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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
BULLETIN OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU, No. 87

SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO DRINKING FOUNTAINS




[Public—No.

259—66th

Congress]

[H. R. 18229]

An Act To establish In the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the
Women’s Bureau

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled, That there shall be
established in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the
Women’s Bureau.
Sec. 2. That the said bureau shall be in charge of a director, a
woman, to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice
and consent of the Senate, who shall receive an annual compensa­
tion of $5,000. It shall be the duty of said bureau to formulate
standards and policies which shall promote the welfare of wage­
earning women, improve their working conditions, increase their
efficiency, and advance their opportunities for profitable employ­
ment. The said bureau shall have authority to investigate and
report to the said department upon all matters pertaining to the
welfare of women in industry. The director of said bureau may
from time to time publish the results of these investigations in
such a manner and to such extent as the Secretary of Labor may
prescribe.
Sec. 8. That there shall be in said bureau an assistant director, to
be appointed by the Secretary of Labor, who shall receive an annual
compensation of $3,500 and shall perform such duties as shall be
prescribed by the director and approved by the Secretary of Labor.
Seo. 4. That there is hereby authorized to be employed by said
bureau a chief clerk and such special agents, assistants, clerks, and
other employees at such rates of compensation and in _ such numbers
as Congress may from time to time provide by appropriations.
Seo. 5. That the Secretary of Labor is hereby directed to furnish
sufficient quarters, office furniture, and equipment for the work of
this bureau.
Seo. 6. That this act shall take effect and be in force from and
after its passage.
Approved, June 5, 1920.




UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
W. N. DOAK, SECRETARY

WOMEN’S BUREAU
MARY ANDERSON, Director

BULLETIN OF THE WOMEN’S

BUREAU,

NO. 87

SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO DRINKING FOUNTAINS

BY

MARIE CORRELL

j5»HTo?

*for«S c*.

UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON * 1931

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.




Price 10 cents




CONTENTS
Page

Letter of transmittal_____________________________________________________
Recommendations for drinking-water service______________________________
Introduction__________________
Summary and conclusion
1
Importance of the type of drinking facility used
2
Standards of national agencies for the design of sanitary drinking foun­
tains.
State laws, rules, and regulations pertaining to drinking facilities in
places of employment 10
Types of drinking facilities used in places of employment 15
Chart I. State prohibitions of the common drinking cup in places of employ­
ment, April, 1930 18
II.—State laws, regulations, and recommendations pertaining to
drinking fountains in places of employment, April, 1930_______
Selected references on drinking water and drinking facilities




in

v
vi
1

7

22
25




LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
United States Department of Labor,
Women’s Bureau,

Washington, March 23, 1931.
Sir : I have the honor to submit the report of this bureau’s study
of drinking facilities. The promulgation of standards for equip­
ment to protect the health of employees is an important phase of the
work of the Women’s Bureau. This report develops and amplifies
the bureau’s recommendation, unchanged since 1918, thatDrinking
water should be cool and accessible, with individual drinking cups
or sanitary bubble fountain provided.”
A presentation of the extent of legislation in the various States
on the subject of drinking facilities constitutes a valuable part of the
study from the point of view of securing uniform regulations of
working conditions.
Every effort should be made to extend the use of sanitary facilities
for the serving of drinking water. Employers aware of the savings
to be effected by a standardization of equipment will appreciate the
value of such standardization in the important matter of sanitary
drinking fountains.
The bureau appreciates the courtesy and promptness with which
information has been furnished by State departments of labor and of
health. Grateful acknowledgment is made also of the assistance
given by the persons following, who were consulted in the prepara­
tion of this report: Mr. Sheppard T. Powell, of the American Water
Works Association; Messrs. Abel Wolman, C. A. Holmquist, Joel I.
Connolly, and other members of the American Public Health Asso­
ciation ; Dr. A. J. Chesley, secretary-treasurer, Mr. H. A. Whittaker,
and other members of the Conference of State and Provincial Health
Authorities of North America; Dr. L. R. Thompson, Assistant Sureon General, and other officers of the United States Public Health
ervice.
The report was prepared by Marie Correll, of the division of
research.
Respectfully submitted.
Mart Anderson, Direotor.
Hon. W. N. Doak,
Secretary of Labor.
v

§




RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DRINKING-WATER SERVICE
Source of water.—Should be absolutely pure. Consult local health department.
Water not suitable for drinking should be so marked. Should not be in con­
tainers except where local supply is impure and bottled water is used.
Sanitary service.—Either A or B, as follows:
A. Bubbling fountains meeting these standards:1
1. Fountain shall be of impervious material, as vitreous china, porcelain,
enameled cast iron, other metals, or stoneware.
2. Jet shall issue from nozzle of nonoxidizing, impervious material set at
an angle from the vertical. Nozzle and every opening in pipe or conductor
leading to nozzle shall be above edge of bowl, so that nozzle or opening will
not be flooded if drain from bowl becomes clogged.
Note.—It is understood that the angle be such that the water can neither
fall back nor be forced back onto the point of discharge. The Women's
Bureau desires to make this very emphatic.
3. Nozzle shall be protected by nonoxidizing guards to prevent mouth or
nose of drinker from coming in contact with nozzle.
4. Jet of water shall not touch guard.
5. Bowl of fountain shall be free from corners difficult to clean or collecting
dirt.
6. Bowl shall be so proportioned as to prevent unnecessary splashing.
7. Drain from fountain shall not have direct physical connection to waste
pipe unless trapped.
8. Water-supply pipe shall have adjustable valve fitted with loose key or
automatic valve permitting regulation of rate of flow of water to fountain
so that valve manipulated by drinker will merely turn water on and off.
9. Height at drinking level shall be convenient to most persons using
fountain. Step-like elevations may be provided for children.
10. Waste opening and pipe shall be large enough to carry off water
promptly. Opening shall have strainer.
Note.—Under date of Feb. 26, 1931, the United States Treasury Department, in which is the Office
of the Supervising Architect, states that specifications for drinking fountains to be installed by that

department in Federal buildings will be in accordance with these standards.

B. Individual paper cups furnished free by employer.
Proper use.—Hands, mouth, or face should not touch any part of faucet, bubbler
head, or guards of fountains. Individual paper cups should be protected from
dirt, supply should be adequate, and means of disposal provided.
Location.—Should be convenient, well lighted, clean.
Temperature.—Water should be cool but not iced. If ice is used for cooling, it
should not come in direct contact with the water.
Maintenance.—Facilities should have frequent cleaning and disinfecting: also
repair and adjustment as necessary.
1 Summarized from Essential Features in the Design of Sanitary Drinking Fountains, final report of the
Joint committee on plumbing of the public health engineering section of the American Public Health Asso­
ciation and the Conference of State Sanitary Engineers, October, 1930. U. S. Public Health Service,
Public Health Reports, vol. 46, No. 4, Jan. 23, 1931, pp. 170-171. For verbatim standards and for other
authorities see pp. 7 to 9 of the present study.

VI




SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO DRINKING FOUNTAINS
INTRODUCTION
Some arrangement for supplying drinking water must be made in
every place of employment. A fundamental requirement for such
water is that it be free from harmful bacteria—it must be suitable
for drinking. In addition it must be served in a sanitary way to
prevent its contamination.
This report is not concerned with the question of the quality of
drinking water, since purity may be assured by using water that has
been tested and approved by health authorities. Instead, the present
study discusses the methods by which drinking water is served.
Comparatively few persons are aware of the dangers of contam­
ination that exist in the serving of water by the ordinary drinking
fountain. Employers who would not offer their employees a com­
mon drinking cup will supply a vertical-jet fountain without realiz­
ing that they are providing a drinking facility with the same
dangers as a common cup. Until recently any person who, recog­
nizing this danger, has tried to buy a sanitary fountain has faced
the problem of making a selection from the many types manu­
factured without satisfactory information about features essential
for sanitation. The Women’s Bureau has met this situation and
the resulting problems in its investigations of establishments and its
interviews with employers. The bureau, therefore, has two pur­
poses in the publication of this bulletin: First, to help employers to
select fountains of sanitary design by making available to them the
best standards that have been formulated, and second, to call atten­
tion to the dangers to health that exist in insanitary drinking
facilities.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Tests of the sanitation of drinking fountains show that all types
of vertical-jet fountains are easily contaminated and retain disease
germs for some time and that many angle-jet fountains may be
contaminated by improper use. The American Public Health Asso­
ciation’s standards for the design and construction of drinking
fountains list the features that are essential for their sanitation.
(See opposite page.) The majority of the State laws and regula­
tions on the matter of drinking facilities do little more than pro­
hibit the use of the common cup.
Most of the fountains in use at present do not meet these require­
ments. Of about 1,500 places of employment in 21 States inspected




1

2

SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES

by the Women’s Bureau from 1923 to 1929, more than 40 per cent
had fountains for all or some of their employees, but less than 15
per cent of those for which the type of fountain was reported had
any of the angle-jet type. The common cup was found in about
one-fourth of the establishments.
A committee of the American Water Works Association reported
after inspecting a large number of fountains installed in 1923 that
less than 10 per cent were of the design that prevents infection being
transmitted directly from one person to another. '
Buyers informed on the subject could change these conditions by
refusing to install vertical-jet fountains. In many cases an angle-jet
nozzle can be attached to the existing fixture in place of the verticaljet nozzle with little or no other change.
Because of their importance to health the Women’s Bureau recom­
mends that only the most sanitary drinking facilities be used by
employers, and it suggests that the standards of the American Public
Health Association be required in the fountains installed in places
of employment.
IMPORTANCE OF THE TYPE OF DRINKING FACILITY USED
The importance of drinking water in relation to health is empha­
sized by medical authorities.1 Water is essential to the proper func­
tioning of the body. But it is recognized also that water may be a
carrier of disease.
“ The water supply, when polluted at its source, is usually respon­
sible for the spread of such diseases as typhoid, cholera, and dysen­
tery.” 2 * Water will carry not only disease germs due to impurities in
the source of the supply but any others with which it may come in
contact before it reaches the drinker’s mouth. It may be contami­
nated at its source, during its storage or distribution, while it is
cooled, or by the way in which it is served to the drinker. “ * * *
syphilis, tuberculosis, diphtheria, tonsillitis, and pneumonia are fre­
quently spread, not by the water but by the depositing upon drink­
ing devices of mouth secretions and sputa of people who are carrying
the germs which cause these diseases.’’8 Influenza, diphtheria, scar­
let fever, measles, whooping cough, cerebrospinal meningitis, poli­
omyelitis or infantile paralysis, smallpox, chickenpox, mumps, Ger­
man measles, septic sore throat, and the common cold are other
diseases that may be conveyed by secretions from the mouth or nose.4 *
Many of these diseases are respiratory in character, a group that
is one of the most important causes of employee illness and absentee­
ism. At the Edison Electric Illuminating Co. of Boston, during the
10-year period ended December 31, 1924, 54 per cent of the men’s
and 45 per cent of the women’s absences of one day or longer on
account of sickness were due to respiratory diseases, which were the
1 Rosenau, Milton J. Preventive Medicine and Hygiene. D. Appleton & Co., New York
and London, 1927, pp. 929-932; and Vedder. Edward B. Medicine: Its Contribution to
Civilization. The Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1929, pp. 143-144.
2 King, Frank R.. and Stovall, W. D. Water Supplies and Drinking Devices. Domestic
Engineering, Dec. lO, 1921, p. 484.
8 Idem.
4 U. S. Public Health Service. Dangers of the Common Drinking Cup. Public Health
Broadcast No. 266. Mimeographed.




IMPORTANCE OE TYPE OF FACILITY

3

cause of 47 per cent of the time loss of men and 43 per cent of that of
women.0 Similar conditions existed in other plants. An analysis of
the reports of a group of industrial sick-benefit associations, of
cases of illness causing disability for eight consecutive days or longer
among the male members of the associations, showed that—
respiratory diseases caused 47 per cent of the illnesses. In these reports,
which covered the period from 1921 to 1926, inclusive, the number of men
included averaged nearly 100,000 annually, or a total of approximately 570,000
years of life under observation during the 6-year period.
Thus, whether we consider all cases of disabling sickness or only those which
caused disability for a period longer than one week, we find that respiratory
diseases constituted approximately one-half of the cases. From the standpoint
of effect upon the absence rate in industry, no other disease group approached
in importance the respiratory diseases. Among employees of the Edison Co.
diseases of the respiratory system cause more absences from work than all
other diseases put together.6

Naturally it is not maintained that insanitary drinking-water serv­
ices are responsible for all the sickness and lost time due to respira­
tory diseases, but since they contribute to these losses by spreading
the bacteria that cause such illnesses, every effort should be made to
remove this danger. Only the most sanitary service of drinking
water should be offered to employees.
Drinking water can promote health or spread disease. Recognition
of this fact has led to the development of many methods for the pro­
tection of drinking water. Water purification is one of the im­
portant phases of all public-health work. State laws and the work
of health officials, engineers, and bacteriologists have developed elab­
orate and careful methods of controlling the sources of water sup­
plies and of preventing contamination while it is stored, and skillful
plumbing to deliver it to the consumer in condition suitable for con­
sumption. But the consumer’s drinking habits and many of the facil­
ities available for his use allow the water to be polluted by the act
of drinking. The last step, taking a drink of water, which it has
been the object of both science and engineering to protect, becomes
the method of contamination.
The drinking facilities in most common use at the present time are
cups or glasses used by several persons without being sterilized, the
so-called common cup; individual containers, often made of paper;
and bubbling drinking fountains with either vertical or slanting
streams of water.
The common drinking cup, long recognized as a public-health
menace, is prohibited by law in many States.7 Individual cups, if
kept in a sanitary condition and supplied in adequate numbers, with­
out charge to employees, probably are a satisfactory method of serv­
ing drinking water. There remain the many models of two types of
drinking fountains, the vertical-jet type in which the water flows
out of an upright jet, and the angle-]et type in which the water
issues from a jet set at an angle to the vertical. Bacteriological tests
of these fountains have determined that the vertical jet is not sani­
tary and that many fountains with angle jets can be contaminated.5
5 U. S. Public Health Service. Importance of Respiratory Diseases aa a Cause of Dis­
ability Among Industrial Workers. By Dean K. Brundage. Reprint No. 1214, 1828, pp.
1-2. From the Public Health Reports, Mar. 16, 1928, pp. 603-610,
“Ibid., p. 1.
' See pp. 18 to 20.

50881°—81-----2




4

SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES

To be sanitary, fountains must meet certain requirements in design
and construction.
When bubbling fountains were introduced to displace the common
cup, little attention was given to their design or sanitation. Until
Jane L. Berry, of the research laboratory of the department of health
in New York City, in 1914, tested a vertical-jet fountain, it had been
assumed that the flow of water flushed away any sputa deposited on
the bubbler by one drinker before another person drank from it.
Miss Berry found, however, that bacteria placed on the fountain
were not removed even by a more thorough flushing than the foun­
tain ordinarily received.** This showed the possibility of the spread
8
of disease through contamination of this type of fountain. Miss
Berry recommended a fountain with continuous flow regulated at
the proper height. Experience and further study have shown that
this recommendation was inadequate.
The results of this first investigation were verified by the research
of Pettibone, Bogart, and Clark in the laboratory of medical bac­
teriology at the University of Wisconsin. After two studies, made
in 1914 and 1915, of all the bubble fountains at the University of
Wisconsin and laboratory experiments with various types of foun­
tains, these conclusions were reached :
1. During an epidemic of streptococcus in a woman’s dormitory at the Uni­
versity of Wisconsin, streptococci were found in the bubble fountains in this
building and in the water issuing from these fountains.
2. The city water supply was at the time, and has been, excellent in its
sanitary character. It is obtained from the underlying Potsdam sandstone.
No streptococci were found on a Berkefeld filter through which water had been
flowing continuously for one week.
3. Presumably the bubble fountains were a factor in transmitting the disease.
4. A survey of all the fountains of the university showed the presence of
streptococci in over 50 per cent of the total number. The streptococci varied
in abundance from a few chains to an almost pure culture obtained in swabbings
from the fountains in the women’s dormitory.
5. In an experimental bubble fountain, B. prodigiosus when introduced either
by means of a pipette or by the moistened lips remained in the water from 2
to 135 minutes, depending partly on the height of the “ bubble.”
6. Most of the organisms are flushed away, but some remain dancing in the
column much as a ball dances on the garden fountain even though the bubble
be increased to the impractical height of 4 inches.
7. To avoid the difficulty always present in the vertical column, a simple
fountain with a tube at an angle of 50° from the vertical was constructed. B
prodigiosus was never found in the plates from this type of fountain even when
samples were taken immediately after the introduction of the organisms.
8. We believe that this type of fountain should be generally adopted. Its
simplicity, low cost of construction, and freedom from lurking danger should
recommend it to all.*

Additional evidence of the public-health menace of insanitary
drinking fountains was secured by a study at the University of
Minnesota, the findings of which were published in 1917. H. A.
Whittaker, who made this investigation of 77 fountains of 15 types
of vertical jet, reported as follows:
* * * (a) That a large proportion of the fountains were infected with
streptococci, which it is reasonable to assume came from the mouths of the con• Berry, Jane L. Bubble Fountain Tests. Collected Studies from the Bureau of Labora­
tories, city of New York, 1914-15, Vol. VIII, pp. 135-130
8 Pettibone, Dorothy F„ Bogart, Franklin B„ and Clark, Paul F. The Bacteriology of
the Bubble Fountain. Journal of Bacteriology, September, 1916, pp. 479-480




IMPORTANCE OP TYPE OP FACILITY

5

Burners, as these organisms were not found in the water supplying these foun­
tains; (6) that streptococci were actually present in the water discharged from
the fountains and could be transmitted to the mouth of a consumer, even though
the lips were not touched to the infected parts. These facts suggest the possi­
bility of the fountains being a factor in the transmission of certain communicable
diseases, and that certain changes should be made in their construction to
eliminate this danger.
The principal defect in construction was the vertical discharge of water from
the fountain. This made it necessary for the consumer to place the mouth
directly over the point of discharge, and the majority of persons drank with
the lips touching the discharge nozzle of the fountain. This was especially
true where the water jet was low, but even when it was high enough to avoid
this practice the average consumer placed the mouth over the jet and then
lowered the head until the lips touched the discharge nozzle or adjacent parts
of the fountain.
Experiments were conducted with the various types of fountains which were
designed with the view of correcting the defects noted in those already in use.
It was found that the most practical construction to obviate the principal defect
mentioned was to discharge the water from the fountain at such an angle that
the consumer could drink without approaching the point of discharge, thus
eliminating the possibility of water falling back from the mouth onto parts of
the fountain at or near the point of discharge. * * *
It was found necessary in a practical design to entirely protect the point
of discharge and to guard the nozzle against the approach of the con­
sumer * * *.
* * * These results indicate that drinking fountains may be a factor in
the transmission of communicable diseases, a condition which should be
remedied.10

In the Health Department of the District of Columbia other tests
were made, supplying further proof that vertical-jet fountains were
insanitary and finding that the angle-jet type also could be contami­
nated. These studies, conducted by Dr. Joseph J. Kinyoun and Mr.
Louis V. Dieter and covering a period of several years, included—
First. The methods used by drinkers and their bearing on the sanitation of
the fountain.
Second. Tests of all types of fountains on the market (over 90 types were
studied).
Third. The danger from finger contamination.

It was found that the misuse of the fountains, whether by the
fingers or the mouth, caused contamination by the drinkers. Mr.
Dieter reports that—
In observations of the methods used by some 1,500 to 2,000 drinkers from
practically all types of fountains, we were at once struck by the large propor­
tion of drinkers that not only will not or can not use these devices unless they
grasp the nozzle with their lips and suck the water. * * * [Some persons]
protrude their lips down beyond the guard which is placed on some of these
devices and grasp the nozzle with the lips before drinking. We have seen
such drinkers actually extend their lips down for fully 2 inches, after first
contorting their necks in the most ludicrous manner in order to grasp the
nozzle under the so-called guard of some of the new slanting-stream type
fountains. Unfortunately, they accomplish their purpose in a good many
instances, and even where they are not successful in their attempt the close
proximity of their lips to the nozzle allows the washings and mucus to fall
back upon it. Then again the “ guards ” on most of the new-type fountains
consist simply of strips of material attached to the nozzle end of the bowl,
about an inch, or possibly two, above the nozzle and either in a direct line
above it or slightly back of it. The upward flow of the water as it describes
10 U. S. Public Health Service. Drinking Fountains: Investigation of Fountains at the
University of Minnesota, by H. A. Whittaker. Reprint No. 397, 1917, pp. 5—7. From
the Public Health Reports, May 11, 1917, pp. G91-G99.




6

SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES

Its arc passes very close to the edge of this guard. Actual observations show
that at least 40 per cent of the drinkers place their mouths directly on the
guard and by thrusting their heads in the direction of the nozzle, not only allow
drippings from the mouth to flow over it but seriously contaminate the guard
itself with mouth organisms. This guard, not having even the rather doubtful
advantage of being flushed with water, serves the next erratic drinker with the
contaminating organisms direct and undiluted."

The Kinyoun-Dieter tests showed that all vertical-jet fountains
retained bacteria for some time, one type showing positive tests from
25 to 48 hours after the bacteria were introduce. The tests of the
angle-jet fountains showed that if they were used properly there
was no danger of contamination. However, the observations of the
methods actually used by many drinkers proved that the fountains
often were misused. These observations and tests showed the danger
of contaminating the jet and guards of angle-jet fountains unless
they were constructed to prevent the drinker from touching the orifice
and its guard. Mr. Dieter concludes that—
To our amazement we discover that instead of being a protection, our sup­
posedly sanitary substitute for the common drinking cup [bubbling fountain]
is distinctly a menace to public health fully as great as the cup itself.”
The principle of the side-stream fountain is good and forms the nucleus of
much experimental work that can be done in the right direction. The fact that
the fountains tested did not come up to the required sanitary standard was
not because the principle involved defied a basic physical law, as in the case of
the vertical-nozzle types, but simply because very little, if any, attention had
been given to the most important point; that is, the proper guarding of the
nozzle or source of supply.

*******
With our present knowledge of the subject, gleaned from actual experience
and observations, the choice of a strictly sanitary fountain—and nothing less
than this should have even a moment’s consideration—should not be a difficult
matter, nor does it require any special or technical knowledge. The only re­
quirements necessary are an honest desire to obtain such a fixture, and a careful
consideration of the following five points:
1. Is the fountain “ foolproof? ” That is, will it be absolutely safe to use it
at all times, even immediately after the most careless or diseased drinker, and
not to depend even to the slightest degree upon the personal element?
2. Is it possible for organisms or other foreign particles to dance on the
bubble?
3. Is it possible for washings from the mouth to fall back upon or splash on
the nozzle, regardless of the idiosyncrasies of the drinker?
4. Is it possible to touch the nozzle with the mouth or with the fingers?
5. Are the guards so situated that any part of the mucous membrane of the
mouth could come in contact with any part of the guard during the process of
drinking, and thus convey infection from one erratic drinker to another?
If the fountain in question fails to comply with any of the five indicated
essentials, it is not a strictly sanitary fountain and should be rejected. Surely
we have had enough experience with the pseudosanitary types to last us for
all time, and, now that the Interest of health authorities and the public in
general has been aroused to the existing conditions and a demand has been
made for drastic improvement, we must not feel satisfied until we have adopted
something that is beyond reproach or sensible criticism.”

_ These four studies are the only reported bacteriological examina­
tions of drinking fountains. Since no basic criticisms have been
made of the methods used or the findings obtained by these studies,
they stand as indictments of most bubbling drinking fountains.11 * 13
11 Dieter, Louis V. The Relative Sanitary Values of Different Types of Drinking Foun­
tains. Part II. The American City, December. 1919, p. 549.
13 Ibid., Pt. I. The American City, November, 1919. p. 452.
18 Ibid., Pt. II. The American City, December, 1919, p. 654.




STANDARDS OF NATIONAL AGENCIES FOR THE DESIGN
OF SANITARY DRINKING FOUNTAINS
The fact that most bubbling drinking fountains offer possibilities
of contamination presents the problem of securing standards for the
construction of sanitary facilities. Three standards for the sanitary
construction of drinking fountains have been established by national
agencies. The first was by the American Water Works Association,
the second for the railroads, sponsored by the United States Public
Health Service, and the third a standard of the American Public
Health Association.14
Following the presentation of a paper on the sanitary drinking
fountain by J. H. Dunlap before a joint meeting of the Illinois and
Iowa sections of the American Water Works Association on October
10,1916,16 the Iowa section appointed a committee to draw up recom­
mendations for a sanitary type of fountain. The conclusions of this
committee, reported by the Iowa section on October 23, 1919, and
indorsed by the entire association in 1923, were as follows:
1. All types of drinking fountains with vertical jets are to be condemned.
2. Most types of drinking fountains with slanting jets are to be condemned.
3. To be sanitary, drinking fountains should conform to the following speci­
fications :
(a) The jets shall be slanting.
(&) The orifices of the jets shall be protected in such a manner that
they can not be touched by fingers or lips, or be contaminated by drop­
pings from the mouth, or by splashings from basins beneath the orifices.
(o) The guards of the orifices shall be so made that infectious material
from the mouth can not be deposited upon them.
(d) All fountains shall be so designed that their proper use is selfevident.

In addition to indorsing these standards the association committee
recommended that —
All sanitary drinking fountains installed in public places should be of the
standard design as set forth herein, or of such a design as to fulfill the sanitary
requirements made necessary by the improved type.
Legislative regulations in all States, where these are not now in force
should specify the type of sanitary fountain to be permitted.
Copies of this report should be sent to technical papers, having a circulation
among manufacturers of drinking fountains, requesting that the report be
published in full.
Stricter supervision by health authorities of the type of drinking fountains
installed in new buildings should be brought about.”
Wealth Service iaa bureau in the Treasury Department of the United
th© duties of its division of domestic quarantine is to control the water
SUTuieSA’iffJPr dnnkin^and culinary purposes on interstate carriers.
i
Association, an organization of persons concerned in the
Pu£llc-heaJth,.measures, sponsors the advancement of sanitary science
and the pi emotion of organizations and measures for the practical application of rmhlfo
Un1te|ritateshySiene‘ ** iS the lttrgest and
known public-heaith organization vn the
Works Association, whose members are officers of waterworks sys­
tems or are engaged in other work relating to water supplies, promotes the advancement
of knowledge or flie design, construction operation, and management of waterworks.
,lrw: ,
operation, an T .... nl _
._
I fl P Sanitary Drinking THah v, 1-n 1 »i
I 11*i ubincf Fountain
.
i ^
* _
“ Dunlap, J. H. The SHFI Tllrfl
Journal of the American • ■
Water
Works Association, March, 1917, pp. 03-69.
’ American Water Works Association Journal, March, 1924, pp. 483-484
11 Ibid., pp. 485—486.




T

8

SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES

These standards and recommendations of the American Water
Works Association were the first attempts on a national scale to stop
the use of insanitary drinking fountains. Although the standards
were reprinted in the association’s Manual of Water Works
Practice 18 *
and given some publicity, not much attention was given
to the matter by manufacturers nor by fountain buyers.
The second standard for fountain sanitation was that of the Rail­
way Sanitary Code. This code, sponsored by the United States
Public Health Service, approved by the Conference of State and
Provincial Officers of Health, and recommended to the States for
adoption May 25, 1920, and amended June 2, 1921, contained the
following recommendation for drinking fountains:
Sec. 61. Drinking fountains.—It drinking fountains of the bubbling type are
provided in any railway station, they shall be so made that the drinking is
from a free jet projected at an angle to the vertical and not from a jet that
is projected vertically or that flows through a filled cup or bowl.’"

New impetus was given to the movement for sanitary fountains
by a report of the committee on plumbing to the public health
engineering section of the American Public Health Association at
the annual meeting in October, 1929, that contained standards for
the design of sanitary drinking fountains.20 The executive council
of the Conference of State and Provincial Health Officials indorsed
these standards at their meeting in Washington, D. C., in June, 1930,
and several State boards of health began to recommend that foun­
tains meet these standards. Finally, at the meeting of the American
Public Health Association in Fort Worth, Tex., in October, 1930,
the progress report was modified slightly and adopted as a final
report. The essential features in the design of sanitary drinking
fountains are given in this report as follows :
1. The fountain shall be constructed of impervious material, such as vitreous
china, porcelain, enameled cast iron, other metals, or stoneware.
2. The jet of the fountain shall issue from a nozzle of nonoxidizing, im­
pervious material set at an angle from the vertical. The nozzle and every
other opening in the water pipe or conductor leading to the nozzle shall be
above the edge of the bowl, so that such nozzle or opening will not be flooded
in case a drain from the bowl of the fountain becomes clogged.
3. The end of the nozzle shall be protected by nonoxidizing guards to pre­
vent persons using the fountain from coming into contact with the nozzle.
4. The inclined jet of water issuing from the nozzle shall not touch the
guard, thereby causing splattering.
5. The bowl of the fountain shall be so designed and proportioned as to be
free from corners which will be difficult to clean or which will collect dirt.
6. The bowl shall be so proportioned as to prevent unnecessary splashing
at a point where the jet falls into the bowl.
7. The drain from the fountain shall not have a direct physical connection
to a waste pipe unless the drain is trapped.
8. The water-supply pipe shall be provided with an adjustable valve fitted
with a loose key or an automatic valve permitting the regulation of the rate of
flow of water to the fountain so that the valve manipulated by the users of
the fountain will merely turn the water on or off.
W»r w,?^actl^e- „MS?ual is®liod
the American Water Works Association,
the Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1925, p. 714.
“ U. S. Public Health Service. Standard Railway Sanitary Code. Supplement No. 48
to the Public Health Reports, May. 1924, p. 9.
20 American Public Health Association. Report of Committee on Plumbing: Essentia]
features in the Design of Sanitary Drinking Fountains. American Journal of Public
Health and the Nation’s Health, November, 1929, pp. 1224-1225.




STANDARDS OF NATIONAL AGENCIES

9

9. The height of the fountain at the drinking level shall be such as to be
most convenient to persons utilizing the fountain. The provision of several
steplike elevations to the floor at the fountain will permit children of various
ages utilizing the fountain.
10. The waste opening and pipe shall be of sufficient size to carry off the
water promptly. The opening shall be provided with a strainer.”

The Women’s Bureau recognizes that industrial establishments
often have difficulty with their drinking-water systems and that
many problems peculiar to individual plants affect the water and
the facilities used; nevertheless, certain fundamental conditions for
health should be guaranteed in all places of employment.
The bureau’s recommendations (see p. vi of this report), in addi­
tion to recommending that drinking fountains be constructed accord­
ing to the requirements of the American Public Health Association,
include the following suggestions:
1. The source of water should be absolutely pure. If there is a
question, consult local health department. Water not suitable for
drinking should be so marked.
2. It is understood that the angle be such that the water can
neither fall back nor be forced back onto the point of discharge.
The Women’s Bureau desires to make this very emphatic. If there
is any doubt as to whether certain fountains meet all the require­
ments, the advice of the State department of labor or board of health
should be secured.
3. People should be instructed to use a fountain properly. Hands,
mouth, or face should not touch any part of the faucet, bubbler head,
or guard.
4. Individual paper cups furnished free by the employer may be a
sanitary and satisfactory method of serving drinking water. They
should be protected from dirt, the supply should be adequate, and
means of disposal should be provided. The Women’s Bureau con­
siders it important that the cups be furnished by the firm, because
when each employee is supposed to supply his own, it too frequently
happens that common use is made of some improvised receptacle by
the workers in the plant.
5. Drinking water should be located in convenient, well lighted,
and clean places.
6. Drinking water should be cool but not iced. If ice is used for
cooling, it should not come in direct contact with the water.
7. All drinking facilities should be cleaned and disinfected fre­
quently and repaired and adjusted as often as is necessary.21
21 Essential Features in the Design of Sanitary Drinking Fountains. Final report of
the joint committee on plumbing of the public health engineering section of the American
Public Health Association and the Conference of State Sanitary Engineers, October, 1930.
U. S. Public Health Service, Public Health Reports, vol. 46, No. 4, Jan. 23, 1931, pp.
170-171. Printed by permission of the American Public Health Association.




STATE LAWS, RULES, AND REGULATIONS PERTAINING
TO DRINKING FACILITIES IN PLACES OF EMPLOY­
MENT
Since most people are uninformed of the risks involved in drinking
from public fountains, or if so informed are more or less indifferent
and will drink from whatever facility is available, it follows that
only sanitary equipment should be provided for public use. Sanitary
facilities will not be provided universally until required by law.
In most States the laws, rules, and practices for the regulation of
drinking facilities in places of employment do not demand that they
meet the best standards of bacteriologists and sanitary engineers.
The regulation most frequently found is the prohibition of the com­
mon drinking cup. Following the action of Kansas in 1909,22 45
States and the District of Columbia have adopted some general
prohibition of the common cup. Georgia, Nevada, and Tennessee,
the three States that have no general prohibition of the common cup,
have adopted the railway sanitary code prohibiting its use in stations
and on railway trains.
In a number of States manufacturing and mercantile establish­
ments are not covered in the prohibition of the common cup. From
Chart I (see p. 18), which shows by State the places covered, the
type of regulation, and the enforcing' agency, it is apparent that
besides the three States of Georgia, Nevada, and Tennessee, that
have no prohibition of the common cup, Idaho, Indiana, Maryland,
New Jersey, and Utah do not prohibit its use in manufacturing and
mercantile establishments, although the recommendation or the
Department of Labor of New Jersey that the common cup be abol­
ished may be partially effective in that State. Furthermore, some
States have prohibitory regulations that apply only to certain parts
of these places of employment. Alabama, Delaware, New Mexico,
North Carolina, and Wyoming limit the prohibition to places where
females or minors are employed, or to that part of the establish­
ment that is open to the public. Illinois and South Carolina have
no prohibition applying to mercantile establishments. Connecticut’s
only cognizance of manufacturing plants is a recommendation of the
department of labor. The only manufacturing plants covered by the
Montana regulation are canneries and food establishments. There
are, then, 17 States that do not prohibit the common drinking cup in
all parts of all manufacturing and mercantile establishments.
Where the use of the common cup is prohibited, individual cups or
drinking fountains must be provided. A few States, realizing that
other drinking facilities than the common cup may spread disease,'
have described the type of facility to be used in its place. A number
of States specify that the facility used must be “ sanitary ” or men­
tion certain requirements about its condition or cleaning. Others
22U. S. Public Health Service. Common Drinking Cups and Roller Towels.
Kerry and A. A. Moll. Public Health Bulletin No. 57, 1912, p. 8.

10




By J. W

STATE LAWS, RULES, AND REGULATIONS

11

have some law, rule, or recommendation about the type of drinking
fountain to be used. These provisions, which are especially signifi­
cant for this report, are given in Chart II. (See p. 22.) Of the
10 States and the District of Columbia that have some law or regu­
lation with the force of law regarding drinking fountains, 8—
Alabama, California, Delaware, Kansas, Missouri, Montana, Ohio,
and Wisconsin—specify that the fountain must be “ sanitary.” Cali­
fornia requires, in addition, that the orifice from which the jet of
water issues be protected from contact with the drinker’s lips and
from being submerged in waste water, and that the jet of water be
at least 2 inches high. New Hampshire’s only requirement is a
type of bubbler that will not permit a drinker’s mouth to touch the
orifice.
Unless supplemented by standards for their construction, the state­
ment that drinking fountains must be “ sanitary ” does not prohibit
the installation and use of insanitary facilities. Louisiana, where
a board of health recommendation of angle-jet fountains has the
force of law, is the only State that requires angle-jet fountains.
In the District of Columbia that type has for some time been re­
quired in new installations in buildings under the supervision of
the District government. (This does not, of course, cover buildings
of the Federal Government in the District,of Columbia.)
Since only one State and the District of Columbia require indi­
vidual cups or angle-jet fountains, most State laws pertaining to
drinking facilities do not prohibit insanitary methods of serving
drinking water. The recommendations of departments of labor and
boards of health, however, show that in 17 States in addition to
Louisiana and the District of Columbia the angle-jet fountain is
recognized as more sanitary than the type with a vertical jet. Boards
of health in Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri at the date of
this inquiry—April, 1930—were recommending the most complete
standards then available for drinking fountains, those presented to
the public-health engineering section of the American Public Health
Association in October, 1929. (See p. 8.)
The Minnesota recommendation (see Chart II) is supplemented by
the following detailed resolution, adopted by the State board of
health, on January 15, 1929:
Whereas public drinking fountains have largely replaced the common drink­
ing cup, and are provided in a great many places accessible to the public; and
Whereas investigations have shown that disease-producing bacteria may be
transmitted from one person to another through the use of improperly con­
structed or improperly operated drinking fountains ; and
Whereas the observations made by the State board of health have revealed
the presence of insanitary types of drinking fountains in many public and
semipublic places throughout the State: Therefore be it
Resolved, That the attention of the public be drawn to the fact that not all
drinking fountains are satisfactory, and that to be sanitary drinking fountains
should conform with the following general requirements:
1. The jet of water emerging from the fountain should be slanting, so
that discharged water does not fall back onto the orifice;
2. The orifice from which the water emerges should be protected in
such a manner that it can not be touched by the lips or be contaminated
by droppings from the mouth or splashings from the base beneath the
orifice; and
60881°—31----- 3




12

SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES
3. An adequate supply of pure water under sufficient pressure, properly
controlled, should be provided in order to insure satisfactory operation
of the fountain.23

Other State boards of health that recommend angle-jet fountains
are those of Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho, Maine, Nebraska, North Caro­
lina, Tennessee, and Texas. Wisconsin is the only State whose board
of health has a recommendation approving both vertical-jet and
angle-jet fountains, the board maintaining that sanitation depends
largely on the height of the stream.
Although these recommendations of boards of health do not apply
specifically to manufacturing and mercantile establishments, and
many boards seldom inspect these places, the recommendations may
be used to influence any person installing a drinking fountain. The
Alabama Child Welfare Department, Kentucky Department of
Agriculture, Labor, and Statistics, New Jersey Department of Labor,
North Carolina Child Welfare Commission, and the Woman and
Child Labor Department of the Wisconsin Industrial Commission
are the only State labor authorities that have made recommenda­
tions suggesting the use of angle-jet fountains. The Tennessee Deartment of Labor approves only sanitary fountains with coil coolers,
ut does not state that fountains must be angle jet.
Most State departments of labor have inspection forces that are
visiting places of employment; therefore standards for drinking
facilities that such departments are recommending could improve
conditions in places of employment. But in 1930, as just described,
only five such departments were recommending the installation of
angle-jet fountains. In many States the powers of the department
of labor are limited, or they are not charged with the duty of re­
quiring sanitary drinking facilities. In any case, the health agencies
can set community standards for sanitary facilities.
In addition to the three types of regulation of drinking facilities
that have been discussed—the prohibition of the common drinking
cup, requirement of “ sanitary ” facilities, and some description of
the type of drinking fountain to be used—a few States have other
requirements. In several the supply of water must be sufficient.
One State limits the number of employees per fountain. This is
Ohio, where one fountain must be supplied for each 100 employees
in plants where employees are exposed to lead. Some States men­
tion the location of the drinking facility, requiring it to be conven­
ient, accessible, or not in a toilet room. Some require that the foun­
tain be cleaned. Keeping the floor around the fountain clean and
furnishing containers for discarded cups are other regulations.
That water be supplied without charge to the employees is a require­
ment in several States. This study is not concerned with the specifi­
cations of the amount and quality of water provided for drinking,
its distribution, and its cooling. Some States have special regula­
tions for schools, hotels, food establishments, and new buildings, and
some city boards of health and local school boards have taken action
to prohibit the use of insanitary fountains, but with the exception
of the standards in Minneapolis and in the District of Columbia
these laws or rules are not included in this study.

S

23 The American Ci<y, May 1929, p. 167.




STATE LAWS, EXILES, AND REGULATIONS

13

The Minneapolis Board of Education, in February, 1930, after
more than two years’ investigation, approved the following reason­
able requirements for the selection of drinking fountains to be
installed in the Minnesota public schools.
REASONABLE REQUIREMENTS CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION
OF DRINKING FOUNTAINS
A. Sanitary requirements of the health authorities.
1. The drinking fountain must have a slant-stream jet having an angle of
not less than 15° or more than 30° from the vertical.
2. The projector must be so designed as to make it impossible for the lips
of the drinker to touch the projector.
3. The projector must be safely guarded against contamination, either by
hands or sputum.
4. The projector must be so designed that the water falling from the mouth
of the drinker can not fall back into the orifice and thus contaminate
tlie stream for the next drinker.
5. All water in the projector must drain away from the projector when the
fountain is not in use in order that fresh water will not bubble up
through stagnant water.
6. The orifice in the projector must be not less than one-eighth inch above
the lip of the bowl, so that any stoppage of the drain may not con­
taminate the orifice.
7. The projector must be absolutely nonsquirting.
8. The fountain shall be fitted with automatic pressure control on the
water supply to the fountain which will provide a uniformly high
drinkable stream unaffected by change in pressure, either due to low
pressure of the water supply to the building or due to the flushing
of other fixtures in the building.
9. The design of the drinking fountain shall be such that all surfaces may
be easily cleaned, both the bowl and the bubbler head itself.
10. The drinking fountain shall have a free and open construction without
any sharp corners which will permit the harboring of germ life.
B, Operation and maintenance requirements of the board of education.
1. The drinking-fountain bowl must be made of vitreous china.
2. The drinking-fountain bowl must have four bolt holes through the back
of the fountain for securing it to the wall with through bolts, two of
these bolt holes to be at the top of the fountain and two near the
bottom of the fountain.
3. The drinking-fountain bowl shall be open and accessible at the bottom
to secure ease in installation and provide sufficient room around traps,
regulators, and water connections so that standard plumbing tools can
be used in the installation or in making necessary repairs after
installation.
4. The drinking fountain must be equipped with a self-closing valve having
a good substantial stuffing box on the handle and located on the righthand side of the drinking fountain.
5. This self-closing valve must be operated by a lever handle so that it can
be easily operated by the smallest of children.
6. The design of the slant-stream projector with guard should be such as
to minimize danger of damage to teeth or lips caused by any child
pushing the head of the drinker downward.
7. The design of the projector should be such that there are no exposed
adjusting screws or adjusting device in the projector head itself. All
adjustments should be made to the regulating valve in the water
supply.
8. The slant-stream projector and regulating valve shall be of such design
that they can be equally well installed in present bowls in our present
school building installations, as well as used on new work.




14

SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES
9. In operation the projector shall be absolutely noiseless. There must be
an elimination of all jet and orifice noise which occurs in some foun­
tains and which is transmitted through the water lines and the
building in such a way as to disturb classes.*4

To summarize: Considering the State regulations of drinking
facilities in places of employment, it is found that in mpst States the
only regulation is the prohibition of the common drinking cup.
Even this basic requirement for the sanitary service of drinking
water has not been adopted in all States. Three have no prohibition
of the common drinking cup, five others have not prohibited its use
m manufacturing and mercantile establishments, and nine more have
not completely prohibited it in all manufacturing and mercantile
establishments. This makes a total of 17 States with inadequate
prohibition of the common cup in places of employment. Only one
State and the District of Columbia require that drinking fountains
be angle jet in construction, and only 17 States recommend such
fountains in preference to the vertical-jet type. Since tests have
shown that vertical-jet fountains are as dangerous in spreading
disease as is the common cup, it is evident that most States do not
prohibit all insanitary methods of serving drinking water to
employees.
Under present conditions of enforcement the existence of a law or
recommendation does not indicate that unlawful facilities are not
used, but laws can set standards that may be accepted. There is no
doubt but that real progress has been made in prohibiting the use of
the common cup and that other facilities that spread disease may
eventually be abolished.
„ .T„¥1in70gral)he? report on Drinking Fountains for Use in the Minneapolis Public Schools
now*the^omSn’s8 Bureau.me Mlnm'apoha Board of Education. Copies may be secured




TYPES OF DRINKING FACILITIES USED IN PLACES OF
EMPLOYMENT
A comparison of the drinking fountains seen on the streets, in
public buildings, in offices, factories, and other places of employment
with the standards for sanitary fountains is all that is necessary for
conviction that the drinking facilities in use are far from the best
available, that existing laws should be enforced, and that laws and
regulations should establish more rigid requirements.
This observation is verified by studies that have been made of
drinking facilities. A committee of the American Water Works
Association reported, after inspecting a large number of new drink­
ing-fountain installations during 192B, that—
Less than 10 per cent of the number of fountains inspected were of the design
that prevents infection being transmitted directly from one person to another,
and only 5 per cent might pass section 61 of the Kail way Code. Not one of
these installations could meet the requirements specified by the Iowa section."

The Women’s Bureau in all its surveys of conditions of employ­
ment has studied the types of drinking facilities offered to employees.
Of 1,506 establishments inspected in 21 States the facilities were
angle-jet fountains throughout in only 49.
Findings on drinMng facilities from Women's Bureau surveys, 1923-W29 0
Number of States surveyed
21
Number of establishments
1, 506
Number of employees 266, 000
Of all establishments—
Bubbling drinking fountains were used in over 40 per cent.
(Of the establishments for which the type of fountain %vas reported, less
than 15 per cent had angle-jet fountains.)
Bubbling drinking fountains were used exclusively in about 33 per cent.
Angle-jet drinking fountains were used exclusively in less than 4 per cent.
Individual cups were used in less than 10 per cent.
The common cup was used in over 25 per cent.
(It was found in each State.)
No cups were provided in about 30 per cent.

More than one-half of the establishments either did not provide
drinking cups for their employees or offered them the common
cup. The common cup was found in every State and in about onefourth of the establishments, in spite of the fact that all but two of
the States had laws or regulations prohibiting its use. Where no
cups were supplied, the facilities for drinking were as insanitary as
the use of a common cup. This report of one plant is true of many
others: “ No cups were provided, and the workers simply put their
mouths over the faucet, which was turned up part way.” 26 Tomato
cans, barrels, kegs, open pails, and molasses jugs were reported as
being used for drinking water in some places. Although the 56 per
cent of the establishments inspected that had no cups or used common• **
• Many establishments used several types of facilities.
a American Water Works Association Journal, March, 1924, p. 485. (See p. 7 of this
report.)
** U. S. Department of Labor. Women's Bureau. Women In Mississippi Industries.
Bui. 55, 1926. p. 41.




16

16

SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES

cups offered the most insanitary conditions, the facilities were far
from sanitary in a large proportion of the other plants.
Over 40 per cent of all the establishments had some bubbling
drinking fountains, about 33 per cent using them exclusively, but
less than 4 per cent of the total number had angle-jet fountains for
all facilities. In other words, of the establishments having the type
of fountain reported, less than 15 per cent had any with the angle jet.
The other sanitary drinking facility, the individual cup, was used in
about 10 per cent of the places inspected—in about 8 per cent it was
the only drinking facility.
The percentages of fountains and other facilities naturally give no
indication of their sanitary condition. Since the vertical-jet foun­
tain may spread disease, it is significant to find so large a per cent of
the establishments with type of fountain reported having those with
vertical jet for all or some of their employees. Many plants with
angle-jet fountains have them for only some of their employees, and
many are careless in the maintenance of the fountains they have.
The statement following shows the conditions found in a large
plant surveyed by another agency than the Women’s Bureau.
Data in reference to sanitation of drinking facilities in a factory employing
more than 2,000 persons
[Furnished by S. T. Powell, consulting engineer, Baltimore, Md.]

Location

1- Power house ground floor.......
2. Power house second floor........

Type

Sanitary condition

Vertical jet...........................................

Bad ..................

Number
of em­
ployees
having
access to
facility
j

3. Power house basement.........__ Homemade A inch pipe turned up
vertically.
|
4. Store house...............................
5. Ground floor, power house_
_ Vertical jot..............................................
6. Firing floor, power house____ ....... do.........................................
7. Shop...........................................
8. Shop...........................................
9. Shop.......... ...............................
10. Shop__________________ _
11. Shop..........................................
Bad (guard broken
off).
12. Main factory............................. Homemade VA inches pipe cap with
A inch hole permitting vertical jet.
13. Main factory..................... ...... Homemade vertical pipe (apparently
discontinued).
14. Factory......................................
16. Factory.....................................
16. Factory................................... Homemade A inch brass pipe turned
up.
17. Factory.................................... .
18. Factory....................... ............
Fair
19. Factory........................ ............
Bad
20. Factory...................... ......... .
21. Warehouse................................
Bad
22. Factory.................................... .
23. Factory......................................
24. Office...............................
Valve on end of pipe, using drinking Safe, as common
drinking cup is
cup.
banned.
26. Factory......................................
Insanitary, should
be prohibited.
27. Factory............................... .
Homemade vertical pipe (unprotected). Bad
28. Factory......................................
29. Factory...................................... Homemade A inch vertical pipe (un­
protected) .
1 No record of number of employees having access to facility.




79
90

178
52
104

<*>
73

<*)
85
109

(’)
0)
(l)
(i)
(0
(1)
h)
M
0)
0)

1
(>)

FACILITIES USED IN' PLACES OF EMPLOYMENT

17

Of the 29 places where employees were securing drinking water,
19 were vertical-jet fountains, while in 10 places spigots, valves, or
the ends of pipes were used. Only three of the fountains were in
even fair sanitary condition. Similar statements might be made of
large numbers of manufacturing establishments. Such practices are
clearly recognized as health hazards and are condemned by health
authorities and by many employers. The recognition that they still
exist should lead to steps to eliminate these dangers to health. That
this is possible is shown by the experience of many employers whose
drinking-water service is as nearly sanitary as is possible of
attainment.
Since it has been known for so many years that the angle jet is
a great improvement over the vertical jet, one might expect to find
its use becoming more common. As a matter of fact, however, many
of the newest fountains and the bubblers used in new cooling systems
are vertical-jet. Buyers informed of the sanitary features of bub­
bling fountains could change this condition by refusing to install
vertical-jet fountains and insisting that only the best type of angle
jet be used. Many employers are installing new cooling systems for
their drinking water. Some of these systems have fountain heads.
When investments are being made in new equipment it should be the
most sanitary available. In some cases a vertical-jet nozzle can be
replaced by one correctly guarded and of the angle-jet type with little
or no other change being made in the fixture. Drinking fountains
should meet the standards of the American Public Health Associa­
tion and the Women’s Bureau, given on pages 8 and 9 of this report.




Chart I.

State prohibitions of the common drinking cup in places of employment,1 April, 1930

oo

[State laws and correspondence with State boards of health and State departments of labor]
Common cup
prohibited 1
State

Type of prohibitory measure 3
Fac­
tories

Enforcing agency

Other
places

Yes A. Yes

Yes...
Child welfare department; boards of
health.
Yes... Yes... Yes...
Boards of health__________ _______
Yes... Yes... Yes__ Regulation, State board of health___ Department of labor; boards of health..
California_________ Yes... Yes... Yes... Law; regulation, industrial welfare Department of industrial relations;
boards of health.
Colorado
Yes... Yss._ Yes... Law
Boards of health__________________
Connecticut
No«... Yes
Ye3
----- do_______________ ___________
Delaware_____ ____ Yes
Yes«..
Labor commission, women's labor
division.
District of Columbia. Yes... Yes__ Yes... Regulation of commissioners_______ District department of health
Arizona..................
Arkansas_________

Florida
Georgia___________

Yes... Yes... Yes
No.... No—. No.—

Idaho__________

No.... No.— Yes__ Law; regulations, department of
public welfare.

Illinois_________
Indiana........... ......

Yes... No— Yes..
No

Iowa________

Yes... Yes... Yes... Law; regulation, State board of
health.

Kansas________

Yes__ Yes... Yes... Regulation, State board of health___

Kentucky________

Yes... Yes... Yes...

Louisiana__________ Yes__ Yes... Yes... Regulation, State board of health___




Source

Code. 1923, Vol. I, ch. 31, sec. 1133, and Vol. II, ch.
89, sec. 3520.
Session laws, 1917, ch. 55, p. 76.
Rules and regulations, State board of health, No.
283, p. 4.
Session laws, 1917, ch. 744, sec. 1, p. 1517; industrial
welfare commission orders 4 and 13.
Laws and regulations, State board of health, 1927,
pp. 200-201.
Sanitary code, May 1, 1927, Ch. II, reg. 116, p. 16.
Sanitary law for female employees, Labor Com­
mission of Delaware, secs. 7 and 1, pp. 32, 29.
Laws and regulations relating to public health in
the District of Columbia, m force Oct. 1, 1916,
p. 234.
Boards of health_______________
Sanitary code, revised to Feb. 8,1921, rule 33, p. 99.
Letters from the department of commerce and labor
and the department of health.
Boards of health and State sanitary Session laws, 1925, ch. 69, sec. 7, p. 101; regulation
inspectors.
of the board of health, June 21, 1917. In U. S.
Public Health reports, Supplement No. 37, p. 110.
State’s attorneys of counties
Session laws, 1911, secs. 1-4, p. 289.
Boards of health
Book of instructions to health authorities, Oct. 1,
1925, rule 32, pp. 52-53.
Bureau of labor refers violations to Letters from State department of health quote Rule
boards of health.
1, ch. 5, special rules and regulations of the de­
partment; Code of Iowa, 1927, ch. 133, sec. 2827.
Commission of labor and industry; Laws, rules, and regulations relating to public
boards of health.
health, bulletin of the Kansas State Board of
Health, March, 1928, p. 60; women workers in
Kansas, industrial welfare orders of the com­
mission of labor and industry, 1930, pp. 5, 7, 9.
Boards of health; department of labor Public health manual, 1928, sec. 137Ge, p. 92.
refers violations to State board of
health.
Boards of health
Sanitary code, 1923, art. 240, p. 88.

SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES

A labama

Stores

Yes... Yes... Yes...

Maryland
Massachusetts.........

-do..
Department of labor and industries..
Department of labor

Industrial commission cooperates with
Yes... Yes...
board of health.
Yes... Yes... Yes... Regulation, State board ofhealth___ Boards of health........................... .......

Yes .
Mississippi

Yes...

Yes...
Yes

Nebraska

Yes...

Yes... Yes... Yes... Regulation, bureau of health, depart­
ment of public welfare.
Nn

No....
New Hampshire

Yes... Yes... Yes... Standard, bureau of labor; regulation,
State board of health.

New Jersey
New Mexico

No •... No *___ Yes... Regulations, State board of health__
No io__ No io.. Yes... Regulation, State board of public
health.
Yes... Yes... Yes... Regulation, department of labor; reg­
ulation, public health council.

New York
North Carolina

Yes n. Yes ii. Yes... Regulation, State board of health;
recommendation, State child-wel­
fare commission.
Yes... Yes... Yes...

Ohio

Yes... Yes... Yes... Regulation, public health council___

Oklahoma_____ ____ Yes... Yes... Yes... Regulation, State department of
health.
Oregon........................ Yes... Yes... Yes... Regulation, State board of health___
Pennsylvania............. Yes... Yes... Yes... Regulation, department of labor and
industry.7
See footnotes at end of chart.




Rules and regulations governing sanitation, 1927,
State board of health, art. 188, p. 2L
Public health manual, sanitary code, 1929, Book V,
sec. 4, p. 9.
Boards of health. ............................
Regulation State board of health, Mar. 9,1920, Part
in, Rule 111(a), in U. S. Public Health Report
Supplement No. 43, p. 226; food and drug laws,
rules and regulations, April, 1927, canneries regu­
lation No. 80, pp. 42-43.
Rules and regulations, bureau of health, depart­
.do..
ment of public welfare, Aug. 1, 1928, p. 32.
Letters from department of labor and State board
of health.
Bureau of labor standards, No. 6 (1930); regulation,
Bureau of labor; boards of health..
State board of health, in Health (monthly bulle­
tin), June, 1929.
Regulations of the State board ofhealth, June 27,1911.
Boards of health_______
Regulations of the State board of health, Jan. 28,
Bureau of public health __
1920.
Department of labor; boards of Sanitary code, public health council, 1929, Ch. VII,
reg. 3, pp. 26-27; industrial code bulletin, depart­
health.
ment of labor, No. 9, pp. 21-22.
.
Boards of health; State child-welfare Laws, rules, and regulations governing the sanitary
management of hotels, special bulletin State
commission.
board of health, May, 1921, p. 11; biennial report,
North Carolina State Child Welfare Commission,
July 1, 1926, to June 30, 1928, Part II, p. 18.
Compiled laws, 1913, Vol. I, ch. 38, art. 49, secs.
Boards of health________________
2952-2954.
Public health manual, 1925, p. 595, regulation 137 of
Department of industrial relations.
Ohio sanitary code.
Laws, rules, and regulations governing sanitation,
Boards of health________________
1929, rule 68, p. 41.
Oregon laws on public health and rules and regu­
Boards of health; bureau of labor...
lations of State board of health, 1926, sec. 78, p. 37.
Regulations for industrial sanitation, department of
Department of labor and industry..
labor and industry; rule 144, 1928 edition, p. 25.
Labor commission; boards of health.

STATE PROHIBITION'S OF THE COMMON CUP

No.... No.... Yes___ Law; regulation, State board of
health.
Yes... Yes... Yes... Regulation, department of labor and
industries.^
Yes... Yes... Yes...

Public health council: Regulations relating to com­
mon drinking cups and common towels, Oct. 1,
1922; industrial code rules and regulations re­
lating to sanitation of factories and mercantile
establishments, Sec. IV, p. 11, Dec. 29, 1925.
Session laws, 1912, ch. 156; regulation No. 2 of the
board of health, as amended Feb. 21, 1924.
Industrial Bulletin No. 19, department of labor
and industries, May 1, 1929.
Laws relating to public health, revision of 1927, p.
20, sec. 5189; session laws, 1913, act 93, secs.
5189-5190.
General statutes, 1923, ch. 99, secs. 10277-10278.

CD

Chart I.

State prohibitions of the common drinking cup in places of employment,1 April, 1930—Continued

Common cup
prohibited *
State

Fac­
tories

Stores

Other
places

Type of prohibitory measure*

Enforcing agency

Source

Rhode Island

Tennessee.................

No___ No— No—
Yes... Yes... Yes...

(have force of law).
No.... No_
_ Yes— Regulation, State board of health___ Boards of health__________ __
Yfts
Virginia...................... Yes... Yes... Yes...
boards of health.
Washington
Yes... Yes... Yes... Regulation, State board of health___
West Virginia........ . Yes... Yes... Yes... Law_________________
Yes... Yes... Yes... Law; order, industrial commission__ Industrial commission; boards
health.
Utah

Wyoming___ _____

No ,0._ No 19- Yes... Regulation, State board of health___

Session laws, 1923, ch. 85, sec. 16; regulation, public
health commission.
Bulletin No. 58, labor laws, p. 23, department of
agriculture, commerce, and industries.
Session laws, 1915, ch. 215, sec. 12, pp. 412-413;
public health laws and regulations, 1929, regu­
lation No. 46, p. 158.
Letters from department of labor and State board of
health.
Letter from State bureau of labor statistics.
State health laws and regulations, 1925, p. 33.
Report, State board of health, 1912-13, p. 58.
Labor laws of Virginia, 1929, sec. 4722-a, p. 28.

of

Rules and regulations of the board of health, 1927,
sec. 57 (a), p. 41.
Barnes's Code, Annotated, 1923, ch. 150, sec. 20h.
General orders on sanitation of the industrial com­
mission, reprint, 1927. Order 2217, p. 38; Wis­
consin Statutes, 1923 (containing all general
statutes in force at the close of the general session
of 1923), Vol. I, sec. 146.07.
Revised rules and regulations governing the report­
ing and control of communicable diseases. July,
1927, pp. 72-73.

1 Some States have additional prohibition; e. g., the railway sanitary code.
hote]s!arertam?nnttSstXfounytallnS?p^kse,'Sols’,Tt^117 tocluding aU ““ufacturlng, mechanical, and mercantile establishments; “ other places” includes so-called “public places,’
3 Most of the regulations included have the force of law.
I Where minors are employed, the common cup is prohibited if 20 or more persons are employed.
* department of labor recommends that common cup be abolished in factories.
* Common cup prohibited where women are employed.
7 Department of health also has regulations prohibiting common cup in places of employment
8 In canneries and food establishments only.
*
»cSon^upp^ShiWtSTp^fop^pubSo!1 COmm°n °UP ta aU Places 0t
Sanitafy “»* engineering industrial standards, 1927, p. 8.
41 Where women or minors are employed.




SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES

Yes... Yes... Yes... Law; regulation, public health com- Office of factory inspection; boards of
mission.
South Carolina-......... Yes... No— Yes... Regulation, State board of health___ Department of agriculture, commerce,
and industries; boards of health.
South Dakota
Yes... Yes... Yes... Laws; regulation, State board of
health.
Texas.........................

to

o




Chart II.—State laws, regulations, and recommendations pertaining to drinking fountains in places of employment, April, 1930

to

[State laws and correspondence with State boards of health and State departments of labor. The Railway Sanitary Code and regulations for schools not included]
State

Recommendation 1

“* * * sanitary drinking fountains shall be provided in such number as
the inspector may deem necessary.”—Child Labor Law, Code of Ala­
bama, 1923, ch. 99, sec. 3520. Applies to establishments where minors are
employed if 20 or more persons are employed. (Minors are excluded from
certain industries and occupations considered dangerous to health.)

Child welfare department standards—The “ bubble ” type of drinking fountains
where the jet of water flows straight up is to be discouraged. Therefore,
fountains should be so constructed that a person shall drink from a stream or
jet of water flowing at an angle. The nozzle from which the water issues
should be protected so that no person can place the mouth on the orifice from
which the water comes. Water for drinking purposes should be cooled. Some
few establishments in Alabama have installed a circulatory system of refrig­
eration. This is very expensive. Drinking fountains with a “frigidaire
attachment” are proving more practicable than the “ice chamber and coil
system.” The floor around the fountain shall be kept dry and clean.
Board of health—Slanting stream type more sanitary than other types.
Board of health—Favors nonleakable protected bubbler head with a jet at an
angle.

Arkansas---------------

Connecticut........... .

“Each place of employment shall be supplied with pure drinking water so
placed as to be convenient to the employees. Common drinking cups are
prohibited. Individual cups must be used or sanitary drinking fountains
of an approved design must be installed. Drinking fountains shall be kept
in a sanitary condition and shall be of such design that it is impossible to
place the lips in contact with the orifice from which the jet of water issues,
or for the supply orifice to become submerged by the waste water. The
water supply of drinking fountains shall be so regulated and maintained
that a jet of at least two (2) inches in height shall be constantly available. ”—
Orders No. 13 and No. 4 amended, industrial welfare commission. Apply
to mercantile, laundry and manufacturing industries where women and
minors are employed.

u A sufficient supply of clean and pure water and individual drinking cups or
a sanitary fountain shall be provided in every establishment named in
section 1 of this act in which females are employed or permitted to work.
If drinking water is placed in receptacles, such receptacles shall be properly
covered to prevent contamination and shall at all times be kept thoroughly
clean. No employer in any such establishment shall collect from any
employee money for ice or water famished for drinking purposes.”—
Session laws, 1917, ch. 231, sec. 7, pp. 745-746. Applies to mercantile,
mechanical, or manufacturing establishments, laundry, baking, printing,
or dressmaking establishments, places of amusement, telephone or tele­
graph offices or exchanges, hotels, restaurants, or offices in which females
are employed or permitted to work.
District of Columbia. The fountains in all District government buildings must be of a design
approved by the District Board of Health. One model of angle-jet
fountain is required.




Board of health—Angle-jet fountains meeting the standards of the committee
on plumbing as presented to the public health engineering section of the
American Public Health Association, Oct. 1, 1929.

SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES

Statute or regulation having force of law

Idaho..
Illinois.
Iowa.
Kansas.

“Sanitary drinking fountains or individual cups must be provided, in
connection with an adequate supply of wholesome drinking water.”—
Order No. 1, public service commission. Applies to laundries, dyeing,
dry cleaning and pressing establishments.

Kentucky.

Louisiana.
Maine___
Minnesota.
Missouri.

Montana.

Nebraska.

“Fountains of the vertico-slant type of jet only considered satisfactory.
Fountains with vertical jet or with orifice exposed not satisfactory.”—
Statement from the board of health.
“* * * a sufficient number of sanitary drinking fountains containing
wholesome drinking water, and providing ice for same, shall be provided
and maintained for the use of the employees within reasonable access and
without cost to them.”—Session laws, 1913, sec. 8, p. 404. Applies in
establishments where certain articles dangerous to health are used.
“Common drinking cups shall not be used. Individual drinking cups or
sanitary drinking fountains shall be provided in convenient locations.”—
Food and drug laws, rules, and regulations, April, 1927. Regulation 80,
pp. 42-43. Applies to canneries.

Department of agriculture, labor, and statistics—A proper drinking fountain
should conform to the following specifications: (a) The jet shall be slanting;
(6) The orifice of the jet shall be protected in such a manner that it can not
be touched by hands or lips, or be contaminated by drippings from the mouth
or splashings from bowl beneath the orifice; (c) The guards of the orifice shall
be so made that infectious matter from the mouth can not be deposited upon
them; (d) All fountains shall be so designed that their purpose is self-evident.

Board of health—Fountains which have a jet at an angle of 45°.
Board of health—Slanting-jet stream, protected-nozzle fountain.
Board of health—Angle-jet fountains meeting the standards of the committee
oa plumbing as presented to the public health engineering section of the
American Public Health Association, Oct. 1, 1929.

Department of public welfare, bureau of health—Public drinking fountains of
the bubbler type shall preferably be of such a design that the mouth can not
touch the nozzle and such that the stream does not rise vertically, but at an
angle of 30° to 45° with the vertical, in order that the water, after having been
in contact with the lips, does not fall back on the nozzle. All bubblers shall
be kept clean. Drainage from the same shall be so disposed of that no muddy
or sloppy places are produced around the fountain.

BTATE ACTION AS REGARDS FOUNTAINS

Board of health—“* * * we do recommend a drinking fountain with a
diagonal jet with guards so placed that the mouths of the users can not touch
the orifice, also a double diagonal jet with two streams meeting beyond the
guards. We do not recommend a drinking fountain in which the water rises
vertically and falls back from the drinker's lips to the orifice.”
Department of public welfare—Angle-jet fountains.
Board of health—Angle-jet fountains meeting the standards of the committee
on plumbing as presented to the public health engineering section of the
American Public Health Association, Oct. 1, 1929.
Board of health—Angle-jet fountains meeting the standards of the committee
on plumbing as presented to the public health engineering section of the
American Public Health Association, Oct. 1,1929.

Georgia.

“ Bubblers, where used, should be of a type which will not permit a person’s
mouth coming in contact with nozzle.”—Bureau of Labor Standard.
Applies to factories, mills, workshops, or other manufacturing or mercan­
tile establishments in which three or more persons are regularly employed.
>The recommendations of the boards of health do not apply to places of employment exclusively but may influence the type of fountain installed.

New Hampshire.




to
CO

Chart II.

State laws, regulations, and recommendations 'pertaining to drinking fountains in places of employment, April, 1930—Continued

State

Statute or regulation having force of law

New Jersey........ ........

Tennessee_
_

"The employer shall provide and maintain a sufficient number of sanitary
drinking fountains readily accessible for the use of the employees.”—
Session laws, 1913, house bill 483, sec. 3(e), p. 821. Applies to places where
employees are exposed to lead. Requires one fountain for each 100 em­
ployees.

Texas____
“Each place of employment must be supplied with sufficient pure drinking
water and the faucets or outlets for same must be placed convenient to the
employees. * * * Sanitary drinking fountains must be installed or
individual cups must be provided by the employer/’— Order 2217, indus­
trial commission.

Child welfare commission—Angle-jet stream fountains or individual drinking
cups provided by employer.

Department of labor—Approves any kind of a sanitary fountain.
Board of health—Slanting-jet type of fountain with orifice protected from
contact with lips of the user, with coil cooler.
Woman and child labor department, industrial commission—Drinking foun­
tains should be placed so that access to them is easy. A type of bubbler
should be used which will not permit water to run back on jet.
Board of health—Approves either vertical or slanting jet fountain, claiming that
sanitary features depend largely upon height of stream.

* The recommendations of the boards of health do not apply to places of employment exclusively but may influence the type of fountain installed.




SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES

Ohio.....................

Recommendation1
Department of labor—Drinking water should be furnished by means of sanitary
bubbling drinking fountains, provided with coils so arranged that they can
be ice cooled during the summer months. The fountains should be of a type
that prevents contamination from use. “* * * the side-stream type
fountain that permits the user to drink from the running stream and prevents
him from putting his lips to the orifice from which the stream runs, is, in our
judgment, sanitary if it is kept clean. This is the only type fountain we
recommend.”

North Carolina_____

fcO

SELECTED REFERENCES ON DRINKING WATER AND
DRINKING FACILITIES
GENERAL
American Water Works Association.

Water Works Practice.

Manual.

1925.

Williams & Wilkins Co., Balti­

more.
Bullen, M. T.
Drinking Water Systems. Domestic Engineering, Dec. 14, 1929, vol. 129,
No. 6, pp. 47-50, 132, 135-137.
Flinn, Alfred Douglas; Weston, Robert Spijrr; Bogert, Clinton Lathrop.

Waterworks Handbook of Design, Construction, and Operation.
1927. McGraw-Hill Book Co. (Inc.), New York.

3d ed.,

National Safety Council.

Safe Practices Pamphlet No. 27.
Water and Welfare. National Safety News, May, 1929, vol. 19, No. 5, pp.
73-74.
ANALYSIS OF LAWS PERTAINING TO DRINKING FACILITIES
General Health Bureau.

Digest of Laws Prohibiting the Use of the Common Drinking Cup. October,
1924. General Health Bureau, 542 Fifth Avenue, New York, 25 pp.

United States Public Health Service.

Common Drinking Cups and Roller Towels. By .T. W. Kerr and A. A
Moll. Public Health Bulletin No. 57, August, 1912. 30 pp.

BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATIONS OF BUBBLING DRINKING
FOUNTAINS
Berry, Jane L.

Bubble Fountain Tests. Collected Studies from the Bureau of Labora­
tories, City of New York. 1914—15. Vol. VIII, pp. 135-136.
Dieter, Louis V.

The Relative Sanitary Values of Different Types of Drinking Fountains.
The American City, November, December, 1919. Vol. XXI, November,
pp. 452-457. December, pp. 549-554.
Pettibone, Dorothy F., Bogart, Franklin B., and Clark, Paul F.
The Bacteriology of the Bubble Fountain. Journal of Bacteriology. Sep­
tember, 1916, vol. 1, No. 5, pp. 471—430.
Whittaker, H. A.

Drinking Fountains: Investigation of Fountains at the University of
Minnesota. United States Public Health Service, Public Health Reports,
Reprint No. 397, May, 1917. 10 pp.
STANDARDS FOR SANITARY BUBBLING DRINKING FOUNTAINS
American Water Works Association.

Final Report of the Committee on Sanitary Drinking Fountains. Jour­
nal of the American Water Works Association, March, 1924, vol. 11,
No. 2, pp. 483—486.
United States Public Health Service.

Standard Railway Sanitary Code.
46, May, 1924. 13 pp.




Public Health Reports Supplement No.

25

26

SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES

American Public Health Association.

Essential Features in the Design of Sanitary Drinking Fountains. Final
Report of the Joint Committee on Plumbing of the Public Health En­
gineering Section of the American Public Health Association and the
Conference of State Sanitary Engineers, October, 1930. United States
Public Health Service. Public Health Reports, vol. 46, No. 4 January
23, 1931, pp. 170-171.
Kino, Frank R., and Stovall, W. D.

Water Supplies and Drinking Devices.
10, 1921, vol. 97, No. 11, pp. 483-485.




Domestic Engineering. December

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|Any of these bulletins still available will be sent free of charge upon request!

*No

1. Proposed Employment of Women During the War in the Industries of
Niagara Falls, N. Y. 16 pp. 1918.
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No. 4. Wages of Candy Makers in Philadelphia in 1919. 46 pp. 1919.
♦No. 6. The Eight-Hour Day in Federal and State Legislation. 19 pp. 1919.
No. 6. The Employment of Women in Hazardous Industries in the United
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No. 13. Industrial Opportunities and Training for Women and Girls. 48
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♦No. 14. A Physiological Basis for the Shorter Working Day for Women. 20
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No. 18. Health Problems of Women in Industry. 6 pp. Revised, 1931.
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.
No. 41. Family Status of Breadwinning Women in Four Selected Cities. 145
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No. 42. List of References on Minimum Wage for Women in the United States
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No. 43. Standard and Scheduled Hours of Work for Women in Industry.
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No. 45. Home Environment and Employment Opportunities of Women in
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Supply exhausted.




27

28

SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES

No. 46. Facts about Working Women—A Graphic Presentation Based on
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No. 47. Women in the Fruit-Growing and Canning Industries in the State of
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No. 50. Effects of Applied Research upon the Employment Opportunities of
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No. 52. Lost Time and Labor Turnover in Cotton Mills. 203 pp. 1926.
No. 53. The Status of Women in the Government Service in 1925. 103 pp.
1926.
No. 54. Changing Jobs. 12 pp. 1926.
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No. 56. Women in Tennessee Industries. 120 pp. 1927.
No. 57. Women Workers and Industrial Poisons. 5 pp. 1926.
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No. 59. Short Talks About Working Women. 24 pp. 1927.
No. 60. Industrial Accidents to Women in New Jersey, Ohio, and Wisconsin
316 pp. 1927.
No. 61. The Development of Minimum-Wage Laws in the United States, 1912
to 1927. 635 pp. 1928.
No. 62. Women’s Employment in Vegetable Canneries in Delaware. 47 pp.
1927.
No. 63. State Laws Affecting Working Women. 51 pp. 1927. (Revision of
Bulletins 16 and 40.)
No. 64. The Employment of Women at Night. 86 pp. 1928.
*No. 65. The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment Opportunities of
Women. 498 pp. 1928.
No. 66. History of Labor Legislation for Women in Three States; Chronological
Development of Labor Legislation for Women in the United States.
288 pp. 1929.
No. 67. Women Workers in Flint, Mich. 80 pp. 1929.
No. 68. Summary: The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment Oppor­
tunities of Women. (Reprint of Chapter II of Bulletin 65.) 22 pp.
1928.
No. 69. Causes of Absence for Men and for Women in Four Cotton Mills. 24
pp. 1929.
No. 70. Negro Women in Industry in 15 States. 74 pp. 1929.
No. 71. Selected References on the Health of Women in Industry. 8 pp. 1929.
No. 72. Conditions of Work in Spin Rooms. 41 pp. 1929.
No. 73. Variations in Employment Trends of Women and Men. 143 pp. 1930.
No. 74. The Immigrant Woman and Her Job. 179 pp. 1930.
No. 75. What the Wage-Earning Woman Contributes to Family Support.
20 pp. 1929.
No. 76. Women in 5-and-10-Cent Stores and Limited-Price Chain Department
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No. 77. A Study of Two Groups of Denver Married Women Applying for
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No. 78. A Survey of Laundries and Their Women Workers in 23 Cities. 166
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No. 79. Industrial Home Work. 20 pp. 1930.
No. 80. Women in Florida Industries. 115 pp. 1930.
No. 81. Industrial Accidents to Men and Women. 48 pp. 1930.
No. 82. The Employment of Women in the Pineapple Canneries of Hawaii
30 pp. 1930.
No. 83. Fluctuation of Employment in the Radio Industry. 66 pp. 1931.
No. 84. Fact Finding with the Women’s Bureau. 37 pp. 1931.
No. 85. Wages of Women in 13 States. 211 pp. 1931.
No. 86. Activities of the Women’s Bureau of the United States. 15 pp. 1931.
No. 87. Sanitary Drinking Facilities, with Special Reference to Drinking Foun­
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Pamphlet. Women’s Place in Industry in 10 Southern States. 14 pp. 1931.
Annual Reports of the Director, *1919, *1920, *1921, 1922, 1923, *1924, 1925,
1926, *1927, *1928, 1929, 1930.
* Supply exhausted.




O