was repealed in 1882. Switzerland then entered
upon another period of attempted regulation, with the result that the
factory inspectors in 1886 urged that the former law be reimposed.
Failing that, they recommended that the manufacture of ordinary
phosphorus matches should become a monopoly of the State, as the
only means promising a reduction in the number of cases of necrosis
and a chance of pecuniary compensation to those attacked. Careful
preparations were made with this last recommendation in mind, and
the president of the federal council in 1895 pointed out, in addition
to the object of safeguarding the health of the workers, the advantages
which would be derived from a greater centralization of the business,
and the guarantee of an article of superior quality. But this scheme
was killed by a popular referendum on account of its centralizing
influence.
70
BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR.
The question was settled a few years later by the adoption of a
federal law, (a) absolutely prohibiting the manufacture, importation,
or sale of poisonous phosphorus matches. And in 1906, Switzerland
joined in the international treaty proposed by the International
Association for Labor Legislation at the World Congress at Berne.
NETHERLANDS.
GOVERNMENTAL DECREE, JUNE
24, 1898. (b)
I. No person under 16 years of age or woman shall be allowed to
work in a factory or workshop where match paste containing ordinary
(white or yellow) phosphorus is prepared.
II. No person under 16 years of age or woman shall be employed
in a factory or workshop where matches tipped with a composition
containing more than 5 per cent of ordinary (white or yellow) phos
phorus are dipped, dried, boxed, or packed.
III. No person under 16 years of age or woman shall be employed
in a factory or workshop where matches tipped with a composition
containing 5 per cent or less of ordinary (white or yellow) phosphorus
are dipped, dried, boxed, or packed, unless—
(a)
The head or manager or the factory or workshop is in possession
of a written certificate, given by a medical man within the previous
two months, stating that the young person or woman can be so
employed without danger to his or her health.
(lb) This certificate shall be at once exhibited on demand to one of
the officials named in Paragraph I of article 18 of the labor law.
(c) A medical man may be appointed by the minister of dikes,
commerce and industry to certify to the fitness for such work of the
young persons or women, should the minister deem this necessary.
(d) Sufficient opportunity shall be afforded to all work people for
rinsing the mouth and washing the face and hands with means indi
cated by the inspector and provided by the head or manager of the
factory or workshop, the inspector to decide as to the adequacy of the
opportunities afforded for making use of these means.
(e) The head or manager of the factory or workshop shall, on the
demand of one of the officials mentioned in Paragraph I of article 18
of the labor law, furnish any sample* of the paste or matches required
by the official, such sample to be duly packed and sealed by the head
or manager in the presence of the official.
Holland signed the international phosphorus prohibition treaty in
1906.
LUXEMBURG.
Although no match industry exists in Luxemburg, that country
signed the international treaty in 1906, thereby prohibiting the im
portation and sale of poisonous phosphorus matches.
a For a copy of the text of this act see Appendix A, p. 141.
&Reports to the Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Use of Phosphorus
in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, Prof. Thomas Oliver,
and Dr. George Cunningham. London, 1899, p. 23.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
71
ITALY.
A review of a report on the Italian match industry with recom
mendations for lessening the evils of phosphorus poisoning will be
found in Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor No. 80, January, 1909,
pages 114 to 116. Italy signed the international phosphorus prohi
bition treaty in 1906.
GBRMANY.
In Germany, as in most countries, the tendency to supplant ordi
nary phosphorus matches with safeties had been very marked.
Kegulations had been in force for many years, which, however, did
not put an end to phosphorus necrosis. Inspectors reported cases
which had been concealed from year to year by the manufacturers,
the poor law medical officers, and the patients themselves. One
inspector reported that considering “ the way in which such cases
are concealed, the fact that none are notified* does not exclude the
possibility of their occurrence. If work people become affected, it
is only by chance that they are discovered.”
As a result of many unsuccessful attempts to regulate the danger
to health, the German Empire has decided upon prohibition.
The regulations as to the suitable arrangements to be adopted in
factories where matches were made with ordinary phosphorus were
in part as follows: (a)
S e c t io n 1. A special room must be set apart for the following
operations:
(a) Preparation of the paste.
(b) Dipping the matches.
(c) Drying the dipped matches. ^
(d) Filling and preliminary packing.
Each kind of work must be carried on exclusively in the room ap
pointed for that purpose, but it is permitted to treat the splints with
paraffin and sulphur in the dipping rooms.
S e c . 3* The rooms in which the paste is prepared must be so ar
ranged that a continual change of air takes place sufficient to dispel
any phosphorus vapors that may have been evolved. The preparation
of the paste must take place only in vessels closed air-tight, the
charging orifice of which must be so contrived as to act simultane
ously as a safety valve. Vessels containing paste must always be
kept closed.
S e c . 6. The filling room, and, if there is a special room for the preliminary packing, this also, must be of such dimensions that an air space
of at least ten cubic meters [353.1 cubic feet] is allowed for every
worker therein. The said rooms must be provided with windows
which can be opened, and with effective ventilating apparatus.
a Reports to the Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Use of Phos
phorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, Prof. Thomas
Oliver, M. D., and Dr. George Cunningham. London, 1899, p. 63.
72
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
S ec. 8. The employer is to see that the workers in rooms under (a)
to (d) wear an “ overall” or apron covering the upper part of the body.
These are to be taken off and kept in a special room apart from the
workrooms, every time the workrooms are vacated. In these dress
ing rooms special receptacles must be provided for hanging the
working clothes and the ordinary clothes taken off before beginning
work.
Sec. 10. A sufficient supply of washing utensils and vessels for the
purpose of washing out the mouth must be provided outside the
workrooms, but in close proximity thereto.
Sec. 11. The employer must see that the work people before meals
and on leaving off work thoroughly wash their hands, rinse their
mouths, and put away the overalls used during work.
S ec. 12. Employers are to allow only those persons to work in the
rooms referred to under (a) to (d) who bring a certificate from an
approved physician that they do not suffer from phosphorus necrosis,
and that their bodily health is such that they are not in any special
degree liable to contract this disease. The certificates are to be col
lected and kept, and shown on demand to the inspector.
Sec. 13. The employer is to commission an approved physician,
to be named to the inspector, to superintend the nealth of the em
ployees. The doctor is to make an examination of the work
people at least quarterly, and is to acquaint the employer with an
ascertained case of illness from phosphorus necrosis.
Sec. 14. The employer is required to keep a register in which must
be stated the Christian name, surname, age, address, and date of
entrance and leaving of each of his employees. In this register the
factory doctor must enter the date and tne results of his examina
tions. This is to be submitted to the inspector when required.
Sec. 15. A copy of section 2 of the act of May 13, 1884, and sec
tions 1 to 14 of these regulations must be hung up in a conspicuous
position in every room, as well as instructions for the work people
m each special room. A copy of these instructions shall be handed
to every worker employed in rooms under (a) to (d).
Germany signed the international phosphorus prohibition treaty in
1906.
GREAT BRITAIN.
In Great Britain, following the investigation and report of the
government commission in 1899 stringent regulations were formu
lated and were in force up to the end of 1909. (a)
Bryant and May Company (Limited), London, and The Diamond
Match Company (Limited), Liverpool, at the close of the investiga
tion (1899) in Great Britain, at the suggestion of Doctor Cunningham,
posted in their workrooms a copy of the following notice: (b)
a Reprinted in Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor, No 75, pp. 574-576.
6 Reports to the Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Use of Phos
phorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, Prof. Thomas
Oliver, M. D., and Dr. George Cunningham. London, 1899, p. 233.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
73
THE PRESERVATION OP THE TEETH.
Without good teeth there can not be thorough mastication.
Without thorough mastication there can not be perfect digestion, and poor health
results.
Hence the paramount importance of sound teeth.
Clean teeth do not decay.
Food left on the teeth ferments and the acid formed produces decay.
Decay leads to pain and the total destruction of the tooth.
When decay occurs, it should be attended to, whether giving pain or not.
The immediate stopping of a small cavity is of the greatest service in preventing
the necessity for extraction.
The following rules should therefore be closely observed:
1. The teeth should be cleansed at least once daily with toothbrush and powder.
2. The best time to clean the teeth is after the last meal.
3. A small toothbrush with stiff bristles should be used, brushing up and down and
across, inside and outside, and in between the teeth.
4. A simple tooth powder, or a little soap and some precipitated chalk, taken up
on the brush should be used. If the teeth are dirty or stained, a little fine pumice
powder may be used, but very occasionally.
5. It is a good practice to rinse the moutn out after each meal.
6. All rough usage of the teeth, such as cracking nuts, biting thread, etc., should
be avoided; but the proper use of the teeth in chewing is good for them.
7. All persons engaged in these works should rinse their mouths thoroughly before
meals ana before leaving the works.
The following rules and regulations were in force at the factory of
the Diamond Match Company, at Liverpool. A copy of the letter
of transmittal of the same by the president of the company is also
presented :(a)
CIRCULAR OP THE DIAMOND MATCH COMPANY.
Since the organization of The Diamond Match Company^ the
management have been keenly alive to the^horrible distress and misery
caused by phosphorus necrosis, a disease incident to the manufacture
of matches by old methods. I t has spent many thousands of dollars
in remedial methods to prevent the disease. The management are
now quite confident that they have so perfected the system of manu
facture of matches and ventilation of factories that no fear need exist
of the disease if the operatives will take ordinary care of themselves.
Dr. S. D. Stewart, who has made a study of the disease and its treat
ment for many years, has prepared the following paper on the pre
ventive measures which should be taken by the operatives in match
factories. The respective managers of the factories of The Diamond
Match Company are directed to see that each employee of The Dia
mond Match Company under their charge be furnished with a copy
of the same.
(Signed)
O. C. B a r b e r , President.
To secure immunity from necrotic conditions to employees of fac
tories proper environment is absolutely necessary ana certain rules
of action indispensable.
Environment, which pertains almost wholly to internal arrange
ments of factories, is one of the most important elements in securing
the greatly desired freedom from necrotic troubles.
« Reports to the Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Use of Phos
phorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, Prof. Thomas
Oliver, M. D., and Dr. George Cunningham. London, 1899, p. 234.
74
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
In this an abundant supply of fresh air is, perhaps, the greatest
factor, for in securing this important element you are at the same
time being freed of phospho-sulphurous fumes and increasing the
quantity of oxygen in rooms as well. While this is a very important
point in factory environment, it is only a part of the preventive sys
tem, which system must include, among other things, well arranged
and properly located lunch rooms, a sufficient number of and con
veniently located lavatories and running closets, all of which must
be kept m a thoroughly hygienic condition.
A .— Operatives in Factories— R ules o f A ction .
While operating, the operatives should avoid the putting of their
hands up to their mouths for the purpose of picking at teeth or gums,
as the fingers are not only covered with sand or glass from boxes,
which by lodging in the mouth is liable to irritate gum margins, but
they are also constantly in contact with the phosphoric compound of
the heads of matches, particles of which are Forced under finger nails.
At the same time, the nands and finger surfaces retain certain quan
tities of this compound, which in picking at teeth or gums there is a
liability of particles being left in contact with same. The necessity
of refraining from this thoughtless and uncleanly habit is perfectly
plain to thoughtful operatives.
B .— Lavatory and lunch room.
Before luncheon the lavatory should always be resorted to, using
utmost care in efforts to free the hands and nnger nails of all Foreign
matter. This need not necessarily require so much time as it requires
thoughtfulness as to intent and purpose of the act.
The lunches of operatives should never be deposited in rooms or
adjacent to rooms where the fumes of the phospho-sulphurous com
pound has access, for both meats and butter will readily take up and
absorb the same, thereby not only rendering the foods less nutritious,
but adding largely to risk of future troubles.
Second— Personal and home hygiene.
The operatives should on returning to their homes immediately
change their outer clothing at least, after which comes a thorough
washing of hands, arms, face, and neck, and at least once a week m
winter and twice a week or more in summer take a full bath, not for
getting at the same time to wash the hair and scalp thoroughly. This
is a most important and valuable precautionary measure, as unctuous
surfaces of scalp and hair retain the phosphoric odor longer than the
body, and possibly hold it in greater quantity than any other surface
of the body.
Third— Mouth and teeth.
The thorough cleansing of the mouth and teeth and gums is an
absolute necessity, not only to health of same, but to securing immu
nity from the ravages of necrotic conditions. They must be thor
oughly cleansed by use of toothbrush, with castile soap (it being both
efficacious and cheap), every morning immediately before breakfast,
then again after supper in the evening, preferably before retiring,
using a sufficient quantity of the soap to make “ suds,” and while the
75
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
“ suds” made from the friction of the brush and soap is in the mouth
make a sort of “ bellows ” out of the cheeks and force the same between
and around the teeth and into e v e r y part of the mouth, thereby secur
ing thorough and complete hygienic condition of mouth, gums, and
teeth.
The teeth must necessarily be kept in comparatively good repair
and absolutely free from all deposits. At first symptoms of decay a
thorough and competent dentist should be consulted at once.
Resum e .
All persons with scrofulous habits or taint should avoid working in
match factories, as they, perhaps more than any other class of people,,
from the abnormal condition of the blood, are liable to have serious
trouble from the phospho-sulphurous fumes. This should be seriously
considered by all who propose to enter the employ of match manu
facturing companies.
A strict compliance with the above rules o f action fo r em ployees isr
absolutely necessary to obtain the results desired . It is also true that
any deviation fro m the same will add to the risk o f em ployees in alm ost
exact ratio to the deviation .
To all of its employees was sent the following: (a)
NOTICE.
To the employees of the Diamond Match Company (Limited), Liverpool.
I. All employees on entering the works shall receive a check ticket bearing their
number, which must be delivered up at meal hours and on leaving off work.
II. All coats, shawls, hats, lunches, food, etc., must be delivered up to the official
in charge of the cloakroom, the employees giving number of check ticket, so that they
may be kept apart. These will be returned at meal hours and at stopping time on.
production of check ticket.
III. All employees must carefully wash their hands, using the brushes provided,
for their finger nails, before lunching or dining, and before leaving the works.
IV. Employees are urged to thoroughly cleanse the mouth, teeth, or gums after
meals, using a toothbrush to the teeth with borax and castile soap powder every
morning and evening in their homes. Toothbrushes and tooth powder will be sup
plied free.
Y. Employees requiring attention to their teeth will be received in the dental
surgery, on the second floor, between the hours of 9.30 a. m. and 1 p. m. each Satur
day, unless otherwise specially arranged.
By order.
In spite of these precautions cases of phosphorus poisoning occurred
from time to time, as the following official figures will show:
Cases-
1902.........................................................................................................................
1903 .......................................................................................................................
1904 .......................................................................................................................
1905 .......................................................................... ■...........................................
1906 .......................................................................................................................
1907 .......................................................................................................................
1908, till the end of June........................................................................................
2
—
L
£
*1
—
a Reports to the Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Use of Phos
phorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, Prof. Thomas*
Oliver, M. D., and Dr. George Cunningham. London, 1899, p. 147.
&Fatal.
38697—No. 86—10--- 6
76
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The repeated occurrence of cases of this disease disproved the pre
vailing view that, mainly as a result of the technical perfection of the
installations, cases of poisoning had been entirely avoided.
As a result of this experience, in December, 1008, by unanimous
vote of both houses of Parliament, Great Britian decided to prohibit
the manufacture, importation, or sale of poisonous phosphorus
matches after January 1, 1910. (a)
Following the change in the manufacture in England, the Diamond
Match Company and others in the United Kingdom will use the
Sev^ne and Cahen formula, of which the Diamond Match Company
is the licensee for that country as well as for the United States. The
Diamond Match Company permits the other manufacturers to use
these patents on the same royalty basis as it enjoys as original licensee.
BELGIUM.
Upon the advice of a special medical commission, the “ Conseil
Superieur d* Hygiene Publique” proposed to prohibit the use of
poisonous phosphorus in the manufacture of matches in Belgium,
in 1880. Commercial interests, however, decreed otherwise at that
time. But attempts to regulate the industry under an act of 1890
were so irksome to the manufacturers that within five years senti
ment had so changed among manufacturers and workmen as to favor
prohibition, providing some international agreement could be
arranged.
Under the Belgium act of December 26, 1892, children and youths
under 16 years of age, or women between the ages of 16 and 21, may
not be employed in the manufacture of phosphorus, nor in the shops
where paste containing ordinary phosphorus is made, nor in the rooms
where matches dipped in such paste are dried. No child under 14
years of age may be employed in filling boxes with matches contain
ing ordinary phosphorus.
The special regulations relating to match factories in Belgium (in
force 1899) are as follows:
A rticle 1.
A. In factories for making matches with ordinary phosphorus each
of the operations of making the paste and drying the dipped matches
shall take place in premises specially devoted to that purpose.
B. The preparation of the ordinary phosphorus paste shall be
effected in an apparatus closed hermetically, or at least surmounted
by a wide and low hood communicating with a chimney with a
powerful draft.
It is forbidden to introduce into the paste an amount of ordinary
phosphorus exceeding 8 per cent of the total matter, exclusive of
water. (b)
a A copy of this act is reprinted as Appendix B.
& Reports to the Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Use of Phos
phorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, Prof. Thomas
Oliver, M. D., and Dr. George Cunningham. London, 1899, p. 35.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
77
According to the Belgian inspectors’ report for 1906 (p. 380), out
of 11 match factories in Belgium 2 used white phosphorus. In the
remainder 1,251 persons were employed who had been submitted to
8,860 medical examinations. In 2 of these factories, employing
together 169 persons, it was found that two-thirds of the employees
had affections of the teeth or were in a weak state owing to anaemia,
the average for all the factories being 16 to 18 per cent of the work
people. With regard to the above high percentage, the medical
inspectors stated that it was most probably not due to specially
unhealthy conditions in the factories in question, but to a particu
larly careful and accurate investigation. The Belgian match indus
try was subjected to a number of precautionary regulations against
necrosis by special orders issued on March 25, 1890, and on Novem
ber 17, 1902. The inflammable material used must not contain more
than 8 per cent of white phosphorus in proportion to the weight of
all the other fixed ingredients. The expenses of the monthly exami
nation must be paid by the employer; a worker suffering from chronic
necrosis must be permanently removed from the workshop, while
anyone suffering from inflammation of the gums must be temporarily
sent away. It is evident that these precautionary measures, although
carefully carried out, have had very small results. (tt)
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
In Bohemia, Galicia, and Hungary the manufacture of matches is a
considerable industry, Large quantities are distributed to south
eastern Europe. One of the Bohemian factories was established as
early as in 1838, and to it belongs the distinction of having first begun
the manufacture of safety matches in 1854. Leading manufacturers
here have long expressed a desire to do away entirely with the use of
poisonous phosphorus, but have been deterred by foreign competi
tion, particularly with Japan. Attempts to regulate the dangerous
features of the industry have met with frequent evasion and disap
pointment.
AUSTRIA.
In Austria, according to a monograph by 'Dr. Ludwig Teleky, in
1907, in spite of compulsory notification, the majority of cases of
phosphorus necrosis in Austria remained unknown, and that on
account of the extent to which matchmaking was carried on as a
domestic industry nothing would avail but an entire prohibition of
white phosphorus. The Government attempted at first to cure the
evils by increased stringency in the existing precautionary regula
tions. Its draft proposal aroused the most vigorous opposition among
the match manufacturers and was declared so impracticable by an
« Publication No. 6, International Association for Labor Legislation, London, 1909,
pp. 46, 47.
78
BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR.
advisory authority, the accident insurance council, that it refused to
go any further into the consideration of the draft. Under these cir
cumstances the prohibition of white phosphorus was brought forward
as a motion of urgency in the Austrian House of Bepresentatives on
July 7, 1908. The minister of commerce stated that the Government
itself recognized the impracticability of the precautionary regulations,
and merely called attention to some of the difficulties in the way of a
complete prohibition. After a short debate the house passed the
following resolution:
“ The Government is requested to issue a prohibition of the use of
white (yellow) phosphorus in the manufacture of matches, and to
accede to the Berne Convention before the lapse of the time allowed
for its ratification (December 31, 1908).” (a)
HUNGARY.
The Hungarian match industry in 1901 employed 2,410 work peo
ple, of whom 56 per cent were women. (*6)
A government ordinance issued January 17, 1885, contained the
following provisions regulating the internal arrangements of the fac
tories and workshops in which ordinary phosphorus is used: (c)
2.
The rooms in which the processes of mixing, dipping, drying,
and sulphuring are carried on must be well ventilated and distinct
from one another.
7. Perfectly healthy persons shall alone be employed in the pro
cesses of mixing, dipping, and drying. They shall from time to time
be allowed a change of work, and such change must immediately be
made should the least symptom of toothache or jaw disease present
itself.
8. The employer must provide special clothes for those engaged in
the processes or mixing, dipping, drying, and the removal of the
matches. The clothes shall ibe well aired after the work is done.
9. The employer shall provide a special room for the work people
to leave their ordinary clothes, and shall not allow them to be left in
the workrooms. He shall further provide the necessary number of
basins and glasses for enabling the workers before meals and before
leaving the factory to wash their faces and hands and wash out their
mouths.
10. No food may be taken into the workrooms, and the employer
must use his utmost efforts to induce the workers before changing
their clothes to wash their hands and faces and rinse out their mouths.
The workpeople must not remain in the workrooms during the mid
day interval.
a Publication No. 6, International Association for Labor Legislation, London, 1909,
p. 46.
& Idem, p. 48.
c Reports to the Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Use of Phos
phorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, Prof. Thomas
Oliver, M. D., and Dr. George Cunningham. London, 1899, p. 69,
79
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
11. The employer must appoint a surgeon to look after the health
of the work people. The latter must certify them before their employ
ment, and at stated intervals afterwards. He shall certify such as
are tuberculous or have defective teeth as unfit for work in the pro
cesses mentioned in paragraph 7. He must enter the details or his
examination in a special register, which must be shown to the inspec
tor on demand. He shall also satisfy himself that the precautionary
measures adopted for the preservation of health are observed, and
advise the employer or his manager of defects in this respect, and the
way in which they must be remedied. * * *
12. The district medical officers of health must from time to time
visit the factories to see whether the sanitary arrangements are satis
factory, and if their previous recommendations have been carried out.
3|C
jjj
jj*
^
jjj
A copy of the above regulations must be posted up in a prominent
place in every match factory.
The following were the regulations which were in force in Hungary
in 1899:(«)
A r t ic l e 1. In all factories where ordinary phosphorus is used in
the manufacture of lucifer matches, the rooms in which the opera
tions mentioned below are carried on must be especially constructed,
viz:
(a) Preparing the paste.
(b) Dipping the splints.
(c) Drying.
(d) Boxing.
All these workrooms must be situated in buildings separate from
each other, and be provided with ventilation shafts for the effective
ventilation of the premises. * * *
A r t . 3. The mixing rooms, where the paste is prepared, must be
so constructed as to allow of the phosphorus fumes being carried off
by means of separate ventilating arrangements. Omy covered
vessels can be used for mixing and preparing the paste, which must
be fitted with ventilating pipes to carry the phosphorus vapor off into
the atmosphere. All vessels containing paste must be kept constantly
covered up. Turpentine (one-twentieth part) must be added to the
paste, and in all localities where work is carried on, as mentioned under
(a), (b), and (d), linen cloths saturated with turpentine must be
suspended.
Art. 6. All workshops used for filling and packing operations must
be of such dimensions as to give to every workman employed therein
not less than 10 cubic meters [353.1 cubic feet] of air space.
Art. 9. The employer shall see that all workers employed in local
ities wherein work is carried on, as described under (a), (5), (c), (d),
are provided with overalls, to be used for that purpose during work
ing, and, when not in use, to be kept in a special dressing room
separate from the workrooms. This dressing room shall be fitted
with lockers for the keeping of the ordinary clothes, which the workers
must take off before commencing work.
a Reports to the Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Use of Phos
phorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, Prof. Thomas
Oliver, M. D., and Dr. George Cunningham. London, 1899, p. 70.
80
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Art. 10. The employer shall not allow the work people to take
food or drink to the workrooms. He shall provide a proper place in
which the workers can take their meals, and where they may deposit
such provisions as they may happen to bring with them; such place
to be separate from the workshops and the dressing room.
Art. 11. Outside the workshops, but in close proximity, special
facilities for washing must be provided, such washing arrangements
to be of such size and so numerous that at least one-fifth of the total
number of the workers may be accommodated at a time. On the
working premises a glass or cup for each worker is to be kept, and a
sufficient quantity of rinsing liquid, composed of permanganate of
potash, must be provided.
Art. 12. The employer shall see that the workmen thoroughly
wash their hands, rinse their mouths, and take off the dress worn
during work time before taking their meals and before leaving the
factory premises.
A rt. 13. In the rooms mentioned under (a), (5), and (d) of article
1, only such workmen shall be employed who prove their fitness for
the work in question by a certificate from a medical practitioner,
stating that the person does not suffer from phosphorus necrosis, or
caries of the teeth, is not tuberculous, and, judging from his or her
bodily constitution, is not specially liable to such diseases.
These medical certificates are to be kept for inspection by the con
trolling authorities.
A rt. 14. The employer shall employ a qualified medical officer to
superintend the sanitary condition of his work people. The medical
officer shall examine each worker as to diseases attributable to phos
phorus poisoning at least once every quarter, and must report to the
employer every case of such disease. The name and residence of the
medical officer shall be communicated to the sanitary authority in
the first instance, and to the factory inspector of the district. The
employer shall report at once to the sanitary authority and to the
factory inspector every case of disease attributable to phosphorus
poisoning or which he may become cognizant by report or otherwise.
It is strictly prohibited to continue to employ, on the premises
described in article 1 under (a), (6), (c), and (a), persons found suffer
ing from such diseases.
A rt. 15. The employer shall keep a register of all his work people.
This register must contain, besides the columns prescribed by the
Statute Laws XVII, 1884, special columns for inserting data with
regard to the medical certificates, the employment upon which the
worker has been engaged, by whom and when it was given, when he
was last examined, and also on the state of the workman's health at
the time of examination, this last column to be signed by the exam
ining medical officer.
A rt. 21. This order of regulation, together with the “ observations"
given below, must be exhibited in every work shop or room in some
easily accessible place.
“ observations .”
The phosphorus used in the manufacture of lucifer matches acts
injuriously upon human health, and causes diseases. The first symp
toms of disease are swelling of the gums, accompanied by pain and
an inclination to bleeding; the gums afterwards become sore and
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
81
ulcerated. The teeth are loosened, and dull, persistent pain follows.
In other instances, coughing and pains in the chest manifest them
selves.
Those persons in whom such symptoms develop are requested, for
their own sakes, to report themselves to the medical officer, to leave
off work? and to submit to a regular course of medical treatment, if
they desire to avoid more serious consequences.
For those who have wounds on the body, suppuration in the mouth,
or whose gums begin to bleed, or those whose teeth have only recently
become decayed, to work in mixing, dipping, or packing rooms is
especially fraught with danger.
Workmen engaged in these operations are enjoined to leave these
places at once, the more so because they are sure to be dismissed from
them at the next quarterly examination.
To avoid the noxious action of the phosphorus every workman must
well wash his hands, rinse-his mouth with the violet-colored lotion
kept for this purpose in the washing rooms, or at least thoroughly
wash his hands and rinse his mouth with clean water before taking
his meals. The overalls worn during working hours must also be
taken off before washing and before meals are taken. Persons
employed can obtain gratuitously a copy of these regulations from
the factory inspector of the district.
A rt. 22. The sanitary authorities and their experts shall inspect
the lucifer match factories at least once in every three months, and
satisfy themselves that the preventive arrangements ordered by these
regulations are effectively carried out.
NORWAY.
Great precautions have been taken in Norway to prevent necrosis
among workers in match factories. For many years it has been com
mon to require the work people to rinse their mouths before meals
with special solutions and to have them medically inspected every
month. The dentist is paid by the employer, and whenever it is
necessary for the employee to stop work he is paid by the firm for
time lost. In spite of these precautions, Norway health reports indi
cate that between 1880 and 1893 no less than 28 cases of phosphorus
necrosis were treated.
Norway manufactures safety matcnes for home consumption, but
until recently exported poisonous phosphorus matches to the East
Indies, until Japan has in the last twelve years flooded that market
and forced Norway to build up a trade with India.
“ The Norwegian Government was represented at the Berne inter
national conference on labor legislation in 1905, empowering its dele
gates, however, merely to accept the resolutions ad referendum. At
the conference in 1906, Norway was not represented. From 1895 to
1899 there were 6 cases of phosphorus necrosis; from 1900 till 1904,
3 cases. The 7 Norwegian match factories employ altogether 808
persons. The majority of these work in factories where only nonpoisonous matches are made, and according to the inspectors’ report
for 1904-5 (Christiania, 1906), the number of work people directly
82
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
exposed to the influence of phosphorus in 1896 was 306 and the num
ber of cases of necrosis was 3; m 1900 the numbers were 123 and 2,
respectively, and in 1904 the number of work people so exposed was
only 88, and there were no cases of necrosis. Thus it is the decreased
production of poisonous matches which has led to the decrease in the
cases of necrosis. It is equally clear that under these conditions a
complete prohibition of the use of phosphorus would involve no
sacrifice whatever on the part of the Norwegian industry.” (a)
SWEDEN.
Sweden is the main seat of the manufacture of safety matches, and
less than one-tenth of her work people in match factories are engaged
in the making of matches from poisonous phosphorus. In spite of
the cheapness of labor in Sweden the Jonkoping factory especially is
remarkable for the extent to which manual labor has been replaced
by machinery. One girl, attending two machines, controls the filling
of 40,000 boxes in ten hours. Two girls in the same time, with wrap
ping machines, pack a quarter of a million boxes into wrapped, pasted,
and labeled parcels of 10 or 12 boxes.
In spite of the predominance of the manufacture of safety matches
which contain no poisonous phosphorus, scarcely a session of the
Swedish Parliament has passed during the last forty years without a
discussion of the phosphorus question by people who contend that
the only solution possible is the complete prohibition of the use of
poisonous phosphorus. While the regulations in force have resulted
in much improvement, they are regarded as merely palliative. Re
cently it has been urged that the distribution of poisonous phosphorus
matches should be prohibited also on the ground that they furnish a
ready means of suicide.
The regulations in force in Sweden date from 1870, and are the
direct results of a motion in the Riksdag urging prohibition as far
back as 1863. Agitation continued as the result of the increase of
cases of phosphorus necrosis, and in 1891 a commission appointed by
Parliament unanimously recommended the prohibition of the manu
facture, importation, or sale of the ordinary phosphorus matches.
But in spite of this unanimous recommendation, the Swedish Parlia
ment rejected the proposal on the ground that regulation ought to
suffice.
A few years later, in 1897, the Lower Chamber passed a bill prohibit
ing the importation, exportation, and sale of the poisonous matches
in every part of Sweden. In the Upper Chamber, however, it was
argued that these matches might still be exported, but should no
longer be made for home consumption. The majority in the Upper
Chamber were adverse to any change, principally on the ground that
a Publication No. 6, International Association for Labor Legislation, London, 1909,
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
83
no effective substitute had then been discovered, and that in the
absence of an international agreement the total prohibition act would
seriously cripple Sweden's export trade.
“ The Swedish match industry which, in respect to the number of
persons employed, comes next in importance to those of Japan, Rus
sia, and Italy, included in 1905, 20 factories and 5,678 work people.
Of the latter, 44.8 per cent were women and 26.1 per cent were young
>ersons. Matches containing white phosphorus are manufactured
or export only, and the number of workpeople who may be exposed
to necrosis is thus much smaller than that given above. In spite of
this there were in Sweden between 1902 and 1906, 17 cases of phos
phorus necrosis, which thus could not be avoided through mere pre
cautionary regulations, notwithstanding the very advanced technical
arrangements." (a)
The regulations at present in force in Sweden date from 1870, and
some of them are as follows: (*6)
S e c t io n 1. Matches, the paste of which contains ordinary phospnorus, shall be made only in factories specially arranged for the purpose.
S e c . 4. Factories referred to in this order must be situated m an
open and dry position. The following processes shall each be carried
on in a separate room:
(a) Preparation of the paste and dipping of matches, (6) drying,
(c) packing. These rooms shall be separated from the remaining
workrooms, but shall communicate with each other by tightly fitting
doors, closing by means of springs, weights, or similar means. In
each of the rooms above mentioned there must be a thorough change
of air, either by means of mechanical ventilation or else by a suffi
ciently high draft chimney, under which a fire shall be kept up on a
special hearth during wort: time. The said rooms must be at least 10
feet high and a floor space of at least 30 square feet be allowed for
each worker engaged therein. The walls must be coated with oil
paint and the floor covered with asphalt, cement, or closely fitting
flagstones. In rooms used for the preparation of the paste and dip
ping the matches these operations must take place only under flues
connected with the ventilating apparatus.
S e c . 6. No worker under 15 years of age shall be employed in the
operations of preparing the paste or in dipping the matches, and no
one may be engaged for more than six months at any time in these
operations. He may not return to this kind of work until the expira
tion of at least two months, during which no detrimental effects of the
work have been shown in regard to his health. In order to enforce
the strict observance of these regulations there shall be a special regis
ter in the factory in which shall be entered the Christian name, sur
name, and age of every worker, as well as the date on which he com
mences or ceases to work in any particular department of the factory.
S e c . 7. The manager of the factory shall see that every worker
engaged in the operations mentioned in section 4 wears the proper
f
« Publication No. 6, International Association for Labor Legislation, London, 1909,
p. 50.
& Reports to 4he Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Use of Phos
phorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, Prof. Thomas
Oliver, M. D., and Dr. George Cunningham. London, 1899, p. 56.
S4
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
working dress, which is to be put aside in a special room on leaving off
work, that clean water is available in a convenient part of the factory
for the purpose of rinsing the mouth on the conclusion of work, and
that soap is provided by the proprietor, so that the employees may
wash their hands and face before leaving the factory or at meal times.
The manager shall also see that the employees do not remain longer
in the room referred to than is necessary for the work, that no eataWes
shall be consumed therein, and that these rooms shall not be used
for dwelling rooms, sleeping places, or for keeping eatables or clothes.
S e c . 8. The doctor appointed by the owner of the factory shall
carefully examine the employees at least once a quarter. The result
of this inspection and advice with respect to the removal or trans
ference of the work people^ to other branches of the work shall be
entered in the register provided under section 6. Observations made
during any occasional visits of the doctor to the factory as to the
general state of health should be entered in the same register.
S e c . 9. The rooms mentioned in section 4 and the tables and work
ing places therein shall be cleaned at least once a day. The floors and
walls shall be washed down at least once a fortnight. Refuse must
be immediately burnt. The water used for washing and rinsing the
mouth must not be poured into a sink or open place, but only into a
specially constructed drain.
S e c . 10. The manager is required to exercise great vigilance in
seeing that the regulations and protective measures are carried out,
and to watch carefully the state of health of the employees, especially
those who suffer from decayed teeth or unhealthy gums. When
such present themselves he shall send immediately for medical
assistance.*
S e c . 11. In every workroom the manager shall have this order
posted up in a convenient place, as well as any other regulations which
may be arranged between the manager ami the doctor.
SPAIN.
In Spain the ministry has promised to give serious consideration
to the prohibition of white phosphorus so soon as the contract for the
monopoly of the match industry, which employed 5,000 work people,
mostly women, should expire. (a)
RUSSIA.
In Russia the ministry of finances has endeavored to limit the
manufacture of ordinary phosphorus matches by doubling the excise
duty on such matches. In 1892 a law to this effect was passed and
has resulted in the gradual diminution in the number of factories
devoted to their manufacture and the increase in the number of
factories engaged in making nonpoisonous (safety) matches. In
1898 the department of trade and manufacture reported that “ the
only efficacious measure of protection for the workmen consists in
the total prohibition of the use of ordinary (white or yellow)
phosphorus.”
o Publication No. 6, International Association for Labor Legislation, London, 1909.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
85
“According to reliable official information there was in Russia in
1906 one factory employing white phosphorus exclusively, 8 employ
ing white phosphorus in addition to nonpoisonous substitutes, 93
employing no white phosphorus; only 449,000,000 matches contain
ing phosphorus were made, as opposed to 244,778,000,000 containing
no phosphorus. The number of work people was: 1903, 18,510;
1904, 18,006; 1905, 17,164; 1906, 18,190 (of whom 7,902 were adult
men and 7,297 were adult women). The excise on all matches was
doubled by a law of April 13, 1905. The number of cases of necrosis
is unknown, since there is no system of compulsory notification.
But it is evident from the facts just stated that the agreement of
Russia to the Berne convention offers no serious difficulties.” ^ )
JAPAN.
As is well known, the Japanese exports have increased in a marked
degree since the conclusion of the war, and Japan may be said to
have the command of the Chinese market. The Indian market it
shares with Sweden, and the Australasian market, with the exception
of New Zealand, is practically untouched by it. In 1908 according
to reliable information there were 209 factories in Japan, 60 of which
manufacture for export and 149 for home consumption. Thirty
thousand persons are employed in these factories, and nearly 4,500,000
cubic meters [158,913,000 cubic feet] of wood are used in a year.
The raw materials for the match industry have nearly all to be
imported; the value of the imports of wood alone amounts to
6,000,000 marks [$1,428,000]. The export of matches considerably
exceeds the home consumption; in 1907 it was valued at 26,000,000
francs [$5,018,000]. The principal customers are China, Hongkong,
Singapore, India, and Korea. * * *
The Chinese boycott of Japanese matches, which began in March,
1908, and which affected almost half the industry, showed that the
Chinese market is not closed to nonpoisonous matches. (b)
Among the requirements prevailing in Japan are the separation of
the different departments, namely, dipping, drying, and boxing; the
provision of ventilation by hoods and fans; the prohibition of employ
ment of persons when their teeth are decayed; the interdiction of
food taken into and eaten in the factory; and of the presence of a
larger percentage of phosphorus in the paste than 10 per cent. In
Japan no match factory can be built without the consent of the
Government, and no workers can be employed under 16 years of age.
a Publication No. 6, International Association for Labor Legislation.
p. 49.
&Idem, pp. 48 and 49.
London, 1909,
86
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
FACTORY CONDITIONS AND PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN AMERICAN
FACTORIES.
This investigation of factory conditions.and phosphorus poisoning
in the manufacture of matches in the United States has included a
study of 15 of the 16 match factories known to be in operation during
the year 1909. All of these factories were visited by special agents
of the Bureau of Labor, and 4 were studied intensively by the writer
of this report. The 4 establishments selected for intensive study
include 2 factories owned by a single company, 1 an old but modern
ized plant in Maine and the other a new and modern factory in
Wisconsin; 2 other factories, neither very old, 1 an Indiana factory
operated under somewhat unfavorable circumstances and the other
a Minnesota factory more modern in equipment. This selection
was made with the desire to make a perfectly fair test of the effect
upon the health of the workers of work under the very best condi
tions and under ordinary factory conditions.
The remaining 11 factories visited by agents of the Bureau are
3 in Ohio, 2 in Pennsylvania, 1 in New Jersey, 2 in New York, 2
in Michigan, and 1 in Illinois. Information gathered concerning
phosphorus poisoning in these 11 establishments was almost wholly
limited to inquires made in the factories. This fact should be re
membered. The information secured in these brief inquiries showed
clearly that a careful local study of these last-named factories would
reveal many additional cases of disease and death from phosphorus
poisoning.
All of the specific cases of phosphorus poisoning which are given in
connection with this report in the following pages were clearly iden
tified, and the names of the patients secured; but as, for obvious
reasons, in many cases it is not desirable to identify these unfortunate
victims, fictitious names are used in the descriptions.
FACTORY AT ------ , ME.
The factory a t -------- , Me., alone remains of all the New England
establishments, once so influential for the important inventions
they gave to the trade. It, too, is the only remaining factory in
this country that still manufactures, to the exclusion of all other
kinds, the old “ New England,” “ nine-day,” “ sulphur,” or “ card”
match.
A brief description of the distinctive processes in the manufacture
of these matches, together with a description of dangerous condi
tions, will help to make the whole subject clear.
Rough logs are brought up to the rear of the factory, which from
that side presents the appearance of an ordinary sawmill. From
the unhewn log until in the form of matches it is wrapped in thin
paper and boxed for the retail trade one may follow the processes
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
87
step by step past the saws which convert the log into boards, past
the machines which slit the boards into thin strips and later into
short pieces twice the length of a match, through an intermediary
stage when the lumber is so poor as to require steaming to remove
sap and pitch, past a machine which cuts the slip of wood crosswise
through the middle and notches one end of each piece, and past the
final wood-working machine which slits the notches deeper until
they extend comblike through three-fourths of the length of the
wooden card.
These wooden cards, or combs, with 23 teeth or “ matches” on
each card, are locked up in frames somewhat after the fashion of
type in the printer’s forms. These frames, presenting on either
side a surface of match splints, are next taken to the sulphur-dipping
room, where two men work. One man takes a frame, dips the lower
side perhaps one-fourth of an inch into a tank of melted sulphur
and brimstone, then passes it on to the second man, who dips the
reverse side in his tank of the compound.
This brimstone or sulphur room is ventilated with great difficulty,
but there is ample evidence of modem attempts to furnish fresh air
to the workmen. In fact, the factory throughout has the “ madeover” appearance so frequently noticeable in the smaller and older
establishments. Large air pipes open from above and furnish in
summer time a noticeable current of cooler air. “ But in winter
time,” said the superintendent, “ we can’t have much cold air here^
for it would cool the sulphur too much.” The odor of sulphur was
very noticeable in this room, but not particularly troublesome.
After the brimstone tip has passed through an intermediate stage
of drying the frame full of matches is taken to the phosphorus room,
and there passes through a similar process of dipping. A man stands
at one side of a tank and, by sense of touch, dips one frame after
another into the fuming dark liquid paste. A boy stands at one end
of the tank and between each operation pulls a broad hoe-like instru
ment over the top of the liquid to smooth it. When the writer vis
ited this factory, in June, 1909, the man and the boy each wore below
his eyes, and completely encircling the lower part of his face, a rubber
funnel-shaped mask, which extended in the form of a tube and con
nected with a fresh-air ventilator. “ This apparatus,” said the super
intendent, “ is to protect them from the phosphorus fumes which when
they enter bad teeth cause the teeth to rot and finally the jawbones
to decay.” He said he had never known of but one case of phos
phorus poisoning, and that “was a girl in the packing room.
In a comer of the same room, which is also the drying room, is the
“ mixing department,” where the paste or composition is made. A
large kettle with a thick wooden cover is used for this purpose. Two
other kettles were said to contain glue. Submerged in a tank of
88
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Water, in a comer, were eight or ten 11-pound tin cans of the poison
ous phosphorus. “ We get two shipments of this phosphorus a month,
of about 8 cases of 10 cans each,” said the superintendent. “ We mix
every day, and then twice during the week we mix two times a day.
We get our phosphorus from Niagara.”
In another part of this large room, which is used for drying, as well
as for mixing and dipping, boys lift the frames and shake the matches
into trays beneath, using their hands freely to poke the matches into
place. The trays, full of matches, are taken to the boxing room,
where, on the day the factory was visited, 62 women and girls, some
of them surprisingly young looking, were seated at wooden benches.
They wrap 4 cards containing 23 matches each with thin paper and
then put a number of these “ bunches” together in a box. The work
itself is not at all difficult. But fires occur frequently here, as also
in the drying department, and the fumes arise constantly in various
parts of the room. Wet sponges are kept at hand for use in extin
guishing the flames, which sometimes bum the girls painfully.
The wash room is about 20 feet square, with windows on one side
and a door opening into the corridor which connects directly with
the packing room. In one comer are 3 inclosed closets, and next
to them an iron sink about 6 feet long, to be used as a wash basin.
Running the length of this sink, about a foot from the bottom, is a
pipe with perforations through which hot and cold water runs when
faucets are turned. The other half of the room is occupied with coat
racks and hooks, from which a great array of hats and jackets hang.
Along the opposite wall, in the same room, is an open cupboard con
taining, in paper bags, the noonday meal.
Obvious attempts have been made within recent years to provide
ventilation. The light on pleasant days is fairly good. But one man
was seen—the feeder at the planing machine—who had lost a hand.
Notices are posted warning the men against “ cleaning machinery
while in motion,” but nowhere was a single notice explaining the
dangers of phosphorus poisoning seen. Young children, boys and
girls, are here doing work much too heavy and too dangerous for them.
When the superintendent was asked what precautions were taken to
prevent phosphorus poisoning he said: “ Oh, we have a dentist to
examine their teeth every three months, and then we expect 'em to
keep clean, that's all.” In reply to the next question, he answered,
“ No, we haven't any here now that are poisoned. We won't let 'em
stay a minute when we find out. They have to get out, and they
can't come back until they are all right again.”
A few of the girls go home at noon, others have their luncheons
brought at 12 by smaller sisters or brothers, and the remainder eat
out of the paper bags which since morning have reposed in the “ wash
room.” The management now provides a clean room with two long
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
89
oilcloth covered tables, and wooden benches for the use of the girls
at noon. This lunch room is some distance from the packing room
fumes and odors and is reasonably light and clean. The floors are
scrubbed once or twice a week.
An agent of the bureau who visited this factory in January, 1909,
found that the total number of persons employed was 140, of whom
75 men and 53 women were over 16 years of age, and 12 girls were not
yet 16. The ten-hour day, with a Saturday half-holiday was the rule
for all females, while the men worked sixty hours a week. Sixty
minutes was reported as the regular allowance for lunch.
For the supply of fresh air to the workrooms, and for the removal
of fumes, he found thirteen 12-inch air pipes in the wrapping room,
and that the air space per person in the factory was 671 cubic feet for
women, and 1,100 for men, which is regarded as ample. The estab
lishment furnished soap and towels, and washing facilities were
reported as “ sufficient.”
In order to learn at first hand some of the facts concerning the effect
of phosphorus upon the health of workers in match factories, many in
quiries were made of various people, including manufacturers, working
people, dentists, physicians, and others. The information thus
secured was verified and supplemented by an examination of the
records kept by three local hospitals, wherever there was a sufficient
clue to justify the expenditure of the necessary time.
In spite of many difficulties and from such clues as could be picked
up in inquiries about town, the records of several cases of phosphorus
necrosis were collected, which indicate the seriousness of this
occupational disease in this factory at least.
Without further preliminary comment, and with every desire to
furnish the reader a view of conditions unprejudiced in the slightest
manner by sympathy for actual suffering, the records as found are here
given.
GEORGE K.
George K. worked several years as a dipper in the match factory
before he had serious trouble in November, 1878. He didn’t know
the occupation was dangerous. No protection was then provided
for the faces of the dippers. He had some teeth extracted once on
Saturday and went back to work Monday morning. Finally Doctor
M. examined him and told him his jaw was “ like honeycomb.”
Doctor M. called Doctor F. in consultation and they decided he must
go to the hospital for an operation.
He went to the hospital for the first operation in November, 1878.
Several teeth were removed, but the trouble continued.
In January, 1879, he returned to the same hospital and his entire
lower jaw was removed. From that time until his death in December,
1901 (twenty-two years), he ate no solid food.
90
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
For a time after the operation, when he had sufficiently recovered,
he worked as engineer at the match factory. Later he became night
watchman for another company, a position he filled until his last
sickness.
The writer was shown a photograph, taken years after the operation,
showing Mr. K. with a heavy beard. “ His face looked much worse
than it does in the picture, because the sides were drawn in, and we
had great difficulty in inducing him to have his picture taken,”
said the daughter, “ but the photographer fixed him up.” This
photograph gives the impression of a man just in the act of swallowing
a massive beard. When a man suffers such disfigurement he
immediately grows a beard, a refuge denied to the women sufferers
who sometimes go through the remaining years of life frightfully
disfigured.
In complete confirmation of the above report the following record
was later copied from the books of the hospital:
George K ., November 6 , 1878^ —Was sent by Doctor M. Lived in
C.; age, 42; married; employee in match factory. Came of strumous
family, but own health always good. Had dipped matches for last
four years. Three weeks prior to consulting M., he had all of the teeth
in the lower jaw removed., excepting the wisdom teeth, on account
of their sudden loosening accompanied by pain in the jaw. After
wards there was great pain, with discharge and offensive odor. Great
depression of spirits present.
November 7 .—Consultation to-day. The jaw was examined with
probe and the alveolar processes were found carious for their entire
extent. I t was decided to save the jawbone if possible, removing
only what was diseased. Patient received usual preparation.
November 8 — 'This noon Doctor F. removed with bone forceps,
chisel, etc., all diseased bone possible. The burrer and rasp were then
used thoroughly over the exposed surface.
November 9-12 .—For these three days there was great pain and
soreness, expectoration of blood, severe headache, weakness, and
depression or spirits. Opiates and liquid nourishment were given.
November 13-20.—During this week patient was quite comfortable
and in better spirits. Granulation sprang up from the periosteum
in many places. Still the prognosis for saving the bone seemed
grave. Patient went home of nights and as he lived near by was
dismissed the 20th with injunctions to return once per week in order
that further developments might be watched.
December 6 .—Patient readmitted in an unpromising condition.
Fungous granulations present on jaw, bleeding easily and profusely.
Large abscess in submental region. General condition poor, weak
ness and despondency being present. Dr. F. opened abscess, evacu
ated contents, and ordered flax-seed poultice. Patient allowed to
remain at home.
December 9 .—Visited hospital. Much discharge present. Dead
bone discovered by probe. Patient put upon Tr. Ferri Chi. m.
xx t. d. and 01. Morrh. tablespoonful t. d.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE'M ATCH INDUSTRY.
91
December 9-January 1, 1879.—Patient visited hospital at intervals
of a week. Discharge increased, pus coming away both by sinus
and mouth. General condition getting worse. January 1, service
of F. ended.
January 1 - 14 -—Service of Doctor H. Patient visited hospital on
4th, 6th, and 11th. Doctor H. endeavored on each of these occasions
to separate the periosteum from the dead bone by means of probe,
having decided to operate as soon as practicable. 14th, patient
visited hospital, prepared for operation.
January 15.—Operation for removal of body of lower jaw. Owing
to peculiar position of the bone, incision was made farther back than
usual. Bone divided with chain-saw. Operation complete success.
String attached to tongue to prevent suffocation, opiates given, and
patient put to bed.
January 16-25.—Patient improved almost immediately after
operation. No febrile reaction present. For first four days remained
mostly in bed. Mouth greatly swollen and copious discharge of a
thick brownish mucus. Headache present. Liquid nourishment
freely. 18th—stitches removed. 19th—patient up and dressed.
Water dressing for wound. Old sinuses which led to bone seem to.
be transformed into fistulas, which became very annoying, allowing
food and mucus to escape. Patient continued to improve and went
home 25th.
This case occurred at this factory in 1878, and is given above in some
detail in order to show that the disease has been known there for a
generation at least. The same manufacturer operated this factory
during the next twenty-five years, and it is reasonable to suppose
that he knew of the dangers of the occupation. The following cases
from the same factory are set down in chronological order, with only
such comment as appears necessary to make the facts clear to the
reader.
ANNIE L.
Annie L. was one of the earlier cases mentioned by several resi
dents. From her sister it was learned that the trouble occurred
twenty-six years ago, and that “ she did not go to any hospital or
any other charitable institution,” but employed their own family
physician. “ We look out for ourselves in our own way. We blame
no one for our trouble, and we desire no publicity. We are not
interested in any way. You can not get information here—and no
evidence whatever, ” said her sister.
In this instance, as in several others, it was necessary before the
facts were given to satisfy the family that the purpose was not to
bring a suit for damages against the manufacturer.
From several different sources it was learned that Annie L. had a
jaw cut out and is badly disfigured.
38697—No. 86—10---- 7
92
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
BRIDGET D.
Bridget D., a proud-spirited girl, who would not admit even to her
dentist (Doctor E.) that she worked in a factory, had been in the
match factory only a year or two when, as a result of phosphorus
poisoning, she was obliged to have her entire lower jaw removed.
This was about twenty years ago. The operation was at the home
of her parents and consequently there is no written record, but Doctor
J., who was one of the surgeons, stated that it was a very bad case,
requiring the removal of the entire lower jaw.
These facts were corroborated by Mrs. L. and the Misses A., and by
the father and mother of Bridget D., who still live in the neighbor
hood of the factory. They both told in detail the story of their
daughter’s suffering. For a long time the mother had kept hot
poultices on her daughter’s face, and Bridget would hold her face
against the warm wall behind the kitchen stove in the hope of stop
ping the trouble. “ B ut,” says her mother, “ my work was all for
nothing. Poison it was that was there.”
EMMA i.
Emma I. was out of town for the week at the time of the writer’s
visit, but her sister-in-law and a friend living in the same house gave
much information. Emma I., before the removal of her jaw, they
said, was a good-looking young woman, and they showed a tintype
to prove it. They remembered that she was obliged to leave the
match factory and that she had several operations in the hospital
about fifteen years ago. In a letter under date of November 17,1909,
she informs the writer of this; that she had never regained her health
since she was first affected by the poison. The hospital records in
this case are as follows:
Emma I.—Single, age 20; admitted January 22,1894.—Patient has
been at work in match factory, and about two months ago began to
have pain in right side of lower jaw. Found to be a case of phos
phorus poisoning. Doctor F. extracted two teeth and curetted away
some dead bone; also opened swelling on outside—found dead bone
at bottom—removed and dressed. Discharged same day. Cured.
Admitted April 23, 1894•—Sinus still discharging. Opened sinus
and curetted and gouged out dead bone. Sinus opened into mouth
through jaw, April 25. Discharged (relieved) May 1.
Admitted May 31, 1894-—Has returned for removal of jaw. Doctor
S. removed left side (June 4) of inferior maxillary bone from symph
to ramus—found it in very bad shape. Filling in well—very little
discharge (June 14). Is going home and came m for dressing. Dis
charged, cured, June 14.
Admitted August 26, 1898^—Single, age 24. Has swelling on left
side of lower jaw accompanied by pain. One week ago had tooth
extracted there. August 27, Doctor H., assisted by Doctor R., cut
down and curetted the bone; August 31, discharged, relieved
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
93
MARY E.
The superintendent of Doctor II.’s hospital referred to a Miss E.,
who suffered from a bad case of phosphorus poisoning which occurred
about twelve years ago and resulted in the removal of an entire jaw
while the superintendent was nurse at the hospital. This case was
mentioned by several others, who remarked that ushe lost a jaw, too.”
From these accounts it appears that she had been over from Ireland
but a short time when she entered the match factory, and that after
about a year she had trouble and went to the hospital for an opera
tion. The record books of the hospital tell this story:
Mary E. (nativity, Ireland) ; age 21.—Admitted January 15, 1896.
Diagnosis.—Necrosis of right side of jaw (inferior). Present illness
began two months prior to admission. Face began to swell, was
painful. Abscess formed which broke—girl works in match factory.
January 16.—Operation. Doctor S. and Doctor A. extracted two
teeth and curetted away portion of jaw.
February 10.—Second operation—no improvement from first.—
Opened abscess which had formed under the jaw at seat of previous
operation. Wound packed. Dressed daily. Discharges pus.
March 11.—Doctor S., assisted by Doctor V. Excision of right
half of inferior maxillary. Uninterrupted recovery.
A pril 4 -—Discharged cured, except a small sinus for which she
comes in occasionally and has dressed.
ALICE A.
According to the statement of two sisters of Alice A., both educated
and refined women, she left school after one year in the academy—
upon the death of her father—and went to work in the match factory.
She was then about 174years old, had perfect teeth, and always took
good care of them, going on her own account to a dentist every three
or four months to be sure they were perfectly sound.
About 1901, after she had worked in the match factory perhaps
seventeen years, she had trouble with her teeth and went to a dentist
who removed several splinters from her jaw. (Doctor A. admin
istered the ether.) She never went back to the factory. Two years
later, in 1903, when she was 36 years old, she was obliged to go to the
hospital, where she had two operations a few weeks apart. Her right
lower jaw was entirely removed—and also the teeth on her left jaws,
leaving only a few teeth in front. She suffered terribly.
Several other local people added similar statements with reference
to this case, but here again the record books of the hospital furnish
the documentary evidence.
A lice A., age 35.—Admitted October 15, 1903. Private patient
of Doctor S. October 15, Doctor S. curetted the jaw. Has had an
ulcerated tooth for four weeks. Has pain and swelling. Discharged,
94
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
relieved. October 15 (p. 271) Doctor S. opened, curetted and p u t
in gauze drain. (P .291.) Same entry as at top, with this addition:
“ Six weeks ago had a tooth extracted, an abscess formed at seat
of cavity, and Doctor S. opened it at his office. The bone became
involved and he advised her to go to the hospital. She came in
October 15 and Doctor S. curetted out the diseased bone and she
went home at night.”
Returned to hospital November 3, 1903, with more bone involved.
Doctors S. and R. removed more diseased bone November 3.
“ November 26, wound nearly closed. Allowed to go home, but
advised to come to hospital to have wound dressed.” (P. 143, vol.
36, Sing. Rec.)
Wound did not heal well. Returned to hospital April 30, 1904.
Operation April 30, 1904. Doctors V., A. and G. Incision made
over border of right side lower jaw. Right half of jaw removed just
outside of symphasis. Wound did well. Pack still left in and
patient allowed to go home. To have dressing done outside. May
13, 1904.
The suffering from the phosphorus poisoning finally affected her
mind, said her sisters, until at times she is unable to recall that she
ever worked in the match factory. Although she was a very pretty
young woman, she is now frightfully disfigured and shuns everybody.
MRS. SARAH E.
Mrs. Sarah E. worked in the match factory from about her 14th to
her 20th year. In 1903, she told the writer she had two operations at
home for the poison in her left inferior jaw. I t came, she thought,
from going back to work immediately after having a tooth extracted.
After the first two operations she never returned to the factory,
but suffered from severe toothache, and then for two years or more
from a running sore on her jaw. She now has an ugly scar to show
where Doctor H. lanced it.
In April, 1905, she was obliged to go to the hospital for another
operation and Doctor H. took her to the infirmary. After this oper
ation the wound healed well and she has had little trouble since.
At least an inch of the lower jaw is missing.
The records at the infirmary show that she was admitted to that
hospital April 12, 1905, and discharged April 16, and that Doctor
H. was the surgeon. No further record was made on the books.
MRS. ELLA B.
A very recent hospital case is that of Mrs. Ella B. Upon the advice
of the local dentist (Doctor S.) who in recent years has had most of
the match factory practice i n -------- , she went in February, 1909,
to Doctor H .’s hospital for treatment. The meager hospital records
show that she was admitted to the hospital February 3, 1909, and
departed February 7. The diagnosis is given as “ Phosphoric
necrosis of jaw.”
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
95
From additional information secured from the superintendent of
this hospital as well as from Doctor H. and several others, it appears
that Mrs. B. has worked in the match factory for a number of years
and was working there at the time of her trouble early in 1909.
According to her dentist she had no natural teeth, had been using
false teeth for years, and yet necrosis of the bone set in, probably
where the rubber base of her artificial teeth produced irritation.
Doctor H. told the writer that the case was not an especially serious
one, that he removed a part of the superior maxillary about threefourths of an inch in diameter, and that Mrs. B. (four months after
the operation) was doing well under his treatment.
The local dentist had advised her not to go back to work, but she
was supporting and educating her two children, and her regard for her
children was stronger than her fear of the poison.
The above detailed records of eight cases are sufficient to demon
strate the long-continued existence and serious nature of the disease
in this factory, but the following additional cases from the same fac
tory must likewise be considered.
ANNIE B.
One of the worst cases at this factory, according to several inform
ants, was Annie B., who many years ago had phosphorus necrosis
which caused the loss of an eye as well as her upper jaw, and finally
after terrible suffering resulted in her death.
MR.
v.
Several people i n -------- referred to a Mr. V., who it is reported
worked as a dipper in the factory and suffered much from bad teeth
and an abscess, if not the loss of an entire jaw, perhaps twenty years
ago.
LENA A.
Lena A. worked in the match factory for about twelve years and
then was obliged to leave on account of the poison. About 1896 she
had serious trouble with her teeth, and according to one informant
“ lost both bones.’’ Doctor C. had her case.
Doctor C. remembers this case very well. Miss A. came to him first
about 1896 with a sore tooth—a left inferior molar. She had had a
few teeth drawn before coming to Doctor 0., but now she began to
lose one tooth after another until she had lost every tooth on her lower
jaw. Doctor C. attended her for perhaps six years before cutting out
the left inferior jawbone, a piece of which he still displays in his dental
offices.
Miss A. married and now lives at K. In a recent communication
on the subject of phosphorus poison, under date of November 18,
96
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
1909, she says: “ I lost every tooth on my under jaw and not one of
them decayed; so you see the poison enters through the system and
not through the teeth. My mouth did not heal, and it discharged all
the time for over three years. Doctor B. also removed several pieces
of the dead bone. I do not like to think about it, I suffered so much.77
MARY B.
Mary B., it is reported, worked in the factory several years, when
suddenly her bones became brittle, an affliction sometimes caused by
phosphorus poisoning. After fracturing her limbs several times she
left the factory, but still lives i n -------- .
MARY o.
Mary C. worked in the match factory and went to Doctor S. about
five years ago with a slight case of necrosis. He cut away the ne
crosed bone and she left the factory. She was 8.bout 24 years old.
MINNIE
v.
Another girl, Minnie V., worked in the match factory until she had
to have a piece of her jaw removed.
MRS. T.
Mrs. T., according to Doctor S., came to him about five years ago
for several weeks7 treatment, but would not take care of herself, and
finally stopped coming. Her younger sister remembered that several
years ago Mrs. T. “ had the poison and suffered from pus/7 but that
“ the company dentist told her recently that she is all right again
now.77
m o l l ie
o.
About five years ago Doctor C. examined the mouth of Mollie C.
He “ found some bad conditions77 and recommended immediate
treatment, but never saw her again. “ If she didn7t get treatment at
once she must be in a fearful condition now,77 said dentist C.
MISS K.
About four years ago, according to dentist C., a Miss K. came to
him suffering from a right inferior bicuspid. She was about 20 years
old and had worked in the match factory. Doctor C. says: “ I sac
rificed the adjacent teeth and cut beyond the diseased tissue. She
was anaemic and suffering from malnutrition, but under treatment
she thrived and has had no recurrent trouble.77
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
97
ANNIE N.
About four years ago, according to Doctor C., Annie N., then a girl
of about 19, came to him for treatment of a superior maxillary
bicuspid. He filled it. Soon after the membrane began to creep
away. He then removed the tooth and all of the cancellated bone.
The case progressed well under treatment for a year and a half, when
suddenly small particles of bone commenced to come out, and he
opened the tissues and scraped the roots of the adjacent teeth.
About a year ago she left the factory and married. No record of
trouble since.
ELLA X.
Ella X., who is still employed in the factory, came to Doctor S.
for treatment three or four years ago, when she was about 17. She
had apparently gone back to work almost immediately after having a
tooth extracted. Doctor S. treated her and kept her out of the fac
tory for several months, much to her annoyance, as she was the only
support of the family.
GEORGIA G.
In the summer of 1908 Georgia G. “ had an abscess on her gum”
and left the factory. Her trouble, according to local reports, was
due to phosphorus poisoning.
KATE A.
When the factory was visited early in June, 1909, Kate A. had been
out of the factory about one week it was said “ with an abscess on her
tooth.”
There are other rather hazy recollections of individual suffering as
a result of phosphorus poisoning at this factory and one instance is
mentioned of a “ man with a piece of silver in his jaw.” Doctor S.,
too, tells of having been called to the factory once several years ago,
and of having found some terrible cases. “ One old man,” he says,
“ with teeth rotted out, pus oozing from the sockets, and with necrosed
bone protruding from the gums, was a disgusting object.”
According to the story of an employee who has been in this factory
for many years, conditions were very bad in the factory “ until about
eight years ago.” Before that windows furnished the only ventila
tion, and the air got very bad. The rubbish was not taken up often,
broken matches accumulated—and the girls ate their lunches at the
bench, often keeping them in paper bags in the drawer of the bench,
where they also at times kept “ bunched” matches that were not yet
wrapped in packages. At that time there was but one toilet, and but
one small sink—in the workroom. The girls’ wraps then hung in the
alleyway directly off the workroom.
98
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Now, she declares, they have soap, and each girl has a towel each
week. She never heard of the need of brushes for the hands and nails,
or of antiseptic mouth wash. Nothing of the kind has ever been
furnished by the company, and the company dentist has never, to her
knowledge, suggested that they should have mouth wash of their own.
At present the teeth of the factory employees are inspected by the
regular dentist of the company, who does this work for five of the
company7s factories. He is supposed to visit this factory every three
months, but when the writer was there in June, he was six weeks over
due. He usually spends two days at this factory. He fills out a slip
of paper (a diagram of the teeth) which the employee takes to a local
dentist to have the needed work done. The local dentist, too, is
required to fill out a blank when the employee is in proper condition
to return to work.
Cases that require examination during the long intervals of three
months or more that the company dentist is away are sent to a local
dentist. He naturally has a considerable part of the work, although
the employees are free to go, and frequently do go, to other dentists
for treatment. The examinations are made at the expense of the
company, but the employees pay for treatments.
One dentist estimated that he has had about 25 cases of phosphorus
necrosis in the past seven years, and another states that he had fully
that number during the previous fifteen years. Unfortunately, in
common with most dentists, neither has kept written records. Much
of this class of work is necessarily done without charge, and no record
is kept by the dentist.
FACTORY AT ------ , WIS.
The factory a t -------- , Wis., dates from 1867, when it was origi
nally established. Sales increased from less than 3,000,000 matches
in 1867 to more than 50,000,000 in 1875. The factory in the latter
year consumed 150 tons of brimstone, 11 tons of phosphorus, 320
tons of strawboard and paper, and 4,000,000 feet of lumber, employ
ing nearly 600 people. In December, 1880, the factory passed into
the hands of its present owners, by purchase from its founder, and
with continual additions and improvements the same company has
operated the factory for nearly thirty years. The daily capacity of
this one establishment is now about 173,000,000 matches. One hun
dred thousand feet of lumber and more than 500 pounds of poisonous
phosphorus are consumed each day.
The present plant has been remodeled and rebuilt with special
provisions in respect to ventilation and lavatory facilities, and there
is close dental supervision of the employees. The factory proper is
a four-story brick building, 600 by 150 feet, and is an example of the
general disposition of the company to provide humane conditions for
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
99
their work people. Practically all of the provisions for the protection
of the employees mentioned in connection with the description of
processes of manufacture at the Ohio factory of the same company
are duplicated at this factory. Hoods are provided for the removal
of fumes from the closed kettles in the mixing room, and the mixers
are directly exposed to the fumes from open kettles only while
adding the phosphorus to the liquid paste. The composition is kept
until required in kettles which are placed in a special well-ventilated
storeroom. The dipping, drying, packing, and wrapping processes
are conducted in two immense rooms where 25 continuous process
machines are kept in operation. The rooms are lofty, well lighted,
and reasonably well ventilated by fresh-air and exhaust pipes. Only
at the farther end of the long machines, where the matches are auto
matically dipped in the phosphorus paste, are fumes particularly
noticeable. The floors are kept free from waste, and there is very
little accidental “ firing” of matches. The claim is made that the
air is entirely changed every three minutes. Lavatory facilities are
provided, and employees are expected, although not required, to wash
before eating. Eating is absolutely prohibited in the workrooms,
and the superintendent remarked that he would instantly discharge
anyone found violating this regulation, although his attention was
called a few minutes later to a young woman packer, whose facial
motions with frequent parting of the lips indicated most clearly that
she was chewing gum. The company provides a large kitchen and
lunch room in the opposite end of the building, where a cup of hot
coffee with sugar and milk and a plate and spoon are furnished
without cost to all employees. During the winter months a bowl of
hot soup is added to the noonday lunch, and the company spends
$3,000 a year on this employees’ restaurant, in the belief that it pays.
It thus appears that careful provision has been made for the pro
tection of workpeople exposed to phosphorus fumes in this factory.
The present superintendent has worked for this company in this
factory twenty-one years. In this factory a system of regular
medical and dental examinations was established and has been in
force for many years. Inspection and health regulations where
poisonous phosphorus is used have apparently been given a fair trial
under favorable conditions. Here, if anywhere, careful regulation
and inspection under favorable conditions should have resulted in the
complete disappearance of phosphorus necrosis.
The facts, however, while indicating considerable improvement in
recent years, nevertheless present a condition of affairs little less than
pitiful. In a few days spent i n -------- during December, 1909, the
records of 40 cases of phosphorus poisoning were secured. No less
than 25 were serious cases of phosphorus necrosis, and of this number
several died. Many of the other victims, including at least 15 who
100
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
lost jaws by operations, have existed for years with terrible deformi
ties, and one woman after eight years of medical treatment and
regular visits of the company’s dental expert, still lives under con
ditions that to most people would make the grave appear a most
fortunate refuge.
All of the specific cases of phosphorus poisoning which are given in
connection with this report in the following pages were clearly identi
fied, and the names of the patients secured; but as for obvious
reasons in many cases it is not desirable to identify these unfortunate
victims, fictitious names are used in the descriptions.
A mere enumeration of many of the earlier cases is sufficient to
indicate that for a generation the problem of protecting workers in
this match factory has baffled the best trained experts who have
striven to eliminate phosphorus poisoning while continuing to use
the poisonous phosphorus. The private records of local physicians
and dentists, the record books of local hospitals and surgeons, and
the death certificates at the state department of health, as well as
the corroborative testimony of the workers, the superintendent, and
the company’s dental examiner, go to make up the cumulative
evidence of the following cases.
A ugust B. still works in one of the departments of this match
factory. For six years he was employed in the dipping room, and
lost his left lower jaw as a result of phosphorus poisoning many years
ago. The operation was performed by Doctor C, now dead many
years. Mr. B. gave the writer an account of his own case, together
with the names of several other victims.
P atrick T. was another victim of the poison. He worked about
half a dozen years in the dipping room and then was forced to have
his entire right lower jaw removed. A Milwaukee surgeon performed
the operation. Mr. T. died only two years ago.
Johann Y., was another of the early sufferers, who lost a jaw as a
result of the poison. He still lives, and works for a local company.
H ans R . worked in the dipping room at the match factory about
six years, and lost his right upper jaw in consequence of phosphorus
poisoning. The operation was performed in Milwaukee. Mr. R.
died about seven years ago.
James D. several years ago suffered the removal of part of his
jaw as a result of his occupation in the match factory. He is still
living, and works in a local establishment.
G eorge F. has worked in this factory for nearly twenty years in
one capacity or another. In July, 1894, he went to Doctor T. for
treatment, and on January 17, 1895, submitted to an operation for
phosphorus necrosis of the right upper jaw. A second operation was
necessary on April 3 of the same year, when the whole lower jaw was
removed.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
101
H einrich H., a dipper, suffered a long time in 1895 and 1896 with
“ phossy jaw ” and was out of the factory for months while under
going treatment. Doctor It. removed some teeth, found pus, and
ordered an operation. His lower jaw was removed by two operations,
one on January 24, 1895, and the second on March 2, 1896. He still
works for the match company.
F rank M., also paid the penalty of working with poisonous
phosphorus and suffered for a long time. On April 17, 1895, he
underwent a serious operation for necrosis of an upper jaw. He still
works for the match company, but in an occupation which does not
bring him in contact with the phosphorus.
Miss B. suffered from phosphorus poisoning many years ago, and
she is now disfigured as a result of operations to remove dead bone.
Doctor F. treated this case.
W illiam V., many years ago, was one of the sufferers from
“ phossy jaw.” He lost his lower jaw and is badly deformed. He
is still living.
K arl W., when 29 years of age, suffered two severe operations for
phosphorus necrosis. The entry under his name in the record books
at -------- hospital contains the following information: “Admitted
October 30, 1896; discharged December 12, 1896; admitted Decem
ber 22, 1896; discharged December 23, 1896. Phosphorus necrosis
of left side of upper jaw. Operated on by Doctor B., of Chicago.”
He was again treated for the same trouble as late as November 28,
1899. He now wears an artificial plate, made by Doctor D., but
nevertheless suffers a decided facial disfigurement.
M iss E., another victim of phosphorus poisoning, was treated by
Doctor R. several years ago, but her case yielded to treatment, and
according to the dentists report a serious operation was not required.
W illiam J.—Undoubtedly one of the most remarkable cases of
phosphorus necrosis that has ever come within the observation of
medical men. This was an instance where the necrosis attacked
not only the bones of the jaw, but the bones of the ear as well. A
pamphlet prepared by H. V. Wurdemann, M. D., of Milwaukee, the
surgeon who performed the final operations, and entitled “ PhosphorNecrosis of the Temporal Bone,” is devoted to this remarkable
instance.
Briefly stated in nontechnical language, this victim of the use of
poisonous phosphorus in the manufacture of matches had worked,
first, as a fireman in the boiler room for fourteen months, then as
watchman for two years, then as a melter of phosphoric composition
and a roller man for six weeks. In 1894 he had a painful left upper
jaw and had all of the teeth extracted. He was kept from work five
weeks, but later, about January 1, 1895, he had pain in the ear, from
which foul muco-pus discharged. His mouth was sore, and in May,
102
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
1895, sequestrum from the upper jaw was removed by a dentist.
More than one year later the decayed upper jaw was scraped, but
beyond occasional slight trouble of this nature the remainder of the
treatment was for necrosis of the bones of the ear.
On January 1, 1896, the patient was sent to Doctor Wurdemann,
of Milwaukee, for treatment, which continued with several operations
during the next two years. After that the patient was treated from
time to time in his own city, where he still lives, with a permanent
opening which discharges pus from the middle ear.
E mil H.—A case of death as a result of working with poisonous
phosphorus in the manufacture of matches occurred about the first of
the year 1897. This case is well known i n -------- , while nearly all
of the other cases here given have never been generally heard of by
the residents of the city, or else have been forgotten.
Mr. H., on December 6, 1895, went to Doctor T. for treatment for
necrosis of the jaw. According to the hospital records, when 46 years
of age and married, he was first admitted to the hospital on June 9,
1896, and remained ten days. As a part of the record, the following
note is included: “ Phosphorus necrosis; Doctor B., of Chicago, re
moved both upper and lower maxillae.”
While on the operating table the patient swallowed his tongue, and
in order to relieve imminent suffocation the surgeon cut an opening
through the throat.
With both upper and lower jaws entirely removed, and with the
poison still continuing its deadly work, this man lived month after
month, suffering untold agonies, and taking only occasional nourish
ment through a tube. Those who have experienced the fearful odor
from advanced cases of phosphorus poisoning will understand the
nature of this man’s condition.
The hospital records show that the patient was readmitted to the
hospital on July 14 and discharged on August 3, 1896. A third entry
shows that he was again admitted October 22 and discharged Decem
ber 5. And a fourth and last entry records his admission on Decem
ber 22 and his discharge on December 24, 1896. From current
reports it appears that this victim lived but a few weeks longer.
H enry B.—About ten years ago Henry B., an employee in the
match factory, suffered great pain in his jaw, and went to Doctor T.,
who removed the roots of several teeth. ^ Pus oozed .out of the sockets.
Doctor T. took the patient to the hospital, where Doctor N. per
formed a serious operation on June 29, 1899, and a second operation
on August 20, 1899.
M aria M.— She had worked for some time in the packing room at
the match factory when she began to suffer from “ toothache.” She
had the tooth extracted, and after a time received the usual dental
certificate allowing her to go back to work. Three weeks before the
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
103
expiration of the time limit permitted by the certificate trouble began
again. Doctor T. treated her, but afterwards she went to Doctor B.,
who lanced her jaw from the outside, leaving a bad scar. Finally
she went to Doctor P., who took her to the hospital for a further
operation. The hospital records tell the story as follows:
“ Maria M., Wisconsin, age 19. Admitted, January 1, 1896; dis
charged, March 14, 1896; admitted, March 21, 1896; discharged,
April 16, 1896.
“ Diagnosis and treatment: Phosphorus necrosis of both upper and
lower j aw on left side. One-half the lower j aw and the alveolar proc
ess of the upper were removed by Doctor J. in June, 1896. Doctor
J. is the surgeon for the match company by which she was employed.
“ The result is good, the disease is stopped, although a sinus existed
for months.”
Further progress of the disease is, however, clearly indicated by
subsequent records. On June 9 of the same year, for example,
the records say th a t she was again admitted to the same hospital,
when the diagnosis was: “ Phosphorus necrosis.” One year and a
quarter later the record books of the same hospital continue the story:
“ Maria M., -------- , Wis., age 20. Admitted, October 16, 1897;
discharged, October 26, 1897. Date of operation, October 16, 1897.
“ Diagnosis and treatment: Phosphor-necrosis lower jaw; operation
(secondary) removal of dead bone.”
Again, on November 11, 1898, according to the record books of
Doctor T., she suffered still another operation, but this was appar
ently the last of her six operations for phosphorus necrosis. Within
about two years after the beginning of serious trouble her jaws and
face healed. A local dentist made a strong plate and artificial teeth
which in a measure relieved the deformity, although her face is badly
disfigured. Her entire left lower jaw from the hinge to near the chin,
as well as her lower front teeth, were removed. When the writer saw
her in December, 1909, she said she had never entirely recovered her
former good health.
In addition to these specific cases given above and in addition to
the three recent serious and perfectly authenticated cases to follow,
several leading dentists and physicians mentioned a large number of
cases of phosphorus necrosis and phosphorus poisoning. B ut only
occasionally were they able to give names and dates and specific
information. For instance, one dentist recalled having seven girls
from the match factory in his office one Sunday morning to be treated
for phosphorus poisoning. He received for this work little or no pay,
kept no records, and remembered none of the names. He did, how
ever, give the names of several of his patients, and later his statements
with reference to these particular ones were verified. Another den
tist stated he had treated perhaps half a dozen minor cases of phos
phorus poisoning, and recalled particularly one young girl who came
104
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
to him two years ago with purple gums, highly inflamed, and with
granulated bone near an upper molar. He looked through his finan
cial records, but was unable, on account of the incompleteness of
description, to say with certainty which one he had first had in mind.
Another dentist stated that he had been called in last winter by a
neighboring practitioner to see a young woman (Marie R .) from the
match factory, who appeared to be affected somewhat seriously by
poisonous phosphorus. Still another dentist showed the writer one
of the match company’s certificates, bearing the name of a young girl
(Matilda D.) and d a te d ----- , 1909, ordering the extraction of the
lower left first molar. The dentist extracted the tooth and found an
abscess which discharged pus and required treatment for a month
before it finally healed. “ It is possible that this was not a case .of
phosphorus poisoning,” said the dentist, “ but the girl never went
back to the match factory.”
A physician, Doctor P., remembered having treated a German
girl of about 17 for phosphorus poisoning some five years or more
ago, but could not remember her name. Another physician said he
had treated three or four minor cases during the past ten years.
Still another physician brought his big record books from the office
safe, and, together with the writer, went through, page by page, the
notes on examinations, treatments, and operations. In this way the
names of 14 cases of phosphorus necrosis requiring operations were
secured, and 17 additional cases of phosphorus poisoning which yielded
to ordinary treatment. The remainder of his records were too indefi
nite to justify exact statements. This physician excluded from the
list every case of which he felt he could not speak with absolute
certainty.
Among those not already mentioned who came from the match
factory to this physician for operations, were:
Lizzie R., who on January 20, 1895, submitted to a minor operation for phosphorus
necrosis of the jaw.
Annie F., for a similar operation on January 22,1895.
Alice E., for a similar operation on March 5, 1895.
Mary A., for a similar operation on October 28, 1899.
Anne 0 ., November 24, 1900, for removal of dead bone.
Albert L., for the removal of dead bone on April 5, 1904.
Among those otherwise treated by this physician for phosphorus
poisoning in this factory, and not elsewhere mentioned, were—
Annie C., May 13, 1899.
Frank L., May 3, 1901.
Belle R., May 6 and 7,1902.
Karl H., May 12, 1902.
James A., June 25, 1903.
Mary V., November 2, 1903.
Jacob L., May 3, 1904.
John A., July 23, 1904.
Lewis R., July 26, 1904.
Patrick T., August 1, 1904.
Fanny I., August 23, 1904.
Mary B., October 3, 1905.
Wallace D., April 13,1907.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
105
These were, for the most part, minor cases which showed the evil
effects of phosphorus poisoning, but were discovered and treated
before they had an opportunity to develop necrosis of the bone.
I t is for the purpose of discovering cases of this kind, in the incipient
stages of poisoning, that the match company has for many years
kept in its employ a specially trained dentist who goes from factory
to factory seeking to minimize the occupational disease.
Three recent cases of phosphorus necrosis among the match-factory
employees a t -------- require individual and particular mention.
Mary R., one of the girls who worked in the packing room at
this match factory, was a strong, vigorous girl. She had worked
as a match packer for two or three years when the trouble began,
and a local dentist, Doctor T., extracted one of her lower left molars.
She then worked for two months in a brush factory until the wound
healed, and she was pronounced fit to return to her old work as a
match packer. A t the end of the third week after she went back,
trouble began again in a serious form. The local dentist treated her
during April, June, July, and October, 1905, and then she went,
upon the advice of a friend, to a dentist in -------- , who extracted
several more teeth. She was temporarily relieved, but within a few
weeks the suffering again became so severe that she went to Chicago,
determined to end the trouble. She remained in Chicago during the
year 1906, and was operated on four times—in January, March,
June, and October—by a well-known dental surgeon of Chicago.
Large pieces of bone were removed from her lower jaws. Pus con
tinued to run from the wounds, but after another year of systematic
treatment she recovered.
M aria O., a strong and healthy girl, had worked for several years
as a packer in the match factory. Eight years ago, at the age of 20,
she married, but continued to work in the factory. Two months
later she commenced to have trouble with her teeth. Doctor T.
first treated her, beginning with the first operation November 15,
1901. He performed a second operation August 11, 1903, removing
several large splinters of bone from her jaw. She grew no better,
and through Doctor L., another dentist, she secured daily treatments
at her home. Finally, as the trouble continued, she went to Doctors
V. and N. for further medical aid, and is receiving treatment from
them at the present time. Three years ago an abscess opened through
her right jaw, and one year ago another opened on the left. Both
require constant bandaging. When the writer saw her in December,
1909, she was scarcely able to open her lips enough to speak, and
could not separate her upper from her six remaining lower teeth.
All of her lower teeth except the middle six have come out and several
inches of the jaw bone is bare, with pus oozing from the sockets.
106
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR.
The poison first manifested itself eight years ago, shortly after her
marriage. She has a boy 6 years old, and a baby but 2 years old.
A nna M., who died as a result of phosphorus poisoning at this
factory, was, according to reports from all sides, the most recent
case of death from this cause. She began work as a match packer
when only 14 years of age. She had unusually good teeth and had
no trouble of consequence until about eight months before her
death, in 1908. Then she felt sensitive to cold and heat in the region
of a molar that had been filled. This molar was adjacent to the lower
left wisdom tooth, and a dentist, according to reports from her sister
and mother, said the pain came from the wisdom tooth. She had the
wisdom tooth extracted and found it perfectly sound. Later, since
the pain continued, she had the molar extracted and the roots were
so thoroughly affected as to permit the passage of an ordinary
needle through them. Pus ran from the socket, and she was soon
taken to the hospital to have the bone scraped. The record of one
operation, under date April 17,1908, in the record book of Doctor .N.,
is as follows: “Abscess of left lower jaw extending down side of
neck; curettage and drainage. Bone involved.”
Several physicians, including the leading surgeons o f -------- , were
called in consulation and treated her, but she suffered terrible agony.
She could not eat, and slowly starved to death as a result of the
poison.
Several physicians, and practically every one with whom the writer
talked, referred to this as “ the most recent death from phosphorus
poisoning.” The match company paid the costs of treatment and
the funeral expenses.
A further documentary confirmation of the connection between the
occupation and the disease is found in the death certificate filed in
1908 in the bureau of vital statistics of the State of Wisconsin, which
records the occupation of the deceased as “ packing matches in
factory,” and in the attending physician certifying the death as
caused by “ general debility due to phospho-necrosis of left inferior
maxillary bone.”
The odor from the suppurating bone is something that can not be
described in words, and is so nauseating that dentists and physicians
alike prefer to avoid patients afflicted with advanced cases of “ phossy
jaw.”
FACTORY AT ------ , MINN.
This factory is operated by a company formed some eight years ago.
I t manufactures round end parlor matches by processes similar to
those described on pages 50 to 57.
The building at present occupied by the company as a factory was
originally intended for an iron foundry. In addition to the outside
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
107'
stock-making and box-making rooms, the factory consists of a long,,
high room with a partition running across one end. Behind this parti
tion, in double rows of kettles, the “ mixing” is done.
The usual ingredients are put into large kettles holding nearly 150
pounds, where they are heated by steam and mixed by ladles which
are operated by machinery. The paste contains about 10 pounds of
white phosphorus in a total of about 146 pounds of composition—
making about a 7 per cent phosphorus mixture, according to the super
intendent. In this establishment about 180 pounds of the poisonous
phosphorus is used daily.
None but mixers and their assistants are permitted to enter this1,
room, which is partially ventilated by means of windows, although
there is no special apparatus for the removal of the fumes from the*
poisonous phosphorus used in making the composition for the match
heads, and these fumes are very noticeable. The young man who
has been mixer at this factory during the past four years reports th at
he has had no trouble with his teeth. The remainder of the long:
room, much the larger portion, is occupied with the 10 large match,
machines, and the benches of the fourscore or more female match
“ packers.” The dipping, drying, and boxing and packing processes*
are thus carried on simultaneously in the same room, and on the two*
days the factory was visited the doors leading into the mixing room
were wide open. The factory at this time, however, was running
with greatly reduced forces. Less than 50 girls were busy at the*
benches, and but one machine was in motion. But even under such
favorable circumstances the odor of phosphorus was heavy in the air..
“ On a hot day when all of the machines are working,77 said one of the;
girls, “ you can cut the fumes with a knife.77
No unusual effort is made to provide sufficient ventilation, but the*
height of the room is a partial protection and open windows serve as:,
ventilators when the occasional air pipes are out of commission, as.
they were upon the days of the visits to this factory.
The floor of this room and the tables or benches where the girls,
work are of wood, which according to scientific experts soon absorbs
the phosphorus and becomes a constant source of danger to the*
employees. The floor, however, is swept almost constantly by a
robust woman, who has been “ sweeper out77 and “ picker u p 77 during
the past six years, and reports that she.has always been perfectly
well. Another woman, too, who has worked in the factory four yearsr
has apparently suffered no ill effects. They appreciate the dangers
involved, and take more than the usual precautions. New employees
in this room are instructed to wash before eating, and to rinse out their
mouths, but no attempt is made at enforcing these instructions. The*
secretary of this establishment said: “ I t seems to us that an employee?
8
38697 No. 86—10
—
----------
108
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
having been cautioned in this regard can be expected to be careful,
especially as it concerns his own welfare.”
That the dangers of phosphorus poisoning were recognized as ever
present by the manufacturers is evident from printed notices hung,
one in each room, in not too conspicuous places.
In addition to the above caution little is done by the management
to warn and protect the workers against the disease. Two separate
“ lunch rooms” are provided where the men and boys on one side of a
partition and the women and girls on the other are required to eat
their noonday lunches away from the direct fumes of the factory, and
hot coffee is furnished by the company. Lockers are provided for
the girls. The wash room, one of the most important requirements
in this industry wherever the poisonous phosphorus is used, is totally
inadequate. Three faucets over a sink and two towels furnish the
equipment, although it is said that soap is sometimes, but not always,
a t hand. Several of the girls who had worked in the factory for con
siderable periods complained that the two towels a day got wet when
used by so many, and that some were forced to “ wipe their hands on
the bottom of their aprons.” No mouth wash of any kind is provided.
The company employs a local dentist to come to the factory and
examine the teeth of the employees at intervals, it is said, of six weeks,
approximately. When the dentist finds decayed or otherwise defect
ive teeth, the employee is required to secure dental treatment and a
written statement from the dentist employed that the teeth are in
a satisfactory condition.
After a first visit to this factory, but before the manager had been
interviewed, inquiries were made among local dentists and physicians
to learn whether they had ever had any cases of phosphorus necrosis.
In conversation with a dentist and a physician the writer learned of
three cases.
G eorge L.—One of the men who worked several years in this fac
tory suffered from phosphorus poisoning in 1904 and 1905. This case
was mentioned by several different people. Doctor J., the dentist
who first treated the case and extracted several teeth, has moved to
another city, but Doctor O., one of the leading physicians, stated that
according to his records the case came to him from this dentist, and
that he treated the man for phosphorus poisoning for about a month
in August, 1904, and again in July and December, 1905. The phy
sician stated to the writer that when he last treated the case, in
December, 1905, the conditions as a result of phosphorus poisoning
were no longer acute.
In 1903, Gertie W., a 16-year-old girl, began work a t this match
factory. Her duty consisted in taking the loose matches as they
came to the bench and putting them in small pasteboard boxes.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
109
Occasionally, to even up the work, she was “ put on the machine to
cover,” which means that she took the boxes of matches as they
came from the machine and slipped the covers on. She liked the
work, although she coughed a great deal at first and sometimes she
felt sick as a result of the fumes.
In the spring of 1905, she was seized one Saturday forenoon with a
severe toothache and wanted to go home at noon. Although she was
suffering great pain, the superintendent told her she had better stay
until night. At his request she remained at work. OnMonday she was
obliged to have a tooth drawn, and for weeks afterwards she went
almost daily to a local dentist (Doctor B.) for treatment. It was her
left upper jaw that was affected, and the dentist showed her several
small pieces which he removed from the jawbone. He also showed
her from one of his books a picture of a man who was suffering from
an advanced stage of phosphorus poisoning.
After about six months of treatment, the trouble ceased, although
she says she still has pain occasionally. She enjoyed the work with
the girls at the factory, and would have gone back again, she said,
“ but the dentist and my own people advised me to quit the match
factory for good.”
She is now living at home in a small to w n ,-------- , n e a r-------- ,
and looks back with pleasure upon her actual work in the factory,
although she says she objected to wiping on the two towels fur
nished for the hundred or so girls, and adds: “ I used to wripe my
hands and face on my apron,” a practice instanced by another
case described below.
The dentist who treated her corroborated the facts as to treatment
for phosphorus necrosis and furnished the name of this patient as
well as the approximate dates.
Mrs. T illie H.—One of the first women who worked in this fac
tory (Mrs. H .), “ the first girl on the machine when there was only
one machine,” to use her own words, suffered from phosphorus
poisoning last year (1908) and left the factory. Several years ago,
according to her statement, when she had three teeth drawn, she
remained out of the factory for two weeks and had no further trouble
until about the 1st of July, 1908. Then on a Saturday she was
obliged to have another tooth drawn, and she states the company
dentist (Doctor N.) told her she should go back to work the next day
after the Fourth of July, which was but a few days off.
She went back to work, and her jaw soon began to pain her ter
ribly. She went again to the company dentist. According to her
report, he assured her that she was getting along nicely, and she
claims this dentist, in order to make sure of getting his money, kept
her waiting for treatments and encouraged her to work steadily in
the factory, while insisting that she must pay in advance.
110
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Finally, in despair, she says she went to the superintendent of the
factory (Mr. B,.), showed him the dentists certificate allowing her
to go back to work, and complained that her mouth was still sore.
The superintendent then sent her to Doctor G., the company physi
cian, who is advertised on placards in the factory as the only proper
physician to go to at the expense of the company in case of acci
dental injuries while at work for the company. She says the phy
sician said her mouth was bad and that “ he burned it o u t” three
times and scraped the bone. She suffered terribly for a long time
and has never gone back to the factory.
When she was seen in August, 1909, she was still living a t -------- ,
but complained that she was in bad health. She stated that while
she worked in the factory no mouth wash was ever provided, that
the ventilation was poor, and that she usually wiped her hands and
face on the bottom of her apron because “ two towels soon get wet
with so many girls using them.”
Some three weeks after the first visit to this factory, the writer
passed through the city and upon learning that the manager was at
his office called to talk with him about conditions in his establishment
and to learn if he was planning to employ any new special precautions
to protect his work people from the dangers. The manager stated
that there had never been any trouble from phosphorus poisoning at
this place, and that while at one time there had been some serious
cases a t -------- , Wis., a n d -------- , N. Y., the disease has been prac
tically unknown in America for many years.
When, about six weeks later, an agent of the Bureau of Labor
visited this factory, he, too, reported that “ both the secretary and
superintendent of this factory stated that there never has been a
case here of necrosis.”
FACTORY A T ----- , IND.
This match company began business in the summer of 1900, in an
abandoned barbed-wire mill. The business has been increased from
time to time until in this one building in 1909 over 200 employees
are regularly engaged and the capacity of the establishment is be
tween thirty and forty millions of matches per day. The composition
used contains about 7 per cent of white phosphorus, of which about
25,000 pounds are used each year. The building is so low that there
is not sufficient room to install modern continuous-process machines.
The machinery in use is of the simple German type, manufactured in
Berlin. The mixing of the composition is done in open vessels, and
nowhere in the factory is there any attempt to carry the fumes
directly away from the workrooms. The president of the company
informed the writer that they used the fan system of ventilation.
But when the factory was visited it was found that the fans were not
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
I ll
in use. An agent of the Government who visited this factory two
months earlier also reported that the fans were not used and that the
superintendent stated that they were useless.
In this plant the working conditions were found to be poor. The
building used for the manufacture of matches is an abandoned wire
mill, having low ceilings, poor light, and little ventilation. The
fumes and smoke from burnt and burning matches and the odors
from chemicals used in the composition for heads of matches per
meate all of the workrooms. In the mixing room, the dipping and
drying room, and the room where the packing and wrapping are done
the fumes were exceedingly strong. There are no appliances in any
of the rooms for the removal of fumes, excepting revolving fans in
the packing and wrapping room which are not used.
The accommodations for washing are insufficient and there are
no requirements enforced as to washing at any time. No mouth
washes are provided by the establishment, nor is there any require
ment for the use of a mouth wash, excepting that in a printed notice
employees are told that they should rinse their mouths daily.
There is no rule here against eating in the factory. Several of the
employees were found eating their noon lunch in the room where
the packing and wrapping is done. The air was foul with odors
and fumes at this time.
The superintendent at the factory took the writer through the
establishment, explaining the various processes in detail, and offer
ing every facility for obtaining information. He stated that he now
and then gave soap to the foremen in the different departments,
but that it quickly disappeared. He also said that the company
once furnished bottles of mouth wash and instructed the employees
how to use it, but were led to abandon this precaution upon finding
some of the bottles broken or missing. The two towels which the
company furnishes for the use of about 100 women in the packing
department were discovered in a most filthy and uninviting condi
tion. Three basins for the use of these women were found in the
wash-room sink, but the cold water from one faucet could be turned
on only with considerable difficulty, and the hot water from another
faucet was almost scalding in temperature.
Upon the first request for information concerning the posting of
notices warning employees of the dangers of phosphorus poisoning,
attention was directed to a post in the dipping room where the placard
was found firmly nailed upside down. The superintendent, however,
after hunting several minutes in the factory office without finding
a copy of the notice offered to tear one from its post in the packing
room. A copy of this notice is as follows:
112
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
NOTICE.
Employees will please take note.
1. Do not eat immediately after handling matches or composition without first
washing the hands.
2. Keep the teeth in good order. Have dentist examine the teeth occasionally.
A small circular on “ The preservation of the teeth” was also
handed to the writer with the statement that copies of it had been
distributed among the employees. It likewise contains no specific
reference to the dangers of phosphorus poisoning. A copy of this
circular follows:
THE PRESERVATION OP THE TEETH.
Without good teeth there can not be thorough mastication.
Without thorough mastication there can not be perfect digestion, and without per
fect digestion one can not have good health.
Hence the paramount importance of sound teeth.
Clean teeth do not decay.
Food left on the teeth ferments, and the acid formed produces decay.
Decay leads to pain and the total destruction of the teeth.
When decay occurs, it should be attended to, whether giving pain or not.
The immediate stopping of a small cavity is of the greatest service in preventing the
necessity for extraction.
The following rules should therefore be closely observed:
1. The teeth should be cleansed at least once daily, with toothbrush and powder.
2. The best time to clean the teeth is after the last meal.
3. A small toothbrush with stiff bristles should be used, brushing up and down, and
across; inside and outside, and in between the teeth.
4. A simple tooth powder, or a little soap and some precipitated chalk, taken upon
the brush should be used. If the teeth are dirty or stained, a little fine pumice powder
may be used; but only occasionally.
5. It is a good practice to rinse the mouth out after every meal.
6. All rough usage of the teeth, such as cracking nuts, biting thread, etc., should
be avoided; but the proper use of the teeth in chewing is good for them.
7. All persons engaged in these works should rinse their mouths thoroughly before
meals.
Beyond these precautions little is done at the factory to protect the
workers from this occupational disease. The company employs no
regular dental or medical examiner and requires its employees to visit
a dentist but twice a year. Employees are expected to secure and
present to the superintendent of the factory a certificate indicating
their fitness for this dangerous occupation. The blank form is as
follows:
------ , I n d . , ----------- , 190
To t h e ------ M atch Co.:
This is to certify that I have examined the mouth and teeth o f ------------- and
find them in such condition that I consider it safe fo r ------ to be employed in a
match factory.
(Signed)
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
113
The local dentist who has had the most experience in treating
match-factory employees, however, refuses to fill out this blank as
printed and amends it to read: “ This is to certify that I have exam
ined the teeth o f------------------ and find them sound.”
With all the unfavorable conditions enumerated above, one would
scarcely expect to learn that the employees in this match factory had
escaped the effects of phosphorus poisoning. They have not. Within
a few hours among professional men i n -------- , it is possible to learn
the names of a score or more of sufferers from phosphorus necrosis
during the last eight years. A t least six of these cases are of the year
1909. Several dentists estimate that they have each treated from
one dozen to forty cases during the past few years. Necrosis of the
jaw, moreover, is only one of the forms in which the evil effects of the
poison manifests itself. The number of patients who have suffered
from anaemia, and physical breakdown, and pulmonary weaknesses,
as a result of work under the above conditions, is reputed to be much
greater.
A brief enumeration of some of these cases, though the list is known
to be very incomplete, will help to indicate how serious always is the
risk involved where matches are made from white phosphorus.
H enry B.—One of the first serious cases of phosphorus poisoning
at this factory occurred about one year after its opening. Henry B.,
a man of perhaps 45 years of age, worked in the boxing room, which is
usually considered one of the least dangerous departments. He
suffered first with severe toothache, and found but temporary relief
when several upper teeth were extracted by Doctor L. The trouble
continued in a worse form, until Doctor R. removed a considerable
portion of the upper jaw, which was found to be badly honeycombed.
G eorge K.—An early case of poisoning which, with complications,
resulted fatally, was that of George K. He was but 22 years and 8
months old, and worked in the dipping room. He suffered from
aching teeth and general debility, caused, it is claimed, by the phos
phorus fumes in the factory. Largely as a result of his run-down
condition, on Christmas Day, 1900, he succumbed to a brief attack
of pneumonia. The county records of death contain the following
entry after his name: “ Disease causing death: Phosphorus poisoning.”
Charles M.—About two years after this factory started operations,
Charles M., a man of about 45 years of age, suffered severely from
phosphorus poisoning. Two operations, about three months apart,
by Doctor S., dentist, were necessary in order to remove the affected
part, which extended from the right upper cuspid back to the third
molar. The lower plate of the antrum was also removed.
M innie H.—In 1904 Minnie H., a young woman of about 20 years
of age, who worked in the boxing room at the factory, was operated on
114
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
by Doctor D. for necrosis of both the upper and lower left maxillaries.
The trouble in this case, the dentist believes, was caused by roots that
had not been removed when teeth had previously been extracted.
After two months of treatment she apparently was entirely cured,
although it was necessary to remove some of the jawbone in both
upper and lower jaws.
F rank G.—One of the most distressing cases which have occurred
at this factory was in 1905. In that year Frank G., a Russian of about
60 years of age, who had worked for forty years in match factories as
a dipper, first in his native city of Odessa and later in this country,
suffered severely from phosphorus necrosis. He had worked so many
years without apparent evil effect that he came to regard the danger
as a myth. Then suddenly he was seized with what he thought was
merely a severe toothache. Doctor M. extracted some teeth, but the
pain continued. Doctor M. then removed some necrosed bone and
did what he could to relieve the inflammation. But as the trouble
grew steadily worse, Doctor M. decided to take his patient to Chicago
for a more extensive operation. Three operations were performed
by Doctor F., of Chicago, and the right lower jaw and part of the left
had to be removed.
W illiam T.—One of the composition mixers who suffered severely
from phosphorus necrosis was William T. He was exceedingly
careful in taking every precaution to protect himself. He wore
rubber gloves while at work, washed his hands carefully, brushed his
teeth and nails regularly, changed his clothing before leaving the
factory, visited a dentist frequently, and, in fact, earned a local
reputation for punctiliousness. As an indication of his intelligence
it may be added that he has recently displayed unusual ability in
organizing a match company of his own.
Mr. T. had worked several years as composition mixer in this
factory before he had serious trouble with his teeth. Doctor H., a
local dentist, extracted a lower left cuspid, and from that time on
several physicians and dentists treated the necrosed jaw. Doctor
O. treated this case for some time and removed several pieces of dead
bone. Finally Mr. T. went to Indianapolis for a further operation,
where Doctor N., on March 27, 1907, removed much of the lower left
maxillary, leaving only a rim of bone.
D aisy R.—In 1905 Daisy R., a girl of about 20, who worked
in a factory as a packer, suffered severely from phosphorus necrosis of
the lower right jaw. On October 5 of that year, Doctor G. extracted
the root of a tooth which seemed to be the cause of the trouble. But
the pain grew worse, and on October 10 she was taken to the hospital,
where on the following day, according to the hospital records, Doctor
N. removed “ part of inferior maxillary.” The wound was dressed
daily, and was “ healing nicely, ” when on the 16th she left the hospital
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
115
and was treated thereafter by various dentists and physicians about
town. This was a very serious case and for eighteen months proved
exceedingly painful and troublesome.
H orace B.—During the same month of the preceding operation,
October, 1905, there was another serious operation at the same
hospital for the same trouble. Horace B., a lad of about 19, after
suffering a long time from phosphorus necrosis of the right upper jaw,
was taken to the hospital on October 4, 1905. On the following day,
according to the hospital records, Doctor K. “ removed part of
superior maxillary.” The wound was dressed daily by Doctor K.,
assisted on one occasion by Doctor C., and at the end of one month,
on November 3, 1905, the patient was permitted to leave the hospital.
After this, he was treated by several different local dentists and
physicians. He finally recovered, although seriously disfigured, but
no longer works in the match factory.
Mrs . A.—One of the earlier cases of phosphorus poisoning at this
factory was that of Mrs. A., a packer, who about six years ago suffered
from necrosis of the upper right and left maxillaries, probably caused,
according to the dentist, by the roots of two cuspids under the plate
of an artificial set of teeth. She was then about 40 years of age, and
with her face swollen until her nostrils were closed, she went to
Doctor G. for treatment. He removed the necrosed tissue, and
after a number of treatments she seemed completely cured and
removed to a western State, but she has since had further trouble of
the same nature.
May S.—Four years ago Miss May S. suffered from phosphorus
necrosis of the right lower jaw, and a small piece of dead bone was re
moved by Doctor H. In this case a sequestrum had formed and the
piece of necrosed bone came out easily.
F red H.—About two years ago Fred H., a man about 45 years of
age, had necrosis of the left inferior maxillary. He, for a long time,
had been absolutely toothless, and in his case not even roots remained.
Nevertheless necrosis developed and an operation was necessary in
order to arrest the local decay of the bone. After the operation and
several treatments by Doctor E., he recovered and appears com
pletely cured.
H arold W.—Two years ago a young man, Harold W., had necrosis
of the lower right jaw and Doctor D. removed the dead portion with
a curetting burr. The poison in this instance is supposed to have
entered a tooth through an imperfect filling. Mr. W. worked in the
match factory as a “ filler,” that is, his work was to fill the frames
with match splints before they had been dipped in the composition,
a position that might easily be made entirely free from danger if de
partments were properly divided.
116
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
K ate N.—One of the girls at this factory who suffered from phos
phorus poisoning a few years ago was Kate N. Necrosis, starting
near the root of an extracted tooth, attacked her lower right jaw, but
yielded readily to the treatment of Doctor B.
R uth J.—A case that at first was supposed to be neuralgia, but
later proved to be phosphorus necrosis, was treated some years ago
by Doctor G.
Phil . R.—In the summer of 1908, Phil. R., who worked in this match
factory, went to Doctor P. with a troublesome case of phosphorus
necrosis of the lower right jaw. Some time previous, the second
bicuspid had been extracted, and the poison is supposed to have en
tered there. Three operations were necessary, although the piece of
necrosed bone was at first no larger than two molar crowns.
J o h n Q.—A man of about 40 years of age, who has worked for sev
eral years in this match factory, was attacked with phosphorus necro
sis of the left lower jaw in the spring of 1909. Three operations for
the removal of necrosed bone have been performed by Doctor A. and
the patient seems to be doing well, although there was still in Decem
ber, 1909, a slight discharge from the wound.
L ester C.—A young man of about 27, early in the summer of 1909
went to Doctor H. with his lower gums purple and swollen, and dis
charging slimy pus. The first operation, in which a piece of dead
bone was removed, proved successful, and the wound healed within
six weeks. Mr. C. still works about the match factory, and when seen
in December, 1909, he appeared unusually robust and said he felt per
fectly well.
B ert N.—In the summer of 1909, Bert N., assistant to the compo
sition mixer, received treatment from Doctor D. for phosphorus ne
crosis. This was the second attack in his case. Three years ago he
suffered a slight necrosis of the upper jaw which apparently healed.
In the middle of the summer, 1909, he went to Doctor D. with necrosis
of the lower jaw. The recent trouble was in the median anterior
mouth and required the removal of a section of the bone. The opera
tion was accomplished with the aid of the curetting burr.
G race R.—In the summer of 1909 Grace R., a girl from this match
factory, was treated for phosphorus necrosis by Doctor L., who
thinks the immediate trouble was caused by the root of a tooth.
He removed the gum tissue and scraped the bone. Treatments
were continued twice a week from July 21 to August 17. The girl
was anaemic and should not have been permitted to work in a match
factory.
L o u i s e B. was treated by Doctor L. in September and October,
1909, for a slight necrosis in the region of the lower right wisdom tooth.
Doctor L. removed the tooth and the inflamed gum tissue, but did
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
117
not scrape the bone. Although the girl was anaemic, she seemed to
recover nicely under treatment.
R ufus L.—One of the most pitiful cases of “ phossy jaw ” now
under treatment at this city is that of Rufus L. For many years he
had not had a tooth in his mouth, and congratulated himself upon
escaping the semiannual dental examinations required by the match
company. He is a somewhat feeble old man of 77 years of age, and
these conditions have made the case more difficult.
Late in July, 1909, he was placed in care of a physician to prepare
him for the first operation on August 2. He had used for years a full
set of artificial teeth, and there were no roots to cause irritation or
form a ready opening for the poison. The first operation involved
the tissues of the region of the first and second molars of the lower
right jaw. Treatments were continued daily by Doctor B., who
also performed a second operation on October 18, 1909. Early in
December, at the time of the writer’s visit to this city, Mr. L. was still
coming for treatment every other day.
I t is not pretended that the above list of cases of necrosis is at all
complete for this match factory. On the contrary, there is reason to
believe that a little further search would have revealed twice this
number. An effort has been made to carefully eliminate those cases
that were open to question either owing to uncertain diagnosis or on
account of inability to secure the name of the sufferer. Uncertain
diagnosis is frequent because of the failure of many dentists to keep
adequate records.
The name of the sufferer is frequently difficult to secure for the
same reason, and in most such cases must be excluded from the list
on account of the danger of duplication because a patient frequently
goes for treatment to more than one practitioner. One dentist, for
example, referred to “ a woman from the country” who came to him,
had several teeth extracted on Sunday, and immediately went to
work in the factory, from which she returned to her home within one
month with phosphorus necrosis. This case is very likely not
included in the list above, but for the sake of erring on the right side is
purposely omitted. A physician also reported the case of a young
woman, Cora K., who came to him from this factory in a very anaemic
condition, which is one of the frequent indications of general phos
phorus poisoning. Upon the physician’s advice this woman went to
work in another establishment (not a match factory), and improved
almost immediately. This is one of many such cases referred to by
physicians i n -------- , which are not mentioned above. More than
one physician said that he regarded this anaemic condition, due to
poisonous phosphorus influence, as more serious than necrosis of the
jaw.
118
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
FACTORY AT ------ , OHIO.
The match factory a t -------- , Ohio, is one of the smaller factories,
and employs but 18 men and 22 women, all of whom are over 16 years
of age. The factory is a 2-story brick building with a basement, and
contains but two workrooms. I t is ventilated by intake fans and
ventilators in the roof. Suction fans are also used to carry away
fumes, which, however, are very noticeable. The walls are white
washed or painted annually, but the floors are not kept clean. A
separate lunch room is provided, and open sinks are provided in the
wash room, where soap and towels are furnished by the company.
The work day is ten hours, with a half holiday on Saturday. Sixty
minutes are allowed for lunch.
This factory had no posted regulations cautioning the employees to
use care in their work or to wash before meals, and there is no evidence
that any effort is made by the management to explain personally the
serious features of the work to the employees when they are first
engaged.
In no other factory visited was the “ firing” of matches so much in
evidence as in this. The litter on the floors of the packing room was
also unusual. The manager explained by saying that it was due to
the fact that the man who attended to the sweeping was not at work
on this day. The methods of operation were crude in all departments
of this factory.
To the agent of the Bureau, while at -------- , March 29, 1909,
Doctor K., a leading dentist, said that an employee of the match
company had called on him, professionally, a few days before, and an
examination had disclosed necrosis of the upper jawbone, due to
phosphorus poisoning, which had to such an extent involved the bone
that the dentist referred the sufferer to a regular surgeon. The den
tist said the man had been employed for the past two years as a
“ frame unloader,” and that he had a bad case of necrosis that needed
immediate hospital treatment.
Another recent case at this factory was that of a girl who had
necrosis. This case was mentioned to the agent of the Bureau by the
superintendent, who, in this connection, remarked that “ after a
while” they expected to have dental supervision.
The disease would probably be more prevalent if there were not a
continual change of employees in this establishment. It is difficult
for the management to retain the help very long, and it is likely
that this explains an apparent immunity which the conditions do not
warrant.
I t may be well to emphasize here the fact that at this factory, and
at the ten which follow, but little effort was made to follow up cited
cases or to develop this phase of the inquiry beyond the inquiries
within the factories.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
119
FACTORY AT ------ , OHIO.
The factory at -------- , Ohio, is the largest one in the United
States. This mammoth, modern establishment has the capacity
for turning out 225,000,000 matches per day. In addition to the
match factory, the company maintains here a highly organized
engineering department, where machinery for the other five fac
tories of the company are designed and built.
This one factory employs 650 people, of whom 472 are men and
178 are women, all over 16 years. The product of the establishment
is matches of two distinct kinds, safety matches which can only be
struck on a prepared surface, and matches which can be struck
anywhere.
The processes of manufacture in this factory, which is the most
modern in equipment and method, has already been described in
detail.
A matron has general charge of the female employees. Her
duties are to see that they exercise proper care and cleanliness in
the toilet rooms, to preserve order, and where any condition demands
it she investigates the character of the women and may recommend
their discharge. The matron also has charge of the rest room and
takes temporary care of any of the women who may be ill. Con
ditions are said to be much improved since this position was created.
In the basement of the factory there are cloakrooms and attend
ants to care for the garments of both males and females. A lunch
room is provided and coffee is furnished free to all the workers.
An earlier custom of furnishing a bowl of hot soup to those employees
who eat their noon lunch in the factory has been discontinued.
Hot and cold water with towels is supplied, and no employee is
supposed to eat in the lunch room until he has washed his hands.
The ventilation of the workrooms in all departments is quite
thorough, although the cooking of the pastes is conducted in kettles
which have no pipes to carry fumes outside of the building. But
these operations were conducted in rooms which were entirely
separate from the others, and the only workers exposed to these
conditions were the mixers and their helpers. In these rooms, how
ever, the general ventilation was good and may have been sufficient.
In the rooms where the automatic machines were in operation the
air was fresh at all times, and the “ firing” of matches in packing
seems to be much less than in other factories. One feature of ven
tilation on the match machine did appear to demand an improve
ment. A drying current of air was directed over the freshly dipped
splints on the machine, and the fume-laden air, after having passed
the splints, was directed toward the workers at the front of the
machine. Apparently, provision could have been made to take
120
BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR.
this air away from the machine as soon as it had done its duty and
before it could reach any of the operatives.
There appeared to be no evidence of speeding among the opera
tives, although they seemed to work rapidly and some with great
haste, but the flow of material to be packed from the machine is
fairly uniform and conditions for that reason do not have to be
readjusted to the machine speed.
Occasionally a girl may suffer a slight bum from matches “ firing”
on the packing table, but usually such accidents are not serious
enough to interfere with work.
The floors, hallways, stairways, and toilets for men and women
are clean, and toilet arrangements appear ample. The precautions
against fire are not only complete but elaborate. A fire-fighting
organization on duty day and night, with sprinkler system and fire
hose on each machine, and fireproof stairways and exits furnish safe
guards beyond criticism.
Elaborate provision is made for the ventilation of the factory
buildings, the details of which follow:
Main B uilding .—Four stories and two 2-story wings, total
1,423,750 cubic feet, ventilated by two fans, each 10 by 5 feet, at 165
revolutions per minute.
The fourth floor—match machine room—325,000 cubic feet,
receives one-sixth of the air delivered from the two before-mentioned
fans, which can change the cubic contents every five or six minutes.
M ain B uilding A ddition.—Four stories and composition build
ing four stories, 740,380 cubic feet, ventilated by one fan 12 by 5
feet at 135 revolutions per minute. The fourth floor match machine
and the composition rooms, 275,640 cubic feet, receive about onehalf of the air delivered from one fan 12 by 5 feet which changes
the cubic contents every five or six minutes.
A ddition to M ain B uilding (South).—Four stories, total cubic
contents 2,846,560 cubic feet. The match machine room on the
fourth floor, 1,106,640 cubic feet, receives about one-half of the air
delivered from three fans, 12 by 6 feet each at 137 revolutions per
minute, and changes the contents every five or six minutes.
Although in this factory there were no posted regulations regard
ing the dangers surrounding the. employment, it was explained that
the heads of departments were charged with the duty of instructing
the new employees concerning the character of materials used and
the necessity of certain precautions. The matron’s duties were
said to be particularly in this direction.
The inquiries concerning the experience at this factory with phos
phorus poisoning were mainly confined to the officials of the com
pany. The factory conditions here are unusually good. One case
of necrosis at this factory is of long standing (said to be thirty years).
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
121
The oral statement of Doctor D., a local dental surgeon, mentions
three other cases within a period of ten years, only one of these cases
being serious.
The following matter relating to conditions of dental supervision
and inspection in the factories of the Diamond Match Company,
located in the United States, has been furnished by the dental sur
geon, who is in charge of this feature of the company’s work:
1st. The attitude of the corporation toward the phosphorus propo
sition as it relates to the employees:
The Diamond Match Company are fully cognizant of the possible
danger in all its different phases, and are continually devising means
and putting into operation methods and devices for the prevention
of the physical ills which are commonly regarded as associated with
the match industry. Factories are remodeled or rebuilt as occasion
arises in order to improve the conditions for the general good of the
.employees.
For many years the company has employed specialists to look after
the welfare or the employees in every way possible, in order that they
may be relieved of the dangers of phosphorus necrosis.
2d. The difficulty of enforcing necessary care or impressing them
with the seriousness of personal negligence:
The employee is very apt to be quite indifferent to the dangers
consequent to his personal neglect and naturally careless about ob
serving the rules and regulations looking to their general welfare.
No doubt this is largely due to the fact that through preventive
measures the company’s business, in recent years, has been relieved
of its horrors to such an extent that only occasionally do cases occur,
giving little opportunity for employees to become familiar with the
actual necrosis. Such being the case, the employee fails to compre
hend the necessity for strictly observing that which the employer
through many years of experience has found essential to his physical
welfare.
This being the case, compulsion in the observance of rules has to be
resorted to at times in order that conditions conducive to their
welfare may be brought about, as well as maintained. Frequently
we find those who believe it a strictly personal affair as to whether
they shall be allowed to take unnecessary chances even after the
possibilities for trouble has been explained to them.
Not only are rules and regulations necessary, but their enforce
ment has to be constantly followed up in order that they may receive
the necessary protection.
3d. W hat are the net results of all efforts up to the present time,
and to what particular feature or features is ascribed the greatest
results along preventive lines?
The efforts along preventive lines instituted by the Diamond
Match Company, had practically eliminated phosphorus necrosis.
To the combined efforts as relating particularly to factory and
personal cleanliness, ventilation, and especially mouths free from dis
eased gums or mucous membranes, as^ well as diseased and carious
teeth, may be ascribed the more essential features for prevention.
122
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
4th. Describe system and procedure as minutely as possible.
Specify safeguards, copies of warning signs, charts, as used by dental
surgeon, etc.
A careful and thorough examination of the teeth and gums, and
mucous membrane of the mouths of each and every employee, is made
as often as every ninety days, together with a record of the same for
future reference. The name of employee, check number, place or
land of employment, condition of teeth and gums, together with
remarks relating to any special or out of the ordinary conditions,
either local or systematic, which may be manifested at the time of
said examination, go to make up this record. Also any advice or
instruction thought necessary as applying to each individual case.
On examination, whatever work: seems necessary in the way of
treatments, cleaning, filling, extractions, etc., with the limit as to
time in which the work must be attended to, is duplicated in certifi
cate form.
These certificates are placed in the care of one whose duty it is to
see that the employee receives it sufficiently early to enable him to
have the indicated work done by his dentist and returned to him,
properly signed within the time limit called for on the certificate.
Should the mouth present conditions which would not justify his
dentist in signing the certificate within the specified time, he either
holds the certificate until such future time as he feels the case demands,
or makes a note of such conditions on the certificate, and the employee
is allowed to present the same to the one having him in charge.
No employee with unfavorable symptoms, either local or system
atic, is permitted to remain in any department where chances for
trouble are possible.
5th. Statement along professional lines by dental surgeon of com
pany:
Am a graduate of the Philadelphia Dental College, year of 1888.
In general dental practice until 1900, when I became connected with
the Diamond Match Company as their dental examiner. My duties
are the having entire supervision as regards the dental aspect of the
Barberton, Ohio; Oshkosh, Wis.; Detroit, Mich.; Oswego, N. Y.;
and Portland, Me., factories of said company.
Regular visits to each factory are made every ninety days or
oftener at which time every employee comes before me for examina
tion and advice. This includes males and females of various ages
and of many nationalities.
The same system is in operation at all the factories as pertaining
to my work. The number of employees varies somewhat. The
Barberton factory, about 800; Oshkosh, 600; Oswego, 500; Detroit,
450; and Portland, 100.
Results far reaching for the general uplift, morally and financially,
as well as physically follows as a consequence of the system in vogue.
FACTORY AT ------ , OHIO.
The factory at -------- , Ohio, is $ 2-story and basement brick
building with 14 rooms. Three hundred and nine work people, 187
men and 122 women, all over 16 years of age, are employed. A tenhour day with five hours on Saturday, making a fifty-five hour week,
is the rule. Females over 16 and under 18 years of age work eight
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
123
hours a day for five days, and five hours on Saturday. A full hour is
allowed for lunch.
In this factory, as in the one immediately preceding, where an
intake pipe for drying the matches was on the automatic machine,
the air passed directly to the workers on the front of the machine,
having first absorbed the fumes from the freshly dipped matches.
A reasonable construction would, it seems, demand that an exhaust
pipe of sufficient volume be arranged to take the fumes away from
the operatives. In this factory the machines are so arranged that
in all the packing operations the girls sit while at work. The floors
are kept clean, and there was no serious “ firing” of matches in
packing.
At the time of the visit of the agent of the Bureau there were no
posted regulations regarding the dangers surrounding the employ
ment. The management rely solely upon the heads of departments
to warn new employees of the particular dangers of the industry.
No case of phosphorus poisoning in connection with this factory
was found by the agent, although this should not be taken to mean
that no cases have occurred in recent years, for the time which was
devoted to the factory here was limited and inquiries were confined
to the factory.
The president of the match company, since the organization of the
company up to a few years ago, had acted as the medical officer of
the factory.
The dental surgeon who has had charge of the dental inspection of
the factory for several years has written a statement submitted below,
which is made a part of this report, covering such features of his work
as may be of interest.
In complying with your request, I beg leave to report that the
attitude of the company, since my connection with them in 1904 as
dental surgeon, toward any trouble arising from phosphorus poisoning
has been along the strictest lines. They at all times, seeming to have
the interest of their employees in mind, are very willing to act on any
suggestions that may tend to increase the healthful conditions and
thereby lessen the possibility of bad results.
The strictest measures are adhered to in regard to cleanliness.
Large wash basins supplied with hot and cold water and plenty of
soap are placed near the dining room.
Examination of all the employees in the match-making depart
ments takes place each month, and it is imperative with the company
that the employees follow out the instructions of the examiner within
fifteen days from such date. The work to be done is indicated on
diagrams. Said work is then permitted to be done by any reputable
dentist, who signs the certificate, which is then returned to the com
pany and placed on file, thereby making it possible to keep in touch
with the condition of employees at all times.
38697—No. 86—10--- 9
124
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The company in taking on new employees causes the same to be
examined before entering upon their work, thereby lessening the
possibility of employing persons whose conditions otherwise would
not be acceptable.
The employees are instructed to keep the hands from the mouth
while working to further protect from the dangers that might arise.
We very firmly believe that where the rules of prophylaxis are
strictly adhered to, and the gums kept in a healthy condition, and
the proper ventilation, ag we have, the great danger arising from the
making of matches of phosphorus is very largely eliminated.
In phosphorus poisoning, as in all other diseased conditions, the
general system plays an important part, because of the fact that a
strong robust person eliminates a much larger amount of poison which
may be taken into the system than one who is weaker, and as this is
true, the care of the mouth and teeth are important factors in the
general condition of the patient, because diseased teeth and gums are
the source of a very large amount of poisonous matter which is taken
into the stomach, thereby interfering seriously with the process of
digestion, and by such interference keeps the repulsive forces at low
ebb, which would necessarily cause a debilitated condition in the
patient.
The results obtained by the treatment the employees receive here
are very satisfactory, as we have had no difficulty arising from
phosphorus poisoning since my connection with the company.
FACTORY AT---- , PA.
This match factory occupies a building which is but one story and
a basement; is constructed of brick, and is so situated that light
and ventilation are unobstructed from all sides.
The employees in this factory—ten men and four women—work a
ten-hour day with a half holiday on Saturday. No wash room or
lunch room or dressing room is provided, and only thirty minutes
are allowed for lunch. The establishment furnishes soap at an open
sink, but no towels.
The machines are all of foreign make, and the operations are much
simpler than in the factories where the American machines are used.
The location is rural, and light and ventilation are supplied from
unobstructed windows and doors on all sides. The matches made
here are all of the square-splint type, and are hand dipped.
There is no regulation for employees washing their hands. The
composition kettle is in the same room with several male and all
of the female employees, and although the kettle is covered a small
vent pipe permits the escape of phosphorus fumes. A slight odor
of phosphorus was noticed. The dipping is done at a trough by a
male attendant, and the whole arrangement is protected by a hood,
from which an exhaust pipe carries the fumes to the outside of the
building.
Only a few frames of drying matches were in the workrooms at
any time. As soon as a rack was filled with frames of dipped matches,
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
125
it was rolled, into the drying chambers, which are closed compart
ments in which the freshly dipped matches are subjected to a current
of heated air, which is drawn out and discharged outside the building.
Before the frames are unloaded and the matches finally go to the
packing table, they are thoroughly dry.
The workrooms were clean and free from waste. No “ firing” of
matches was observed, and there was only a slight odor of phosphorus
in the workrooms. There appears a lack of precaution in some
matters which authorities have deemed very essential to the welfare
of the help, particularly in respect to washing facilities.
The dippers stand at their work and attend a simple machine, the
purpose of which is to tip the splint with the chemical composition
for lighting. The machine is simply a trough in which arrangement
is made for keeping the paste at a required temperature, and to make
it possible to lower to the desired depth the splints which are intended
to be tipped by passing across a roller. Over the entire machine
is a* hood, the front part being of glass. An exhaust pipe with
proper connection draws away injurious vapors and carries them
from the building.
The splints are placed in the machine, one frame at a time, and pass
across a roller which dips into the trough containing the composition
and which distributes the composition on the top of the splint, com
pleting the match. The frame is then withdrawn from the machine
and placed in a wheeled carrier. The carrier when filled is placed
in the drying room. Not more than one carrier full of freshly dipped
matches stands on the workroom floor at any time.
The dipper, having completed the filling of the wheeled carrier
with the requisite complement of racks, rolls it with its contents of
matches, the composition on the head yet moist, to the drying com
partments. These are practically air-tight cabinets which have a
supply of heated air continually forced in, and the vapor-laden air
resulting is aspirated from the chamber and discharged outside the
building. When the drying is completed the person who does the
next operation (frame unloader), opens the compartment and rolls
the wheeled carrier to his worktable.
The frame unloader is an adult male, who stands at his work and
who takes the frame from the carrier and unclamps it, releasing the
matches, which he then places in trays and carries a few feet to the
tables at which the packers do their work.
The composition mixer is an adult male. His regular duties are to
prepare chemicals, regulate proportions, and time the process of
cooking. The mixture is cooked in a steam kettle, which is tightly
covered with the exception
vent, tube in the lid, from which,
when the agent.called., y&pb£ tfros rising#m;tfinvcurls and passing into
the air af#t^\'W rkroom . The agent was*
*tV&£/k]fis vent had at
126
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
one time been connected with a pipe to carry the fumes outside the
building, but that it had ceased to be used. There was, however, no
strong odor of phosphorus in the workrooms. The mixer appeared
healthy, and said that he could not observe any injurious effect of the
chemicals.
The packers are adult females, who sit at the packing table to do
their work. By hand they place matches regularly in pasteboard or
wooden boxes, which are made to contain a certain quantity. They
appear to work with great speed and are said to acquire it very easily.
The one wrapper here is an adult female, who stands at her work
table and who wraps 12 wooden slide or pasteboard boxes of matches
into one package, using paste and brush to fasten the ends.
The ventilation of the actual workroom is secured by ventilators
in the roof and by windows. At the time of the agent’s visit all of the
processes were being carried on, but the room appeared to be quite
free from odors. Windows on all sides supplement the roof ventila
tion. If the operatives in this factory continue to preserve their
existing immunity from phosphorus poisoning it may be credited to
the location of the factory which insures good ventilation, and to the
use of drying chambers for the dipped matches, rather than to any
precautionary measures, such as dental inspection or facilities for
washing.
No regulations were posted, and there appeared to be no special
effort made to explain to employees the dangerous features of the
industry.
FACTORY AT----- , PA.
The buildings of the factory a t -------- are of good construction.
All of the workrooms are light and have opportunity for ventilation
on all sides.
This company had been in business five or six years before they had
a single case of necrosis, but at that time several cases at once de
manded the attention of the management, and investigations were
begun in order that the trouble might be remedied. (°)
They have installed a system of ventilating fans, intake and ex
haust, with pipes leading to all parts of the factory building proper
which is used for the handling of matches. On the machine floor
there are hoods over the composition rolls for carrying off fumes.
Over the packing tables, at which the female operatives work, there is
a ventilating arrangement.
Boxes of matches on the tables were observed to have fumes of
gray smoke-like vapor coming through the opening at the lids. But
a This phase of the condition w ill be described later, as the establishm ent has fur
nished a statement by its m edical #ffi«er, indicating, the nature of the measures
which have been taken, fesat&v preventions of pKospKoftis poisoning among the
operatives, and other i^Atytes Ccjrneeted Vith*’thk health phthe £*h]jloyees; also as to
the character of tft&mfheyiafs-used.
» ; .» */..
♦• •
- #
*
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
127
these fumes were promptly taken away by the ventilating system.
In all departments the air was fairly free from odor, and the design of
the ventilating system is such that the makers have guaranteed to
change the entire air of the workrooms every four minutes. But
even this requirement has been exceeded, as a new fan has been in
stalled since the above figure was given, so that at present the air is
changed even with greater frequency. One of the difficulties of which
the management complains is the carelessness of their employees in
obeying regulations. Their neglect of ordinary precautions can not
be laid to ignorance, as warning signs inform the employees of the
nature of the materials used and of the great need for taking precau
tions. The superintendent cited cases which would show that there
is a positive disregard on. the part of some operatives for these plain
warnings. Monthly inspection of the employees by a medical and
dental surgeon has for some time been carried on, aifd it is hoped that
it will tend to minimize future troubles from phosphorus poisoning.
The ventilating features of this establishment are as follows:
One 92-inch Arlington-Curtis exhaust fan at 400 revolutions per
minute on 34-inch feed pipe, on same trunk; one 54-inch Sturtevant
intake fan, 800 revolutions per minute, on 30-inch feed pipe; two
36-inch dust exhaust fans at 1,300 revolutions per minute; one 24-inch
Sturtevant window fan installed over composition kettles. The ar
rangement is intended to provide for the change of the entire air of
the machine room and packing floor every four minutes.
While this concern has made a real effort to improve the conditions,
these conditions seem to fall short in several particulars. One of these
has been mentioned, namely, the lack of covers and exhaust pipes on
composition kettles. Also it would not be a difficult matter to have
the drying machines fitted with ventilating hoods for their entire
length. This would not only improve the air in the machine room
but would facilitate the match-drying operations.
Hot water and soap are at each sink.
The following instructions and warnings to employees were found
posted in the workrooms, or had been issued to employees in the
factories named:
------- MATCH CO.
[ l l i by 7 inches.]
Notice to employees.
A ll employees are hereby notified that it w ill be necessary for them to furnish a
dentist’s certificate, stating that their mouths and teeth are in such condition that it
w ill be safe for them to work in a match factory. Blank certificates w ill be supplied
to each employee by the superintendent and must be returned, properly signed,
w ithin a period of one month from the tim e said blank is given them.
A ll applicants for positions w ill be required to furnish dentists’ certificates before
they can enter our service.
128
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Thefollowing rules and regulations v:ill he strictly enforced.
------ match co.
First. The chewing of matches, match sticks, or paraffin wax is strictly forbidden.
Second. The eating of food, candy, or fruit during working hours is strictly
forbidden.
Third. As there are sinks with running water in each department, employees
should be careful to wash their hands before eating luncheon.
The above rules and regulations are for the purpose of preserving the health of
employees, and we ask their cooperation in enforcing them. Any violation of these
rules w ill be considered an offense, punishable by dismissal.
T h e ------ Match Company ,
Treasurer.
----- , P a ., September 1, 1905.
------ match co.
[Printed in red ink; card 12 by 20.]
Warning notice.
A ll help must wash their hands thoroughly before meals; water and soap are
provided for this purpose.
The phosphorus contained in the matches is very injurious if gotten into the mouth,
particularly when the teeth are decayed.
This warning is for your benefit and
It must he heeded.
T he -------Match Company .
“All of our trouble,” says the treasurer, “ has been in the packingroom department, and we think this is largely due to the fact that
women had not been employed in factories here to any extent before
our plant was started. It therefore required a long time to get them
accustomed to proper discipline.”
The mixers are adult males who attend to the mixing of the com
position, in which is used glue, chlorate of potash, whiting, white
phosphorus, and other ingredients which are cooked in a jacketed
kettle and which must be thoroughly mixed. This mixture gives off
fumes in the cooking and stirring, both conducted in open kettles.
Near the kettles is a powerful fan which exhausts the air from over
the kettles, but the arrangement could be much improved as each
kettle should be covered and a pipe should lead to the outside, or at
least there might be a gas hood covering the several kettles which
could be connected with an exhaust fan. At a small expense the
exhaust fan, which is now in use, could be made of full value, while
at present only a portion of its utility is being realized.
The plate feeders are adult males, who place in position in the
automatic match machine the iron plates ’which are perforated with
holes of the size of the splints; each plate has holes for 2,800 splints.
The action of the machine is such that the splints are cut and forced
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
129
into the holes of the plate. The occupation of plate feeder requires
some strength but no skill.
The composition man attends to the supply of composition and
paraffin on the automatic machine. The composition is put on the
heads of the splints by contact with rolls which revolve in a trough
placed crosswise of the machine. Before reaching the composition
the splints are moved through a vessel of hot paraffin, which impreg
nates a portion of the length of the splints. The supply of each kind
of material, the condition of the paraffin, and the consistency of the
composition need attention; also the gauging of the extent to which
the head of the splint is dipped. Over that portion of the machine
where the composition rolls are located is placed a hood by means of
which the fumes are drawn away.
The plate handlers are adult males, who take the plates from the
machine on which they have been dipped and place them on a con
veyor, which is for the purpose of moving the plates toward the
packing department and also drying the matches.
The plate unloaders are young men, some over and some under 16
years of age. Four attend each machine. The duty of the first
one is to take the plate containing the dried matches from the con
veyor and to place it in an inclined position on the unloading machine.
On the unloading machine a knife, regulated by another attendant
by means of a foot treadle, passes across the face of the plate and
cuts off the full length of the match outside the plate. Another
employee receives in a rack the matches as they are cut, and places
them in larger racks holding about 2,800 each. Empty plates are
taken away from the machine by an attendant on one side, who lays
them on conveyors by which they are returned to the point where they
were originally filled. The unloading machine is equipped with a
hood to carry off the fumes.
The packing of matches is carried on in a department which is
quite separate from the machine room. The only operations which
are carried on in this room are packing, lidding, and wrapping.
Although the proprietors say they have never had an occasion to
use them for this purpose, woollen blankets are at hand here for use
in case the clothing of an employee catches fire.
Females, some over and some under 16 years of age, work as
packers. A packing table about 35 feet long is arranged with all of
one side for the packers. Directly opposite each packer is a space
of the same length for each “ lidder.” The “ lidders” do in this
establishment the work which is called “ sliding” in some of the other
factories. The work table is hooded and there is an exhaust pipe
continually removing the fume-laden air from between each “ packer”
and “ lidder.”
180
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Hacks containing about 2,800 matches are brought to the packers*
table by carriers. A supply of boxes, which vary in size, depending
upon the style of matches being packed, is also placed upon the
table. Taking a sufficient number of matches in her hand, without
counting them, however, she fills one box after another and stacks
them in front of her. Then she shoves the pile across the table
toward the “ lidder.” Packers here, contrary to the usual custom,
stand at their work. Fumes rise from the matches in the racks and
from those being placed in boxes.
The “ lidders” are males and females and are over 16. They stand
at their work continuously, and each “ lidder” works opposite a
packer, who shoves from her side of the table a pile of filled boxes,
on each of which the “ lidder” slips the covering slides. The “ lid
ders” are subject to the same conditions regarding fumes as are the
packers. The rates for ‘1lidding ” are 5 and 10 cents per gross.
Wrappers are females over 16, who stand at their work table and
who wrap in paper, using paste and brush, bundles of matches con
taining 1 dozen boxes. The boxes to be wrapped are brought to
the work tables by carriers, and when wrapped they are placed in
cases and sent to the nailers.
The carriers are males and are over 16. They use a wheeled truck
to carry to the tables of the packers racks which are filled with
matches in the machine department.
The sweeper here is a male over 16, whose duty is to sweep up the
waste.
Doctor X. (dentist), o f -------- , Pa., has done a great deal of dental
work for the match factory employees and has seen much of the
phosphorus effects. A thorough investigation of the matter in this
town would probably show very bad conditions. Physicians and
dentists were not disposed to say much in regard to it, and one
physician expressed a desire not to be quoted. As will be seen by
the statement of the factory dentist and physician which accom
panies this, additional precautions are now being taken:
T h e ---------- Match Company ,
---------- , P ennsylvania ,
March 5, 1909.
[Copy.]
M r .---------------------- ,
Bureau of Labor, Washington, D. 0.
Answering your letter of February 27, in regard to the
use of phosphorus, I am afraid we are hardly competent to say very
much on this subject, for the reason that we have never used any
thing but what is known as the “ white’* phosphorus that is manu
factured in this country.
We have never made anything but what is known as “ Parlor”
matches, both in the tip and in the ordinary parlor match.
D ear Sir :
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
131
The amorphous, or red phosphorus, as we understand it, is used
exclusively, not only in this country, but abroad, in what is known
as the “ Safety” match. In fact, there is no phosphorus in the
safety head itself, but it is put on the side of the box. * * *
So far as we are concerned, one thing is sure, if there is any sub
stitute for white phosphorus that would eliminate the danger, even
if it would cost more money, and considerably more money, I know
that our people will be only too glad to adopt it.
Yours, very truly,
-------- M a t c h C o m p a n y ,
Treasurer.
MEDICAL AND DENTAL INSPECTION OF EMPLOYEES OF THE -------MATCH COMPANY,-------- , PA.
“ Regular monthly examinations of all employees were instituted
in June, 1908,” according to the company dentist. “ The manifesta
tions of chronic phosphorus poisoning being dependent chiefly on
pathological conditions of the teeth and jaws, attention in the monthly
inspection has been especially directed to these parts. The company
has furnished a dental chair and all instruments necessary for a thor
ough examination of each case. All cavities and other lesions of the
teeth and gums are noted by means of a card-index system and the
employee instructed to consult a dentist and have the work done if
possible before the next inspection. If the teeth affected are deemed
sufficiently decayed as to be a menace to the patient he or she is not
allowed to return to work until the treatment is complete. This is as
a rule unnecessary in simple caries, where the teeth pulp is not invaded
or destroyed. But in cases of alveolar abscess, or in which teeth have
to be extracted, the patients are not allowed to return to work until
cured. At the present time the teeth of all employees, particularly of
those actually working with the phosphorus, are in good condition.
Of course some people take better care of their teeth man others, but
it may be stated confidently that at present no one working in the
factory is in danger of phosphorus poisoning from bad condition of
the teeth.
“ So far, while a general inspection of the patient has been made, no
special methods have been used to determine the existence of anaemia
and other disorders. Now that the condition of the teeth is well under
control, more attention will be paid to the general health, and blood
examinations will be made of those whose general appearance indi
cates anaemia. Other conditions, such as enlarged tonsils, which pre
dispose to lowering of the vitality and form a possible entrance for
phosphoric poisoning, will be sought for and treatment advised.
“ So far, since the institution of monthly inspection, two cases of
necrosis have been discovered. One is prooably the result of delayed
eruption of a canine tooth and not due to phosphorus at all. The
other was a very small area of necrosis around the root of a tooth
which had had an artificial crown on it, and it is questionable whether
the phosphorus had anything to do with this. Both patients are
undergoing appropriate treatment and are doing well.
“ The regular monthly examinations have now had a fair trial and
the results are most encouraging, showing that danger of phosphorus
necrosis is practically eliminated.
“ ------------------ , M. D., D. D. S ”
132
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
SPECIAL CASE OF JOHN COLE.
“About February, 1908,” continues the company dentist, “ it was
found that this man, an employee of the company for many years,
was suffering from necrosis of the anterior portion of the upper jaw.
Prior to that time he had never complained of trouble with his teeth.
From time to time since the discovery of the trouble, he has had
small pieces of dead bone and two or three teeth removed, but there
still remains considerable sequestrum, which shows very little tend
ency to be thrown off, and there is absolutely no evidence of building
of new bone characteristic of phosphorus necrosis. He positively
denies syphilitic history. In spite of this, examination by physicians
in Philadelphia, the location, appearance of the diseased parts, history
and course of the lesion, all make it probable that it is syphilitic in
origin. ^ His working with phosphorus may have.been a contributory
factor in bringing about the necrosis. He is at present taking iodide
of potassium, which appears to be preventing further spread of the
necrosis, and in time the remaining dead bone will loosen and can
then be removed.
“ ------------------ , M. D .,D .D .S .”
-------- , P a ., March 5,1909.
M r.------------------ ,
Bureau of Labor,
Washington, D. C.
D e a r S ir : As requested on your recent visit, we herewith hand
you statement in regard to our experience in preventing phosphorus
necrosis among our employees; also statement showing what a hard
battle it has been to get our employees to observe the rules and regu
lations which are adopted for their protection.
Our plant has been in operation nine years. During the first five
years we had no trouble from phosphoric necrosis. Our first case
occurred about four years ago. A girl by the name of Ella B., who
had been in our employ for some little time, would not observe the
caution notices to employees in regard to eating during working
hours or in the factory at all. This girl had formed a habit of chewing
match sticks. In fact, she seemed to have the habit to such an
extent that it was almost impossible to break her of it, and our fore
man, time after time, has taken the matches out of her mouth. She
finally contracted a case of phosphoric necrosis. The first intimation
we had that she had contracted this disease was by reading a notice
in our local papers that she had been operated upon by a surgeon and
a dental surgeon at the local hospital. After they had gotten through
with their work, she appealed to us. We immediately sent her to the
University of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia, where she received
proper treatment. She returned home a few months afterwards
entirely cured and has never had a recurrence of the disease. (®)
(o) Under date of November 24, 1909, the following was received from the hospital
of the University of Pennsylvania.
“ Ella B. was a patient in this hospital from April 12, 1905, to April 25, 1905, and
again from February 28, 1907, to March 14, 1907.
“ At the time of her first admission she was suffering from phosphorus necrosis of the
inferior m axilla. According to our records, the upper jaw of the left side was removed,
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
133
Our greatest trouble has been to keep the employees, particularly
in our packing-room department, from eating during working hours.
Our foreman has often found that the girls had hidden candy in the
green matches on their work benches. Another thing we had diffi
culty in breaking up, but have finally succeeded in doing, was to keep
them from going to the small stores in the neighborhood of the factory,
and purchasing cakes, candy, etc., and eating it, of course, in a secret
way, because we instantly discharged anyone whom we caught eating
in violation of our rules. All of these petty annoyances we have
finally succeeded in breaking up, by discharging anyone violating any
of our rules.
Before succeeding in doing this, however, several girls had slight
attacks of necrosis poisoning. We are pleased to advise you, how
ever, that all of these cases have now been cured, with the exceptions
in the report of Doctor A., which is inclosed herewith. So far, we
have had only one man affected, and a special report on this case,
over Doctor A.'s signature, is herewith inclosed.
All of our trouble has been in the packing-room department, and
we think this is largely due to the fact that woman labor in factories
has not been employed to any extent here before our plant was started.
It therefore required a long time to get them accustomed to proper
discipline.
At this time, and for a year past, all persons coming into our employ
are required to furnish us with a dental certificate (copy of the form
we inclose) signed by a reputable dentist, before we put them to work.
Within two or three weeks they are subject to the examination of our
physician and dental surgeon.
We also hand you herewith copy of the rules and regulations posted
throughout the factory, which are strictly enforced.
Soap, hot and cold water, and clean towels are furnished throughout
the plant.
We have the Sturtevant heating and ventilating system, which,
according to their engineers, gives us complete change of air in the
factory every four or five minutes.
We can only add to all of the foregoing, that we are interested in
protecting all employees from necrosis poisoning, or, in fact, any other
disease, and are doing all that we know to do to keep the plant m such
condition as will insure their perfect health.
Yours, very truly,
-------- M a t c h C o m p a n y ,
Treasurer.
FACTORY AT ------ , N. Y.
This factory is an independent establishment started about six
years ago. The building is a long rambling 2-story frame structure,
with an unusual number of windows. Hung on a post about 50
also the lower half of the lower jaw of the right, in December, 1904, previous to her
admission here. At this tim e a simple curettement was done to the inferior m axilla,
and the patient was discharged.
“ At the time of her second admissionpatient complained of pus discharging from the
roof of her mouth. Patient was discharged untreated, as no opening was found to
warrant an operation.
Superintendent.11
“ (Signed)
134
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
feet directly in front of the factory and half a block from the street
car line, is an immense sign with the words, “ Girls wanted.” The
machinery in use in this factory is old fashioned and of a type which
is almost obsolete.
This firm manufactures square-end matches both plain and double
tipped, after the German process. The principal product is a parlor
match, sold at 5 cents per 1,000. The mixing of the composition
for heads of matches is done in open vessels, but in rooms separated
from the other workrooms. Fumes from chemicals used in mixing
are noticeable, but not strong. There are no special appliances for
the removal of fumes. Signs are posted forbidding entrance to
the mixing rooms by all except those employed in these rooms.
Dipping, drying, packing, and wrapping are done in separate rooms,
with open archways between. Fumes from composition and from
burnt and burning matches are strong in the dipping and drying
room, and also in the room where the packing and wrapping are
done. There is no apparatus in operation for the removal of fumes.
This is a small plant, but arrangements for light and ventilation
are good. Two entire sides of the dipping and drying room and
the room for packing and wrapping are fitted with glass windows
hung on center hinges and affording an abundance of fresh air and
good light.
The dipping and drying room is fitted with large revolving fans.
They were not in operation and apparently are seldom if ever used.
The accommodations for washing are entirely inadequate. A sink,
approximately 2 by 3 feet in size, is all that is furnished by the estab
lishment for washing purposes. Soap is furnished, but no towels.
There are no orders, rules, or instructions as to the necessity of
washing to avoid the danger of phosphorus poisoning.
There is no provision for dental examination, nor any requirement
as to dental examinations, certificates from dentists, or any rule
as to care of the teeth. The proprietor said: “ We have not got
to that yet.”
The establishment does not furnish a mouth wash, there is no
provision for mouth washes, nor any requirements, rules, or instruc
tions as to the necessity of using a mouth wash.
There are no rules or regulations concerning eating in the factory.
Adjoining the factory is a small park having stationary benches and
tables. The employees usually eat their lunches there if weather
conditions are favorable. They can eat in the factory, however, if
they prefer to do so.
There are no printed or posted notices warning employees of the
danger of phosphorus poisoning, nor is notice given to new employees
of Jdie danger.
PHOSPHOEUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTEY.
135
No data was obtained as to cases of phosphorus poisoning other
than the statements of the proprietor and the timekeeper that they
never had a case of necrosis or phosphorus poisoning in this factory.
FACTORY AT ------ , N. J.
The factory a t ----- ;—, N. J., is one of the smaller match factories.
The factory is a 1-story brick building. Seventy-two work people
are employed, including 34 men and 20 women, and 5 boys and 13
girls under 16. The employees all work a fifty-seven hour week with
a half-holiday on Saturday.
A ventilator in the ceiling supplies fresh air to the workroom and
furnishes about 500 cubic feet of air space per person. The walls
had not been whitewashed or painted during the year past. No
regulations were posted and no attempt was made by the proprietors
or managers to point out the perils of the industry to their work
people.
The machine room is separate from the packing room and the
mixing of the composition is done in a separate building. There is,
however, no special ventilation attempted at the packers’ tables,
and there is no effort made by the management to enforce the wash
ing of hands before meals, and no warning signs are in evidence which
might indicate to the workers the dangerous character of the product
on which they are engaged.
The class of employees at work packing matches here is such as
would not be expected to take precautions sufficient to prevent
infection, many of them being Italian and Polish immigrants and
their children.
There is considerable “ firing” of matches in the packing room
and there appears to be neglect in cleaning up the litter in this depart
ment. No trouble has been reported here yet, but there is little
doubt that if precautionary features are not installed soon, there will
after a time be the usual experiences which surely follow such neglect.
The matches are made on automatic machines, but two female
attendants take the matches from the machine and put them in
trays. They are the only women who work in the machine room.
Uncovered pails of paste are kept in a hot bath in the machine
room until they are used.
This factory has been in operation under the present management
for over a year and it is claimed that there has been no case of necrosis.
FACTORY AT ------ , N. Y.
This factory manufactures round-end parlor matches. The mix
ing of composition for making the heads of matches is done in open
vessels, in rooms entirely separated from all other workrooms. To
each one of the vessels a hood is connected when mixing is being done.
136
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
These hoods are attached to an exhaust pipe and the fumes are
drawn through the pipes to the open air. Only a slight odor from
the chemicals used in making composition is noticeable.
Fumes and odors from chemicals are noticeable but are not strong
in the mixing rooms. The dipping, drying, packing, and wrapping
are all done in the same rooms. Odors from burnt or burning matches
and from chemicals are quite noticeable in these rooms. There are
no special appliances for directly removing the fumes, although the
air is changed every four minutes by the ventilating system in use.
Numerous sinks with hot and cold water faucets are located in the
various workrooms, and at the entrance to the lunch room are two
large sinks, one for the use of the men and the other for the women.
The facilities for washing in the lunch room would not be adequate
were it not for the fact that different departments lunch at different
times.
Orders have been issued requiring all employees to wash before
eating. The assistant manager said that infractions of this order
would meet the same discipline as for disobeying any other order
made by the establishment.
This establishment has a regularly employed dentist who visits this
plant four times a year and examines the teeth of all employees. All
cases of defective teeth are noted and employees directed to have
treatments made as indicated within a time limit, as stated in each
case. A certificate from a dentist that the treatments directed have
been made and that the mouth of the employee is now in good con
dition must be indorsed on dental examiner’s order and returned to
the establishment within the time limit given; otherwise such em
ployee is not permitted to continue at work.
The company does not supply a mouth wash nor are there any
requirements as to the use of a mouth wash.
Eating in any of the workrooms of the factory is strictly forbidden.
The women are not allowed even to chew gum. The men are per
mitted to chew tobacco, however, and the care taken not to touch
the tobacco with their hands was noticed in the dipping, drying,
packing, and wrapping rooms. Eatables of any character are not
allowed to be brought into the workrooms of this factory.
There are no printed or posted notices warning employees of the
danger of phosphorus poisoning nor are any warnings given other than
the advice of the dentist as to the necessity of cleanliness, especially
as to their mouths and teeth. The manager said: “ We have been in
business here so long that everybody about here knows everything
about phosphorus poisoning and it is not necessary to tell them. The
foreman would not take a new employee who looked unhealthy/’
So far as the agent making this investigation learned, there has
been but one case of real phosphorus poisoning in this factory for
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
137
several years. The man affected is still i n -------- , engaged in other
business and reported as being entirely well.
FACTORY A T ------ , MICH.
This establishment makes both parlor and safety matches. It
occupies a four-story building constructed of brick and cement.
The workrooms are large and roomy. They are well lighted and
provision is made for ventilation, fresh air being forced into the
rooms by compressed-air pipes. The rooms in which matches are
made, in addition to the compressed-air pipes, are equipped with
fans and have numerous windows.
The building is equipped with a sprinkler system, has fire hose on
each floor and hose attached also to each match machine. In addi
tion, fire buckets are provided, which are kept full of water, and there
are standpipes on the building. There are three fire escapes on the
inside of the building leading from the top floor to exit doors on the
first floor. The fire escapes are constructed of fireproof shafts con
taining wooden stairs with hand rails and having landings at each
story. All of the doors between rooms are sliding doors and are kept
closed, but can be opened with little effort. The stairways are prop
erly lighted and all are provided with hand rails. The floors, walls,
and ceilings are clean, the walls being whitewashed or painted
annually.
Separate wash rooms for the sexes are provided and the establish
ment furnishes towels and soap. Lunch rooms which are commodi
ous and well lighted are also provided in the building for the female
employees. The firm supplies hot coffee for lunch at no expense to
the employees, but no rest rooms are provided.
Aside from the mixing rooms and the match rooms (the rooms
where the dipping, drying, and boxing are done), working conditions
are good. The nature of the work done in the match room (owing
to the odors from chemicals used in the composition for making the
heads of matches and the strong smells and smoke from burnt and
burning matches) naturally makes working conditions in this room
bad. Constant care and attention are given to burning matches and
they are extinguished at once.
This establishment has a regularly employed dentist who visits
this plant four times a year and examines the teeth of all employees.
All cases of defective teeth are noted and employees directed to have
treatments made as indicated within a time limit, as stated in each
case. A certificate from a dentist that the treatments directed have
been made and that the mouth of the employee is now in good con
dition must be indorsed on dental examiner’s order and returned to
the establishment within the time limit given; otherwise such em
ployee is not permitted to continue at work.
138
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The agent called on Doctor K., who was then making a quarterly
examination. Mary G. was being examined. An examination of the
records of her dental examinations showed that when she was ex
amined in May, 1909, she had three teeth that she was directed to
have filled by June 30, 1909. This had not been done, however. The
superintendent explained that the reason she had been allowed to
continue at work without furnishing a certificate stating that the
order to have her teeth attended to by June 30 had been complied
with and that her mouth was now in good condition, was that she
said she had not had the dental work done because she had been out
of work while the plant was closed during the summer and could
not spare the money. He stated that such cases do not happen often,
however.
There is no provision for mouth washes or requirements as to the
use of a mouth wash. A circular was given to workers in the match
factory some time ago telling them of the necessity of caring for their
teeth, rinsing their mouths out daily, etc., but the agent was unable
to. secure a copy of this circular, the statement being made that there
was none at hand.
The washing facilities are good and it is expected that all employees
will wash their hands before eating lunch. Employees in the match
room have been instructed that they must do so.
There is a rule prohibiting employees from eating in the factory out
side of the lunch room furnished for that purpose. This rule is
rigidly enforced excepting in the yard and machine shop and for one
person in each department who is left as custodian at lunch time.
The mouths of all new applicants for employment in the match
room are looked into by the superintendent, and if there is any
evidence of defective teeth, employment is refused. The dentist at
his regular examinations advises all new employees of the danger of
phosphorus poisoning, and emphasizes the urgent necessity of rinsing
their mouths frequently and keeping their teeth in good condition.
Cases of phosphorus poisoning develop occasionally, but prompt
treatment by a dentist is said to cure the trouble in most cases.
FACTORY A T ----- , MICH.
This match factory manufactures round-end parlor matches,
single and double tipped.
The mixing room, where the match composition is prepared, is a
separate building. The dipping and drying room and the room
where packing and wrapping are done are also separate. The former
room in which the match machines are located is large and has a lofty
ceiling. Windows and skylights furnish light and air. The room is
also equipped with the simple device of having plain fans attached to
the shafting. There is also one circular fan in this room.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
139
The air in the dipping and drying rooms is highly charged with
fumes from burnt or burning matches, and from phosphorus from
the composition. There are no appliances for the removal of the
fumes other than a circular fan and the fans attached to the shafting.
The accommodations for washing are inadequate. Wash rooms are
not provided. Faucets and water pails are the only facilities for
washing.
Since this factory was visited in the course of the investigation it
has been entirely reconstructed, so that the conditions referred to here
no longer exist.
It is reported that there have been several cases of phosphorus
poisoning at this factory.
FACTORY A T -----, ILL.
This factory was established seven years ago. Square-end parlor
matches are made.
The mixing of the chemicals used in making composition for heads
of matches is done in a small detached building. The dipping, dry
ing, and the packing and wrapping are done in separate rooms.
The dipping room has five machines, which operate automatically.
They consist, essentially, of a series of wheels over which a continu
ous belt travels. This belt is made of about 800 plates joined together.
Each plate has 600 perforations—that is, 12 rows of 50 each. At one
point in its transit each plate passes in front of a hopper, into which
the trays of splints are emptied. An automatic punch strikes the
splints, forcing them into the holes in the plate. This punch oper
ates at the rate of from 225 to 250 times per minute. As the belt
moves, each plate, with its load of splints, passes over a vat of molten
paraffine, into which the splints are dipped to a depth of about
one-quarter of an inch.
A little beyond the paraffin vat is the composition pot. This
contains the material which forms the striking head of the match.
The paraffined splints are coated at one end with this composition
by means of slowly revolving rollers, which bring up an even amount
of composition. For the ordinary parlor match one dipping is suffi
cient. For the so-called double-tipped matches there is a second com
position pot, with a different kind of material, into which the tip of
the match is dipped.
After dipping, the matches traverse a distance of about 250 feet
before they again return to their starting point. Just before reach
ing the splint hopper the matches are automatically punched out of
the plates, falling on a moving belt, which carries them to the pack
ers. The packers are all women, who place the matches in paper
boxes holding from 120 to 1,000 each. One machine is fitted with
38697—No. 86—10---- 10
140
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
an automatic packing device. The boxes are fed into the machine
and come out filed, the packing in this case requiring only the put
ting on of the cover. After the matches have been packed, the boxes
are wrapped in packages of one dozen and placed in wooden cases.
The ventilation is by the windows and doors only. On first enter
ing the room the agent’s eyes were considerably irritated and kept
smarting for some time. I t was observed that the eyes of the em
ployees in the dipping room appeared to be sore and irritated.
Fumes are noticeable in all of the working rooms. In the dipping
and drying room fumes from the composition and from burnt or
burning matches were strong. So hazy is the air at times from
smoke from the burning matches that one can scarcely see objects
10 feet off. There are no appliances for removing the fumes.
Washing accommodations are poor and facilities are insufficient.
The only provision for washing is a faucet in the yard.
Before employing any person in any of the rooms where they
are liable to be affected by the chemicals used, the company
requires an examination of the individual’s teeth by its dentist. No
one is employed unless the dentist certifies the teeth to be in good
condition. While the company pays for the examination, the em
ployee must pay for any necessary dental work. There are also
quarterly examinations of the employees’ teeth by the dentist. If
it is found that anyone’s teeth are in need of treatment, such person
is not permitted to return to work until after having had the defects
attended to.
The agent observed that the lunch boxes were kept in the work
rooms and that practically all of the employees ate their lunches in
the factory.
The manager stated that in the seven years since this plant was
established one serious case of necrosis had developed. The indi
vidual in question was an experienced employee who had worked in
the mixing room for a number of years.
APPENDIX A.
REGULATION OF THE MATCH INDUSTRY IN SWITZERLAND.
SWISS FEDERAL LAW CONCERNING THE MANUFACTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF
MATCHES, NOVEMBER 2, 1898.
Article 1 . The manufacture of matches M is under the regulations of the law
concerning factory labor, without regard to number of workers or the extent of the
establishment.
The manufacture may take place only in rooms that are exclusively devoted to
such manufacturing operations.
The sale of matches, too, falls under the federal legislation in accord with the regu
lations contained in articles 4, 5, 6, 9, and 10 here following.
Art. 2. For the manufacture of matches there is needed the license of the can
tonal government, which may be granted only after the approval of the federal coun
cil has been obtained.
The latter w ill fix those conditions which are necessary to a due regard for the
health and safety of the laborers and the public.
If the cantonal government refuse the license, an appeal may be taken to the
federal council.
Art. 3. To procure this license, there must be handed in by the cantonal govern
m ent to the federal council—
The detailed plans of the rooms to be used in the operations.
(b) A statement of the process of manufacture intended, and a description of the
composition of the lighting and striking mass.
(c) A statement of the technical appliances to be used.
(a)
A statement of the intended method of packing and transporting the manufac
tured goods.
Art. 4. Manufacture, importation, exportation, and sale of matches with yellow
phosphorus is prohibited.
Art. 5. The importation and use of yellow phosphorus are permitted only for sci
entific and pharmaceutical purposes, and for other purposes that are not dangerous to
health, for which a special permit from the federal council has been obtained.
For the purpose of control the customs office must notify the cantonal government
concerned of every importation.
Art. 6 The sale of matches may take place only in packages, including large pack
ages and boxes, that show the name of the firm or the officially registered trade-mark
of the manufacturer.
These regulations apply also to imported and exported matches.
Art. 7. The officers intrusted with the supervision of match factories must be per
mitted at all times to enter all rooms which it may be reasonably supposed are
used for the manufacture of matches.
Art. 8. The federal council is authorized to acquire and put at the disposal of
manufacturers formulas of new processes that furnish a special guarantee for the
health and safety of workers in match factories and of the public at large.
Art. 9. Violations are punished—
(а) Of article 1, section 2, articles 2 and 4, with a fine of 100 to 1,000 francs [$19.30
to $193].
(б ) Of articles 5 and 6 with a fine of 50 to 500 francs [$9.65 to $96.50].
(c)
Of the adm inistrative regulations and the protective regulations of the federal
council (art. 10) and of the directions of the competent authorities, that are to be
issued in writing, with a fine of from 50 to 500 francs [$9.65 to $96.50].
The violation of article 1, section 2, articles 2 and 4, may be punished, moreover—
1. In case'of repeated offenses with imprisonment up to three months.
2. With temporary or entire withdrawal or refusal of the license to manufacture
(art. 2 ).
Goods manufactured, transported, or offered on sale or imported contrary to law
are to be confiscated.
The fines are to be collected by the competent cantonal authorities.
141
.
142
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
The withdrawal of the license to manufacture is made by the cantonal government,
upon demand of the federal office of factory inspection. Against such a decision an
appeal to the federal council may be made.
Decrees and judgments made upon the basis of this article, together with the docu
ments of investigation, are to be submitted for the information of the competent federal
factory inspection office by the cantonal governments.
A rt. 10. The administration of the present law is laid upon the cantons. The
federal council is authorized to issue the regulations necessary for its execution, and
especially to arrange for the necessary precautionary measures, in regard to manufac
turing, transportation, sale, import, and export.
A rt. 11. The federal law concerning the manufacture and sale of matches of June
22,1882, is repealed.
DECREE OF THE FEDERAL COUNCIL OF MARCH 10, 1899.
Provides for the enforcement of the foregoing law, as to manufacture of matches,
April 11, 1900; as to importation of matches with yellow phosphorus, June 1, 1899;
as to exportation and sale of matches with yellow phosphorus, January 1, 1901; as
to article 1, section 2, articles 8 and 10, im mediately.
REGULATIONS OF EXECUTION OF THE FEDERAL LAW CONCERNING THE MANU
FACTURE AND TRAFFIC IN MATCHES, DECEMBER 30, 1899,
A rticle 1. For the manufacture of matches and match candles the license of the
cantonal government is necessary, which the latter may grant only after the approval
of the federal council has been obtained.
To obtain this license application must be made to the cantonal government, giving
the following information:
(a) The detailed plans of the rooms to be used in the operations.
(b) A statement of the process of manufacture intended and a description of the
composition of the lighting and striking mass.
(c) A statement of the technical appliances to be used.
(d) A statement of the intended method of packing and transporting the manufac
tured goods, with samples of the packages.
A rt . 2. Those applications which it intends to grant shall be forwarded by the
cantonal government, together with its report and application, to the federal council
in order to obtain the latter’s approval thereto.
In those cases where the cantonal government has refused to grant the license,
regulations concerning the erection and building changes in factory buildings of December 13,1897, article 6 (6), (c), (d), (e), (J), (i), (n), (o), (p), (?), (r), (s), (t), (w), (v),
m every regard.
A rt. 4. For the arrangement and the operation of factories in which matches or match
candles with explosive components are to be prepared, the following regulations apply,
the right being reserved to issue more stringent regulations for methods of manufacture
that have not been in use hitherto:
(а) On the ground floor must be situated all rooms in which the ignition mass or the
striking mass is prepared, and where the matches are to be covered with the ignition
mass, as w ell as the rooms for drying, taking out, and filling in of the matches.
With special permission the last-named operations may take place in the first story
above, if there are provided sufficient exits that lead directly into the open, and if in
the rooms situated im mediately underneath, there are not performed manipulations
that endanger the workers in the rooms above.
(б ) If above the rooms where the ignition mass is prepared or applied and where
matches are dried, taken out, filled in or packed, there are situated other rooms, they
may be used neither for workrooms nor may persons be permitted to stay in them at all.
(c) The rooms in which the ignition mass and its components are worked over, or
where finished matches are stored, must be separated by walls from the rooms in
which the friction mass is prepared or stored.
Workmen who are working in one of these rooms must not enter the others, nor may
goods or tools be brought from one of these rooms into another.
(d) The rooms for drying the matches after being covered with the ignition mass
must be used exclusively for this purpose; they must not communicate directly with
any other rooms.
(e) Sulphuring and paraffining of matches must take place in a room which is com
pletely separated from rooms in which labor is performed on ignition mass.
PHOSPHORUS POISONING IN THE MATCH INDUSTRY.
143
(f )
Rooms where ignition mass is worked over, or where finished matches are taken
out or packed, must have exits directly into the open.
In rooms where more than 10 laborers are employed there must be provided two
or more exits, according to the number of workmen.
(a) Cast-iron stoves may be used only if they are lined well.
The stoves of all rooms in which the ignition or striking mass is heated, or in which
finished matches may be found, must be provided with a firm metal screen, up to at
least 1 meter [39.4 inches] high and at least 30 centimeters [11.8 inches] distant from
the heated surface.
Horizontally running heating pipes that are not placed at least 2 meters [79.7 inches]
above the floor must be covered with a metal screen 5 centim eters [2 inches] distant
from them in such a manner that no dust or refuse can collect on the screen and fall
on the pipe from it.
(h) For the ignition and strike masses only well-powdered ingredients may be used.
They must be ground in wet condition.
(i) The finished ignition mass may be heated only by steam or hot water.
(j) A ll rooms must be swept out at least once a day. The sweepings must be burned
im m ediately.
(l) In the taking-out and filling-in rooms there must not be more than four filled
frames per laborer.
(m) Taking-out machines that pile the matches in loose piles are prohibited.
(n) The work tables in the taking-out and filling-in rooms must be separated from
each other by partitions of at least 30 centimeters [11.8 inches] in height in such a
manner that the individual work places represent a space separated by a back wall
and two side walls of at least 80 by 60 centimeters [31.5 by 23.6 inches]. The table
surface must be covered with metal.
(o) The passageway along the tables must be at least 1£ meters [59.1 inches] wide,
and if workers are placed on both sides, at least 2 meters [78.7 inches] wide. The pas
sage must never be obstructed by articles of any kind.
( p) Wooden frames in the drying rooms must be placed in compartments 60 centi
meters [23.6 inches] high, of the width of the frames, and they must be separated
by vertical and horizontal partitions.
Frames on iron-wheel trucks may be placed anywhere in the drying rooms.
The drying rooms may be heated only from the outside. They must not be warmer
than 25° C [77° F]. In the rooms thermometers must be placed, upon which the
maximum temperature permissible is conspicuously marked.
(q) Storerooms for raw materials for the preparation of ignition and friction mass
must be kept at least 5 meters [16.4 feet] distant from the other buildings. For the
storing of chlorate of potassium there must be provided special containers in which
no other material may be stored.
Art. 5. For the installation and operation of establishments in which matches or
match candles without explosive components are manufactured, the technical and
hygienic requirements are fixed for each individual case.
Art. 6. In every factory appropriate fire-extinguishing arrangements must be pro
vided and constantly kept in a condition of readiness for use.
Art. 7. Children to and with completed sixteenth year may not be employed in
match factories. An exception is permitted for children over 14 who are employed
exclusively in manufacturing boxes. They are, however, forbidden under all cir
cumstances to enter the other rooms of the factory.
Children and adults who are not employed m the factory are prohibited, from
entering match factories. Exceptions are made in the case of persons who are intro
duced by the manager of the establishment for the purpose of visiting th e factory.
Art. 8. Matches and match candles may be sold only in packed condition, includ
ing packages and boxes, that bear the name of the manufacturer or his trade-mark,
which is deposited with the federal patent, trade-mark, and copyright office [Eidgenossisches Amt fur geistiges Eigentum], This regulation applies also to imported
goods and to goods for export.
Art. 9. The boxes must be of solid construction and of suitable material.
The friction mass may never be placed on the front side of the box, covers, etc.
Art. 10. The competent officers are authorized to take samples for examination
as to whether they contain yellow phosphorus of all matches manufactured, im
ported, or offered for sale in Switzerland, as w ell as of the materials entering into
their manufacture, by paying proper compensation therefor.
A rt . 11. Goods confiscated on the basis of article 9 of the federal law of Novem
ber 2, 1898, must be burned.
[Articles 12 and 13 relate-to the date of enforcement of the law.]
144
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
DECREE OF THE FEDERAL COUNCIL OF NOVEMBER 19, 1901.
A rticle 1. The transportation of matches with yellow phosphorus through Switzer
land to a destination outside of Switzerland may take place only by railroad and in
direct transit to a station in a foreign country.
The Swiss customs officials are bound to expedite such transit shipments on their
entry into Switzerland with customs seal.
Reloading in Swiss territory is forbidden and w ill be punished as a violation of the
prohibition to import. Exception is made only in case of reloading in consequence
of railroad accidents, as provided in the executive regulations in the customs laws.
APPENDIX B.
BRITISH WHITE PHOSPHORUS MATCHES PROHIBITION ACT, 1908.
Chapter 42.—An act to prohibit the manufacture, sale, and importation of matches
made with white phosphorus, and for other purposes in connection therewith
[21st December, 1908],
1. (1) It shall not be lawful for any person to use white phosphorus in the manu
facture of matches, and any factory in which white phosphorus is so used shall be
deemed to be a factory not kept in conformity with the Factory and Workshop Act,
1901, and that act shall apply accordingly.
(2)
The occupier of any factory in which the manufacture of matches is carried on
shall allow an inspector under the Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, at any tim e to
take for analysis sufficient samples of any material in use or m ixed for use, and, if he
refuses to do so, shall be guilty of obstructing the inspector in the execution of his
duties under that act:
Provided, That the occupier may, at the tim e when the sample is taken, and on
providing the necessary appliances, require the inspector to divide the sample so
taken into two parts and to mark, seal, and deliver to him one part.
2. It shall not be lawful for any person to sell or to offer or expose for sale or to
have in his possession for the purposes of sale any matches made with white phos
phorus, and, if any person contravenes the provisions of this section, he may on comlaint to a court of summary jurisdiction be ordered to forfeit any such matches in
is possession, and any matches so forfeited shall be destroyed or otherwise dealt
with as the court may think fit, but this provision shall not come into operation as
respects any retail dealer until the 1st day of January, 1911.
8.
It shall not be lawful to import into the United Kingdom matches made with
white phosphorus, and matches so made shall be included amongst the goods enu
merated and described in the table of prohibitions and restrictions contained in sec
tion forty-two of the Customs Consolidation Act, 1876.
4. (1) Any person who is manufacturing or proposing to manufacture matches by
way of trade may present a petition to the Board of Trade, praying for the grant of a
compulsory license to use any process patented at the passing of this act for the manu
facture of matches without white phosphorus, other than matches intended to strike
only on a surface specially prepared for the purpose.
(2) The Board o f Trade, after considering any representations that may be made by
the patentee as defined by the Patents and Designs Act, 1907, and any person claim
ing an interest in the patent as exclusive licensee or otherwise, and, after consulta
tion with the secretary of state, may order the patentee to grant a license to the peti
tioner on such terms as the board may think just. The provisions of the Board of
Trade Arbitrations, etc., Act, 1874, shall apply to proceedings under this section as
if this act were a special act w ithin the meanmg of that act.
(3)
An order of the board directing the grant of a license under this section shall,
without prejudice to any other method of enforcement, operate as if it were embodied
in a deed granting a license and made between the petitioner and the patentee and
such other persons claim ing an interest in the patent as aforesaid.
5. (1) This act may be cited as the W hite Phosphorus Matches Prohibition Act,
1908, and shall, except as otherwise expressly provided, come into operation on the
1st day of January, 1910.
(2) For the purposes of this act the expression “ white phosphorus” means the sub
stance usually known as white or yellow phosphorus.
145
E
APPENDIX C.
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION RESPECTING THE PROHIBITION OF
THE USE OF WHITE (YELLOW) PHOSPHORUS IN THE MANUFACTURE
OF MATCHES. («J
On September 26, 1906, seven countries of Europe—Germany,
Denmark, France, Italy, Luxemburg, Switzerland, and the Nether
lands—“ desiring to facilitate the development of the industrial pro
tection of work people by the adoption of common provisions,”
agreed upon the following articles respecting the use of poisonous
phosphorus in the manufacture of matches:
Article 1. The high contracting parties bind themselves to prohibit in their respect
ive territories the manufacture, importation, and sale of matches which contain white
(yellow ) phosphorus.
Art. 2. It is incumbent upon each of the contracting states to take the administra
tive measures necessary to insure the strict execution of the terms of the present
convention w ithin their respective territories.
Each Government shall communicate to the others through the diplomatic channel
the laws and regulations which exist or shall hereafter come into force in their country
with regard to the subject-matter of the present convention, as w ell as the reports
on the manner in which the said laws and regulations are applied.
Art. 3. The present convention shall only apply to a colony, possession or pro
tectorate when a notice to this effect shall have been given on its behalf by the Gov
ernment of the mother country to the Swiss Federal Council.
Art. 4. The present convention shall be ratified, and the ratifications deposited
with the Swiss Federal Council by December 31, 1908, at the latest.
A record of the deposit shall be drawn up, of which one certified copy shall be trans
m itted to each of the contracting states through the diplomatic channel.
The present convention shall come into force three years after the date on which
the record of the deposit is closed.
Art. 5. The states nonsignatories to the present convention shall be allowed to
declare their adhesion by an act addressed to the Swiss Federal Council, who w ill
bring it to the notice of each of the other contracting states.
The tim e lim it laid down in article 4 for the coming into force of the present con
vention is extended in the case of the nonsignatory states, as w ell as of their colonies,
possessions or protectorates, to five years, counting from the date of the notification
of their adhesion.
Art. 6 It shall not be possible for the signatory states, or the states, colonies, pos
sessions, or protectorates who may subsequently adhere, to denounce the present
convention before the expiration of five years from the date on which the record of
the deposit of ratifications is closed.
Thenceforward the convention may be denounced from year to year.
The denunciation w ill only take effect after the lapse of one year from the tim e
when written notice has been given to the Swiss Federal Council by the Government
concerned, or in the case of a colony, possession or protectorate, by the Government
of the mother country; the Federal Council shall communicate the denunciation
im m ediately to the Government of each of the other contracting states.
The denunciation shall only be operative as regards the state, colony, possession
or protectorate on whose behalf it has been notified.
In witness whereof the plenipotentiaries have signed the present convention.
Done at Berne this 26tn day of September, 1906, in a single copy, which shall be
kept in the archives of the Swiss Federation, and one copy of which, duly certified,
shall be delivered to each of the contracting powers through the diplomatic channel.
.
a Bulletin of the International Labor Office, Vol. I, p. 276.
146
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS. («)
PREPARED FOR THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEG
ISLATION BY DR. TH. SOMMERFELD IN COLLABORATION WITH SIR
THOMAS OLIVER, M. D., AND DR. FELIX PUTZEYS.
The International Association for Labor Legislation has from its
foundation in 1901 recognized as one of its chief objects the collection
and dissemination of information concerning those industrial poisons
which are inimical to the health of the worker, with a view to the
establishment of a scientific basis for international legislation to
prohibit or regulate their use.
The efforts of the association were first directed toward securing
the prohibition of the use of white phosphorus in the match industry,
and the regulation of the use of white lead and its prohibition wherever
possible. The first practical result of these efforts was the interna
tional convention signed at Berne, Switzerland, September 26, 1906,
by Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg, the Netherlands,
and Switzerland, which prohibited the use of white phosphorus as
indicated above. Great Britain signed this treaty December 28,
1908, and the use of white phosphorus was prohibited in that country
by a law which took effect January 1, 1910.
Meanwhile at the third general meeting of the delegates of the
international association, which was held at Basel, Switzerland, in
September, 1904, a wider scope was given to the work of the asso
ciation in combating industrial poisons. Lead poisoning was con
sidered independently, and it was decided that it would be necessary
to study separately its different phases, as, for example, the manu
facture of the metals, lead and zinc, the manufacture of lead colors,
o This article is in large part a translation and summary of a report of a committee
appointed by the International Association for Labor Legislation, for the purpose of
preparing a list of industrial poisons. The full title of this report is “ Entwurf einer
Liste der gewerblichen Gifte, im Auftrage der Internationalen Vereinigung fiir
gesetzlichen Arbeiterschutz unter Mitwirkung von Sir Thomas Oliver, M. D., und
Prof. Dr. F elix Putzeys, verfast von Prof. Dr. Th. Sommerfeld. Jena, Gustav
Fischer, 1908.” The translation of the list of industrial poisons which concludes the
article was prepared in the Bureau of Labor. The list is reproduced here with the
approval of Professor Sommerfeld and Sir Thomas Oliver. Sir Thomas Oliver kindly
furnished the bureau with a brief translation of the list of poisons, which formed the
basis of the complete translation which is presented herewith.
147
148
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
the pottery industry, its effect upon painters, the manufacture of
electrical accumulators, the polygraphic industry, pipe fitters, file
cutters, polishers of precious stones, dyers, etc. In accordance with
this decision, a committee was designated to deal with these separate
questions and to report to the International Labor Office. The
association adhered to its original position, however, advocating
the absolute prohibition of the use of lead colors wherever a sub
stitute was possible, and urged the distribution to the various sec
tions as rapidly as possible of Mr. Js. P. de Vooys* report upon the
possibility of prohibiting lead glazes in the ceramic industry. The
association at this time laid down certain principles upon which the
work of regulating and eliminating industrial poisons should be
based. These principles were briefly as follows:
(a) Physicians and hospitals should be compelled to make returns
concerning cases of industrial diseases, to the existing sanitary
authorities; physicians to be paid for this service a suitable fee.
(b) In those countries in which compulsory sick insurance exists,
the physicians of the industries in which industrial poisons are
manufactured, or used, should be made independent of the employer.
(c) The employer should be required to report the manufacture
or use of industrial poisons.
(d) It is to the interests of the administrators of the sick insurance
funds that it should be impressed upon them that they should devote
especial attention to the health of their members employed in poison
ous industries, and that they should make to the factory inspectors
(officials having supervision of industries) special morbidity returns
concerning these dangerous industries, to aid in overcoming the
causes of these poisons.
( e) The study and knowledge of industrial poisons should be
especially demanded in the instruction in medical colleges, and young
physicians should, in special courses, pay attention to the chief
prophylactic measures which are necessary for the systematic pro
tection of the health of laborers.
(f) The special inspection of those industries which manufacture
or employ industrial poisons is to be entrusted not only to the inde
pendent physicians of the various sick funds, but to official physicians
especially instructed in industrial hygiene.
(g) The hours of labor of workers employed in poisonous industries
should be shortened according to the degree of danger.
At the same time the association recommended the appointment
of a commission of experts to make a list of such chemical substances
as belong to the category of industrial poisons and to indicate their
character and effect.
The Institute for General Welfare {Das Institut fu r Gemeinwohl)
of Frankfurt a. Main came to the assistance of the association and
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS.
149
offered prizes for studies on five different phases of lead poisoning.
In all 63 studies were presented, and 36 were either awarded prizes,
or honorable mention.
The International Labor Office arranged for .the prize studies of
MM. Boulin and Ducrot to be published in the Bulletin of Labor
Inspection of the French Ministry of Labor. The Institute for
General Welfare itself provided for the printing of Dr. Richard
Mullets study entitled “ Combating Lead Poisoning in Lead Foun
d r ie s .^ )
The remaining studies were, at the request of the International
Labor Office, assembled as one work by Doctor Leymann, of Wies
baden, and published under the title “ Combating Lead Poisoning
in Industry. ” (6)
In accordance with a resolution adopted at Basel September 28,
1904, the different national sections have directed their efforts
toward the regulation of industrial poisons, and the work of the
German Section {D ie GeseUschaft fu r Soziale R eform ) has met with
a measure of success in legislation for the protection of painters,
decorators, and lacquerers from lead poisoning. It seems safe to
assume that this is only a first step in rendering the painting trade
safe, since it is to-day the experience that white lead is not necessary
for interior painting or lacquering on metal.
The fourth general meeting of delegates of the International Asso
ciation for Labor Legislation a t Geneva in 1906 advised the continu
ance of efforts to limit as much as possible the dangers from lead
poisoning, and also the preparation and publication of a comprehen
sive list of industrial poisons. Accordingly the national sections were
asked to make investigations concerning the prevention of danger
from lead poisoning in the production and application of lead colors,
as well as the danger from the use of lead in the pottery and poly
graphic industries. A committee of three experts from different
countries was intrusted with the work of sifting and assembling these
reports. The sections were especially charged to report concerning
the prohibition of the use of white lead and the experiments which
were being made with leadless colors. As a third task the sections
were charged with the preparation of a list of the chief industrial
poisons. A select committee was then to prepare a final list, with
the reports of the various sections as a basis, which according to the
terms of reference was to be arranged according to the five following
heads:
1. Designation and nature of poisonous materials.
2. Divisions of industry in which the question of poison arises.
a D ie Bekampfung der Bleigefahr in B leithiitten. Gustav Fischer, Jena, 1908.
b D ie Bekampfung der Bleigefahr in der Industrie. Gustav Fischer, Jena, 1908.
150
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
3. Means and methods of entering into the system.
4. Symptoms of poisoning.
5. Methods of regulation.
Dr. Th. Sommerfeld, of Berlin, Sir Thos. Oliver, M. D., of Newcastle-on-Tyne, and Mr. H. Yanderrydt, of Brussels, were named as
the committee to prepare this list. In the place of Mr. H. Yanderrydt,
Doctor Putzeys, of Liege, later became a member of the committee.
The list herewith published is in no sense to be considered as a com
pleted work. I t is merely a foundation for the further treatment of
the exceptionally difficult subject.
NATURE OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS.
Those substances are designated as industrial poisons which in their
production, their use, or to a less extent occurring as by, or inter
mediate, products endanger by chemical processes the working capac
ity of the laborer. This deleterious chemical effect arises from the
fact that certain gaseous fluids or solids which secure entrance to the
body, regardless of the manner of that entry, produce chemical reac
tions with the compounds or elements of the body, thus lessening or
destroying the efficiency of the component parts.
The recognition of the industrial poisons generally meets with great
difficulties, and demands a special toxicological knowledge as well as
large experience in industrial hygiene. I t is for the most part easy
only in the case of those substances which in small amounts and by
immediate action produce severe injury. I t is difficult for all mate
rials which after a long period of continuous entry into the system
gradually develop their effects. In the recognition of industrial
poisons the further difficulty arises that not all persons react in the
same manner to the absorption of poisons, so that one person may
apparently remain perfectly well, another may be slightly ill, while a
third may present the severest symptoms.
In the second place, difficulty in diagnosis arises from the fact that
scarcely a disease originates from industrial poisons that can not
originate with practically the same symptoms from other causes.
Lastly, several poisons may be acting upon an individual at the
same time and make a clinical picture very complicated, sometimes
undecipherable.
Because of these difficulties, observations in industrial establish
ments, and indeed the scientific analysis of symptons in single cases,
will not suffice. We must often depend for help upon experiments
upon suitable animals and, if possible, upon men who may submit
themselves voluntarily for trial.
LIST OP INDUSTRIAL POISONS.
151
METHODS OF ENTRY OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS INTO THE SYSTEM.
The methods by which industrial poisons may enter the body are
three: (1) Through the mouth and digestive system; (2) through the
respiratory system; (3) through the skin.
The admission of poisonous m aterial through the digestive system
follows usually through unwashed hands being brought into contact
w ith the m outh in order to wipe away m oisture from the lips, or
because the food is touched w ith unclean hands or is allowed to lie
open in contam inated workrooms. It m ust also be pointed out that
poisonous gas, dust, or vapor m ay get into the m outh or nose, and
falling upon the m oist mucous membrane, be carried into the stom ach
w ith the saliva. Here it m ust be noted that only a few combinations
of poisons are w holly insoluble, the m ost being easily soluble in
water and especially so in the digestive fluids.
Poisons in a gaseous state are chiefly absorbed by means of respi
ration; but that solid particles of poison, as such, or as finest films
coating otherwise impalpable dust, are soluble in the fluids of the
body, that they reach the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes
and are absorbed in the lungs, there can be no doubt. In respect to
this matter it is to be remembered as a peculiarity of the poisonous
lead that it covers even the finest particles with a thin film.
Not least in importance is the danger from poisons operating
through the skin. Many materials, especially nitro- and amidoderivatives, but also lead, quicksilver, and many other poisons may
secure entry through the uninjured skin to say nothing of their
admission through abrasions and wounds in which case the solubility
of such substances in the oil of the sebaceous glands is especially to
be taken into account.
The experiment of Lehmann furnishes a striking proof of the
facility of absorption. “ If a cat is confined in a close wooden box
so that its head only projects through a padded opening, and the
box protected from the sun is placed upon the roof of a house in the
open air, the animal through many hours will show no sign of dis
comfort. If one, however, wraps the animal in a cloth upon which
a moderate quantity (about 5 grams) of aniline, toluidin, nitrobenzol
or nitrotoluol has been dropped, the animal dies in a few hours,
although the breathing of nitrobenzol vapor produces almost no
effect. A fatal result occurs much quicker if certain finely pulver
ized materials are rubbed into the fur of the cat. If five-tenths of a
gram of dinitrotoluol, which is a very slightly volatile substance at
a temperature of about 37° C. is so applied, the cat dies in a single
hour.”
152
BULLETIN OF THE' BUREAU OF LABOR.
EXTENT OF THE DANGER OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS.
In no country has it been possible to estimate with any accuracy
the extent of the danger to the health of the worker arising from the
presence of industrial poisons, for the reason th at statistics on this
subject are wanting. The chemical industries, partly because of
legal regulation, partly of their own free will, employ factory doctors
who are charged with the oversight of the health of the endangered
workers, yet they rarely give publicity to the work of these physicians,
though it has a great value, not only so far as it concerns the special
industries where they are employed, but also in the general interests
of science and the well-being of workers. Likewise the statistics of
the sick insurance funds of Germany furnish us no index of the fre
quency of industrial poisoning among those workers insured in these
funds. The physicians of these sick funds are responsible for this
failure to a large degree, either because they have not sufficient
toxicological knowledge or because they are so busy during their
office hours that they have no leisure to investigate the specific nature
of the employment of their patients. A true physician, however,
should not be satisfied to discover the symptoms only of a disease,
but he should search thoroughly for its causes, because he thus with
stronger weapons can do battle with the enemy.
The preparation of a statistical compendium of all diseases possibly
arising from industrial poisons is an important task of the near future.
An outline of possible methods of collecting such statistics is given in
the resolutions of the Basel conference already referred to.
At The Hague conference of the Central Councils for Laborers’ Wel
fare Organizations, in 1905, all speakers, including the representa
tives of science, technologists, factory inspectors, medical authorities,
and the medical profession agreed that an accurate knowledge of the
extent of industrial diseases is necessary in order to combat success
fully the poisons producing them. I t is beyond question that such
information can be secured only through physicians by means of a
legal obligation requiring it. I t is necessary th at such reports should
be required upon special forms showing name, age, sex, industry,
occupation, and description of the disease for each case; such reports
to be made to the proper authorities. In case microscopic and
bacteriologic investigations are necessary for the certainty of the
diagnosis, these should be carried out by state institutions upon the
request of the proper officials. The duty of reporting industrial dis
eases should also be made obligatory upon factory and hospital
physicians. To secure satisfactory reports of this nature, it would
be necessary to issue uniform instructions containing a description of
the clinical features of the different poisons and of the chief processes
giving rise to them in industry and hand work. I t is essential th at
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS.
153
compulsory reports should be confined to those poisons which furnish
a more or less sharply defined and sufficiently well-known clinical
picture. First of all in such a list would appear poisonings by lead,
phosphorus, quicksilver, arsenic, chromium, the carbonic oxides,
anilines, benzol, nitrobenzol, dinitrobenzol, carbondisulphide, and
nitrous gases.
METHODS OF COMBATING INDUSTRIAL POISONS.
The chief share in the prevention of industrial poisons falls to factory
owners and managers of industries; in the first place, because upon
them rests the responsibility of providing proper technical arrange
ments for the removal of gases, vapors, and dust, and proper pre
cautionary measures to avert danger in filling, emptying, and trans
porting the substances above named; in the second place, because
upon them lies likewise the responsibility for providing suitable wash
ing facilities and shower baths, work clothes, respirators, protective hel
mets, and other similar effective aids, where the formation of danger
ous gases and dust in the workroom can not be prevented. We must
not, however, overlook the fact that the hygienic protection of labor
by preventive industrial devices is often practicable only in large and
heavily capitalized establishments. Thus the majority of workers
in the smaller factories, and especially in the hand work industries,
must remain dependent upon less effective regulations. I t is impor
tant to note concerning the preceding considerations that the interests
of the industry and of the worker are one, because, in general, the
development of an industry depends upon the well-being of its
employees, or at least the two are interdependent. The productivity
of the employee conforms in general to the care which the employer
has taken to protect his health. Accordingly we should wish that
the management of the great chemical industry might present a model.
I t by no means proves to be such, however, even in isolated cases.
Frequently workers become sick even in establishments that are well
conducted hygienically, because of production by new methods, as a
result of which new and unknown poisons develop. This danger
might be avoided if, before the manufacture in large quantities,
exhaustive experiments in regard to the physiological effects of all
the yet unknown chemical constituents were made in a laboratory
attached to the factory or in a public institution.
An important r&le in the prevention of industrial poisoning falls
to the government factory inspectors in so far as the supervision and
control of legal preventive measures are incumbent upon them. If,
however, the work required of them is so great that there is danger
of their visits to the factory being so far apart as to make the pro
prietor feel fairly safe from interference, their activity then needs
supplementing through experienced workers who should be officially
154
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR.
designated as assistants to the factory inspectors. For a number of
industries the appointm ent of factory physicians is prescribed by lawin Germany. I t is their duty to make a physical exam ination of each
new worker and to watch over the health of those exposed to danger
by the industry. This very valuable provision y e t needs develop
ment. E specially should the factory physician be made entirely inde
pendent of the factory owner, and he should receive a com petence
sufficient to enable him to study the relation between sickness and
nature of employm ent, so that he m ight be placed in a situation of
usefulness in prescribing rules of conduct.
I t is true, however, that in m any cases upon the conduct of the
worker him self entirely depends his well-being. A ny watchful
observer daily w ill note cases in which workers are poisoned by their
indifference to the threatening danger. The enlightenm ent of the
worker m ust therefore play an im portant part in overcom ing the
risks of industrial poisoning. I t is useless here to argue whether the
worker’s own watchfulness or factory regulation is the more impor
tant. Instruction m ust come to the worker from m any channels.
This could begin conveniently in the higher classes of the public
schools in connection w ith the instruction in natural sciences. In
struction in the conduct necessary to prevent industrial poisons,
such instruction to be given by experienced physicians, should be
emphasized in the continuation schools and especially in the tech
nical schools. Much m ay also be done through the press, by public
lectures, popular pam phlets, concise circulars of instruction, as well
as by foremen and bosses.
D octor Sommerfeld considers that the essential progress along
these lines m ust be made, however, by means of the continuation
schools of the various industries. I t is usually a fruitless attem pt
to dissuade an adult laborer from exposing him self in his custom ary
manner to a danger w ith which he is fam iliar and hence for which
he has contem pt. The youthful mind, however, is susceptible to en
thusiastic and energetic instruction. The teacher of health for these
young workers m ust be fam iliar not only w ith the scientific aspects
of his subject, but w ith the technical m ethods of the industry.
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS,
155
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS.
[Translated from Entwurf einer Liste der gewerbliehen Gifte im Ailftrage der Intemationalen Vereinigung
fur gesetzlichen Arbeiterschutz, Jena, 1908.]
Name of substance.
ALCOHOL, AMYL,
C5H 11.OH: Chief com
pound of fusel oil; color
less; oily, acrid taste;
penetrating, disagreea
ble smell; liquid.
Industry where
prepared or used.
Mode of entrance
into body.
Symptoms of intoxication.
Preparation of fruit In form of vapor, Headache, pressure on chest.
essences, amyl ni
through respi
trite, valeric acid,
ratory organs.
v a r i o u s aniline
dyes, substance for
lighting purposes.
Preventive measure: Vent;ilation of workrooms.
ALCOHOL, METHYL, In manufacture of In form of vapor, Irritation of mucous membrane o f
wood spirit, CH 3.O H :
Colorless, faint odor,
burning with nonluminous flame.
varnish, polish, in
denaturation of
s p i r i t s , pure
methyl alcohol in
preparation
of dyeing materials
obtained from tar.
in breathing.
respiratory organs and eyes; incli
nation to vomit, headache, tingling:
in ears, difficult breathing, tempo
rary dizziness; when breathmg large*
quantities, violent inflammation o f
throat and mucous membrane o f
the air passages, extending to the
finest bronchia; inflammation of
skin of hands and lower arms of peo
ple engaged in polishing furniture-
Preventive measures: Powerful ventilation; careful ablutions of hands and arms.
AMMONIA, NH3: Color Gas works, chemical In gaseous form, Long continued inhalation of small
less gas, pungent smell.
Solution of ammonia,
liquor ammonii caustici— 10 per cent am
monia.
works 01 the most
varied types,
manufacture of
fixed sal ammon
iac and carbonate
of ammonia from
gas water, manu
facture of orsellic
colors, manufac
ture of ice, cool
ing installations,
varnish and dye
works, ammonia
soda process^ cal
ic o p r i n t i n g ,
bleaching,
tan
ning; In small
quantities as by
product in the
manufacture
of
coal gas.
through respi
ratory organs;
seldom pure,
being usually
in combina
tion w i t h
other gases.
quantities produces a chronic bron
chial catarrh. Acute symptoms;
are to be distinguished from this.
Air containing more than 0.1£
er cent rapidly affects healthevere irritation of the respiratory
organs, violent sneezing, lacrymation, reddening of eyes, burning in
the throat and feeling of constricton, increased salivation; attacks
of coughing with expectoration of
a viscous, thickish, sometimes;
bloody substance; difficulty in.
breathing, attacks of suffocation?
vomiting of serous material; odor
of ammonia in the perspiration?
retention of the urine for many
hours, or even for 2 or 3 days; acuteinflammation of respiratory or
gans, here and there patches of in
flammation in the lungs. Severe?
cases result in death.
§
Preventive measures: Use of closed vessels,-exhaustion of gases; use of moistened respirator, consisting:
of several layers of fine woolen tissue.
38697—No. 86 —10----11
156
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS—Continued.
Name of substance.
Industry where
prepared or used.
A N I L I N E , CeHfrNH*: Making of anilines
and aniline eolors.
A colorless oil when
pure, which soon turns
a dark red on exposure
to the air and light*
Like aniline, also the
homologous and closely
related substances, toluidine, xylidine, anisidine, are poisonous, no
matter in what state of
aggregation.
Mode of entrance
into body.
the form ofvapor, or by absorption
through t h e
skin by satu
ration of th e
clothing.
Symptoms of intoxication.
The susceptibility and resistance of
different individuals to aniline and
its homologues varies widely.
A cu te in t o x ic a tio n .— The se
verity of symptoms varies from
slight temporary disturbance in
mild cases to fatal termination in
the severest eases.
In the mildest cases there is a
bluish color of the lips, without
feeling of illness.
In moderate eases there is a feel
ing of weariness and weakness, a
fullness in the head, tired eyes,
reeling, unsteady gait, want of elas
ticity of movement, slow, heavy
speech. Such a case has the ap
pearance of slight alcoholic intoxi
cation. Sallow, pale complexion,
blue lips, loss of appetite, some
times flashes before the eyes, desire
to urinate, dark urine. No inflam
mation of the mucous membranes
of the air passages.
After longer exposure to the gas,
or exposure to it in more concen
trated form, additional symptoms
besides those noted above appear:
Dark blue to black color of the lips,
unsteadiness of gait, dizziness,
fainting, retarded pulse, contrac
tion of the pupils (which, however,
usually react to the light), lessening
of the sensibility, odor of aniline on
the breath. After vomiting consciousnessreturns,violent headache,
aversion to food; in isolated cases
strangury, with dark, thick urine.
Recovery after some days.
In the most severe cases, sudden
collapse; cold, pale skin; decrease
and then loss of sensibility; death
in a comatose condition, or some
times in convulsions.
Ch ro nic in tox ic a tio n .— Chiefly
nervous symptoms, as general ex
haustion, headache, roaring in the
ears, disturbance of sensibility,
often also high-grade motor dis
turbances. Later other symptoms
appear, as disturbances of the di
gestive organs, nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea, eczematic and pustulent
eruptions on various parts of the
body, especially upon the scrotum.
Preventive measures: Instruction of the worker concerning the action of aniline, and observation of work
regulations; protection of the worker from breathing the vapor and prevention of direct contact of skin
and clothing by proper apparatus; care in emptying containers.
At the first symptoms of poisoning, removal from atmosphere in which aniline is present into the fresh
air.
When the skin has become wet with aniline, removal of clothing, careful drying of the skin with ab
sorbent cloth without rubbing, careful application of a paste of chloride of lime (bleaching powder), washing
in warm water, hot baths at 37 to 40° C.
After breathing of aniline vapor, a warm bath containing 1 part per 1,000 of hydrochloric acid, to be
followed 2 or 3 minutes later by a second hot bath of pure water.
Strong black coffee for sinking of bodily temperature; 1 tablespoonful of crystallized Glauber's salts,
sulphate of soda, in one-half liter of water to stimulate vomiting, brushing of the body with weak vinegar,
inhalation of oxygen, and artificial breathing for several hours.
All means of treatment should be kept in readiness, and special persons should be intrusted with their
keeping and use.
157
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS.
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS-Continued.
Name of substance.
Industry where
prepared or used.
Mode of entrance
into body.
Symptoms of intoxication.
ANTIMONY, Sb: White, Extraction of anti In form of vapor, Cutaneous eruption through local
silvery, very brittle.
mony and stibnite
through res
application, especially by perspira
Antimony colors: An ( n a t i v e t r i piratory o r
tion; inflammation of mouth,
timony oxychloride,
antimony Cinnabar
oxide, Naples yellow;
antimony a l l o y s ,
antim ony com
pounds.
sulphide of anti
mony), preparar
tion of numerous
antimony c o m
pounds, antimony
alloys (type metal,
britannia metal,
white metal), fire
works, p a i n t s ,
preparing and fix
ing aniline dyes,
p o t t e r y glaze,
used as golden
sulphide in the
vulcanization and
red coloring of
india rubber, tar
tar emetic as a
mordant.
gans, as oxide
of antimony,
antimonic
acid, sulphide
of antimony;
irritation of
skin, in form
of dust when
working i n
b ri tann i a
metal and type
metal.
throat, and stomach; constipation,
colic, debility; albumen in urine;
weakness of heart, dizziness, and
fainting.
Preventive measures: Protection against gases and dust; vapor baths, the effect of which is still an open
question.
ARSENIC, As: 'When Mines,
pure, whitish gray,
with metallic luster.
White arsenic (arsenicnm album), arsenic
t r i o x i d e , As*03:
Formed in roasting
arsenical ores, depos
ited during passage
from the retort as a
white powder (small
octaheara), tasteless
and odorless.
Arse ni ous acid,
H 3ASO3, and its salts,
the arsenites.
Schweinfurtgreen: A
compound of acetate
and arsenite of cop
per (aceto-arsenite of
copper). Soluble ar
senites used in chem
ical works for reduc
tion.
Seheele’s green: Arsen
ite of copper. Bril
liant green rbombohedra. Soluble arsen
ites used in chemical
works for reduction.
Arsenic acid, acidum
arsenicum, H 3AsO*:
Rhombic
crystals
when
evaporated
from solution.
Cochineal or Vienna
red: A complete mix
ture of arsenic acid
(H3ASO4) and brazil
wood extract.
Realgar or Ruby sul
phur, AS2 S2 .
Orpiment, AS2 S3 : Con
tained in new and
royal yellow.
foundries, In form of gas A c u te in tox ica tio n .— First symp
toms mostly only after one-half to
and
dust,
chemical works,
one hour. Sensation as of throat
making of shot,
through respi
constricted, pain in stomach and
manipulation of
ratory organs,
intestines, vomiting, diarrhea, loss
skin, and mu
metal, glass indus
of strength, skin cold and bluish,
c o u s m em
try, manufacture
cramp in calf of leg, lowering of
of aniline and
branes.
heart’s action, dizziness, headache,
other dyes, print
fainting, delirium, unconscious
ing, dyeing, mak
ness, spasms; death under symp
ing of wall and
toms like cholera. In lighter cases:
colored paper, of
Burning sensation in neck, vomit
oilcloth, artificial
ing, salivation, difficulty in swal
flowers, colored
lowing, indigestion.
chalks, stuffing of
Ch r o n ic
in t o x ic a tio n .— Dis
animals, tannery,
turbed nutrition; complexion ashy,
filling of airships,
yellowish, or bronze; arsenical
soldering with im
melanosis, i. e., deposit of brown
pure hydrogen;
ish pigment, not containing As. in
arsenic chloride
neck, body, and arms and legs;
in etching brass.
bleeding gums, feeling of pressure
at stomach, vomiting, diarrhea,
emaciation, loss of strength; falling
off of hair and nails, dryness ana
chapping of skin, various skin
eruptions; sometimes symptoms
of catarrh in mucous membranes,
inflammation of conjunctiva of eye
and eyelids, of throat and bron
chial ducts.
L ocomotion a n d
d is t u r b e d .— Violent,
se n sa t io n
sudden, cut
ting pains; formication, skin feeling
like fur, sensibility lowered; feel
ing of coldness, muscles weakened,
simple or double paralysis, loss of
reflex in tendons; paralysis tem
porary or lasting for years, often
leaving chronic disturbances; cere
bral disturbance; headache, disin
clination for work; sleeplessness,
excitability, melancholia, epilepsy,
loss of memory in different de
grees.
Preventive measures: Exhaustion of poisonous gases and dust; personal cleanliness; ablutions.
For acute poisoning: Magnesium hydroxide, mixed with burnt magnesia in 20 parts of water, 4 to 6
tablespoonfuls every fifteen minutes, or hydrated peroxide of iron as an antidote, best freshly prepared,
2 to 4 tablespoonfuls; sudorifics, warm baths.
158
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS—Continued.
Name of substance.
Industry where
prepared or used.
Mode of entrance
into body.
Symptoms of intoxication.
ARSENI TTRE T T E D AsH3 is formed In gaseous form, At first slight uneasiness; after some
hours,.shivering, vomiting (food,
through respi
whenever H or
HYDROGEN GAS,
A sH3: Colorless, with
a fetid odor of garlic.
carburetted hy
drogen are devel
oped for techni
cal purposes in
the p r e s e n c e of
a soluble arsenic
compound; a 11
kinds of raw hy
drochloric and sul
phuric acid, iron
filings and zinc
contain arsenic;
soldering, air bal
loons.
ratory organs,
mostly mixed
with H.
bile, blood), pains in the back,
dizziness, fainting, small pulse,
bluish discoloration of mucous
membranes, difficult breathing;
urine sometimes dark, even black.
After 24 hours skin turns yellow
through bile; unpleasant smell
from mouth, swelling and sensi
tiveness of liver and spleen, head
ache, delirium; death, or slow
recovery.
Preventive measures: Exhaustion of poisonous gases; powerful ventilation of workrooms; use of hydro
gen free from arsenic.
BENZOL, C6H6: Light, Preparation of ben In form of va Giddiness, tingling in the ear, sleepi
oily liquid; colorless,
burning with bright
but sooty flame.
zol and a long
series of aromatic
compounds; a
body dissolving
and purifying va
rious substances,
as india rubber,
resin, fats, iodine,
phosphorus, sul
phur, removing
rease, indiarruber
industry,
washing and dye
ing.
por, through
respiratory or
gans.
f
ness, feeling as if intoxicated, in
clination to cough and vomit, pulse
at first accelerated then retarded;
face reddened, then bluish discol
oration; trembling of hands and
arms; formication and dryness of
skin. The stage of excitement is
followed by a stage of sinking of
the sensitiveness below the normal.
In severe cases, perspiration with
disagreeable odor, itching of the
skin, loss of sensation, formication,
hallucination, delirium, long-con
tinued unconsciousness, epilepti
form fits. No discoloration of skin
as in anliine and nitrobenzol
intoxication.
Preventive measures: Exhaustion of vapors ; ventilation of rooms.
CARBON DIOXIDE, Contained in the de- In the form of Large quantities produce sudden
carbonic acid, CO2.
composition gases
of vaults and
tombs, in sewer
gas and the gas in
wells (water
wells), sometimes
also in bark or tan
pits, breweries and
distilleries, com
pressed-yeast fac
tories, wine cel
lars.
In mines CO2 is
produced by the
breathing of the
miners, burning of
their lamps, blast
ing, etc.
gas, through
the respirato
ry organs.
death by suffocation. Continuous
inhalation of moderate quantities,
through a longer or shorter period,
produces headache, dizziness, roar
ing in the ears, increasingly diffi
cult breathing, sometimes pain in
the chest. Sometimes mental ex
citability is produced, or exhaus
tion, from the outset, and drowsi
ness, loss of consciousness and pow
er of motion. Recovery occurs
after a period varying from several
hours to two days, unless removal
from the gas-laden atmosphere has
been too long delayed, when a fatal
termination occurs.
Preventive measures: Testing the air before entering a room likely to contain CO2; quick removal from
the dangerous atmosphere at the first sign of danger, as difficulty of breathing, pain in the head, or roaring
in the ears; good ventilation of fermenting houses (in breweries).
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS,
159
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS—Continued.
Name of substance.
Industry where
prepared or used.
Mode of entrance
into body.
Symptoms of intoxication.
CARBON D I S U L Making of CS2 , ex- In form of vapor, Injury to red blood corpuscles and
PHIDE, carboneum
tractionof fats and
through
central nervous system. 1.5 to 3
sufuratum, CS2 : Color
less when pure,smelling
like chloroform, strong
ly refracting light. An
extremely volatile fluid;
if impure, pale yellow,
smelling disagreeably.
Its vapors mixed with
air are explosive.
oils, extraction of
breathing; in
S from gas-wash . a fluid form,
ing substances,
dippinghands
vulcanization of
into the poi
india rubber, puri
son, or spurt
fication of tallow,
ing of the fluid
stearin, paraffin,
from bursting
wax, filling of hol
of the glass
container.
low prisms, prep
aration of com
pounds of Cl and
C, dissolving of fat
in treating rags,
bones, faw wool,
fruit containing
oil, etc.
milligrams CSa to 1 liter air cause
inconvenience after a few hours;
6 mg., in 20 minutes. 10 mg. pro
duce symptoms of paralysis and
after effects for 12 days.
A cute intoxication.—Paralysis
of central nervous system, decom
position of red blood corpuscles;
drowsiness, unconsciousness; after
breathing considerable quantities,
death ensues within a few hours.
Chronic intoxication.—First,
symptoms of headache passing
from root of nose to temples, feeling
of dizziness, especially at night:
later, aching in limbs, itching ana
formication, more or less coughing,
quickened heart action, great
mental excitability, violent and
excitable temper, rise of sexual
instincts. This stage is followed
after some weeks or months bv one
of depression; relaxation, sadness,
dreamy condition, lowered sensi
bility, weakness of memory, in
distinct speech.
D isturbance of sensibility.—
Shivering, itching, prickling, want
ing or lowering of reflex actions; in
sensibility within certain limits or
spread over large area and anal
gesia.
D isturbances of locomotion.—
Weakness of muscles, tremor,
cramp with fibrillary quivering,
also stiffness of limbs (contraction),
fleeting or lasting paralysis, some
times with atrophy of muscle.
Also, local influences of aparalyzing nature of CS2 have been ob
served in the fingers when dipping
the india rubber into the CS2 ; de
rangements of sight, taste, smell,
hearing; mental disorders, as acute
mania, dementia with hope of re
covery. Hereditary disease aggra
vates the conditions.
D e r a n g e d nutrition.—Dis
turbed digestion, vomiting, colic,
diarrhea alternately with constipa
tion, the latter predominant in the
later courses of the disease; emacia
tion.
Frequently mental symptoms or
cachectic conditions persist after
work has been given up.
Preventive measures: Where possible use closed vessels and pipes (extraction of fat), leading away the
vapors from where they arise; good ventilation; avoid touching CS* with naked hands; removal of sick
persons from poisonous atmosphere; medical treatment to disappearance of all symptoms; treatment in
hospital advisable.
160
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS—Continued.
Name of substance.
Industry where
prepared or used.
Mode of entrance
into body.
Symptoms of intoxication.
CARBON MONOXIDE, Manufacture of coal In gaseous form, A cute
CO: Colorless, tasteless
gas, odorless in small
quantity, burning with
blue flame with admis
sion of air.
Coal damp: 0.5 to 5
per cent CO.
nmminating or coal
gas: 6 to 10 percent
CO, 35 to 40 per cent
marsh gas.
Water gas: A mixture
gas, water gas,
suction gas, coke,
smelting furnaces,
metal foundries,
limekilns, brick
works, coal mines,
ironing with gas
irons, h e a t i n g
with open com
pan, chemical lab
oratories.
through respi
ratory organs.
of 41 per cent CO, 50
per cent H, 4 per cent
COa, 5 per cent N.
Generator gas: 34 per
cent CO, 60 per centH.
poisoning.—At first, rise of
blood pressure with slackening of
pulse, hammering palpitation;
later, sinking of pressure, with fre
quent but small pulse, and not
rarely with discolored vascular re
gions of the skin.
D erangement of general
health.—In slight cases headache,
dizziness, tingling of ears, nausea,
pressure in pit of stomach; in severe
cases bluish decoloration of skin,
spasmodic, noisy breathing, some
times tonic and clonic spasms, more
frequently symptoms of paralysis,
either with weakness o f the legs
and arms or legs alone, or only of
certain muscles, also those of the
face. This convulsive stage, which
may also be wanting, is followed by
the asphyxia stage with derange
ment of sensibility or locomotion,
involuntary urination, loss of se
men, and of stools; low tempera
ture. weak and slow pulse, also be
coming intermittent; unconscious
ness, death through blood poison
ing, or through inflammation of
lungs in consequence of sucking
up of vomit during unconscious
ness (swallowing pneumonia).
Chronic inflammation.—(With
people engaged in stoking, cooking,
ironing, etc.) frequent headache,
nausea, inclination to vomit, coated
tongue, weak memory, anaemia
but not chlorotic, heat flushes, for
mication, palpitation, sleeplessness,
general debility, also derange
ment of psychical functions.
Preventive measures: Removal from poisonous atmosphere, admission of fresh air; artificial breathing and
use of oxygen, for hours, if required; head of patient slightly raised; cold water, friction, mustard,
electric treatment, ammonia, black coffee; poisonous gases should be led off and not permitted to enter the
workrooms; staying in rooms which are heated with open coke pans should be forbidden.
CHLORIDE OF LIME: Manufacture of chlo B r e a t h i n g of More or less severe attacks of cough
Produced by passing
chlorine through slaked
lime. It is a white,
c r u m b l i n g powder,
hardening somewhat,
and smelling of hypochlorous acid; contains
35-40 per cent of chlo
rine.
ride of lime. Emin bleachtablishments, disinfec
tion, manufacture
of
chloroform,
chlorine, and oxyn; as an oxydizg medium in the
manufacture o f
dyes and other
preparations, and
in calico printing.
K
S
c h l o r i c gas
and dust of
c h l o r i d e of
lime.
ing, more or less inflamed appear
ance of the upper air passages, diffi
culty of breathing, bronchitis,
asthma, sometimes spitting of
blood, inflammation of the con
junctiva, lacrymation; burning of
the skin through penetration of the
chlorine; violently itching and
‘burning eruption upon the skin,
eczema, burns from the lime dust,
and dust of chloride of lime.
Preventive measures: Only healthy, strong persons, without tendency to catarrh, should be employed;
the shortest possible working time, especially in rooms containing chlorine. In those cases free chlorine
should be lea off before the room is entered, and respirators with damp filters should be used. Work
should be carried on with good protection of hands, arms, and feet. The face should be rubbed with
tallow or oil. A smoke mask is more suitable and better than a respirator. Technical arrangements,
by which the preparation and emptying of the material can be done from the outside of the room, which
in part is possible only through alteration in the methods of manufacture.
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS,
161
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS—Continued.
Name of substance.
Industry where
prepared or used.
Mode of entrance
into body.
Symptoms of intoxication.
CHLORINE, Cl: Yel C h l o r i n e o*ften In gaseous form, Even in very small quantities causes
lowish green gas, pene
trating odor, suffoca
ting; dissolves in water,
with greenish yellow
color.
formed in bleach
ing, washing, and
i r o n i n g linen,
manufacture of
paper, in chem
ical laboratories,
manufacture of
chloride of lime,
tinning works, dis
infection.
throughorgans of breath
ing.
feeling of burning in mucous mem
brane of eye and nose. A concen
tration of 0.6 per cent in atmos
pheric air is deadly, by paralysis
of the heart. Much smaller quan
tities cause oppression and make it
necessary to leave the room.
U pon skin —Burning, stinging
sensation; formation of pimples,
blisters.
U pon mucous membranes.—
Lacrymation, running of nose,
coughing, oppression of chest,
dyspnoea, bronchial catarrh with
bleeding, spasm of glottis; cold
perspiration, small pulse; breath
ing of large quantities of the undi
luted gas causes sudden collapse
and death in from one to two min
utes.
I n chronic action.—Uneasiness
in gastric region, heartburn, pale
complexion, bluish discoloration of
skin, catarrh of air passages, slow
emaciation, and growing prema
turely old.
Chloracne.—A marked irrita
tion of follicular glands of the skin,
inflammation and suppuration of
the same, producing pustules and
boils, in the electrolytic prepara
tion of chlorine from compounds of
chlorine and carburetted hydrogen.
Preventive measures: Breathing of NHa to form NHgHCl; use of restoratives (camphor, benzoin, etc.);
if irritable cough, inhalation of water vapor and use of codeia or morphia; use of respirator of several layers
of moist flannel. Against chloracne, exclusion of persons inclined thereto. Utmost cleanliness, shower
baths; cooling of rooms about to be cleaned, and careful removal of waste.
CHROMIUM,
Or: P r e p a r a t i o n of In a solid form, The chromates act similarly to
Bright gray, crystalline
powder.
Chromic acid and its
salts are one hundred
times as poisonous as
the chrome-oxide eomp o u n d s. M a n y of
these latter are much
used in arts, as chro
mium alums, chromic
c h l o r i d e , chrome
green ( Guignet’s green,
without lead).
Chromic acid (HtCrQt)
and its salts, as po
tassium chromate.lbichromate of potash or
anhydrochromate of
potash.
Lead chromate,
Chrome y e l l o w ,
chrome red, chrome
orange, chrome cin
nabar, chrome car
mine.
chrome com
pounds, chrome
steel, for corrosion
of metals, mineral
tanning, bleach
ing of wax, palm
oil, match indus
try, purification of
Sei^turation of
spirits, aniline and
anthracene colors;
photography,
photolithography,
and manufacture
of hektographs;
hardening a n d
preserving of ana
tomical prepara
tions; mordants
and dyes in the
dyeing and print
ing industry; the
manufacture o f
Swedish matches
and of materials
for oxidation in
arts.
acts through
skin and mu
cous m e m
b r a n e s ; as
dust upon res
piratory tracts.
chromic acid. The acute chromic
oisoning from industrial causes
as not been studied up to the
present time.
Eczematic skin eruption; deep
ulcers, healing with difficulty, on
skin and mucous membranes
(glands, hard and soft palate); in
flammation and perforation of sep
tum narium, mostly only in car
tilaginous portion; irritation of finer
bronchial ducts, chronic bronchial
catarrh and patches of inflamma
tion in lungs; in ear, perforation of
the membrani tympani and chronic
inflammation of middle ear; longlasting catarrh of conjunctiva; di
gestion deranged; anaemia; irrita
tion of kidneys.
In handling lead chromate, the
same symptoms as in chronic lead
poisoning.
E
Preventive measures: Prevention of dust, by pulverization and mixing of materials containing chromium
in closed vessels; exhaustion of same, if not to be avoided; painstaking cleanliness, washing, frequent
baths, masks for mouth and nose, in case of dust; greasing of skin; oversight of health of employees by a
physician.
162
BULLETIN QF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS—Continued.
Name of substance.
Industry where
prepared or used.
Mode of entrance
into body.
Symptoms of intoxication.
DINITROBENZOL or In roburite and sec- In form of va Feeling of heaviness in head, lassi
por, through
tude, dizziness, sleeplessness, nau
urite
manufac
BI2TCTROBEN Z 0 L,
sea, vomiting, yellowish coating on
tongue, pain in stomach, lessening
of heart's action, gray-blue dis
coloration of skin and mucous
membrane; nervous disturbances;
piercing pains, sensibility affected,
reflexes diminished, paralysis.
Dinitrobenzol can be proved in
dark-brown urine.
Before a severe attack, which is
often precipitated by indulgence in
alcohol, milder symptoms often
appear, as occasional dizziness,
headache, light-blue coloring of the
lips, and light-yellow color of the
skin (icterus).
Preventive measures: Removal of vapors; ventilation of rooms; if advisable, use of respirators.
In cases of poisoning: Removal from the dangerous atmosphere; removal of impregnated clothing; warm
baths, friction, perhaps with vinegar; artificial respiration, admission of fresh air, inhalation of compressed
oxygen; medical assistance (camphor injections, etc.).
C6H 4(N 0 2)2:
When
pure, thin, colorless,
rhombic needles; other
wise yellow, chrystallinemass.
ture. [Explosives.]
respiratory or
gans.
FORMALDEHYDE,
Disinfection, prepa In form of va Intense prickly feeling in nose, burn
pors. through
ration of many or
ing of eyes; lacrymation, irritation
ganic compounds,
respiratory or
of mucous membranes of upper air
especially in the
gans and mu
tubes; through inhalation of con
c o u s m em
manufacture
of
centrated vapors necrosis of mu
branes.
tar dyes, preserv
cous membranes, decay of nails, in
ing and hardening
flammation of skin.
of human and ani
mal anatomical
preparations.
Preventive measures: Careful handling; entering disinfected rooms only after introduction of ammonia,
whereby the odorless and hardly poisonous hexamethylentetramin is formed, afterwards airing of rooms;
careful washing of hands and arms.
CH20: Gaseous, giving
off intensively smelling
vapors. 40 per cent for' maldehyde is formalin
or formaldehydum solutum (formaldehyde
solution).
HYDROCHLORIC
Chemical works (so-' In gaseous form, 0.05 per cent hydrochloric acid in air
dium
chloride,
through res
is easily borne; a higher percentage
p iratory or
c o m m o n salt),
causes violent coughing, stupidity,
protochloride of
gans.
destruction of the teeth, feeling of
tin. glass manu
contraction in the throat, even un
facture, artificial
consciousness, and death.
manure, potteries
For the most part the dilution of
(glazing), enamel
HC1 is so necessary in those indus
ing,
soldering,
trial pursuits in which it is used
rubber shoe in
that serious results follow only in
dustry; inshoddy
accidental cases.
industry the car
bonizing of mate
rials, calico print
ing, bleaching.
Preventive measures: In the sulphate and Leblanc soda process, the calcined masses drawn from the oven
are to be cooled beneath a ventilation hood; exhaustion of vapors before entering room; use of closed
vessels, wherever possible.
A C I D , HC1: Color
less gas, when dry; in
air it forms dense, sour,
white clouds; aqueous
HC1 is colorless, smok
ing in atmospheric air.
HYDROFLUORIC
ACID, HF1: F o r m s
Manufacture of glass, In gaseous form, Violent irritation of eyelids and con
etching of glass,
through r e s
junctiva, cold in the head, bron
bleaching
cane
piratory or
chial catarrh with spasmodic
and freeing it from
gans; as a liq
coughing; sores at entrance of nose,
silicates, for wick
uid, through
of gums and mucous membrane of
er chairs; making
skin and mu
mouth, also painful ulcers on epi
of manure, ana
cous m e m
dermis, corrosion, blisters.
the fluxing of
branes.
phosphorite
through t r a n s
fusion with H F 1
in the superphos
phate industry.
Preventive measures: Prevent poisonous vapors from entering workroom; special care when handling
them; cleanliness, ablution.
In case of acute poisoning: Removal from poisonous atmosphere, use of chloride of calcium.
dense clouds in atmos
pheric air.
LIST OF INDUSTKIAL POISONS,
163
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS—Continued.
Name of substance.
Industry where
prepared or used.
Mode of entrance
into body.
Symptoms of intoxication.
LEAD, Pb: B l u i s h -
Pb is obtained in Lead and its It is to be remembered that chronic
lead, zinc, and
compounds
lead intoxication may' affect any
copper works.
enter the or
part of the organism, and it is excep
Manufacture
ganism mostly
tional that the symptoms are re
and use of objects
by way of the
stricted to one system, e. g., to the
made of metallic
digestive o r
digestive organs alone or to the
lead sheets, sheet
gans; the pois nervous system. The several sys
metal, pipes, wire,
o n o u s sub
tems are usually affected, though
pots, pails, bot
in different degrees. The general
stances, or ob
tles, taps, pumps,
health almost always suffers. There
jects s o i l e d
retorts.
with them are
are no special symptoms absolutely
Making and use
brought to the
characteristic of lead intoxication
of alloys: Type
mouth, or food
to the exclusion of every other
metal, shot, calm
and drink are
cause. This holds good for the blue
(lead tin), type
taken that
line on the gums which is fre
foundries, print
have become
quently wanting, for the alteration
ing houses, mak
s o i l e d with
in the blood, as described by
ing metal caps for
Grawitz among others, and also for
t h e m . Less
bottles, file cut
the increase of the number of leuco
often, but fre
ting and diamond
quent enough,
cytes in the cerebro-spinal liquid,
polishing e s t a b
t h e chronic
as pointed out by the French sa
lishments.
vants, Mosny and Malloizet. The
lead intoxicaPreparation and
tion takes
diagnosis is rendered possible by
use of lead colors
place through
the further development of the dis
as litharge. PbO;
ease, and consideration of the
the respiratory organs.
white lead, 2 Pb
symptoms with respect to the occu
pation.
CO3 + Pb ( OH) 2;
There are inred lead, Pb3 0 *;
Symptoms.—Co m m e n c e m e n t
haled lead
slow; general health affected, feeling
Naples yellow, ba
gases and va
sic antimoniate of
p o rs, lead
of weakness, decrease of strength,
lead oxide; Cascompounds in
ashy complexion, prejudicial ef
seFs yellow, PbCl2
form of dust,
fect upon virility; disturbed diges
+7PbO; patent
tion; pressure m pit of stomach,
m e t a l l i c Pb
y e l l o w , P dC12+
perhaps only
belching, poor appetite, metallic
5PbO; lead chro
taste and unpleasant odor from
through dust
mouth, loosening *of teeth and
mate in the chem
covered with
ical industry, pot
swelling of gums, blue line on gums;
lead. T h i s
tery (glazing), in
deranged sensibility; lead colic,
may occur in
painting and var
pain m joints (lead arthralgia);
painting, var
nishing, etc.
pulling or boring, mostly spasmod
nishing, and
Preparation and
ically, especially in-the flexors of
textile indus
legs, but also in the arms, in joints
use 01 lead com
tries, etc.
pounds: Sugar of
and bones; derangement of the per
In a small
lead, Pb (C2H30 2)2
ceptive faculty (anaesthesia) fre
measure Pb
quently preceding paralysis, with
+3H 20 , w h i t e
is r e c e i v e d
four-sided crystals,
reference to skin and part3 just
through t h e
e a s i l y disinte
skin, not only
below.
L ead blindness.—Quickly pass
grated In atmos
through
ing, sometimes lasting 4 to 5 days;
pheric air.
wounds b u t
temporary loss of hearing, smell,
Lead subacetate,
also through
Pb(C2H30 2)2+2Pb
and taste.
healthy skin,
(OH)2, colorless
L ead paralysis.—Chiefly of rar
especially
dial nerve, mostly right; impossi
liquid, at first tur
when perspir
ble to stretch the hand; atrophy of
bid in c o n t a c t
ing.
paralyzed muscles; sometimes pa
with atmospheric
ralysis in other parts.
air.
Disease of brain (encephaloLead borate or
a t h i a saturnina).—Precursors:
lead siccative (dry
ontinuous headache, dizziness,
er), PbB 2Oe.
tinkling in ears, sleeplessness,
Lead chloride,
weakening of will and intellect.
PbCl2,white, silky,
Kidney disease.—Shriveling of
rhombic crystals.
kidney.
Lead manganate,
D erangement in sexual func
lead nitrate, lead
tions.—Diminution and cessation
oxalate, etc.
of mammary secretion; abortion
and premature birth; debility of
children, even when the father
alone has been exposed to the influ
ence of Pb.
Preventive measures: Gases and dust to be removed by suction before entering the workroom; to avoid
development of gas and dust through special methods, as moistening of material, working it whilst damp;
where possible to replace lead compounds through nonpoisonous ones (as tin, white tin, lithopone, etc.,
for white lead); ventilation and cleanliness of workroom, also of walls and ceilings; daily removal of waste
containing lead.
Attention to health of workman: No eating, drinking, or smoking in workroom; washing of hands, face,
hair, rinsing of mouth before taking food, and before leaving workshop; warm baths, daily or weekly,
according to nature of work; avoid alcohol; pay attention to digestion and regularity of bowels.
white, bright lustre,
growing dull in at
mospheric air.
Lead alloys (As Sn),
lead colors.
L e a d i s dangerous,
whether in solid, liq
uid, or gaseous form.
The compounds cont a i n i n g O are the
worst; before all lith
arge, and white lead,
then red lead, sugar of
lead. Metalliclead is
also very dangerous,
as it possesses the
property of leaving on
the surfaces of con
tact very fine parti
cles.
The Chrome com
pounds rank in dan
ger equal to those of
metallic lead.
Lead sulphide, PbS,
is considered as nonpoisonous by some
authorities, but it is
not denied that it is
oxydized through the
fatty acids contained
in the perspiration.
Lead sulphate was for
some time considered,
especially by the Eng
lish, as a nonpoisonoussubstitutefor
white lead, but it has
a poisonous action,
though considerably
slower than that of
white lead.
S
164
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS—Continued.
Name of substance..
Industry where
prepared or used.
Mode of entrance
into body.
Symptoms of intoxication.
MANGANESE, Mn: Chiefly in chlorine By inhalation of Besides disturbance of digestion, es
Grayish white.brittle.
industry, prepara
pecial disturbances of the central
manganese
tion of oxygen,
nervous system occur; prickling in
dust in crush
Brannite, MnaOs.
bleaching
powder
arms an.d legs, formication in legs,
ing braunite
Manganese colors:
Manganese w h i t e ,
manganese violet.
Manganese
alloys:
With Fe, Cu, Ni.
M a n g a n e s e com
pounds. As manga
nese, acetate, borate,
chloride, oxide, car
bonate, oleate, sul
phate, monoxide.
(chloride of lime),
permanganate of
potassium, man
ganese colors, de
coloration of glass
flux, coloring of
glass, manufacture
of enamels, glaz
ing, dyeing and
marbling of soap,
lacquer, varnish,
o i l paints, the
charging of gal
vanic cells.
and reducing
it to powder.
dizziness, tremor; derangement of
voice and articulation; depression,
fear, forced laughing, crying; low
ering of intelligence; paralysis of
arms and legs; emaciation and
dropsy in the legs.
The clinical picture is known as
manganismus.
Preventive measures: Exhaustion of dust; change of clothing; frequent washing of hands and face; bath;
change of work.
MERCURY HYDRAR Mining, attacks 1 to A s v a p o r , Inflammation of gums and mucous
2 per cent of the
GYRUM, Hg: Silvery
membrane of mouth, ulcers in
through respi
white, brilliant, not
changing in atmospheric
air, evaporating at ordi
nary temperature.
Cinnabar, HgS: Red.
Mercury alloys:
Amalgams with gold,
silver, zinc, tin, cad
mium, lead, copper,
etc.
Mercury compounds:
Corrosive sublimate,
HgCl2; mercuric ox
ide, nitrate, sulphate;
ammonium chloride;
fulminate of mercury.
workmen; smelt
ing process, at
tacks 8 per cent of
those engaged in it.
Chemical facto
ries, extraction of
gold and silver,
gilding, silvering
and bronzing pro
cesses, making of
mirrors, filling of
thermometers, ba
rometers, manom
eters, etc.; glowlamp (aphlogistic)
industry: quick
silver air pump
caps and explo
sives, manufacture
of felt hats, dyeing
of hair, calico
printing, photog
raphy, preserving
of
anatomical
preparations and
wood, etching on
steel.
ratory organs;
through the
digestive or
gans, by soiled
fingers.
mouth and throat, inflammation of
jawbone; necrosis of part of the
same; loss of calcium salts in bone,
and thereby deficiency in bone;
stomachal and intestinal derange
ments, weakness, emaciation, anae
mia. Inflammation of and pus
tules on skin; disturbed sensibility;
excitability, irritability, depres
sion, hallucinations; skin partly
below normal sensibility, partly
supersensitive; difficulty of speech,
exaltation of reflex action, palpita
tion; sexual function deranged in
male and female; tremor of hands
and groups of muscles.
Mercury cachexia showing itself
in anaemia, emaciation, atrophy of
fat and muscles, relaxed skin, want
of appetite.
Preventive measures: Leading off of vapors, strong ventilation of workrooms; prevent spilling Hg;
daily cleaning of workrooms; personal cleanliness of workmen.
In ease of poisoning: Hot baths, and stimulants for glands; good nutrition; arsenite of iodide of potassium
internally.
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS,
165
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS—Continued.
Name of substance.
Industry where
prepared or used.
Mode of entrance
into body.
Symptoms of intoxication.
NITROBENZENE, In manufacture of Through respi Serious alteration in composition of
CsHsNO*, mirbane essenee.imitation oil of bit
ter almonds: Colorless
or light yellow, refract
ing light strongly, smell
ing like oil of bitter
almonds. G e n e r a t e d
through nitrification of
benzol with concen
trated nitric or sulphu
ric acid.
dyes from tar,
starting point of
manufacture of
aniline, chinoline,
etc., perfumes.
ratory organs
and absorp
tion through
the skin.
blood and disturbance of central
nervous system. The first symp
toms of poisoning often do not
appear until from 8 to 24 hours
alter the poison has entered the
system.
I n slight c a se s .— Discomfort,
burning sensation in mouth, prick
ling of tongue, nausea, dizziness,
slight bluish discoloration of lips
and face.
In s e v e r e c a se s .— Fear, drow
siness, unconsciousness, disturbed
sensibility, as formication in legs,
soles of feet, feeling like fur on the
soles of the feet, roaring in ears,
headache; derangement of coordi
nation (staggering, stammering),
deranged eyesight, spasms, at first
pupil smaller, then enlarged; ir
regular breathing, tossing about,
delirium, convulsions, sinking of
temperature, bluish gray discolor
ation of skin; smell of breath, of
urine, and of vomit like bitter
almonds.
Preventive measures: Leading off oi poisonous vapors; ventilation of room; perhaps use respirators.
A person who has breatked nitrobenzol should be removed from the poisonous atmosphere. The stomach
should be emptied by an emetic or by a stomach pump; artificial respiration, breathing of compressed
oxygen; infusion of alkaline salt solution.
NITROUS GASES.
Lower stages of oxidadatkm of N, as N O, N O*.
Red fuming nitric add
is a saturated solution
of N*0 * in raw H N O a.
NO is colorless, but
forms red-brown fumes
in contact with O of
atmosphere, forming
NOj. The same is
formed when H N 0 3aets
on metals. The anhy
drite of nitrous acid
N2O3 is below - 20 ° C.
a blue liquid, splitting
up in ordinary tempera
ture into NO and NO 2.
Nitrous acid, H N 0 2.
The red fumes of NO2
make the air unfit for
breathing if occuring in
less than 1 per cent.
N i t r i f i c a t i o n In gaseous form, Susceptibility to nitrous gases varies
greatly. It is not unusual for an
through respi
in chemical works,
individual for many years to inhale
celluloid works,
ratory organs.
small quantities with no serious
preparation of sul
resulting disturbances. A pale,
phuric acid, picric
sallow complexion, however, and a
acid, aniline dyes,
chronic bronchial catarrh usually
nitroglycerine and
are present.
gun cotton, etch
Often the poisonous gases are
ing of metals, elec
borne for hours without any incon
tro-metallurgy.
venience, then a longing for fresh
air and strong thirst set in. Vom
iting rarely occurs. After some
time (6 to 8 hours) irritation of
windpipe, a feeling as if the throat
were compressed, spasmodic cough,
pressure on chest, difficult breath
ing, feeling of anxiety, cold perspi
ration on face, eyes standing out,
snapping speech, attacks of spas
modic coughing, bluish discolora
tion of face, and coldness of limbs
ensue. Consciousness, at first
clear, but grows dim by degrees as
the breathmg grows more and more
difficult and the amount of CO2 in
the blood increases; urine brown
and scanty, containing colored
matter from blood and albumen.
Death through oedema of lungs.
Preventive measures: Airy and well-ventilated workrooms; exhaustion of nitrous gases at the point of
origin. In the cleaning of those receptacles in which nitrous gases are present, or may develop, they should
be carefully washed an4 aired, perhaps with the use of a respiratory apparatus, with an air supply.
Great care must be exercised m the handling of nitric acid, when flowing; it should be much diluted with
water from a hose or syringe. Persons with diseases of the heart or lungs should be excluded from all
occupations involving the presence of the nitrous gases.
Removal from injurious atmosphere; admission of oxygen, in advanced cyanosis (bluish discoloration cf
mucous membranes and skin), bleeding, and infusion of alkaline sodium chloride. Every ten minutes 3 to
5 drops of chloroform as a drink in a glass of water (Weisskopf). Medical assistance.
166
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS—Continued.
Name of substance.
Industry where
prepared or used.
Mode of entrance
into body.
Symptoms of intoxication.
PHOSPHORUS, P: Extraction of phos In form of va Chronic intoxication.—Chiefly ne
Colorless, transparent;
after action of light
upon it, yellowish and
shining like wax, lumi
nous in atmosphere;
heated to 250-300° C.
in closed iron vessels,
it changes into red or
amorphous phosphor
us, not acted on by
a t m o s p h e r i c air;
mostly said to be nonpoisonous.
Compounds of phos
phorus (calcium, chlo
rine, copper, tin, phos
phoric acid, phosphor
us sesquisulpnide, sulphophosphite).
phorus froml)one
ash and mineral
c a l c i u m phos
phate, making of
phosphorus
bronze, and chem
ical compounds of
phosphorus, man
ufacture of ignit
ing substances, of
matches, of tar
dyes.
por, through
respiratory or
gans; through
soiled fingers
into digestive
organs; acts al
ways through
blood.
crosis of lower and upper jaw, but
also of other bones of face and tur
binated bones. According to some
authors, to contract necrosis an in
fection is required, which (accord
ing to v. Stubenrauch) starts from
the cavities of carious teeth or from
collum dentis. Swelling and ulcers
in gums and mucous membrane of
cheeks; pain also in healthy teeth,
loosening and dropping out of the
same. The inflammation spreads
to the periosteum and bone sub
stance of the jaw; suppuration and
destruction of the same (necrosis)
with numerous fistulous canals,
which sometimes break through to
the outside; change of structure of
the entire body of bones, which
accounts for the brittleness; poor
appetite, diarrhea, ashy complex
ion, emaciation; here and there
amyloid degeneration of intestines.
Decay of teeth is not a neces
sary condition under which phos
phorus necrosis sets in.
Preventive measures: Exhaustion of vapors; removal of matter containing phosphorus; cleanliness of
workrooms and of workmen; replacing of F in manufacture of matches through substances free from phos
phorus. Workmen ought to be under medical observation; persons attacked ought to be removed per
manently; early operation in case of necrosis.
PICRIC ACIDf C«H2 Chemical works, dye In form of dust Itching and inflammation of skin,
(OH) (N 0 2>3, (acidum
piconitricum), or trinitrophenol: Pale yellow,
when pure; bitter-tast
ing metal sheets.
works, explosives,
manufacture of
gunpowder.
on skin of fin
gers. and by
the nostrils.
Preventive measures: Avoid raising dust; cleanliness, ablutions.
yellow coloration of skin and con
junctiva of eye; inflammation of
mucous membrane of mouth, bit
ter taste, indigestion with pain in
pit of stomach, vomiting (or incli
nation to vomiting), dizziness,
diarrhea; entrance as dust by
nasal cavity causes sneezing ana
discharge from nose.
Picric acid decomposes the chem
ical constituents of the blood and
produces convulsions through irri
tation of central nervous system.
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS,
167
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS—Continued.
Name of substance.
Industnr where
prepared or used.
Mode of entrance
into body.
Symptons of intoxication.
PRUSSIC ACID, HCN, Preparation of cy- In gaseous form, A cute intoxication.—Produced by
a c i d u m hydrocyanicum; Colorless, aque
ous liquid of penetrat
ing and acrid odor.
POTASSIUM CYA
NIDE, KCN: Colorless
crystals; after melting
crystalline; easily de
composed in atmosphericair,formingHCN.
R HO D A N COM
POUNDS, SCN: Poi
sonous dose of HCN,
0.06 g.
anogen com
pounds and many
organic com
pounds, electro
typing, extraction
of gold, photog
raphy,
dyeing,
printing, coal gas
m anufacture
(gas lime). KCN
in l a b o r a t o r y
and photographic
t e c h n o l o g y is
much used.
Cyanogen with
silver and gold in
electroplating.
HCN or its salt
is obtained in the
preparation
of
oxalic acid from
wood and HNO;
Berlin blue from
prussiate of pot
ash and iron vit
riol, and in dyeing
with this sub
stance; in prepar
ing
phosphoric
acid from bones.
through re
spiratory or
gans; in liquid
or solid form,
through skin.
moderate quantities of cyanogen
compounds; Giddiness, headache,
pressure of blood in head, pressure
in chest, palpitation, feeling of be
ing choked, nausea and vomiting,
gasping breathing with conscious
ness maintained. To stage of dysp
noea follows that of spasm, with
cold, moist skin, convulsions, invol
untary urination, loss of conscious
ness. In stage of suffocation tem
porary stoppage of breathing,
lowering of heart action, bluish dis
coloration of skin and mucous
membranes, fall of temperature of
body.
In breathing larger doses the stage
of asphyxia is immediately entered
upon; enlargement of pupils, unc o n s c i o u s n e s s , some gasping
breaths, bluish discoloration of
skin and mucous membranes; fall
ing, death.
Chronic intoxication.— Head
ache, dizziness, hesitating gait,
nausea, want of appetite; disturb
ance of gastric and intestinal
activity.
Preventive measures: Exhaustion of Cy gases before entering workrooms; powerful ventilation; cleanli
ness of workmen, ablutions; an injunction never to touch Cy substances with open sores on hands.
PYRIDINE, CdH=>N: Preparation of tar In form of vapor, • Catarrh of mucous
Colorless liquid, intense
and characteristic odor.
from coal and
bones; used in denaturation of spir
its.
through res
piratory sys
tem; as a liq
uid, through
skin of arms
and hands.
membranes,
hoarseness, itching and choking in
throat, headache, dizziness, lassi
tude and tremor of arms and legs,
difficult breathing and convulsions;
eczema of hands.
Preventive measures: Ventilation of workrooms, conducting away of the vapors; cleanliness of hands and
arms.
SULPHUR CHLO Dissolvent of sul In form of vapor, The vapor of chloride of sulphur is
suffocating. If it enters the stom
RIDE, S2C12: Amber
phur, india rub
through res
yellow, thickish,brown
ish liquid, fuming in
atmospheric air, giving
off a vapor with a suffo
cating smell.
ber industry.
piratory
gans.
or
ach it produces vomiting.
In the presence of water or of the
moisture of the air S2CI2 breaks
down into hydrochloric acid, sul
phur, and sulphurous acid, forming
the vapor of hydrochloric acid.
Preventive measures: Wherever possible, use closed vessels and pipes (extraction of fats); lead off vapors
from where they arise; good ventilation of rooms; avoid coming in contact with sulphur chloride with
unprotected hands; removal of affected persons from poisonous atmosphere; medical treatment until
disappearance of all traces of disease; best treated in hospitals.
168
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS—Concluded.
Name of substance.
Industry where
prepared or used.
Mode of entrance
into body.
SULPHURETTED Occupation in sew In gaseous form,
ers of towns, waterthrough or
HYDROGEN, HjS:
Colorless gas with smell
of rotten eggs, dissolv
ing readily In water
(aqua hydrosulphurata).
closets, muck pits;
tanning, roasting
of flax, coal gas
manufacture, ul
tramarine works,
Leblanc process,
waters from vari
ous i n d u s t r i e s
working with or
ganic substances,
making of matches
use of compounds
containing phos
phorous ana sul
phur.
gans of respi
ration, as pure
H 2S; frequent
ly in mixed
gases, as with
C 02, N, NH*,
and carburetted hydrogen.
Symptoms of intoxication.
e ffe c t s .— Local irritation,
disturbance of central nervous
system; decomposition of blood
(Instead of oxyhsemoglobin we
G eneral
Most men only bear O.of per cent
of H2S; with 0.02 per cent, violent
burning in eyes, nose, throat; with
0.05 per cent after 30 minutes, sore
eyes, nasal catarrh, coughing,
breathlessness, palpitation, lassi
tude, pressure in head, paleness,
cold perspiration, numbness; with
0.07 to 0.08 per cent, after a few
hours, sickness unto death; with
0.1 to 0.15 per cent, death.
In serious cases pupils narrowed,
pulse slackened, Cheyne-Stokes's
breathing, nystagmus, trismus,
tetanus.
If air is charged with H2S, a per
son breathing it collapses, falls un
conscious, and dies without con
vulsion (apoplectic form).
In less violent cases indigestion,
nausea, foul-smelling gases from
stomach, reddening and inflamma
tion of the conjunctiva, formation
of blisters on the lips, cough-pro
ducing irritation, headache, and
dizziness; with continued inhala
tion, spasms and paralysis.
Ch r o n ic in t o x ic a t io n .— Catarrh
of conjunctiva, headache, exhaus
tion, deranged digestion, weakness,
ashy complexion, bad-smelling
breath, retardation of the pulse,
inclination to boils.
Preventive measures: Exhaustion of gases; powerful ventilation; throw iron sulphate into cesspools (5 kg.
per cubic meter) before cleaning; emptying with steam pumps. Speedy removal of unconscious workmen,
removal of soiled clothing; artificial breathing, use of oxygen. Holding before nose and mouth a cloth
saturated with a solution of hydrochloric acid or solution of bleaching powder (chloride of lime).
SULPHUROUS ACID, Roasting of sulphur In gaseous form, In moderate concentration sulphur
H2SO3 (acidum sulfurosum): Its anhydride is
S 0 2; gaseous, liquid un
der pressure; pungent,
suffocating smell.
ores, manufacture
of sulphuric acid,
of ul tramari ne,
bleaching (straw
hats, siik, wool,
bristles, catgut),
sulphite cellulose
manufacture, sul
phuring of hops
and casks, making
of candles, brick
works, potteries,
fo r disinfecting
purposes, manu
facture of glue
from bones.
through respi
ratory organs.
ous acid may be borne without dis
comfort or harm. Some authors
agree, indeed, that inhalation of
H2SO3 in limited quantities even
affords a certain measure of protec
tion against tuberculosis.
Susceptible persons show in the
beginning of tneir employment in
an atmosphere laden with sulphur
ous acid, a temporary irritation of
the mucous membrane of the air
passages. In severer cases spas
modic coughing, expectoration of
tough, often bloody, mucus; under
longer exposure, bluish discolora
tion of mucous membranes, bron
chial catarrh, affection of windpipe
similar to croup,also of its branches;
in lungs patches of inflammation;
digestion disturbed.
Preventive measures: Powerful ventilation; exhaustion of gases; if possible transform them into acid; if
necessary, masks should be provided with continuous supply of pure oxygen.
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION
AND ITS PUBLICATIONS.
The work of the International Association for Labor Legislation
may be described as international cooperation in the collection and
publication of the labor laws of all countries, in the investigation
of industrial conditions and the study of industrial problems, and in
the formulation of legislation based on such investigation and study.
The association works not* only through its international confer
ences, which are held biennially, but continuously through its cen
tral organization, the International Labor Office at Basel, Switzer
land, and its 14 affiliated national sections.
Its most important activity is the publication of a bulletin four
times a year in German, French, and English, which contains the
text of new labor laws, together with a record of legislative proceed
ings and the changes in administrative methods.
The lines of its work are determined primarily by its biennial
meetings, where representatives of all the national sections take
part. The plans of its investigations are worked out by the Interna
tional Labor Office. It is the function of the international office,
working through the various sections, to amass and classify infor
mation. This it does by calling upon the sections to draw up
reports. These reports furnish the basis of discussion and action at
the biennial meetings.
The result of such methods of work is that reports along similar
lines from the various national sections furnish a most valuable body
of information in regard to industrial conditions in the important
industrial countries.
The range of subjects to which the association has already given
attention has been deliberately limited because of the belief that
effective results could much more readily be secured. Three sub
jects that have been before the association have already resulted in
international treaties. These a re :
Prohibition of the night work of women;
Prohibition of the use of white phosphorus in the manufacture of
matches; and
Insurance of workmen against accidents.
The other leading subjects of study and action on the part of the
association have been:
Regulation of the employment of children.
169
170
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Prohibition of night work of young persons.
Regulation of the use of industrial poisons, especially lead.
Regulation of household industries or home work.
Administration of labor laws and factory inspection.
Legal limitation of the working day.
A description in detail of the organization and workings of the
association and the International Labor Office was presented in Bul
letin 54 of this Bureau and need not be repeated here. Following is
a list of the publications of the International Association and the
affiliated national sections. The list includes also a number of
reports which, while not issued in the name of either the International
Association or any of the national sections, are directly results of their
activities and are, therefore, presented here as forming a part of the
body of material which represents the work of the association.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR
LEGISLATION AND OF THE AFFILIATED NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
Publication No. 1. International Association for Labor Legislation. Constitutional
Assembly held at Basel, September 27 and 28, 1901. Reports and Proceedings.
(L* Association intemationale pour la protection legale des travailleurs. Assem
b l e constitutive, tenue k Bale les 27 et 28 septembre 1901. Rapports et compterendu des stances.) Issued in German and French. Berne, Schmidt & Francke;
Paris, Le Soudier; Jena, G. Fischer. 1901. XIV, 269 pp.
Publication No. 2. Report of the second general meeting of the committee of the
International Association for Labor Legislation, held at Cologne, September 26
and 27, 1902, together with the annual reports of the International Association
and the International Labor Office. (Compte-rendu de la deuxfeme A ssem ble
g £ n £ r a l e du Comity de BAssociation intemationale pour la protection legale des
travailleurs, tenue k Cologne les 26 et 27 septembre 1902, suivi de rapports
annuels de BAssociation intemationale et de BOffice international du travail.)
Issued in German and French. Berne, A. Francke; Paris, Le Soudier; Jena, G.
Fischer. 1903. 82 pp.
Publication No. 3. Report of the third general meeting of the committee of the Inter
national Association for Labor Legislation, held at Basel, September 26, 27, and
28, 1904, together with the annual reports of the International Association and
the International Labor Office. (Compte-rendu de la troisi&me A ssem ble g&feraie du Comity de BAssociation intemationale pour la protection legale des travail
leurs, tenue k Bale les 26, 27 et 28 septembre 1904, suivi de rapports annuels de
BAssociation intemationale et de BOffice international du travail.) Issued in
German and French. Paris and Nancy, Berger-Levrault & Co.; Jena, G. Fischer.
1905. 176 pp.
Publication No. 4. Two memorials presented to the governments of the chief indus
trial nations with a view to the convocation of an international conference for the
protection of labor. (Deux nfemoires pfesenfes aux gouvemements des etats
industriels en vue de la convocation d’une conference intemationale de protec
tion ouvri&re.) Issued in German and French. Paris and Nancy, Berger-Levrault
& Co.; Jena, G. Fischer. 1905. IV, 49 pp.
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
171
Publication No. 5. Report of the fourth general meeting of the International Asso
ciation for Labor Legislation, held at Geneva, September 26 to 29, 1906, together
with annual reports of the International Association and of the International
Labor Office, and summaries. (Compte-rendu de la quatri&ne assem ble g£n6rale du comity de 1’Association international pour la protection legale des travailleurs, tenue & Geneve les 26, 27, 28 et 29 septembre 1906, suivi de rapports de
FAssociation international et de P Office international et du travail et de tableaux
synoptiques.) Issued in English, French, and German. London, The Labor
Representation Printing and Publishing Co. (Limited); Paris and Nancy, BergerLevrault & Co.; Jena, G. Fischer. 1907. XVI, 163 pp.
Publication No. ft. Report of the fifth general meeting of the committee of the Inter
national Association for Labor Legislation, held at Lucerne, September 28 to 30,
1908, together with the annual reports of the International Association and of the
International Labor Office, 1909. (Compte-rendu de la cinqui&me assem ble
g6n£rale du comity de F Association intemationale pour la protection legale des
travailleurs, tenue a Lucerne les 28, 29 et 30 septembre 1908, suivi de rapports
annuels de 1’Association intemationale et de P Office international du travail.)
1909.
Bulletin of the International Labor Office:
Yol. I. Jan. to Dec., 1902. lxii, 730 pp.
Yol. II. Jan. to Dec., 1903. cvi, 790 pp.
Vol. III. Jan. to Dec., 1904. lxiv, 590 pp.
Vol. IV. Jan. to Dec., 1905. xx, 556 pp.
Vol. Y. Jan. to Dec., 1906. xv, 774 pp.
Yol. VI. Jan. to Dec., 1907. xlv, 780 pp.
Yol. VII. Jan. to Dec., 1908. 579 pp., 88 pp.
Vol. VIII. Jan. to Dec., 1909. (Not yet complete.)
From the beginning the Bulletin of the International Labor Office has been printed
in French and German, and beginning with Volume V it has also appeared in English.
The English edition is merely a translation of the German and French editions, and
in this edition the volume numbering of the original has not been followed. What is
known as Volume I of the English edition closely corresponds to Volume V of the
German and French editions.
A bibliography has been issued as a part of the Bulletin each year since the begin
ning in three to five numbers. However, beginning with the French and German
edition, Volume VII, 1908, and the English edition, Volume II, this bibliography
has been issued as a supplement and paged separately.
REPORTS AND MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS.
These reports and publications are not parts of the regular series of the International
Association for Labor Legislation, or the national sections, but were prepared by or
for the association or its sections.
Unhealthful trades: Reports upon the dangers and the means of preventing them,
particularly in the match industry and in those industries which make or employ
lead colors. (Les industries insalubres. Rapports sur leurs dangers et les moyens
de les pr^venir, particuli&rement dans Findustrie des allumettes et celles qui
fabriquent ou emploient des couleurs de plomb.) Published in the name of the
International Association for Labor Legislation and preceded by a preface by
Dr. Stephen Bauer, professor at the University of Basel and Director of the
International Labor Office. Jena, G. Fischer; Berne, A. Francke; Paris, Le
Soudier. 1903. LX, 460 pp.
38697—No. 86—10---- 12
172
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Night work of women in industry. Report upon its importance and its legal regula
tion. (Le travail de nuit des femmes dans Findustrie. Rapports sur son im
portance et sa r^glementation legale.) Published in the name of the Interna
tional Association for Labor Legislation and preceded by a preface by Dr. Stephen
Bauer, professor at the University of Basel and Director of the International
Labor Office. Jena, G. Fischer; Berne, A. Francke; Paris, Le Soudier. 1903.
XLII, 382 pp.
Comparative table of the legislative measures of the different States concerning the
employment of women at night in industry. Presented to the International
Conference for the Protection of Labor at Berne. (Tableau comparatif des mesures legislatives des £tats repr£sent£s k la Conference Internationale de protec
tion ouvri&re de Berne, concernant Pinterdiction du travail de nuit des ouvri&res
dans Findustrie.) 1905. 6 pp., 1 table. (Out of print.)
Summary of the most recent reports of the inspectors of labor. Presented to the
International Conference for the Protection of Labor at Berne. (Expos6 sommaire du contenu les plus fecents rapports des inspecteurs du travail. Presents
k la Conference international de protection ouvrfere de Berne. 1905. 9 pp.
(Out of print.)
Lead smelting. A study in industrial hygiene. (Les fonderies de plomb.) By M.
Boulin. 1907. Submitted in the international prize competition for essays on
the prevention of lead poisoning held under the direction of the International
Labor Office. Reprinted from the Bulletin de FInspection du Travail, Paris,
1906, Nos. 5 and 6.
Lead poisoning in printing offices and type foundries. (Le saturnisme dans la typo
graphic. Imprimeries et fonderies de caractfcres.) By M. Ducrot. Submitted
in the international prize competition for essays on the prevention of lead poison
ing held under the direction of the International Labor Office. Printed in the
Bulletin de FInspection du Travail, Paris, 1906, Nos. 5 and 6.
Combating lead poisoning in industry. (Die Bekampfung der Bleigefahr in der
Industrie.) Prepared at the request of the International Labor Office, based on
essays submitted in the international prize competition for the prevention of
lead poisoning, by Dr. Leymann. Jena, G. Fischer, 1908.
Combating lead poisoning in lead smelters. (Die Bekampfung der Bleigefahr in
Bleithiitten.) By Richard Miiller. Submitted in the international prize com
petition for essays on the prevention of lead poisoning held under the direction
of the International Labor Office. Jena, G. Fischer, 1908. 207 pp.
Draft of a list of industrial poisons. (Entwurf einer Liste der gewerblichen Gifte.)
Prepared at the request of the International Association for Labor Legislation, by
Dr. Theodore Sommerfeld with the cooperation of Dr. Thomas Oliver and Dr.
Felix Putzeys. Jena, G. Fischer, 1908. 26 pp.
International Association for Labor Legislation. Draft of a memorial on the inter
national regulation of conditions of labor in the machine-embroidery industry in
Eastern Switzerland and Vorarlberg. (Association Internationale pour la pro
tection fegale des travailleurs, 1908. Projet de M6moire sur la feglementation
intemationale des conditions du travail dans Findustrie de la broderie nfecanique
k fil continu de la Suisse orientale et du Vorarlberg.) 1908.
Report on the library of the International Labor Office from August 1,1906, to August 1,
1908. (Bericht tiber die Bibliothek des Intemationalen Arbeitsamtes vom 1.
August 1906 bis zum 1. August 1908.)
Reply of the French Association for Labor Legislation to the questionnaire of the
International Labor Office concerning the hours of labor of adult women in the
textile industry. (R5ponse de FAssociation nationale frangaise pour la pro
tection fegale des travailleurs au questionnaire de F Office international du tra
vail concernant la dufee du travail des femmes adultes—Industrie textile.)
Paris, 1907. 7 pp.
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
173
Tables from reply of British Association for Labor Legislation to certain questions
drawn up by the International Labor Office respecting conditions of work in the
textile industry. 1908.
Reply for the eighth inspection district of Holland (province of Overyssel) to the
questionnaire of the International Labor Office concerning the hours of labor of
adult women in the textile industry. (Aus der Beantwortungdes Fragebogens
des Intemationalen Arbeitsamts betreffend die Arbeitszeit der erwachsenen
Frauen in der Textilindustrie fur den Bezirk der Sten Arbeitoinspektion (Provinz
Overyssel).) By Js. P. de Yooys. 1908.
Preliminary report on the administration of labor laws. (Provisorische Beantwortung
der Fragebogen betreffend Durchfuhrung der Arbeiterschutz-Gesetzgebung.)
Presented at the fifth general meeting of the International Association for Labor
Legislation, Lucerne, 1908—in typewritten form only.
International Conference for the Protection of Labor. (Conference Internationale
pour la protection ouvrikre.) Berne, 1906. Issued in French and German.
International Diplomatic Conference for the Protection of Labor. Berne, 1906.
Issued in French and German.
The first of these two conferences met to consider the terms to be used as the bases
of international agreements for the prohibition of the use of white phosphorus in the
manufacture of matches and of the night work of women. The second conference was
a meeting of accredited diplomatic representatives to whom the draft treaties prepared
by the first conference were submitted for final action and signature.
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
Proceedings of the second annual meeting of the American Association for Labor Legis
lation, held at Atlantic City, N. J., December 29 to 30, 1908. 1909.
Some fundamental distinctions in labor legislation, by Henry W. Famham,
president of the American Association for Labor Legislation. 1909.
The American way of distributing industrial accident losses, by Crystal East
man, secretary New York State branch, American Association for Labor
Legislation. 1909.
What form of workingmen’s accident insurance should our States adopt? By
Max. O. Lorenz, member of the local executive council, American Asso
ciation for Labor Legislation. 1909.
Canadian industrial disputes, by Adam Shortt and Victor S. Clark. 1909.
Industrial hygiene, Leaflet No. 1, American Association for Labor Legislation. Pro
posed investigation of occupational diseases. 1909.
The bulletin of the I. L. O., Leaflet No. 2, American Association for Labor Legislation.
A critical announcement. 1909.
Report of general administrative council meeting, American Association for Labor
Legislation, Chicago, April, 1909. 1909.
Employers’ liability, publication New York State branch, American Association for
Labor Legislation. No. 1. By Crystal Eastman.
Review of labor legislation of 1909, Legislative Review No. 1, American Association
for Labor Legislation. By Irene Osgood, assistant secretary American Association
for Labor Legislation. 1909.
Summary of labor laws in force 1909, Legislative Summary No. 1, American Association
for Labor Legislation. John R. Commons, editor. 1909.
Industrial education, by Edward C. Elliott. 1909.
Administration of labor laws, by Charles B. Austin.
Womans work, by Maud Swett.
Child labor, by Laura Scott.
174
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
AUSTRIAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
[ Osterreichischen Gesellschaft fur Arbeiterschutz.]
Publication No. 1. Night work of women in industrial establishments in Austria.
(Die gewerbliche Nachtarbeit der Frauen in Oesterreich.) By Ilse v. Arlt. 1902.
Publication No. 2. Report on uniform international accident statistics for the pur
pose of prevention of accidents to laborers. (Bericht fiber eine einheitliche
international Unfallstatistik zu Zwecken der Verhiitung von Unfallen bei der
Arbeit.) By Karl Kogler and Gustav Packer von Theinburg. 1902.
Publication No. 3. Lead and phosphorus poisoning in Austrian industrial establish
ments. (Blei- und Phosphorvergiftungen in den gewerblichen Betrieben Oesterreichs.) By Dr. Ignaz Kaup. 1902.
Publication No. 4. Building on leased ground. (Bauten auf fremden Grand.) By
Dr. Karl Grfinberg. Vienna, 1903. 95 pp.
Publication No. 5. City building regulations with special regard to the housing
problem. (Stadtische Bauordnungen mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der
Wohnungsfrage.) By Karl Meyreder. 1903.
Publication No. 6. Dwelling exchanges and inspection. (Wohnungsamter und
Wohnungsinspektion.) By Dr. Emil Ritter von Furth. Vienna, 1905. 67 pp.
Publication No. 7. The standard working day in industry and mining in Austria.
(Die Normalarbeitstag in den gewerblichen Betrieben und im Bergbaue Oesterreichs.) B y Dr. Karl Pribam. 1906.
Publication No. 8. Night work of young persons and children in industrial establish
ments in Austria. (Die gewerbliche Nachtarbeit der jugendlichen Arbeiter und
Kinder in Oesterreich.) By Dr. N. Herbst.
Publication No. 9. The Austrian workingmen’s insurance and its relation to foreign
laborers. (Die oesterreichische Arbeiterversicherang und die Auslander.) By
K. K6gler. 1906.
Publication No. 10. Household industry in Austria. (Die Heimarbeit in Oester
reich.) By Dr. Michael Hainisch. 1906.
Publication No. 11. Night work of young persons in Austrian industry. (Die Nacht
arbeit der Jugendlichen in der osterreichischen Industrie.) By Karl Hauck,
factory inspector. 1907.
Publication No. 12. (a) Phosphorus necrosis: Its extent in Austria, and its causes.
(Die Phosphomekrose, ihre Verbreitung in Oesterreich und deren Ursachen.)
By Dr. Ludwig Teleky. 1907.
(b) Combating lead poisoning in metallurgic and industrial establishments.
(Die Bekampfung von Bleierkrankungen in hfittenmannischen und ge
werblichen Betrieben.)
(c) Report of the Austrian Association for Labor Legislation. (Bericht der
osterreichischen Gesellschaft fur Arbeiterschutz.)
Publication No. 13. The ten-hour day in the textile and clothing industries in Aus
tria. Report made to the International Association for Labor Legislation by Hedwig Lemberger. (Der Zehnstundentag in der Fabrikmassigen Betrieben der
Textil- und Bekleidungsindustrie Osterreichs. Bericht erstattet der Interna
t i o n a l Vereinigung fur Gesetzlichen Arbeiterschutz von Hedwig Lemberger.)
1909.
BELGIAN SECTION OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
[Section beige de P Association Internationale pour la protection ldgale des travailleurs.]
No. I. Night work of women in Belgium. (Le travail de nuit des femmes en Bel
gique.) By Louis Varlez, advocate of the court of appeals of Ghent. 1902.
No. II. Report upon night work of women in industry. (Rapport sur le travail de
nuit des femmes dans l ’industrie.) By M. E. Dubois, professor at the Univer
sity of Ghent. 1902.
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
175
No. III. Unhealthful industries in Belgium. (Les industries insalubres en Bel
gique.) By H. Vanderrijdt, engineer. 1902.
No. IY. Replies to the questionnaires [in regard to lead, phophorus, and match manu
facture] of the International Labor Office. (R5ponses aux questionnaires de
TOffice international du travail.) By Laurent Dechesne. 1902.
The first four publications of the Belgian section are reported to be out of print.
Nos. I and II appear in the publication of the International Association entitled “ Le
travail de nuit des femmes dans l’industrie,” and Nos. I l l and IV appear in the
publication of the International Association entitled “ Les industries insalubres.”
No. V. Night work of young persons in Belgium. (Le travail de nuit des jeunes
ouvriers en Belgique.) By Victor Brants, professor at the University of Louvain.
190.6.
No. VI. Note on household industries in Belgium. (Note sur le travail domicile
en Belgique.) By Ch. Genart. 1906.
No. VII. Plan of an international agreement relative to accidents to laborers. (Pro
jet de convention intemationale relative aux accidents du travail.) By M. L.
Woden, professor at the free University of Brussels. Li6ge, B£nard, 1907. 11 pp.
No. VIII. Household industries in Belgium considered in relation to foreign compe
tition. (Les industries It domicile en Belgique vis-lt-vis de la concurrence 6trang&re.) By Armand Julin, Director of the Office of Labor. Li6ge, B&iard, 1908.
150 pp.
No. IX. Note on the inspection of labor in Belgium. (Note sur Pinspection du
travail en Belgique.) By Ernest Mahaim, professor at the University of Li6ge.
Li4ge, B&nard, 1908. 22 pp.
No. X. Plans for the limitation of the hours of labor of adults in Belgium. (Les
projets de limitation de la dur6e du travail des adultes en Belgique.) By Hector
Denis, member of the Chamber of Representatives and professor at the free Uni
versity of Brussels. Li6ge, B&iard, 1908. 34 pp.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
Legal limitation of hours of work in industry and commerce in the United Kingdom.
Report by Miss Sophy Sanger. 1906.
Conditions of home work in the United Kingdom. Report by Mrs. J. Ramsay Mac
Donald. 1906.
Night work of young persons in the United Kingdom. Report by Mrs. H. J. Tennant.
1906.
Report for the two years 1905-1907.
Report for the two years 1907-1908.
Report on the administration of labor laws in the United Kingdom. By Miss Sophy
Sanger. London, 1908. 48 pp.
Report on the employment of children in the United Kingdom. By Miss Constance
Smith. London, 1908. 32 pp.
DANISH ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
[Dansk Forening for Arbejderbeskyttelse.]
No. 1. Night work of young persons in Denmark. (Die Nachtarbeit der Jugendlichen in Danemarck.) By. V. L. Faber. 1907.. 7 pp.
No. 2. Combating the dangers of industrial poisons in industry. (Om Bekaempelsen
af Faren ved Anvendelsen af Giftstoffer i industrielle Virksomheder.) By Dr.
N. P. Schierbeck. 1908.
No. 3. Report of the work of the Danish section from April 10, 1906, to December 31,
1907. (Beretning om Virksomheden. Omfattende Tiden fra 10. April 1906 til
31. December 1907.)
176
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
No. 4. Dust in industry and how to combat it. (Stov i industrien og dets Bekaempelse.) By J. T. Lundbye. 1908.
No. 5. Report on a journey in England. (Beretning fra en Rejse i England.) By
Dr. N. P. Schierbeck. 1908.
No. 6. Report of the work of the Danish section from January 1, 1908, to December,
1908. (Beretning om Virksomheden fra 1. Januar 1908 til 31. December 1908.)
DUTCH ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
[Nederlandsche Vereeniging voor Wetfcelijke Bescherming van Arbeiders.]
Insurance for industrial accidents. Review of the law on accidents in industry, in
reference to workshops. (De schadeloostellung bij Bedrijfsongevallen. Overzicht van de Ongevallen- en de Beroepswet, in het Bijzonder voor Werktieden.)
By A. Slotemaker.
Regulations of the Netherlands Parliament concerning compulsory accident insurance
of those persons who work outside the country in which they and their relatives
(family) dwell. (Die Bestimmungen der niedelandischen Gesetzgebung iiber
die obligatorische Unfallversicherung betr. Personen, die ausserhalb des Landes
arbeiten, in dem sie selbst und ihre Angehorigen wohnen.) By Dr. E. Fokker.
Industrial poisons other than lead and phosphorus in Netherlands. (Die gewerblichen Gifte mit Ausnahme von Blei und Phosphor in den Niederlanden.) By
Js. P. de Vooys.
Labor laws, including laws relating to factory regulation and inspection with deci
sions thereon, preceded by a review of their provisions. (De Arbeidswet en de
Veiligheidswet, alsmede de daarbij behoorende Koninklijke Besluiten, voorafgegaan door een overzicht van hun voorschriften.) ’s Gravenhage, 1902. I l l pp.
Hours of labor in the Dutch textile industry. (Die Arbeitsdauer in der niederlandischen Textilindustrie.) By Dr. Alph. Ariens zu Steenderen. 1906.
Regulations of the Dutch Parliament concerning excessive and unhealthful labor of
young persons and women, relative to home work and household trades. (Die
Bestimmungen der niederlandischen Gesetzebung gegen Ubermassige und
gefahrliche Arbeit junger Personen und Frauen beziiglich die Heimarbeit und
Hausindustrie.) By H. W. E. Struve, labor inspector. 1906.
Hours of labor in the Dutch mining industry. (Die Arbeitzeit in den niederlandi
schen Bergwerken.) By C. B. Blankevoort. 1908. 14 pp.
Night work of young persons in the Netherlands. (Die Nachtarbeit jugendlicher
Personen in den Niederlanden.) By G. J. van Thienen. Amsterdam, 1908.
14 pp. Supplementary report to the above. By J. van Thienen.
Report on lead poisoning in the polygraphic industry in the Netherlands. (Bericht
tiber die Bleivergiftungen in den polygraphischen Gewerben in den Nieder
landen.) By Js. P. de Vooys. 1908.
Report on the prohibition of the use of lead colors, and on experiments with leadless
colors in the Netherlands. (Bericht iiber das Verbot des Gebrauches von Bleifarben und iiber die Versuche mit bleifreien Farben in den Niederlanden.) By
P. Bakker-Schut. Amsterdam, 1908. 21 pp.
Lead poisoning in the Dutch ceramic industry. (Bleivergiftungen in der nieder
landischen keramischen Industrie.) By Js. P. de Vooys. Amsterdam, 1908.
83 pp.
No. 2. Opinions concerning the legal limitation of the hours of labor of adult labor
ers. (Praeadviezen over wettelijke regeling van den arbeids duur voor volwassen
arbeiders.) By F. M. Wibant, H. Smissaert and Ch. Stulemeyer. 1908. 185 pp.
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
177
No. 3. Stenographic report of the meeting of the Dutch Association for Labor Legislation
on Thursday, November 19,1908. Conference on the legal limitation of the hours
of labor of adult laborers. (Stenographisch verslag der vergadering der Nederlandsche Vereenigung voor Wettelijke Bescherming der Arbeiders op Donderdag
19 November 1908. Bespreking van wettelijke regeling van den arbeidsduur
voor volwassen arbeiders.) 1909. 136 pp.
No. 4. Legislation concerning household industry in foreign countries. Association
for the Netherlands exposition of household industry. (Wetgeving betreffende
de huisindustrie in het buitenland. Vereeniging voor de Nederlandsche Tentoonstelling van Huisindustrie.) Compiled by J. F. G. van Buttingha Wichers
with the cooperation of Mr. J. Hingst. Amsterdam, 1909. 204 pp.
FRENCH SECTION OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
[L’Association nationale frangaise pour la protection legale des travailleurs.]
FIRST SERIES.
The first series, consisting in all of ten monographs, has been printed in a single
volume. These monographs have also appeared separately, as follows:
No. I. Legal protection of women before and after childbirth. (La protection legale
des femmes avant et apr&s l ’accouchement.) Report by Dr. Fauquet. 1904.
No. II. Weekly regulation of the duration of labor: The Saturday holiday. (La
r6glementation hebdomadaire de la duree du travail: Le repos du samedi.)
Reports by Ivan Strohl, manufacturer, and Francois Fagnot of the Office of Labor.
1904.
No. III. Age of admission of children to industrial employment: The half-time sys
tem. (L’&ge d’admission des enfants au travail industriel: Le travail de demitemps.) Report by Etienne Martin-Saint-Leon.
No. IV. The Consumers’ League. (La ligue sociale d’acheteurs.) Report by Mme.
Henriette Jean Brunhes.
No. V. Legal protection of the employee and the regulation of labor in stores. (La
protection legale de Femploy6 et la feglementation du travail des magasins.)
Report by A. Artaud.
No. VI. Regulation of the duration of labor in mines. (La feglementation de la dufee
du travail dans les mines.) Report by Abb6 Lemire, deputy. 1904.
No. VII. Regulation of household industries. (La feglementation du travail en
chambre.) Report by Frangois Fagnot of the Office of Labor. 1904.
No. V III. Protection of native labor in the colonies. (La protection des travailleurs
indigenes aux colonies.) Report by Ren6 Pinon. 1904.
No. IX . Employment of children in theaters and concert-cafes. (L’emploi des
enfants dans les theatres et cafes-concerts.) Report by Raoul Jay. 1904.
No. X. Right of direct citation by associations. (Le droit de citation directe pour les
associations.) Report by Henri Hayem. 1904.
SECOND SERIES.
Legal duration of labor. Proposed modification of the law of 1900. (La dufee fegale
du travail. Des modifications k apporter k la loi de 1900.) Reports by MM.
Fagnot, Millerand and Strohl. 1905. 300 pp.
THIRD SERIES.
The eight pamphlets following were printed as one volume in 1907. The separate
pamphlets appeared during the years 1905, 1906, and are entitled as follows:
No. I. Prohibition of the use of white lead in the painting trade. (L ’interdiction de
la ceruse dans l ’industrie de la peinture.) Report by J. L. Breton, deputy.
178
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
No. II. The official conference at Berne. (La conference officielle de Berne.) Report
by A. Millerand, president of the French Association for Labor Legislation.
No. III. Regulation of the hours of labor. (Le control© de la dufee du travail.)
Report by Georges Alfassa.
No. IV. Legal protection of children employed outside of industry.—I. The English
law. (La protection fegale des enfants occup^s hors de Pindustrie.—I. La loi
anglaise.) Report by [Edouard Dolfeans.
No. V. Legal protection of children employed outside of industry.—II. The German
law. (La protection fegale des enfants occup5s hors de Pindustrie.—II. La loi
allemande.) Report by Henri Moysset.
No. VI. Legal protection of children employed outside of industry in France.—III.The situation in France. (La protection fegale des enfants occup6s hors de
Pindustrie en France.—III. La situation en France.) Communications by Abbe
Meny, Gemahling, Mile. Blondelu, MM. Georges Piot, Raoul Jay, L5on Vignols.
No. VII. Extension of the law of December 29,1900, to women employed in industry.
(De Pextension de la loi du 29 d^cembre 1900 aux femmes employees dans Pindus
trie.) Report by Madame de la Ruelle, inspector of labor. .
No. VIII. The strike and the organization of labor. (La gr&ve et Porganisation
ouvrfere.) Communication by M. A. Millerand, president of the Association.
FOURTH SERIES.
The labor contract. (Le contrat de travail.) Reports by M. Perreau, professor of law
at the University of Paris, and by Francois Fagnot, investigator for the Ministry of
Labor. 1907. 218 pp.
FIFTH SERIES.
No. I. Conciliation in strikes and the work of the Northern Section of the French
Association for Labor Legislation. (La conciliation dans les conflits collectifs
et les travaux de la Section du Nord de PAssociation.) Report of M. Aftalion,
1907. 84 pp.
No. II. The law of the 7th of March, 1850, and the measurement of piecework. (La
loi du 7 mars 1850 et le mesurage du travail k la t&che.) Report by Adeodat
Boissard. 1907. 88 pp.
No. III. The labor contract and the civil code. (Le contrat du travail et le code
civil.) Reports by C. Perreau and Arthur Groussier. 1908. 261 pp.
No. IV. The reform of labor inspection in France. (La feforme de Pinspection du
travail en France.) Report of Eugene Petit.
No. V. Collaboration of organized labor in the work of factory inspection. (Collabora
tion des ouvriers organises It Pceuvre de Pinspection du travail.) Report by
Henri Lorin. 1909.
No. VI. Industrial accidents in agriculture. (Les accidents du travail dans Pagriculture.) Report by Henri Capitant. 1909.
R eports P resented by the F rench A ssociation for L abor L egislation to the
F ourth G eneral Meeting of the I nternational A ssociation for L abor
L egislation , held at G eneva S eptember 26-29, 1906.
Night work of young persons in French industries. (La travail de nuit des adolescents
dans Pindustrie fran$aise.) Report by Etienne Martin-Saint-L6on. 1906. 55 pp.
Industrial poisons. (Les poisons industriels.) Report by Georges Alfassa. 1906.
Workmen’s insurance and foreign laborers. (L’assurance ouvrfere et les ouvriers
Strangers.) Report by Henri Barrault. 1906. 10 pp.
Legal limitation of the working day in France. (La limitation fegale de la jounfee
de travail en France.) Report by Raoul Jay. 1906. 92 pp.
Household industries in France, especially in the region of Lyons. (Le travail a
domicile en France et sp6cialement dans la region Lyonnaise. Reports by Paul
Pic and A. Amieux. 1906. 12 pp.
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
179
P ublications op the F rench A ssociation por L abor L egislation, not appearing
in the R egular S er ies .
Note on the industrial employment of children. (Note sur le travail industriel des
enfants.) Report by Georges Alfassa. 1908. 37 pp.
Report on night work of children in factories with continuous fire. (Rapport sur le
travail de nuit des enfants dans les usines k feu continu.) Report by Francois
Fagnot. 1908. 56 pp.
The securing of equality between native and foreign laborers from the point of view
of indemnity for industrial accidents by means of an international agreement.
(La realization de l ’^galite entre nationaux et Strangers au point de vue de Pindemnisation des accidents du travail par voie de convention intemationale.)
Report by A. Boissard. Paris, 1908. 10 pp.
Hours of labor of adult women in the clothing industry in France. (La dur£e du
travail des femmes adultes dans Pindustrie du v6tement en France.) By Mme.
Henriette Jean Brunhes. Paris, 1909. 34 pp.
P ublications op the N orthern S ection op the F rench A ssociation por L abor
L egislation.
Night work of children in factories with continuous fire. (Le travail de nuit des
enfants dans les usines k feu continu.) By M. L6v6que. Lille, 1909. 48 pp.
Prevention of accidents on railway sidings connected with factories. (La prevention
des accidents sur les voies ferries des usines.) Report by M. L^vOque. 1909.
33 pp.
GERMAN SECTION, INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
[Gesellschaft fur Soziale Reform.]
Publication No. 1. The organization of the Office of Labor Statistics of Germany.
(Die Errichtung eines Reichsarbeitsamtes.) By Dr. Pachnicke, member of the
Reichstag, and Dr. Freiherr von Berlepsch, Minister of State. Jena, G. Fischer,
1901.
Publication No. 2. Organization of workmen for trade purposes. (Die Arbeiterberufsvereine.) By Von Bassermann, member of the Reichstag, and J. Giessberts, labor
secretary. 1901.
Publication Nos. 3 and 4. Protection of labor in hotels and public houses. (Arbeiterschutz in Gast- und Schankwirtschaften.) By Prof. Dr. K. Oldenberg. 1902.
Publication No. 5. Right of union and meeting as opposed to the right of coalition.
(Vereins- und Versammlungsrecht wider die Koalitionsfreiheit.) By Ferdinand
Tonnies. 1902.
Publication No. 6. Legal status of the gardening industry. (Die Rechtsverhaltnisse
im Gartnergewerbe.) By M. von Schulz and Franz Behrens. 1902.
Publication Nos. 7 and 8. Reduction of the hours of labor for women, and raising of the
age at which young persons in factories shall be subject to protection. (Die
Herabsetzung der Arbeitszeit fur Frauen und die Erhohung des Schutzalters fiir
jugendliche Arbeiter in Fabriken.) By Dr. August Pieper and Helene Simon,
together with a report of the first meeting of the German Association for Labor
Legislation, held at Cologne. 1903.
Publication No. 9. Laborers’ cooperative societies. (Arbeiterkonsumvereine.) By
Dr. Reinhold Riehn and J. Giesberts. 1903.
Publication No. 10. Law concerning the employment of children in industry, of
March 30, 1903. (Gesetz betreffend Kinderarbeit in gewerblichen Betrieben.
Vom 30. Marz 1903.) By Konrad Agahd and M. von Schulz. 1905.
Publication No. 11. Why do we urge social reform? (Warum betreiben wir die soziale
Reform?) By Dr. Freiherr von Berlepsch, Minister of State. Together with a
report of the activity of the German Association for Labor Legislation in 1903.
180
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Publication No. 12. The Dutch chambers of labor. (Die hollandischen Arbeitskammern.) By Dr. Bernhard Harms.
The labor councils of France. (Die Arbeitsrate in Frankreich.) By Prof. Raoul
Jay. 1903.
Publication No. 13. The organization of industry and labor councils in Belgium.
(Die Organisation der Industrie- und Arbeitsrate in Belgien.) By Louis Varlez.
1904.
Publication No. 14. The Italian chambers of labor. (Die italienischen Arbeitskammem.) By Dr. Pinardi and Dr. Schiavi. With a supplement concerning the
chambers of labor of Switzerland and the labor councils of France. 1904.
Publication No. 15. The municipal tax problem. (Kommunale Steuerfragen.) By
Dr. A. Wagner and Dr. Preuss. 1904.
Publication No. 16. The second general meeting of the German Association for Labor
Legislation, held at Mainz, Oct. 14-15, 1904. Reports and transactions concern
ing chambers of labor and cooperative societies. 1904. (Die zweite Generalversammlung der Gesellschaft fur Soziale Reform. Mainz, 14. und 15. Oktober 1904.
Referate und Yerhandlungen iiber Arbeitskammern und Konsumvereine.)
Publication No. 17. A collection of papers upon the mine workers’ strike in the Ruhr
district. (Aufsatze liber den Streik der Bergarbeiter im Ruhrgebiet.) 1905.
Publication No. 18. Eight opinions concerning the Sunday holiday in commercial
occupations, rendered by organizations of commercial assistants at the instance
of the executive committee of the German Association for Labor Legislation.
(Acht Gutachten iiber die Sonntagsruhe im Handelsgewerbe, erstattet von kaufmannischen Gehilfenvereinen auf Ansuchen des Yorstandes der Gesellschaft fiir
soziale Reform.) 1905.
Publication No. 19. The representation of salaried officials in chambers of labor.
(Die Vertretung der Angestellten in Arbeitskammern.) By Dr. Heinz Pothoff.
1905.
Publication No. 20. Investigation into the household industries of Germany. (Untersuchungen iiber die Hausindustrie in Deutschland.) By Dr. Rudolf Meerwarth.
1906.
Publication No. 21. Proposals for the organization of chambers of labor in Germany.
Ten opinions. (Vorschlage zur Gestaltung der Arbeitskammern in Deutschland.)
1906.
Publication No. 22. Industrial conciliation and arbitration in England and Scotland.
(Gewerbliches Einigungswesen in England und Schottland.) By Dr. Waldemar
Zimmermann. 1906.
Publication Nos. 23 and 24. Methods of industrial conciliation and arbitration.
(Methode des gewerblichen Einigungswesens.) 1907.
Publication No. 25. Salaried officials and the insurance law. (Die Privatbeamten
und die Versicherungsgesetzgebung.) By Dr. Silbermann, Alfons Ennesch, and
C. Eichler. 1908.
Publication No. 26. The service contract of salaried officials. I. (Der Dienstvertrag
der Privat-Angestellten.) 1908.
Publication No. 27. The service contract of salaried officials. II. (Der Dienstvertrag
der Privat-Angestellten.) 1908.
Miscellaneous P ublications of the German A ssociation for L abor L egislation .
Administration of labor laws and factory inspection in Germany. (Die Ausfiihrung
der Arbeiterschutzgesetze und die Gewerbeinspection in Deutschland.) By Prof.
W. Kahler. 1908. 48 pp.
Legal protection of children and child labor in Germany. (Kinderschutz und Kinderarbeit in Deutschland.) B yF r. Losser. 1908. 16 pp.
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
181
Hours of labor of miners, men employed in foundries, and rolling mills, and of women
employed in factories. (Die Arbeitszeit der Bergleute, Htitten- und Walzwerkarbeiter und der Fabrikarbeiterinnen.) By Rosenberg-Lepinsky, Giesberts,
and Dr. E. van den Boom. 1908. 66 pp.
The chief household industries of Germany which export their products. (Die hauptsachlich am Export beteiligten Hausindustrien Deutschlands.) By Dr. Rudolf
Meerwarth. 1908. 70 pp.
Lead poisoning in the ceramic industry. (Bleivergiftungen in der keramischen
Industrie.) By Dr. Kaup. 1908. 54 pp.
Hygienic conditions in the polygraphic industry of Germany, with special reference
to lead poisoning. (Die Gesundheitsverhaltnisse im polygraphischen Gewerbe
Deutschlands mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Bleiveigiftung.) By Dr.
Martin Hahn. 1908. 59 pp.
International agreements concerning workingmen’s insurance, together with a draft
of an international agreement concerning accident insurance. (Die Staatsvertrage liber Arbeitversicherung, nebst Entwurf zu einem intemationalen Abkommen liber Unfallversicherung.) By Prof. Dr. Ludwig Lass. 1908. 49 pp.
Report of the German Section of the International Association for Labor Legislation
for the years 1907 and 1908. (Die Tatigkeitder Gesellschaft flirsoziale Reform in
den Jahren 1907 und 1908.)
Draft of a list of industrial poisons. (Der Entwurf einer Liste der gewerblichen Gifte.)
Prepared by the International Association for Labor Legislation, by Dr. Fischer,
Director of the Institute of Industrial Hygiene, Frankfort-on-the-Main. Frank
fort, 1910. 48 pp.
HUNGARIAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
[Ungarische Vereinigung fur gesetzlichen Arbeiterschutz.]
Publication No. 1. The occurrence of lead poisoning in the pottery industry of Hun
gary. (tjber die im ungarischen Tonwarengewerbe vorkommenden Bleiver
giftungen.) By Dr. B. Chyzer, inspector. (Also printed in French.) Jena, 1908.
32 pp.
Publication No. 2. Administration of labor laws in Hungary. (Die Durchflihrung der
Arbeiterschutzgesetze in Ungam.) By Dr. Stephen Varrd.
Publication No. 3. Household industry in Hungary and home work in Budapest.
(Die Hausindustrie in Ungam und die Budapester Heimarbeit.) By Emerich
Ferenczi. Jena, 1908.
The standard working day and rest periods. (Der Normalarbeitstag und die
Arbeitspausen.) By Dr. Josef v. Fenyvessy.
ITALIAN SECTION, INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
A brief report of the Italian Section. August, 1901-August, 1902. (Rapporto riassuntivo della Sezione italiana. Agosto 1901-agosto 1902.)
Night work of women in Italy. (II lavoro notturno delle donne in Italia.) Report
by Prof. G. Toniolo.
Draft of an international agreement relative to the application to foreign laborers, of
national laws, in case of industrial accidents. (Projet de convention Inter
nationale pour Fapplication des lois nationales aux ouvriers strangers en cas
d’accidents sur le travail.) Reports by Professor M. A. Corsi and M. F. Invrea,
advocate.
Condition of the foreigner with reference to industrial accident laws and employers’
liability. By Vittorio Manfredi. (La condizione dello straniero nelle leggi
sulle assicurazioni contro gl’ infortuni e nella responsabilitA professional. Par
Vittorio Manfredi.)
Labor in the rice fields. (II lavoro nelle risaie.) C. Cerruti.
182
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
SPANISH SECTION, INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
[Sectidn Espafiola, Asociacidn Internacional para la Protection Legal de los Trabajadores.]
No. 1. Legal protection of labor. (La protecci6n legal de los trabajadores.) By
Ivan Strohl. 1907.
No. 2. The International Association for Labor Legislation. Its history; its publica
tions; its work. The fourth general assembly of the association. Geneva, Sept.
26-29, 1906. (La Asociacidn Internacional para la Proteccidn Legal de los
Trabajadores. Su historia; sus drganos; su obra. La IVa Asamblea General de la
Asociaci6n. Ginebra, septiembre 26 al 29, 1906.) By Jos6 Manuel de Bayo y
Gonz&lez-Elipe and Pedro Sangro y Bos de Olano. 1908.
No. 3. Workmen’s insurance. (Seguros obreros.) By Jos6 Maluquer y Salvador.
Madrid, 1908. 8 pp.
No. 4. Report of the first year’s work (1907) of the Spanish Section and the work of
the Executive Council. (Memoria de los trabajos de la Seccidn en su primer
afio social (1907) y de la gestitfn del Consejo directivo.) By Pedro Sangro y Bos
de Olano. 1908.
No. 5. Means of preventing lead poisoning in color factories, accumulators, etc.
(Medios de prevenir los peligros del manejo del plomo en las fdbricas de colores,
de acumuladores, etc.) By Jos6 Ubeda y Correal. 1908.
No. 6. Prohibition of night work of young persons in Spanish industries with con
tinuous fire. (La prohibicidn del trabajo noctumo de los menores de 18 afios en
las industrias espafiolas & fuego continuo.) By Jos6 Manuel de Bayo. Madrid,
1908. 24 pp.
No. 7. Administration of labor laws in Spain. (La aplicacidn de las leyes protectoras
del obrero en Espafia.) By Don Miguel Figueras y Lopez. Madrid, 1908.
60 pp.
No. 8. Industrial work of young persons in Spain. (El trabajo industrial de los
menores de 18 anos en Espana.) By Isidro de Villota and Antonio Revenga y
Alzamoro. Madrid, 1908. 50 pp.
No. 9. Note on the maximum working day in Spain. (Notas sobre la jornada maxima
de trabajo en Espafia.) By Salvador Crespo y Lopez de Arce and Adolfo Buylla
y G. Alegre. Madrid, 1908. 70 pp.
No. 10. Household industries in Spain. (El trabajo & domicilio en Espana.) By
Amando Castroviejo and Pedro Sangro y Bos de Olano. Madrid, 1908. 128 pp.
No. 11. The report of the second year’s work of the Spanish Section, 1908. (Memoria
de los trabajos de la Secci6n en su segundo ano social (1908).) By the Secretary,
Pedro Sangro y Bos de Olano.
No. 12. The labor contract. Address delivered at the Royal Academy of Jurispru
dence and Legislation on March 27, 1909, by Adolfo Buylla y G. Alegre. (El
contrato del trabajo. Conferencia pronunciada en la Real Academia de Jurisprudencia y Legislaci6n el 27 de marzo de 1909.)
Legal protection of labor. A monthly publication (begun in January, 1909) of the
Spanish Section of the International Association founded for that purpose. (La
protecci6n legal de los trabajadores. Publicacion mensual de la Seccidn espafiola
de la Associaci6n Internacional fundada para este objeto.)
SWISS SECTION, INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
[Schweiz. Vereinigung zur Forderung des internationalen Arbeiterschutzes.]
Publication No. 1. History of the idea of the international protection of labor. (Zur
Geschichte der Idee des internationalen Arbeiterschutzes.) By E. Frey. 1900.
Publication No. 2. The International Congress for the Protection of Labor in Paris.
(Der intemationale Arbeiterschutzkongress in Paris.) By Prof. N. Reichesberg.
1900.
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION.
183
Publication No. 3. Report of the executive committee of the Swiss Association for
Labor Legislation for 1900-1901. (Bericht des Vorstandes fiber die Tatigkeit des
Vereins im Jahre 1900-1901.)
Publication No. 4. Register of members on June 30, 1901. (Mitgliederverzeichnis,
abgeschlossen auf 30. Juni 1901.)
Publication No. 5. The purposes of the International Labor Office. (Die Aufgaben
des Intemationalen Arbeitsamtes.) By Dr. Stephan Bauer. 1901.
Publication No. 6. Report of the executive committee of the Swiss Association for
Labor Legislation for 1901-1902. (Bericht des Vorstandes fiber die Tatigkeit des
Vereins im Jahre 1901-1902.)
Publication No. 7. I. Report of the executive committee of the Swiss Association
for Labor Legislation for 1902-1903. (Bericht des Vorstandes fiber die Tatigkeit
des Vereins im Jahre 1902-1903.)
II. Statutes of the International Association for Labor Legislation. (Statuten
der intemationalen Vereinigung ftir gesetzlichen Arbeiterschutz.)
III. Outline of the Statutes of the Swiss Association for Labor Legislation.
(Entwurf-Statuten der Schweiz. Vereinigung.)
IV. Register of members on June 30,1903. (Mitgliederverzeichnis, abgeschlos
sen auf 30. Juni 1903.)
Publication No. 8. Transactions of the Beme section of the Swiss Association for Labor
Legislation, concerning the revision of the Swiss federal factory inspection law of
June 11,1903. (Verhandlungen der Sektion Bern fiber die Revision des eidgen.
Fabrikgesetzes vom 11. Juni 1903.)
Publication No. 9. I. Statutes of the Swiss Association for Labor Legislation, Dec.
17, 1903. (I. Statuten der Schweiz. Vereinigung vom 17. Dez. 1903.)
II. Report of the executive committee of the Swiss Association for Labor Legis
lation for the first half of 1903. (Bericht des Vorstandes fiber die Tatigkeit des
Vereins im zweiten Halbjahr 1903.)
Publication No. 10. Memorial of the municipalities to the cantonal governments and
local administrations on March 10, 1905, concerning the replacement of white
lead in the painting industry by leadless colors. (Eingabe des Vorortes an die
Kantonsregierungen und Gemeindeverwaltungen vom 10. Marz 1905, betref.
Ersetzung des Bleiweisses im Malergewerbe dureh bleifreie Farben.) 1905.
Publication No. 11. Purposes and accomplishment of the International Association
for Labor Legislation and of the International Labor Office. (Bestrebungen und
Erfolge der intemationalen Vereinigung ffir den gesetzlichen Arbeiterschutz und
des Intemationalen Arbeitsamtes.) By Dr. N. Reichesberg. 1905.
Publication No. 12. Report of the executive committee of the Swiss Association for
Labor Legislation for 1904. (Bericht des Vorstandes fiber die Tatigkeit der
Vereinigung im Jahre 1904.)
Publication No. 13. Report of the International Conference for the Legal Protection
of Labor, held at Beme in May, 1905. (Die Verhandlungen der intemationalen
Arbeiterschutzkonferenz in Bern im Mai 1905.) By Emil Frey.
Publication No. 14. Report of the executive committee of the Swiss Association for
Labor Legislation for 1905. (Bericht des Vorstandes fiber die Tatigkeit des
Vereins im Jahre 1905.)
Publication No. 15. The question of the establishment of boards of conciliation and
arbitration. (Zur Frage der Errichtung von Einigungsamtern.) By Dr. E.
Zfircher and S. Scherz. 1906.
Publication No. 16. I. Legal limitation of the working day of laborers and salaried
officials employed in commerce and industry in Switzerland. (Die gesetzliche
Beschrankung der Arbeitsdauer der in Handel und Industrie der Schweiz
beschaftigten Arbeiter und Angestellten.)
II. Night work of young persons in Switzerland. (Die Nachtarbeit der
Jugendlichen in der Schweiz.) By Dr. Julius Landmann. 1906.
184
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR.
Publication No. 17. Catalogue of the Library of the Swiss Association for Labor Leg
islation, on December 1, 1906. (Katalog der Bibliothek der Schweiz. Vereinigung. Abgeschlossen auf 1. Dezember 1906.)
Publication No. 18. I. The Diplomatic Conference for Legal Protection of Labor,
held at Berne, 1906. (Die Diplomatenkonferenz fiir Arbeiterschutz, abgehalten in Bern 1906.) By Emil Frey.
II.
Report of the fourth general meeting of the committee of the International
Association for Labor Legislation, held at Geneva, 1906. (Die IV. Delegiertenversammlung der internationalen Vereinigung fiir gesetzlichen Arbeiterschutz,
abgehalten in Genf 1906.) By Dr. N. Reichesbeig. 1907.
Publication No. 19. Report of the executive committee of the Swiss Association for
Labor Legislation for 1906. (Bericht des Vorstandes liber die Tatigkeit der
Vereinigung im Jahre 1906.)
Publication No. 20. Report of the eighth general meeting of the Swiss Association
for Labor Legislation, held at Basel, June 29, 1907. (Die Verhandlungen der
VIII. Generalversammlung der Schweiz. Vereinigung zur Forderung des
internationalen Arbeiterschutzes, abgehalten zu Basel den 29. Juni 1907.)
Publication No. 21. Report on those Swiss home industries of which the product
competes in the world market with that from other countries. (Bericht liber
die schweizerischen Hausindustrien, deren Produckte auf dem Weltmarkt mit
den Erzeugnissen anderer Lander konkurrieren.) By A. Pfleghart. Berne,
1908. 17 pp.
Publication No. 22. Administration of labor laws in Switzerland. (Die Durchflihrung
der Arbeiterschutzgesetze in der Schweiz.) By Dr. H. Wegmann, factory
inspector. Berne, 1907. 32 pp.
Publication No. 23. Child labor and child protection in Switzerland. (Kinderarbeit
und Kinderschutz in der Schweiz.) By Ph. Zinsli. Berne, 1908. 128 pp.
Publication No. 24. Social legislation and social statistics. A contribution upon
the question of establishing a federal bureau of social statistics. (Soziale Gesetzgebung und Statistik. Ein Beitrag zur Frage der Errichtung eines eidgenossischen sozialstatistischen Amtes.) By Dr. N. Reichesberg. 1908.
Publication No. 25. Report on the industrial employment of children in Switzerland.
(Bericht liber die gewerbliche Kinderarbeit in der Schweiz.) By A. Wild.
Basel, 1908. 135 pp.
Publication No. 26. Report of the executive committee of the Swiss Association
for Labor Legislation for 1907. (Bericht des Vorstandes liber die Tatigkeit der
Vereinigung im Jahre 1907.)
Publication No. 27. What demands does social legislation make upon statistics?
By Werner Krebs. (Welche Anforderungen stellt die soziale Gesetzgebung
an die Statistik?) Berne, 1908. 91 pp.
Publication No. 28. Report of the executive committee of the Swiss Association
for Labor Legislation for 1908. (Bericht des Vorstandes liber die Tatigkeit der
Vereinigung im Jahre 1908.)
BRITISH TRADE BOARDS ACT, 1909.
The following is the text of the British Trade Boards Act, which
provides a method of establishing and enforcing minimum rates of
wages in certain industries. The act was passed October 20, 1909,
and became effective January 1, 1910. I t was the result of longcontinued agitation and was enacted only after extensive investi
gation. Two reports which assisted materially in formulating this
legislation were summarized in Bulletin No. 80 of this bureau. (®)
A n Act to provide for the establishment of Trade Boards for certain trades.
October, 1909.]
[20th
ESTABLISHMENT OF TRADE BOARDS FOR TRADES TO WHICH THE ACT APPLIES.
1.
—(1) This act shall apply to the trades specified in the schedule to this act and
to any other trades to which it has been applied by provisional order of the Board of
Trade made under this section.
(2) The Board of Trade may make a provisional order applying this act to any
specified trade to which it does not at the time apply if they are satisfied that the rate
ot wages prevailing in any branch of the trade is exceptionally low, as compared with
that m other employments, and that the other circumstances of the traae are such
as to render the application of this act to the trade expedient.
(3) If at any time the Board of Trade consider that the conditions of employment
in any trade to which this act applies have been so altered as to render the application
of this act to the trade unnecessary, they may make a provisional order that this act
shall cease to apply to that trade.
(4) The Board of Trade may submit to Parliament for confirmation any provisional
order made by them in pursuance of this section, but no such order shall nave effect
unless and until it is confirmed by Parliament.
(5) If, while a bill confirming any such order is pending in either House of Parlia
ment, a petition is presented against any order comprised therein^ the bill, so far as it
relates to that order, may be referred to a select committee, or, if the two Houses of
Parliament think fit so to order, to a joint committee of those Houses, and the peti
tioner shall be allowed to appear and oppose as in the case of private bills.
(6) Any act confirming a provisional order made in pursuance of this section may
be repealed, altered, or amended by any subsequent provisional order made by the
Board of Trade and confirmed by Parliament.
2.
—(1) The Board of Trade shall, if practicable, establish one or more trade boards
constituted in accordance with regulations made under this act for any trade to which
this act applies or for any branch of work in the trade.
Where a trade board is established under this act for any trade or branch of work
in a trade which is carried on to any substantial extent in Ireland, a separate trade
board shall be established for that trade or branch of work in a trade in Ireland.
(2)
Where a trade board has been established for any branch of work in a trade,
any reference in this act to the trade for which the board is established shall be con
strued as a reference to the branch of work in the trade for which the board has been
established.
3. A trade board for any trade shall consider, as occasion requires, any matter
referred to them by a secretary of state, the Board of Trade, or any other government
department, with reference to the industrial conditions of the trade, and shall make
a report upon the matter to the department by whom the question has been referred.
a “ Reports from the Select Committees on Home Work, 1907 and 1908,” and the
“ Wages Boards and Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Acts of Australia and
New Zealand. Report to the Secretary of State for the Home Department.”
185
186
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
MINIMUM RATES OP WAGES.
4.
—(1) Trade boards shall, subject to the provisions of this section, fix minimum
rates of wages for time work for their trades (m this act referred to as minimum timerates), and may also fix general minimum rates of wages for piecework for their trades
(in this act referred to as general minimum piece-rates), and those rates of wages
(whether time or piece-rates) may be fixed so as to apply universally to the trade, or
so as to apply to any special process in the work of the trade or to any special class of
workers m the trade, or to any special area.
If a trade board report to the Board of Trade that it is impracticable in any case
to fix a minimum time-rate in accordance with this section, the Board of Trade may
so far as respects that case relieve the trade board of their duty.
(2) Before fixing any minimum time-rate or general minimum piece-rate, the trade
board shall give notice of the rate which they propose to fix and consider any objections
to the rate which may be lodged with them within three months.
(3) The trade board shall give notice of any minimum time-rate or general minimum
piece-rate fixed by them.
(4) A trade board may, if they think it expedient, cancel or vary any minimum timerate or general minimum piece-rate fixed under this act, and shall reconsider any such
minimum rate if the Board of Trade direct them to do so, whether an application is
made for the purpose or not:
Provided that the provisions of this section as to notice shall apply where it is pro
posed to cancel or vary the minimum rate fixed under the foregoing provisions in the
same manner as they apply where it is proposed to fix a minimum rate.
(5) A trade board shall on the application of any employer fix a special minimum
piece-rate to apply as respects the persons employed by nim in cases to which a mini
mum time-rate but no general minimum piece-rate is applicable, and may as they
think fit cancel or vary any such rate either on the application of the employer or after
notice to the employer, such notice to be given not less than one month before cancel
lation or variation of any such rate.
5.
—(1) Until a minimum time-rate or general minimum piece-rate fixed by a trade
board has been made obligatory by order of the Board of Trade under this section, the
operation of the rate shall be limited as in this act provided.
(2) Upon the expiration of six months from the date on which a trade board have
given notice of any minimum time-rate or general minimum piece-rate fixed by them,
the Board of Trade shall make an order (in this act referred to as an obligatory order)
making that minimum rate obligatory in cases in which it is applicable on all persons
employing labor and on all persons employed, unless they are of opinion that the cir
cumstances are such as to make it premature or otherwise undesirable to make an obli
gatory order, and in that case they shall make an order suspending the obligatory opera
tion of the rate (in this act referred to as an order of suspension).
(3) Where an order of suspension has been made as respects any rate, the trade board
may, at any time after the expiration of six months from the date of the order, applv
to the Board of Trade for an obligatory order as respects that rate; and on any such
application the Board of Trade shall make an obligatory order as respects that rate,
unless they are of opinion that a further order of suspension is desirable, and in that
case they shall make such a further order, and the provisions of this section which are
applicable to the first order of suspension shall apply to any such further order.
An order of suspension as respects any rate shall have effect until an obligatory order
is made by the Board of Trade under this section.
(4) The Board of Trade may, if they think fit, make an order to apply generally as
respects any rates which may be fixed by any trade board constituted or about to be
constituted for any trade to which this act applies, and while the order is in force any
minimum time-rate or general minimum piece-rate shall, after the lapse of six months
from the date on which the trade board have given notice of the fixing of the rate, be
obligatory in the same manner as if the Board of Trade had made an order making the
rate obligatory under this section, unless in any particular case the Board of Trade on
the application of any person interested direct to the contrary.
The Board of Trade may revoke any such general order at any time after giving three
months’ notice to the trade board of their intention to revoke it.
6.
—(1) Where any minimum rate of wages fixed by a trade board has been made obli
gatory by order of the Board of Trade under this act, an employer shall, in cases to
which the minimum rate is applicable, pay wages to the person employed at not less
than the minimum rate clear of all deductions, and if he fails to do so shall be liable on
summary conviction in respect of each offence to a fine not exceeding twenty pounds
[$97.33] and to a fine not exceeding five pounds [$24.33] for each day on which the
offence is continued after conviction therefor.
BRITISH TRADE BOARDS ACT, 1909.
18 T
(2) On the conviction of an employer under this section for failing to pay wages at.
not less than the minimum rate to a person employed, the court may by the conviction,
adjudge the employer convicted to pay, in addition to any fine, such sum as appears to
the court to be due to the person employed on account of wages, the wages being calcu
lated on the basis of the minimum rate, but the power to order the payment of wages
under this provision shall not be in derogation of any right of the person employed to
recover wages by any other proceedings.
(3) If a trade board are satisfied that any worker employed, or desiring to be em
ployed, on time work in any branch of a trade to which a minimum time-ratb fixed bjr
the trade board is applicable is affected by any infirmity or physical injury which,
renders him incapable of earning that minimum time-rate, and are of opinion that the
case can not suitably be met by employing the worker on piecework, the trade board,
may, if they think fit, grant to the worker, subject to such conditions, if any, as they
prescribe, a permit exempting the employment of the worker from the provisions of
this act rendering the minimum time-rate obligatory, and, while the permit is inforce, an employer shall not be liable to any penalty for paying wages to the worker
at a rate less than the minimum time-rate so long as any conditions prescribed by th e
trade board on the grant of the permit are complied with.
(4) On any prosecution of an employer under this section, it shall lie on the employer
to prove by the production of proper wages sheets or other records of wages or otherwise
that he has not paid, or agreed to pay, wages at less than the minimum rate.
(5) Any agreement for the payment of wages in contravention of this provision shall
be void.
7.—(1) Where any minimum rate of wages has been fixed by a trade board, but i&
not for the time being obligatory under an order of the Board of Trade made in pur
suance of this act, the minimum rate shall, unless the Board of Trade direct to thecontrary in any case in which they have directed the trade board to reconsider the;
rate, have a limited operation as follows:
(a)
In all cases to which the minimum rate is applicable an employer shall, in the*
absence of a written agreement to the contrary, pay to the person employed wages a t
not less than the minimum rate, and, in the absence of any such agreement, the=
person employed may recover wages at such a rate from the employer;
(6) Any employer may give written notice to the trade board by whom the minimum,
rate has been fixed that he is willing that that rate should be obligatory on him, and.
in that case he shall be under the same obligation to pay wages to the person employed
at not less than the minimum rate, and be liable to the same fine for not doing so, m
he would be if an order of the Board of Trade were in force making the rate obligatory^
and
(c) No contract involving employment to which the minimum rate is applicable
shall be given by a government department or local authority to any employer unless
he has given notice to the trade board in accordance with the foregoing provision:
Provided that in case of any public emergency the Board of Trade may by order,,
to the extent and during the period named in the order, suspend the operation of this
'
1 '
ich work being done or to be done on behalf
• of any notices given under this section:
The register shall be open to public inspection without payment of any fee, and.
shall be evidence of the matters stated therein:
Any copy purporting to be certified by the secretary of the trade board or any officer
of the trade Board authorized for the purpose to be a true copy of any entry in the
register shall be admissible in evidence without further proof.
8. An employer shall, in cases where persons are employed on piecework and su
minimum time-rate but no general minimum piece-rate has been fixed, be deemed to
pay wages at less than the minimum rate—
(a) In cases where a special minimum piece-rate has been fixed under the provisions
of this act for persons employed by the employer, if the rate of wages paid is less than,
that special minimum piece-rate; and
(b) In cases where a special minimum piece-rate has not been so fixed, unless he=
shows that the piece-rate of wages paid would yield, in the circumstances of the case,,
to an ordinary worker at least the same amount of money as the minimum time-rate ►
9. Any shopkeeper, dealer, or trader, who by way of trade makes any arrangement
express or implied with any worker in pursuance of which the worker performs any
work for which a minimum rate of wages has been fixed under this act, shall be deemed
for the purposes of this act to be the employer of the worker, and the net remuneration
obtainable oy the worker in respect of the work after allowing for his necessary expend
iture in connection with the work shall be deemed to be wages.
38697—No. 86—10----13
188
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
10.—(1) Any worker or any person authorized by a worker may complain to the
trade board that the wages paia to the worker by any employer in any case to which
any minimum rate fixed by the trade board is applicable are at a rate less than the
minimum rate, and the trade board shall consider the matter and may, if they think
fit, take any proceedings under this act on behalf of the worker.
(2)
Before taking any proceedings under this act on behalf of the worker, a trade
board may, and on the first occasion on which proceedings are contemplated by the
trade board against an employer they shall, take reasonable steps to bring the case to
the notice of the employer, with a view to the settlement of the case without recourse
to proceedings.
CONSTITUTION, PROCEEDINGS, ETC., OP TRADE BOARDS.
11.—(1) The Board of Trade may make regulations with respect to the constitution
of trade boards which shall consist of members representing employers and members
representing workers (in this act referred to as representative members) in equal
proportions and of the appointed members. Any such regulations may be made so
as to apply generally to tne constitution of all trade boards, or specially to the con
stitution of any particular trade board or any particular class of trade boards.
(2) Women shall be eligible as members of trade boards as well as men.
(3) The representative members shall be elected or nominated, or partly elected
and partly nominated as may be provided by the regulations, and in framing the
regulations the representation of home workers on trade boards shall be provided for
in all trades in which a considerable proportion of home workers are engaged.
(4) The chairman of a trade board shall be such one of the members as the Board of
Trade may appoint, and the secretary of the trade board shall be appointed by the
Board of Trade.
(5) The proceedings of a trade board shall not be invalidated by any vacancy in
their number, or by any defect in the appointment, election, or nomination of any
member.
(6) In order to constitute a meeting of a trade board, at least one-third of the whole
number of the representative members and at least one appointed member must be
present.
(7) The Board of Trade may make regulations with respect to the proceedings and
meetings of trade boards, including the method of voting; but subject to the provisions
of this act and to any regulations so made trade boards may regulate their proceedings
in such manner as they think fit.
12.
—(1) A trade board may establish district trade committees consisting partly
of members of the trade board and partly of persons not being members of the trade
board but representing employers or workers engaged in the trade and constituted in
accordance with regulations made for the purpose by the Board of Trade and acting
for such area as the trade board may determine.
(2) Provisions shall be made by the regulations for at least one appointed member
acting as a member of each district trade committee, and for the equal representation
of local employers and local workers on the committee, and for the representation of
home workers thereon in the case of any trade in which a considerable proportion of
home workers are engaged in the district, and also for the appointment of a standing
subcommittee to consider applications for special minimum piece-rates and complaints
made to the trade board under this act, and for the reference of any applications or
complaints to that subcommittee.
(3) A trade board may refer to a district trade committee for their report and recom
mendations any matter which they think it expedient so to refer, and may also, if
they think fit, delegate to a district trade committee any of their powers and duties
under this act, other than their power and duty to fix a minimum time-rate or general
minimum piece-rate.
(4) Where a district trade committee has been established for any area, it shall be
the duty of the committee to recommend to the trade board minimum time-rates and,
so far as they think fit, general minimum piece-rates, applicable to the trade in that
area, and no such minimum rate of wages fixed under this act and no variation or
cancellation of such a rate shall have effect within that area unless either the rate or
the variation or cancellation thereof, as the case may be, has been recommended by
the district trade committee, or an opportunity has been given to the committee to
report thereon to the trade board, and the trade board have considered the report
(if any) made by the committee.
13.
—(1) The Board of Trade may appoint such number of persons (including
women) as they think fit to be appointed members of trade boards.
BRITISH TRADE BOARDS ACT, 1909.
189
(2) Such of the appointed members of trade boards shall act on each trade board
or district trade committee as may be directed by the Board of Trade, and, in the case
of a trade board for a trade in which women are largely employed, at least one of the
appointed members acting shall be a woman:
Provided that the number of appointed members acting on the same trade board,
or the same district trade committee, at the same time, shall be less than half the
total number of members representing employers and members representing workers.
APPOINTMENT OF OFFICERS AND OTHER PROVISIONS FOR ENFORCING ACT.
14.
—(1) The Board of Trade may appoint such officers as they think necessary for
the purpose of investigating any complaints and otherwise securing the proper
observance of this act, and any officers so appointed shall act under the directions of
the Board of Trade, or, if the Board of Trade so determine, under the directions of
any trade board.
(2) The Board of Trade may also, in lieu of or in addition to appointing any officers
under the provisions of this section, if they think fit, arrange with any other govern
ment department for assistance being given in carrying this act into effect, either
generally or in any special cases, by officers of that department whose duties bring
them into relation with any trade to which this act applies.
15.
—(1) Any officer appointed by the Board of Trade under this act, and any
officer of any government department for the time being assisting in carrying this
act into effect, shall have power for the performance of his duties—
(a) to require the production of wages sheets or other record of wages by an employer,
and records of payments made to outworkers by persons giving out work, and to
inspect and examine the same and copy any material part thereof;
(61 to require any person giving out work and any outworker to give any informa
tion which it is in his power to give with respect to the names and addresses of the
persons to whom the work is given out or from whom the work is received, as the case
may be, and with respect to the payments to be made for the work;
(c) at all reasonable times to enter any factory or workshop and any place used for
giving out work to outworkers; and
(d) to inspect and copy any material part of any list of outworkers kept by an
employer or person giving out work to outworkers.
(2) If any person fails to furnish the means required by an officer as necessary for
any entry or inspection or the exercise of his powers under this section, or if any person
hinders or molests any officer in the exercise of the powers given by this section, or
refuses to produce any document or give any information which any officer requires
him to produce or give under the powers given by this section, that person shall be
liable on summary conviction in respect of each offense to a fine not exceeding five
pounds [$24.33]; and, if any person produces any wages sheet, or record of wages,
or record of payments, or any list of outworkers to any officer acting in the exercise
of the powers given by this section, knowing the same to be false, or furnishes any
information to any sucn officer knowing the same to be false, he shall be liable, on sum
mary conviction, to a fine not exceeding twenty pounds [$97.33], or to imprison
ment for a term not exceeding three months, with or without hard labor.
16. Every officer appointed by the Board of Trade under this act, and every officer
of any government department for the time being assisting in carrying this act into
effect, shall be furnished by the board or department with a certificate of his appoint
ment, and when acting under any or exercising any power conferred upon him by
this act shall, if so required, produce the said certificate to any person or persons
affected.
17.
—(1) Any officer appointed by the Board of Trade under this act, and any officer
of any government department for the time being assisting in carrying this act into
effect, shall have power in pursuance of any special or general directions of the Board
of Trade to take proceedings under this act, and a trade board may also take any such
proceedings in the name of any officer appointed by the Board of Trade for the time
being acting under the directions of the trade board in pursuance of this act, or in the
name of their secretary or any of their officers authorized by them.
(2) Any officer appointed by the Board of Trade under this act, or any officer of any
government department for the time being assisting in carrying this act into effect,
and the secretary of a trade board, or any officer of a trade board authorized for the
purpose, may, although not a counsel or solicitor or law agent, prosecute or conduct
before a court of summary jurisdiction any proceedings arising under this act.
190
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
SUPPLEMENTAL.
18.
—(1) The Board of Trade shall make regulations as to the notice to be given of
any matter under this act, with a view to bringing the matter of which notice is to be
given so far as practicable to the knowledge of persons affected.
(2) Every occupier of a factory or workshop, or of any place used for giving out work
to outworkers, shall, in manner directed by regulations under this section, fix any
notices in his factory or workshop or the place used for giving out work to outworkers
which he may be required to fix by the regulations, and shall give notice in any other
manner, if required by the regulations, to the persons employed by him of any matter
of which he is required to give notice under the regulations:
If the occupier of a factory or workshop, or of any place used for giving out work to
outworkers, fails to comply with this provision, he shall be liable on summary con
viction in respect of eacn offense to a fine not exceeding forty shillings [$9.73].
19. Regulations made under this act shall be laid as soon as possible before both
Houses of Parliament, and, if either House within the next forty days after the regu
lations have been laid before that House resolve that all or any of the regulations
ought to be annulled, the regulations shall, after the date of the resolution, be of no
effect, without prejudice to the validity of anything done in the meantime thereunder
or to the making of any new regulations. If one or more of a set of regulations are
annulled, the Board of Trade may, if they think fit, withdraw the whole set.
20.
—(1) His Majesty may, by order in council, direct that any powers to be exer
cised or duties to be performed by the Board of Trade under this act shall be exercised
or performed generally, or in any special cases or class of cases, by a secretary of state,
and, while any such order is in force, this act shall apply as if, so far as is necessary
to give effect to the order, a secretary of state were substituted for the Board of Trade.
(2) Any order in council under this section may be varied or revoked by any sub
sequent order in council.
21. There shall be paid out of moneys provided by Parliament—
(1) Any expenses, up to an amount sanctioned by the treasury, which may be
incurred with the authority or sanction of the Board oi Trade by trade boards or their
committees in carrying into effect this act; and
(2) To appointed members and secretaries of trade boards and to officers appointed
by the Board of Trade under this act such remuneration and expenses as may be
sanctioned by the treasury; and
(3) To representative members of trade boards and members (other than appointed
members) of district trade committees any expenses (including compensation for loss
of time), up to an amount sanctioned by the treasury, which may be incurred by them
in the performance of their duties as such members; and
(4) Any expenses, up to an amount sanctioned by the treasury, which may be
incurred by tne Board of Trade in making inquiries, or procuring information, or
taking any preliminary steps with respect to the application of this act to any trade
to which the act does not apply, including the expenses of obtaining a provisional
order, or promoting any bill to confirm any provisional order made under, or in pur
suance of. the provisions of this act.
22. —(1) This act may be cited as the Trade Boards Act, 1909.
(2) This act shall come into operation on the first day of January, nineteen hundred
and ten.
Schedule.
TRADES TO WHICH THE ACT APPLIES WITHOUT PROVISIONAL ORDER.
1. Ready-made and wholesale bespoke tailoring and any other branch of tailoring
in which the Board of Trade consider that the system of manufacture is generally
similar to that prevailing in the wholesale trade.
2. The making of boxes or parts thereof made wholly or partially of paper, cardboard,
chip, or similar material.
3. Machine-made lace and net finishing and mending or darning operations of lace
curtain finishing.
4. Hammered and dollied or tommied chain-making.
The first of the trade boards to be organized under the foregoing
act was the board for the hammered and dollied or tommied chain
making trade. Under date of November 25, 1909, regulations were
issued by the Board of Trade governing the work of this board.
BRITISH TRADE BOARDS ACT, 1909.
191
The regulations provide for a board to consist of either 15 or 17
members, of whom 3 will be appointed by the Board of Trade, the
rest being chosen, half by the employers and half by the workers in
the trade. The first board as organized has 15 members. Of those
to represent the workers, 2 are women and 4 are men. The industry,
it should be said, is one which largely employs women. I t is provided
that the voting power as between employers and workers shall be
always equal and that the accidental absence of a member on one
side shall not at any time be an advantage to the other party. The
next industry for which a board will be appointed under the act is
the paper box industry. The regulations relating to the chain trade
follow:
REGULATIONS.
1. A trade board shall be established for the hammered and dollied or tommied
section of the chain trade:
2. The board shall consist of not less than 15 and not more than 17 persons, viz, 3
appointed members, and either 6 or 7 members representing employers, and 6 or 7
members representing workers.
3. The chairman shall be such one of the appointed members as may be nominated
by the Board of Trade.
4. Six members representing employers shall be chosen at meetings of employers
in the above trade, conducted under the supervision of the Board of Trade. The
votes shall be either by show of hands or by ballot, as the chairman may decide.
Separate meetings shall be held of factory occupiers, not being outworkers, and of
other employers, and 5 of the 6 members shall be elected by the factory occupiers,
not being outworkers, and one by the other employers.
5. Six members representing workers shall be chosen at meetings of workers in the
above trade, conducted under the supervision of the Board of Trade. Of these, 2
members shall be chosen at a meeting of women and 4 at a meeting of men. The
votes shall be either by show of hands or by ballot, as the chairman may decide.
6. The Board of Trade may, if they think it necessary in order to secure the due
representation of the various classes of employers or workers, nominate 2 additional
representative members on the trade board, 1 on each side.
7. At least seven days’ notice shall be given of meetings held under these regula
tions by posters, placards, and advertisements in newspapers, or in such other manner
as may appear to the Board of Trade to be best adapted m the circumstances to bring
the matter of which notice is to be given to the knowledge of all persons affected so
far as may be practicable.
8. The term of office of the first trade board shall be three years, and each succeeding
trade board shall have a similar term unless otherwise provided.
9. Any representative of employers who ceases to be an employer and becomes a
worker at the trade shall vacate his seat, but shall be eligible for jpelection.
Any representative of workers who becomes an employer in the wade shall also vacate
his seat, but shall be eligible for reelection.
10. A casual vacancy among representative members shall be filled in the same man
ner as in the original election or nomination.
11. Voting on trade boards shall be so conducted that the members representing
employers and workers shall always have equal voting power notwithstanding the
absence of any member, and it is left to the trade board to regulate the proceedings for
carrying this into effect.
12. Any question arising on these regulations shall be determined by the chairman.
EARNINGS AND HOURS OF LABOR IN BRITISH CLOTHING
INDUSTRIES.
The second of the series of reports in which the results of a general
inquiry into earnings and hours of labor in all trades in the United
Kingdom are to be dealt with, has recently been published under the
title, “ Report of an inquiry by the Board of Trade into the Earnings
and Hours of Labor of Work People of the United Kingdom: II.—
Clothing Trades in 1906.” a The object of this inquiry is to ascertain
the amount actually earned by all classes of workpeople in a selected
week, industry by industry, occupation by occupation, and district
by district, and to obtain means of estimating their annual earnings.
GENERAL SUMMARY.
The term “ clothing trades” is used in a broad sense, including, in
addition to the making of clothing, the manufacture of boots and
shoes, hats, gloves, corsets, and furs, and dyeing, cleaning, and
laundering. As shown by the census of 1901 these industries provide
employment for over 1,500,000 work people. Of this number 81 per
cent are employed in England and Wales, 9 per cent in Scotland, and
10 per cent in Ireland. A larger number of women and girls is
included in these industries than in any other group except domestic
service.
It is estimated that in the tailoring and boot and shoe industries
about 200,000 males and 50,000 females, and in the dressmaking and
other clothing trades, about 300,000 women and girls are employed
outside of faetciies and workshops. The statements of earnings in
the present report, however, relate only to the earnings of work
people employed on the employer’s premises.
In the following table is shown the number of persons employed in
each of the clothing industries, as shown by the factory and workshop
returns for 1904, the number of workpeople covered by the returns
received in the present inquiry, and the percentage of the number
employed in 1904 represented by the returns:
«An abstract of the first report in this series, entitled “ Report of an Inquiry by
the Board of Trade into the Earnings and Hours of Labor of Work People of the
United Kingdom: I.—Textile Trades in 1906,” appeared in Bulletin No. 83 of this
Bureau, pp. 88-103.
192
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH CLOTHING INDUSTRY.
193
NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES IN CLOTHING INDUSTRIES IN 1904 AND PER CENT OF TOTAL
IN EACH INDUSTRY FOR WHOM RETURNS WERE RECEIVED IN 1906.
Employees covered
by returns received
in present inquiry
(1903). '
Number of
employees
in 1904.
Industry.
Number.
Per cent
of num
ber, em
ployed
m 1904.
Clothing:
Dress, millinery, mantle, and corset m a k in g ..................................
Tailoring..........................................................................................
Boot and shoe m a k in g ...............................................................................
Other...............................................................................................
245,389
149,821
124,192
155,093
57,845
42,810
41,508
49,384
23.6
28.6
33.4
31.8
Total, clothing industries.............................................................
Dyeing and cleaning..............................................................................
Laundering............................................................................................
674,495
9,609
104,477
191,547
6,200
33,626
28.4
64.5
32.2
Grand total..................................................................................
788,581
231,373
29.3
Of the total number of employees for whom information was
secured, 4,703 were unpaid apprentices and 2,503 were workpeople
receiving board and lodging or partial board in addition to wages.
Excluding these, 21.8 per cent were males 20 years of age and over,
classified in the report as "men.” The average earnings of men who
worked full time in the various clothing industries in the last week of
September, 1906, and the per cent of men whose earnings fell within
each specified wage group, are shown in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF MEN IN THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1903,
IN EACH CLOTHING INDUSTRY, AND PER CENT OF MEN WHOSE EARNINGS WERE
W ITHIN EACH SPECIFIED WAGE GROUP.
Per cent of men working full time whose earn
ings were—
Industry.
Aver
age
earn
ings. Under
$4.87.
$4.87
and
under
$7.30.
$7.30
and
under
$9.73.
$9.73 $12.17
and
and
under under
$12.17. $14.60.
$14.60
and
over.
Clothing:
Dress, millinery, etc. (workshop)............. $12.39
Dress, millinery, etc. (factory)..................
7.71
7.26
Shirts, blouses, underclothing, etc............
8.15
Tailoring (custom clothing)......................
7.77
Tailoring (ready-made clothing)...............
Boots and shoes (ready-made)..................
6.98
Boot, shoe, and clog making (custom
work) and repairing...............................
6.63
8.33
Silk and felt hats.......................................
Leather gloves...........................................
7.20
7.04
Corsets (factory made)..............................
8.66
Furs...........................................................
8.90
Straw hats and bonnets............................
7.36
Other clothing...........................................
7.18
Dyeing and cleaning........................................
6.37
Laundry (power).............................................
5.47
Laundry (hand)..............................................
5.1
9.2
14.1
5.1
6.5
6.5
16.3
33.5
38.2
41.0
37.8
52.4
9.2
39.2
30.8
31.8
36.6
34.4
15.3
11.5
11.1
11.6
13.1
5.2
27.6
4.8
3.3
4.1
2.8
1.2
26.5
1.8
2.5
6.4
3.2
.3
10.0
5.7
7.6
13.3
5.7
8.3
10.9
3.9
9.8
25.0
54.7
22.8
45.3
40.4
36.8
25.9
46.7
57.4
63.5
65.2
30.8
44.6
35.3
35.5
29.5
28.9
23.2
28.1
22.7
9.3
4.1
21.0
9.6
8.8
8.2
17.5
11.2
6.4
3.6
.5
.3
4.3
1.7
1.0
7.9
12.2
.4.4
2.3
.3
.1
1.6
.5
1.0
11.9
7.2
3.6
1.9
.1
7.34
7.2
47.2
32.7
8.3
2.3
2.3
Total......................................................
Of the total number of wage-earners for whom information was
obtained, 54.9 per cent were females 18 years of age and over, classi
194
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
fied as “ women.” The average earnings of women who worked full
time in the various clothing industries in the last week of September,
1906, and the per cent of women whose earnings fell within each
specified wage group are shown in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF WOMEN IN THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER;
1906, IN EACH CLOTHING INDUSTRY, AND PER CENT OF WOMEN WHOSE EARNINGS
WERE WITHIN EACH SPECIFIED WAGE GROUP.
Per cent of women working full time whose
earnings were—
Industry.
Clothing:
Dress, millinery, etc. (workshop).............
Dress, millinery, etc. (factory)..................
Shirt, blouse, underclothing, etc...............
Tailoring (custom clothing)......................
Tailoring (ready-made clothing)...............
Boots and shoes (ready-made)..................
Boot, shoe, and clog making (custom
work), and repairing.............................
Silk and felt h a ts ......................................
Leather gloves...........................................
Corsets (factory made)..............................
Furs...........................................................
Straw hats and bonnets............................
Other clothing...........................................
Dyeing and cleaning........................................
Laundry (power).............................................
Laundry (hand)..............................................
Total.............................................. .
Average
earn
ings. Under
$2.43.
$2.43
and
under
$3.65.
$3.65
and
under
$4.87.
$4.87
and
under
$6.08.
$6.08
and
under
$7.30.
$7.30
and
over.
$3.37
3.75
3.24
3.45
3.14
3.18
28.0
12.6
22.2
15.4
24.0
12.4
36.2
39.5
46.0
42.4
46.6
58.9
21.1
30.5
23.5
29.3
22.5
• 25.2
8.4
11.4
6.1
10.3
5.5
2.8
2.6
3.5
1.4
1.6
1.1
3.7
2.5
.8
3.04
3.97
2.94
2.96
4.04
4.83
3.14
3.37
3.12
3.10
21.4
8.1
25.5
28.8
9.4
10.4
26.3
9.3
20.5
12.2
51.8
35.0
51.1
48.3
29.0
17.5
41.4
55.3
52.0
63.8
17.9
32.3
21.5
19.9
34.4
21.6
24.5
27.7
21.1
20.5
5.3
20.5
1.7
2.7
20.1
27.5
6.0
5.5
4.7
2.9
1.8
2.4
.1
.3
4.2
12.4
1.8
1.7
.1
.3
2.9
10.6
.8
1.1
.7
.3
3.28
21.6
45.1
23.2
6.8
1.7
1.6
1.0
.3
.1
.6
1.0
1.1
1.0
The average earnings of males under the age of 20 years, classified
in the report as “ lads and boys,” and of females under 18 years of
age, classified as “ girls,” in the last week of September, 1906, are
shown in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF LADS AND BOYS AND OF GIRLS IN EACH CLOTH
ING INDUSTRY IN THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906.
Average'eamings of—
Industry.
Lads and boys.
Girls.
Full
timers.
Half
timers.
Full
timers.
Clothing:
Dress, millinery, etc. (workshop)..........................................
Dress, millinery, etc. (factory)..............................................
Shirt, blouse, underclothing, etc...........................................
Tailoring (custom clothing)..................................................
Tailoring (ready-made clothing)...........................................
Boots and shoes (ready-made)..............................................
Boot, shoe, and dog making (custom work), and repairing.
Silk and felt hats...................................................................
Leather gloves.......................................................................
Corsets (factory made)..........................................................
Furs......................................................................................
Straw hats and bonnets........................................................
Other clothing.......................................................................
Dyeing and cleaning....................................................................
Laundry (power).........................................................................
Laundry (hand)..........................................................................
$1.97
2.41
2.17
1.68
2.37
2.56
2.01
3.06
1.85
2.51
2.56
2.45
2.76
2.58
2.13
2.31
$0.59
$0.67
.77
$0.91
1.54
1.64
1.32
1.58
1.66
1.68
1.91
1.44
1.52
1.74
2.72
1.50
1.74
1.58
1.62
Total...................................................................................
2.35
.69
1.40
.67
.53
.87
Half
timers.
.61
.81
.61
.71
195
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH QLOTHING INDUSTRY.
The number of lads and boys formed 6 per cent and the number of
girls 17.3 per cent of the total number of wage-earners for whom
information was received.
Particulars were obtained for each industry as to the total amount
paid in wages in 1906 by the firms making returns, and the total
amount paid in wages and the total number of persons receiving
wages in one week in each month. From these data the following
table was computed, showing the average annual earnings per head
in the clothing industries for the year 1906:
AVERAGE ANNUAL EARNINGS PER HEAD IN EACH CLOTHING INDUSTRY, 1906.
Industry.
Clothing:
Dress, millinery, etc. (workshop)___
Dress, millinery, etc. (factory).......... .
Shirt, blouse, underclothing, etc........
Tailoring (custom clothing)............. .
Tailoring (ready-made clothing)........
Boots and shoes (ready made)...........
Boot, shoe, and clog making (custom
work), and repairing......................
Silk and felt hats................................
Leather gloves.................................. .
Average
annual
earnings
per head
in 1906.
Industry.
$146.00
167.89
148.43
262.79
172.76
221.43
Clothing—Concluded.
Corsets (factory made).....................
Furs..................................................
Straw hats and bonnets....................
Other clothing..................................
Dyeing and cleaning.......................... .
Laundry (power)....................................
Laundry (hand)......................................
$143.56
284.69
211.69
155.73
206.83
155.73
141.13
Total..............................................
180.06
279.82
257.92
206.83
Average
annual
earnings
per head
in 1906.
The number of workpeople reported in each industry whose hours
of labor for a full week were in each specified group and the average
number of hours constituting a full week in each industry are
shown in the following table:
NUMBER OP WORKPEOPLE REPORTED AS WORKING EACH SPECIFIED NUMBER
OF HOURS PER W EEK, AND AVERAGE HOURS IN A FULL W EEK, BY INDUSTRIES,
1906.
Number of workpeople whose hours of labor for a full
week were—
Industry.
46
48
Un and and
der un un
der der
46.
50.
48.
52
50
and and
un un
der der
52.
54.
54
and
un
der
56.
hours
56
58
in a
and and
60
full
un un and week.
der der over.
58.
60.
Clothing:
Dress, millinery, etc.
503
309 1,075 2,121 6,978 7,755 7,536 5,795 2,539
712 1,924 1,295 1,845 1,633
292
Dress, millinery, etc. (factory).
789
17
8,682
2,556 5,978
144
Shirt, blouse, underclothing, etc........ 2,451 5,411 6,223
963
217
Tailoring (custom clothing).............
650
426 408 740 •1,649 1,411 2,389 3,064
897
Tailoring (ready-made clothing).......
746
575 1,354 6,496 4,881 5,643 1,301 1,440
298
62
21
Boots and shoes (ready-made).......
153 454 2,551 9,959 21,592 2,199
15
Boot, shoe, and clog making (custom
182
work), and repairing.....................
293
356 1,063
460
23 179
105
48
210 2,231 1,080 1,077
21
100
240
Silk and felt hats..............................
126
Leather gloves..................................
530
115
191
209
18 1,161
12 1,849
340 829
Corsets (factory made).....................
489
233
191
248 224
569
53
Furs.................................................. ii
17
71
7
314
194
Straw hats and bonnets...................
183
53
255
37
11
94
Other clothinj
210 428 1,132
776
390
93
57
2
636 3,815
354
241
21
131
740
44
Laund
1,467
728 1,469 2,696 1,672 3,338 3,558 1,980 6,278
Laundry (hand).
230
127
415
712 353
351
98 612
397
Aver-
53.4
50.8
50.2
53.8
51.2
53.5
54.0
56.8
51.2
51.6
53.4
55.2
52.9
51.2
54.7
52.7
196
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
DRESSMAKING, MILLINERY, AND MANTLE-MAKING INDUSTRIES.
The establishments included in these industries are divided into
two groups—those in which the work is carried on in workshops and
those in which the work is carried on in factories with the aid of
mechanical power. In the returns furnished by the first group are
included 44,978 workpeople. Excluding those who received board
and lodging in addition to wages and the apprentices and learners
who received ho wages, there remained 37,772 for whom statistics
were given. Of this number, 73.2 per cent were women, 26.3 per cent
were girls, and 0.5 per cent were men and boys.
In the following table is given an analysis of the returns for each
district and important city showing the hours constituting a full week
and the average earnings for women, girls, and all employees working
full time in the last week of September, 1906:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF EMPLOYEES IN WORKSHOPS IN THE DRESS
MAKING, MILLINERY, AND MANTLE-MAKING INDUSTRIES IN THE LAST W EEK
OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, AND AVERAGE HOURS IN A FULL W EEK, BY DISTRICTS.
Average full-time earnings of—
District.
Women.
Girls.
Average
hours m
a full
All em week.
ployees.
Northern counties and Cleveland...............................................
Y orkshire (excluding Cleveland)............................. ..................
Lancashire and Cheshire.............................................................
Manchester and Liverpool....................................................
North and West Midland counties.............................................
South Midland and Eastern counties..........................................
London........................................................................................
Westminster.........................................................................
Chelsea and Kensington.......................................................
Marylebone and Paddington................................................
Rest of London.....................................................................
Southeastern counties.................................................................
Southwestern counties................................................................
Wales and Monmouth.................................................................
Scotland......................................................................................
Edinburgh and Glasgow.......................................................
Ireland.........................................................................................
Dublin...................................................................................
Belfast...................................................................................
$3.31
3.35
3.37
3.31
2.92
2.62
4.08
4.38
4.10
4.14
3.63
3.00
2.45
2.53
3.41
3.65
2.72
3.04
2.82
$0.87
1.10
.95
.97
.77
.69
1.10
1.18
1.30
1.18
.95
.75
.59
.83
.99
1.05
.81
.79
.91
$2.62
2.74
2.76
2.78
2.25
1.93
3.49
3.93
3.41
3.69
2.86
2.29
1.76
2.05
2.80
3.02
2.41
2.66
2.49
52.8
54.2
55.6
55.5
53.8
53.9
52.8
52.0
53.5
52.0
53.1
54.6
54.5
54.1
51.8
51.5
52.3
51.8
52.0
United Kingdom...............................................................
3.37
.91
2.72
53.4
The highest paid women in the workshops where dresses and man
tles are made are the fitters and cutters. These constitute 8.7 per
cent of the women employed.
The following table shows the average full-time earnings of women
fitters and cutters in each district in the last week of September, 1906,
and the per cent of women whose earnings fell in each specified class:
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH CLOTHING INDUSTRY.
197
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF WOMEN FITTERS AND CUTTERS IN DRESS
MAKING AND MANTLE-MAKING WORKSHOPS, IN THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER,
1906, AND PER CENT OF WOMEN FITTERS AND CUTTERS WHOSE EARNINGS WERE
WITHIN CERTAIN SPECIFIED WAGE GROUPS, BY DISTRICTS.
District.
Per cent of women fitters and cutters work
ing full time whose earnings were—
Aver
age
full
time
$4.87
$7.30
$9.73 $12.17
earn Under and
and
and
and
ings.
$4.87 under under under over.
$7.30. $9.73. $12.17.
Northern counties and Cleveland.................................
Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Cheshire............................
North and West Midland counties...............................
London..........................................................................
Rest of England and Wales..........................................
Scotland........................................................................
Ireland..........................................................................
19.19
7.62
6.25
10.50
7.02
7.40
9.21
1.7
10.0
20.8
2.7
17.0
6.3
12.1
33.3
39.0
45.5
30.4
4a 3
49.8
29.3
25.0
29.3
23.8
22.4
26.9
27.7
24.1
13.3
13.1
8.9
17.7
9.4
9.9
19.0
2a 7
8.6
1.0
26.8
6.4
6.3
15.5
United Kingdom.................................................
8.13
8.7
40.4
26.3
12.7
11.9
Of the women for whom statistics are given in the dressmaking,
millinery, and mantle-making workshops, 71.2 per cent are classified
as dressmakers. The average full-time earnings of dressmakers in the
last week of September, 1906, and the per cent of those in each dis
trict whose earnings were within certain specified groups are shown
in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF DRESSMAKERS (NOT INCLUDING FITTERS AND
CUTTERS) IN THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, AND PER CENT OF DRESS
MAKERS WHOSE EARNINGS W ERE WITHIN CERTAIN SPECIFIED WAGE GROUPS,
BY DISTRICTS.
District.
Per cent of dressmakers working full time
whose earnings were—
Aver
age
full
time
$2.43
$3.65
$4.87
$6.08
earn Under and
and
and
and
ings.
$2.43. under under under over.
$3.65. $4.87. $6.08.
Northern counties and Cleveland.................................
Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Cheshire............................
North and West Midland counties...............................
London.........................................................................
Rest of England and Wales..........................................
Scotland........................................................................
Ireland..........................................................................
$2.66
2.92
2.62
3.71
2.53
2.90
2.25
42.9
29.4
41.0
11.7
45.2
29.1
52.6
38.4
42.4
43.0
36.2
38.6
44.9
41.3
14.2
23.4
14.3
29.4
13.7
22.9
5.4
3.3
3.8
1.7
19.6
2.2
3.0
.7
United Kingdom.................................................
2.96
30.8
40.3
20.8
7.0
1.2
1.0
3.1
.3
.1
1.1
The returns for milliners include statistics for head milliners as well
as for those less skilled. In the following table is shown the average
full-time earnings of milliners in each district in the last week of Sep
tember, 1906, and the per cent of milliners whose earnings were within
each specified wage group:
198
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF MILLINERS IN THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER,
1906, AND PER CENT OF MILLINERS WHOSE EARNINGS W ERE WITHIN CERTAIN
SPECIFIED WAGE GROUPS, BY DISTRICTS.
Per cent of milliners working full time
whose.eamings were—
Aver
age
full
time
$2.43
$3.65
$4.87
$6.08
earn Under and
and
and
and
ings.
$2.43. under under under over.
$3.65. $4.87. $6.08.
District.
Northern counties and Cleveland..................................
Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Cheshire............................
North ana West Midland counties...............................
London..........................................................................
Rest of England and Wales..........................................
Scotland........................................................................
Ireland...........................................................................
$3.59
3.47
3.22
3.81
2.82
3.65
3.20
33.3
28.9
37.8
18.7
47.9
24.3
34.0
23.2
30.6
26.3
36.8
26.5
26.0
33.0
12.6
19.6
16.8
25.4
13.6
21.2
11.9
17.1
10.8
10.2
6.4
7.3
19.1
13.8
13.8
10.1
8.9
12.7
4.7
9.4
7.3
United Kingdom.................................................
3.47
29.9
29.8
19.4
11.2
9.7
Nearly three-fourths of the workpeople employed in factories in
these industries were women, and of the women 41.2 per cent were
operators of power-sewing machines, and 31.6 per cent were hand
sewers. The following table shows the average full-time earnings of
women in dressmaking and mantle-making factories in the last week
of September, 1906, and the per cent whose earnings were within each
specified-wage group:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF WOMEN IN DRESS AND MANTLE-MAKING FAC
TORIES IN THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, AND THE PER CENT OF WOMEN
IN SUCH FACTORIES WHOSE EARNINGS WERE WITHIN CERTAIN SPECIFIED WAGE
GROUPS, BY OCCUPATIONS.
Per cent of women working full time whose
earnings were—
Occupation.
Power-machine operators:
Costume makers..................................
Mantle makers.....................................
Hand workers:
Costume makers..................................
Mantle makers.....................................
All women..................................................
Average
full-time
earnings.
Under
$2.43.
$2.43 and $3.65 and $4.87 and $6.08 and
under
under
under
over.
$6.08.
$3.65.
$4.87.
$3.37
3.75
19.4
11.5
43.9
40.1
27.0
29.3
8.5
15.2
1.2
3.9
3.16
3.77
17.1
11.4
56.5
39.8
23.4
28.2
2.6
15.5
.4
5.1
3.75
12.6
39.5
30.5
11.4
6.0
SHIRT, BLOUSE, UNDERCLOTHING, ETC., INDUSTRY.
Of the 35,624 workpeople for whom information was furnished in
this industry, 31 per cent were employed in Ireland and 23 per cent in
London. Lancashire and Yorkshire employed 19 per cent, the North
and West Midlands, 12 per cent; Scotland, 9 per cent; and the rest
of England and Wales, 6 per cent. The average earnings of these
employees in the last week of September, 1906, was $2.98, while for
the 31,921 who worked full time the average was $3.08.
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH CLOTHING INDUSTRY.
199
The following table shows the average earnings of the men, lads
and boys, women, and girls, and of all employees who worked full
time in each district:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF EMPLOYEES IN THE SHIRT, BLOUSE, UNDER
CLOTHING, ETC., INDUSTRY IN THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, BY
DISTRICTS.
Average full-time earnings of—
District.
Men.
Lads
and
boys.
Yorkshire (excluding Cleveland), Lancashire, and Cheshire.......
North and West Midland counties.............................................
London.......................................................................................
Rest of England and Wales........................................................
Scotland......................................................................................
Belfast.........................................................................................
Londonderry (city)............................. .......................................
Rest of Ireland............................................................................
$7.66
7.00
8.27
7.48
7.36
6.37
5.31
5.29
$2.29
2.15
2.62
2.11
2.29
1.62
1.95
1.50
$3.31
3.26
3.85
3.18
3.24
2.92
2.37
2.49
$1.74
1.56
1.74
1.66
1.60
1.50
1.14
1.64
$3.04
2.88
3.77.
2.88
2.98
2.86
2.47
2.43
United Kingdom...............................................................
7.26
2.17
3.24
1.64
3.08
All
Wom Girls. employ
en.
ees.
Of those who worked full time, 5 per cent were men, 2 per cent
were lads and boys, 71 per cent were women, and 22 per cent were
girls.
In the following table is shown the average earnings of the women in
the more important branches of the industry and the per cent of
women in each occupation whose earnings in the last week of Sep
tember, 1906, fell within each specified class:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF WOMEN IN THE SHIRT, BLOUSE, UNDERCLOTH
ING, ETC., INDUSTRY IN THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, AND THE PER CENT
OF WOMEN IN THAT INDUSTRY WHOSE EARNINGS WERE WITHIN CERTAIN SPECI
FIED WAGE GROUPS, BY OCCUPATIONS.
Per cent of women working full time whose earn
ings were—
Average
full-time
earnings.
Occupation.
Machine operators, piecework:
Power...................................................
Hand or foot........................................
Hand sewers, piecework:
London................................................
All districts..........................................
Starchers and ironers, piecework:
Ireland..........................:......................
All districts..........................................
All workers, time and piece.............
Under
$2.43.
$2.43 and $3.65 and $4.87 and $6.08 and
under
under
under
over.
$3.65.
$4.87.
$6.08.'
$3.18
3.55
22.1
14.7
47.1
42.0
24.4
•28.7
5.4
11.4
1.0
3.2
3.41
2.96
20.5
32.9
39.6
42.1
30.0
20.2
7.1
3.6
2.8
1.2
2.86
3.02
35.2
28.8
43.2
44.8
19.3
22.9
2.0
2.9
.3
.6
3.24
22.2
46.0
23.5
6.1
2.2
TAILORING INDUSTRIES.
Information was secured for 18,446 workpeople who were engaged
in workshops in the making of clothing to the individual order of
the customer. Of the 9,692 time workers, 33.8 per cent were men,
15.1 per cent were lads and boys, 36.2 per cent were women, and 14.9
200
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
per cent were girls. Of the 8,754 pieceworkers, 76.8 per cent were
men, 0.4 per cent were lads or boys, 21.3 per cent were women, and
1.5 per cent were girls.
The following table shows the average earnings in the last week of
September, 1906, of those employees who worked full time:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF EMPLOYEES IN THE CUSTOM CLOTHING INDUS
TRY IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1908, BY DISTRICTS.
Average fall-time earnings of—
District.
Men.
Lads and Women.
boys.
Girls.
All em
ployees.
Northern counties and Cleveland...............................
Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Cheshire..........................
North and West Midland counties.............................
London........................................................................
Rest of England and Wales........................................
Scotland......................................................................
Ireland........................................................................
$7.87
8.42
8.29
10.40
7.44
7.62
7.93
$1.72
1.95
1.85
2.43
1.24
1.60
1.36
$3.14
3.63
3.47
3.93
2.88
3.45
2.92
$1.30
1.32
1.34
1.74
.97
1.44
1.20
$5.62
5.52
4.99
6.59
4.77
5.15
5.52
United Kingdom...............................................
8.15
1.68
3.45
1.32
5.37
Of the total number of workpeople, 54 per cent were men, and of
the men nearly two-thirds were journeymen tailors engaged on piece
work and nearly 12 per cent were journeymen tailors engaged on
time work.
In tire following table is shown the average earnings in the last
week of September, 1906, of journeymen tailors on both time and
piecework and of all men, and the distribution of these workers in
wage groups in accordance with their earnings:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF MEN IN THE CUSTOM CLOTHING INDUSTRY IN
THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, AND THE PER CENT OF MEN IN THAT IN DUS
TRY WHOSE EARNINGS W ERE WITHIN CERTAIN SPECIFIED WAGE GROUPS, BY
OCCUPATIONS.
Per cent of men working full time whose
earnings were—
Occupation.
Average
full-time
earnings.
Under
$4.87.
$4.87 and $7.3Q and $9.73 and
under
under
over.
$7.30.
$9.73.
Journeymen tailors:
Time work............................................................
Piecework.............................................................
$7.26
7.14
3.2
5.9
45.9
53.9
39.4
29.4
11.5
10.8
All men.............................................................
8.15
5.1
41.0
31.8
22.1
Information was secured for 24,364 workpeople engaged in facto
ries in the manufacture of ready-made clothing. Of these, 34.7 per
cent were time workers and 65.3 per cent were pieceworkers.
The respective average earnings in the various districts of the
20,121 workpeople who worked full time in the last week of Sep
tember, 1906, are shown in the following table:
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH CLOTHING INDUSTRY.
201
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF EMPLOYEES IN THE READY-MADE CLOTHING
INDUSTRY IN THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, BY DISTRICTS.
Average full-time earnings of—
District.
Men.
Lads and Women.
boys.
Girls.
All em
ployees.
Leeds...........................................................................
Manchester..................................................................
Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Cheshire (excluding
Leeds and Manchester)............................................
Bristol.........................................................................
North and West Midland counties (excluding
- Bristol).....................................................................
Norwich......................................................................
South Midland and eastern counties (excluding
Norwich)..................................................................
London........................................................................
Rest of England and Wales........................................
Scotland......................................................................
Ireland........................................................................
$7.77
8.25
$2.27
2.21
$3.33
3.31
$1.85
1.48
$3.69
3.79
7.06
8.46
2.41
2.17
3.28
2.88
1.91
1.24
3.51
3.31
7.93
6.89
2.43
2.09
3.12
2.62
1.30
1.34
3.43
2.96
6.81
8.80
7.85
8.76
7.18
2.47
2.90
2.29
2.31
2.39
3.08
2.90
3.41
3.39
2.45
1.48
1.46
1.32
1.48
1.26
3.49
4.46
3.79
3.65
2.56
United Kingdom...............................................
7.77
2.37
3.14
1.58
3.57
Women constituted nearly three-fifths of the number of persons
included in the returns from ready-made clothing factories, of whom
more than one-half were operators of power sewing machines, while
nearly one-fourth were hand sewers.
The average earnings of the women operators of power sewing
machines who worked full time at piecework in the last week of
September, 1906, and the per cent of such operators whose earnings
fell within each specified wage group, are shown in the following
table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF WOMEN OPERATORS OF POWER SEWING
MACHINES IN THE READY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY IN THE LAST W EEK OF
SEPTEMBER, 1906, AND THE PER CENT OF SUCH SEWING MACHINE OPERATORS
WHOSE EARNINGS W ERE WITHIN CERTAIN SPECIFIED WAGE GROUPS, BY DIS
TRICTS.
District.
Per cent of women operators of power
sewing machines working full time
whose earnings were—
Aver
age full
time
earn
$2.43
$3.65
$4.87
$6.08
ings. Under and
and
and
and
$2.43. under under under over.
$3.65. $4.87. $6.08.
Leeds.............................................................................
Manchester....................................................................
Yorkshire Lancashire, and Cheshire (excluding Leeds
and Manchester)........................................................
Bristol...........................................................................
North and West Midland counties (excluding Bristol).
Norwich......................... .................. ..........................
South Midland and Eastern counties (excluding Nor
wich) ..........................................................................
London.........................................................................
Rest of England and Wales..........................................
Scotland........................................................................
Ireland..........................................................................
$3.49
3.28
10.5
21.3
48.1
45.2
32.6
24.3
7.7
8.6
1.1
.6
3.31
2.96
3.22
2.70
19.9
24.7
25.8
35.1
47.4
54.1
41.4
51.4
22.4
16.6
24.7
13.5
8.2
3.9
7.3
2.1
.7
.8
3.14
3.06
3.31
4.16
2.39
23.7
27.6
24.4
2.7
58.7
51.3
46.5
48.2
31.9
30.0
18.9
22.4
14.7
37.4
9.7
4.4
3.5
7.1
20.9
1.6
1.7
5.6
7.1
United Kingdom.................................................
3.26
21.5
46.0
24.3
6.8
1.4
In the following table is shown the average earnings of hand sewers
who worked full time at piecework in the last week of September,
202
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
1906, and the per cent of women hand sewers whose wages were
within certain specified wage groups:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF WOMEN HAND SEWERS IN THE READY-MADE
CLOTHING INDUSTRY IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, AND THE PER CENT
OF SUCH HAND SEWERS WHOSE EARNINGS W ERE WITHIN CERTAIN SPECIFIED.
GROUPS, BY DISTRICTS.
District.
Per cent of women hand sewers working
full time whose earnings were—
Aver
age full
time
$3.65
$4.87
earn Under $2.43
$6.08
and
and
and
ings.
and
$2.43« under under under over.
$3.65. $4.87. $6.08.
Leeds.............................................................................
Manchester....................................................................
Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Cheshire (excluding Leeds
and Manchester)........................................................
Bristol...........................................................................
North and West Midland counties (excluding Bristol).
Norwich........................................................................
South Midland and Eastern counties (excluding Nor
wich) ..........................................................................
London.........................................................................
Rest of England and Wales..........................................
Scotland........................................................................
Ireland..........................................................................
$2.84
2.86
31.1
25.0
51.2
52.8
16.4
22.2
1.1
0.2
3.28
2.29
2.78
2.61
27.4
53.5
36.7
45.5
38.7
43.1
48.5
48.0
19.6.
3.4
13.4
5.2
10.5
3.8
2.53
2.31
2.60
3.10
2.07
50.7
60.3
48.7
22.7
74.3
43.8
36.4
41.0
50.4
22.9
5.5
3.3
7.7
24.4
2.8
2.6
2.5
United Kingdom.................................................
2.76
37.9
45.9
13.6
2.1
1.4
1.3
!
.6
BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY.
Of the 124,200 operatives employed in boot, shoe, and clog making
factories in the United Kingdom in 1904, about 86,600 were males
and 37,600 were females. The number covered by the returns in the
present investigation was 41,508, of which number 38,582 were
employed in the wholesale manufacture of boots and shoes and the
remainder in the custom work and repair branches of the industry
and in clog making.
Of those employed in boot and shoe factories, 73.2 per cent worked
full time in the last week of September, 1906. Their average earn
ings are shown in the table which follows:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF EMPLOYEES IN BOOT AND SHOE FACTORIES IN
THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, BY DISTRICTS.
Average full-time earnings of—
District.
Men.
Lads
and
boys.
Leicester...................................................................................
Leicestershire (excluding Leicester).........................................
Northampton............................................................................
Kettering..................................................................................
Northamptonshire (excluding Northampton and Kettering)..
Stafford.....................................................................................
Norwich....................................................................................
Bristol.......................................................................................
Kings wood................................................................................
London.....................................................................................
Leeds.........................................................................................
Manchester................................................................................
Scotland....................................................................................
Rest of United Kingdom..........................................................
$7.58
6.75
7.26
7.18
6.59
7.16
6.31
6.45
6.77
7.42
6.89
6.73
7.64
6.45
$2.62
2.76
2.80
2.98
2.51
2.25
2.27
2.37
2.41
2.66
2.31
3.04
2.13
2.31
$3.63
3.39
3.02
3.22
3.00
2.62
2.56
2.82
2.72
3.04
3.37
4.26
3.08
3.00
$1.93
2.01
1.52
1.68
1.64
1.16
1.10
1.48
1.34
1.56
1.58
2.53
1.64
1.56
$5.23
4.60
4.79
5.07
4.60
4.66
4.16
4.40
4.36
4.85
4.62
4.74
5.05
4.26
United Kingdom.............................................................
6.98
2.56
3.18
1.66
4.72
All em
Women. Girls. ployees.
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH CLOTHING INDUSTRY.
203
Men form 52 per cent of all the workpeople included in the returns..
Of the total number of men, a little more than one-fourth were lasters,
or riveters and nearly one-fourth were finishers. Clickers or upper
cutters made up nearly one-sixth of the number, and pressmen or*
rough-stuff cutters nearly one-twelfth.
The average earnings of men in these occupations and of all men.
in the last week of September, 1906, and the per cent of men whose
earnings were within certain specified wage groups are shown in the
following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF MEN IN BOOT AND SHOE FACTORIES IN THE!
LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, AND THE PER CENT OF MEN WHOSE EARNINGS.
WERE WITHIN CERTAIN SPECIFIED WAGE GROUPS, BY OCCUPATIONS.
Per cent of men working full time whose*
earnings were—
Average
Kind of full-time
work. earnings.
Occupation.
Time__
Time__
/Time__
\Piece__
/Time....
Finishers.................................................... \Piece_
_
Under
$4.87.
$4.87 and $7.30 and $9.73 andL
under
under
over.
$7.30.
$9.73.
Clickers......................................................
Pressmen or rough stock cutters................
Lasters or riveters......................................
16.98
6.47
7.40
6.61
7.10
7.42
0.3
2.0
.2
11.0
.1
5.1
61.7
76.6
42.4
59.1
53.8
47.2
37.5
21.2
51.7
23.8
45.6
36.1
0.5
.2
5.7
6 .t
• 5<
ll.fr
All men.............................................
6.98
6.5
52.4
34.4
6 .7
Women form 22 per cent of the employees included in the returnsMore than one-half were machine operators or closers and nearly onethird were fitters. In the following table is shown the range of th&
earnings of women who worked full time in the last week of Septem
ber, 1906, and their average earnings.
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF WOMEN IN BOOT AND SHOE FACTORIES IN THE:
LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, AND THE PER CENT OF WOMEN WHOSE EARN
INGS W ERE WITHIN CERTAIN SPECIFIED WAGE GROUPS, BY OCCUPATIONS.
Per cent of women working full time whose earn
ings were—
Average
Kind of full-time
work. earnings.
Occupation.
Fitters....................................... Time__
_
Machine operators or closers___ /Time_
\Piece....
All women.......................
Under
$2.43.
$2.43 and $3.65 and $4.87 and $6.08 and.
under
under
under
over.
$4.87.
$6.08.
$3.65.
$3.08
3.06
3.79
12.0
11.8
6.0
64.3
64.3
40.0
23.2
23.5
40.0
0.5
.4
11.9
2.1
3.18
12.4
58.9
25.2
2.8
.7
SILK AND FELT HAT INDUSTRY.
Over 80 per cent of the 5,112 workpeople in this industry regarding:
whom returns were received were employed in works in Lancashire,
and Cheshire. Men were nearly one-half and women nearly one-third
of the total number. Nearly three-fourths of the women were trim 38697—No. 86—10--- 14
204
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
mers, while of the men the largest groups were pi ankers and twisters,
and finishers.
In the following table is given the average earnings of the employees
inNthis industry who worked full time in the last week of September,
1906, and the per cent of employees whose earnings fell within the
specified wage groups:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF EMPLOYEES IN THE SILK AND FELT HAT
INDUSTRY IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, AND THE PER CENT OF EM
PLOYEES WHOSE EARNINGS WERE WITHIN CERTAIN SPECIFIED WAGE GROUPS,
BY OCCUPATIONS.
Per cent working full time whose earnings were—
Aver
age full
$2.43
$6.08
time
$3.65
$4.87
$7.30
$9.73
earn Under
and
and
and
and
and
and
ings.
$2.43. under under under under under over.
$3.65. $4.87. $6.08. $7.30. $9.73.
Occupation.
Men:
Planters and twisters, piecework.
Finishers, piecework....................
All men..............................................
Women:
Trimmers, piecework...................
All women..........................................
Lads and boys...................................
Girls...................................................
$8.46
9.79
8.33
3.93
3.97
3.06
L91
6.5
8.1
33.1
80.4
6.6
21.6
0.5
5.2
10.2
12.6
6.5
49.3
46.1
44.6
36.3
35.0
38.7
18.1
33.6
32.3
15.3
1.5
22.6
.9
2.4
4.3
.1
1.7
.4
20.5
8.0
22.5
47.0
26.9
.6
MISCELLANEOUS CLOTHING INDUSTRIES.
Of the 12,918 workpeople included in the returns received for
these industries, 2,705 were men, 653 were lads and boys, 7,581 were
women, and 1,979 were girls.
The average earnings of those employees in these industries who
worked full time in the last week of September, 1906, are shown in
the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF EMPLOYEES IN EACH OF THE MISCELLANEOUS
CLOTHING INDUSTRIES IN THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, BY INDUSTRIES.
Average full-time earnings of—
Industry.
Men.
Leather glove..............................................................
Corset (factory)...........................................................
Fur.................................................................-..........
Straw hat and bonnet................................................
Other clothing.............................................................
$7.20
7.04
8.66
8.92
7.36
Lads and Women.
boys.
$1.85
2.51
2.56
2.45
2.76
$2.94
2.96
4.04
4.87
3.14
Girls.
$1.44
1.52
1.74
2.72
1.50
All ememployees.
$4.06
3.02
5.07
5.52
3.28
Under the classification “ other clothing” trades are included re
turns from manufacturers of caps and tweed hats, artificial flowers,
and from hatters* furriers.
DYEING AND CLEANING.
The returns received from establishments in this industry include
6,200 workpeople, of whom 1,762 were men, 487 lads and boys,
2,940 women, and 1,011 girls.
205
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH CLOTHING INDUSTRY.
The average earnings of these employees in the dyeing and clean
ing industry who worked full time in the last week of September,
1906, and the percentage distribution of such employees in the
various wage groups is shown in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF EMPLOYEES IN THE DYEING AND CLEANING
INDUSTRY IN THE LAST W EEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, AND THE PER CENT OF EM
PLOYEES IN THAT INDUSTRY WHOSE EARNINGS W ERE WITHIN EACH SPECIFIED
WAGE GROUP, BY SEX.
Per cent of employees working full time whose earnings
were—
Sex.
Men....................................................
Women. x ..........................................
Lads and ooys.......... .........................
Girls...................................................
Aver
age full
time
earn Under $2.43
and
ings.
$2.43. under
$3.65.
$7.18
3.37
2.58
1.74
0.3
45.9
9L9
0.5
55.3
34.8
7.9
$3.65
and
under
$4.87.
$4.87
and
under
$6.08.
$6.08
and
under
$7.30.
$7.30
and
under
$9.73.
3.4
27.7
17.3
.1
22.5
5.5
2.0
.1
34.9
1.1
28.1
1.1
$9.73
and
over.
10.6
LAUNDRIES.
Returns were received from laundries which covered 33,626
employees, of whom 28,437 were employed in power laundries and
5,189 in hand laundries. Of those employed in power laundries 69
per cent were women, and of these nearly one half were hand ironers.
The average earnings of those women who worked full time in the
last week of September, 1906, and the percentage distribution of
such women workers in wage groups is shown in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF WOMEN IN POWER LAUNDRIES IN THE LAST
W EEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, AND THE PER CENT OF SUCH WOMEN WHOSE EARN
INGS WERE WITHIN EACH SPECIFIED WAGE GROUP, BY OCCUPATIONS.
Occupation.
Per cent of women working full time whose earn
ings were—
Aver
full
Kind of age
time
work.
$3.65
$6.08
$4.87
earn Under $2.43
$7.30
and
and
and
and
ings.
and
$2.43. under under under under over.
$3.65. $4.87. $6.08. $7.30.
Washers.......................................... Time__
Calenderers..................................... Tim e....
Hand ironers:
/Tim e....
S h ir t
\Piece__
/Tim
e....
TTinpry
\Piece__
/Tim
e....
Body linen................................ \Pieee_
_
/Time....
Other........................................ IPiece__
/Time__
M anhinp irnnprs
\Piece__
Receivers, markers, sorters, and Tim e....
packers.
All women.............................
$2.92
2.47
14.3
42.6
69.9
53.1
15.0
4.1
0.8
.1
3.37
3.53
3.28
3.37
2.80
2.92
2.80
3.10
2.94
3.35
3.20
9.7
5.1
9.5
13.6
26.6
25.9
27.7
21.1
22.4
20.1
17.3
50.2
53.2
56.5
51.9
58.1
56.4
57.8
52.7
55.2
41.1
48.2
30.8
34.7
31.1
27.3
14.9
15.6
14.0
22.8
19.9
31.2
27.6
8.3
5.8
2.9
6.4
.4
2.1
.5
3.4
2.4
5.8
6.2
1.0
1.3
.6
.5
.1
3.12
20.5
52.0
21.1
4.7
1.0
.7
0.1
1.1
0.1
.6
.2
.i
206
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
Of those employed in hand laundries, 85 per cent were women
over 18 years of age, and of these, one-half were ironers and nearly
one-third were washerwomen.
The following table shows the average earnings of women in hand
laundries who worked full time in the last week of September, 1906,
and the per cent of such operatives whose earnings were within each
wage group:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF WOMEN IN HAND LAUNDRIES IN THE LAST
W EEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, AND THE PER CENT OF SUCH WOMEN WORKERS WHOSE
EARNINGS W ERE WITHIN EACH SPECIFIED WAGE GROUP, BY OCCUPATIONS.
Per cent of women working full time whose earn
ings were—
Occupation.
Washers.....................................
Ironers.......................................
Receivers, markers, sorters, and
packers.
All women..........................
Average
Kind of full-time
work. earnings.
Time__
iTime__
\Piece__
Time__
Under
$2.43.
$2.43
$3.65
$4.87
$6.08
and un and un and un
der $3.65. der $4.87. der $6.08. and over.
•
$2.92
3.06
3.33
3.31
9.2
10.9
6.9
12.8
78.0
65.9
62.9
51.3
12.8
22.9
27.2
26.2
0.3
4.0
9.7
3.10
12.2
63.8
20.5
2.9
0.6
RECENT REPORTS
OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR
STATISTICS,
LOUISIANA.
Report of the Bureau of Statistics of Labor for the State of Louisiana,
1906-1907. Robert E. Lee, Commissioner. 55 pp.
This is the fourth biennial report of labor statistics for the State.
The subject-matter is treated in 7 chapters, as follows: Labor laws of
1906, 9 pages; child labor, 11 pages; report of the female factoryinspector of New Orleans, 7 pages; statistics of manufactures, 6
pages; strikes and lockouts, 5 pages; extracts from the constitution
of Oklahoma, 6 pages, and immigration statistics, 1 page.
L a b o r L a w s .—Under this caption the laws enacted by the Louisi
ana general assembly during the session of 190S, affecting labor, are
reproduced.
C h i l d L a b o r .—Abstracts of the child-labor laws of the various
States are given under this title.
S t r i k e s a n d L o c k o u t s , 1906 and 1907.—This is a detailed record of
industrial disputes occurring in the State during the period covered
by this report.
MASSACHUSETTS.
Thirty-ninth Annual Report on the Statistics of Labor fo r the Tear 1908.
Charles F. Gettemy, Director, xii, 319 pp.
This report is made up of three parts, as follows: Part I, Strikes
and lockouts for the year 1908, 140 pages; Part II, Labor organiza
tions, 76 pages; Part III, Changes in rates of wages and hours of
labor, 103 pages.
S t r i k e s a n d L o c k o u t s f o r t h e Y e a r 1908.—Of the 102 labor
disputes during the year 1908, 98 were strikes and 4 were lockouts.
The number of strikes shows a decrease of 138 over that of the pre
vious year. The industries in which labor disputes occurred, with
the number of disputes in each, follow: Building and stone working,
31; clothing, 21; food, liquors, and tobacco, 7; leather and rubber
207
208
BULLETIN OE THE BUREAU OE LABOR,
goods, 4; metals, machinery, and shipbuilding, 4; printing and
allied trades, 1; public employment, 1; restaurants and retail trade,
2; textiles, 17; transportation, 6; and miscellaneous, 8. The fol
lowing table shows the number of strikes by causes, the number of
strikers and establishments involved, and the working days lost:
STRIKES, BY CAUSES, STRIKERS AND ESTABLISHMENTS INVOLVED, AND WORKING
DAYS LOST, 1908.
[Strikes due to two or more causes are tabulated under each cause.]
Cause.
For increase of wages...................................................................
For increase of wages combined with other causes.....................
Aga nst decrease of wages............................................................
Against decrease of wages combined with other causes...............
Concerning system of payment of wages.....................................
Other causes connected with wages............................................
For decrease of hours...................................................................
For decrease of hours combined with other causes.....................
Other causes connected with hours.............................................
Against employment of women instead of m en .........................
For reinstatement of discharged employee..................................
For reinstatement of discharged employee combined with other
causes........................................................................................
Against employment of certain officials......................................
Other causes connected with employment of particular classes
of persons........... ........................ ............................................
For change in working conditions...............................................
For change combined with other causes.....................................
Against change in working conditions........................................
Other causes connected with working conditions.......................
For union shop............................................................................
For union shop combined with other causes...............................
For recognition of union..............................................................
For apprentice rules.....................................................................
For apprentice rules combined with other causes.......................
For other union rules...................................................................
For other union rules combined with other causes.....................
In sympathy...............................................................................
Strikes.
Strikers Estab Working
days
involved. lishments
involved.
lost.
34
6
13
1
3
3
3
4
2
1
2
1,758
489
585
115
28
32
226
463
42
18
23
168
8
17
2
3
4
48
4
5
1
2
34,014
4,430
17,432
1,265
259
217
1,734
4,130
11
36
1,093
1
2
8
540
1
2
120
4,920
1
4
1
299
186
115
431
6
401
1,297
63
3
1,129
9
1,111
1,487
1
4
2
299
876
1,265
18,603
36
809
16,106
389
30
15,739
9
15,559
17,954
7
1
7
2
2
1
2
1
1
3
7
1
7
117'
5
1
119
1
116
68
The employees of 11 establishments, 108 in number, were involved
in the 4 lockouts of the year and lost an aggregate of 2,430 working
days. In the following table is shown the duration, the number of
strikers participating, and the establishments affected in the strikes
which succeeded, partly succeeded, and failed:
209
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR— MASSACHUSETTS.
NUMBER OF STRIKERS AND OF ESTABLISHMENTS INVOLVED, BY DURATION AND
RESULT OF STRIKES, 1908.
Strikers in strikes Establishments in
which—
which strikes—
Strikers in strikes Establishments in
which—
which strikes—
Duration.
1 d a y ._____
2 d a y s.____
3 days_____ i
31 d a y s......
4 days.........
3 days.........
6 days.........
7 d a y s ......
8 days_____
9 days.........
10 days......
11 days........
12 days...__
13 days........
14 days........
15 days........
16 days........
17 days........
18 days...__
19 days........
20 days____
21 d ays
Part
Part
Suc ly
Suc ly Fail
ceed suc Fail
ceed
suc
ed. ceed ed.
ed. ceed ed.
ed.
ed.
363
43
130
104
61
9
16
42
123
798
40
153
9
24
263
35
252
5
48
5
67
5
44
34
26
102
5
6
502
13
4
2
2
5
38
96 100
34
115
984
41
173
209 1,106
13
61
5
12
64
13
22 days........
5
4
11
1
2
3
5
5
3
43
33
10
2
1
1
1
3
1
32
7
16
2
1
23
6
10
2
1
2
6
1
3
3
10
1
1
1
2
2
3
2
1
1
1
2
1
114
3
1
1
Duration.
23 days........
24 days__.. .
25 d ays......
27 days........
29 days........
36 days........
38 days........
41 days........
42 days____
43 days........
44 days........
45 days...__
46 days........
48 days........
49 days........
50 days........
51 days........
54 days........
63 days........
77 days........
79 days____
Part
Part
Suc ly
Suc ly
ceed suc Fail-'
ceed suc Fail
ed.
ed. ceed
ed. ceed ed.
ed.
ed.
126
92 .
3
37
6
14:
45 1
12
7
12 •
64
58
155
50
217
67
9
5
78
1
5
20
35
123
217
Total.. 2,420 2,356 3,076
12
1
1
1
1
3
1
4
3
2
1
131
4
1
165
27
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
175
L a b o r O r g a n i z a t i o n s .—Of the 1,256 local unions in the State,
1,172 reported a combined membership in 1908 of 162,373. This
membership was distributed among the various industries as follows:
Building and stone working, 33,172; clothing trades, 32,537; food,
liquor, and tobacco trades, 6,970; leather and rubber goods, 1,068;
metals, machinery, and shipbuilding, 10,351; printing and allied
trades, 4,550; public employment, 5,509; restaurant and retail trade,
6,050; textiles, 14,275; transportation, 35,291; woodworking and
furniture, 2,017; and miscellaneous, 10,583.
Of the 937 unions which reported the classes of benefits paid, sick
benefits were paid by 278, accident benefits by 201, death benefits by
503, out-of-work benefits by 76, and strike benefits by 463.
210
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The following table shows the percentage of unionists idle in each
industry at the end of each quarter of the year 1908:
PER CENT OF MEMBERS OF LABOR UNIONS IDLE AT THE END OF MARCH, JUNE, SEP
TEMBER, AND DECEMBER, 1908, BY INDUSTRIES.
Per cent idle at the end of—
Industry.
March,
1908.
June,
1908.
Building and stone working........................................................
Clothing.......................................................................................
Food, liquors, and tobacco.........................................................
Leather and rubber goods...........................................................
Metals, machinery, and shipbuilding..........................................
Paper and paper goods................................................................
Printing and allied trades...........................................................
Public employment.....................................................................
Restaurants and retail trade.......................................................
Textiles........................................................................................
Transportation............................................................................
Woodworking and furniture.......................................................
Miscellaneous...............................................................................
24.86
8.91
11.00
21.29
16.38
17.76
20.81
7.04
3.94
19.04
8.98
77.68
4.29
43.92
13.28
23.31
11.18
Total..................................................................................
17.90
Septem Decem
ber, 1908. ber, 1908.
10.48
5.70
13.43
13.56
8.90
27.27
13.35
9.16
17.68
9.21
1.48
15.09
87.77
12.57
6.82
5.87
15.52
4.75
9.38
4.42
22.99
7.73
28.75
8.62
17.43
1.37
9.37
12.71
7.59
20.86
5.69
15.23
6.51
14.41
10.62
13.94
C h a n g e s i n E a t e s o f W a g e s a n d H o u r s o f L a b o r .—During
the year 1908 increase in wages was given to 5,947 employees, aver
aging $1.57 per week. Decrease in wages was reported for 95,420
employees at an average of $1.04. During the same period hours
of labor were shortened for 4,428 employees, resulting in an average
reduction of 5.4 hours a week for each employee affected.
Twenty-third Annual Report on the Statistics of Manufactures for the
year 1908. xxxvi, 127 pp.
The statistics presented are computed from the returns of 6,044
establishments, or 373 more than reported for the previous year.
The aggregate value of the goods produced, however, was less than
that of 1907 by $191,622,473, or a decline of 14 per cent.
The following table presents statistics separately for 10 principal
industries, in aggregate for all other industries, and totals for the
State for the year 1908.
STATISTICS OF MANUFACTURES, 1908.
Industry.
Boots and shoes................................
Cotton goods.....................................
Dyeing and finishing textiles............
Electrical machinery, apparatus,
and supplies...................................
Foundry and machine shop products.
Leather, tanned, curried, and fin
ished...............................................
Liquors, malt....................................
Paper and wood pulp.......................
Woolen goods....................................
Worsted goods...................................
Other industries................................
Total........................................
Number
Capital
of estab devoted to
lishments. production.
Value of
stock used.
Value of
goods made.
Total wages
paid.
727
177
39
$41,978,153
156,305,974
17,280,320
$137,811,270
92,951,308
4,313,146
$213,506,562
156,048,533
11,117,585
$42,460,108
40,228,037
3,302,508
62
519
13,199,504
60,525,711
8,569,255
20,791,813
18,065,968
56,208,811
5,884,393
18,699,125
121
38
92
108
55
4,106
26,799,414
18,547,642
28,986,844
22,783,647
53,859,049
271,486,597
29,850,511
4,575,328
18,093,119
18,505,888
44,074,064
289,724,037
41,613,182
13,065,418
32,087,321
31,050,102
71,783,701
528,231,599
4,959,120
1,532,466
5,569,968
6,873,855
11,943,342
103,754,258
6,044
717,987,955
669,259,739 1,172,808,782
245,207,180
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR— MASSACHUSETTS.
211
Data relative to employees, earnings, days in operation, and pro
portion of business done are presented in the table following:
AVERAGE NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES, AVERAGE YEARLY EARNINGS, AVERAGE DAYS
IN OPERATION, AND PROPORTION OF BUSINESS DONE IN 10 PRINCIPAL INDUS
TRIES AND IN ALL INDUSTRIES, 1908.
Average number of
employees.
Industry.
Males.
Females.
Total.
Propor
Average Average
days in
tion of
yearly
business
earnings. opera
tion.
done.
51,444
48,666
5,752
25,481
42,979
1,317
76,925
91,645
7,069
$551.97
438.96
467.18
285.16
271.48
270.04
63.74
75.29
61.08
.............................................
1,907
451
121
Paper and wood pulp................................
Woolen goods.............................................
Worsted goods...........................................
Other industries.........................................
8,631
30,661
9,106
1,740
7,530
9,965
13,825
135,988
3,860
5,126
13,053
62,531
10,538
31,112
9,227
1,740
11,390
15,091
26,878
198,519
558.40
601.03
537.46
880.73
489.02
455.49
444.35
522.64
256.15
283.62
285.17
300.21
253.56
253.92
293.36
275.44
53.11
56.91
56.93
57.13
71.76
53.68
69.36
61.12
Total.................................................
323,308
158,826
480,134
510.71
275.04
61.40
Boots and shoes..........................................
Cotton goods..............................................
Dyeing and finishing textiles.....................
Electrical machinery, apparatus, and sup
plies.........................................................
Foundry and machine shop products........
Leather, tanned, curried, and finished......
L iquors, m a lt.
The table following shows the number of employees (wage-earners)
of each sex earning the indicated weekly wages. The number of
employees given is the number reported in each industry for the week
in which the largest number was employed, and does not, therefore,
agree with the number shown in the table preceding.
NUMBER OF MALE AND FEMALE ADULTS AND OF YOUNG PERSONS EMPLOYED IN
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES, BY CLASSIFIED W EEKLY WAGES, 1908.
Persons 21 years of
age and over.
Classified weekly wages.
Males.
Under $3.............
S3 and under $5..
$5 and under $d..
$6 and under $ 7..
$7 and under $8..
$8 and under $ 9..
$ 9 and underlie.
310 and under $12,
$12 and under $15.
$15 and under $20,
$20 and under $25.
$25 and over........
Total.........
Young
persons
(under
21).
Females.
Total.
1,237
3,812
6,216
13,584
22,469
31,472
41,399
61,632
70,293
69,996
19,638
8,370
1,883
9,062
14,610
23,309
24,414
21,780
18,609
18,426
8,769
3,363
550
ICO
1,707
17,645
17,919
18,057
10,854
6,399
4,196
2,810
1,032
281
21
23
4,827
30,519
38,745
54,950
57,737
59,651
64,204
82,868
80,094
73,640
20,209
8,553
350,118
144,935
80,944
575,997
MINNESOTA.
Eleventh Biennial Report of the Bureau of Labor, Industries and
Commerce of the State of Minnesota, 1907-1908. W. H. Williams,
Commissioner, 257 pp.
The subjects presented in this report are: Factory inspection, 75
pages; child labor, 3 pages; state free employment bureaus, 19
pages; labor organizations, 72 pages; railroad switch yards, 15
pages; mining, 48 pages; labor laws, 4 pages.
212
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
C h i l d L a b o r ,— During the year 1907 there were 1,083 permits
issued by school superintendents to children under 16 years of age,
and in the spring period of 1908, 744 such permits were issued. In
1907 the factory inspectors found 649 and in 1908 but 581 children
employed in the manufacturing plants of the State.
F r e e E m p l o y m e n t O f f i c e s . —A summary of the operations of
the free employment office located at Minneapolis for the two years
ending July 31, 1908, of the office at St. Paul from May 15, 1907,
to July 31, 1908, and of the office at Duluth from June 1, 1907, to
July 31, 1908, is shown in the following table:
OPERATIONS OF FREE PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT OFFICES.
Situations wanted.
Help wanted.
Positions secured.
City.
Males.
Females.
Males.
Females.
Males.
Females.
Minneapolis.............. ......... ....... ...............
St. Paul......................................................
Duluth.......................................................
12, m
3,145
7,355
11,441
1,785
1,404
12,493
3,172
7,347
12,971
2,723
1,843
11,840
3,115
7,339
11,259
1,564
1,397
Total.................................................
23,131
14,630
23,012
17,537
22,294
14,220
The total of 36,524 positions were secured, a t an average cost to
the State of $0.40 each.
L a b o r O r g a n i z a t i o n s . —Statistics of labor organizations in the
State for the years 1907 and 1908 are presented in this section.
Tables show by localities names of organizations, with date of
organization, membership, number of members employed, and
monthly dues; character and amount of benefit features; actual
amount of benefits paid in 1907; and hours of labor per day and
per week, union scale of wages of male and female members, increase
in wages and decrease in hours of labor since 1906. The State as a
whole showed an increase in number of organizations and in mem
bership, there being, in 1908, 354 unions reporting a membership of
34,757, as compared with 339 unions in 1906 with a membership
of 27,978.
R a i l r o a d S w i t c h Y a r d s .—Reports of the inspection of the
81,357 foot blocks inspected by representatives of the bureau of
labor in the fall of 1907 show that 77.7 per cent were in good con
dition, 19.6 were in bad condition, and 2.7 per cent were missing.
Of the 117,265 foot blocks inspected in the spring of 1908, 65.3 per
cent were found to be in good condition, 30.3 per cent in bad condi
tion, and 4i4 per cent to be missing.
M i n i n g .—In this section are presented statistics of the iron-ore
mining industry of the State. A condensed summary of the opera
tions of the mines for the two years ending June 30, 1908, is pre
sented in the following table.
213
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---MINNESOTA.
IRON MINE STATISTICS, 1907 AND 1908.
Year.
Items.
1907.
Number of mines in operation................................................................................
91
Average number of employees................................................................................
15,535
Average daily wages, underground........................................................................
$2.46
Average daily wages, surface and skilled laborer...................................................
$2.73
Tons of ore shipped................................................................................................ 26,543,675
Fatal accidents.......................................................................................................
81
N onfatal accidents..................................................................................................
66
1908.
93
13,313
$2.48
$2.67
21,413,247
54
54
L a b o r L a w s .—The text of the laws of several States relating *to
the hours of labor and the ventilation and cleanliness of workshops
is here given.
NEW YORK.
Seventh Annual Report of the Department of Labor, fo r the twelve
months ended September 80, 1907. Transmitted to the legislature
January 1, 1908. John Williams, Commissioner. P art I, 272 pp.;
Part II, 282 pp.; P art III, 603 pp.; P art IV, xcvi, 934 pp.
Part I consists of the annual report of the commissioner of labor
relative to the operation of the department of labor, preliminary
reports of the bureau of factory inspection and the bureau of media
tion and arbitration, and the labor laws in force in the State October 1,
1907; P art II, Twenty-second annual report of the bureau of fac
tory inspection; Part III, Twenty-first annual report of the bureau
of mediation and arbitration; P art IV, Twenty-fifth annual report
of the bureau of labor statistics.
Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for the
year ended September 80,1907.
This part embraces the following subjects; Economic condition of
labor, 42 pages; trade unions in 1907,14 pages; trade union initiation
fees and dues, 32 pages; appendixes containing statistical tables, 918
pages; copies of forms used, 8 pages.
T h e S t a t e o f E m p l o y m e n t .—This chapter presents a continu
ous record, showing the number and percentage of members of labor
unions unemployed in 1907, causes of and duration of idleness as
reported by the officers of ynions representing approximately onefourth the membership of trade unions in the State, and comparative
statistics for the preceding year. The smallest number of unions
reporting for any month in 1907 was 191 and the largest number was
194, while the workpeople embraced by these monthly reports varied
from 92,797 to 100,965. From the returns it appears that the state
of employment was less favorable in 1907 than in either 1905 or 1906,
the percentage of unemployment for those reporting for the three
years being as follows: 1905, 11.2; 1906, 9.3, and 1907. 16.2.
214
BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR,
The following table shows the number and percentage of unionists
idle at the end of March and September, 1906 and 1907, by causes:
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF MEMBERS OF LABOR UNIONS IDLE AT THE END OF
MARCH AND SEPTEMBER, 1906 AND 1907, BY CAUSES.
End of March,
1906.
End of Septem
ber, 1906.
End of March,
1907.
End of Septem
ber, 1907.
Cause.
Number
idle.
Per
cent.
Number
idle.
Per
cent.
Number
idle.
Per
cent.
Number
idle.
Lack of work.........................
Lack of material....................
The weather..........................
Labor disputes.......................
Disability...............................
Other causes..........................
Reason not stated..................
16,719
1,397
10,682
4,787
3,005
552
95
44.9
3.7
28.7
12.9
8.1
1.5
.2
11,645
753
666
3,919
3,127
1,216
247
54.0
3.5
3.1
18.2
14.5
5.6
1.1
52,031
1,819
15,472
3,970
3,563
315
100
67.3
2.4
20.0
5.2
4.6
.4
.1
29,301
1,752
569
6,916
3,442
343
233
68.9
4.1
1.3
16.3
8.1
.8
.5
Total............................
37,237
100.0
21,573
100.0
77,270
100.0
42,556
100.0
Per
cent.
W a g e s a n d E a r n i n g s .—Returns received from trade unions for
the year 1907 show that an average weekly increase of $2.49 in wages
was obtained by 72,125 males, and that 1,435 females obtained an
average weekly increase of $12.11, while 2,685 males suffered an aver
age weekly decrease of $1.26 in wages. The large increase in average
wages was due to the advance of $17 per week obtained by one large
actors’ union. Omitting this change the average weekly increase in
1907 would be $1.48.
The following table shows the average earnings for the first and
third quarters and for six months, as reported by trade unions in
1907:
NUMBER AND AVERAGE EARNINGS OF ORGANIZED WORKING PEOPLE REPORTING
FOR THE FIRST AND THIRD QUARTERS OF 1907, BY SEX AND GROUPS OF INDUS
TRIES,
Males.
Industry group.
Number report
ing.
First Third
quar quar
ter.
ter.
Building, stone work
ing, etc.................... 143,680 146,262
Transportation........... 65,199 69,625
Clothing and textiles.. 32,250 38,076
Metals, machinery,
and shipbuilding___ 38,637 37,715
Printing, oinding, etc. 24,443 24,523
Woodworking a n d
furniture.................. 12,133 11,371
Food and liquors........ 13,771 14,346
Theaters ana music. . . 8,994 11,718
Tobacco...................... 9,032
9,262
Restaurants and retail
trade........................ 7,685
8,229
Public employment. . . 9,250 10,554
Stationary enginemen. 13,886 13,904
Miscellaneous............. 13,037 13,128
Total................. 391,997 408,713
Females.
Average earnings.
First
quar
ter.
Number re
porting.
Average earnings.
Third
First Third First
Six
quar months.
quar quar quar
ter.
ter.
ter.
ter.
$197.57 $245.02 $442.59
224.12 221.87 445.99
154.21 168.54 322.75
Third
Six
quar months.
ter.
178
6,311
497 $149.40
6,842
89.65
$99.45
99.22
$248 85
188.87
249
1,470
39.97
108.04
118.39
110.63
158 36
218.67
93.74
189.28
221.93
239.94
223.70
241.13
445.63
481.07
404
1,353
187.35
187.91
310.63
151.67
200.91
198.08
464.40
158.14
388.26
385.99
775.03
309.81
56
45
95.54
680
2,552
1,222
2,604
420.29
150.52
592.09 1,012 38
149.92
300.44
186.21
205.50
257.46
194.21
191.06
233.29
260.31
168.07
377.27
438.79
517.77
362.28
226
65
200
62
70.62
138.79
79.08
146.60
384
210
94.71
78.23
172.94
204.92
228.57
431.49 12,209 13,401
124.99
156.27
281.26
149.70
285.39
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR— NEW YORK.
215
C o u r s e o f W a g e s a n d E a r n i n g s .—Under this title tables are pre
sented in which, by means of index numbers based upon the earnings
in the years 1899 to 1901, the course of per diem and half-yearly earn
ings are shown for the 10-year period, 1897 to 1907, for 46 trades. A
comparison of the simple averages of these index numbers for the
various years indicates an increase of 22.9 per cent in per diem and
of 31.2 per cent in half-yearly earnings in the 10-year period. The
excess of the latter figure was due to the increased volume of employ
ment during the period.
T h e C o s t o f L i v i n g .—As the result of investigations conducted in
the five principal cities of the State it was found that in the 10-year
period, 1897 to 1907, the cost of rents had increased 24 percent; fuel,
15 per cent; clothing, 20 per cent; and furniture and utensils, 19 per
cent, while the cost of lighting had decreased 16 per cent. These fig
ures, when combined with those of the United States Bureau of Labor
representing the retail price of food (a), show an increased cost of liv
ing for the 10-year period of 22 per cent.
H o u r s o f L a b o r .—Of over 1,000,000 operatives employed in fac
tories visited during the year, 56.2 per cent were working less than 58
hours per week. In 1901 the percentage of such employees working
less than 58 hours per week was 38. Returns from workingmen’s
associations show that during the year 1907 11,886 working people
had their hours of labor reduced. The number of persons so benefited
in 1907 was less than in 1906, but greater than in either 1904 or 1905.
The hours of 702 working people were increased in 1907.
The following table shows, by industries, the reductions in hours of
labor per week and the number of organized workers affected:
REDUCTIONS IN W EEKLY HOURS OF LABOR OF MEMBERS OF LABOR ORGANIZA
TIONS AND MEMBERS AFFECTED, AS REPORTED BY LABOR UNIONS FOR THE YEAR
ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1907.
Members
affected.
Industry.
Total
hours.
Average
hours per
week.
Members
obtaining
the eighthour day.
Building, stone working, etc.............................................
Transportation...................................................................
Clothing and textiles..........................................................
Metals, machinery, and shipbuilding................................
Printing, binding, etc........................................................
Woodworking and furniture..............................................
Food and liquors................................................................
Restaurants and retail trade...................................;.........
Stationary enginemen........................................................
Miscellaneous.....................................................................
4,101
2,556
1,258
956
356
449
368
66
104
1,672
20,082
30,546
3,547
4,309
456
543
1,645
258
2,709
17,614
4.9
12.0
2.8
4.5
1.3
1.2
4.5
3.9
26.0
10.5
1,855
35
Total.........................................................................
11,886
81,709
6.9
3,134
100
18
126
101
899
T r a d e U n i o n s .—On September 30, 1907, there were in the State
2,497 organizations, having a membership of 436,792. This is an
increase for the year of 77 unions and 38,298 members.
a B ulletin No. 77, p. 185.
216
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR*
The following table shows the number of unions and the number of
members, by sex, in each year from 1898 to 1907:
NUMBER OF TRADE UNIONS AND MEMBERSHIP, BY SEX, 1898 TO 1907.
Membership.
Number
of unions.
1,087
1,320
1,635
1,871
2,229
2,583
2,504
2,402
2,420
2,497
September 30, 1898
September 30, 1899
September 30,1900
September 30,1901
September 30,1902
September 30,1903
September 30,1904
September 30,1905
September 30,1906
September 30,1907
Males.
163,562
200,932
233,553
261,523
313,592
380,845
378,859
370,971
386,869
422.561
Females.
7,505
8,088
11,828
14,618
15,509
14,753
12,817
12,265
11,625
14,231
Total.
171,067
209,020
245,381
276,141
329,101
395,598
391,676
383,236
398,494
436,792
Of the 2,497 unions, with a total membership of 436,792 on Sep
tember 30, 1907, 712 unions, haying a membership of 286,180, were
located in New York City. There were 17 unions with a membership
of 3,519 composed entirely of women, and in the unions composed
of both males and females there were 10,712 female unionists, mak
ing a total of 14,231 female members of trade unions, of whom 7,495
were in the clothing and textile industries, 2,608 were in the tobacco
industries, and 1,475 in the printing and binding industries.
The following table gives the membership of trade unions, by in
dustries, on September 30, for the years 1898 to 1907:
MEMBERSHIP OF TRADE UNIONS, BY INDUSTRIES, 1898 TO 1907.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
Building, stone working, etc.............
Clothing and textiles.........................
Metals, machinery, and shipbuilding.
Transportation..................................
Printing, binding, etc.......................
Tobacco.............................................
Food and liquors...............................
Theaters and music...........................
Woodworking and furniture..............
Restaurants and retail trade.............
Public employment..........................
Stationary enginemen.......................
Miscellaneous.....................................
59,676
26,444
11,621
19,065
15,090
8,889
6,469
9,346
4,468
2,419
1,880
3,738
1,962
70,031
29,644
17,779
25,981
16,051
8,886
7,935
9,518
6,571
3,551
3,797
5,204
4,072
79,705
28,783
24,153
32,979
17,145
12,349
8,987
9,698
8,037
5,156
7,148
5,666
5,575
84,732
41,843
25,616
37,923
18,061
10,210
8,729
11,688
8,113
6,394
8,142
7,566
7,124
90,817
46,954
38,201
42,824
21,170
11,049
12,528
11,588
12,247
8,810
9,160
8,111
15,642
Total........................................
171,067
209,020
245,381
276,141
329,101
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
Building, stone working, etc.............
Clothing and textiles.........................
Metals, machinery, and shipbuilding.
Transportation..................................
Printing, binding, etc.......................
Tobacco.............................................
Food and liquors...............................
Theaters and music...........................
Woodworking and furniture..............
Restaurants and retail trade.............
Public employment..........................
Stationary enginemen.......................
Miscellaneous.....................................
110,173
40,981
48,230
63,791
23,915
12,435
15,757
11,674
16,916
12,389
9,753
11,166
18,418
119,597
36,090
36,971
72,257
25,348
12,354
15,394
13,614
12,771
12,764
9,538
12,702
12,276
133,698
34,406
34,163
62,871
26,192
12,115
13,603
13,224
11,179
10,307
9,346
12,037
10,095
147,393
35,259
35,936
61,540
26,740
11,888
13,513
13,439
12,577
7,903
9,419
12,650
10,237
150,082
47,438
38,074
72,771
26,148
11,888
14,357
16,236
12,160
8,536
10,711
14,574
13,817
Total........................................
395,598
391,676
383,236
398,494
436,792
Industry.
Industry.
1902.
1907.
217
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR— NEW YORK.
The number and membership of trade unions in New York City
and for the State, exclusive of New York City, for each year ending
September 30, 1898 to 1907, are shown in the following table:
NUMBER AND MEMBERSHIP OF TRADE UNIONS IN NEW YORK CITY AND OTHER
LOCALITIES IN THE STATE, YEARS ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1898 TO 1907.
Number of unions in—
Year ending September 30—
i m .............................................................
1899.............................................................
1900.............................................................
1901.............................................................
1902.............................................................
1903.............................................................
1904.............................................................
1905........................ ,...................................
1906.............................................................
1907.............................................................
New
York
City.
440
477
502
515
579
653
670
667
678
712
Other
locali
ties.
647
843
1,133
1,356
1,650
1,930
1,834
1,735
1,742
1,785
The
State.
1,087
1,320
1,635
1,871
2,229
2,583
2,504
2,402
2,420
2,497
Membership of unions in—
New
York
City.
Other
locali
ties.
125,429
141,687
154,504
174,022
198,055
244,212
254,719
251,277
260,008
286,180
45,638
67,333
90,877
102,119
131,046
151,386
136,957
131,959
138,486
150,612
The
State.
171,067
209,020
245,381
276,141
329,101
395,598
391,676
383,236
398,494
436,792
U n i o n F e e s a n d D u e s .—During 1906 there were 74,778 new
members initiated by 2,223 unions. The fees paid for admission
amounted to $675,106, or an average of $9.03. The following table
shows the number and per cent of unions charging initiation fees
which fell within the specified classes:
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF LABOR UNIONS CHARGING INITIATION FEES OF EACH
CLASSIFIED AMOUNT.
Unions.
Classified initiation fees.
Number. Per cent.
Less than 81..................................................................................................................
$1 and under $2.............................................................................................................
$2 and under $5.............................................................................................................
$5 and under §10...........................................................................................................
$10 and under $15..........................................................................................................
$15 and under $20..........................................................................................................
$20 and under $25..........................................................................................................
$25 and under $30..........................................................................................................
$30 and under $40..........................................................................................................
$40 and under $50.......................... -.............................................................................
$50 and under $200........................................................................................................
81
247
456
631
389
115
107
240
22
12
53
3.4
10.5
19.4
26.8
16.5
4.9
4.6
10.2
.9
.5
2.3
Total....................................................................................................................
2,353
,100.0
218
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The average monthly dues paid by the 403,032 members of the
2,329 unions reporting, was 65 cents. The number and per cent of
members whose monthly dues were within each of the specified
classes is shown in the following table:
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF UNION MEMBERS PAYING DUES OF EACH CLASSIFIED
AMOUNT.
Unions.
Classified average monthly dues.
Number. Per cent.
Less than $0.20..............................................................................................................
$0.20 and under $0.40.....................................................................................................
$0.40 and under $0.65.....................................................................................................
$0.65 and under $0.90.....................................................................................................
$0.90 and under $1.15.....................................................................................................
$1.15 and under $1.40.....................................................................................................
$1.40 and under $1.65.....................................................................................................
$1.65 and over................................................................................................................
14,100
50,347
173,657
84,865
41,750
26,386
2,472
9,455
3.5
12.5
43.1
21.1
10.4
6.5
.6
2.3
Total....................................................................................................................
403,032
100.0
NORTH CAROLINA.
Twenty-second Annual Report of the Bureau of Labor and Printing of
the State of North Carolina fo r the year 1908. H. B. Varner, Com
missioner. 302 pp.
This report consists of seven chapters, as follows: Condition of
farmers, 64 pages; Condition of the trades, 18 pages; Miscellaneous
factories, 75 pages; Cotton, woolen, and knitting mills, 62 pages;
Furniture factories, 17 pages; Newspapers of the State, 41 pages;
Railroad employees, 6 pages.
C o n d i t i o n o f F a r m e r s .—The report on this subject is compiled
from returns made by representative farmers residing in different sec
tions of the State. The data is presented, by counties, in five tables,
which show condition of land and labor, wages, etc., cost of produc
tion of principal crops, market price of crops, and profit on produc
tion. In 75 counties labor was reported scarce, and in 23 it was
reported plentiful; 94 counties reported that Negro labor was unreli
able, 3 that it was reliable, and 1 that there was no Negro labor; 39
counties favored immigration, 59 opposed it; cost of living was
reported as having increased in 90 counties, and in 8 as not having
increased. The highest and lowest monthly wages paid for farm
laborers in each county were reported, and for men the average of
the highest wages so reported was $22.61, and of the lowest $13.40;
for women like averages were $13.72 and $8.77, and the average
wages of children were $8.53. For all classes of farm labor an
increase of wages was reported from 20 counties, a decrease from 39,
and 41 reported no change.
C o n d i t i o n o f t h e T r a d e s .—The data from which the tables pre
sented under this title were compiled were secured from representa
tive men engaged in the various trades considered. These reports
from the wage-earners of the State show daily wages and wage
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---NORTH CAROLINA.
219
changes, working conditions and hours of labor, conditions of appren
ticeship, etc. Of the wage-earners making returns, 51 per cent
reported an increase in wages, 12 per cent a decrease, and 37 per
cent no change; 38 per cent made full time, 51 per cent part time,
and 11 per cent did not report on this subject; 64 per cent reported
cost of living increased, 2 per cent decreased, 12 per cent no change,
and 2 per cent made no report on this question; 40 per cent favored
a 10-hour day, 32 per cent an 8-hour day, 26 per cent a 9-hour day,
and 2 per cent a 12-hour day. The average wages paid per day in
the different trades were: Blacksmiths $1.87, brick masons $3.50,
carpenters $1.80, machinists $2.75, painters $2.06, printers $2.25,
textile workers $1.25, and wheelwrights $2.13.
M i s c e l l a n e o u s F a c t o r i e s .—Under this classification the num
ber of factories reporting was 555, of which 500 reported an invested
capital of $42,410,430; 549 reported the number of employees as
30,053, and 551 reported the number of persons dependent on them
for a livelihood as 92,220. An 8-hour day was reported by 4 factories,
a 9-hour day by 15, a 9i-hour day by 3, a 10-hour day by 408, a 10£hour day by 6, a 11-hour day by 42, a 12-hour day by 72, and a day
ranging from 10 to 12 hours in length by 4. An increase in wages
was reported by 22 per cent of the factories, no change by 76 per
cent, while 2 per cent made no report. Of the adult employees, 85
per cent were able to read and write, and of the children 89 per cent.
The highest daily wages paid was $2.40 and the lowest $0.96. In
69 per cent of the factories wages are paid weekly, in 10 per cent
monthly, in 19 per cent semimonthly, in 1 per cent daily, and in 1
per cent by the piece. The tables presented show for each establish
ment the product manufactured, capital stock, horsepower, days in
operation, hours of labor, number of employees, and number of per
sons dependent on factory, highest and lowest wages, etc.
C o t t o n , W o o l e n , a n d K n i t t i n g M i l l s .—The number of mills
covered by this presentation is 352, with an aggregate invested capital
of $49,192,300. The number of spindles in operation was 3,110,099,
of looms 54,812, of knitting machines 6,232, together requiring 133,851
horsepower.
The number of employees reported by 300 mills (297 cotton and
woolen and 3 silk) was 28,082 adult males, 20,644 adult females, and
5,536 children—a total of 54,262. The number of persons dependent
upon the mills was 146,400. Of the adult employees 85 per cent,
and of the children 80 per cent, were able to read and write. The
average of the highest daily wages (based on the highest wages paid
to any employee by each establishment) was $2.50, lowest $0.79,
for men; for women the average highest wages were $1.30, lowest
$0.66, and for children the average wages were about $0.57. An
increase of wages was reported by 21 per cent of the establishments,
78 per cent reported no change, and 1 per cent made no report.
38697—No. 86—10----15
220
BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR.
The number of employees reported by the 52 knitting mills were
1,497 adult males, 2,903 adult females, and 752 children—a total of
5,152. The number of persons dependent upon the mills was 13,466.
Of the adult employees 96 per cent, and of the children 93 per cent,
were able to read and write. The average hours constituting a day’s
work was 10. For men the average of the highest daily wages was
$2.11, the lowest $0.74; for women the average of the highest daily
wages was $1.42, the lowest $0.56, while for children the average
daily wages was $0.55. An increase of wages was reported by 25
per cent of the establishments, 73 per cent reported no change, and
2 per cent made no report.
Relative to the employment of children under 12 years of age in
the factories, 90 per cent of the employers were opposed to it, while
4 per cent favored it and 6 per cent expressed no opinion; 83 per cent
of the knitting-mill employers were opposed to it, while 6 per cent
favored it and 11 per cent expressed no opinion.
F u r n i t u r e F a c t o r i e s .—There were 94 furniture factories which
reported capital stock, power, class of goods manufactured, wages,
hours of labor, days in operation, number of employees, persons
dependent on factory, etc. The 94 factories had an aggregate
capital of $3,236,357, used 10,100 horsepower, and employed 5,701
wage-earners. The average of the highest daily wages paid adults
was $2.32, the lowest $0.90; the average daily wages paid children
was $0.54. Of both the adult employees and of the children 88 per
cent could read and write. An increase of wages was reported by 7
per cent of the factories, a decrease by 33 per cent, and 60 per cent
reported no change.
Relative to the employment of children under 14 years of age, 85
per cent of the employers were opposed to it, while 8 per cent favored
it and 7 per cent expressed no opinion.
R a i l r o a d E m p l o y e e s .—In this chapter statistics are presented
showing by occupations, for each railroad reporting, the number of
employees and average wages paid. The following table shows the
number and average daily wages of persons employed on the steam
railroads of the State:
NUMBER AND AVERAGE DAILY WAGES OF RAILROAD EMPLOYEES, BY OCCUPA
TIONS, 1908.
Occupation.
Station agents..........................
Other station men...................
Engineers.................................
Firemen...................................
Conductors...............................
Other trainmen......................
Machinists................................
Carpenters................................
Number Average
of em
daily
ployees. wages.
710
1,650
727
829
509
1,455
402
774
$1.57
1.04
3.43
1.68
2.76
1.41
2.81
1.95
Occupation.
Other shopmen.......................
Section foremen......................
Other trackmen.....................
Switchmen, flagmen, and
watchmen...........................
Telegraph operators...............
Other employees....................
Number Average
of em
daily
ployees.
wages.
1,503
606
3,843
$1.47
1.57
526
461
2,264
1.18
2.07
1.31
1.02
REPORTS OF STATE BUREATJS OF LABOR— VIRGINIA,
221
VIRGINIA.
Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Labor and Industrial Sta
tistics for the State of Virginia. 1908. James B. Doherty, Com
missioner. 276 pp.
The subjects presented in this report are industrial statistics, 224
pages; labor laws, 4 pages; factory inspection, 7 pages; decisions of
courts, 40 pages.
I n d u s t r i a l S t a t i s t i c s .—A series of tables is given for 41 indus
tries, showing for each industry for 1907 the number of establish
ments reporting for the year, the value of product, capital invested,
amount paid for wages, rent, taxes, and insurance, number of wageearners by sex and occupation with average daily pay, number and
average monthly pay of persons employed on salary, number of hours
of work per day and days in operation for each establishment, wage
changes, and also totals and averages for each industry. For each
industry comparisons with 1906 are presented. Statistics are also
given of the operations of 8 gas works and 19 waterworks plants, of
average daily wages of employees of 43 steam and 25 electric rail
ways, and of accidents on steam and electric roads.
The following table shows for 1906 and 1907, for each of the indus
tries in the State which reported an output in 1907 exceeding
$1,000,000, the number of establishments reporting, capital invested,
value of product, and aggregate wages paid:
CAPITAL INVESTED, VALUE OF PRODUCT, AND WAGES PAID IN 22 INDUSTRIES, 1906
AND 1907.
Estab
lishments.
Capital invested.
1906. 1907.
1906.
Value of product.
Wages paid.
Industry.
6
Boots and shoes..................
Breweries...........................
7
Brick and tile..................... 63
Carriages, wagons, and
buggies............................ 35
Cigars, cigarettes, and che
roots................................ 46
Cotton mills........................
9
Flour and grist m ills.......... 197
Iron and machine works__ 53
Knitting m ills.................... 11
Lime and cement............... 15
Overalls and shirts............. 15
Paper and pulp mills..........
9
Paper and tin boxes...........
6
Printing, engraving, and
bookbinding.................... 80
Sash, doors, and blinds....... 24
Sawmills............................. 357
Silk mills............................
4
Staves, heads, and cooper
age................................... 52
Tanneries........................... 22
Tobacco factories................ 32
Trunks and bags................
7
Woodenware, b a s k e t s ,
boxes, and shooks........... 24
5
7
50
1907.
1906.
1907.
$417,000 $ 1, 212,000 $1,899,574 $2,904,700
2,667,344 2,905,845 1,522,183 1,749,848
1,170,347 1,402,414 1,164,732
1906.
1907.
$302,976
196,072
<•)
310,652
$553,810
206,814
516,574
1,206,935 1,459,729 7,445,337
8,211,329 7,227,929 5,852,039
3,043,826 3,042,483 9,201,414
12,129,844 16,636,757 16,869,086
296,233
315,623 2,050,275
1,249,223 1,316,000 1,380,500
347,341
442,709 1,322,517
3,174,256 3,545,000 3,356,595
178,500
178,500
837,716
8,641,417 1,265,645
6,443,061 1,091,587
11,648,764 304,829
18,634,098 5,492,905
2,403,808
432,024
1,117,010
386,581
221,407
1,522,488
3,078,195
448,040
1,050,093
248,856
1,392,530
1,331,625
273,359
5,998,962
478,955
378,928
279,373
436,054
293,364
1,294,347
880,970
(®)
750,923
1,206,441 2,102,821
1,009,005 1,923,568
10,815,839
(®)
706,599 1,913,000
2,467,346
595,288
1,787,480
326,578
7,805,095 3,202,763
2,049,186
182,919
674,775
354,043
2,638,331
185,513
6
850,374
2,451,160
2,561,011
1,089,220
276,611
557,967 1,088,419 1,084,568
2,415,180 6,398,064 6,392,000
443,450
2,277,753 10,133,237 10,125,327 1,059,368
889,854 2,179,226 2,644,420
475,150
331,015
447,246
1,010,562
542,348
31
1,845,476
2,187,476
1,111,297
33
46
10
176
55
10
15
16
9
6
74
20
293
3
51
22
26
992,339
1,044,989
a Not reported.
1,565,260
4,200,108
1,417,290
5,028,144
807,844
293,651
222
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
In 1907 there were 214 general contracting firms in the building
trades which reported the value of work constructed during the year
as amounting to $7,092,815, and 104 firms of plumbers, gas fitters,
and tinners which reported the value of work done during the year
as amounting to $1,542,094.
The statistics for the 8 gas works show ownership (private or mu
nicipal), capacity, private and municipal consumption, price of gas
to consumers, etc., and number and daily wages of employees. The
statistics for the 19 waterworks plants show ownership (private or
municipal), cost of plant, daily capacity of pumps, number and
capacity of reservoirs, consumption, pressure, price to consumers,
source of supply, and number and wages of employees.
The reports on steam and electric railways operating in the State
show for 1907 the average daily wages paid by each road in each
occupation and the average daily wages paid by all roads. The fol
lowing is a summary of the data presented:
AVERAGE DAILY WAGES OF STEAM AND OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY EMPLOYEES, 1907,
AND INCREASE IN WAGES OVER 1906.
Steam railroad employees.
General office clerks.................
Station agents.........................
Other station men...................
Engineers................................
Firemen...................................
Conductors..............................
Other trainmen......................
Machinists................................
Carpenters................................
Other shopmen........................
Section foremen.......................
Other trackmen.......................
S w itc h m e n , flagmen, and
watchmen............................
Telegraph operators and dis
patchers................................
Employees, floating equip
m ent.....................................
Other employees.....................
Average
daily
wages.
Increase
over
1906.
$2.21
1.79
1. 42
4,61
2.43
3.47
1.94
2.83
2.17
1.79
1.76
1.28
$0.21
.07
.06
1.58
.04
.2 2
.13
.31
.16
.1 1
.05
.05
.04
.1 0
2.10
.1 0
1.45
1.63
a. 01
.17
Electric railway employees.
General office clerks...............
Conductors.............................
Drivers...................................
Motormen...............................
Starters...................................
Watchmen.............................
Switchmen.............................
Roadm en..............................
Hostlers..................................
Linemen.................................
Engineers...............................
Firemen..................................
Electricians............................
Machinists and mechanics......
Other employees....................
Average
daily
wages.
$1.73
1.80
1.35
1.81
2.19
1.54
1.42
1. 44
1.57
1.81
2.22
1.44
2.32
1.99
1.42
Increase
over
1906.
$0.19
.14
.1 0
.18
.24
.2 0
.2 0
.09
.31
a. 19
.07
(b)
.19
.05
.13
b No change.
On the steam railroads in Virginia during 1907 there resulted from
the movement of trains the accidental killing of 75 employees, 7 pas
sengers, and 174 others, and the injury of 930 employees, 106 pas
sengers, and 234 others; from causes other than the movement of
trains there resulted the accidental killing of 3 employees, and the
injury of 882 employees, 3 passengers, and 1 other person. On the
electric railways during 1907 there were accidentally injured 160
passengers, 25 employees, and 79 other persons; and 8 passengers,
5 employees, and 8 others were killed.
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR— WASHINGTON.
223
WASHINGTON.
Sixth Biennial Report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics and Factory
Inspection, 1907-8. Charles F. Hubbard, Commissioner. 339 pp.
Following a general review of labor conditions in the State and
the operations of the bureau, the subjects presented in detail are:
Recommendations to the legislature, 14 pages; violations of labor
law, 40 pages; accidents to labor, 10 pages; strikes and lockouts, 6
pages; steamboat inspection, 18 pages; cost of living, 10 pages;
organized labor, 36 pages; arbitration of labor disputes, 14 pages;
statistics of wage-earners, 38 pages; free employment offices, 10 pages;
statistics of manufactures, 68 pages; supreme court decision, etc.,
14 pages; labor laws, 54 pages.
V i o l a t i o n s o f L a b o r L a w s .—Accounts are given of the infractions
of the eight-hour law for labor on public works, the ten-hour law
relating to the employment of females, the child labor law, the bakeshop inspection law, the law prohibiting the payment of wages by
time checks, etc., together with the action taken by the state labor
commissioner on the same.
A c c i d e n t s t o L a b o r .—Reports pertaining to accidents to labor
were received from 47 large manufacturing establishments covering
the two years ending August 1, 1908. During the first year reported^
in which the 47 establishments employed a total of 13,268 men,
there occurred 4 fatal, 29 serious, and 659 slight accidents; during
the second year reported, in which the 47 establishments employed
a total of 11,477 men, there occurred 2 fatal, 41 serious, and 628
slight accidents.
S t r i k e s a n d L o c k o u t s .—Accounts are given of 14 strikes, 1 lock
out, and 1 boycott that occurred in the State during the years 1907
and 1908.
C o s t o f L i v i n g .—Under this caption tables are presented showing
the variation in wholesale prices of 67 articles through a period begin
ning with the year 1900 and ending with the year 1908. The per
cent of increase or decrease in the price of each article is shown for
each succeeding year and the net variations for the entire period.
An examination of the tables reveals a marked tendency toward
increase in price of a number of staple articles, although considering
the list of commodities as a whole the advance during the period
has not been extraordinarily large. Of the 67 articles dealt with, 38
showed an increase averaging 26 per cent in 1908 over 1900, while in
the same period 13 articles showed a decrease averaging 9 per cent.
The remaining articles did not vary to any appreciable extent.
O r g a n i z e d L a b o r .—Returns from 9 1 unions gives statistics rela
tive to date of organization, membership; initiation fees and monthly
dues; strike, sick, accident, and funeral benefits; wages and hours
of labor; rules governing apprenticeship; members idle, etc.
224
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
W a g e - E a r n e r s .—This chapter is devoted to detailed statistics of
wage-earners in the employ of mercantile houses, 8 steam railroads,
9 electric railways, and 2 telegraphic companies. The data give num
ber of employees in each occupation, wages per day or per month,
hours of labor per day, and days of labor per month.
F r e e E m p l o y m e n t O f f i c e s .—During the year 1907 there were
31,074 positions (28,769 for males and 2,305 for females) furnished
by the public employment office of Seattle; for the twenty months
ending August 31, 1908, there were 11,297 positions (10,355 for males
and 942 for females) furnished by the public employment office of
Tacoma, and 6,223 positions (5,766 for males and 457 for females) by
the public employment office of Spokane, and for the months of July
and August, 1908, 156 positions (137 for males and 19 for females)
were furnished by the public employment office of Everett.
S t a t i s t ic s o f M a n u f a c t u r e s .—Statistics are presented by coun
ties, showing for each of 1,466 establishments, city or town in which
located, kind of commodity manufactured, daily capacity and output,
number of employees by sex, hours of labor per day, days per month,
and months per year plant was operated, average wages paid males
and females, and kind of power used. A summary of the data shows
that the establishments employed 43,202 working people (40,506
males and 2,696 females), that the daily hours of labor averaged 10
for males and 9 for females, and that the daily wages of males aver
aged $3.24 for skilled and $2.31 for unskilled labor, and of females
$1.42. Further, a list of 198 new industrial plants established since
January 1, 1907, is given, showing location by county and city or
town, kind of commodity manufactured, amount of capital invested,
and number of employees required. These plants required the em
ployment of 3,430 working people.
WEST VIRGINIA.
Tenth Biennial Report of the Bureau of Labor. 1907-1908. I. V.
Barton, Commissioner. 257 pp.
The six chapters of this report contain information on the following
subjects: Statistics of manufactures, 51 pages; new industries
established, 34 pages; report of free public employment bureau, 2
pages; report of the department of inspection, 22 pages; report of
municipal inspection of fire escapes, 8 pages; labor laws, court
decisions, directory of officials of bureau of labor, etc., 117 pages.
S t a t i s t i c s o f M a n u f a c t u r e s .—Under this title statistics for 76
industries, for the year ending December 31, 1907, are presented,
showing by establishments the capital invested in plant, value of
product, number of employees, number of days in operation, hours of
daily work, and amounts paid in wages. The following table is a
summary of the reports of 632 establishments:
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR— WEST VIRGINIA.
225
INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS OF 632 ESTABLISHMENTS REPORTING FOR THE YEAR
ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1907.
Industry.
Brass................................
Bread, cakes, etc..............
Brewing and distilling___
Brick and tile..................
Canned goods...................
Carbonated beverages......
Carbon black...................
Car building and repairing
Cement and cement
building blocks.............
Cigars and stogies.............
Clothing...........................
Coke.................................
Confectionery...................
Cooperage.........................
Drilling tools....................
Drugs and extracts..........
Electric light and power..
Enameled iron ware........
Explosives.......................
Flour and feed..................
Furniture.........................
Glass................................
Harness, etc.....................
Ice....................................
Iron, steel, and tin plate...
Lumber............................
Machinery and castings...
Monuments......................
Moldings, sash, doors, etc.
Pottery............................
Printing and bookbinding
Salt.................................:
Stamped metal goods.......
Stoves and ranges............
Textiles............................
Tobacco...........................
Vehicles...........................
Wall plaster.....................
Wooa pulp and paper___
Miscellaneous...................
Total.......................
Num
ber of Capital
estab invested
lish in plants.
ments.
3
17
15
22
3
10
7
8
4
19
10
41
5
7
7
5
3
3
2
48
10
41
21
12
13
123
19
6
9
10
35
2
12
6
14
2
9
3
9
37
$77,300
247,650
3,070,294
1,241,869
126,000
66,100
485,150
661,549
820,050
227,850
152,332
5,509,698
19,500
37,917
96,308
259,000
152,500
335,000
12,000
1,110,070
361,906
3,346,836
1,114,563
473,655
5,656,905
5,123,360
1,284,758
23,500
365,100
2,174,584
666,432
65,000
380,292
89,222
414,995
190,500
94,650
42,000
1,384,500
3,215,018
Total
value of
product.
Average number of
employees.
Days
work Hours Amount
ed work
in
dur ed per paid
wages.
Fe
ing
Males. males. Total. year. day.
$106,917
550,212
2,650,895
1,064,710
414,000
86,912
198,681
5,341,307
56
152
571
1,367
80
38
50
3,580
132,809
1,514,395
1,011,370
5,074,403
131,150
253,807
457,652
486,000
71,600
600,000
23,104
2,664,012
615,941
6,322,233
6,623,567
143,276
20,095,899
10,359,615
6,521,374
49,290
625,711
1,826,745
675,751
94,000
5,109,346
172,087
1,769,974
2,476,406
414,920
166,800
1,773,967
5,963,254
194
766
271
3,494
23
203
103
73
14
300
632 41,175,913 694,584,091
3
49
1
3
152
7
1
217
307
24
90
59
201
572
1,370
232
38
50
3,587
195
983
578
3,494
47
203
103
163
14
450
218
316
285
163
212
204
287
290
267
290
172
268
11.0
220
60
155
41,968 3,903
45,871
260
228
423
6,136
1,175
91
8,925
6,431
1,115
8
61
12
797
23
2
101
24
6
22
362
1,088
414
77
865
104
420
129
160
24
494
1,942
11
551
112
3
321
9
237
414
289
435
6,933
1,198
93
9,026
6,455
1,121
22
9.0
10.0
9.8
11.4
9.8
373
1,639
526
80
1,186
113
657
543
160
24
554
2,097
8
8 .6
301
356
304
365
255
168
262
277
218
303
282
224
224
297
235
226
248
308
240
267
283
234
238
306
300
252
267
150
9.6
10.4
9.1
9.6
9.9
9.2
9.7
9.8
10.4
10.6
9.6
9.0
10.0
9.8
9.5
9.6
10.7
9.5
10.6
9.0
9.0
9.7
8.3
8.4
11.0
8 .6
9.3
9.0
a 4.5
8 .2
9.0
10.1
9.3
$24,435
95,195
394,586
182,285
50,800
23,966
40,196
2,102,055
88,442
584,076
115,703
2,029,162
18,797
73,518
76,391
32,380
5,580
169,468
8,340
114,810
193,317
3,351,348
506,593
47,421
5,948,066
3,591,087
688,838
12,804
89,853
967,967
297,641
50,000
531,322
46,294
215,082188,090
73,078
9,100
286,579
943,837
9.5 24,268,502
a Hours worked per day in 1 establishment, 9; hours in 1 establishment not reported. These figures are
given as printed in the report.
6 Figures here should apparently be $94,634,092; those given are, however, according to the original.
Of the establishments reporting, 276 note an increase and 27 a
decrease in wages.
N e w I n d u s t r i e s E s t a b l i s h e d .—Under this title a list of new
industries established in 1906 and 1907 is given, with location, number
of employees, and wages paid in each. A summary shows that 470
establishments, with an aggregate capital of $24,144,090, commenced
business during the period. These establishments gave employment
to 13,205 persons, and paid in monthly wages $573,704.
226
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
F r e e E m p l o y m e n t B u r e a u .—This chapter consists of a report of
the operation of the bureau since its organization, May 15, 1901, to
May 15, 1908, as summarized in the following table:
APPLICATIONS FOR POSITIONS AND FOR HELP AND POSITIONS SECURED THROUGH
THE FREE PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT BUREAU, MAY 15, 1901, TO MAY 15, 1908.
Applications filed for—
Positions secured.
Positions.
Year.
Help.
Fe
Males. males.
Fe
Males. males.
Total.
For
posi
tions.
1,001
651
885
381
254
165
207
274
378
478
461
1,044
2,040
1,711
1,275
1,029
1,363
842
86.4
95.3
76.4
54.5
40.6
68.4
14.4
80.0
51.4
85.2
75.2
79.5
75.3
83.9
7,087
2,217
9,304
50.8
71.1
Fe
Males. males.
Total.
896
1,952
2,009
1,960
2,015
1,450
4,852
312
188
230
380
520
540
1,005
1,208
2,140
2,239
2,340
2,535
1,990
5,857
836
3,468
1,560
1,275
801
1,025
431
468
501
448
420
493
785
572
1,304
3,969
2,008
1,695
1,294
1,810
1,003
790
1,875
1,504
Total... 15,134
3,175
18,309
9,396
3,687
13,083
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Total.
Per cent of
applications
filled.
For
help.
L a b o r L a w s , C o u r t D e c i s i o n s , e t c .—The remainder of the report
embraces the following subjects: Laws of the State pertaining to
labor; the decisions of various courts affecting labor; legislation
recommended for the prevention of accidents; a directory of officials
of bureaus of labor, etc.
RECENT FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS.
AUSTRIA.
Vie Arbeitseinstellungen und Aussperrungen in Osterreich wahrend
des Jahres 1907. Herausgegeben vom k. k. Arbeitsstatistischen
Amte im Handelsministerium. 740 pp.
This volume contains the fourteenth annual report of the Austrian
Government on strikes and lockouts. The information, which is
compiled by the Austrian bureau of labor statistics, is given in the
form of an analysis and six tables showing: (1) Strikes according
to geographical distribution; (2) strikes according to industries; (3)
general summary of strikes; (4) comparative summary of strikes
for the ten-year period 1898-1907; (5) details for each strike in
1907; (6) details for each lockout in 1907. An appendix gives a
brief review of industrial and labor conditions in Austria, statistics
of trade unions, and notes concerning the strikes and lockouts re
ported in the preceding pages of the report.
S t r i k e s m 1907.—The number of strikes and the number of
establishments affected by the strikes during the year 1907 show
but little change from the year 1906, while there is a slight increase
in the number of strikers and in the number of persons affected.
The number of strikes during 1907 was 1,086; the number of estab
lishments affected was 6,130; the number of persons employed in
these establishments was 287,662, and of this number 176,789 went
on strike. Of the 176,789 persons on strike 5,619 were dismissed and
4,995 found other work after the strike.
The average number of strikers to each strike in 1907 was 163, as
compared with 142 in 1906, and the number of strikes as compared
with the number of establishments affected was in the proportion of
1 to 5.6, as against 1 to 5.5 in the years 1906 and 1905. In other
words, while the average number of persons to a strike shows a marked
increase, the scope of a strike has not changed materially as com
pared with the preceding year.
The introduction to the report calls attention to the fact that esti
mates of the losses occasioned by the strikes must be accepted only
with many reservations. Oh this basis the wage loss of the 176,789
strikers, who were out 2,087,523 days, is estimated at 6,300,000
crowns ($1,278,900); of this amount 500,000 crowns ($101,500) was
caused by the strikes which were successful, 4,600,000 crowns
227
228
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
($933,800) by the partially successful strikes, and 1,200,000 crowns
($243,600) by the strikes which failed. In addition, in 215 strikes
12,835 persons not on strike were thrown out of work, and their loss
in wages is estimated to have been 284,000 crowns ($57,652).
The number of lockouts in 1907 was 26, as compared with 50 in
1906.
The following table shows by industries the number of strikes, the
number of establishments affected, the number of strikers, etc., for
the year 1907:
STRIKES, ESTABLISHMENTS AFFECTED, STRIKERS, AND OTHER EMPLOYEES
THROWN OUT OF WORK, BY INDUSTRIES, 1907.
Industry.
Mining and metallurgical...................
Quarrying, products of stone, clay,
glass, etc..........................................
Metalworking....................................
Machinery, instruments, apparatus,
etc...................................................
Woodworking, caoutchouc, carved
materials, etc...................................
Leather, hides, hair, feathers, etc.......
Textiles..............................................
Upholstering and paper hanging.......
Wearing apparel, cleaning, etc...........
Paper..................................................
Foods and drinks (including tobacco).
Hotels, restaurants, etc......................
Chemical products.............................
Building trades..................................
Printing..............................................
Heat, light, and power plants............
Commerce...........................................
Transportation...................................
Other..................................................
Total.
Strikers.
Estab
lish Total
Per
em
Strikes. ments
af ployees. Num ofcent
total
fected.
ber.
em
ployees.
Other
em Strik New
em
ployees ers
thrown reem ployees
after
out of ployed. strikes.
work.
144
181
86,175
44,501
51.6
1,358
43,121
90
96
90
259
368
11,486
13,288
7,204
7,735
62.7
58.2
689
262
6,389
7,422
243
139
54
140
18,712
7,904
42.2
594
7,259
469
105
615
42
279
7,021
1,127
39,725
46
18,419
577
11,160
127
2,045
16,638
739
85
4,058
7,387
291
70.5
86.3
279
6,110
578
219
733
198
13
526
76
9,964
1,306
60,139
46
20,755
793
16,082
385
4,509
27,361
2,551
16
18
7
890
217
9
5,737
7,907
365
20
152
3
66
10
79
2
11
2
1,086
12
1,177
13
1,302
11
11
2
101
6,130 287,662 176,789
66.1
100.0
88.7
72.8
69.4
33.0
45.4
60.8
29.0
84.2
70.7
93.4
79.7
61.5
8
3,095
251
21
363
1,100
4,710
15
72
13
5
906
37,910
43
17,994
542
9,932
62
1,820
14,386
634
9
4,016
7,381
239
12,835 166,175
320
32
1,021
26
181
1,169
74
76
40
4
22
5,436
The industries in which the largest number of strikes occurred were
the building trades with 198, the textile industries with 152, and the
mining industries with 144 strikes; only one of the other groups of
industries had oyer 100 strikes. In the following industries more than
10,000 workers were on strike: Mining, etc., industries with 44,501
strikers, the textile industries with 39,725 strikers, the wearing
apparel, etc., industries with 18,419 strikers, the building trades with
16,638 strikers, and the food and drinks industries with 11,160
strikers. Out of the total number of 176,789 strikers, these five
industries included 130,443 strikers, or 73.8 per cent of the total
number of strikers.
The following table shows the causes of the strikes for 1907, by
industries:
229
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— AUSTRIA,
STRIKES, BY INDUSTRIES AND CAUSES, 1907.
[Strikes due to two or more causes have been tabulated under each cause; hence the industry totals for this
table, if computed, would not agree with those for the preceding table.]
Industry.
Mining and metallurgical...................
Quarrying, products of wood, stone,
clay, glass, etc.................................
Metal working...................................
Machinery, instruments, apparatus,
etc...................................................
Woodworking, caoutchouc, carved
materials, etc..................................
Leather, hides, hair, feathers, etc.......
Textiles...............................................
Upholstering and paper hanging.......
Wearing apparel, cleaning, etc...........
Paper..................................................
Foods and drinks (including tobacco)
Hotels, restaurants, etc......................
Chemical products.............................
"Rnilding trades..... ............................
Printing
..........................
Heat, light, and power plants...........
Commerce..........................................
Transportation...................................
Other.................................................
Total.........................................
For
dis
Against For in For charge
reduc crease reduc of fore
tion of
of
tion of men,
wages. wages. hours. work
men,
etc.
5
100
2
10
1
69
58
16
32
2
26
13
73
13
3
49
7
51
50
9
44
10
18
4
23
1
2
9
152
3
66
1
3
1
111
1
1
5
Against
obnox
ious
treat
ment.
3
Against
dis Against
charge obnox Other
of em ious causes.
ploy rules.
ees.
12
8
4
10
4
13
2
10
9
9
13
3
4
6
14
4
15
5
2
5
1
6
3
4
x
4
9
5
4
6
14
1
8
15
3
3
15
1
2
1
2
1
124
40
78
1
1
1
i
8
1
3
2
13
5
4
12
6
16 |
758
1
1
1
289
60
4
As in previous years, the demands of the strikers were most fre
quently for increase of wages and for reduction of hours, the first
demand occurring in 758 strikes and the second in 289 strikes.
The following table shows the number of strikes and of strikers in
each group of industries in 1907 by results:
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY INDUSTRIES AND RESULTS, 1907.
Strikes.
Industry.
Mining and metallurgical...................
Quarrying, products of stone, clay,
glass, etc..........................................
Metalworking....................................
Machinery, instruments, apparatus,
etc...................................................
Woodworking, caoutchouc, carved
materials, etc...................................
Leather, hides, hair, feathers, etc.......
Textiles...............................................
Upholstering and paper hanging.......
Wearing apparel, cleaning, etc...........
Paper..................................................
Foods and drinks (including tobacco).
Hotels, restaurants, etc......................
Chemical products.............................
Building trades..................................
Printing.............................................
Heat, light, and power plants............
Commerce..........................................
Transportation...................................
Other..................................................
Total.........................................
Percent..............................................
Strikers.
Suc
Suc
Suc
Suc ceeded
Failed. Total. ceeded.
Failed. Total.
ceeded. ceeded
partly.
partly.
20
73
51
144
3,691
27,724
13,086
44,501
11
17
53
41
32
32
96
90
684
768
4,058
5,428
2,462
1,539
7,204
7,735
5
28
21
54
316
3,204
4,384
7,904
24
4
59
22
97
4
33
105
2
1
152
3
1,354
215
2,444
3,415
689
31,690
43
16,971
390
10,208
2,252
223
5,591
3
7,021
1,127
39,725
46
18,419
577
11,160
127
2,045
16,638
739
85
4,058
7,387
291
22
12
12
2
35
6
2
9
47
23
46
4
1
7
105
4
3
5
3
1
10
10
1
187
17.2
592
54.5
19
1
20
66
10
79
2
11
446
13
345
88
174
607
16
1,255
3,357
39
76
326
199
90
18,155 121,953
10.3
69.0
36,681
20.7
111
4
47
5
198
13
3,096
53
3
3
3
16
18
7
59
4,558
113
307
28.3
1,086
1
2
100.0
1,002
790
10,185
647
9
3,673
2,630
176,789
100.0
230
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
In 1907 of the total number of strikes 17.2 per cent were successful,
54.5 per cent were partially successful, and 28.3 were unsuccessful;
of the total number of strikers, 10.3 per cent were engaged in successful
strikes, 69 per cent in partially successful strikes, and 20.7 per cent
in unsuccessful strikes. As compared with the year 1906 there is a
slight decrease in the proportion of strikes which succeeded and
which failed, and an increase in the proportion which were partially
successful.
The following table shows the number of strikes and of strikers in
1907 according to duration and results:
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY DURATION AND RESULTS, 1907.
Strikes.
Days of duration.
Suc
Suc
Suc
Suc ceeded
Failed. Total.
Failed. Total. ceeded.
ceeded. ceeded
partly.
partly.
1 to 5...................................................
to 10.................................................
11 to 15................................................
16 to 20................................................
21 to 25.............. ................................
26 to 30................................................
31 to 35................................................
36 to 40................................................
41 to 50................................................
51 to 100..............................................
101 and over........................................
101
Total.........................................
6
Strikers.
29
23
4
6
6
7
251
122
54
28
28
23
14
8
156
51
26
13
6
8
9
2
508
202
103
45
40
37
30
10
6
1
24
35
5
13
15
8
41
56
14
187
592
307
1,086
4
44,662
24,982
16,186
3,899
1,959
1,685
6,720
7,049
4,452
8,601
1,758
20,033
6,533
2,391
740
80
1,192
877
65
2,078
2,351
341
77,618
33,392
19,773
4,888
2,318
3,032
8,003
7,114
7,228
11,286
2,137
18,155 121,953
36,681
176,789
12,923
1,877
1,196
249
279
155
406
698
334
38
S t r i k e s d u r i n g F o u r t e e n Y e a r s .—The summaries for the years
1894 to 1907 were compiled partly from the report for 1907 and
partly from previous reports. The following table shows the number
of strikes and strikers, establishments affected, and working days lost
in Austria for the period during which the Ministry of Commerce has
published reports on strikes:
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, ESTABLISHMENTS AFFECTED, AND WORKING DAYS LOST
BY YEARS, 1894 TO 1907.
Year.
1894..........................................................................
1895..........................................................................
1896..........................................................................
1897..........................................................................
1898..........................................................................
1899..........................................................................
1900..........................................................................
1901..........................................................................
1902..........................................................................
1903..........................................................................
1904....................................................... ...................
1905..........................................................................
1906..........................................................................
1907..........................................................................
Strikes.
172
209
305
246
255
311
303
270
264
324
414
686
1,083
1,086
Per cent
Estab
of strik Working
lish
ers
of to
Strikers.
ments
tal em days lost.
affected.
ployees.
2,542
874
1,499
851
885
1,330
1,003
719
1,184
1,731
2,704
3,803
6,049
6,130
67,061
28,652
66,234
38,467
39,658
54,763
105,128
24,870
37,471
46,215
64,227
99,591
153,688
176,789
69.5
59.9
65.7
59.0
59.9
60.2
67.3
38.5
44.0
60.5
64.3
63.6
55.6
61.5
795,416
300,348
899,939
368,098
323,619
1,029,937
3,483,963
157,744
284,046
500,567
606,629
1,151,310
2,191,815
2,087,523
231
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---AUSTRIA,
The number of strikes and the number of strikers for each year of
the fourteen-year period are shown, by industries, in the following
table:
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY INDUSTRIES AND YEARS, 1894 TO 1907.
STRIKES.
Year.
Quarry
Ma
Wood
chinery, working,
ing,
Mining products
instru
caout
Metal
and
stone, working. ments,
chouc, Textiles. Building
trades.
metal ofclay,
appa
carved
lurgical.
ratus,
materi
glass,
etc.
als, etc.
etc.
Other.
18
34
44
65
80
90
13
24
13
15
15
13
27
45
56
54
48
41
53
118
105
34
29
43
28
28
84
56
28
34
44
37
54
130
152
563
556
322
653
781
949
1,522
5,928
6,415
9,943
3,217
3,053
4,491
194
253
2,058
4,689
2,471
1,356
519
889
1,013
705
1,400
4,660
5,641
7,904
9,793
2,336
5,972
1,382
*,318
3,198
1,391
2,925
1,312
2,846
1,756
2,736
5,598
7,021
6,317
4,085
9,791
11,275
3,171
30,249
38,705
44,501
574
1,698
1,819
2,740
4,788
9,832
10,776
7,204
2,752
3,694
2,973
1,568
991
2,459
1,977
1,393
741
2,936
4,211
7,406
16,373
7,735
2,675
2,599
5,220
3,483
5,866
28,970
39,725
14,975
5,361
5,434
4,995
13,961
7,842
4,849
3,214
10,476
9,645
15,947
35,024
15,416
16,638
3,629
2,354
6,669
7,873
6,209
4,070
5,017
4,580
5,938
9,782
13,028
23,967
32,209
46,061
67,061
28,652
66,234
38,467
39,658
54,763
105,128'
24,870
37,471
46,215
64,227
99,591
153,688
176,789
293,008
68,662
57,209
33,752
49,584
165,436
163,777
171,386
13
4
1894..........
1895..........
1896..........
1897..........
1898..........
1899..........
1900..........
1901..........
1902..........
1903..........
1904..........
1905..........
1906..........
1907..........
144
19
29
24
18
38
76
108
96
T otal....
582
1894..........
1895..........
1896..........
1897..........
1898..........
1899..........
1900..........
1901..........
1902..........
1903..........
1904..........
1905..........
1906..........
1907..........
22,986
626
30,120
3,632
7,046
3,477
78,791
7,496
13,573
12,341
19,614
T otal....
11
25
29
26
40
40
63
40
36
43
68
22
29
29
27
27
21
23
37
33
26
26
32
26
22
7
6
14
20
23
38
55
28
28
35
34
27
20
11
24
42
34
49
33
23
24
22
39
42
78
58
55
56
92
85
Total.
68
90
172
209
305
246
255
311
303
270
264
324
414
37
80
188
184
198
162
339
247
1,083
1,086
111
686
STRIKERS.
10,100
2,112
12,010
1,002,814
The causes of strikes for each year of the period are shown in the
following table, the cause and not the strike being made the unit:
STRIKES, BY CAUSES AND YEARS, 1894 TO 1907.
[Strikes due to two or more causes have been tabulated under each cause; hence the yearly totals for this
table, if computed, would not agree with those for the preceding tables.]
Year.
For
change
Against
For
in
reduc increase
method
tion of
wages. of wages. of pay
ment.
1894..........
1895..........
1896..........
1897..........
1898...........
1899...........
1900...........
1901..........
1902..........
1903...........
1904...........
1905..........
1906...........
1907...........
23
19
28
26
33
29
26
28
28
30
24
13
16
53
89
140
116
124
143
152
116
127
151
213
402
694
• 758
Total___
345
3,278
22
For
reduc
tion of
hours.
5
3
4
3
19
31
67
47
54
#73
69
46
52
61
91
151
298
289
80
1,348
5
6
8
7
8
5
6
7
7
6
For dis Against
charge
obnox
of
ious
foremen,
treat
work
ment.
men, etc.
Against
dis
charge
of em
ployees.
5
35
31
40
32
36
40
36
36
37
51
70
130
193
124
18
14
15
25
15
30
16
31
40
31
37
34
45
39
40
53
33
36
33
43
52
59
75
891
278
610
12
22
32
26
29
17
13
28
9
36
20
46
73
60
423
2
5
13
9
5
10
4
2
2
6
3.
4
4
74
Against
obnox
ious
rules.
16
8
12
18
20
Other
causes.
232
BULLETIN" OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The following table shows, for both strikes and strikers, during
each year of the period, the results expressed in percentages:
PER CENT OF STRIKES AND OF STRIKERS, BY RESULTS, FOR EACH YEAR, 1894
TO 1907.
Strikers.
Strikes.
Year.
Number.
1894...........................
1895...........................
1896...........................
1897...........................
1898...........................
1899............................
1900............................
1901...........................
1902...........................
1903...........................
1904...........................
1905...........................
*906...........................
1907...........................
172
209
305
246
255
311
303
270
264
324
414
686
1,083
1,086
cent
cent Per
Per cent Percent
Per cent Number. Per
suc
Per cent
suc
suc
suc
failed.
ceeded
failed.
ceeded
ceeded.
ceeded
partly.
partly.
25.0
26.8
21.0
17.5
18.8
15.4
20.1
20.7
19.7
17.3
24.4
21.9
22.2
17.2
27.9
24.9
36.4
37.0
41.2
45.0
44.9
36.3
39.0
43.5
44.4
51.2
47.4
54.5
47.1
48.3
42.6
45.5
40.0
39.6
35.0
43.0
41.3
39.2
31.2
26.9
30.4
28.3
67,061
28,652
66,234
38,467
39,658
54,763
105,128
24,870
37,471
46,215
64,227
99,591
153,688
176,789
9.2
12.8
4.6
15.7
8.4
10.2
4.7
20.1
13.9
10.0
18.6
14.0
12.0
10.3
37.3
60.7
62.8
47.8
66.4
72.0
85.5
47.8
52.6
53.5
26.5
32.6
36.5
25.2
17.8
9.8
32.1
33.5
68.0
2 2.0
41.4
71.6
66.4
69.0
40.0
14.4
2 1 .6
20.7
L o c k o u t s .—There were reported 26 lockouts in 1907 as compared
with 50 in 1906. The reported causes of the lockouts were: Twelve
were due to strikes in other establishments; 1 to dispute concerning
holiday on May 1; 1 to unionism; 2 to demands concerning wages;
3 to cessation of work by employees without consent of employer;
1 to refusal to work; 1 to reductions of hours by employees without
consent of employer; 1 to resistance against the employment of new
workmen; 2 to refusal to accept reduction of wages; 1 to “ passive
resistance” against the employer; and 1 to anticipate a threatened
strike.
The following table shows the number of lockouts, establishments
affected, and employees locked out for each year of the period, 1895
to 1907:
LOCKOUTS, ESTABLISHMENTS AFFECTED, AND EMPLOYEES LOCKED OUT, BY
YEARS, 1895 TO 1907.
Year.
1895.............................................................................
1896............................... .............................................
1897..............................................................................
1898..............................................................................
1899..............................................................................
1900..............................................................................
1901..............................................................................
1902..............................................................................
1903..............................................................................
1904..............................................................................
1905..............................................................................
1906..............................................................................
1907..............................................................................
Em
Estab ployees
Lock lishments
outs.
affected. locked
out.
8
10
11
5
10
3
8
8
6
17
50
26
Per cent
of em
ployees
locked
out of
total em
ployees.
Em
ployees
locked
out and
reem
ployed.
211
12
17
2,317
5,445
1,712
51.2
79.5
54.4
2,183
4,589
1,647
38
58
3
9
71
605
448
1,832
236
3,457
4,036
302
1,050
1,334
23,742
11,197
67,872
14,539
60.9
75.8
70.4
49.9
51.8
99.2
75.2
84.3
78.4
3,448
3,703
302
1,003
605
23,717
9,614
64,549
14,270
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— FRANCE*
233
FRANCE.
Statistigue des Oreves et des Recours d la Conciliation et d VArbitrage
Survenus Pendant VAnnee 1907. Direction du Travail, Ministere du
Travail et de la Prevoyance Sociale. xvii, 688 pp.
The present volume is the seventeenth of a series of annual reports
on strikes and conciliation and arbitration issued by the French labor
bureau. The information is presented in the same form as in previous
reports.
S t r i k e s .—During the year 1907 there were 1,275 strikes, involv
ing 8,365 establishments, 197,961 strikers, and 30,684 other persons
thrown out of work on account of strikes. Of the strikers, 83.26
per cent were men, 11.71 per cent were women, and 5.03 per cent
were children. The strikes caused a loss of 3,048,446 working days
by strikers and 513,774 by other employees thrown out of work, a
total of 3,562,220 working days. In 1906 there were 1,309 strikes,
in which 438,466 strikers were involved and 29,305 other employees
were thrown out of work, causing an aggregate loss of 9,438,594
working days. The average number of days lost per striker in 1907
was 15, as compared with 19 in 1906.
Of the 1,275 strikes in 1907, 911 involved but 1 establishment each,
142 involved from 2 to 5 establishments, 78 from 6 to 10 establish
ments, 80 from 11 to 25 establishments, 27 from 26 to 50 establish
ments, and 18 from 51 to 100 establishments. Of the remaining
strikes, 13 involved over 100 establishments each, while for 6 strikes
the number of establishments involved could not be ascertained.
In 957 strikes all or a part of the striking employees were organized.
The employers were organized in 569 strikes. Eight workingmen's
unions and three employers' associations were organized during the
progress of or immediately following strikes. In 54 strikes regular
aid was given by labor organizations to their striking members and
in some cases to strikers not members.
Of the 1,275 strikes 263, or 20.6 per cent, involving 24,369 strikers,
succeeded; 490 strikes, or 38.4 per cent, involving 130,806 strikers,
succeeded partly; and 522 strikes, or 41 per cent, involving 42,786
strikers, failed. The percentage of strikers involved in the three
classes of strikes was 12.3, 66.1, and 21.6 per cent, respectively. In
653 strikes the striking employees were time workers, while in 331
they worked by the piece, and in the remaining 287 by both time and
piece.
234
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
The table following shows, by groups of industries, the number of
strikes, strikers, and establishments affected, according to the results
of strikes; also the days of work lost by all employees and the num
ber of strikers per 1,000 working people in each group of industries
for the year 1907:
STRIKES, ESTABLISHMENTS AFFECTED, AND STRIKERS, BY RESULTS, AND WORK
ING DAYS LOST, FOR EACH GROUP OF INDUSTRIES, 1907.
Succeeded
partly.
Succeeded.
Industry.
Strikes.
Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries__
M in in g .............................................................
Quarrying..........................................
Food and drinks................................
Chemical products (including to
bacco)..............................................
Paper and printing.............................
Leather and hides..............................
Textiles..............................................
Wearing apparel, cleaning, etc...........
Woodworking, carved materials, etc .
Building trades (woodwork)..............
Metallurgical.......................................
Metal working, machinery, instru
ments, apparatus, etc.....................
Jewelry, gold and silver working.......
Stone cutting, products of stone, clay,
glass, etc................................ :.......
Building trades (stone and earth
work)..............................................
Transportation, commerce, etc..........
Total.........................................
Failed.
Estab
Estab
Estab
Estab
lish Strikes. lish Strikes. lish Strikes. lish
ments.
ments.
ments.
ments.
15
7
4
181
7
1
12
1
4
4
2
2
10
34
16
8
17
1,138
16
59
310
14
158
4
23
425
Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries__
Mining................................................
Quarrying...........................................
Food and drinks................................
Chemical products (including to
bacco)..............................................
Paper and printing.............................
Leather ana hides..............................
Textiles..............................................
Wearing apparel, cleaning, etc...........
Woodworking, carved materials, etc .
Building trades (woodwork)..............
Metallurgical......................................
Metal working, machinery, instru
ments, apparatus, etc.....................
Jewelry, gold and silver working.......
Stone cutting, products of stone, clay,
glass, etc..........................................
Building trades (stone and earth
work)...............................................
Transportation, commerce, etc..........
Total.
63
44
16
41
1,477
44
81
736
9
15
26
32
127
9
32
91
9
39
38
52
247
15
54
39
14
116
662
45
294
702
14
56
73
135
4
857
235
21
21
10
24
3
53
40
74
245
34
145
565
3
252
51
3
532
234
18
30
22
62
21
31
61
123
57
45
265
1,475
371
121
121
94
42
54
465
142
272
141
2,205
634
263
1,342
490
5,356
522
1,667
1,275
8,365
7
55
290
5
117
46
2
11
2
28
2
2
20
16
24
91
4
21
15
20
21
101
9
22
10
1
Strikers in strikes which—
Industry,
Total.
SueSucceedceeded. ed partly. Failed.
Total
strikers.
1
Strikers per
1,000 work
ing people
in each
industry, (a)
Working
days lost
by all
employees
thrown out
of work.
1,119
624
347
25
6,514
6,358
1,592
4,428
1,769
3,285
861
3,045
9,402
10,267
2,800
7,498
3.75
56.45
45.87
11.82
143,861
68,682
98,372
78,614
354
41
327
6,464
82
984
191
38
4,524
2,521
19,813
249
1,565
5,246
750
2,605
1,196
1,893
7,071
438
1,137
454
388
7,935
5,761
4,741
33,348
769
3,686
5,891
1,176
69.42
43.63
30.23
54.08
1.63
39.14
(*)16.67
82,552
84,899
61,351
1,044,865
9,639
75,345
133,400
10,213
12,650
1,665
3,164
4
19,006
1,669
34.76
78.66
434,810
43,766
3,192
1,027
2,507
1,659
5,193
34.42
288,420
5,492
4,062
21,432
34,016
8,647
5,170
35,571
43,248
C68.78
36.79
564,250
339,181
24,369
130,806
42,786
197,961
<*37.00
3,562,220
o Based on the census of 1901.
6 Included in building trades (stone and earth work).
c Including building trades (woodwork).
d Based on the total number of industrial working people in France in 1901.
72
68
235
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— FRANCE,
Of the 17 groups of industries above shown, 2, namely, building
trades (stone and earth work) and textiles, together, furnished 40.7
per cent of the total number of strikes during the year. With regard
to the number of strikers, these 2 groups furnished 34.8 per cent.
The principal data as to strikes are shown, by causes, in the table
following:
STRIKES, ESTABLISHMENTS AFFECTED, AND STRIKERS, BY RESULTS, AND WORK
ING DAYS LOST, FOR EACH CAUSE, 1907.
[Strikes due to two or more causes have been tabulated under each cause: hence the totals for this table, if
computed, would not agree with those for preceding tables.]
Succeeded
partly.
Succeeded.
Cause or object.
Failed.
Estab
Estab
Estab
Estab
Strikes. lish Strikes. lish Strikes. lish Strikes. lish
ments.
ments.
ments.
ments.
For increase of wages......................
Against reduction of wages.............
For reduction of hours with present
or increased wages.......................
Relating to time, method, etc., of
wage payments............................
For or against modification of con
ditions of work.............................
Against piecework..........................
For or against modification of shop
rules.............................................
For abolition or reduction of fines. . .
Against discharge or for reinstate
ment of workmen, foremen, or
superintendents...........................
For discharge of workmen, foremen,
or superintendents.......................
For discharge of female employees..
For limitation of number ofapprentices..............................................
Relating to deductions from wages
for support of insurance and aid
funds............................................
Other causes...................................
170
17
1,103
31
327
4,227
8
22
311
9
1,828
9
808
34
7,158
62
45
902
25
1,442
65
1,060
135
3,404
64
317
156
1,104
39
22
399
509
81
39
641
633
1,017
15
160
19
1,807
29
63
475
29
312
23
19
7
184
10
58
38
52
5
491
5
31
5
299
9
77
9
86
45
51
30
36
102
126
177
213
24
45
18
92
132
1
1
269
5
5
288
111
1
1
85
5
8
127
7
2
2
5
25
7
27
1
6
6
21
4
9
25
30
10
20
319
162
Strikers in strikes which—
Cause or object.
For increase of wages............................
Against reduction of wages..................
For reduction of hours with present or
increased wages.................................
Relating to time, method, etc., of wage
payments...................................
Fpr or against modification of condi
tions o f work.....................................
Against piecework................................
For or against modification of shop
rules..................................................
For abolition or reduction of fines......
Against discharge or for reinstatement
of workmen, foremen, orsuperintendents...................................................
For discharge of workmen, foremen, or
superintendents................................
For limitation of number^of Appren
tices...................................................
Relating to deductions from wages for
support of insurance and aid funds. . .
Other causes.........................................
38697— No. 86—10---- 16
Total.
Succeeded. Succeeded
partly.
16,806
1,461
73,355
1,910
Failed.
34,300
402
10
Working
days lost by
Total strik all
employees
ers.
thrown out
of work.
124,461
3,773
2,624,238
38,893
5,338
10,277
19,651
35,266
566,761
9,201
10,159
12,664
32,024
865,839
1,691
584
4,873
815
7,859
7,959
14,423
9,358
415,008
346,112
10,463
1,417
11,105
5,499
18,627
1,274
40,195
8,190
859,902
436,907
5,406
7,622
8,011
21,039
393,167
3,822
48
2,261
27
6,117
183
12,200
126,794
6,467
42
431
473
6,407
6,990
2,627
1,055
25,523
351
1,652
8,396
29,802
438,213
233,112
258
236
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The most frequent cause of strikes during the year was wage dis
putes, the demands for increased wages, alone or in conjunction with
other demands, haying figured in 808 strikes, or 63.4 per cent of the
total number of strikes for the year, involving 124,461 strikers, or
62.9 per cent of the total number of strikers, and causing a loss of
2,624,238 working days, which include days lost by persons other
than strikers, who were thrown out of employment on account of
strikes. Of these demands 170 were successful for 16,806 strikers,
327 partly successful for 73,355 strikers, and 311, involving 34,300
strikers, failed. The next two tables show, for both strikes and
strikers, the results of strikes by duration and the results and dura
tion of strikes by number of strikers involved.
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY DURATION AND RESULTS, 1907.
Strikers in strikes which—
Strikes which—
Days of duration.
Total
strikes.
Suc
Suc ceeded
Failed.
ceeded. partly.
Suc
ceeded
partly.
Suc
ceeded.
Total
strikers.
Failed.
7 and under........................
8 to 15.................................
16 to 30................................
31 to 100..............................
101 and over.......................
196
34
16
9
247
107
66
8
55
15
346
80
51
42
3
789
a 223
133
106
a 24
15,527
5,426
1,685
1,032
629
30,788
47,428
19,413
22,530
10,647
18,383
8,282
8,068
7,824
229
64,698
61,136
29,166
31,386
a l l , 575
Total.........................
263
490
522
1,275
24,369
130,806
42,786
197,961
a This total does not equal the sum of the items shown; the figures are given as shown in the original
report.
STRIKES, BY NUMBER OF STRIKERS INVOLVED, RESULTS, AND DURATION, 1907.
Strikes which—
Strikers involved in each
strike.
Strikes which lasted—
Total
Suc
strikes. 7 days
Suc ceeded
Failed.
ana
ceeded. partly.
under.
25 and under.........................
26 to 50..................................
51 to 100................................
101 to 200 ...............................
201 to 500...............................
501 to 1,000............................
1,001 and over.......................
77
58
65
41
17
4
Total............................
225
117
76
55
35
1
99
98
94
83
67
24
25
263
490
to 15 16 to 30
days. days.
8
295
187
145
103
44
4
401
273
235
179
119
38
30
4
7
9
5
522
1,275
789
223
133
10
11
65
41
32
35
33
10
24
24
29
22
20
31 to
100
days.
17
19
21
15
16
101
days
and
over.
2
8
4
6
8
10
4
106
24
Considered by their duration, the largest percentage of successful
strikes was found in strikes which lasted 7 days or under. In strikes
of this class 24.8 per cent were successful, while of those which con
tinued for more than 7 days only 13.8 per cent terminated favorably
to the strikers. In the classes 8 to 15 days and 16 to 30 days the
percentages of successful strikes were 15.2 and 12, respectively. Of
strikes lasting more than 30 days 13.1 per ceiit were successful
237
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— FRANCE*
The following table gives a summary of the most important strike
statistics for each of the years 1894 to 1907. The figures for the
years 1894 to 1906 have been compiled from previous reports and
those for 1907 from the present report:
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY RESULTS, ESTABLISHMENTS AFFECTED, AND WORKING
.DAYS LOST, FOR EACH YEAR, 1894 TO 1907.
Year.
1894...
1895...
1896...
1897...
1898...
1899...
1900...
1901...
1902...
1903...
1904...
1905...
1906...
1907...
Strikes.
391
405
476
356
368
739
902
523
512
567
1,026
830
<*1,309
1,275
Strikes which—
Working
Estab
days lost
lish
by
all
ments Strikers. employees Suc
Suc
affected.
thrown
ceeded Failed.
out of work. ceeded. partly.
1,062,480
1,731
54,576
617,469
1,298
45,801
644,168
2,178
49,851
780,944
2,568
68,875
82,065
1,216,306
1,967
4,288
176,772 3,550,734
10,253 222,714 « 3,760,577
111,414 1,862,050
6,970
1,820 212,704 4,675,081
123,151
2,441,944
3,246
17,250 271,097 3,934,884
5,302
177,666 2,746,684
519,637 <*438,466 9,438,594
8,365
197,961
3,562,220
84
100
117
68
75
180
205
114
111
122
297
184
278
263
129
117
122
122
123
282
360
195
184
222
394
361
539
490
178
188
237
166
170
277
337
214
217
223
335
285
490
522
Strikers in strikes which—
Suc
ceeded.
12,897
8,565
11,579
19,838
10,594
21,131
24,216
9,364
23,533
12,526
53,555
22,872
31,148
24,369
Suc
ceeded
partly.
Failed.
24,784
20,672
17,057
28,767
32,546
124,767
140,358
44,386
160,820
89,736
168,034
125,016
253,264
130,806
16,895
16,564
21,215
20,270
38,925
30,874
58,140
57,664
28,351
20,889
49,508
29,778
154,010
42,786
<*Including 2 strikes not terminated July 1,1907.
b Including 2 establishments in 2 strikes not terminated July 1,1907.
e Including 44 strikers in 2 strikes not terminated July 1,1907.
The number of strikes, establishments affected, strikers, and
aggregate working days lost during 1907 show a considerable decrease
as compared with the figures for 1906.
C o n c i l i a t i o n a n d A r b i t r a t i o n .—During the year recourse to the
law of December 27, 1892, relating to the conciliation and arbitra
tion (a) of labor disputes, was had in 250 disputes. In 16 cases
recourse was had to the law before entire cessation of work had
occurred.
In 9 of these cases a compromise was effected, in 3 cases the
employees receded from their demands, and in 1 case their demands
were granted. In 2 cases, upon the refusal of the employers to pre
sent themselves, strikes were declared which resulted in compromise.
In the remaining case a committee of conciliation was formed but,
following a disagreement among the members of the committee, a
strike was declared. This strike was ended by compromise after a
second meeting of the committee had occurred.
The number of disputes in which the application of the law was
requested in 1907 is equal to 19.6 per cent of the number of strikes
that actually occurred during the year. During the preceding four
teen-year period such recourse was had in 2,200 disputes, or 24.4 per
cent of the total strikes for the period. Requests for the application
a For the provisions of this law see B ulletin of the Department of Labor No. 25,
pp. 854-856.
238
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
of the law during 1907 were made by employees in 95 disputes, by
employers in 4 disputes, and by both employees and employers in 12
disputes. In the 139 other disputes in which recourse was had to the
law the initiative was taken by justices of the peace.
As for results, it was found that 10 strikes had terminated by
direct agreement between employers and employees before com
mittees of conciliation were formed. The offer of conciliation was
rejected in 80 of the 240 remaining disputes, the rejection coming
from employers in 73 cases, from employees in 5 cases, and from
both employers and employees in 2 cases. In 2 of the 80 cases in
which conciliation was rejected the disputes were terminated by the
employees withdrawing their demands or accepting concessions pre
viously offered, while in the 78 other cases strikes were declared or
continued.
Committees of conciliation were constituted for the settlement of
the remaining 158 disputes. Ninety-one of these disputes were
settled directly by such committees, and of the 67 disputes remaining
10 were settled by arbitration and 7 were settled by the parties them
selves, after having appeared without success before committees of
conciliation. Strikes were declared or continued after the failure of
conciliation and arbitration in the 50 remaining disputes.
The following is a summary statement in regard to disputes in
which recourse was had to the law concerning conciliation and arbi
tration, during 1907 and for the preceding fourteen years taken col
lectively:
SUMMARY OF CASES IN WHICH RECOURSE WAS HAD TO THE LAW CONCERNING
CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION, 1883 TO 1906, AND 1907.
Items.
1893
to
1906.
Total number of strikes.......................................................................................................
Disputes in which recourse was had to the law of 1892.......................................................
9,032
2,200
1907.
1,275
250
Disputes settled:
Before the creation of committees of conciliation..........................................................
After creation but before assembling of committees of conciliation.............................
After refusal of request for conciliation.........................................................................
Directly by committees of conciliation.........................................................................
B y arbitration..............................................................................................................
Directly by the parties, after having had recourse to conciliation...............................
108
10
2
2
652
77
60
91
Total cases settled through the application of the law..............................................
1,001
122
Strikes resulting or continuing:
After refusal of request for conciliation.........................................................................
After failure of recourse to conciliation and arbitration................................................
700
499
78
50
Total cases of failure after application of the law.......................................................
1,199
128
2
102
10
7
The above summary shows that of 250 disputes considered in 1907,
122 were settled directly or indirectly through the application of the
law of 1892, and in the case of 128 the recourse to the law proved
fruitless. Of the 122 disputes settled, 20 were favorable to the
239
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— GERMANY.
demands of the employees, 95 resulted in a compromise, and 7 were
unfavorable to the employees. In the 128 disputes which continued
after the failure of attempts at conciliation and arbitration the
employees succeeded in 9, partly succeeded in 52, and failed in 67
cases.
GERMANY.
Streiks und Aussperrungen im Jdhre 1907. Bearbeitet im Kaiserlichen Statistischen Amt. 92 pp.
This is the ninth annual report on strikes and lockouts issued by
the Imperial Statistical Office of Germany. The report contains
analyses and summaries of the data relating to strikes and lockouts
in 1907, a map and a series of diagrams presenting the principal
features of the disputes in Germany and in foreign countries, tables
showing the data by industries and by localities and a summary
statement for the years 1899 to 1907.
Strikes in 1907.—The number of strikes which ended in 1907 was
2,266 and the number of establishments affected was 13,092. Of the
establishments affected, 3,604 suspended operations entirely. The
number of employees in the establishments affected was 445,165, and
of these 192,430 participated in the strikes. (a) The number of non
strikers who were thrown out of employment was 10,594.
The following table shows the number of strikes, establishments
affected, strikers, and other employees thrown out of work, by
results of strikes, in 1907:
STRIKES,
ESTABLISHMENTS AFFECTED, STRIKERS, AND OTHER
THROWN OUT OF WORK, BY RESULTS, 1907.
EMPLOYEES
[The column headed “ Strikers” shows the maximum number of strikers at any time during the strike.]
Result.
Strikes.
Total
Establish employees
in estab
ments
affected.
lishments
affected.
38,514
194,549
Strikers.
Other
employees
thrown
out of
work.
Succeeded.......................................................
Succeeded partly............................................
Failed.............................................................
373
930
963
1,465
8,757
2,870
212,102
19,326
101,798
71,306
1,149
3,765
5,680
Total.....................................................
2,266
13,092
445,165
192,430
10,594
In 1907 the average number of establishments affected by each
strike was 5.8, while the average number of strikers to a strike was
84.9; the persons on strike formed 43 per cent of the employees of
the establishments affected. The proportion of strikes that succeeded
was 16.5 per cent, those that failed were 42.5 per cent, and those that
succeeded partly were 41.0 per cent of the total. The number of
o The number of strikers included in tire shrike statistics of Germany is the greatest
number of persons on strike at any tim e during the progress of the strike.
240
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
strikers engaged in strikes which succeeded formed 10.0 per cent,
those in strikes that failed formed 37.1 per cent, and those in strikes
that succeeded partly formed 52.9 per cent of the total number of
strikers.
The following table shows, by principal groups of industries, the
number and results of strikes, the number of establishments and
strikers involved, and the number of other employees thrown out of
work on account of the strikes occurring in the year 1907:
NUMBER AND RESULTS OF STRIKES, ESTABLISHMENTS AFFECTED, STRIKERS, AND
OTHER EMPLOYEES THROWN OUT OF WORK, BY INDUSTRIES, 1907.
[The column headed “ Strikers” shows the maximum number of strikers at any time during the strike.]
Strikes which—
Industry.
Total
strikes.
Gardening, florist, and nursery trades....,
16
2
Fisheries.................................................. .
95
Mining, metallurgical, salt, etc..............
Quarrying, products of stone, clay, glass,
189
etc...............................................
182
Metalworking................................. .
149
Machinery, instruments, apparatus, etc...
22
Chemical products..........................
18
Oil, fat, soap, gas, etc......................
98
Textiles.......................................
Paper..........................................
Leather.......................................
190
Woodworking, carved materials, etc...
175
Food and drinks (including tobacco)...
121
Wearing apparel, cleaning, etc..........
704
Building trades.............................
24
Printing.......................................
7
Art trades.............................................
88
Commerce....................................
102
Transportation..............................
8
Hotels, restaurants, etc....................
1
Other..........................................
2,266
Total...................................
Other
Estab
employ
lish
ees
ments Strikers. thrown
Suc
affect
Suc ceeded
out
of
Failed.
ed.
ceeded. partly.
work.
19
162
417
808
270
22
20
77
39
272
16
3
133
4
106
79
534
740
1,478
1,185
5,773
34
36
278
742
930
963
86
11,777
14.490
12,825
1,674
736
10,718
1,592
3,340
9,194
10,411
12.491
1
697
308
5,833
8,416
119
4
13,092
192,430
8
373
1,449
23,847
5
*4£KI
w
1,352
509
94
21
2,751
118
106
165
220
211
3,409
78
'“iso
214
10,594
The building trades had by far the greatest number of strikes, the
704 disputes in this industry forming 31.1 per cent of all the strikes
reported; the number of strikers also was in excess of those in any
other industry, the 62,423 strikers being 32.4 per cent of all the
persons on strike. The group, woodworking, carved materials, etc.,
came next in order as regards the number of strikes, this group
having had 8.4 per cent of all the strikes. The mining, metallurgical,
etc., group ranked second as far as the number of strikers was con
cerned, with 12.4 per cent of all the persons on strike.
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---GERMANY.
241
The two tables following present the data according to the duration
of the strikes and according to the number of strikers involved:
NUMBER AND RESULTS OF STRIKES, ESTABLISHMENTS AFFECTED, STRIKERS, AND
OTHER EMPLOYEES THROWN OUT OF WORK, BY DURATION, 1907.
[The column headed “ Strikers” shows the maximum number of strikers at any time during the strike.]
Strikes which—
Days of duration.
Total
strikes.
Other
Estabemploy
lishees
ments
Strikers.
Suc
thrown
Suc ceeded
Failed. affect
out of
ed.
ceeded. partly.
work.
21 to 30.......................................................
31 to 30.......................................................
51 to 100.....................................................
101 and over...............................................
131
806
335
289
156
218
224
107
33
194
49
39
19
Total................................................
2,266
Less than 1 ................................................
1 to 5 ..........................................................
6 to 10 ........................................................
11 to 20 .......................................................
68
14
3
30
278
162
134
63
106
114
43
334
124
116
74
90
96
61
181
1,796
1,384
2,081
1,183
3,172
2,254
1,041
4,929
47,281
26,108
19,886
14,221
41,605
25,843
12,557
292
3,228
1,449
2,341
1,137
983
643
521
373
930
963
13,092
192,430
10,594
22
NUMBER AND RESULTS OF STRIKES, ESTABLISHMENTS AFFECTED, STRIKERS
AND OTHER EMPLOYEES THROWN OUT OF WORK, BY NUMBER OF STRIKERS
INVOLVED, 1907.
[The column headed “ Strikers” shows the maximum number of strikers at anytim e during the strike.]
Strikes which—
Strikers involved in each strike.
2 to 5 ..........................................................
6 to 10 ........................................................
11 to 2 0 ......................................................
21 to 30......................................................
31 to 50.......................................................
51 to 100.....................................................
101 to 200 ...................................................
201 to 500...................................................
501 and over..............................................
Total........................................... *...
Total
strikes.
125
249
472
309
347
379
212
125
48
2,266
Other
Estabemploy
lishees
ments Strikers. thrown
Suc
Suc ceeded
af
Failed.
out
of
ceeded. partly.
fected.
work.
49
89
51
57
61
28
15
2
25
64
177
132
148
190
108
59
27
79
136
206
126
142
128
76
51
19
145
349
858
690
990
1,576
2,213
2,215
4,056
498
2,016
7,087
7,912
13,667
27,146
29,734
38,228
66,142
38
252
645
613
1,284
1,152
3,377
2,298
935
373
930
963
13,092
192,430
10,594
21
242
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
The following table shows the results of the strikes in 1907 by cause
or object:
STRIKES, BY CAUSES AND RESULTS.
[Strikes due to two or more causes have been tabulated under each cause; the totals for the groups, there
fore, are not the sums of the items for the individual causes. For example, a strike ‘‘for increase of wages
and extra rate for overtime” is tabulated separately under each of these causes, while it is tabulated only
once under total strikes relating to wages. For a similar reason the sums of the figures in this table
exceed the totals in the preceding tables.]
Strikes which—
Cause or object.
Strikes relating to wages:
Agohust ran notion of wages...................................................
TPnrinoraafiA of W&gCS. r—__________ ___________________
For oxtra rate for overtime.. __________________________
For extra pay for secondary work........................................
Other causes affecting wages.................................................
Total (relating to wages).............................................
Strikes relating to hours of labor:
Against increase of hours......................................................
For reduction of hours...........................................................
For abolition or limitation of overtime work........................
For reduction of hours on Saturday.....................................
Against introduction of overtime, Sunday work, etc............
For regular hours..................................................................
Other causes affecting hours of labor....................................
Total
strikes.
79
1,606
270
93
190
1,738
Suc
ceeded.
20
303
86
26
49
318
3
143
9
30
Total (relating to hours of labor)..................... ..........
9
532
39
71
4
22
98
633
Strikes relating to causes other than wages or hours of labor:
Abolition, etc., of piece work................................................
For introduction, etc., of piece work....................................
For reinstatement of discharged employees..........................
For dismissal, etc., of employees...........................................
For dismissal, etc., of strike breakers...................................
For Hisrnigs^i of foremen.......................................................
Against being compelled to work on May 1..........................
For recognition of workmen’s committee, etc.......................
For recognition of journeymen's employment office.............
For recognition of right to join union....................................
Maintenance of wage agreement...........................................
For introduction of wage agreement.....................................
51
7
317
71
33
28
25
39
18
5
28
133
14
3
56
10
25
167
12
11
5
3
13
4
Suc
ceeded
partly.
19
742
79
27
32
797
.
1
126
3
7
1
5
20
157
8
1
30
5
4
3
3
3
Failed.
40
561
105
40
109
623
5
263
27
34
3
7
53
309
29
3
231
54
18
20
22
For abolition of notiMoatoaTbig or discharge.....................
For determination of notice on leaving or discharge.............
Other causes not specified.....................................................
10
383
41
43
4
4
74
57
23
4
14
71
41
3
6
252
Total (relating to causes other than wages or hours of
labor)........................................................................
1,084
237
177
670
120
7
12
1
2
21
36
11
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---GERMANY.
243
The results of strikes for each year from 1899 to 1907 are shown
in the following table, together with number of strikers and estab
lishments affected:
NUMBER AND RESULTS OF STRIKES, ESTABLISHMENTS AFFECTED, AND STRIKERS,
BY YEARS, 1899 TO 1907.
[The column headed ‘‘Strikers” shows the maximum number of strikers at any time during strike.]
Strikes which—
Year.
1899.......
1900.......
1901.......
1902.......
1903.......
1904.......
1905.......
1906.......
1907.......
Total
strikes.
1,288
1,433
1,056
1,060
1,374
1,870
2,403
3,328
2,266
Succeeded.
Succeeded partly.
Num Percent
of total
ber. strikes.
Num Percent
of total
ber.
strikes.
331
275
200
228
300
449
528
«13
373
25.7
19.2
18.9
21.5
2 1.8
24.0
2 2.0
18.4
16.5
429
505
285
235
444
688
971
1,498
930
33.3
35.2
27.0
2 2 .2
32.3
36.8
40.4
45.0
41.0
Total
em
Estab ployees
lish
in
estab Strikers.
ments
lish
affected. ments
Percent
Num of total
affected.
ber.
strikes.
Failed.
528
653
571
597
630
733
904
1,217
963
41.0
45.6
54.1
56.3
45.9
39.2
37.6
36.6
42.5
7,121
7,740
4,561
3,437
7,000
10,321
14,481
16,246
13,092
256,858
298,819
141,220
131,086
198,636
273,364
776,984
686,539
445,165
99,338
122,803
55,262
53,912
85,603
113,480
408,145
272,218
192,430
L ockouts in 1907.—In the year 1907 there were 246 lockouts
reported; the number of establishments affected by these disputes
was 5,287, the number of persons employed in these establishments
was 129,563, of whom 81,167 were locked out, while 1,825 persons
were thrown out of work because of the disputes. The average
number of persons locked out in each dispute was 330, and the average
number of establishments affected in each dispute was 22. Of the
246 lockouts, 112, or 45.5 per cent, were succsssful from the standpoint
of the employers, 119, or 48.4 per cent, were partly successful, and 15,
or 6.1 per cent, were unsuccessful.
The following table shows, by principal groups of industries, the
number and results of lockouts, the number of establishments and
persons involved in lockouts, and the number of other employees
thrown out of work on account of lockouts during the year 1907:
244
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
NUMBER AND RESULTS OF LOCKOUTS, ESTABLISHMENTS AFFECTED, EMPLOYEES
LOCKED OUT, AND OTHER EMPLOYEES THROWN OUT OF WORK, BY INDUSTRIES*
1907.
[The column headed “ Employees locked out” shows the maximum number of employees locked out at
any time during lockout.]
Lockouts which—
Other
Em
em
Estabploy
ploy
Total
lishees
lock
ees
ments
Suc
thrown
outs.
Suc ceeded
Failed. affected. locked
out.
ceeded. partly.
out of
work.
Industry.
4
5
5
Quarrying, products of stone, clay, glass, etc..
Metal working..................................................
Machinery, instruments, apparatus, etc........
Oil, fat, soap, gas, etc.......................................
Textiles............................................................
Paper...............................................................
Leather............................................................
Woodworking, carved materials, e t c .............
Foods and drinks (including tobacco).............
Wearing apparel, cleaning, etc........................
Building trades................................................
Printing...........................................................
Commerce........................................................
5
13
2
6
4
1
2
T otal.....................................................
246
112
119
21
3
5
4
4
35
11
53
84
8
14
3
2
2
3
6
28
5
25
42
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
6
27
35
1
7
15
25
159
84
3
57
7
163
1,296
39
1,042
2,351
59
717
9,018
10,769
55
3,501
124
953
14,435
971
11,521
23,847
14
5,242
5,287
81,167
2
53
151
193
26
191
1,211
1,825
The largest number of lockouts occurred in the building trades.
In this group there were 84 disputes, or 34.1 per cent of the total
number, and 23,847 persons, or 29.4 per cent of the total, were locked
out; the group wearing apparel, etc., had 53 disputes, or 21.5 per
cent of the total, and 11,521 persons, or 14.2 per cent of the total,
were locked out; the group woodworking, etc., had 35 disputes, or
14.2 per cent of the total, and 14,435 persons, or 17.8 per cent of the
total, were locked out. These three groups of industries included
69.9 per cent of all the lockouts and 61.4 per cent of all the persons
locked out.
The results of lockouts for each year from 1899 to 1907, together
with establishments affected and employees locked out, are shown in
the table following:
NUMBER AND RESULTS OF LOCKOUTS, ESTABLISHMENTS AFFECTED, AND
EMPLOYEES LOCKED OUT, BY YEARS, 1899 TO 1907.
[The column headed “ Employees locked out” shows the maximum number of employees locked out at
any time during lockout.]
Lockouts which—
Year.
1899.......
1900.......
1901.......
1902.......
1903.......
1904.......
1905.......
1906.......
1907.......
Total
lock
outs.
23
35
35
46
70
120
254
298
246
Total
Em
Estab employ
ees
in
lish
estab ployees
ments
locked
lish
affected. ments
out.
Percent Num Per cent
affected.
Num Percent
Num
of
total
of
total
of
total
ber. lockouts. ber. lockouts. ber. lockouts.
Succeeded.
6
13
16
30
36
44
65
88
112
26.1
37.1
45.7
65.2
51.4
36.7
25.6
29.5
45.5
Succeeded
partly.
9
17
8
7
15
33
147
174
119
39.1
48.6
22.9
15.2
21.4
27.5
57.9
58.4
48.4
Failed.
8
5
11
9
19
43
42
36
15
34.8
14.3
31.4
19.6
27.2
35.8
16.5
12.1
6 .1
427
607
238
948
1,714
1,115
3,859
2,780
5,287
8,290
22,462
7,980
18,705
52,541
36,312
188,526
152.449
129,563
5,298
9,085
5,414
10,305
35,273
23,760
118,665
77,109
81,167
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— GREAT BRITAIN.
245
GREAT BRITAIN.
Report on Strikes and Lockouts and on Conciliation and Arbitration
Boards in (he United Kingdom in 1907. 1908. 170 pp. (Pub
lished by the Labor Department of the British Board of Trade.)
This report is the twentieth of a series of annual reports, begun in
1888, on strikes and lockouts. I t presents statistics for strikes and
lockouts beginning in 1907 and of trade disputes settled by concili
ation or arbitration boards. Summary tables are also given, making
general comparison of results in 1907 with the results of each of the
four previous years, 1903 to 1906.
Figures are given showing, by industries, causes, and results, the
number of strikes and lockouts, persons directly and indirectly in
volved, and days lost. A list of trade disputes (involving cessation
of work) settled in 1907 by conciliation or arbitration is given, and
tables are presented summarizing, by industries, the work of the per
manent and district conciliation and arbitration boards.
Strikes and lockouts in which the number of persons involved was
fewer than 10 or which lasted less than one day, unless the aggregate
days lost exceeded 100 days, are not included in the report.
Appendixes show the method used in classifying causes of trade
disputes; trade dispute statistics for each year of the period 1893 to
1907; great labor disputes, 1888 to 1906; and specimen forms of
inquiry used.
S t r i k e s a n d L o o k o u t s i n 1907.—As in previous years, so in 1907,
disputes relative to wages were the most numerous, forming 63.9 per
cent of all disputes for the year and involving 55.7 per cent of all
striking and locked-out employees. Of the 384 disputes of this class,
30.2 per cent resulted in favor of employees, 38.5 per cent in favor of
employers, and 31.3 per cent were compromised. Of the total em
ployees engaged in wage disputes, 26.6 per cent were in disputes
settled in favor of the employees, 28.3 per cent in those settled in
favor of the employers, and 45.1 per cent in those th at were compro
mised. Of the 16 disputes relative to hours of labor, 25 per cent
were settled in favor of the employees, 56.3 per cent in favor of the
employers, and 18.7 per cent were compromised. Of the 138 dis
putes relative to trade unionism and employment of particular classes
or persons, 42 per cent were settled in favor of employees, 39.9 per
cent in favor of employers, and 18.1 per cent were compromised;
while 51.2 per cent of the employees involved were in disputes settled
in favor of the employees, 18.2 per cent in those settled in favor of
the employers, and 30.6 per cent in those that were compromised.
Considering all disputes, 32.1 per cent were settled in faVor of the
employees, 40.9 per cent in favor of the employers, 26.8 per cent were
compromised, and 0.2 per cent were indefinite or unsettled.
246
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
During the year there were 601 strikes and lockouts recorded,
affecting 147,498 persons and entailing an aggregate loss of 2,162,151
working days. The number of disputes is greater, while the number
of persons involved and’ the number of working days lost are both
less than the averages for the five-year period, 1902 to 1906.
The following tables show the number of strikes and lockouts, the
number of strikers and persons locked out and of other persons
thrown out of work by reason of strikes and lockouts in 1907, and the
number of working days lost by all employees thrown out of work,
classified according to principal causes and by results:
STRIKERS AND EMPLOYEES LOCKED OUT, B Y CAUSES AND RESULTS, AND OTHER
EMPLOYEES THROWN OUT OF WORK, 1907.
[“ Aggregate working days lost by all employees thrown out of work” includes the aggregate duration
in 1907 of disputes which began in previous years, and excludes the duration in 1908 of disputes which
began in 1907.]
Strikes and lockouts, the results
of which were—
Principal cause or object.
Wages............................................................
Hours of labor...............................................
Employment of particular classes or persons.
Working arrangements, rules, and discipline.
Trade unionism.............................................
Sympathetic disputes...................................
Other causes..................................................
Aggregate
Total
working
strikes days lost
and
by
all em
In
In
Indefi lock
ployees
favor favor Com
nite or outs. thrown
pro
out
of em of em
unset
of work.
ployees. ployers. mised. tled.
116
4
27
14
31
1
148
9
46
29
9
3
15
384
16
1,462,632
30,104
324,180
192,885
131,123
5,721
15,506
601
2,162,151
2
3
193
Total
120
161
1
STRIKERS AND EMPLOYEES LOCKED OUT, BY CAUSES AND RESULTS, AND OTHER
EMPLOYEES THROWN OUT OF WORK, 1907.
Strikers and employees locked
out in disputes, the results of
which were—
Principal cause or object.
Total
Other
em
strikers
and em ployees
ployees
thrown
In
In
Indefi locked
out of
favor favor Com
or
pro nite
but.
work.
of em of em mised.
unset
ployees. ployers.
tled.
W ages..................................................................... 14,882
925
Hours of labor........................................................
Employment of particular classes or persons......... 2,349
Working arrangements, rules, and discipline......... 1,634
Trade unionism..................................................... 13,082
11
Sympathetic disputes.............................................
Other causes............................................................
15,871
878
4,933
4,369
543
357
282
25,305
277
6,417
5,549
2,814
Total.............................................................. 32,883
27,233
40,362
250
56,058
2,060
13,699
11,802
16,439
368
282
31,592
2,636
6,146
2,497
1,554
250
100,728
46,770
2,345
Of all employees directly affected by labor disputes, 32.6 per cent
were involved in disputes settled in favor of the employees, 27 per
cent in those settled in favor of the employers, 40.1 per cent in those
that were compromised, and 0.3 per cent in those the results of which
were indefinite or unsettled.
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— GREAT BRITAIN.
247
The following table shows the number of strikes and lockouts, em
ployees thrown out of work, and working days lost, according to
classified number of employees thrown out of work:
STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, EMPLOYEES THROWN OUT OF WORK, AND WORKING DAYS
LOST, B Y CLASSIFIED DUMBER OF EMPLOYEES THROWN OUT OF WORK, 1907.
[“Aggregate working days lost by all employees thrown out of work” refers exclusively to disputes which
began in 1907, ana includes working days lost in 1908 due to disputes which extended beyond 1907.]
Classified number of employees thrown out of work.
Strikes
and
lockouts.
Employees thrown
out of work.
Aggregate working
days lost by all em
ployees thrown out
of work.
Number. Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
15.3
16.8
4.1
2.4
1.3
36,570
213,675
474,964
305,620
532,719
311,923
79,725
80,732
35,667
10.3
22.9
14.8
25.7
15.1
3.8
3.9
1.7
100.0
2,071,595
100.0
5,000 and o v er.........................................................
2,500 and under 5,000...............................................
1,000 and under 2,500...............................................
500 and under 1,000..................................................
250 and under 500.....................................................
100 and under 250.....................................................
50 and under 100......................................................
25 and under 5 0 .......................................................
Under 25 (a).............................................................
103
116
9,700
11,475
36,782
30,737
22,635
24,756
5,983
3,530
1,900
Total..............................................................
601
147,498
1
3
24
45
68
153
88
6 .6
7.8
24.9
20.8
1 .8
a Disputes involving fewer than 10 workpeople and those which lasted less than one day have been
omitted, except when the aggregate duration exceeded 100 working days.
In 1907 there was but 1 dispute in which the number of employees
involved exceeded 5,000; in 1906 there were 9 disputes of this magni
tude. The disputes affecting more than 500 persons in 1907 were but
12.1 per cent of the total number of disputes, while these disputes
affected 60.1 per cent of all employees thrown out of work.
In the following table are given the number of strikes and lockouts,
employees thrown out of work, and working days lost, classified ac
cording to duration of the disputes:
STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, EMPLOYEES THROWN OUT OF WORK, AND WORKING
DAYS LOST, B Y DURATION, 1907.
[“ Aggregate working days lost by all employees thrown out of work” refers exclusively to disputes which
began in 1907, and includes working days lost in 1908 due to disputes which extended beyond 1907.]
Duration of strikes or lockouts.
Number Employees
of
thrown out
disputes. of work.
Aggregate
working
days lost
by all
employees.
Under 1 w eek.......................................................................................
1 week and under 2 weeks.....................................................................
2 weeks and under 4 weeks....................................................................
4 weeks and under 6 weeks....................................................................
6 weeks and under 8 weeks...................................................................
8 weeks and under 10 weeks..................................................................
10 weeks ^
under 15 weeks.................................................................
15 weeks and under 20 weeks.................................................................
20 weeks and under 25 weeks.................................................................
25 weeks and over..................................................................................
243
108
95
47
28
14
31
17
9
9
69,637
32,791
14,841
5,996
11,042
4,338
3,278
3,490
1,051
1,034
179,986
199,439
222,152
158,186
433,760
185,850
181,752
285,310
98,806
126,354
Total.............................................................................................
601
147,498
2,071,595
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
248
The number of strikes and lockouts which lasted under two weeks
formed 58.4 per cent of all disputes, and the number of persons
thrown out of work in these two groups formed 69.4 per cent of all
persons thrown out of work by strikes and lockouts. There were
but 9 disputes, or 1.5 per cent of all disputes, which had a duration
of twenty-five weeks and over. While the number of employees
involved in disputes in this group formed but 0.7 per cent of all
employees affected by strikes and lockouts, yet the aggregate days
lost by strikers and locked-out employees was 6.1 per cent of the
aggregate working days lost by all employees engaged in the disputes
of the year.
The following tables, in which the disputes are classified by results,
show the number of disputes and of persons affected and the number
of working days lost in each group of industries:
STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, BY RESULTS, AND WORKING DAYS LOST, FOR EACH GROUP
OF INDUSTRIES, 1907.
[“ Aggregate working days lost by all employees thrown oat of work” includes the aggregate duration in
1907 o f disputes which began in previous years, and excludes the duration in 1908 of disputes which began
in 1907.]
Strikes and lockouts the results
of which were—
Industry.
Building trades..................................
Mining and quarrying........................
Metal, engineering, and shipbuilding.
Textile trades.....................................
Clothing trades...................................
Transportation...................................
Miscellaneous trades...........................
Employees of public authorities........
Total.
Aggregate
Total
working
strikes days lost
by
all em
and
In
In
Indefi lock
ployees
favor favor Com
nite or outs.
pro
thrown
out
of em of em
unset
of work.
ployees. ployers. mised. tled.
9
46
37
56
7
28
32
40
18
17
*6
37
65
57
24
17
38
2
27
3
193
246
161
22
6
1
22
112
134
153
64
29
82
5
23,128
569,061
467,633
642,460
277,949
85,471
91,128
5,321
1
601
2,162,151
6
STRIKERS AND EMPLOYEES LOCKED OUT, BY RESULTS, AND OTHER EMPLOYEES
THROWN OUT OF WORK, FOR EACH GROUP OF INDUSTRIES, 1907.
Strikers and employees locked
out in disputes, the results
of which were—
Industry.
Building trades..................................
Mining and quarrying........................
Metal, engineering, and shipbuilding.
Textile trades.....................................
Clothing trades...................................
Transportation...................................
Miscellaneous trades...........................
Employees of public authorities........
Total.
Other
Total
strikers employand em
thrown
In
In
Indefi ployees
out of
favor favor Com
nite or locked
pro
work.
out.
of em of em mised. unset
ployees. ployers.
tled.
411
19,511
2,907
6,786
1,819
746
703
168
7,352
4,648
8,659
877
3,442
2,036
51
579
8,516
4,343
12,408
7,478
4,147
2,738
153
32,883
27,233
40,362
250
250
1,158
35,629
11,898
27,853
10,174
8,335
5,477
204
72
16,938
7,678
19,576
1,469
373
551
113
100,728
46,770
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— GREAT BRITAIN.
249
The number of disputes, persons directly affected, persons indi
rectly affected, and aggregate working days lost in the mining and
quarrying, metal, engineering, and shipbuilding, and textile groups
of industries exceed similar items in every other industrial group. Of
the total, there were 193 disputes, involving 32,833 workpeople,
which resulted in favor of employees; 246 disputes, involving 27,233
workpeople, which resulted in favor of employers; and 161 disputes,
involving 40,362 workpeople, which were compromised. The re
maining dispute was indefinite or unsettled as to result.
S t r i k e s a n d L o c k o u t s d u r i n g F i v e Y e a r s .—During the fiveyear period 1903 to 1907 there was a yearly average of 437 disputes,
affecting an average of 132,677 employees yearly and entailing an
average yearly loss of 2,296,809 working days.
The following table shows the number of strikes and lockouts,
employees thrown out of work, and working days lost in each year of
the period named:
STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, EMPLOYEES THROWN OUT OF WORK, AND WORKING DAYS
LOST, BY YEARS, 1903 TO 1907.
[“ Aggregate working days lost by all employees thrown out of work” includes the aggregate duration in
each year of disputes which began in previous years and extended beyond the year in which they began,
and excludes the duration in 1908 of disputes which began in 1907.]
Aggregate
working
Other
Total
Strikers
days lost
Strikes
employees employees by
and
em
all em
and
thrown
thrown
ployees
ployees
lockouts. locked
out of
out of
out.
thrown
work.
work.
out of
work.
Year.
387
355
358
486
601
1903___ *.........................................................
1904.................................................................
1905.................................................................
1906.................................................................
1907.................................................................
23,386
30,828
25,850
59,901
46,770
93,515
56,380
67,653
157,872
100,728
116,901
87,208
93,503
217,773
147,498
2,338,668
1,484,220
2,470,189
3,028,816
2,162,151
The number of strikes and lockouts, and employees thrown out of
work in each year from 1903 to 1907, are shown in the following table,
by industries:
STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS AND EMPLOYEES THROWN OUT OP WORK, BY INDUSTRIES
AND YEARS, 1903 TO 1907.
Stfikes and lockouts.
Employees thrown out of work.
Industry.
1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
Building trades............................... 44
Mining and quarrying..................... 125
Metal, engineering, and shipbuild
ing................................................ 87
Textile trades.................................. 55
Clothing trades................................ 25
Transportation................................ 15
Miscellaneous trades........................ 32
4
Employees of public authorities___
37
113
31
106
19
96
22
112
3,663
63,578
8,697
46,287
6,637
44,791
1,441
83,833
1,230
52,567
75
52
26
70
67
29
125
124
42
19
58
3
134
153
64
29
82
5
32,380
9,458
2,476
2,172
2,463
711
12,130
13,048
1,448
1,759
3,794
45
12,753
15,786
3,540
42,049
75,114
8,912
7,159
725
2,112 1,888
4,272
264
19,576
47,429
11,643
8,708
6,028
317
Total...................................... 387
355
486
601 116,901
87,208
93,503 217,773
147,498
10 11
39
1 5
41
358
250
BULLETIN* OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
The following table shows, by groups of industries, the aggregate
working days lost by all employees thrown out of work for each year
of the period 1903 to 1907:
AGGREGATE DURATION IN WORKING DAYS OF STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, BY INDUS
TRIES AND YEARS, 1903 TO 1907.
[“ Aggregate working days lost by all employees thrown out of work” includes the aggregate duration in
each year of disputes which began in previous years and extended beyond the year in which they began,
and excludes the duration in 1908 of disputes which began in 1907.]
Aggregate working days lost by all employees thrown out
of work.
Industry.
1904.
1903.
1905.
1906.
1907.
Building trades...........................................
Mining and quarrying................................
Metal, engineering, and shipbuilding.........
Textile trades..............................................
Clothing trades...........................................
Transportation............................................
Miscellaneous trades...................................
Employees of public authorities.................
114,371
1,397,898
481,016
117,038
136,182
26,779
64,892
492
345,513
657,285
185,429
121,554
13,202
42,343
118,804
90
412,633
1,255,514
467,571
126,483
71,435
67,089
64,290
5,174
56,201
922,102
1,118,282
762,999
92,139
62,184
4,888
23.128
569,061
467,633
642,460
277,949
85,471
91.128
5,321
Total..................................................
2,338,668
1,484,220
2,470,189
3,028,816
2,162,151
10,021
There were more strikes and lockouts during 1907 than during any
other year of the fiye-year period, and, except during the previous
year, 1906, more employees thrown out of work. During the three
years 1903 to 1905 the greatest number of disputes arose in the min
ing and quarrying industry, but in 1906 and in 1907 this industry
ranks third as to number of disputes, the greatest number (153) dur
ing 1907 being in the textile trades, followed by 134 in the metal,
engineering, and shipbuilding trades. On the other hand, mining
and quarrying shows during 1907 the largest number of employees
thrown out of work, and ranks second as to aggregate working days
lost by employees.
The number of strikes and lockouts and the number of strikers
and employees locked out for each year of the period 1903 to 1907
are shown in the next table, by principal causes:
STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS AND STRIKERS AND EMPLOYEES LOCKED OUT, BY PRIN
CIPAL CAUSES AND YEARS, 1903 TO 1907.
Strikes and lockouts.
*
Strikers and employees locked out.
Principal cause or object.
1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
49,557
4,108
32,783
1,970
38,737
3,145
87,933
7,086
56,058
2,080
1907.
Wages.............................................. 232
Hours of labor................................. 17
Employment of particular classes or
persons......................................... 54
working arrangements, rules, and
discipline...................................... 56
Trade unionism............................... 25
Sympathetic disputes.....................
3
Other causes....................................
233
13
235
14
332
13
384
16
46
47
53
88
7,822
6,081
6,408
4,734
13,699
47
15
37
1
21
2
2
52
32
2
2
57
50
3
3
13,609
17,602
7,601
7,925
5,546
9,377
243
4,197
6,536
50,750
33
800
11,802
16,439
368
282
Total...................................... 387
355
358
486
601
93,515
67,653 157,872
100,728
817
20
56,380
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— GREAT BRITAIN
251
While the number of disputes relative to wages remained practi
cally the same during the years 1903 to 1905, there was a material
increase during both 1906 and 1907, as compared with the preceding
years. Except during 1906, the number of strikers and employees
locked out during 1907 was greater than that during any of the
preceding years. The number of disputes in 1907 relative to hours of
labor follows closely that for each of the preceding four years, while
the number of employees involved is the smallest of any year of the
period except 1904. Disputes in 1907 on account of the employment
of particular classes or persons numbered 88, as compared with 54,
the greatest number during any preceding year of the period, while
the number of employees involved was 13,699, as compared with
7,822, the greatest number reported during any preceding year of the
five-year period. Disputes arising from the remaining named causes
show for 1907 a record not strikingly different from that of the four
preceding years.
The following table shows by results, the number of strikes and
lockouts and employees directly affected during each year, 1903 to
1907:
STRIKES ANT LOCKOUTS AND STRIKERS AND EMPLOYEES LOCKED OUT, BY
RESULTS AND YEARS, 1903 TO 1907.
[The figures for years previous to 1907 have been revised to include the results of disputes terminated after
the reports of those years were published.)
Strikes and lockouts.
Strikers and employees locked out.
Result.
In favor of employees................. 90 62 70
In favor of employers................. 185 180 168
Compromised........................... 111 112 119
1
1
Indefinite or unsettled................ 1
Total.............................. 387 355 358
153
180
151
2
486
193
246
161
1
601
29,167
44,956
19,370
22
93,515
1904.
15,413
23,500
17,441
26
56,380
1905.
1906.
1907.
16,702 67,159 32,883
23,029 38,667 27,233
27,894
40,362
28
28
250
67,653 157,872 100,728
8.
©
00
1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1903.
This table shows that for each year during the five-year period the
number of disputes resulting in favor of the employees was less than
the number in which the employers were successful. The total
number of disputes during the five-year period was 2,187, of which
568, or 26 per cent, were settled in favor of the employees; 959, or
43.8 per cent, in favor of the employers; 654, or 29.9 per cent, were
compromised; and 6, or 0.3 per cent, were indefinite or unsettled. In
1907, of the 601 disputes, 32.1 per cent were favorable to the employees
and 40.9 to the employers, 26.8 per cent were compromised, and 0.2
per cent were indefinite or unsettled at the end of the year.
During the five-year period there were in the aggregate 476,148
employees directly affected by strikes and lockouts. Of this number,
161,324 employees, or 33.9 per cent of all employees directly affected,
38697—No. 86—10-----17
252
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR.
were involved in disputes in which employees were successful;
157,385, or 33 per cent, in disputes in which the employers were suc
cessful; 157,085, or 33 per cent, in disputes which were compromised;
and 354, or 0.1 per cent, in those of which the settlement was indefinite
or which were unsettled. The corresponding percentages for 1907
were 32.6, 27, 40.1, and 0.3, respectively.
In the following table the number of strikes and lockouts, and the
number of strikers and employees locked out, are shown by methods
of settlement for each year of the period 1903 to 1907:
STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS AND STRIKERS AND EMPLOYEES LOCKED OUT, BY
METHOD OF SETTLEMENT AND YEARS, 1903 TO 1907.
[The figures for the years previous to 1907 have been revised to include the results of disputes terminated
after the reports for these years were published.]
Strikes and lockouts.
Strikers and employees locked out.
Method of settlement.
1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1903.
Arbitration..............................
Conciliation..............................
Direct arrangement or negotiation
between parties or their repre
sentatives..............................
Submission of employees.............
Replacement of employees...........
Closing of works........................
Indefinite or unsettled................
Total..............................
18
8
15
12
9
22
17
23
14 18,047
31 1,401
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1,832
3,179
2,224
8,752
4,611
3,674
2,115
11,337
270 227 220 340 395 64,459 43,589 48,155 129,614 74,160
36 27 47 39 70 6,989 4,495 5,550 17,293
8,980
50 67 53 60 84 2,378 2,587 2,126 2,497
3,325
672
5
3
241
714
211
6
3
5
128
132
4
1
4
2
26
55
600
387 355 358 486 601 93,515 56,380 67,653 157,872 100,728
In each year most of the disputes were settled by direct arrange
ment or negotiation, the percentage of disputes settled by this
method being 69.8, 63.9, 61.5, 70, and 65.7 per cent of all disputes
for the respective years 1903 to 1907. Disputes settled by submis
sion of employees, replacement of employees, and closing of works
together formed 23.5, 28.2, 28.8, 21, and 26.5 per cent of all disputes
for the respective years. Only 45 disputes, involving 13.4 per cent
of all persons directly affected, were settled by arbitration and con
ciliation during 1907. The number of disputes so settled, however,
is greater than the average for the preceding four years, which is
but 31.
ITALY.
(statistics of
strikes in Italy in 1905). Ufficio del Lavoro, Ministero di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio, 1908, xcv, 183 pp.
Statistiea degli sd op eri aw enwti in Italia neU’ anno 190 5
This is the second of the new series of reports on strikes published
by the Bureau of Labor of the Italian Department of Agriculture,
Industry, and Commerce, 11 strike reports having been previously
published by the General Statistical Office of the same department.
As the statistical data in regard to agricultural strikes are elaborated
253
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— ITALY.
on a somewhat different plan from that used for the other industries,
the general summary does not include the agricultural strikes, these
being studied at some detail in the last chapter of the report. In the
following digest only the summary and the chapter on agricultural
strikes have received consideration. The report is of exceptional
interest as to method, because it analyzes the statistical data con
cerning strikes in many novel and complex ways.
N umber op Strikes and Strikers .—The total number of strikes
in Italy for 1905 was 715, and the number of strikers (except 4 strikes,
for which no data were available) 154,527. The distribution of
strikes and strikers by industrial groups is shown in the following
table. The 46 industries stated in the original reports were con
solidated here into 18 large groups to conform with preceding Italian
strike reports.
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY INDUSTRIES, 1905.
Industry.
Agriculture......................................................................................................
Mining and quarrying...............................................................................
Foundry products, machinery, apparatus, and ship building.....................................
Precious metal working.............................................................................
Stone, clay, and glass................................................................................
Building and engineering work....................................................................
Chemical products....................................................................................
Woodwork, furniture, baskets, etc...............................................................
Paper....................................................................................................
Printing.................................................................................................
Textiles..................................................................................................
Clothing, hats, and straw goods....................................................................................
Hides and shoes...........................................................................................................
Food products......................................... '..............................................
Fishing..................................................................................................
Railroads...............................................................................................
All other forms of transportation..................................................................
Public utilities and monopolies, etc..............................................................
Total...................................................................................................................
Strikes. Strikers.
«87
63
574
2
547
121
10
23
7
29
106
25
534
38
4
2
24
19
c715
43,695
12,888
5,290
271
2,426
21,611
1,850
8,051
453
758
15,687
4,638
2,629
2,768
359
24,128
4,874
2,151
154,527
a Including 4 strikes, number of strikers not reported.
5 Including 1 strike, number of strikers not reported.
c Including 7 strikes, number of strikers not reported.
In most of the tables used in the following analysis the agricul
tural strikes are not included, leaving for manufacturing and ex
tractive industry, transportation, etc., 628 strikes and 110,832
strikers. The total membership of the industrial unions is given in
the report as 219,772 and the total number of strikers (exclusive of
the strikers in the railroad strike) as 86,980.
Strikes by S ize of E stablishments.—The number of employees
in establishments is reported for 453 strikes and 56,061 strikers, a large
proportion of the striking establishments as shown by the following
table employing 150 persons and under. This is probably due to the
general prevalence of the smaller establishments in Italian industry.
254
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
STRIKES, BY SIZE OF ESTABLISHMENTS, 1905.
Size of establishment.
Per
cent.
Strikes.
5
12
54
73
85
50
34
43
22
19
10
7
7
5
5
14
4
3
1
453
1 to 5 persons.....................................................................
6 to i(Tpersons...................................................................
il to 25 persons..................................................................
26 to 50 persons..................................................................
51 to 100 persons.................................................................
101 to 150 persons................................................................
151 to 200 persons................................................................
201 to 300 persons.................................................... ...........
301 to 400 persons...............................................................
401 to 500 persons...............................................................
501 to 600 persons...............................................................
601 to 700 persons...............................................................
701 to 800 persons...............................................................
801 to 900 persons...............................................................
901 to 1,000 persons..............................................................
1,001 to 1,500 persons...........................................................
1,501 to 2,000 persons...........................................................
2,001 to 3,000 persons...........................................................
4,000 to 5,000 persons...........................................................
Total.......................................................................
Per
Strikers. cent.
1.1
2.7
11.9
16.1
18.8
11.0
7.5
9.5
4.9
4.2
2.2
1.5
1.5
1.1
1.1
3.1
.9
.7
.2
100.0
21
99
798
1,996
4,363
4,242
3,694
7,030
3,737
4,974
2,264
3,477
1,779
813
1,087
5,996
5,928
3,720
43
56,061
(«)
0.2
1.4
3.6
7.8
7.6
6.6
12.5
6.7
8.9
4.0
6.2
3.2
1.4
1.9
10.7
10.6
6.7
(«)
100.0
a Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.
Causes of S trikes.—In the following table the number of causes
is given and not the number of strikes, such strikes as had more than
one cause appearing more than once, so that the total number of
causes considerably exceeds the number of strikes. Questions con
cerning the amount of wages constituted the most frequent cause
(45.4 per cent) and disputes concerning the methods of payment
came second (17.5 per cent), so that altogether wages represented
nearly two-thirds (63 per cent) of the causes of labor disputes.
While the percentages of successful strikes according to the cause
of the strike do not vary greatly (the average proportion of suc
cesses being42.6 per cent), the demand for closed shops and for changes
of shop discipline seem to meet greater resistance than questions
either of wages or hours.
STRIKES, BY CAUSES AND RESULTS, 1905.
Cause.
Wages:
For increase of wages..........................
Against reduction of wages...................
For equalization of wages.....................
For change of method of payment..........
For guarantee ofm in im u m earnings........
Total............................................
Conditions of payment:
For extra pay for overtime...................
For extra pay for lost time...................
For old-agepension, sick and nonemploy
ment benefits..................................
For change of time of payments.............
Against deduction for material..............
An other questions ofpayment ofwages....
Total............................................
Com Large Fairly Only
pletely ly
suc successslightly
successcessful.
ful. success
ful.
ful.
Com Re
plete sults Total.
fail uncer
ures. tain.
63
21
3
23
2
112
36
~7
2
2
47
53
6
44
6
2
61
12
62
117
37
3
31
7
195
23
10
3
17
3
7
63
3
2
6
4
2
2
9
2
2
14
5
7
1
2
13
3
31
19
15
6
8
14
7
69
5
4
6
15
1
1
1
1
4
318
81
12
56
25
492
56
39
10
30
33
22
190
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— ITALY.
255
STRIKES, BY CAUSES AND RESULTS, 1905-Conoluded.
Cause.
Hours of labor:
For reduction of hours.........................
Against increase of hours.....................
Better distribution of hours, etc............
Total............................................
Conditions of work, hygienic measures, etc__
Discipline:
Against dismissal ofworkmen...............
For dismissal of personnel....................
Other disciplinary questions.................
Total............................................
Shop-regulations:
For shop arbitration committee.............
For giving notice and reasons in case of
discharge.......................................
All other regulations...........................
Total............................................
Monopoly of labor:
Against nonunion men........................
For recognition of union by employment
bureau........ .................................
All other questions............................
Total............................................
Grand total....................................
Com Large Fairly Only
pletely ly
slightly
suc successsuccess
successcessful.
ful.
ful.
ful.
6
3
1
1
1
3
4
12
3
3
18
6
2
1
9
3
1
4
6
13
7
26
2
1
2
3
22
2
9
33
12
8
8
10
26
290
5
1
2
1
4
5
81
1
1
2
91
4
6
1
Com Re
plete sults Total.
fail uncer
ures. tain.
11
10
40
1
6
47
18
2
i
3
74
11
18
103
47
7
1
6
14
33
11
13
57
1
1
2
62
17
25
104
1
2
1
2
10
10
6
26
19
26
16
61
1
1
4
6
136
19
18
46
458
2
9
1
1
27
19
30
37
86
1,083
D uration of S trikes.—The duration of strikes is studied in the
following two tables in connection with the proportion of strikes to
employees. In 35.5 per cent of all the strikes, claiming 39.9 per cent of
all strikers, all the employees of the establishment participated in the
strike; in 24.5 per cent of strikes (21.6 per cent of strikers) a very large
proportion of the employees (71 to 99 per cent) struck. In 21 per
cent of strikes (11.6 per cent of strikers) a fairly large proportion of the
employees (31 to 70 per cent) participated, and only a small propor
tion (not over 30 per cent) in 19 per cent of strikes, with 26.9 per cent
of the strikers.
In most strikes the duration was not over 20 days, and in 57.5 per
cent it was not over 5 days. Analysis of the data, classified as to these
two factors together, seems to show that the larger the proportion of
striking employees the longer the strike tends to last. Thus, of all
strikes in which the proportion of strikers was not over 30 per cent, 68.2
per cent did not last over 5 days; of those in which the proportion was
from 31 to 70 per cent, 63.4 per cent; of those with over 70 per cent
striking, 45.8 per cent. On the other hand, where all the employees
struck, 56.3 per cent of the strikes lasted 5 days or less, which may in
dicate a speedy settlement when all the employees form the strike.
The same tendencies may be observed in the table giving the same
classification for strikers, except that the two large railroad strikes,
which lasted 6 days, somewhat obscure this tendency.
256
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
STRIKES, BY PROPORTION OP STRIKERS TO EMPLOYEES AND BY DURATION OF
STRIKES, 1905.
Proportion of strikers to employees.
Duration of strike.
1 to 30
per cent.
31 to 70
per cent.
71 to 99
per cent.
100 per cent.
Total.
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber of
ber of
ber of
ber of
ber of
strikes. cent. strikes. cent. strikes. cent. strikes. cent. strikes. cent.
Under 1 day.......................
1 to 5 days.........................
6 to 10 days........................
11 to 20 days......................
21 to 30 days......................
31 to 50 days......................
61 days and over.................
Unknown..........................
Total........................
32
49
18
14
4
27.0
41.2
15.1
11.7
3.3
2 1.7
119 100.0
30
53
23
13
4
5
1
2
131
22.9
40.5
17.6
9.9
3.0
3.8
.8
1.5
100.0
20
50
35
24
4
19
1
13.1
32.7
22.9
15.7
2.6
12.4
.6
153 100.0
48
77
46
23
8
7
5
8
222
21.6
34.7
20.7
10.4
3.6
3.2
2.2
3.6
100.0
130 20.8
229 36.7
122 19.5
74 11.8
20
3.2
31
5.0
7
1.1
12
1.9
625 100.0
STRIKERS, BY PROPORTION OP STRIKERS TO EMPLOYEES AND BY DURATION OP
STRIKES, 1905.
Proportion of strikers to employees.
Duration of strike.
1 to 30
per cent.
31 to 70
per cent.
71 to 99
per cent.
100 per cent.
Total.
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber of
ber of
ber of
ber of
ber of
strikers. cent. strikers. cent. strikers. cent. strikers. cent. strikers. cent.
Under 1 day....................... 1,362 4.6 2,849
I to 5 days......................... 2,766 9.3 4,185
6 to 10 days........................ 24,857 83.4 2,832
II to 20 days......................
643 2.1 1,776
451
21 to 30 days......................
168
.6
606
31 to 50 days......................
51 days and over.................
36
Unknown..........................
16 («)
100
/ Total........................ 29,812 100.0 12,835
22.2 2,351
32.6 6,628
22.1 6,147
13.8 4,359
3.5
247
4.7 4,160
.3
77
.8
100.0 23,969
9.8 9,331 21.1 15,893 14.3
27.7 12,705 28.7 26,284 23.7
25.7 7,949 18.0 41,785 37.7
18.2 8,742 19.8 15,520 14.0
1.0 3,349 7.6 4,215
3.8
17.3
849 1.9 5,615
5.1
772 1.7
.3
885
.8
635
519 1.2
.6
100.0 44,216 100.0 110,832 100.0
a Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.
R esults
op
S trikes.—The proportion of striking employees and
results of strikes are compared in the foUowing two tables both for the
strikes and the strikers. With the increase of the proportion of striking
employees, the percentage of successful strikes increases and th at of
completely unsuccessful strikes declines, showing th at the success of
the strike depends upon the proportion of employees forming it.
The same tendency is brought out much more emphatically in the
second table, showing data for strikers.
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— ITALY.
257
STRIKES, BY PROPORTION OF STRIKERS TO EMPLOYEES AND BY RESULTS OF
STRIKES, 1905.
Proportion of strikers to employees.
Result of strike.
1 to 30
per cent.
31 to 70
per cent.
71 to 99
per cent.
100 per cent.
Total.
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber of
ber of
ber of
ber of
ber of
strikes. cent. strikes. cent. strikes. cent. strikes. cent. strikes. cent.
Completely successful...........
Largely successful.............. .•
Fairly successful.................
Only slightly successful........
Complete failures................
Unknown..........................
Total........................
18
8
11
15
65
2
119
15.1
6.7
9.3
12.6
54.6
1.7
100.0
16
18
15
18
61
3
131
12.2
13.7
11.5
13.7
46.6
2.3
100.0
24
19
28
28
54
15.7
12.4
18.3
18.3
35.3
153 100.0
41
31
43
31
66
10
222
18.5
14.0
19.3
14.0
29.7
4.5
100.0
99 15.8
76 12.2
97 15.5
92 14.7
246 39.4
15 2.4
625 100.0
STRIKERS, BY PROPORTION OF STRIKERS TO EMPLOYEES AND BY RESULTS OF
STRIKES, 1905.
Proportion of strikers to employees.
Result of strike.
1 to 30
per cent.
31 to 70
per cent.
71 to 99
per cent.
100 per cent.
Total.
Num.
Num
Num
Num
Num
ber of Per ber of Per ber of Per ber of Per ber of Per
strik cent. strik cent. strik cent. strik cent. strik cent
ers.
ers.
ers.
ers.
ers.
Completely successful........... 1,055 3.6 1,023
Largely successful................
361 1.3 1,698
Fairly successful.................
308 1.1 1,242
Only slightly successful........ 1,199 4.1 2,240
Completely failed................ 26,773 89.8 6,061
Unknown..........................
16 .1
571
Total........................ 29,812 100.0 12,835
8.0 2,148
13.2 2,649
9.7 5,100
17.5 6,716
47.2 7,356
4.4
100.0 23,969
9.3 14,611 33.0 18,837 17.0
11.0 4,900 11.1 9,608
8.7
21.1 9,638 21.8 16,388 14.8
28.0 6,881 15.6 17,036 15.4
3tt 6 7,413 16.8 47,603 42.9
773 1.7 1,360
1.2
ioao 44,216 ioao 110,832 ioao
D ubation and R esult .—No definite result can be drawn con
cerning the effect of the duration of a strike upon its results from
the tables showing the distribution of strikes and strikers according
to these two factors, except that the exceptionally protracted strikes
all seem to result in complete failure or nearly so.
258
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
NUMBER OF STRIKES, BY DURATION AND RESULT, 1905.
Strikes the results of which were—
Days of
duration.
Completely Largely
successful. successful.
Only
Fairly
slightly
successful. successful.
Total.
Complete Uncertain.
failures.
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.
1 and under...
Over 1 to 5—
6 to 10..........
11 to 20... I...
21 to 30.........
3 1 to 50.........
51 to 75.........
76 to 100.......
101 to 150......
Unknown.......
Total...
30
33
19
11
3
2
30.3
33.3
19.3
11.1
3.0
2.0
i 1.0
99 100.0
12
33
17
9
4
1
15.7
43.4
22.4
11.9
5.3
1.3
13
37
22
17
4
3
1
76 100.0
ia4
38.2
22.7
17.5
4.1
ai
1.0
97 100.0
14
42
15
11
2
7
1
15.2
45.6
16.3
12.0
2.2
7.6
1.1
92 100.0
60
79
48
26
7
19
2
1
1
3
246
24.4
32.1
•19.5
10.6
2.9
7.7
.8
.4
.4
1.2
100.0
1 6.6
5 33.4
1 6.6
8 53.4
15 100.0
130 2ft 8
229 36.6
122 19.5
82 ia i
20 a2
31
5.0
5
.8
1
.2
1
.2
4
.6
625 100.0
NUMBER OF STRIKERS, BY DURATION OF STRIKE AND RESULT, 1905.
Strikers in strikes the results of which were—
Days of
duration.
Completely
successful.
Largely
successful.
Fairly
successful.
Only slightly
successful.
Complete
failures.
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.
3a 58 910 9.52
3a 34 2,901 3R24
9.40 3,525 3a 74
17.74 1,300 13.45
1.83
672 a92
4.07
300 a 14
1,488 9.12 1,815
4,969 3a 72 6,415
4,618 27.62 3,644
4,374 2a 79 1.717
209 1.28 1.718
653 4.00 1,611
116
77 .47
5,345
5,004
28,191
4,758
1,271
2,586
84
272
36
.04
36
100.00 9,608 100.00 16,388 100.00 17,036 loaoo 47,603 100.00
10.59
37.42
21.88
10.01
10.02
9.40
.68
....
MMMOO&SoStOoStS
1 and under... 6,314
Over 1 to 5— 6,268
6 to 10.......... 1,767
1 1 to 20......... 3,371
21 to 30......... 345
31 to 50......... 765
51 to 75.........
76 to 100........
101 to 150......
Unknown.....
7
Total... 18,837
Total.
Num Per
ber. cent.
a 15,893
&26,284
c 41,785
15,520
4,215
5,615
577
272
36
d 635
«110,832
14.34
23.72
37.70
14.00
aso
5.06
.52
.25
.03
.58
ioaoo
a Including 21 strikers in strikes the results of which were unknown.
6 Including 727 strikers in strikes the results of which were unknown.
c Including 40 strikers in strikes the results of which were unknown.
d Including 572 strikers in strikes the results of which were unknown.
«Including 1,360 strikers in strikes the results of which were unknown.
Methods of S ettlement.—In less than three-tenths of the strikes
negotiations preceded the beginning of the strike, and two-fifths
of all the strikes were settled through mediation. Negotiations
before the strike and mediation after seem to go together. Thus,
of all the strikes with negotiations nearly one-half (46 per cent)
were settled through mediation, while of the other strikes only 38
per cent were so settled. The same table shows an interesting com
parison between the strikes ordered by labor organizations and
strikes not so directed. Of all the strikes 58 per cent were directed
by labor organizations as against 42 per cent not so directed. Negoti
ations were much more frequent when the management of the strike
was in the hands of a labor organization, 41.4 per cent as against
259
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— ITALY.
13.1 per cent, or more than three times as frequent. On the other
hand no such difference is noticed in regard to mediation. In fact,
the percentage of strikes settled through mediation is so nearly the
same in case of both groups of strikes as to suggest the inference that
mediation is entirely independent of the influence of labor organiza
tions.
STRIKES ORDERED BY LABOR ORGANIZATIONS AND STRIKES NOT SO ORDERED,
BY METHODS OF SETTLEMENT, 1905.
Strikes and strikers in strikes—
by labor organi
Method of settle Orderedzations.
ment.
Not ordered by labor
organizations.
Total.
Per Strik Per Strikes. Per Strik Per Strikes. Per Strik Per
Strikes. cent.
cent. ers. cent.
cent. ers. cent.
ers. cent.
Settled through
mediation:
Preceded by
negotiations.
Not preceded
by negotia
tions.........
Total.........
Settled without
mediation:
Preceded by
negotiations.
Not preceded
by negotia
tions.........
Total.........
All strikes:
Preceded by
negotiations.
Not preceded
by negotia
tions.........
Total.........
66 18.1 18,632 21.9
83 22.7 17,643 20.8
149 40.8 36,275 42.7
85 23.3 12,697 14.9
131 35.9 35,972 42.4
216 59.2 48,669 57.3
151 41.4 31,329 36.8
214 58.6 53,615 63.2
365 100.0 84,944 100.0
5.7
86 13.8 20,112
18.1
84 32.3 9,624 37.2
104 40.0 11,104 42.9
167 26.7 27,267
253 40.5 47,379
24.6
42.7
6.3
99 15.8 14,333
13.0
142 54.6 13,148 50.8
156 60.0 14,784 57.1
273 43.7 49,120
372 59.5 63,453
44.3
57.3
185 29.6 34,445
31.1
20
14
7.7
5.4
34 13.1
1,480
1,636
3,116 12.0
226 86.9 22,772 88.0
260 100.0 25,888 100.0
440 70.4 76,387 68.9
625 100.0 110,832 100.0
The following table is intended to show the effect of several factors—
namely, the negotiations preceding the strike and the efforts of
mediation following it, upon the result of the strike. The effects of
these factors separately upon strikes directed by labor organizations
and strikes not so directed are also shown. Strikes preceded by
negotiations seem to result more favorably than those declared
without such negotiations, which probably includes precipitated
strikes, begun without due considerations of chances for success.
As to the effect of mediation, the evidence furnished by the data is
not so decisive. In the completely successful or completely unsuc
cessful strikes mediation seems to be less frequently made use of,
while the proportion is largest in the fairly successful strikes, indi
cating the tendency of mediation to a compromise of the respective
demands.
260
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
STRIKES ORDERED BY LABOR ORGANIZATIONS AND STRIKES NOT SO ORDERED,
BY METHODS OF SETTLEMENT AND BY RESULTS, 1905.
Strikes and strikers in strikes—
Ordered by labor
organizations.
Method of settlement
and results.
Strikes.
Strikers.
Total.
Not ordered by labor
organizations.
Strikes.
Strikers.
Strikes.
Strikers.
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.
All strikes:
Completely suc
cessful
....
Largely successful.
Fairly successful...
Slightly successful.
Complete failures..
Unknown..........
Total..............
Strikes preceded by
negotiations:
Completely suc
cessful ............
Largely successful.
Fairly successful...
Slightly successful.
Complete failures..
Unknown..........
Total..............
Strikes preceded by
negotiations and set
tled through media
tion:
Completely suc
cessful ............
Largely successful.
Fairly successful...
Slightlysuccessful.
Complete failures..
Unknown..........
Total..............
Strikes preceded by
negotiations and set
tled without media
tion:
Completely suc
cessful ............
Largely successful.
Fairly successful...
Slightly successful.
Complete failures..
Unknown..........
Total..............
Strikes not preceded
by negotiations:
Completely suc
cessful............
Largely successful.
Fairly successful..
Slightlysuccessful.
Complete failures..
Unknown..........
Total.............
61
46
68
58
124
8
365
16.7
12.6
18.6
15.9
34.0
2.2
100.0
15,115
44,925
11,695
12,545
40,066
598
84,944
17.8
5.8
13.7
14.8
47.2
.7
100.0
38
31
28
33
123
67
260
14.6
11.9
10.8
12.7
47.3
2.7
100.0
24
17
37
28
40
5
151
15.9
11.3
24.5
18.5
26.5
3.3
100.0
8,139
2,091
8,028
4,078
8,863
130
31,329
26.0
6.7
25.6
13.0
28.3
.4
100.0
4
5
5
6
14
11.8
14.7
14.7
17.6
41.2
6
8
22
11
19
9.1
12.1
33.3
16.7
28.8
3,584
1,036
6,201
2,258
5,553
19.3
5.6
33.3
12.0
29.8
3
5
4
2
6
66 100.0 18,632 100.0
18
9
15
17
21
5
85
21.2
10.6
17.6
20.0
24.7
5.9
100.0
4,555
1,055
1,827
1,820
3,310
130
12,697
35.9
8.3
14.4
14.3
26.1
1.0
100.0
37
29
31
30
84
3
214
17.3
13.6
14.5
14.0
39.2
1.4
100.0
6,976
2,834
3,667
8,467
31,203
468
53,615
13.0
5.3
6.8
15.8
58.2
.9
100.0
3,669 14.2
4,683 18.1
3,393 13.1
4,517 17.4
8,923 34.5
702
2.7
25,887 100.0
313
403
940
472
987
10.0
12.9
30.2
15.2
31.7
34 100.0 3,115 100.0
15.0
25.0
20.0
10.0
30.0
113
403
518
158
288
7.6
27.2
35.0
10.7
19.5
20 100.0 1,480 100.0
1 7.1
1 7.1
4 28.6
8 57.2
200
422
314
699
12.2
25.8
19.2
42.8
14 100.0 el, 636 100.0
34
26
23
27
109
7
226
15.1
11.5
10.2
11.9
48.2
3.1
100.0
3,356 14.7
4,280 18.8
2,453 10.8
4,045 17.8
7,936 34.8
702
3.1
22,772 100.0
99
77
96
91
247
15
625
15.8 18,784 16.9
12.3 9,608
8.7
15.4 15,088 13.6
14.6 17,062 15.4
39.5, 48,989 44.2
2.4 1,300
1.2
100.0 110,831 100.0
28
22
42
34
54
5
185
15.1 8,452 24.5
11.9 2,494
7.3
22.7 8,968 26.0
18.4 4,550 13.2
29.2 9,850 28.6
130
.4
2.7
100.0 34,444 100.0
9
13
26
13
25
10.5
15.1
30.2
15.1
29.1
3,697
1,439
6,719
2,416
5,841
18.4
7.2
33.4
12.0
29.0
86 100.0 20,112 100.0
19
9
16
21
29
5
99
71
55
54
57
193
10
440
19.2 4,755 33.2
9.1 1,055
7.3
16.2 2,249 15.7
21.2 2,134 15.0
29.3 4,009 27.9
.9
130
5.0
ioo:o 14,332 100.0
16.1
12.5
12.3
12.9
43.9
23
100.0
10,332 13.5
7,114
9.4
6,120
8.0
12,512 16.4
39,139 51.2
1,170
1.5
76,387 100.0
•This total is not the correct sum of the items; the figures are given as shown in the original report.
261
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— ITALY,
STRIKES ORDERED BY LABOR ORGANIZATIONS AND STRIKES NOT SO ORDERED*
BY METHODS OF SETTLEMENT AND BY RESULTS, 1905—Concluded.
Strikes and strikers in strikes—
Method of settlement
and results.
Ordered by labor
organizations.
Strikes.
Strikers.
Total.
Not ordered by labor
organizations.
Strikes.
Strikers.
Strikes.
Strikers.
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.
Strikes not preceded
by negotiations set
tled through media
tion:
Completely suc
cessful.............
5
Largely successful. 13
Fairly successful.. 16
Slightlysuccessful. 17
Complete failures.. 31
Unknown.........
1
Total.............. 83
Strikes not preceded
by negotiations and
settled without me
diation:
Completely suc
cessful............. 32
Largely successful. 16
Fairly successful.. 15
Slightly successful 13
Complete failures.. 53
Unknown...........
2
Total.............. 131
6.0
15.7
19.3
20.5
37.3
1.2
100.0
2,551
1,972
2,695
5,657
4,319
449
17,643
14.5
11.1
15.3
32.1
24.5
2.5
100.0
24.4
12.2
11.5
9.9
40.5
1.5
100.0
4,425 12.3
862 2.4
972 2.7
2,810 7.8
26,884 74.7
.1
19
35,972 100.0
84 100.0 9,624 100.0
20
26
27
35
58
1
167
12.0 4,289 15.8
15.6 4,180 15.3
16.2 3,663 13.4
20.9 8,861 32.5
34.7 5,825 21.4
.6
449
1.6
100.0 27,267 100.0
19 13.4 1,618 12.3
13 9.2 2,072 15.8
12 8.5 1,485 11.3
9 6.3
841
6.4
82 57.7 6,430 48.9
702
7 4.9
5.3
142 100.0 13,148 100.0
51
29
27
22
135
9
273
18.7 6,043 12.3
10.6 2,934
6.0
10.0 2,457
5.0
8.0 3,651
7.4
49.4 33,314 67.8
721
3.3
1.5
100.0 49,120 100.0
15
13
11
18
27
17.9
15.5
13.1
21.4
32.1
1,738
2,208
968
3,204
1,506
18.1
22.9
10.1
33.3
15.6
Loss from S trikes.—An effort is made in the report to estimate
the total loss caused by the strikes to the workmen, but on account
of absence of data the estimate is only approximately correct. Alto
gether 628 strikes have been recorded, but the number of strikers is
known only for 625 strikes and the aggregate number of days lost
only for 581. The total number of days lost for these 581 strikes is
827,058. In addition, involuntary unemployment resulted in con
sequence of strikes in 116 cases, and the amount of such unem
ployment equaled (in 115 cases, the amount being unknown in 1
case) 85,767 days, so that the total loss of time as far as ascertained
was 912,825 days.
Of the 581 strikes for which the time lost is reported, the salary
loss is known only in 548 cases, and in these it amounted to 1,931,969
lire ($372,870). Of the 115 strikes for which involuntary unem
ployment was reported, the loss of wages was reported in 102 strikes,
amounting to 176,076 lire ($33,982), so that the total loss from
voluntary and involuntary unemployment as far as ascertained was
2,108,045 lire ($406,853).
In addition a certain loss was sustained in payment of strike
benefits. Such benefits are known to have been paid in 113 strikes,
262
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
but only in 91 cases has the amount been reported, being equal to
129,531 lire ($24,999). Other expenses were suffered in 90 strikes,
the amount of which, reported for only 69 strikes, equaled 10,408
lire ($2,009). The total for strike benefits and expenses as far as
ascertained is 139,940 lire ($27,008), and the grand total for wages
lost and strike benefits and other expenses 2,247,984 lire ($433,861).
A gricultural Strikes.—The main data concerning these strikes
were given above. The total number of persons engaged in agricul
ture and holding membership in organizations is stated as 221,913,
while the number of strikers was 43,695, or 19.7 per cent of that num
ber. These agricultural organizations consist mainly of day laborers,
but include small proprietors and small tenants to some extent. In
the agricultural strikes the day laborers (braccianti) mainly par
ticipated, but, also, though less frequently, the permanent contract
employees (obbligati) and even share tenants (coloni).
MEMBERS OF ORGANIZATIONS AND STRIKERS IN ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 1905.
Class of agricultural occupations.
Strikers.
Number
of mem
bers of
organi
zations. Number. Per cent.
22,654
Small proprietors........................................................................
Small tenants............................................................................. 13,463
Share tenants............................................................................. 23,387
Contract laborers......................................................................... 17,004
Day laborers.............................................................................. 145,405
Total................................................................................ 221,913
8,378
2,292
33,025
43,695
35.8
13.5
22.7
19.7
The classification of the strikes and strikers according to the char
acter of work or branch of industry is shown in the following table.
The greatest strikes occur among employees engaged in preparation
of the soil, followed by those among employees engaged in harvesting
grain. But strikes occur in all other branches of agriculture in Italy.
AGRICULTURAL STRIKES AND STRIKERS CLASSIFIED BY CHARACTER OF WORK,
1905.
Character of work.
Preparation of the soil...............................................................................
Haying..................................................................................................
Harvesting grain......................................................................................
Grazing.................................................................................................
Viticulture..............................................................................................
Pine trees...............................................................................................
Hemp....................................................................................................
Bice...................................................................................
Cranberrying...........................................................................................
Citrous fruits...........................................................................................
Olives....................................................................................................
Unknown...............................................................................................
Total..............................................................................................
«Includes 3 strikes for which the number of strikers is unknown.
6 Includes 1 strike'for which the number of strikers is unknown,
cIncludes 4 strikes for which the number of strikers is unknown.
Strikes. Strikers.
7
10
a13
1
10
2
5
6 24
1
2
7
5
c87
11,798
4,594
8,316
140
3,419
105
1,888
5,475
400
550
2,810
4,200
43,695
263
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— ITALY,
In the next table the causes of agricultural strikes are shown
according to the same method which was described above, so that
252 causes appear for the 87 strikes. Wages and questions con
nected with the method of pay claim more than half of the
causes, and hours of labor are next in importance. Comparatively,
demands for better pay are most successful, only 35 per cent of them
ending in complete failure, while of the demands for changed hours
of labor nearly 60 per cent were complete failures.
STRIKES IN AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS, BY CAUSES AND RESULTS, 1905.
Com
Fairly Slightly Com
pletely Largely success
Un
success plete known.
success success
failures.
ful.
ful.
ful.
ful.
Cause or object.
Wages................................
Other conditions of pay..........
Conditions of tenantry............
Hours of labor......................
Monopoly of labor.................
Other causes........................
Total..........................
22
16
3
10
6
3
60
12
3
18
4
5
6
1
16
2
2
2
37
8
6
31
18
1
2
3
6
4
5
15
34
22
101
20
Total.
107
31
25
53
32
4
252
Altogether the agricultural strikes show a higher rate of success
than the industrial strikes, only 30.1 per cent of them resulting in
complete failures, while over one-half of them, including nearly twothirds of the strikes were either fairly, largely, or completely suc
cessful. The following table shows the results of strikes in agricul
tural occupations:
STRIKES AND STRIKERS IN AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS, BY RESULTS, 1905.
Strikes.
Strikers.
Result.
Number. Percent. Number. Per cent.
Completely successful.....................................................
Largely successful..........................................................
Fairly successful............................................................
Only slightly successful...................................................
Complete failures...........................................................
Unknown____________________________ ^..............................
Total____ _______
10
11
21
11
25
5
«83
12.3
13.3
25.3
13.3
30.1
6.0
100.0
a Exclusive of 4 strikes for which the number of strikers is unknown.
5,181
5,878
15,751
2,723
13,314
849
43,695
11.9
13.3
36.2
6.2
30.4
2.0
100.0
264
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The agricultural strikes are usually of very short duration; over
two-thirds (68.7 per cent) of them lasted 10 days or less, and nearly
one-half (48.2 per cent) 6 days or less, as will be seen by the follow
ing table:
STRIKES AND STRIKERS IN AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS, BY DURATION, 1905.
Strikes.
Strikers.
Duration.
Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
Under 1 day.................................................................
1 to 5 days...................................................................
6 to 10 days..................................................................
11 to 20 days.................................................................
21 to 30 days.................................................................
31 to 50 days.................................................................
51 days and over............................................................
Unknown....................................................................
Total...................................................................
13
27
17
7
2
4
5
8
83
15.7
32.5
20.5
8.4
2.4
4.8
6.0
9.7
100.0
5,834
13,178
8,301
4,608
426
1,350
5,693
4,305
43,695
13.5
30.0
19.1
10.6
0.9
3.0
13.0
9.9
100.0
NETHERLANDS.
Werlcstdkingen en Uitsluitingen in Nederland gedurende 190 6.
gegeven door het Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek.
lxxv, 110 pp.
TJit1907.
This volume is the sixth annual report of the Central Bureau of
Statistics of the Netherlands on strikes and lockouts. As in pre
vious reports, the information is given in the form of an analysis,
with summary tables and a tabular statement, showing in detail the
important facts concerning each strike and lockout.
S trikes .—There were 164 strikes reported in 1906. The number
of establishments involved and the number of strikers were not
reported in every case. In 163 strikes there were 874 establishments
involved, while the number of strikers reported for 160 strikes was
11,069.
265
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— NETHERLANDS.
The following table shows the number of strikes, establishments
involved, strikers, and aggregate days lost by strikers and by other
employees in each group of industries:
STRIKES, STRIKERS, AND AGGREGATE DAYS LOST BY STRIKERS AND BY OTHER
EMPLOYEES, BY INDUSTRIES, 1906.
Strikes for which—
Industry.
Number of
days
establishments Number of Aggregate
lost by strikers
Total involved was wasstrikers
reported.
was
reported.
strikes. reported.
Aggregate days
lost by em
ployees other
rhan strikers
was reported.
Estab
Days
Days
Strikes. lish Strikes. Strik
ers. Strikes. lost. Strikes. lost.
ments.
Products of stone, clay, glass,
etc.................................
Cutting of diamonds and other
precious stones..............
Printing.........................
Building trades................
Woodworking, cork, straw, etc.
Clothing.............................
Leather, oilcloth, rubber, etc...
Mining.......................... >__
Metal working.................
Car and ship building........
Paper............................
Textiles.........................
Foods and drinks (including
tobacco)......................
Agriculture.....................
Commerce......................
Transportation................
Total.....................
8
8
2
2
5
50
4
3
4
5
4
1
1
9
28
13
3
24
164
5
50
4
3
4
5
4
1
1
9
28
12
3
24
163
8
2
2
5
169
4
16
4
78
4
5
50
4
2
4
5
4
9
30
495
3
45
874
9
1
1
1
1
2,919*
420
318*
43 317
141
486
140
18,798
3,195
33
9
106,512
7,061*
17,240
518
6,930
206
214
81
2,049
61
33
29
1,802
113
33
9
1,316
2,810
275
1,455
160 11,069
12
3
22
158
8
2
5
48
4
2
4
5
4
1
1
8
28
11
3
21
155
482*
2
6,660
9
2,172
8,810
1,306*
182
8
v79
19,711
From the foregoing table it will be observed that the greatest num
ber of strikes in 1906 occurred in the building trades, while agriculture
furnished the largest number of establishments and persons affected.
The greatest loss in working days, both to strikers and to other
employees, occurred in the textile industry.
266
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The table which follows shows the results of strikes in 1906,
arranged by industries:
STRIKES, BY INDUSTRIES AND BY RESULTS, 1906.
Result.
Succeeded.
Industry.
Succeeded
partly.
Total.
Indefinite
or not re
ported.
Failed.
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.
Products of stone, clay, glass, etc............
Cutting of diamonds and other precious
stones...................................................
Printing..................................................
Building trades.......................................
Woodworking, cork, straw, etc...............
Clothing..................................................
Leather, oilcloth, rubber, etc..................
Mining.....................................................
Metal working.........................................
Car and ship building.............................
Paper.......................................................
Textiles...................................................
Foods and drinks (including tobacco)...
Agriculture.............................................
Commerce...............................................
Transportation........................................
Total..............................................
1
12.5
11
23.4
1
1
2
33.3
25.0
40.0
2
3
15
2
1
2
2
25.0
60.0
31.9
50.0
33.3
4
3
40.0
50.0
66.7
44.5
46.1
66.7
47.8
9
4
5
18.5
23.1
33.3
21.7
6
31
19.5
64
40.2
58
5
3
1
11.1
12.5
1
25.0
33.4
75.0
8
100.0
2
9
5 27
13
3
623
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
5
«47
4
3
4
5
4
2 .1
1
1
1
1 20.0
2 50.0
1 100.0
1 100.0
2 22.2
6
12
6
2
11
1
50.0
2 100.0
2 40.0
20 42.6
1 25.0
1
1
1
3.7
26.1
1
4.4
36.5
6
3.8 c 159
33.3
30.8
o Not including 3 sympathetic strikes, of which 1 was compromised and 2 failed.
6 Not including 1 sympathetic strike which was compromised,
c Not including 5 sympathetic strikes, of which 3 were compromised and 2 failed.
In the following table are shown the number of strikes, establish
ments involved, strikers, and aggregate days of duration of strikes,
classified by causes. The apparent discrepancy in the totals for this
table as compared with those previously shown is explained in the
note which precedes the table:
STRIKES, STRIKERS, AND DAYS OF DURATION OF STRIKES, BY CAUSES, 1906.
[Strikes due to two or more causes have been tabulated under each cause; hence the totals for this table do
not agree with those for other tables.]
Strikes for which—
Total strikes.
Cause or object
Num
ber.
For increase of wages.........................
Against reduction of wages................
Other disputes concerning wages......
Hours of tabor....................................
For recognition of trade union...........
Against employment of nonunion
workmen.........................................
For reinstatement of discharged em
ployees............................................
Regulations governing work............ .
Other causes......................................
Not reported..................................... .
Total.........................................
16
29
13
6
Number of
establishments
involved was
reported.
Number of
strikers was
reported.
oAf'
ate days
tion was
reported.
Aggre
Estab
gate
Per Strikes. lish Strikes. Strik Strikes. days of
cent.
ments.
dura
ers.
tion.
34.69
6.53
11.84
5.31
2.45
84
16
29
13
6
682
89
85
109
106
84
16
28
13
6
.41
7,6!
1,213
1,083
962
1,573
84
16
28
13
6
1,431*
259
376
354|
433
30
37
27
16
48
4
11.02
6.53
19.59
1.63
27
16
48
4
27
46
49
4
27
16
48
27
16
46
486*
2
828
546
2,146
29
245
100.00
244
1,198
241
16,115
239
4,495*
2
267
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---NETHERLANDS.
The most frequent cause of strikes in 1906 was disagreement con
cerning wages, more than 63 per cent of the strikes occurring during
the year, involving 62 per cent of the total number of strikers, being
due wholly or in part to wage disputes.
The results of strikes are shown in the following table:
STRIKES, BY RESULTS, 1906.
Strikes for whichTotal strikes.
Number of
establishments
involved was
reported.
Num
ber.
Per
cent.
Strikes.
Succeeded...............
Succeeded partly__
Failed......................
Indefinite................
Not reported...........
31
«64
658
31
63
58
5
19.50
40.25
36.48
.63
3.14
Total..............
«159
100.00
158
Result.
1
1
5
Number of
strikers was
reported.
Aggregate days
lost by strikers
was reported.
Estab
lish Strikes. Strik
ers. Strikes.
ments.
173
477
176
30
63
58
1,931
4,451
4,267
5
3
59
832
155
10,716
1
1
Aggregate days
lost by em
ployees other
than strikers
was reported.
Days Strikes.
lost.
29 11,052
63 61,241$
57 128,090$
1
340
219
3
8
153 200,943
29
61
56
1
3
150
Days
lost.
1,738
17,197$
334
425
19,694$
a Not including 3 sympathetic strikes which were compromised.
6 Not including 2 sympathetic strikes which tailed.
e Not including 5 sympathetic strikes, of which 3 were compromised and 2 failed.
Of the 10,657 strikers who took part in the 152 strikes for which
the facts were reported, 18.12 per cent were in strikes which succeeded,
41.77 per cent were in strikes which succeeded partly, and 40.04 per
cent were in strikes which failed. In the case of 1 strike, involving
8 strikers, or 0.07 per cent of the total, the result was indefinite.
Strikes by causes and by results are shown in the following table,
the cause being taken as the basis for the tabulation:
STRIKES, BY CAUSES AND BY RESULTS, 1906.
[Strikes due to two or more causes have been tabulated under each cause; hence the totals for this table
do not agree with those for other tables.)
Cause or object.
For increase of wages.........., ........................
Against reduction of wages..........................
Other disputes concerning wages................
Hours of labor..............................................
For recognition of trade union.....................
Against employment of nonunion workmen,
For reinstatement of discharged employees.
Regulations governing work........................
Other causes.................................................
Not reported
Total.
38697— No. 86—10----18
Suc
ceeded.
Suc
ceeded
partly.
*
12
4
7
37
7
16
2
5
2
8
3
1
Failed.
Indefi
nite or
not re
ported.
34
2
5 ..............
3
3
1
1
1
2
11
9
9
29
1
10
41
121
77
85
16
29
13
6
4
10
Total.
1
27
16
48
4
245
268
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
The next table shows the strikes in 1906 by duration and by results:
STRIKES, BY DURATION AND BY RESULTS, 1906.
Days of duration.
Result.
Under
1.
1
to 2 .
3 to 7.
10
5
15
17
Succeeded...............
Succeeded partly__
Failed......................
Indefinite................
Not reported............
8
1
1
Total..............
16
42
4
3
16
15
8
to 14. 15 to 28. 29 to 42. 43 to 91. Over
91.
4
5
5
3
12
9
1
3
14
25
3
6
1
1
4
1
1
37
Not re
ported.
4
3
Total.
31
«64
658
1
5
2
4
11
6
cl59
a Not including 3 sympathetic strikes, duration not reported, which were compromised.
b Not including 2 sympathetic strikes, duration not reported, which failed.
c Not including 5 sympathetic strikes, duration not reported, of which 3 were compromised and 2 failed.
From the above table it will be seen that, of strikes which succeeded,
74.19 per cent lasted seven days and under; of strikes which suc
ceeded partly, 54.69 per cent lasted seven days and under; while of
those which failed, 60.34 per cent lasted seven days and under.
The following table shows the number of strikes and their results,
also the number of strikers, classified according to method of settle
ment:
STRIKES, BY METHOD OF SETTLEMENT, 1906.
[Where two or more methods of settlement have been employed the data were reported in each case; hence
the totals for this table do not agree with those for other tables.]
Method of settlement.
Num- Per
ber. cent.
Direct negotiation between employer
and employees...................................
Negotiation in which one or both par
ties were represented by their organi
zations...............................................
Mediation of third parties....................
Arbitration...............................:..........
Employment of other workmen..........
Disintegration of strike........................
Defeat of one of the parties without ne
gotiation............................................
Other means.........................................
Not reported........................................
Total.
45
169
Strikes for which
number of strikers
was reported.
Strikes which—
Strikes.
Suc
Suc ceed
ceed ed Fail
ed. part ed.
ly.
26.63
10
23
12
34.32
7.10
1.19
11.83
.59
16
3
34
5
6
4
19
11.83
4.14
2.37
2
100.00
31
2
1
Strikers.
Ended
with
result
indefi Num
Per
nite or ber. Number.
cent.
not re
ported.
44
2,923
23.21
2
57
3,603
1,025
255
1,259
9
28.61
8.14
1
2
20
25.08
2.39
.48
100.00
12
1
3
18
4
1
3
2
7
3,159
301
60
67
65
6
165
12,594
20
2.02
10.00
.07
N egotiations in which one or both parties were represented by their
trade organizations resulted in the greatest number of strike settle
m ents, direct negotiation between employer and em ployees being
next in frequencv
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— NETHERLANDS.
269
L o c k o u t s .—The number of lockouts reported in 1906 was 17, in
16 of which the number of persons involved was 7,789. With regard
to the number of persons affected, the most important lockout of the
year occurred in the textile industry. This lockout involved 7,000
persons, employed in 16 establishments, and lasted 8 days. Two
other lockouts in the textile industry involved 600 persons and caused
a loss of 1,515 working days.
NORWAY.
Arbeidslconjlilcter i Norge, 1903-1906. Ssertryk af “Arbeidsmarkedet,”
udgivet af det Statistiske Centralbureau, 1906, Nr. 10-12. 1907.
20 pp.
This report on labor disputes in Norway is abstracted from a larger
report on labor conditions, published by the statistical office of the
Kingdom, and presents brief separate reports for each of the four
years covered. The presentation does not pretend to either exactness
or completeness, but gives only approximate data for the more
important strikes and lockouts for the different years. These are
summarized as follows:
NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES AFFECTED BY STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, AND DAYS OF
WORKING TIME LOST, IN NORWAY, 1903 TO 1906.
Number Number Strike
of em of days benefits
ployees.
lost.
paid.
Year.
1903...............................................................................................................
1904...............................................................................................................
1905...............................................................................................................
1906...............................................................................................................
3.000
1,200
2.000
3,000
130,000
45.000
30.000
95.000
$37,594
14,165
9,291
a 37,520
<* Estimated.
The magnitude of the figures for 1903 is due chiefly to an important
strike in the iron and metal industries at Bergen; while depressed
trade conditions, and, in 1905, a political crisis, tended to reduce
the number of trade disputes during the years 1904 and 1905. In
1906 came an increase of prosperity, accompanied by numerous
demands for concessions to the workmen, though the strike that
caused the greatest loss of time was due to the enactment of an
unpopular law affecting bakeries.
As indicated, the statistical reports are incomplete. The number
of organized workmen striking in 1903 is estimated at not less than
1,884, and the number of days’ work lost by them at 102,600. The
disputes of the year involved the expenditure by labor organizations
of 140,276 crowns ($37,594). The strike of iron and metal workers of
this year was characterized as the greatest labor conflict experienced
in Norway up to the time of its occurrence. I t involved, however, but
270
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
1,052 workmen, a loss of approximately 60,000 working days, and an
outlay of funds by organized labor amounting to 80,116 crowns
($21,471). The dispute began as a strike, but afterwards partook of
the nature of a lockout. A demand for increase of wages was the
cause of the strike, the result being a partial success for the workmen.
This industry had the strongest organization in Norway, embracing
4,641 local unions with a membership of approximately 16,000
workmen.
The close relation of Norwegian workingmen with those of neigh
boring countries is evidenced by the fact that of the relief paid in the
strike of 1903, 23,934 crowns ($6,414) were contributed by foreign
workmen; while in the year 1905, Norwegian labor unions con
tributed 135,200 crowns ($36,234) in aid of Swedish strikers. This
amount is much in excess of that paid out in aid of strikers in Norway
during that year, the latter amount being but 34,667 crowns ($9,291).
While the report is not complete, it indicates a comparatively small
number of strikes, the attitude of associations of both employers and
employees being to have recourse to negotiations rather than to
strikes and lockouts as a method of adjusting differences. Even
where work is stopped during a dispute it is said to be usually for an
agreed period.
RUSSIA.
Statistika Siachek RabocJiikh na FabrikaMi i Zavodakh za 1905 god.
(Statistics of strikes of workingmen in factories and mills for 1905.)
Published by Ministerstvo Torgovli i Promyshlennosti, Otdiel
Promyshlennosti (Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Bureau of
Industry). 1908. 65 pp. + 111 pp.
This is the second of a series of reports of strikes in Russian manu
facturing industries, the first, covering the data for the decade of
1895 to 1904, having been published in 1905. This volume covers a
period of exceptional strike activity, but the causes were primarily
political rather than economic.
The report is similar in plan to the first report,and includes only
those factories and mills which are subject to factory inspection and
to the supervision of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. The
smaller industrial establishments, having fewer than 10, and in some
cases 15, employees, are excluded, as are mines and metallurgical
establishments, which are subject to the Ministry of Agriculture and
State Domains, all state factories and mills, and all industrial estab
lishments under the jurisdiction of the Ministries of War, of the
Navy, and of Ways of Communication.
The report covers only the 60 provinces of European Russia and 6
provinces of the Caucasus, thus excluding Siberia, Middle Asia, and
4 provinces of Caucasus, which in 1905 were not subject to factory
271
FOREIGN STA TIST IC A L P U B LIC A T IO N S---- RU SSIA.
inspection. As in some of the industries omitted, particularly in the
railroad industry and in the railroad shops, the strike movement of
1905 was very strong, the data do not comprehend the entire strike
movement in European Russia in 1905.
The report consists of 65 pages of text, with numerous summary
and detail tables.
Throughout the report (except in one supplementary table) by
“ number of strikes” is meant the number of establishments in which
strikes have taken place. As in the first report, all the labor disputes
included are termed “ strikes.” In 1905 the total number of strikes
registered in the manufacturing industry of European Russia and
Caucasus subject to factory inspection was 13,110, and the total
number of strikers 2,709,695. The importance of these figures will
be better appreciated in comparison with the total number of strikes
and strikers for the entire ten years preceding (1895 to 1904),
namely, 1,765 strikes and 431,254 strikers. The year 1905 therefore
saw more than seven times as many strikes and nearly seven times
as many strikers as in the preceding ten years taken together.
This comparison is brought out still more emphatically in the follow
ing table:
STRIKES, STRIKERS, AND WORKING DAYS LOST, BY YEARS, 1895 TO 1905.
Employees in estab
lishments affected.
Year.
Strikes.
Strikers.
Total.
1895..................................
1896..................................
1897..................................
1898..................................
1899..................................
1900..................................
1901..................................
1902..................................
1903..................................
1904..................................
1905...................................
68
118
145
215
189
125
164
123
550
68
13,110
Working days lost.
31,195
29,527
59,870
43,150
57,498
29,389
32,218
36,671
86,832
24,904
2,709,695
60,587
47,979
111,725
93,596
112,296
77,382
62,735
64,196
138,877
51,642
996,860
Per cent
of
strikers.
51.49
61.54
53.59
46.10
51.20
37.98
51.36
57.12
62.52
48.22
271.82
Average number
per—
Total.
Strike.
156,843
189,213
321,349
158,898
264,856
119,525
110,193
128,200
444,919
185,412
23,609,387
2,307
1,604
2,216
739
1,401
956
672
1,042
809
2,727
1,801
Striker.
5.0
6.4
5.4
3.7
4.6
4.1
3.4
3.5
5.1
7.4
8.7
In addition, there have been recorded in the mining and metal
lurgical industry 103 large disputes (number of establishments
affected not being stated), with 154,968 strikers; these are not in
cluded elsewhere in the report.
In 1905 the entire factory-inspection system of Russia covered
14,615 establishments with 1,660,693 employees. While the total
number of strikes (establishments) is stated as 13,110, this large
number is due to repeated strikes in the same establishments. The.
total number of individual establishments affected by strikes num
bered 4,766, or 32.6 per cent of all establishments, while the number
272
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
of employees in these striking establishments equaled 996,860, or 60
per cent of the total number covered by the inspection system. On an
average, then, there were nearly 2.8 strikes for each striking estab
lishment, and 2.7 strikers for each employee of the striking estab
lishment. The nearness of these two proportions indicates that in
the strikes of 1905 almost all employees participated, while in the
previous years only from one-half to two-thirds as a rule took part.
Of the total number of strikes 8,918, or 68 per cent, are classified in
the report as political, and only 4,192, or 32 per cent, as economic.
As far as the number of strikers is concerned the proportion of the
economic strikers is somewhat larger, being 1,018,620, or 37.6 per
cent.
The distribution of strikes throughout the months of the year,
measured either by the number of establishments or strikers, was
Very uneven. I t shows distinct fluctuations, with three crests to
the wave. The strikes were numerous in January (due largely to
the demonstration of Sunday, January 29, 1905), less so in February,
and fell comparatively low in March and in April. The number rose
again in May, as is usual in Russia, in connection with the celebra
tion of the 1st of May, and gradually declined until September.
The greatest strike activity was shown during the last three months
of 1905, under the influence of disturbed political conditions. The
general distribution may be said to be the same for the economic and
political strikes; nevertheless the predominance of political strikes
during some months is quite noticeable in January and from Octo
ber to December.
The recurrence of strikes in the same establishments was the most
characteristic feature of the entire strike movement of 1905. In those
parts of the country which were most affected by both the political
and economic movement each rise of the strike wave closed the same
establishments. Thus in the province of St. Petersburg there were
altogether 839 establishments with 154,152 wage-workers; but there
were registered in this province 1,861 strikes with 627,756 strikers,
or more than four times as many strikers as there were wage-workers.
273
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---RUSSIA.
The following table shows the number of establishments having
specified numbers of strikes during the year 1905:
ESTABLISHMENTS HAVING ONE STRIKE AND OVER, BY NUMBER OF STRIKES IN
EACH ESTABLISHMENT, 1905.
Strikes in each establishment.
Establishments hav
ing one strike and
over.
Total strikes.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
One.................................................................................
T w o................................................................................
Three..............................................................................
Four...............................................................................
F iv e ...............................................................................
S ix ..................................................................................
Seven..............................................................................
Eight..............................................................................
Nine................................................................................
Ten.................................................................................
Eleven............................................................................
T w elve...........................................................................
Twenty-six.....................................................................
1,874
876
582
563
339
198
185
92
32
39.32
18.38
1,874
1,752
1,746
2,252
1,695
1,188
1,295
736
288
Total......................................................................
12.21
11
8
11.81
7.11
4.16
3.88
1.93
.67
.23
.17
Per cent.
14.29
13.36
13.32
17.18
12.93
9.06
9.88
5.61
2.20
110
88
1
.11
.0 2
60
26
.84
.67
.46
4,766
100.00
13,110
100.00
5
.2 0
Size of E stablishment.—While the strike movement of 1905
was much more extensive than for any previous year, the report
shows that strikes occur more frequently in the larger establishments
than in the smaller ones. This is demonstrated by the following
table:
NUMBER OF STRIKES AND OF ESTABLISHMENTS, 1905, AND PER CENT OF ESTAB
LISHMENTS HAVING STRIKES, 1895-1904 AND 1905, BY CLASSIFIED NUMBER OF
EMPLOYEES.
Number of—
Per cent of establish
ments having strikes
in—
Groups of employees.
Establish
ments.
Strikes.
1905.
20 and under...................................................................
21 to 50............................................................................
51 to 100........'.................................................................
101 to'500.........................................................................
501 to 1,000......................................................................
Over 1,000.......................................................................
2,480
3,917
2,232
3,173
675
633
5,278
4,382
2,050
1,981
412
273
47.0
89.4
108.9
160.2
163.8
231.9
Total......................................................................
13,110
14,376
91.2
1895-1904.
2.7
7.5
9.4
21.5
49.9
89.7
Strikes, by Groups of I ndustries.—An analysis of the strike
data by 12 main groups of industries shows a very interesting fea
ture—the very unequal distribution of strikes among such industrial
groups.
274
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS, EMPLOYEES, STRIKES, AND STRIKERS, BY INDUS
TRIES, 1905.
Number of—
Industry.
Estab
Em
Num
lish
ments. ployees. (a) ber.
(a )
Per
cent.
Number.
Per 100
P ot
em
cent. ployees.
28.8
10.3
.7
4.7
2.4
4.8
3.5
27.2
6 .2
779,452
279,415
18,173
128,280
64,077
131,695
94,928
736,126
76,041
89,315
187,230
124,463
3.3
6.9
4.6
207
100.0
93
2,709,695
100.0
164
415,333
144,674
29,503
76,925
27,757
78,231
78,535
269,452
140,543
46,508
284,252
60,244
995
2,332
135
183
422
1.657
1,142
2.657
507
1,383
811
10.5
Total............................ 14,066
1,651,957
13,110
886
Per 100
estab
lish
ments.
137
224
63
64
128
144
74
142
32
108
35
154
726
1,039
215
285
330
1,147
1,547
1,865
1,563
824
3,997
528
Cotton....................................
Wool......................................
Silk........................................
Flax, hemp, and jute............
Other textiles........................
Paper and printing................
Woodworking........................
Metal working.......................
Stone, glass, and c h i n a ..........
A n im a l products...................
Food products.......................
Chemical products.................
Strikers.
Strikes.
7.6
17.8
1 .0
1.4
3.2
12.6
8.7
20.3
3.9
6 .8
2 .8
188
193
62
167
231
168
121
273
54
193
66
a The figures in this column are for 1904, the data for 1905 not being available.
Over two-thirds of all strikers belong to three industrial groups—
cotton, metal working, and wool, as these three industries are most
highly developed in Russia; but since they claim only one-half of all
factory employees, it is evident that they show also a higher strike
frequency. As a matter of fact the variations in such frequency, as
shown by the number of strikers for each 100 employees are very
great, fluctuating from 273 in the metal industry down to 54 in
stone, glass, and china manufactures. These variations are partly
explained by difference of size of establishment in each industry, by
the geographical distribution of the industries, and also by the intel
ligence of the workmen in the different industries.
Regarding the distribution of strikes and strikers by months of the
year the report shows that while the variations between the indus
trial groups are many, the increase of the strike movement in Jan
uary, May, October, and December is noticeable in practically all
industries.
D u r a t io n o f S t r ik e s .—As was shown in the first table, the aver
age duration of the strikes was greater in 1905 than for any other
year of the entire period for which strike statistics exist in Russia.
For the period 1895 to 1904 the average duration fluctuated between
3.4 and 7.4 days, gradually increasing since 1901. In 1905 it was
8.7 days per striker. Though the highest for Russia, this average
duration is much shorter than in other industrial countries. The
strikes in Russia are usually brief, but they are gradually becoming
longer.
As shown in the following table of all the 13,110 strikes more than
one-half lasted from over two to ten days, while about one-fourth
lasted from over half a day to two days, so that three-fourths of all
the strikes lasted only from over one-half day to ten days. But in
the total loss of working days the comparatively protracted strikes
275
FOREIGN ST A TISTICAL PU B LIC A T IO N S— RU SSIA
were a much more important factor, as 64 per cent of the loss of
working time is due to the less than 20 per cent of strikes lasting
longer than ten days.
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF STRIKES AND OF WORKING DAYS LOST, BY DURATION,
1905.
Strikes.
Working days lost.
Days of duration.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
£ day and under....................................................................
Over \ day to 2 days.............................................................
Over 2 days to 3 days...........................................................
Over 3 days to 5 days...........................................................
Over 5 days to 10 days..........................................................
Over 10 days to 15 days........................................................
Over 15 days to 20 days........................................................
Over 20 days to 30 days........................................................
Over 30 days.........................................................................
Unknown..............................................................................
334
3,392
1,577
2,174
3,056
991
770
607
194
15
2.55
25.87
12.03
16.58
23.31
7.56
5.87
4.63
1.48
37,857
725,607
919,920
1,776,774
5,047,746
2,775,355
2,732,557
4,879,815
4,713,756
0.16
3.07
3.90
7.53
21.38
11.75
11.57
20.67
19.97
Total............................................................................
13,110
100.00
23,609,387
100.00
.1 2
A study of the duration of strikes by separate industrial groups
shows that the most prolonged strikes (as measured by the average
number of days lost per striker) occurred in the cotton, woolen, flax
and hemp, and metal working industries, i. e., almost in the same
industries in which strikes were most frequent. Thus, in the cotton
industry there were 333 strikes, or 33.5 per cent, which lasted over
ten days, and in the woolen industry, 771 strikes, or 33.1 per cent,
while in paper and printing, for instance, there were 193 strikes, or
11.6 per cent, and in woodworking, 168 strikes, or 14.6 per cent, which
lasted over ten days.
The following table shows by industries the number of strikes and
strikers and working days lost in 1905, and the average days lost per
strike and per striker in 1905 and during the period 1895 to 1904:
STRIKES, STRIKERS, AND WORKING DAYS LOST, 1905, AND AVERAGE WORKING
DAYS LOST PER STRIKE AND STRIKER, 1895 TO 1904 AND 1905, BY INDUSTRIES.
Number of—
Industry.
Strikes.
Strikers.
Working
days lost.
Average number of working days
lost—
Per strike.
Per striker.
1905. 1895-1904.
1905. 1895-1904.
8,295,759
2,661,016
133,321
1,390,588
538,205
755,967
663,381
6,378,195
551,021
604,387
985,191
652,356
8,337
1,141
988
7,544
1,275
456
580
2,401
1,087
682
712
804
3,738
693
977
1,175
249
279
1,613
470
♦ 429
405
363
10.8
1,383
811
779,452
279,415
18,173
128,280
64,077
131,695
94,928
736,126
76,041
89,815
187,230
124,463
8.4
5.7
7.0
8.7
7.2
6.7
5.3
5.2
5.1
7.7
4.4
3.3
4.8
3.7
3.5
4.6
3.8
7.4
3.1
3.9
Total................................... 13,110
2,709,695
23,609,387
1,801
1,178
8.7
4.8
Cotton...........................................
Wool.............................................
Silk...............................................
Flax, hemp, and jute....................
Other textiles...............................
Paper and printing.......................
Woodworking...............................
Metal working..............................
Stone, glass, etc............................
Animal products..........................
Food products..............................
Chemical products........................
995
2,332
135
183
422
1.657
1,142
2.657
507
886
1,212
10.6
9.5
7.3
276
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The following table' shows the duration of strikes in 1905, by
industries:
NUMBER AND DURATION OF STRIKES, BY INDUSTRIES, 1905.
Duration of strikes.
Industry.
Total
Over
i day id a y Over Over Over Over Over Over Over
Un strikes.
5
to
10
15
to
20
20
to
30
30
10
to
15
2
to
3
3
to
5
and
to 2 days. days. days. days. days. days. days. known.
under. days.
Cotton......................
Wool........................
Silk..........................
Flax, hemp, and jute.
Other textiles...........
Paper and printing..
Woodworking..........
Metal working..........
Stone, glass, etc.......
Animal products___
Food products.........
Chemical products...
30
38
Total...............
87
152
130
267
10
12
5
19
33
40
63
9
29
58
9
196
792
28
51
76
371
280
588
132
274
348
256
30
53
255
138
397
76
87
215
77
28
49
406
205
453
92
124
246
162
334
3,392
1,577
2,174
1
218
310
52
38
101
398
309
723
114
223
352
218
3,056
99
267
94
263
12
11
11
49
103
75
168
23
68
81
35
991
9
38
58
62
105
27
30
53
I ll
217
7
8
26
23
25
88
20
18
36
23
25
770
607
29
25
1
1
2
3
11
9
1
6
2
6
2
2
1
194
15
5
67
14
13
9
995
2,332
135
183
422
1.657
1,142
2.657
507
886
1,383
811
13,110
Causes of S trikes .—The study of the causes of strikes in this
exceptional year presents unusual difficulties because of the inter
action of economic and of political factors. Over two-thirds of all
strikes were due to political causes; nevertheless, in a great many of
such strikes definite economic demands were made in conjunction
with the political demands, and the reverse was also true.
It was difficult to decide in a great many cases what was the real
cause or motive of the strike. Koughly the strikes are divided in the
text of the report into 4,189 economic strikes and 8,915 political
strikes, giving a total of 13,104, and for 6 strikes the nature is not
well defined (though in the tables the entire 13,110 are accounted for).
A better classification is given as follows:
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF STRIKES, BY NATURE OF STRIKE, 1905.
Nature of strike.
Number.
Per cent.
Exclusively economic............................................................................................
Primarily political but with economic demands...................................................
Passively political..................................................................................................
Purely in the nature of political demonstrations...................................................
Not definitely known.............................................................................................
4,189
1,395
2,184
5,336
6
31.95
10.64
16.66
40.70
.05
Total.............................................................................................................
13,110
100.00
I t is not easy to differentiate between the third and fourth groups.
In the third group the report classified sympathetic strikes, or strikes
without well-defined causes but often occurring in sympathy with
political demonstrations or due to party or national conflicts, etc.,
while as purely political were classed such strikes as occurred after
the 22d (9th) of January, 1905, or during riots and armed revolts,
or during the general strike of 30th (17th) of October, or because of
277
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— RUSSIA.
a demand for a constitutional assembly, for general franchise, for
socialistic measures, etc. The interdependence of these factors is
shown in the following table:
STRIKES, BY CAUSES, 1905.
Number of strikes in which the cause
mentioned was—
Secondary cause in
conjunction with—
Cause.
The only
cause.
Wages:
Demand for higher wages.....................................
Resistance to lower wages....................................
Method of pay......................................................
Demand ofpayment for time of strike.................
1,184
The
main
cause.
Total.
Political
Economic and
other
demands. demands.
1,154
944
20
436
282
288
4,608
31
644
632
Total.................................................................
1,255
1,424
1,882
1,354
5,915
Hours of labor:
Demand for shorter hours....................................
Resistance to longer or shorter hours...................
Arrangement of hours of labor.............................
209
1,081
8
11
901
115
148
1,002
7
55
114
3,193
179
280
1,164
1,171
3,652
161
200
168
89
53
410
95
232
426
236
1,334
312
1,632
815
2,640
1
28
42
1
1,326
18
60
10
2
120
Total.................................................................
217
1,100
Conditions of work, rules, etc.:
Fines and deductions...........................................
Administrative personnel....................................
Housing conditions..............................................
Condition of food, etc...........................................
Rules, etc.............................................................
45
3
17
2
3
81
4
23
15
Total.................................................................
67
126
Political:
Accidental............................................................
Passively political, sympathetic, e t c ..................
Political demonstrations......................................
4
2,184
5,336
926
457
240
32
3,350
5,825
Total.................................................................
7,524
1,391
280
9,195
8
211
176
884
8
20
It appears from this table that political demands, whether as the
only, the principal, or the contributory cause, figured in 9,195 strikes,
or 70 per cent, and that economic demands figured much more fre
quently as secondary to political demands than political demands
figured as secondary to economic demands.
Among the economic demands advanced, increases of wages were
by far the most frequent, appearing in 4,608 strikes, or over 35 per
cent, while shorter hours were asked in 3,193, or nearly 25 per cent.
In the language of the report quoted, a large majority of the strikes
during the year must be classed as offensive, while defensive strikes
are quite insignificant.
,278
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The classification of the strikes and strikers according to the main
cause of the strike is shown in the following table:
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF STRIKES, STRIKERS, AND WORKING DAYS LOST, BY
CAUSES, 1905.
Strikes.
Cause.
Num
ber.
Strikers.
Per
cent.
Working days lost.
Number.
Per
cent.
Total.
565,562
12,662
20.87
.47
5,557,264
81,283
Wages:
Demand for higher wages.............
Resistance to lower wages............
Methods of pay and demand for
payment for strike...................
2,510
19
150
1.14
41.921
1.55
Total..........................................
2,679
20.43
620,145
22.89
Hours of labor:
Demand for shorter hours............
Resistance to longer hours...........
Arrangement of hours of labor....
1,290
9
18
9.84
.07
.14
289,161
5,883
11,225
10.67
.41
19.15
.14
.2 2
Per
Per
strike. striker.
2,214
4,278
9.8
6.4
222,387
1,483
5.3
5,860,934
2,188
9.5
2,893,315
34,741
46,604
2,243
3,860
2,589
10.0
9.7
5.9
4.2
Total..........................................
1,317
10.05
306,269
11.30
2,974,660
2,259
Condition of work, rules, etc.:
Fines and deductions...................
Administrative personnel...........
Housing conditions.......................
All other conditions and rules___
3
126
7
57
.02
.96
.05
.44
766
55,613
2,241
33,465
.03
2.05
.08
1.24
2,815
449,272
11,683
291/401
938
3,566
1,669
5,112
1.47
92,085
3.40
755,171
3,913
8 .2
3.7
8 .1
5.2
8.7
Total..........................................
193
Political:
Accidental....................................
Passively political, sympathetic,
etc..............................................
With economic demands.......
Political demonstrations........
With economic demands.......
12
.09
3,130
.11
17,343
1,445
5.5
2,184
926
5,336
457
16.66
7.06
40.70
3.49
336,306
299,782
963,819
87,975
12.41
11.06
35.57
3.25
1,928,737
4,574,253
6,469,708
1,028,321
883
4,940
2,250
5.7
15.3
6.7
11.7
Total..........................................
8,915
68.00
1,691,012
62.40
14,018,362
1,572
8.3
Unknown............................................
6
.05
184
.01
260
43
.4
Grand total............................... 13,110
100.00
2,709,695
100.00
23,609,387
1,801
8.7
1,212
Summing up these data, the report states, that altogether 1,018,499,
or 37.6 per cent, of the strikers participated in purely economic
strikes; 387,757, or 14.3 per cent, in semipolitical strikes with
economic demands; 339,436, or 12.5 per cent, in accidental, pas
sively political strikes, and 963,819, or 35.6 percent, in purely political
demonstrations.
No very definite conclusions can be made concerning the relation
of the duration of strikes to their causes, except that seemingly the
duration of the strikes combining political purpose with economic
demands is longer than that of either the purely political demonstra
tions, or purely economic strikes.
R esults of the S trikes .—In view of the abnormal conditions of
the year and the causations of many strikes by reasons totally
extraneous to the conditions of the labor contract, much the larger
part of the strikes led to no economic results. According to the
results, the strikes and strikers are divided as follows:
279
FOREIGN ST A TISTICAL PU B LIC A T IO N S---- RUSSIA.
NUMBER AND PER CENT STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY RESULTS, 1905.
Strikes.
Results of strikes.
Strikers.
Number.
Per
cent.
Number.
Succeeded.......................................................................................
Compromised by mutual concessions.............................................
Leading to voluntary concessions of employers.............................
Failed.................... .......................................................................
Without any economic results.. . ................................................
Unknown........................................................................................
1,949
2,029
450
1,254
7,422
6
14.86
15.48
3.43
9.57
56.61
.05
337,790
605,044
66,383
421,295
1,278,764
419
12.47
22.33
2.45
15.55
47.19
Total.....................................................................................
13,110
100.00
2,709,695
100.00
Per
cent.
.01
Combining the strikes compromised and those resulting in volun
tary concessions of employers into one group of strikes partially
successful, it appears that of all the strikes only 14.86 per cent were
successful, 18.91 per cent partially successful, 9.57 per cent failed, and
56.61 per cent were without any results. The number of strikers was
distributed as follows: 12.47 per cent successful, 24.78 per cent
partly successful, 15.55 per cent failed, and 47.19 per cent were
without results. The results in 1905 appear much less favorable
than in the previous ten years when of all the strikes enumerated about
one-half were more or less successful. But this seemingly unsatis
factory result is easily explained by the large number of strikes which
led to no definite economic results, such strikes being in the nature
of political demonstrations.
If these strikes without results are excluded, it is found that 34.27
per cent of the strikes in 1905 were entirely successful as against 28.2
per cent in 1895 to 1904; 43.58 per cent were partially successful as
against 21.8 per cent, and only 22.05 per cent failed as against 45.4
per cent in the preceding decade. The same comparison obtains
from the number of strikers. Thus, 23.61 per cent of the strikers
were entirely successful, as against 27.1 per cent in the preceding
ten years; 46.92 per cent partially successful as against 19.5 per cent,
and 29.44 per cent failed as against 51.6 per cent. Thus nearly
four-fifths of all the economic strikes and over seven-tenths of all
the strikers participating in them were more or less successful in 1905.
280
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The results of the strikes by industrial groups are shown in detail
in the following table:
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY RESULTS AND BY INDUSTRIES, 1905.
STRIKES.
Industry.
In favor
of
strikers.
Voluntary con
cessions of the
employers.
Mutual In favor Without
Un
conces of em economic known.
sions. ployers. results.
Com Par
plete.
tial.
Cotton.......................
Wool.........................
Silk...........................
Flax, hemp, and jute.
Other textiles............
Paper and printing...
Woodworking...........
Metal working..........
Stone, glass, etc........
Animal products.......
Food products..........
Chemical products...
184
525
57
25
70
178
115
184
67
9
36
4
Total................
1,949
265
200
256
88
45
9
90
213
282
5
65
25
51
36
16
1
6
2
47
74
205
181
446
99
135
241
95
185
2,029
22
1
11
21
2
1
3
150
54
124
47
417
1,287
53
73
237
1,056
608
1,477
251
572
795
596
1,254
7,422
118,142
26,330
1,424
34,240
11,444
14,322
147,330
10,793
12,386
18,278
20,495
295,226
129,170
7,780
36,974
32,917
80,040
49,740
390,123
31,144
50,498
105,050
70,102
421,295
1,278,764
102
13
36
30
117
111
404
66
1
1
1
2
1
Total.
995
2,332
135
183
422
1,657
1,142
2,657
507
886
1,383
811
6
13,110
STRIKERS.
99,563
58,437
5,800
15,984
7,610
14,979
16,238
61,185
10,747
6,452
27,148
13,647
6,112
Total............................. 337,790
38,559
Cotton...................................
Wool......................................
Silk........................................
Flax, hemp, and jute............
Other textiles........................
Paper and printing...............
Woodworking........................
Metal working.......................
Stone, glass, etc.....................
Animal products...................
Food products.......................
Chemical products.................
7,918
69
1,359
5,297
1,211
7,188
105
3,992
4,468
840
10,440
4,235
249,969
53,199
3,100
40,926
6
15,009
1,071
15,627
4,308
11,665
1,730
5,253 124,950
23,228
12
16,475
385 31,901
384 18,995
27,824
605,044
6,111
126
150
22
97
24
419
779,452
279,415
18,173
128,280
64,077
131,695
94,928
736,126
76,041
89,815
187,230
124,463
2,709,695
It was stated above that a very close relationship between the
causes and the results of the strikes existed, the political strikes
largely leading to no results. This relationship is brought out more
clearly in the following table:
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY CAUSES AND BY RESULTS, 1905.
STRIKES.
Cause.
In favor
of
strikers.
Voluntary con
cessions.
Com
plete.
Par
tial.
Com In favor
pro
of em
mised. ployers.
Un
known.
Total.
Wages:
Demands for higher wages............
Resistance to lower wages............
Methods of pay, etc.......................
1,180
9
57
7
3
852
3
58
467
7
35
1
2,510
19
150
Total..........................................
1,246
7
3
913 |
509
1
2,679
281
FOREIGN STA TIST IC A L PU B LIC A T IO N S---- RUSSIA.
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY CAUSES AND BY RESULTS, 1905—Concluded.
STRIK ES—Concluded.
Cause.
In favor
of
strikers.
Hours of labor:
Demands for shorter hours...........
Resistance to longer hours............
Arrangement of hours..................
410
Com
plete.
Par
tial.
1
1
8
Total..........................................
419
Conditions of work, etc.:
Fines and deductions....................
Administrative personnel.............
Housing conditions.......................
All new conditions and rules........
42
Total..........................................
58
Political:
Accidental........... ........................
Passive, political, sympathetic,
etc..............................................
With economic demands........
Political demonstrations...............
With economic demands.......
8
Total..........................................
Voluntary con
cessions.
In favor
of em
ployers.
613
266
4
6
1,290
9
18
625
272
1,317
1
8
1
49
3
17
3
126
7
*57
1
64
70
193
2
6
2
15
4
190
79
95
24
61
13
27
14
127
257
181
1,949
Total.
34
3
25
22
3
337
84
iei
427
1
Unknown ..........................................
Grand total................................
Un
known.
1
1
226
Compro
mised.
265
12
2,081
43
5,299
2,184
926
5,336
457
401
7,423
8,915
2
4
6
234
185
2,029
1,254
7,428
13,110
STR IK ER S.
Wi
Resistance to lower wages..
Methods of pay, etc...........
Total.
Hours of labor:
Demands for shorter hours..
Resistance to longer hours..
Arrangement of hours.........
Total.
Conditions of work:
Fines and deductions...............
Administrative personnel........
Housing conditions..................
All other conditions and rules.
Total.
Political:
Accidental...................................
Passive, political, sympathetic,
With economic demands---Political demonstrations.............
With economic demands___
Total__
194,134
5,530
8,051
424
108
223,273
347
17,341
147,473
6,785
16,529
150
565,562
12,662
41,921
207,715
424
108
240,961
170,787
150
620,145
43,441
538
6,057
746
164,516
5,345
2,890
80,458
2,278
289,161
5,883
11,225
50,036
746
172,751
82,736
306,269
17,652
1,403
5,209
115
406
14,513
179
22,206
360
23,333
659
6,050
766
55,613
2,241
33,465
24,264
115
37,304
30,402
92,085
707
1,119
1,304
Grand total..
336,306
299,782
963,819
87,975
137,329
1,278,890
1,691,012
if
143
184
421,295
1,279,183
2,709,695
3,189
3,109
6,522
6,335
11,004
775
136,383
106
16,057
*48,*960
55,775
38,020
26,970
154,028
Unknown.............
337,790
38,559
27,824
605,044
3,130
319,474
7,394
952,022
12,189
11,710
5,356
8,765
759
50,523
87,250
282
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Of the 8,915 political or semipolitical strikes, 7,423, or 83.3 per
cent, led to no results, and 401, or 4.5 per cent, ended in failures,
so that only 1,091, or 12.2 per cent, were more or less successful.
On the other hand, of the strikes primarily for the purpose of in
fluencing wages, 80.4 per cent were more or less successful, and of
those directed at the hours of labor nearly 80 per cent (79.3 per
cent); so that nearly four-fifths of the strikes brought material
results to the strikers.
The result of the economic strikes in 1905, partly because of the
political unrest, caused a general increase of wages and a decrease
of hours in Russian factories.
Loss from Strikes.—I t is difficult to estimate the economic loss
resulting from strikes, especially in view of the extent of the strike
movement in Russia during the year reported. An estimate is,
however, published in the report based upon an assumed produc
tivity of labor and average wages. This estimate, given in the
following table, shows the loss of production to the industry and
the loss of wages to the workmen:
ESTIMATED LOSSES IN PRODUCTION AND IN WAGES DUE TO STRIKES, BY
INDUSTRIES, 1905.
U nusual O ccurrences.—Following
the methods introduced in
the first statistical strike report, the present report concludes with
an account of so-called unusual occurrences accompanying strikes.
For the preceding ten years (1895 to 1904) 190 strikes resulted
in dismissal of part of employees, 137 in dismissal of all employees,
269 in arrests and deportations of workmen to their rural homes; in
340 strikes the use of the military was resorted to, and in 71 strikes
private property was destroyed. All together, there, were 1,007 such
extraordinary occurrences for the 1,765 strikes, or 57 occurrences
per each 100 strikes. As is shown in the following statement, the
number of such occurrences reported in 1905 was proportionately
much smaller, especially as far as dismissal of employees, and their
arrests and deportation is concerned.
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— RUSSIA.
283
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF STRIKES WHICH WERE ACCOMPANIED BY EXTRAOR
DINARY MEASURES AND OCCURRENOES, 1905.
Extraordinary
strikes.
Nature of occurrence.
Strikes resulting in dismissal of—
Part of employees......................................................
All employees...........................................................
All employees, with temporary suspension of work............
All employees, with indefinite suspension.......................
Strikes accompanied by—
Arrests and deportations of workmen.............................
Use of military.........................................................
Destruction of property of employers, and personal violence
Murders, arson, etc.....................................................
Total....................................................................
Per cent
Number. of total
strikes.
82
126
88
0.62
.96
.67
.34
42
444
32
6
.32
3.39
.24
.05
864
6.59
44
The use of the military was applied in 444 cases, but this is only
3.39 per cent of the total (13,110) strikes recorded.
The general statistical results lead to the following conclusions in
the official report:
(1) The factory strikes of 1905 were of unusual dimensions, exceed
ing similar developments in any country. (2) These strikes coin
cide with the general political unrest in the country, and were pri
marily in the nature of political demonstrations. (3) The total
number of striking establishments and strikers gave the semblance
of a general strike, but in reality this did not take place. (4) The
strikes extended throughout the year, with rises in January, May,
October, and December in sympathy with political affairs. (5) Even
at the time of greatest excitement, however, the strikes did not extend
over more than one-fifth of all establishments and one-third of all
employees. (6) A characteristic of the strike movement was the
repetition of strikes in the same establishments. (7) The strike
movement centralized itself in certain localities (primarily Poland,
Lillmania, Baltic provinces, and Caucasus), and within these local
ities in certain establishments. (8) The total number of persons
participating in strikes equaled only 60 per cent of the number
employed in industrial establishments.
Mining and Metallurgical I ndustries .—The data furnished
for strikes in the mining and metallurgical industries of Bussia,
though very scanty, are no less unusual. There were 103 strikes
(the number of striking establishments not being given), with
154,968 strikers and 3,902,931 aggregate days lost.
The largest part of these strikes took place in the coal mines of
western and southern Bussia, and in the metallurgical establish
ments of Poland and in Ural.
38697—No 86—10--- 19
284
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOB.
STRIKES, STRIKERS, AND WORKING DAYS LOST IN MINING AND IN METALLURGICAL
INDUSTRIES, 1905.
Working days lost.
Industry.
Average
Strikes. Strikers. number
of
strikers.
Total.
Average number
per—
Strike.
Coalmines......................................
All other mines................................
Metallurgical establishments...............
Total.....................................
44
15
44
103
59,188
19,376
76,404
154,968
1,345
1,292
1,736
1,505
1,512,390
325,013
2,065,528
3,902,931
34,373
21,668
46,944
37,893
Striker.
25.6
16.8
27.0
25.2
The average number of strikers per strike and the average number of
days lost per strike and striker indicate that the strikes in the mining
and in the metallurgical industries were much more severe than in
the manufacturing industries. Especially is this true of the coal
mines and of the* metallurgical establishments. Moreover, these
data concerning the mining industry do not include the strikes in
the Baku oil industiy, perhaps one of the most restless industrial
regions during the year. An estimate, made in the report, puts
the number of strikes in this industry at 231, the number of strikers
at about 50,000, and the number of days lost at 980,000.
Combining the three totals, for manufactures, mining, and metal
lurgy, and the Baku oil regions, grand totals are obtained as follows:
Strikes, 13,444; strikers, about 2,915,000; and days lost, 28,492,000.
This, as was stated above, does not include railroads and many other
governmental enterprises nor any territory in Siberia or Middle Asia.
SPA IN .
Estadistica de las H uelgas, 1906.
1908.
Instituto de Reformas Sociales.
173 pp.
The present volume is the second report on strikes in Spain pub
lished by the institute of social reform of that country. The data
contained in the report relate to strikes occurring during the year 1906.
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— SPAIN.
285
The number of employees in establishments involved in strikes and
the number of strikers are shown in the following table, by industries
and sex of persons affected:
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY INDUSTRIES, 1906.
Industry.
Employees in establish
ments affected.
Strikers.
Fe
males.
Fe Total.
Males. males.
Strikes.
Males.
Agriculture.................
Mining and quarrying...
Textiles.....................
Leather, hides, etc........
Woodworking.............
Metal working.............
Ceramics....................
Foods and drinks.........
Clothing.....................
Furniture...................
Building....................
Vehicles.....................
Printing, art trades, etc..
Marine transportation...
Street transportation, etc
Other industries..........
Total.................
122
900
11,785
1,036
72
2,634
4,908
400
928
545
1,065
1,432
419
462
854
248
o265
0 27,953
Total.
900
9,778
844
1,754
72
72
3,625 2,441
4,923 2,137
400
400
988
653
713
240
1,085 1,014
20
1,432 1,264
187
469
510
283
737
854
174
259
11
o265 3,180
2,184 o30,137 23,784
103
718
991
15
60
168
11,888
284
171
37
32
20
15
17
610
9,804
1,128
72
2,612
2,137
400
690
272
1,034
1,264
202
300
737
182
3,180
24,394
o Not including employees in establishments affected by 1 general strike not reported.
During the year there were 122 strikes reported, in which 24,394
strikers were involved, of whom 23,784 were males and 610 females.
The largest number of strikers in any one industry was found in min
ing and quarrying, which furnished 40.2 per cent of all strikers
reported. Of these, all but 26 were males. In the 2 strikes reported
in the leather, hides, etc., industry and in the single strike occurring
in the ceramic industry, all employees of the establishments affected
were on strike. In the furniture industry the number of strikers
equaled 95.3 per cent of all employees in the establishments involved.
286
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The following table shows the strikes and strikers by industries and
results:
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY INDUSTRIES AND RESULTS, 1906.
Strikers in strikes
which—
Strikes which—
Total.
strikes.
Industry.
Agriculture.................................
Mining and quarrying...................
Textiles.....................................
Leather, hides, etc........................
Woodworking.............................
Metal working.............................
Ceramics....................................
Foods and drinks.........................
Clothing.....................................
Furniture...................................
Building....................................
Vehicles....................................
Printing, art trades, etc.... ............
Marine transportation...................
Street transportation, etc...............
Other industries..........................
Total.................................
Suc
Suc ceeded
Failed.
ceeded. partly.
3
16
15
2
10
9
1
6
9
3
16
4
16
3
5
2
3
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
3
3
2
1
1
5
1
1
122
26
25
4
4
4
1
6
4
Total
strik
ers.
Suc
Suc ceeded
Failed.
ceeded. partly.
1
12
8
2
4
5
1
3
5
1
7
380
9,804
1,128
72
2,612
2,137
400
690
272
1,034
1,264
4
202
11
300
2
737
182
1
4
3,180
71 24,394
180
1,112
4
395
35
18
84
410
564
50
250
99
495
837
1,034
833
517
90
600
313
48
72
3,201
4,839
200
8,197
287
72
1,183
1,269
400
155
98
24
387
202
202
487
11
3,180
16,354
Of the 122 strikes reported, 26, or 21.3 per cent, were successful; 26,
or 20.5 per cent, were partially successful; and 71, or 58.2 per cent,
failed. The number of employees involved in strikes which were
successful was 3,201, or 13.1 per cent of all strikers; in the partially
successful strikes there were 4,839, or 19.8 per cent of all the strikers
involved; and 16,354, or 67.1 per cent of all strikers involved, par
ticipated in strikes which failed. In the mining and quarrying in
dustry, which furnished the largest number of strikers, 11.3 per cent
of the employees were in strikes which were successful, 5.1 per cent
were in strikes which were partially successful, and 83.6 per cent were
in strikes which failed.
The following table shows the number of strikes, strikers, and
strikes in which employees and employers were organized, classified
according to duration of strikes:
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY DURATION, 1906.
Strikes in which—
Days of duration.
Under 2.......................................................................
2 to 5...........................................................................
6 to 10.........................................................................
11 to 15........................................................................
16 to 20........................................................................
21 to 30........................................................................
31 and over...................................................................
Not reported................................................................
Total...................................................................
Strikes. Strikers. Employ Employ
ees were ers were
organized. organized.
8
32
18
10
4
12
30
8
122
360
7,994
5,067
1,150
790
2,172
6,354
507
24,394
2
17
10
8
3
10
27
5
82
2
10
5
1
1
7
16
1
43
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— SPAIN,
287
Of the 122 strikes, 58, or 47.5 per cent, involving 55 per cent of all
strikers, lasted less than eleven days. In the 30 strikes, involving
6,354 strikers, which lasted longer than thirty days, the employees
were organized in 27 instances and the employers in 16 instances.
The two following tables show the results of strikes and the days of
duration, classified according to method of settlement:
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY METHOD OF SETTLEMENT AND RESULTS, 1906.
Strikers in strikes
which—
Strikes which—
Method of settlement.
Direct negotiations between employ
ers and employees......................
Between employers and workingmen’s nninns...................................
Between employers’ associations and
workingmen’s unions..................
Intervention of authorities.............
Without intervention....................
Total.................................
Total
strikes.
15
6
2
49
50
122
Total
strikers.
Suc
Suc
Suc ceeded
Suc ceeded
Failed.
ceeded. partly. Failed.
ceeded. partly.
2
6
13
5
26
9
2
13
1
25
4
1,993
89
434
23 11,828
44 10,050
71 24,394
47
89
2,070
995
3,201
1,136
810
434
3,239
30
4,839
6,519
9,025
16,354
STRIKES AND STRIKERS, BY DURATION AND METHOD OF SETTLEMENT, 1906.
Strikes of which days of duration were—
Method of settlement.
Under 2 to 5. 6 to 10. 11 to 15. 16 to 20. 21 to 30. 31 and Not re
2.
over. ported.
Direct negotiations between employ
ers and employees......................
Between employers and working
men’s nninns...................................
2
Intervention of authorities.............
Without intervention....................
Total.................................
1
5
8
Between employers’ associations and
workingman’s unions____________
5
4
1
17
6
32
11
6
18
2
5
2
3
10
4
1
5
5
4
11
1
1
2
7
19
30
2
6
8
Strikers in strikes of which days of duration were—
Method of settlement.
Direct negotiations between employ
ers and em ployees...........................
Between employers and working
men’s unions...................................
Between employers’ associations and
workingmen’s unions..................
Intervention of authorities.............
Without intervention....................
Total.................................
Under 2 to 5. 6 to 10. 11 to 15. 16 to 20. 21 to 30. 31 and Not re
over. ported.
2.
65
50
245
360
642
423
670
51
3
5,961
1,312
7,994
1,689
3,375
5,067
498
229
1,150
1,174
16
1,190
855
275
1,772
193
35
434
1,371
4,321
6,354
230
277
507
The group of strikes settled by the intervention of the authorities
furnished the largest number of strikers in 1906. Of the strikers in
such strikes 2,070, or 17.5 per cent, were in strikes which were suc
cessful; 3,239, or 27.4 per cent, were in strikes which were partially
successful; and 6,519, or 55.1 per cent, were in strikes which failed.
288
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR.
As to duration, 65.1 per cent of the strikers engaged in strikes settled
in this manner were in strikes which lasted ten days or less, 21.4 per
cent were in strikes lasting from eleven to thirty days, and 11.6 per
cent were in strikes which continued longer than thirty days. The
days of duration were not reported in 2 strikes of this group, involving
1.9 per cent of the strikers.
The results of strikes, classified according to cause, are shown in
the following table:
STRIKES, BY CAUSES AND RESULTS, 1906.
Strikes which—
Total
strikes.
Cause.
Shop rules................................................
Employment or discharge of persons..............
Trade unionism ..................................................
Sympathy with strikers...............................
Affront to dignity of employees.....................
Hours of labor and wage disputes...................
Wage disputes and employment or discharge of
persons......................................... ..................
Wage disputes and shop rules........................
Shop rules and employment or discharge of per
sons................. ...............................
Shop rules and trade u n i o n i s m ................................. ..
Employment or discharge of persons and trade
u n i o n i s m .................... ......................................................
Wage disputes, hours of labor, shop rules, and
Em
ployees
in
es
Strikers. tablish
Suc
Suc ceeded
Failed.
ments
ceeded. partly.
affected.
26
27
10
26
4
5
3
5
3
5
1
1
2
7
3
4
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
26
employment or discharge of persons_________
Other causes........................................................
2
Total................................................
122
2
1
8
4
3
4
1
1
2
2
25
16
16
4
18
2
4
r
4
1
2
1
1
1
71
9,372
10,798
4,072
4,984
1,231
1,483
2,299
3,696
612
691
3,451 *3,006
162
366
1,090
1,294
515
697
1,103
1,119
100
800
200
700
38
38
22
19
130
443
24,394 *30,137
* Not including employees in establishments affected by 1 general strike not reported.
I t is seen from the foregoing table that the largest number of
strikers participated in strikes resulting from wage disputes. This
cause alone furnished 38.4 per cent of all strikers for the year, while
in connection with other causes it furnished 49.6 per cent of all strikers.
Of the strikes due to this cause alone 7.7 per cent were successful,
30.8 were partially successful, and 61.5 per cent failed. Disputes
regarding hours of labor, alone or in connection with other causes,
resulted in cessation of work by 5,181 strikers, or 21.2 per cent of the
number reported for the year.
SW EDEN.
ArbetsinstaUelser under hren 1903-1907, jarrde ofversikt a f arbetsinstallelser under &ren 1859-1902 samt dens. Te. polUisJca storstrefken &r
1902. Utgifven of K. Kommerskollegii afdelning f8r arbetsstatistik, 1900, 400 pp.
This report on strikes and lockouts in Sweden was com piled by the
office of labor statistics of the royal board of trade of that country.
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— SWEDEN.
289
The volume contains copious data relative to strikes and lockouts
occurring during the years 1903 to 1907 and a summary of like events
for the period 1859 to 1902. A chapter of the report is devoted to
a detailed account of the general political strike of 1902. The facts
for 1903 to 1907 are illustrated by means of graphics.
According to the information gathered by the office of labor star
tistics there were 1,148 labor disputes in Sweden during the five-year
period 1903 to 1907. These disputes affected 111,920 persons,
employed in 3,470 establishments, and entailed an aggregate loss
of 4,411,000 working days. The following table shows the number
of labor disturbances, and the number of establishments and
employees affected, for each year of the period 1903 to 1907, classified
according to character of dispute:
LABOR DISPUTES IN SWEDEN, BY YEARS, 1903 TO 1907.
Year.
1903....
1904....
1905....
1906....
1907....
Total.
Mixed or indefinite.
Lockouts.
Strikes.
Total.
Estab Em
Estab Em
Estab Em
Estab Em
lish ployees Num lish ployees
lish ployees Num lish ployees
Num ments
Num ments.
ments
ments affect
ber.
in affect ber.
in affect ber.
in
in affect ber.
volved. ed.
volved. ed.
volved. ed.
volved. ed.
109
169
152
239
243
912
256
383
325
668
498
2,130
5,970
8,299
13,186
15,050
11,278
53,783
16
12
12
8
23
71
96
62
12
12
37
219
982
1,218
456
560
5,669
8,885
17
34
25
43
46
165
142
126 17,619
153 2,731
215
510 19,264
189
49 3,045
290
312
283 6,593
1,121 49,252 1,148
478 24,571
598 12,248
847 32,906
729 18,655
818 23,540
3,470 111,920
As a rule, the strikes occurring during the five-year period were
of less extent than the lockouts or the disputes of a mixed or in
definite character. The average number of working people involved
in each strike was 59, in each lockout 125, and in each dispute of a
mixed or indefinite character 298. Of the 1,148 disputes recorded,
1,034, or more than 90 per cent, affected a maximum of but 5 estab
lishments. The average number of establishments affected by each
cessation of work was 3 in 1903 and 1904, 4.5 in 1905, and 2.5 in 1906
and 1907. Approximately one-half of the total number of disputes
affected 25 employees or less; the largest number in any one year
occurred in 1907, while 1905 furnished the largest number of estab
lishments and employees affected. The average number of employees
involved was 173 in 1903, 57 in 1904, 174 in 1905, 64 in 1906, and 75
in 1907.
290
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The following table shows the disputes for each year, classified
according to results:
RESULTS OF LABOR DISPUTES IN SWEDEN, BY YEARS, 1903 TO 1907.
Results.
Total.
In favor of em In favor of em Compromised.
ployers.
ployees.
Year.
1903......................
1904......................
1905......................
1906......................
1907......................
Total............
Unknown.
Strikes Em
and ployees
Strikes Em Strikes Em Strikes Em Strikes Em lock affect
and ployees and ployees and ployees and ployees outs.
ed.
lock affect lock affect lock affect lock affect
ed.
ed.
outs.
ed.
outs.
ed.
outs.
outs.
37 17,411
63 1,629
47 1,840
73 2,739
70 2,589
290 26,208
1,632
3,540
5,122
7,487
4,121
47 4,666
73 6,925
53 25,557
90 8,152
126 15,893
13
11
18
11
23
862
154
387
277
937
393 21,902
389 61,193
76
2,617
45
68
71
116
93
142
215
189
290
312
24,571
12,248
32,906
18,655
23,540
1,148 111,920
Of the 1,148 disputes reported, 290, or 25.3 per cent, resulted in
favor of the employers; 393, or 34.2 per cent, resulted in favor of the
employees; and 389, or 33.9 per cent, were compromised. In 76
disputes, or 6.6 per cent of the total number reported, the results
were unknown. As to employees affected, 26,208, or 23.4 per cent,
were in disputes which terminated in favor of the employers; 21,902,
or 19.6 per cent, were in disputes which terminated in favor of the
employees; 61,193, or 54.7 per cent, were in disputes which were
compromised, and 2,617, or 2.3 per cent, were in disputes the results
of which were unknown.
In the following table the number and results of disputes, estab
lishments involved, and employees affected, are shown by groups of
industries:
LABOR DISPUTES IN SWEDEN, BY INDUSTRIES AND RESULTS, 1903 TO 1907.
Industry.
Agriculture, stock raising, and
gardening..............................
Forestry..................................
M jn in g ..................................................
Food products.........................
Textiles...................................
Clothing..................................
Leather, hair, and rubber goods.
Wooden ware...........................
Wood pulp and paper..............
Printing..................................
Ore sm eltin g a n d refining .........
Metal working..........................
Machinery and shipbuilding__
Clay, stone, etc., products........
Chemical products...................
Building trades........................
Lighting, waterworks, etc........
Commerce and merchandise. .. .
Land transportation.................
Results.
Estab
Em
lish
Disputes. ments in- ployees In favor In favor
Un
volved. affected. of em of em Compro
ployers. ployees. mised. known.
44
24
24
86
42
104
47
129
24
6
12
59
46
125
29
239
10
W ater tran sp ortatio n .....................
19
63
5
Total..............................
1 ,1 4 8
Hotels, restaurants, etc............
12
138
246
176
29
1 ,2 1 7
16
89
329
18
51
2,044
2,661
2,785
5 ,115
3,830
6,254
2,380
8,948
5,838
48
814
2 ,12 4
29,974
7,649
1,4 54
19,644
1 ,2 1 4
578
7,690
308
568
3,470
1 11 ,9 2 0
89
66
38
162
52
396
91
202
47
6
12
18
5
7
26
17
19
7
35
6
2
4
8
14
23
12
11
6
4
25
13
42
21
37
8
1
4
32
15
36
11
2
2
12
9
13
9
26
38
18
48
8
2
4
16
17
52
50
3
4
19
3
6
101
2
7
201
1
21
2
290
393
389
8
10
71
3
8
3
5
1
9
2
1
3
14
1
17
2
3
1
1
76
291
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— SWEDEN.
Of the 21 groups of industries enumerated above, that of building
trades furnished the largest number of disputes, also the largest num
ber of establishments involved. The group of machinery and ship
building had the largest number of employees affected, being more than
one-fourth the entire number reported. Of the 239 disputes occurring
in the building trades, 50, or 20.9 per cent, resulted in favor of the
employers; 101, or 42.3 per cent, resulted in favor of the employees;
71, or 29.7 per cent, were compromised; and 17, or 7.1 per cent, ter
minated with results unknown. In machinery and shipbuilding
30.4 per cent of the disputes ended favorably to the employers, 32.6
per cent favorably to the employees, and 37.0 per cent were com
promised.
Computed on a basis of the total number of persons shown by offi
cial statistics to have been employed in building trades in 1905, a
yearly average of 18.8 per cent of the employees in this industry were
affected by labor disputes during the period 1903 to 1907. The aver
age percentage of employees affected by disputes in the group of
leather, hair, and rubber goods during the same period was 7.7, and
in wood pulp and paper it was 5.7. The smallest percentage of
strikers and persons locked out in any one industry was in printing,
where only 0.1 per cent of all employees in the industry were affected.
The duration of labor disputes, grouped according to results, is
shown in the following table:
DURATION OF LABOR DISPUTES IN SWEDEN, BY RESULTS, 1903 TO 1907.
Results.
Days of duration.
7
and under........................................................
8to 30................................................................
31 to 90..............................................................
91 to 180.............................................................
Over 180.............................................................
U n k n o w n ........... ..........................................................................
T o ta l___
Total
strikes
In favor In favor Compro Un
and
of em of em
lockouts.
ployers. ployees. mised. known.
147
46
25
4
9
59
290
196
106
62
16
8
5
393
148
138
68
16
16
3
389
10
12
5
3
8
38
76
501
302
160
39
41
105
1,148
The disputes were mostly of short duration, 803, or 69.9 per cent,
out of a total of 1,148, lasting 30 days or less. These disputes
affected 52,171 employees, or 46.6 per cent) out of a total of 111,920.
The employers were successful in 193, or 24.0 per cent of such dis
putes, the employees were successful in 302, or 37.6 per cent of the
number, the differences were compromised in 286 instances, or 35.6
per cent of the disputes reported, and the results were unknown in 22,
or 2.8 per cent of the cases. The number of disputes which lasted 7
days or less was 501, or 43.6 per cent of the entire number reported.
292
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The classification of disputes by number of establishments in
volved appears in the following table:
LABOR DISPUTES IN SWEDEN BY NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS INVOLVED, 1903
TO 1907.
Establishments involved.
Year.
1 to 5.
6 to 10.
Total
Total
strikes
working
and
Un
11 to 20. Over 20. known. lockouts. days lost.
1903...................................
1904...................................
1905...................................
1906...................................
1907...................................
128
193
169
271
273
5
10
10
6
18
4
5
6
3
8
4
5
3
7
5
1
2
1
3
8
142
215
189
290
312
642.000
386.000
2,390,000
479.000
514.000
Total.........................
1,034
49
26
24
15
1,148
4,411,000
Of the 1,148 disputes recorded, 1,034, or 90.1 per cent, involved from
1 to 5 establishments; 49, or 4.3 per cent, involved from 6 to 10 estab
lishments; 26, or 2.2 per cent, from 11 to 20 establishments, and 24,
or 2.1 per cent, over 20 establishments. In 15 cases, or 1.3 per cent
of the total, the number of establishments involved could not be
ascertained.
In the following table are shown the results of disputes during the
five years, 1903 to 1907, arranged according to the principal cause or
object:
RESULTS OF LABOR DISPUTES IN SWEDEN, BY CAUSE OR OBJECT, 1903 TO 1907.
Results.
Cause or object.
Increase of wages.................................................
Reduction of wages.............................................
Other causes affecting wages.................................
Recognition of trade union...................................
Demand for collective contract..............................
Other disputes concerning trade unionism..............
Circumstances of personal nature...........................
Hours of labor....................................................
Reinstatement or discharge of employees................
Opposition to shop rules......................................
Differences over interpretation of contract..............
Other causes..'....................................................
Total........................................................
In favor In favor Compro Un
of em of em
ployers. ployees. mised. known.
Total.
129
9
27
12
10
16
18
14
29
5
5
16
150
21
53
18
42
20
4
7
47
5
14
12
235
9
34
2
42
6
4
10
32
3
7
5
21
6
18
2
8
4
1
4
7
1
2
2
535
45
132
34
102
46
27
35
115
14
28
36
290
393
389
76
1,148
The most frequent causes of cessation of work during the five-year
period were wage disputes, 712 differences, or 62 per cent of the total,
being attributable to such causes. The demands for increased wages
alone resulted in 535 strikes, or 46.6 per cent of all interruptions of
work. Of the disputes due to this cause, 129, or 24.1 per cent,
ended favorably to the employers, 150, or 28.1 per cent, favorably
to the employees, 235, or 43.9 per cent, were compromised, and 21, or
3.9 per cent, ended with results unknown.
293
EOBEIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— SWEDEN.
The next two tables show, respectively, the number of disputes,
and the number of employees affected, classified according to dura
tion of disputes, for each year from 1903 to 1907:
LABOR DISPUTES IN SWEDEN, BY DAYS OF DURATION, 1903 TO 1907.
Days of duration.
Year.
1903......................................
1904......................................
1905......................................
1906......................................
1907......................................
Total............................
7 and
under.
8 to 30.
Total
strikes
and
Un lockouts.
31 to 90. 91 to 180. Over 180. known.
59
99
93
128
122
41
49
38
79
95
25
22
28
41
44
3
9
10
7
10
501
302
160
39
6
12
7
10
6
41
8
24
13
25
35
142
215
189
290
312
105
1,148
EMPLOYEES AFFECTED BY LABOR DISPUTES IN SWEDEN, BY DURATION, 1903 TO 1907.
Days of duration.
Year.
1903......................................
1904......................................
1905......................................
1906......................................
1907.'....................................
Total............................
7 and
under.
3,174
4,392
7,361
6,956
5,565
27,448
8 to 30.
2,252
2,411
2,439
6,033
11,588
24,723
Un
31 to 90. 91 to 180. Over 180. known.
16,637
2,628
3,478
3,791
3,250
29,784
1,008
612
4,062
612
1,724
1,307
1,858
15,349
802
271
193
347
217
461
1,142
8,018
19,587
2,360
Total
em
ployees
affected.
24,571
12,248
32,906
18,655
23,540
111,920
It is seen from the above tables that, with regard to duration, the
largest number of trade disputes was of those lasting 7 days or less,
while those which continued from 31 to 90 days affected the largest
number of persons. Unusual instances of prolonged disputes are
seen in the figures for 1903 and 1905, in which years a large pro
portion of employees were affected by disputes lasting from 31 to
90 days, and more than 180 days, respectively.
The following table shows the number of disputes occurring during
each year of the period 1903 to 1907, classified according to the num
ber of employees affected:
LABOR DISPUTES IN SWEDEN, BY YEARS AND NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES
AFFECTED, 1903 TO 1907.
Employees affected.
Year.
1 to 5.
6 to 25.
Total
strikes
and
Un lockouts.
26 to 50. 51 to 100. Over 100. known.
1903......................................
1904......................................
1905......................................
1906......................................
1907......................................
13
32
17
42
33
58
94
69
93
124
27
31
47
60
49
21
27
20
47
49
22
26
32
44
47
1
5
4
4
10
142
215
189
290
312
Total............................
137
438
214
164
171
24
1,148
294
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The above table shows that of the 1,148 disputes considered, 137,
or 11.9 per cent, affected from 1 to 5 persons; 438, or 38.2 per cent,
from 6 to 25 persons; 214, or 18.6 per cent, from 26 to 50 persons;
164, or 14.3 per cent, from 51 to 100 persons, and 171, or 14.9 per
cent, over 100 persons. In 24 instances, or 2.1 per cent of the total,
the number of persons affected was unknown.
In 849 of the 1,148 disputes the employees were wholly or partly
organized; in 225 they were unorganized, and in the 74 cases remain
ing the facts as to organization were not reported. Of the 849 dis
putes in which the employees were organized, 144, or 17 per cent,
resulted in favor of the employers, 324, or 38.2 per cent, in favor
of the employees, 317, or 37.3 per cent, were compromised, and in
64 cases, or 7.5 per cent, the results were unknown. As to the 225
cases in which the employees were unorganized, 115, or 51.1 percent,
terminated favorably to the employers, 50, or 22.2 per cent, favorably
to the employees, 52, or 23.1 per cent were settled by compromise,
and the results were unknown in 8 cases, or 3.6 per cent of the total
number.
OPINIONS OF THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL ON QUESTIONS
AFFECTING LABOR.
[It is one of the duties of the Attorney-General of the U nited States to furnish opin
ions advising the President and the heads of the executive departments in relation
to their official duties when such advice is requested. Opinions on questions affecting
labor w ill be noted from tim e to tim e under the above head.]
C o m p e n s a t io n f o r I n j u r ie s t o E m p l o y e e s — A c c id e n t s — C o n
S t a t u t e —Advance sheets, 27 Op., page 846.—The pres
ent opinion involves the construction of the federal compensation
act of May 30, 1908 (35 Stat., 556), in its application to a case of dis
ability from injury incurred while operating a hand press in the Bureau
of Engraving and Printing. There was no accident, in the ordinary
sense of that word, and the point in issue was whether or not the law
covered a case of that nature. Contrary opinions had been rendered
by the solicitors of the two departments concerned, i. e., of the Treas
ury Department, under which the injured workman was employed,
and of the Department of Commerce and Labor, to the Secretary of
which is committed the administration of the statute. The Secretary
of Commerce and Labor thereupon submitted the matter to the
Attorney-General for his opinion, which is for the most part renroduced herewith.
The facts submitted are as follows:
The claimant, Alfred A. Clark, a person employed by the United
States as a plate printer in the Bureau of Engraving and Printing,
was injured in the course of his employment on September 3, 1908.
His employment at the time of the injury consisted in working a hand
ress, which involved the five operations of inking the plate with a
and roller^ wiping the surplus ink off the plate with a rag, polishing
the plate with the hands, placing the plate on the bed of the press, and
pulling it through by the nandle bars. This had been the claimant’s
occupation for several years, and he had been accustomed to perform
the various operations mentioned on an average of about 950 times a
day. During the day, and at the time of the injury, the physical con
ditions of his employment were as usual, except th at the ink used was
probably somewnat thicker than it should have been. The injury
sustained by the claimant consisted of a condition of relaxation of the
posterior ligaments (of right wrist), commonly known as a sprain,
complicated by a rupture of the synovial sac surrounding the liga
ments leading from the back part of the forearm to the fingers, of
which the subjective symptoms were a swelling, due to the rupture,
and a weakness of the flexor and extensor muscles. The injury con
tinued (for more than fifteen days), inasmuch as it had to be treated
s t r u c t io n o f
E
295
296
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
by placing the wrist in a plaster cast and allowing it to rest for several
weeks. The injury did not, however, immediately result in inca
pacity for work. The claimant continued to work on the day of the
injury and on the day following, as well as during a part of the next
day. He was then absent from work on account of the injury for six
days, when he returned to work and worked for seven days. There
after he was absent from work on account of the injury for several
weeks.
Having stated these facts, the Attorney-General said:
The opinions of the two solicitors which you send me chiefly discuss
the question whether Mr .Clark’s injury was caused by an “ accident”
or came on by slow and imperceptible degrees, without there having
been something unforeseen, unexpected, and unusual “ in the act
which proceeded the injury.” One solicitor holds against Mr. Clark,
saying that to allow him compensation during absence would be
equivalent to giving sick leave with pay, and likening his case to that
of a man whose physical powers give way after a time because the
work is too severe for him, and to the case of a watchman suffering
from pneumonia brought on by exposure to drafts of air, and th at of
an engraver suffering as a result of the constant and severe strain upon
his eyes.
The act referred to is entitled “ An act granting to certain employees
of the United States the right to receive from it compensation for in
juries sustained in the course of their employment.” Section 1 reads
as follows:
“ That when, on or after August first, nineteen hundred and eight,
any person employed by the United States as an artisan or laborer in
any of its manufacturing establishments, arsenals, or navy-yards, or
in the construction of river and harbor or fortification work, or in
hazardous employment on construction work in the reclamation of
arid lands or the management and control of the same, or in hazardous
employment under the Isthmian Canal Commission, is injured in the
course of such employment, such employee shall be entitled to receive
for one year thereafter, unless such employee, in the opinion of the
Secretary of Commerce and Labor, be sooner able to resume work, the
same pay as if he continued to be employed, such payment to be made
under such regulations as the Secretary of Commerce and Labor may
prescribe: Provided, That no compensation shall be paid under this
act where the injury is due to the negligence or misconduct of the
employee injured, nor unless said injury shall continue for more than
fifteen days. All questions of negligence or misconduct shall be de
termined by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor.”
The fir§t few lines of section 3 are as follows:
“ That whenever an accident occurs to any employee embraced
within the terms of the first section of this act, and which results in
death or a probable incapacity for work, it shall be the duty of the
official superior of such employee to at once report such accident and
the injury resulting therefrom to the head of his bureau.”
The first few lines of section 4 are as follows:
“ That in the case of any accident which shall result in death, the
person entitled to compensation under this act or their legal represent
atives shall, within ninety days after such death, file with the Secre
tary of Commerce and Labor an affidavit setting forth their relation
OPINIONS OP ATTORNEY-GENERAL ON LABOR QUESTIONS.
297
ship to the deceased and the ground of their claim for compensation
under the provisions of this act.”
The question involved in your inquiry is whether or not the purpose
of the act, as expressed in the first section and as indicated by the
title, viz, to secure to employees of the United States of the class
specified the right to receive compensation for injuries sustained in
the course of their employment, is controlled and narrowed by the use
in sections 3 and 4 of the word “ accident.”
It will be observed that, in the first and second sections of the act,
which confer the right, the language employed refers broadly to in
juries received by an employee in the course of his employment.
This is safeguarded by the proviso in the first section that no com
pensation shall be paid where the injury is due to the negligence or
misconduct of the employee injured, “ nor unless the said injury shall
continue for more than fifteen days.” By section 2, if such employee
shall die during the year by reason of such injury received m the
course of his employment, leaving a widow or relatives of the desig
nated class, the amount which would have been paid to such em
ployee during the remainder of the year is required to be divided
among and paid over to such widow or other relatives in the manner
provided in the act. The word “ accident” is only employed in the
third and fourth sections, the third section relating to the report of
the occurrence of the accident and the character oi such report, and
the fourth section referring to “ the case of any accident which shall
result in death,” and providing for the affidavit of claim and other
proofs. Later on in the fourth section occurs this paragraph:
“ In the case of incapacity for work lasting more than fifteen days,
the injured party desiring to take the benefit of this act shall, within
a reasonable period after the expiration of such time, file * * *
an affidavit setting forth the grounds of his claim for compensation,
to be accompanied by a certificate of the attending physician as to
the cause and nature of the injury and probable duration of the
incapacity. * * * ”
In other words, the statute quite consistently provides for the cases
of injuries in the course of the employment and accidents resulting
in death or otherwise. The word “ injury” is employed comprehen
sively to embrace all the cases of incapacity to continue the work of
employment unless the injury is due to the negligence or misconduct
of the employee injured and including all cases where as a result of
the employee's occupation he, without any negligence or misconduct,
becomes unable to carry on his work and this condition continues for
more than fifteen days. The word “ accident” is employed to denote
the happening of some unusual event, producing death or injury
which results m incapacity for work, lastmg more than fifteen days.
That is to say, within the language of the statute an employee may
be injured in the course of his employment without having suffered
a definite accident.
This is a beneficent statute, in the nature of an act granting pen
sions of limited duration and of special application. The language
employed appears to me to be clear and unambiguous, and should
not be so construed as to exclude from its benefits any of those cases
jyhich it fairly includes. I therefore dSem it unnecessary to enter
upon an extended discussion of the authorities which have dealt with
the definition of the word “ accident” as distinguished from “ injury,”
298
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
although there are many interesting precedents dealing with such
definitions; and the modem tendency of courts has been to apply
the term “ accident” to include all injuries arising out of the pursuit
of claimant's employment which, without his own fault, incapacitate
him from carrying on his labor.
The case or Fenton, pauper, v. Thorley (19 Times Law R. 684)/
arising under the British compensation act and decided by the House
of Lords, was as follows:
“ On December 3, 1901, Fenton was at work at his machine. He
had got through the operation on that day a good many times with
out hitch or difficulty; but about 9 p. m. or a little later, when the
time came for opening the vessel, tne wheel would not turn. He
then called a fellow-workman to his assistance, and the two men
together set to work to move the wheel. Suddenly Fenton felt some
thing which he describes as a Hear' in his ‘inside’, and it was found
that he was ruptured.
“ Fenton was a man of ordinary health and strength. There was
no evidence of any slip or wrench or sudden jerk. I t may be taken
that the injury occurred while the man was engaged in his ordinary
work, and m doing or trying to do the very thing which he meant to
accomplish.
“ Founding themselves upon that expression, the learned judges
of the court of appeals held, in ‘Hensey v. W hite/ as they have held
here, that there was no accident, because there was ‘an entire lack
of the fortuitous element.' W hat the ‘man was doing,' it was said,
‘he was doing deliberately, and in the ordinary course of his work/
and that which happened was in no sense a fortuitous event. * * *
“ If a man, in lifting a weight or trying to move something not
easily moved, were to strain a muscle, or crick his back or rupture
himself, the mishap in ordinary parlance would be described as an
accident. Anybody would say that the man had met with an acci
dent in lifting a weight, or trying to move something too heavy for
him. One other remark I should like to make. It does seem to me
extraordinary that anybody should suppose that when the advantage
of the insurance against accident at their employer's expense was
being conferred on workmen, Parliament could have intended to
exclude from the benefit of the act some injuries ordinarily described
as accidents which beyond all others merit favorable consideration
in the interest of workmen and employers alike. A man injures him
self by doing some stupid thing, and it is called an accident, and he
gets the benefit of the insurance. It may be even his own fault,
and yet the compensation is not to be disallowed unless the injury is
attributed to ‘serious and willful misconduct' on his part. A man
injures himself suddenly and unexpectedly by throwing all his might
and all his strength and all his energy into his work by doing his very
best and utmost for his employer, not sparing himself or taking
thought of what may come upon him, and then he is to be told that
his case is outside the act because he exerted himself deliberately,
and there was an entire lack of the fortuitous element!
* * *
“ There is, however, a recent decision of the court of session in
Scotland, to which I would like to call your lordships' attention, and
in which I agree entirely. It is the case of Stewart v. Wilson's and
Clyde Coal Company (Limited) (5 Fraser 120). A miner strained
OPINIONS OF ATTORNEY-GENERAL ON LABOR QUESTIONS.
299
his back in replacing a derailed coal hutch. The question arose, Was
that an accident? All the learned judges held tnat it was. True,
two of the learned judges expressed an opinion that it was ‘fortui
tous/ but they could not have used that expression in the sense in
which it was used in Hensey v. White. What the miner did in replac
ing the hutch he certainly did deliberately and in the ordinary course
of his work. There was nothing hazardous about it. Lord McLaren
observed that it was impossible to limit the scope of the statute. He
considered that ‘if a workman in the reasonable performance of his
duties sustains a physiological injury as the result of the work he is
engaged in * * * this is accidental injury in the sense of the
statute/ Lord Kinnear observed that the injury was ‘not inten
tional/ and that ‘it was unforeseen/ ‘It arose/ he said, ‘from some
causes which are not definitely ascertained, except that the appellant
was lifting hutches which were too heavy for him. If/ he added,
‘ such an occurrence as this can not be described in ordinary language
as an accident, I do not know how otherwise to describe it/ * * *
‘ ‘ Lord Shand, in the course uf a judgment, which was read by Lord
Macnaghten, said: ‘I shall only add m at concurring as I fully do in
holding that the word “ accident” in the statute is to be taken in its
popular and ordinary sense, I think it denotes or includes any unex
pected personal injury resulting to the workman in the course of his
employment from any unlooked for mishap or occurrence/”
These are very authoritative declarations of the meaning of a law
whose rule of compensation expressly concerned injuries by accident.
Certainly no greater weight or narrower meaning should be given to
that word in the case of the statute in question than ought to have
been given by the House of Lords in the case just mentioned.
On a day which seems to be fixed, Mr. Clark’s wrist was sprained
and the synovial sac ruptured. After working off and on for a few
days he was absent from work on account of this injury for several
weeks, the injury having to be treated by placing the wrist in a plaster
cast. He was injured in the course of his employment as a plate
printer. The conditions of his employment on the day in question
were as usual, except that the ink used was probably somewhat
thicker than it should have been. When injured he was working a
hand press involving five operations, which he had been accustomed
to perform for years on an average of 950 times a day.
The statement of facts shows that the man’s wrist was sprained by
something involved in his exertions in doing his work, and I shall
assume that no further information exists concerning the cause of the
injury. I assume, moreover, an absence of misconduct or negligence
on his part, as nothing of the kind is suggested; and shall also assume
that you consider the Bureau of Engraving and Printing as a manu
facturing establishment within the meaning of the act of May 30,1908.
The purpose of the law was not to set in motion an interminable
series of technical inquiries, such as would puzzle the minds of learned
and profound judges, but to provide immediate pecuniary relief by
giving leave of absence with pay from the time when the incapacity
ror work occurred, to persons receiving injuries under the circum
stances mentioned in section 1, taking the language of that section
in its obvious sense and as intended to be addressed to administra
tive officers.
38697—No. 86—10----20
300
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR*
In my opinion, for the reasons I have attempted to indicate, the
injury as you set it forth is “ an injury” within the meaning or the
act of Congress approved May 30, 1908, on account of which com
pensation may be paid.
E ight-H our L aw — L aborers Cutting T imber on I ndian R eser
vation —Advance
sheets, 27 Op., page 139.—The Secretary of the Inte
rior requested of the Attorney-General an opinion as to the application
of the federal eight-hour law of 1892 to the work of laborers employed
by the Indian Service in the cutting of timber and the conversion
thereof into logs and other lumber, on an Indian reservation. The
reply of the Attorney-General was to the effect that laborers of the
class named were not within the provisions of the law, as appears
from the following quotation from his opinion:
I do not think work of this character is within the purview of the
eight-hour law. In a sense, the persons engaged in such work may
be said to be in the employ of the united States, but it can hardly be
assumed that the Congress contemplated employees of this character,
whose compensation comes virtually out of the pocket of the wards
of the nation, and whose employment is made by the Government,
not for the general benefit of the nation, but as a trustee for the benefit
of a comparatively small number of individuals, toward whom it
stands in a special judiciary relation imposing upon it different duties
and conferring upon it different powers from those it exercises and
fulfills toward its citizens generally.
The purpose of the act of 1892 was undoubtedly to prevent the
lengthening of hours of labor in work done for the Government
through the unrestricted operation of competition among laborers
and mechanics thus employed. In this case competition of the char
acter described is substantially eliminated by the restriction of the
work to Indians, and, for practical purposes, to Indians of this par
ticular tribe. The same persons who will be paid for their labor in
doing the work will have an interest in the net proceeds representing
the profits of the enterprise, so that, in large measure at least, the
work contemplated by this act [authorizing the cutting of the timber]
constitutes a cooperative undertaking in which the tribe furnishes the
capital, the raw material, and, so far as possible, the labor employed.
I t seems reasonable to suppose that if the Congress had intended work
done under such peculiar conditions to be affected by the prohibitions
in the general statute enacted in 1892 it would have expressly pro
vided that no mechanic or laborer employed in this work should labor
for more than eight hours a day.
I mmigration— I nducements by States and T erritories—
A lien L aborers— Construction of Statutes—Advance sheets, 27
Op., page 479.—The legislature of the Territory of Hawaii passed, on
April 24, 1905, an act creating a board of immigration, whose duty
it was to use such means as might be at their disposal to properly
OPINION’S OF ATTORNEY-GENERAL ON LABOR QUESTIONS.
301
represent the advantages afforded by Hawaii to residents of other
countries desiring to improve their conditions by emigrating. This
board was empowered to employ agents to carry out the objects for
which it was created, to advertise in foreign magazines, to contract
with transportation companies for a low rate of fare for immigrants
to Hawaii, to pay their passage, and to solicit and receive from pri
vate sources funds to be expended by the board, together with funds
appropriated by the legislature, to accomplish the purposes for which
it was created. For some time funds were thus obtained, largely
from sugar planters, but after the act of Congress of February 20,
1907, the territorial legislature passed a further act (Hawaiian Laws
of 1909, p. 39) providing for a special tax of 2 per cent on incomes in
excess of $4,000 per annum, three-fourths of the proceeds thereof to
be used for immigration purposes by the board of immigration, thus
eliminating the feature of aid with private funds. The board received
information of a number of persons in the Azores and Madeira who
desired to emigrate to Hawaii, having been influenced so to do partly
by letters received from their friends in those islands, and partly in
consequence of opportunities made known to them by firms engaged
there in the business of facilitating emigration to other countries,
and proposed to send to those places one A. J. Campbell as its agent
to make arrangements for the transportation of such persons to
Hawaii, a representative of the United States Public Health and
Marine-Hospital Service to "accompany him for the purpose of making
proper medical examination of the immigrants before they start
upon their journey. It was stipulated that there has not been and
will not be any offer or promise made to any of said immigrants of
any special employment, but that their immigration was induced
solely by a representation of the resources of the Hawaiian Islands
and the industrial conditions there existing, and that they will have,
when reaching there, perfect freedom of action in choosing their
places of residence and the vocations which they will follow.
The above facts were submitted to the President of the United
States by the Secretary of the Interior, who had been requested so to
do by the governor of Hawaii, to the end that the President might
sign, if he would, a letter addressed to the agent, Campbell, approv
ing the undertaking, and commending him to the favorable consider
ation of the officers of the United States abroad. The President
referred the matter to the Attorney-General, expressing his willing
ness to sign the letter if the proposed course should be found not to
conflict with the provisions of the alien contract labor law and the
immigration laws of the United States.
302
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Attorney-General Wickersham rendered an opinion in which the
plans were held to be consonant with the laws, saying in part:
The answer to this inquiry depends upon a correct interpretation
of the provisions of the act of February 20, 1907 (34 Stat. 899-902).
In the second section of that act, among the classes of aliens who
are subject to exclusion from admission to the United States are
mentioned the following:
“ Persons hereinafter called contract laborers, who have been
induced or solicited to migrate to this country by offers or promises
of employment or in consequence of agreements, oral, written or
printed, express or implied, to perform labor in this country of any
kind, skilled or unskilled; those who have been, within one year
from the date of application for admission to the United States,
deported as having been induced or solicited to migrate as above
described; any person whose ticket or passage is paid for with the
money of another, or who is assisted by others to come, unless it is
affirmatively and satisfactorily shown that such person does not
belong to one of the foregoing excluded classes, and th at said ticket or
passage was not paid for by any corporation, association, society,
municipality, or foreign government, either directly or indirectly. ”
In the third and fourth provisos skilled labor which can not be
found in this country, and professional men and servants, are ex
cluded from the effect of the foregoing provision.
The act further provides:
“ Sec. 4. That it shall be a misdemeanor for any person, company,
partnership, or corporation, in any manner whatsoever, to prepay the
transportation or in any way to assist or encourage the importation
or migration of any contract laborer or contract laborers into the
United States unless such contract laborer or contract laborers are
exempted under the terms of the last two provisos contained in sec
tion two of this act. ”
“ Sec. 6. That it shall be unlawful and be deemed a violation of
section four of this act to assist or encourage the importation or
migration of any alien by promise of employment through advertise
ments printed and published in any foreign country; and any alien
coming to this country in consequence of such an advertisement shall
be treated as coming under promise or agreement as contemplated in
section two of this act, and the penalties imposed by section five of
this act shall be applicable to sucn a case: Provided, That this section
shall not apply to States or Territories, the District of Columbia, or
places subject to the jurisdiction of the United States advertising the
inducements they offer for immigration thereto, respectively. ”
In section 12, among the questions which are required to be an
swered by the alien, are “ whether the alien has paid his own passage
or whether it has been paid by any other person or by any corpora
tion, society, municipality, or government, and if so, by whom,” and
“ whether coming by reason of any offer, solicitation, promise, or
agreement, express or implied, to perform labor in the United States. ”
By the clauses above quoted from section 2, three classes of aliens
are excluded from admission into this country, to wit: First, persons
“ induced or solicited to migrate to this country by offers or promises
of employment or in consequence of agreements, oral, written, or
OPINIONS OF ATTORNEY-GENERAL ON LABOR QUESTIONS.
303
printed, express or implied, to perform labor in this country of any
kind, skilled or unskilled;” second, those who have been deported
within one year under said clause; and, third, any person whose
ticket has been “ paid for by any corporation, association, society,
municipality, or foreign government, either directly or indirectly.”
With reference to the first class, the said act of 1907 made a very
material modification in the law as it had previously existed. The
contract labor law had its origin in chapter 164, act of February 26,
1885 (23 Stat. 332), by section 1 of which it was provided:
“ That from and after the passage of this act it shall be unlawful for
any person, company, partnership, or corporation, in any manner
whatsoever, to prepay the transportation or in any way assist or
encourage the importation or migration of any alien or aliens, any
foreigner or foreigners, into the United States, its Territories, or the
District of Columbia, under contract or agreement, parol or special,
express or implied, made previous to the importation or migration of
such alien or aliens, foreigner or foreigners, to perform labor or serv
ice of any kind in the United States, its Territories, or the District of
Columbia. ”
By the act of February 23, 1887 (24 Stat. 414), alien contract
laborers were prohibited from landing; and by the alien immigration
acts of March 3, 1891 (26 Stat. 1084), and of March 3, 1903 (32 Stat.
1214), it was recognized that aliens brought to this country in viola
tion of the said act of 1885 were subject to exclusion.
Under this law it was uniformly held that it was essential to justify
the exclusion of the alien, or to inflict the penalty provided for its
violation, that there should have been a completed contract made
previous to the importation of the alien. In consequence of this con
struction of the statute, Congress, by the act of 1907, provided that
an alien shall be subject to exclusion who has been “ induced or
solicited to migrate to this country by offers or promises of employ
ment, ” thereby making it no longer necessary to show that he came in
pursuance of a contract for labor previously entered into.
The meaning of the words added in the act of 1907 does not require
that their effect be given greater force than to cure the defect in the
previous law, which it was the manifest purpose of the amendment to
remedy; and the statute as thus amended could very properly be con
strued to prohibit only an offer or promise of employment which is of
such definite character that an acceptance thereof would constitute
a contract. Certainly a representation to an alien or aliens as to the
resources of a locality or the industrial conditions there existing, by
which representation the alien is induced to migrate to the United
States, does not fall within the prohibition of the statute.
A broader meaning is not suggested by the sixth section of the
act, which makes it unlawful to assist or encourage the importation
or migration of any alien by promise of employment through adver
tisements printed and published in any foreign country. This, like
the similar phrase in section 2, is directed against a promise which
specially designates the particular job or work or employment for
which the alien’s labor is desired.
Inasmuch, therefore, as Mr. Campbell’s mission is only to make
arrangements for the transportation of those who have already deter
mined to migrate to Hawaii, and who will, when they arrive there,
304
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
have perfect freedom of action in selecting their places of settlement
and in choosing their employment, there is nothing in the course
which is being pursued by that Territory which is in conflict with the
letter or spirit of this provision of the act.
The present inquiry does not concern the second class of contract
laborers subject to exclusion, to wit, those who have within one year
been deported under the contract-labor clause.
The third class are those whose tickets or passage have been paid
for by a corporation, association, society, municipality, or foreign
government, either directly or indirectly. As above shown, the
money to be expended by Mr. Campbell in securing transportation
for immigrants is raised by taxation levied by the territorial legisla
ture on incomes above $4,000 and the expenditure is made by author
ity of the territorial board of immigration, which is a body created
and its duties defined by said legislature. The funds are, therefore,
territorial property and are expended by an agent of the Territory.
The fact that a very large proportion of those funds is collected under
the statute from sugar planters, who it is supposed will be largely
benefited by the importation of the aliens, can not change their owner
ship or character.
This act is, therefore, valid unless in its object it is inconsistent
with the clauses of the immigration law now under consideration.
No such inconsistency exists, because, in the first place, a Territory
has the right to make known to aliens its resources and inducements
for immigration thereto. The proviso to section 6, which makes it
unlawful to encourage the immigration of an alien by offer or promise
of employment by printed advertisements published in a foreign
country, expressly excludes from its effect States or Territories, the
District of Columbia, and all places subject to the jurisdiction of the
United States, advertising the inducements they offer for immigra
tion thereto; and there is no other provision of the statute which sug
gests a prohibition against their advertising their inducements in any
other way than by printed publications.
In the second place, an alien whose passage has been paid by a ter
ritorial government is not for that reason subject to exclusion. A
Territory is not a corporation, association, society, or foreign govern
ment.
By the act of 1903 an alien was subject to exclusion “ whose
ticket or passage is paid for with the money of another, or who is
assisted by others to come, unless it is affirmatively and satisfactorily
shown that such person does not belong to one of the foregoing
classes. ”
Under this provision the payment of an aliens passage was not of
itself a ground of exclusion, out placed upon him the burden of show
ing that he did not belong to one of the excluded classes, among which
was the contract-labor class. But, under the act of 1907, wnen his
passage is paid by another, he must show, not only that he does not
fall within one of the excluded classes, but also that it was not paid
by “ a corporation, association, society, municipality, or foreign
government,” the payment by such a body being, therefore, of
itself made a ground or exclusion. However, when he shows that his
passage is paid by a person or body not mentioned by the statute,
as a State, or Territory, this ground of exclusion no longer exists.
OPINIONS OP ATTORNEY-GENERAL ON LABOR QUESTIONS.
305
Neither does the action of the Territory of Hawaii violate sections
4 and 6 of the act of 1907. Section 4 makes it a misdemeanor for any
person, company, partnership, or corporation to prepay the transpor
tation, or to in any way encourage the immigration of aliens other
than those mentioned in the last two provisos in the second section of
the act. Section 6 prohibits the making of an offer or promise of em
ployment by published advertisements. The former section is a crim
inal statute and can have no application to a Territory, while the pro
hibition in the latter section extends only to the making of an offer
or promise of employment, and by the proviso thereto it is expressly
declared that it shall not, even in this respect, apply to a State or Ter
ritory, or the District of Columbia, or any place within the jurisdiction
of the United States, advertising inducements for immigration.
The law clearly recognizes a distinction between the importation of
contract laborers to do certain work in competition with American
laborers, and the importation into States, Territories, and communi
ties of immigrants whose presence is necessary or helpful in develop
ing their resources. Immigration of the latter class, when the indi
viduals composing it are of the proper character, is not discouraged,
but rather encouraged by the provisions of the act. And it is cer
tainly not against the policy of the law to send an agent into a foreign
country to arrange for the transportation of aliens whose emigration
has already been determined upon, and to secure their settlement in
a section of the country where the industrial conditions are such that
their presence is badly needed; and this appears to be the sole object
of Mr. Campbell's mission.
As appears from an inspection of the reports of the CommissionerGeneral of Immigration, the most difficult problem in connection with
the immigration question is to secure a proper distribution of the im
migrants. Their tendency is to form “ colonies” in the large cities
and thus create festering sores upon the body politic instead of a ma
terial addition to the productive resources of the country. Section
40 of the act of 1907 provides for the appointment of agents by the
States and Territories to be located at the immigration stations, for
the purpose of inducing the settlement of immigrants therein. But
these agencies do not appear to have brought the desired relief. In
his report for 1906 the Commissioner says:
“ I t is true that in the vast majority of cases the alien has deter
mined in advance, at least tentatively, upon his future place of
settlement; and it would appear, therefore, to be almost necessary, in
order to secure a considerable number of immigrants for a certain
locality, that a representative of such place present its resources and
attractive features to them before they leave the foreign territory.
And, manifestly, any plan which has in view a distribution of the alien
immigrants among the rural population, and to procure their services in
the development of industries in which labor is deficient, and thus
remove them from competition with American laborers in those
vocations which are overcrowded, is in entire accord with the spirit
of our immigration laws.
306
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
L eaves of A bsence for E mployees of the U nited States—
W ho E ntitled— A rsenals— P er D iem E mployees— P iecework
ers—Advance Sheets, 27 Op., page 613.—The Secretary of War sub
mitted certain questions as to the application of the act of Congress
of February 1, 1901 (31 Stat. 766), which reads as follows:
“ Each and every employee of the navy-yards, gun factories, naval
stations, and arsenals of the United States Government be, and is
hereby, granted fifteen working days’ leave of absence each year with
out forfeiture of pay during such leave: Provided, That it shall be
lawful to allow pro rata leave only to those serving twelve consecutive
months or more: And providedfurther, That in all cases the heads of
divisions shall have discretion as to the time when the leave can best
be allowed without detriment to the service, and that absence on ac
count of sickness shall be deducted from the leave hereby granted.”
The inquiries were three in number, and were presented in the
opinion of the Attorney-General in the following form:
1. Whether employees in the general depot of the quartermaster’s
department at Philadelphia, Pa., are entitled to the benefit of the
stated act.
2. Whether the act embraces employees working “ at a fixed rate
of payper day or hour.”
3. Whether the act applies to pieceworkers.
The answer was in part in the following language:
In my opinion the first of these questions must be answered in
the affirmative, and the second and third questions must be answered
in the negative. The main reasons upon which I base these conclu
sions are as follows:
1.
The applicability of the quoted statute to employees in the
general depot of the quartermaster’s department at Philadelphia
rests upon the question whether such depot is an “ arsenal of the
United States Government” within the language of the statute. I
am informed that, while arms and ammunition are not made or
stored at that depot, clothing for the troops is made and stored there,
and military clothing, tents, and other articles of camp and garrison
equipment manufactured by others than the Government, and per
haps also other military supplies, are stored at such depot and dis
tributed therefrom as needed at military posts. These functions of
the depot seem to make it an arsenal within the spirit of the legisla
tion under consideration.
The word “ arsenal” is defined in leading American dictionaries
thus:
“ A repository or magazine of arms and military stores of all kinds,
whether for land or naval service.”—(Century Dictionary.)
“ A public establishment for the storage or for the manufacture
and storage of arms and all military equipments, whether for land or
naval service.”—(Webster’s Dictionary.)
“ A magazine of arms and military stores.”—(Worcester’s Dictionary.)
These definitions cover such depot of military supplies as that at
Philadelphia.
OPINIONS OF ATTORNEY-GENERAL ON LABOR QUESTIONS.
307
I t is not unimportant, also, that this depot was officially known
until 1873 as the “ Schuylkill Arsenal/7 that designation having been
changed to the “ Philadelphia depot of the quartermaster’s depart
m ent” by General Orders, No. 78, War Department, AdjutantGeneral’s Office, July 25, 1873. So far as I am advised, the opera
tions and purposes of the depot were the same before as since the
alteration of its official name.
I t will be noticed, too, that this act of 1901 unmistakably applies
to employees generally in navy-yards and naval stations; and it
therefore embraces many employees in those yards and stations who
render no service in the manufacture or keeping of arms or ammuni
tion, and in part it embraces in those yards and stations many em
ployees whose service, like the work of the employees at the Phila
delphia depot, is connected with the warehousing and distribution
of military supplies other than arms or ammunition. In view of this
unmistakable operation of the act of 1901 in favor of employees at
navy-yards and naval stations,- whose work is like that of the em
ployees in the general depot at Philadelphia, it seems quite out of
question to hold the statute inapplicable to the latter employees.
The interpretation heretofore put by executive officers upon this
statute of 1901 has been liberal, as it should be. Attorney-General
Knox, in an opinion given May 10, 1901, ruled that the act extends
to “ employees of the powder and ordnance depots, the national ar
mory, and civilian employees in the service of the Ordnance Depart
ment at works of private establishments having government con
tracts.” (23 Op. 443J And under date March 20, 1901, the JudgeAdvocate-General of the Army decided “ that the word ‘arsenals’
used in this law is broad enough to include armories and ordnance
and powder depots.”
Any sufficient reason for restricting the privilege of leave of ab
sence under the statute to such employees only as work at govern
ment storehouses of arms or ammumtion, and for refusing that privi
lege to such employees as work at government storehouses of other
sorts of military supplies, can hardly be suggested; and the general
spirit and policy or the statute should therefore be given full play
when, as shown by what has already been said, the actual language
of the act interposes no obstacle, but, on the contrary, fully warrants
such interpretation.
2.
Upon the question whether this statute of 1901 reaches to em
ployees who work “ at a fixed rate of pay per day or hour ” the general
course of congressional enactment and executive decision in reference
to leaves of absence for government employees, without loss of pay,
is thoroughly significant, if not decisive.
The statutes of 1883, 1893, and 1898 granting leave of absence to
clerks and employees in the executive departments and rulings there
on were then quoted, after which the opinion continues:
Particular features of the language of the act of 1901 reenforce the
idea, derived from the rule of interpretation established when that
act was passed, that the statute does not extend to workers by the
day or hour or piece. The statute speaks of “ leave of absence,” rnd
says that it shall be without “ forfeiture” of pay, and further says
that heads of division shall have “ discretion as*to the time when the
308
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
leave can best be allowed without detriment to the service/7 These
statements are not natural except in reference to employees whose
time and service belong to the (Government for a considerable, con
tinuous period by reason of thg Governments paying an integral
sum for such entire and considerable length of service. “ Leave of
absence77 seems to imply a surrender by the Government of time or
service which is part of a larger total time or service contracted for
by the Government. The statement that pay shall not be “ for
feited77 during the leave of absence similarly suggests that the em
ployee works under an arrangement which entities the Government
to his time and service. Likewise, the provision giving heads of
departments] discretion as to the time when the leave of absence shall
be allowed presupposes that the arrangement or contract between the
Government and the employee gives the Government control over
the question when the employee shall work; and only a continuous
time contract accords with that supposition. Workers by the day
or hour or piece can be absent in their own discretion without violat
ing a contract giving their continuous time to the Government.
The clause of the statute which declares “ that absence on account
of sickness shall be deducted from the leave hereby granted77 is pecu
liarly significant. I t again rests upon the idea that the absence because
of sickness has already taken from the Government service which the
Government under its contract with the employee has already paid
for. In the case of workers by the day or hour or piece, however,
the Government has lost nothing through the workman7s absence
because of sickness, since by the very nature of the contract workers
by the day or hour or piece are paid only for service actually rendered.
There is a reason for this clause requiring deduction from leave of
absence for previous absence through illness in the case of employees
under a time arrangement, who receive their salary though absent,
if that absence be not a breach of the contract; but there is no reason
for the provision in the case of laborers by the day or hour or piece,
who are paid only for actual work.
3.
The reasons given for my conclusion as to workers by the day
or hour apply with no less force for my conclusion as to pieceworkers.
But a new and potent consideration is in the way of construing the
act of February 1, 1901, as inclusive of pieceworkers. That statute
fixes no rule for estimation or determination of the rate of pay which
should be given to a worker by the piece during leave of absence.
I am unable to see how the head of an executive department or of a
division or bureau could fix that rate of pay in the absence of a statu
tory rule. The method of calculating it, in the case of pieceworkers,
must inevitably be somewhat arbitrary, and the power to adopt an
arbitrary rule of calculation can hardly rest outside of Congress. In
case of the Government Printing Office and the Bureau of Engraving
and Printing Congress has felt the necessity for its own prescription
of the rule of pay to the pieceworker during his absence, ana has
has itself enacted such a rule. This particular point, supplementing
all that has been said concerning the case of workers by the day or
hour, appears to be quite decisive.
I t may be added that the analogy between the cases of workers by
the day or hour, on the one hand, and of pieceworkers, on the other
hand, is much closer than between the cases of workers by the day or
OPINIONS OF ATTORNEY-GENERAL ON LABOR QUESTIONS.
309
hour and ordinary time employees. The rule concerning leave of
absence for workers by the day or hour would therefore be made by
Congress the same as obtains in case of pieceworkers much more
naturally than it would be made the same as the rule concerning long
time employees, and this consideration adds to the reasons for my con
clusion concerning workers by the day or hour all the force of the
special difficulty m the case of pieceworkers, through absence from
the statute of any rule for pieceworkers’ remuneration during leave of
absence.
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
[Except in cases of special interest, the decisions here presented are restricted to
those rendered by the federal courts and the higher courts of the States and Territories.
Only material portions of such decisions are reproduced, introductory and explanatory
matter being given in the words of the editor.]
DECISIONS UNDER STATUTE LAW.
E mployers’ L iability — R ailroad Companies— A cceptance of
R elief B enefits— Construction of Statute —Potter v. Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad Company, Supreme Court of the District of Columbia,
87 Washington Law Reporter, page 466.—This was an action by Clar
ence G. Potter, a brakeman in the employment of the company named,
to recover damages for the loss of an arm. The injury had been re
ceived while making a coupling with an old-fashioned coupler, and
there was no controversy as to liability, but the plaintiff had been a
member of the company’s relief association, and had accepted various
sums of money, giving a receipt and release therefor. Under his con
tract, this was to relieve the company from further liability, but
Potter claimed that under the federal statute of June 11, 1906, 34
Stat. 232, he was entitled to prosecute his suit regardless of the receipt
and release above named. This statute provides that no contract of
employment, insurance, relief benefit, or indemnity for injury or
death, nor the acceptance of benefits under such contract, shall con
stitute any bar or defense to an action for injuries for death of an
employee. Payments toward a fund or indemnity actually paid may
be put in as a set-off in the trial of any action to recover damages,
however.
The company’s contention was that this provision was an inter
ference with the freedom of contract and was unconstitutional. The
same contention had been decided against this defendant in the case
of Goldenstein v. B. & 0 . R. Co., 37 Wash. L. R. 2 (Bulletin No. 81,
p. 410), but the court carefully reviewed the law and the reasons there
for, reaching the same conclusion as in the earlier case. The opinion
was delivered by Judge Stafford, who first stated the points in issue,
after which he recited the law and found it applicable to the details
of the contract of the relief association, next taking up the question
of the constitutionality of the particular section involved.
On this point he said in part:
The right to make all reasonable contracts is a property right, a
right that was possessed both by the defendant and by the plaintiff.
310
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
311
They entered into this contract, and under it the defendant paid the
benefits and the plantiff accepted them, and we will assume that if it
were not for the statute itself the acceptance of the benefits after
injury would constitute a release of the plaintiffs damages; but the
Congress has undertaken to say that such a contract is against sound
public policy and shall not be recognized. Are there any grounds
upon which the legislature could base such an enactment? More
than once in its brief the defendant shows th at the entering into of
this contract by the plaintiff was not only a part of his contract of
employment, but was the condition of his being employed at all, and
although the contract itself as elaborately set forth provides for certain
preferences to be given those employees who become members of the
relief benefit department, the defendant states, on page 15 of its brief,
that all employees of the defendant are required to become members
of the relief department as a condition of employment by th at com
pany. That is to say, every employee is required to agree upon a
scale of benefits, so much for the loss of an arm, so much for the loss
of an eye, so much for the loss of a life, and so on, which sums, if
accepted by the employee or his representative, after the injury or
death has occurred, shall constitute a bar to any action for the real
damages. I t is now said that no harm has been done by such a con
tract because the employee retained his option to accept or refuse the
benefits after the injury has been received. During the oral argu
ment the court asked the counsel for the defendant why the com
pany exacted of its employees such an agreement in advance if it
expected to rely only upon a voluntary acceptance of benefits after
the injury and not at all upon the previous contract. The reply was
that a question might arise as to the condition of the employee at the
time the benefits were accepted; that it might be claimed that he
was not then in a condition to make an intelligent decision, and in
such a case the fact that he had agreed upon such benefits at the time
of his employment and when he was in the full possession of all his
faculties would help to sustain the act of acceptance. May this not
have been one of the reasons for the action taken by Congress ? If it
is necessary to come back to the original contract m order to sustain
the act of acceptance, then it is necessary to come back to a contract
which the Congress has clearly declared to be a contract made between
parties who do not stand on a level, and one party to which is pre
sumably subject to the undue influence of the other.
The real heart of the question is whether the circumstances and
situation are such that the lawmaking body has a right to say that
the contract is made between parties one of whom has presumably an
undue advantage over the other ? In the case at bar the plaintiff em
ployee was required to and did pay the sum of $2 per month into the
relief department. He alleges that he lost his arm, or a good part of
it, through the negligence of the defendant. For th at loss he re
ceived, according to tne plea in bar, * * * $155 and an artificial
arm, and this sum was due to him regardless of the question whether
the company was negligent or not. On the other hand, of course, the
company had agreed to contribute toward the fund and guaranteed
the payment regardless of the question of its own negligence. The
defendant has argued at length that these relief benefit contracts are
of great advantage to the workman, but evidently Congress thought
312
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
otherwise, and if this case is a fair example of the returns to be re
ceived there will probably be many others who will share that view.
The fact should not be overlooked that although the employee has
the option to reject the relief benefit contract after he is injured, if he
does so he forfeits what he has paid under it. He is not placed back
where he was at the beginning when he entered into the contract of
employment.
The act, however, provides that while the amounts paid as relief
benefits shall not bar the action they shall be credited to the defendant
so far as they were contributed by the defendant, thus showing that
Congress took note of the fact that the employee himself had con
tributed on his part to the relief benefit by the deductions from his
wages, and intended that these shall not inure to the benefit of the
defendant.
The Congress probably took notice of the fact that when the em
ployee accepted the benefits he got nothing that he was not legally
entitled to under the contract by which he became a member of the
department. No new consideration passed to him. He was only
ratifying the old contract which he entered into as a part of his employ
ment. He was only exercising the option he had bought and paid for
out of his wages. The consideration of his agreement was the contract
of employment. The company said to him: “ We will not employ
you at all unless you come into this department. If you do come into
it you will be entitled to share in its benefits.” Now Congress says:
“ That is all right so far; but the provision in the contract that the
employee, by accepting those benefits which he has bought and paid
for, shall bar himself from recovering his real damages is unfair and
against sound policy and shall be void. What is received under such
a contract shall relieve the company only so far as it ought to be
relieved.” Can the court say there is no basis whatever for such
a legislative decision ? I t is easy to see that it may be for the interest
of the carrier to treat itself as liable in all cases of accident and injury
to its employees, waiving the question of negligence, provided the
amounts to be paid for such injuries are sufficiently low, and it may
appear when the average is struck that the carrier has made an im
mense saving. If Congress thought that these relief benefits and
insurance contracts tended on the whole to relieve the common car
rier of a large part of the burden which they ought to bear, and threw
the burden upon the public, that may have been a good reason for the
passage of the act. Before the court decides that the act has no sound
rational basis it ought to look at all possible reasons that may have in
duced Congress to adopt it. What Congress evidently intended to do
was to cut up, root ana branch, this whole attempt on the part of the
employer to substitute its own determination of its liability and its
own adjustment of the extent of that liability as far as the same were
embraced in the original contract of employment, and to substitute
for it an adjustment in open court, or at least an adjustment by the
parties independent of such original contract. There is still another
consideration that may have had weight with Congress. That body
has attempted to secure a greater degree of safety to railroad em
ployees by requiring railroads to use certain safety appliances and to
abstain from tne use of certain other appliances, such as old-fashioned
couplings which maim and kill large numbers of their workmen. If
railroads can disobey such laws and turn themselves into insurance
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR,
313
companies for the settlement of claims growing out of their violation
of these laws, and fix the amounts to be paid at such rates as are
shown by the plea in bar now under consideration, it may be very
difficult to enforce such statutes at all.
Liberty of contract is certainly a very valuable right, but it may
not be hard to understand, in view of all these considerations, how
Congress came to look upon the so-called liberty of contract between
the employee and the employer as theoretical rather than real, and
to conclude that an act like this would be really in favor of liberty
rather than against it. This court can not find it in its province to
attempt to undo the work of the legislature in this humane act.
E m p l o y e r s ' L ia b il it y — R a il r o a d C o m p a n ie s — F e d e r a l S t a t
I n j u r ie s C a u s in g D e a t h — D a m a g e s —Duke v. S t Louis and
ute—
San Francisco Railroad Company, United States Circuit Court, Western
District of Arkansas, 172 Federal Reporter, page 684•—Mrs. Clyde
Duke had sued as administratrix, etc., to recover damages from the
company named for the death of her husband, who was killed while
in its employment as a brakeman. The action was based on the fed
eral statute of April 22,1908, (c. 149,34 Stat., 65), relating to railroad
companies engaged in interstate commerce. Judgment in the amount
of $17,545 was secured, and the company moved for a new trial. The
court ordered a new trial unless Mrs. Duke should consent to remit all
in excess of $6,000 of the judgment, the evidence being to the effect
that Duke's earnings, past and prospective, and the consequent loss of
support to his family, would not warrant a larger recovery. The
measure of damages was considered by the court in part as follows:
The deceased was 29 years of age. His life expectancy was about
36 years. He was married in 1900, at about the age of 20, and killed
in a derailment while a brakeman on one of defendant's trains on
the 28th of March, 1909. In the nine years of his married life (which
embraced all of his adult years), while apparently industrious, he had
spent several thousand dollars of his wife's estate, and all he had
made himself, and his estate at his death amounted to about $250.
Before his marriage he had taught a country school, and had nothing
when he married. After his marriage he had driven a team used in
hauling (presumably his own). For a time he had stacked lumber at
.a sawmill, had farmed one year, and then began braking on a railroad.
What his earnings were prior to going into the service or the defendant
company, 33 months before his death, are not shown. During the
33 months of his service as brakeman in defendant's service his total
gross earnings were $2,139.92; the average monthly gross earnings
$64.84. After deducting certain sums held by the defendant com
pany to pay for meals, hospital expenses, dues, etc., upon his order,
the actual amount he drew from the company in cash was $1,740.42,
or a monthly average of $52.74. This estimate does not cover the
earnings during the month he was killed, which amounted to $76.26,
covering 26 days' service in that month. Out of the $1,740.42
actually drawn should be deducted at least for his actual personal
314
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
expenses, such as clothing, food when not on the road, doctor’s bills,
medicines, and other incidental expenses. If one-third of the $1,740
be treated as going to his personal expenses, then he could not have
appropriated in excess of $1,111.28 to his family during the 33 months
next prior to his death, or an average of about $34 a month, or $408
per annum. Three per cent on the verdict would yield an annuity
of $526.35, and leave at the end of the life expectancy the entire
amount of the verdict untouched. Bpt it is said that, in addition to
such sums as the evidence shows plaintiff appropriated to the sup
port of his family, his children are entitled to recover for the loss of
care, attention, instruction, and training resulting from the father’s
death, and the jury were so instructed. That seems to be the settled
law in some of the States, including Arkansas. But I am driven to
confess, upon a re-examination of this case, that I am unable to find
any federal case which recognizes the doctrine to that extent, and it
may be that the instruction is erroneous. I have, however, found
two cases in the federal courts bearing upon the subject. In Spiro v.
Felton (C. C.), 73 Fed. 91, Clark, district judge, held under a statute
of Tennessee for an injury causing death, the recovery under the Ten
nessee statute being for the benefit of the widow and next of kin of
the deceased, evidence of the number and ages of the children of the
deceased is competent; and in Baltimore &Potomac R. Co. v. Mackey,
157 U. S. 72,15 Sup. Ct. 491, 39 L. Ed. 624, under an act of Congress
passed February 17, 1885 (chapter 126, 23 Stat. 307), under an act
similar to the Lord Campbell Act, it was held that:
“I t is not error to charge a jury that in estimating damages they
may take into consideration the age of the deceased, his health and
his strength, his capacity to earn money as disclosed by the evidence,
his family and who they are what they consist of, and from all the
facts and all the circumstances make up their minds how much the
family would probably lose by his death.”
And in that case the court say:
“The injury shown to a family, consisting of a widow and helpless
young children, who depended for support entirely upon the labor of
her husband and father, whose death was caused by the wrongful
act of others, is much greater than would be done to any next of irin
able to maintain themselves and who have never depended, and had
no right to depend, upon the labor or exertions of the deceased for
their maintenance.”
An examination of the statute under which th at decision is made
will disclose that, though it is couched in different language, the sub
stance is practically the same as the employer’s hability act (act
April 22, 1908, c. 149, 35 Stat. 65) under which the case at bar was
brought, and it is expressly provided in that statute that the recovery
shall inure to the benefit of the family of the deceased. This case so
nearly supports the instruction to which I have referred that I should
not feel inclined to disturb a verdict based upon the assumption that
the instruction given by the court in this case was error. I t is but
a single step—it seems to me now a logical step—from the instruction
*ven by the court to the principles recognized in the cases to which
have referred. I t may be that upon an exhaustive examination I
may find that the federal court does not go as far as the instruction
went, and in that event, of course, this court will follow the federal
authorities.
r
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
315
The state of Duke’s health was then considered, the evidence show
ing that he had cough, night sweats, and fever. After stating these
facts, the court said:
The case, as considered up to this time, is upon the theory that he
was a sound man, and that there is no substantial reason why he
might not live out his life expectancy; but the conditions just stated
cannot be overlooked. In Vicksburg & Meridian R. Co. v. Putnam,
118 U. S. 556, 7 Sup. Ct. 3 (30 L. Ed. 257), the Supreme Court of the
United States said:
“Life and annuity tables are formed upon the basis of the average
duration of the lives of a great number of persons. But what the
jury had in this case to consider was the probable duration of this
plaintiff’s life and of the injury to his capacity to earn his livelihood.”
So, in the case at bar, one or the questions for the jury to determine
was whether or not the deceased would live out the term of his life
expectancy. If he would not, then no recovery could be had for any
loss that might flow from his death to his widow and children beyond
the life period of the deceased.
If his life was to terminate from disease in a few years at most,
as the evidence tended strongly to indicate, then his earning capac
ity and his care and attention to his children must inevitably have
terminated also. This uncertainty of his life makes it more diffi
cult to determine what should be the maximum of his recovery, and
leaves the mind of the court to lean towards setting aside the ver
dict in toto and to grant a new trial. But in the opinion of the
court the verdict was for the right party, and the record free from
any vital error affecting that right to recover. Naturally, therefore,
the court feels that it ought to give the plaintiff the right to elect as
to whether she will enter a remittitur, or take the chances of another
verdict. Some of the States fix arbitrarily by statute the recovery
in such case at $5,000, and in some it is indefinite, depending on the
proof, as it is under the employer’s liability act under which this suit
was brought. In the latter class of cases it is left to the sound dis
cretion, good judgment, and varied experience of the jury, subject
always to the supervision of the court.
Under all circumstances of this case, after the most careful thought
and consideration, I have concluded that I would not have set aside
a verdict for $6,000, and if plaintiff will file a remittitur within two
weeks reducing the verdict to the sum mentioned, I will enter judg
ment therefor; otherwise set aside the verdict, and grant a new trial.
E mployers’ L iability — R ailroad Companies— F ederal Stat
Causing D eath— Survival of R ight of A ction—
ute— I njuries
Fulgham v. Midland VaMey Railroad Company, United States
Circuit Court, Western District of Arkansas, 167 Federal Reporter,
page 660.—The plaintiff sued as administrator of the estate of
E. C. Pogue, who was killed by accident while in the employment
of the railroad company above named. The action was based on the
provisions of the same statute as that considered in the Duke case
38697—No. 86—10--- 21
316
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOB.
above. The principal point involved in the decision made by the
court was as to the question of the survival of an injured employee’s
right of action to the personal representatives of the deceased employee
where the injury resulted in death. The court held that the law in
question made no provision for such survival; and since the common
law provides for the extinction of actions for tort with the death of
the person injured, judgment was fqr the defendant company. Judge
Rogers, who delivered the opinion of the court, set forth the rule of
law that where a federal statute is enacted affecting others it super
sedes and takes the place of all state statutes on the subject, so that
no action could be brought under the provisions of the federal law
in question unless they were specifically provided for in that law
itself, no statute of the State of Arkansas being available to supple
ment or indicate rights of action under the federal act.
The concluding portion of Judge Rogers’s opinion is as follows:
I t can not be that legislation so much discussed in and out of Con
gress, and which had to be so carefully matured and drawn in order to
meet the views of the courts, legislation, too, which inherently shows
the skill of the lawyer evidently familiar with the settled principles
of the common law, which it modifies in the interest of justice and
humanity, is not expressive of the will of Congress, or omits anything
which Congress intended to do by it. I t would have been so easy for
Congress to have said, as the legislation of so many States had pre
viously provided, that in the event the employee injured should die
from the injury his cause of action should survive to his personal
representative, that it can scarcely be conceived that the provision
would have been omitted had Congress so intended. But whatever
Congress may have intended, it has not done so, and the courts must
confine themselves to the administration of the law, and neither add
nor take from a statute where its language is clear and unambiguous.
In the opinion of the court the right of action given to the injured em
ployee by the act of April 22, 1908, does not survive to his personal
representative in the event of his death, but, as at common law, per
ishes with the injured person. I might add that this conclusion is in
harmony with the known purposes of the act, which was intended to
make some provision for tne unfortunate family of the deceased em
ployee, and not to make provision for the creditors of his estate. Can
it be supposed that Congress would make a railroad company the in
surer or an employee, killed in its service, for the purpose of paying
the debts the employee had incurred in his lifetime ? And yet that
would be the inevitable result if the contention of plaintiff’s counsel is
sound, for whatever is recovered on account of injuries sustained and
for which the injured employee had a cause of action in his lifetime
must go to his estate. Indeed, such is the prayer of the complaint
in this very case.
E mployees’ L iability — R ailboad Companies— F ederal Statute
1906—V alidity in T erritories and D istrict of Columbia—E l
of
Paso and Northeastern Railway Company v. Gutierrez, Supreme
Court of the United States, SO Supreme Court Reporter, page 21.—This
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
317
case was before the Supreme Court on appeal from the supreme court
of Texas, in which Enedina Gutierrez had been awarded damages in
a suit as administratrix of the estate of Antonio Gutierrez. The
deceased was an employee of the company named and met his death,
as was alleged, because of the wrongful act of the company.
The question of the validity and application of the federal statute
of 1906 (32 Stat. 232) was involved, the plaintiff contending that, in
asmuch as the accident occurred after the enactment of this law, it
was of controlling effect. A statute of New Mexico (chapter 33,
Acts of 1903), within whose boundaries the accident occurred, was
also considered, but since it has been abrogated by congressional
action it will not be noted here, particularly since any effect it may
have had was held to be subordinate to the power of Congress to leg
islate for the Territories.
The railroad company’s contention that the federal statute was un
constitutional, in view of the rulings in the Employers’ Liability Act
cases, 207 U. S. 463, 28 Sup. Ct. 141 (see Bulletin No. 74, p. 216),
was denied in the supreme court of Texas, whereupon the company
appealed. The appeal resulted in the opinion of the Texas supreme
court being affirmed, on grounds that appear in the following portion
of the opinion of the Supreme Court, as delivered by Judge Day:
Coming to consider the merits: This court, in Atchison, Topeka
and Santa Fe R. R. v. Sowers, 213 U. S., supra, held that in order to
give due faith and credit to the territorial statute, under section 906
of the Revised Statutes of the United States, the plaintiff suing in a
State must show compliance with the preliminaries of notice and
demand as required by the territorial law. As the answer in the
present case set up noncompliance with these requisites, and the
state court sustained a demurrer thereto, the judgment must be
reversed, unless the state court was right in denying the benefit of
the territorial act thus set up, because the federal employers’ lia
bility act superseded the New Mexico law, and is constitutional so
far as the Territories are concerned.
In view of the plenary power of Congress under the Constitution
over the Territories of the United States, subject only to certain
limitations and prohibitions not necessary to notice now, there can
be no doubt that an act of Congress undertaking to regulate commerce
in the District of Columbia and the Territories of the United States
would necessarily supersede the territorial law regulating the same
subject.
Is the federal employers’ liability act of June 11, 1906, uncon
stitutional so far as it relates to common carriers engaged in trade
or commerce in the Territories of the United States? I t has been
suggested that this question is foreclosed by a decision of this court
in the Employers’ Liability Act cases, 207 U. S. 463. In that case
this court held that, conceding the power of Congress to regulate the
relations of employer and employee engaged in interstate commerce,
the act of June 11, 1906, (32 Stat. 232,) was unconstitutional in this,
that in its provisions regulating interstate commerce Congress ex
ceeded its constitutional authority in undertaking to make employers
318
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
responsible, not only to employees when engaged in interstate com
merce, but to any of its employees, whether engaged in interstate
commerce or in commerce wholly within a State. That the uncon
stitutionality of the act, so far as it relates to the District of Columbia
and the Territories, was not determined is evident from a considera
tion of the opinion of the court in the case. In answering the sug
gestion that the words “ any employee” in the statute should be so
read as to mean only employees engaged in interstate commerce, Mr.
Justice White, delivering the opinion of the Court, said:
“ But this would require us to write into the statute words of limi
tation and restriction not found in it. But if we could bring our
selves to modify the statute by writing in the words suggested the
result would be to restrict the operation of the act as to the District
of Columbia and the Territories. We say this because immediately
preceding the provision of the act concerning carriers engaged in com
merce between the States and Territories is a clause making it appli
cable to ‘every common carrier engaged in trade or commerce in the
District of Columbia or in any Territory of the United States/ I t
follows, therefore, that common carriers in such Territories, even
although not engaged in interstate commerce, are by the act made
liable to ‘any’ of their employees, as therein defined. The legislative
ower of Congress over the District of Columbia and the Territories
eing plenary and not depending upon the interstate commerce
clause, it results that the provision as to the District of Columbia
and the Territories, if standing alone, could not be questioned. Thus
it would come to pass, if we could bring ourselves to modify the stat
ute by writing in the words suggested; that is, by causing the act
to read ‘any employee when engaged in interstate commerce/ we
would restrict the act as to the District of Columbia and the Terri
tories, and thus destroy it in an important particular. To write into
the act the qualifying words, therefore, would be but adding to its
provisions in order to save it in one aspect, and thereby to destroy it
m another; that is, to destroy in order to save and to save in order
to destroy.” (211 U. S. 500.)
A perusal of this portion of the opinion makes it evident that it
was not intended to hold the act unconstitutional in so far as it
related to the District of Columbia and the Territories, for it is there
suggested that to interpolate in the act the qualifying words con
tended for would destroy the act in respect to the District of Columbia
and the Territories by limiting its operation in a field where Congress
had plenary power, and did not depend for its authority upon the
interstate commerce clause of the Constitution. The act in question
is set forth in full in a note to Employers’ Liability cases, 207 U. S. 490.
We are concerned in the present case with its first section only.
This section reads:
“ That every common carrier engaged in trade or commerce in the
District of Columbia, or in any Territory of the United States, or be
tween the several States, or between any Territory and another, or
between any Territory or Territories and any State or States, or the
District of Columbia, or with foreign nations, or between the District
of Columbia and any State or States or foreign nations, shall be liable
to any of its employees, or, in the case of his death, to his personal
representative for the benefit of his widow and children, ir any; if
none, then for his parents; if none, then for his next of kin dependent
E
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
319
upon him, for all damages which may result from the negligence of
any of its officers, agents or employees, or by reason of any defect
or any insufficiency due to its negligence in its cars, engines, appli
ances, machinery, track, roadbed, ways or works.”
A perusal of the section makes it evident that Congress is here
dealing, first, with trade or commerce in the District of Columbia and
the Territories.; and, second, with interstate commerce, commerce
with foreign nations, and between the Territories and the States.
Coming to consider the statute in the light of the accepted rules of
construction, we are of opinion that the provisions with reference
to interstate commerce, wtdch were declared unconstitutional for the
reasons stated, are entirely separable from and in nowise dependent
upon the provisions of the act regulating commerce within the Dis
trict of Columbia and the Territories. Certainly these provisions
could stand in separate acts, and the right to regulate one class of
liability in nowise depends upon the other.
When we consider the purpose of Congress to regulate the liability
of employer to employee, and its evident intention to change certain
rules of the common law which theretofore prevailed as to the respon
sibility for negligence in the conduct of the business of transportation,
we think that it is apparent that had Congress not undertaken to
deal with this relation m the States where it had been regulated by
local law, it would have dealt with the subject and enacted the cura
tive provisions of the law applicable to the District of Columbia and
the Territories over which its plenary power gave it the undoubted
right to pass a controlling law, and to make uniform regulations gov
erning the subject.
Bearing in mind the reluctance with which this court interferes
with the action of a coordinate branch of the Government, and its
duty, no less than its disposition, to sustain the enactments of the
National Legislature, except in clear cases of invalidity, we reach the
conclusion that in the aspect of the act now under consideration
the Congress proceeded within its constitutional power, and with
the' intention to regulate the matter in the District and Territories,
irrespective of the interstate commerce feature of the act.
While not binding as authority in this court, we may note that the
act, so far as it relates to the District of Columbia, was sustained in a
well-considered opinion by the court of appeals of the District of
Columbia. (Hyde v. Southern R. R. Co., 31 App. D. C., 466 [see
Bulletin No. 78, p. 582].)
E mployers’
L iability — R ailroad Companies— F ellow -S erv
D eath — Survival of R ight of A ction—
Construction of Statute — DiUon v. Great Northern Railway Com
ants— I nstantaneous
pany, Supreme Court of Montana, 100 Pacific Reporter, page 960.—
This case was before the supreme court of Montana on appeal from
the district court of Flathead County, in which Winifred Dillon, in
behalf of herself and children, had obtained a judgment for damages
against the company named, on account of the death by accident of
her husband, Thomas Dillon, while in the employment of the com
pany. Thomas Dillon was at the time of the injury causing his
320
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
death riding in a car of the company on its road, and was killed by
the negligent acts of fellow-servants, who ran another train into the
one in which he was riding. I t was agreed in making the appeal
that Dillon was without fault; that his death was instantaneous; that
the negligence was the act of fellow-servants, and that the company
itself was not negligent. Action was brought under the fellowservant law of 1905, chapter 1, Acts of 1905, which provides for the
abrogation of the defense of fellow-servants in cases of injury resulting
from, the neglect or mismanagement of employees in the use and
operation of railways. The second section of the act is as follows:
Section 2. In case of the death of any such employee in conse
quence of any injury or damage so sustained, the right of action shall
survive and may be prosecuted and maintained by his heirs or per
sonal representatives.
On the facts shown, the court held that the law provided for no
recovery, and reversed the judgment of the court below, remanding
the case with orders that it be dismissed. The grounds on wliich
this finding was based are set forth in the following extracts from the
opinion of the court, which was delivered by Judge Holloway:
I t was a rule at common law that, if one person was injured by
the wrongful act of another, he had a right of action against the
wrongdoer for damages sustained by him: (a) If the injured party
died before bringing his action, the cause of action literacy died with
him; (b) if he brought his action, but died before judgment, the
action abated with his death; (c) if the injuries were occasioned by
the negligence of his fellow-servant, the injured party could not
recover from the common employer, if that fact appeared. The rule
is recognized and enforced in this country generally; in some of the
States as a rule of the common law, while in others it is embodied in
statutes. However^ in practically every State the rule has been
modified by abolishing subdivisions (a) and (b), and substituting in
lieu thereof provisions by which, in case of the death of the injured
party, his heirs or personal representatives may prosecute his right
of action, and recover for the benefit of his estate. These statutes are
commonly designated “ survival statutes.” In some of the States
the rule is further modified by permitting recovery from the common
master by one servant whose injuries are occasioned by the negligence
of a fellow-servant. Statutes making this qualification are generally
referred to as “ fellow-servant statutes.” The above rule of the com
mon law, as modified by our general survival statute (section 6494),
and our fellow-servant statute (sections 5251, 5252, Rev. Codes), has
been recognized and enforced in this State. Every survival statute
presupposes the existence of a cause of action in favor of the injured
party. Such a statute does not create a new cause of action, but only
carries forward the right which the injured party had before his
death.
It was also a rule of the common law, generally speaking, that for
the death of one person caused by the wrongful act of another there
was not any remedy by civil action. Because of the harshness of
this rule the English rarliam ent in 1846 enacted a statute (St. 9 and 10
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
321
Viet. c. 93), generally known as “ Lord Campbell's Act." This act is
the model after which a like statute has been enacted in nearly every
State in this Union.
To mention the fact is sufficient to call attention to the marked
distinction between an action prosecuted under the common-law rule
first above mentioned and one prosecuted under Lord Campbell's
Act. In the first case the injured party seeks compensation tor his
mental and physical pain and suffering, for medical attention, for
loss of time, and for decreased earning capacity. In the second case
the kindred seek compensation for such portion of the deceased's
earnings as would have come to them had he lived, and, possibly,
for the loss of companionship and the like. In the first case the
damages sought are the damages which the injured party himself
sustained. In the second case the damages sought are those which
his kindred sustained.
But to avoid the defense that Dillon's injuries resulted from the
negligence of his fellow-servants, this action is prosecuted under the
provisions of our fellow-servant statute above. The act is carried
orward into the Revised Codes as sections 5251 and 5252. It may
be an open question whether the legislature intended to create a new
cause of action, or only intended to abolish the defense of the negli
gence of a fellow-servant. But, assuming that it was the intention
to create a new cause of action, our first inquiry then is: In whose
favor does such cause of action arise? The title reads: “An act to
determine the liability of persons or corporations operating railways
or railroads in this State for damages sustained by employees thereof,
and to declare void contracts restricting such liability.' The avowed
purpose is to provide for determining the liability of railroad com
panies to their employees for damages sustained by the employees,
not for damages sustained by their heirs. The first section or the act
emphasizes this view. Counsel for respondents, however, seem to
rely chiefly, if not altogether, upon the second section; but we are
unable to find any suggestion here which sustains their view. This
second section is clearly a survival statute, and was intended for
nothing else.
The manifest purpose of the whole act is to enable an employee of
a railroad company to recover damages from the company for injuries
inflicted upon him by reason of the negligence of a fellow-servant,
and, in case death results from such injuries after the cause of action
has accrued, then to enable his heirs or personal representatives to
prosecute the action to judgment. If it was intended to create a new
cause of action in favor of the heirs for damages sustained by them,
the legislature certainly did not give any intimation of such intention
in the title of the act, and securely concealed such intention in the
body of the statute. The act does not create a cause of action in
favor of the heirs.
Our general survival statute (section 6494 above) relates to a cause
of action which “ arose in favor of such party prior to his death."
Section 2 of the act of 1905 provides that, in case of the death of the
employee in consequence of an injury sustained as set forth in section
1, then the right of action for damages occasioned by such injury
shall survive. I t goes without saying that a thing which never existed
cannot survive. In order that these heirs could have prosecuted this
action under the act of 1905, which we have determined is a survival
{
322
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
statute, it was necessary that it appear that the cause of action arose
in favor of Dillon himself prior to his death; and, as his death was
instantaneous, it seems to us impossible that such a cause of action
could arise in his favor for the wrongful act which caused his death,
and, as such cause of action did not arise prior to his death, we hold
that there was not any survival of a right of action. While the
object of the act of 1905, in principle, is praiseworthy, it is couched
in such language as to make it practically meaningless, or at least to
so far obscure its meaning as to make it of little or no practical use.
E mployers’ L iability — R ailroad Companies— Powers of F ed
Government— Constitutionality of Statute —Hoxie v.
eral
New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Company, Supreme
Court of Errors of Connecticut, 78 Atlantic Reporter, page 754*—Wil
liam H. Hoxie, a train hand in the employment of the company named
above, was injured by the negligence of a fellow-servant and sued to
recover damages from the company. His action was based on the
provisions of the federal statute of April 22, 1908, 35 Stat. 65, which
abolishes the defense of fellow-service in actions for damages against
railroads engaged in interstate commerce. The law is given in full
in Bulletin No. 77, pages 413, 414. The questions of the constitu
tionality of the statute, the powers and status of state courts in the
matter of the enforcement of federal statutes, and the determination
of the authority of the state and Federal Governments in the control
of employees within the States but employed in interstate transporta
tion were discussed by the court on appeal.
The court below had decided against Hoxie on grounds involving
jurisdiction and the constitutionality of the statute, and the appellate
court affirmed such ruling. The reasons on which this conclusion
was based are given in the following extracts from the opinion of the
court, which was delivered by Judge Baldwin. After discussing
briefly the relations of the state and Federal Governments, Judge
Baldwin said:
We find, then, under our American system of government, each
State possessing legislative power over most subjects, and having
courts that may exercise a commensurate judicial power, and the
United States possessing legislative power over a few subjects and
having courts that may exercise a commensurate judicial power.
The act of Congress now m question creates a statutory right of action.
I t is one not existing at common law, nor in chancery. I t is one
which, if warranted by the Constitution of the United States, may,
under their general laws regulating the jurisdiction of the circuit
courts of the United States (act Aug. 13, 1888, c. 866, 25 Stat. 433
[U. S. Comp. St. 1901, p. 508]), whenever damages exceeding $2,000
are claimed, be made the subject of judicial proceedings in the courts
of the United States as a suit of a civil nature arising under the laws
of the United States without reference to the citizenship of the parties.
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
323
In view of these circumstances and conditions, two questions pre
sent themselves at the threshold of the present case. The first is
whether Congress intended by this act to authorize the institution of
an action under it in the courts of the States. The second is whether,
if such were its intention, it had power to make it incumbent on the
state courts to assume jurisdiction.
At common law a servant cannot recover from his master for in
juries received from the negligence of a fellow-servant acting in the
same line of employment. This is a part of that general American
common law resting upon considerations of right ana justice that have
been generally accepted by the people of the United States, in admin
istering which in any State the federal courts have not deemed
themselves bound by the judicial decisions of that State as to what
according to its common law are the limits of that doctrine there.
The Supreme Court of the United States has treated it as a rule of
general jurisprudence, especially when invoked in cases arising in the
course of commerce between States, and as justly supported by the
principle that negligence of a servant resulting in an injury to a
fellow-servant does not of itself prove any omission of care on the
part of the master in his employment, and only such omission of care
can justify holding the master responsible. Baltimore & Ohio R. R.
Co. v. Baugh, 149 U. S. 368, 378, 386, 13 Sup. Ct. 914, 37 L. Ed. 772.
The common law had established the fellow-servant doctrine upon two
main considerations: One, that above mentioned, viewing it as a rule
of justice; and the other, viewing it as a rule of policy, in that it
tended to make each servant more watchful of his fellows, and thus
to promote the safety of all, as well as the efficiency of their common
work. Congress has now seen fit to give an action where the common
law denied it. I t makes a demand legal, which the common law
deemed impolitic. I t is not lightly to be presumed that these pro
visions were intended to found original proceedings in the courts
of the States and to lay down for them new rules, not only of right
and policy, but of procedure. Carpenter v. Snelling, 97 Mass. 452,
458. Sections 4 and 6 of the act of 1908 clearly indicate that the
action is one to be brought under the statute. The methods of
procedure which are prescribed can all be easily pursued in the
federal courts. Some of them it might be difficult or even impossible
to follow in the courts of a State. Others could only be observed
there at the cost of setting up in the same tribunal conflicting stand
ards of right and policy and practice.
The question now under consideration is not whether Congress may
not prescribe a new rule of right as to transactions occurring in the
course of commerce between the States, to be recognized and to
control the disposition of causes in all courts, state and federal.
Undoubtedly it can. Schlemmer v. Buffalo Railway, 205 U. S. 1, 27
Sup. Ct. 407 [Bulletin No. 71, p. 385]. I t would be a change in sub
stantive law, and thus alter so far forth the law of the land. But the
superior court was called upon to say whether the plaintiff could
under the act of Congress of 1908 insist on its entertaining an original
action, which could only be brought, if at all, under that act, and
which could only be sustained by disregarding many of the require
ments of our own law with respect both to pleadings and evidence.
We have then a statute plainly intended to give an action in the
courts of the United States, and, assuming that it is not unconsti
324
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
tutional, well adapted to that purpose. I t is a statute not expressly
purporting to give an action in a court of a State, and which in this
State at least is not in harmony with our system of administrative
justice. If it gives such an action, it can only be on the ground that
as its terms are general, and do not exclude state courts, a right to sue
in them is implied. Undoubtedly the courts of every State and of the
United States together constitute in a certain sense one judicial
system for the enforcement of legal rights; but it is not to be pre
sumed that Congress would (if it could) require those of a State to
enforce rights newly created by the laws of the United States, which
can only be enforced by following modes of procedure not permitted
by the state law, and opposed to the public policy which that law
declares. (Claflin v. Houseman, 93 U. S. 130, 136, 23 L. Ed. 833.)
Nothing short of express provisions or necessary implications in the
language of an act of Congress could suffice to force upon a state court
the exercise of a jurisdiction so incompatible with the legislation and
practice which constitute its ordinary and natural rules of action.
I t is true that under the present statutes of the United States no
action under the act of 1908 would lie in a court of the United States
unless the damages claimed exceeded $2,000. Congress may, how
ever, well be deemed to have had in mind the power of the plaintiff to
claim what damages he pleases, and the rule that the sum named
determines the jurisdiction. But, if Congress intended to give an
action under the act of April 22, 1908, in the courts of the States, as
well as in those of the United States, it is our opinion that the superior
court was justified in sustaining the demurrer. The right to engage in
commerce between the States is not a right created by or under the
Constitution of the United States. I t existed long before that Consti
tution was adopted. I t was expressly guaranteed to the free inhabit
ants of each State by the Articles of Confederation (article 4) and im
pliedly guaranteed by article 4, section 2, Const. U. S., as a privilege
mherent in American citizenship. [Cases cited.] The reserved
powers of the States leave them charged with the sole duty and power
of preserving public order and the security of persons and property
within their territorial limits, except so far as, by or under the Consti
tution of the United States, it may be otherwise provided. A like
duty and power exist with reference to the regulation of the private
relations of employer and employee, and in general to the duties of
common carriers. That a regulation so adopted by a State may inci
dentally affect commerce between the States does not render it
invalid. [Cases cited.]
The State of Connecticut has under her laws, written and unwritten,
so regulated the relations of employer and employee that no action
can be maintained in her courts by a servant against his master for
personal injuries sustained within her territorial limits through the
negligence of one of his fellow-servants, nor for such injuries sustained
through the negligence of the master, combined with that of the
plaintiff himself, when the latter's negligence essentially contributed
to the result, whether it were or were not as great as the master's.
The servant of a common carrier falls within these rules. This is not
because of the nature of his master's business. They apply to every
servant and every master. If it be assumed that Congress has power
to prescribe a different rule for accidents occurring in or outside of
Connecticut in the course of running a railroad train between States,
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
325
and to create a new statutory action for its enforcement cognizable
by the courts of the United States, it can not, in our opinion, require
such an action to be entertained by the courts of this State. It
would open a door to serious miscarriages of justice through confusing
our juries if one rule of procedure were to be prescribed in one class
of suits against an employer and another, diametrically opposed to
it, in another class of them. It would also compel the courts estab
lished by a sovereign power, and maintained at its expense for the
enforcement of what it deemed justice, to enforce what it deemed
injustice. If Congress may thus change the common-law relations
of master and servant by giving a new form and cause of action in
the courts of the United States, it does not follow that they can give
a servant a right to such a remedy in those of States where these
relations remain unaltered.
The act of 1908, furthermore, if constitutional, enlarges the judicial
power of the courts of the United States by giving in a certain class
of causes a judicial remedy where none previously existed. This
remedy is by a plenary action. If we understand correctly the posi
tion of the Supreme Court of the United States, no part of the judicial
power of the United States, when it is to be exercised in the form of
an original plenary action, can be vested in any court not created by
the United States. In Martin v. H unters Lessee, 1 Wheat. 304, 330,
4 L. Ed. 97, it was stated that “ Congress can not vest any portion of
the judicial power of the United States except in courts ordained and
established by itself.” Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 1, 27, 5 L. Ed.19,
which reaffirmed this position, was the subject of consideration in
Claffin v. Houseman, 93 U. S. 130, 141, 23 L. Ed. 833, where it was
held to have decided “ not that Congress could confer jurisdiction upon
the state courts, but that these courts might exercise jurisdiction on
cases authorized by the laws of the State, and not prohibited by the
exclusive jurisdiction of the federal courts.” Robertson' v. Bald
win , 165 U. S. 275, 279, 17 Sup. Ct. 326, 41 L. Ed. 715, in words pre
viously quoted, pronounces it as the better opinion that the Constitu
tion was intended to confine to courts created by Congress the trial
and determination of cases in courts of record falling within the grant
of federal judicial power. This case does not present the question
which might arise if the State of Connecticut by appropriate legisla
tion had accepted for its courts the jurisdiction which the plaintiff
invokes. If he could then maintain his suit, it would be because the
State had in effect granted him the right to sue. Ex parte Knowles,
5 Cal. 300. But, if Congress may authorize a state court to entertain
a plenary action created by a law of the United States, it would not
follow that the jurisdiction must be assumed. The judicial duty of
the courts of a State is fulfilled when they administer justice as its
laws require. If they may, when not prohibited by the statutes of
their State, accept jurisdiction of statutory actions given by act of
Congress, they are also free to decline it; and the objection may be
taken by demurrer.
Thus far we have refrained from discussing the constitutionality of
the act, except as to the single objection that, if it can be considered
as intended to give an action in the courts of the States, it goes in that
respect beyond the powers of Congress. In our opinion it also tran
scends them otherwise. By section 1 the rule of respondeat superior
is extended so as to make the common carrier by railroad between
326
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
States responsible for an injury received by one of its servants in the
course ofnis employment in interstate commerce, due in whole or
part to the negligence of any of its officers, agents, or employees,
whether they are or are not at the time themselves employed in sucn
commerce. An interstate carrier is generally also an intrastate car
rier. It may have a considerable force of officers, agents, or em
ployees engaged in business that is wholly local.
Except so far as the act is a regulation of commerce between the
States, its enactment was beyond the power of Congress. That it
remotely affects such commerce is not sufficient, if that result is only
to be secured by invading the settled limits of the sovereignty of the
States with respect to their own internal police. The act can not be
interpreted as referring only to negligence of employees while en
gaged in interstate commerce. It substantially reenacts in this par
ticular the words of the previous Employers’ Liability Act of June 11,
1906 (34 Stat. 232, c. 3073 [U. S. Comp. St. Supp. 1907, p. 891]), and
must be presumed to have been drafted with Knowledge of the judi
cial construction which those words had received. (The Employers’
Liability cases, 207 U. S. 463, 600, 28 Sup. Ct. 141 [Bulletin No. 74,
p. 216].)
The provision of section 5 that any contract between an interstate
carrier and any of its employees in such business intended to enable
it to exempt itself from any liability created by the act “ shall to
that extent be void” is in our opinion in violation of the fifth amend
ment to the Constitution of the United States as tending to deprive
the parties to such a contract of their liberty and property without
due process of law. The contract may be one made on a full con
sideration by an employee, or one seeking to become such, who is
fully capable of understanding its meaning and effect. The employees
of a railroad company are m general men of more than ordinary
intelligence. The dangerous nature of the business requires and
secures this. I t can not be regarded as one made for the protection
of train hands, for it covers every kind of employees. I t denies
them one and all that liberty of contract which the Constitution of
the United States secures to every person within their jurisdiction.
The act, it is to be remembered, does not confine itself to avoiding a
contractual provision for exemption from liability for the negligence
of the carrier’s servants while engaged in carrying on the work of
transportation. I t avoids a provision for exemption from liability
for the negligence of its servants while not engaged in carrying on
the work of transportation, and even while not engaged in the line
of their service, at all. The provisions of section 3 allow and appar
ently require the recovery o f some damages, although the plaintiff’s
negligence was gross and that of his fellow-employee slight. If, as
aptly suggested by the defendant’s counsel, an engineer, hearing,
but negligently disregarding, an automatic warning bell, should
derail his train at a switch negligently left open by the man in charge,
and the latter be struck by an overturned car, each c
@FedFRASER