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Economic Report
of the President

Transmitted to the Congress
February 1996
TOGETHER WITH

THE ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE

COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISERS

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1996

For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office
Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328
ISBN 0-16-048501-0







C O N T E N T S
Page

ECONOMIC REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT .........................

1

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC
ADVISERS*.

7

CHAPTER 1. ECONOMIC POLICY

FOR THE

CHAPTER 2. MACROECONOMIC POLICY

21ST CENTURY ..........

19

PERFORMANCE ......

41

AND

AND

75

CHAPTER 4. DEVOLUTION ............................................................

107

CHAPTER 5. ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY
FORM.

REGULATORY RE-

131

CHAPTER 3. MAKING FISCAL POLICY CHOICES WITHIN
ACROSS GENERATIONS.

AND

CHAPTER 6. PROMOTING COMPETITION
REGULATED INDUSTRIES.

IN

TRADITIONALLY

155

CHAPTER 7. INVESTING

TRAINING ..............

191

WORLD ECONOMY .....

225

APPENDIX A. REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT ON THE ACTIVITIES
OF THE COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISERS DURING 1995.

261

APPENDIX B. STATISTICAL TABLES RELATING
PLOYMENT, AND PRODUCTION.

273

IN

EDUCATION

CHAPTER 8. THE UNITED STATES

AND

IN THE

TO

INCOME, EM-

* For a detailed table of contents of the Council’s Report, see page 13.

(iii)







ECONOMIC REPORT
OF THE PRESIDENT







ECONOMIC REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT
To the Congress of the United States:
FIFTY YEARS AGO, the CONGRESS passed and President Truman signed the Employment Act of 1946, which committed the
U.S. Government to promote policies designed to create employment opportunities for all Americans. I am proud that my Administration has made President Truman’s commitment a reality. Over
the past 3 years, we have created a sound economic foundation to
face the challenges of the 21st century.
Strong Economic Performance
Overall, the American economy is healthy and strong. In the first
3 years of this Administration nearly 8 million jobs were created,
93 percent of them in the private sector. The so-called ‘‘misery
index’’—the sum of the inflation and unemployment rates—fell last
year to its lowest level since 1968. Investment has soared, laying
the basis for future higher economic growth. New business
incorporations have set a record, and exports of American-made
goods have grown rapidly. Ours is the strongest and most competitive economy in the world—and its fundamentals are as sound as
they have been in three decades.
This turnaround occurred because of the hard work and ingenuity of the American people. Many of the new jobs are high-wage
service sector jobs—reflecting the changing structure of the economy. The telecommunications, biotechnology, and software industries have led the high-tech revolution world-wide. Traditional industries, such as manufacturing and construction, have restructured and now use technology and workplace innovation to thrive
and once again create jobs. For example, in 1994 and 1995, America was once again the world’s largest automobile maker.
Our 1993 economic plan set the stage for this economic expansion and resurgence, by enacting historic deficit reduction while
continuing to invest in technology and education. For over a decade, growing Federal budget deficits kept interest rates high and
dampened investment and productivity growth. Now, our deficit is
proportionately the lowest of any major economy.
Today, our challenge is to ensure that all Americans can become
winners in economic change—that our people have the skills and
the security to make the most of their own lives. The very explosion of technology and trade that creates such extraordinary opportunity also places new pressures on working people. Over the past

3



two decades, middle-class earnings have stagnated, and our poorest
families saw their incomes fall. These are long-run trends, and 3
years of sound economic policies cannot correct for a decade of neglect. Even so, we are beginning to make some progress: real median family income increased by 2.3 percent in 1994, and the poverty rate fell in 1994 for the first time in 5 years.
Addressing Our Economic Challenges
I am firmly committed to addressing our economic challenges
and enhancing economic security for all Americans. People who
work hard need to know that they can and will have a chance to
win in our new and changing economy. Our economic agenda seeks
both to promote growth and to bring the fruits of that growth within reach of all Americans. Our overall strategy is straightforward:
• Balancing the budget. In the 12 years before I took office, the
budget deficit skyrocketed and the national debt quadrupled.
My Administration has already cut the budget deficit nearly in
half. I am determined to finish the job of putting our fiscal
house in order. I have proposed a plan that balances the budget in 7 years, without violating our fundamental values—without undercutting Medicare, Medicaid, education, or the environment and without raising taxes on working families. The
plans put forth by my Administration and by the Republicans
in the Congress contain enough spending cuts in common to
balance the budget and still provide a modest tax cut. I am
committed to giving the American people a balanced budget.
• Preparing workers through education and training. In the new
economy, education is the key to opportunity—and the education obtained as a child in school will no longer last a lifetime. My Administration has put in place the elements of a
lifetime-learning system to enable Americans to attend schools
with high standards; get help going to college, or from school
into the workplace; and receive training and education
throughout their careers. We expanded Head Start for preschoolers; enacted Goals 2000, establishing high standards for
schools; created a new direct student loan program that makes
it easier for young people to borrow and repay college loans;
gave 50,000 young people the opportunity to earn college tuition through community service; and enacted the School-toWork Opportunities Act. Now we must continue to give our
people the skills they need, by enacting my proposals to make
the first $10,000 of college tuition tax deductible; to give the
top 5 percent of students in each high school a $1,000 merit
scholarship; and to enact the GI Bill for Workers, which would
replace the existing worker training system with a flexible
voucher that workers could use at community colleges or other
training facilities.

4



• Increasing economic security. We must give Americans the security they need to thrive in the new economy. We can do this
through health insurance reforms that will give Americans a
chance to buy insurance when they change jobs or when someone in their family is sick. We can do this by encouraging firms
to provide more extensive pension coverage, as I have done
through my proposals for pension simplification. In addition,
we should make work pay by increasing the minimum wage
and preserving the full Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC),
which cuts taxes for hard-pressed working families to make
sure that no parents who work full-time have to raise their
children in poverty.
• Creating high-wage jobs through technology and exports. We
must continue to encourage the growth of high-wage industries, which will create the high-wage jobs of the future. We
have reformed the decades-old telecommunications laws, to
help spur the digital revolution that will continue to transform
the way we live. We must continue to encourage exports, since
jobs supported by goods exports pay on average 13 percent
more than other jobs. My Administration has concluded over
200 trade agreements, including the North American Free
Trade Agreement and the Uruguay Round of the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, seeking an open world marketplace and fair rules for exporters of American goods and
services. As a result, merchandise exports have increased by 31
percent.
• A government that is smaller, works better, and costs less. A
new economy demands a new kind of government. The era of
big, centralized, one-size-fits-all government is over. But the
answer is not the wholesale dismantling of government. Rather, we must strive to meet our problems using flexible, nonbureaucratic means—and working with businesses, religious
groups, civic organizations, schools, and State and local governments. My Administration has reduced the size of government:
as a percentage of civilian nonfarm employment, the Federal
workforce is the smallest it has been since 1933, before the
New Deal. We have conducted a top-to-bottom overhaul of Federal regulations, and are eliminating 16,000 pages of outdated
or burdensome rules altogether. We have reformed environmental, workplace safety, and pharmaceutical regulation to cut
red tape without hurting public protection. And we will continue to find new, market-based ways to protect the public.
The Need to Continue with What Works
As The Annual Report of the Council of Economic Advisers makes
clear, this is a moment of great possibility for our country. Ours
is the healthiest of any major economy. No nation on earth is bet-

5



ter positioned to reap the rewards of the new era. Our strategy of
deficit reduction and investment in our people has begun to work.
It would be a grave error to turn back.
Our Nation must reject the temptation to shrink from its responsibilities or to turn to narrow, shortsighted solutions for long-term
problems. If we continue to invest for the long term, we will pass
on to the next generation a Nation in which opportunity is even
more plentiful than it is today.

œ–
THE WHITE HOUSE
FEBRUARY 14, 1996

6



THE ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISERS

7






LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISERS,
Washington, D.C., February 14, 1996.
MR. PRESIDENT:
The Council of Economic Advisers herewith submits its 1996 Annual Report in accordance with the provisions of the Employment
Act of 1946 as amended by the Full Employment and Balanced
Growth Act of 1978.
Sincerely,

Joseph E. Stiglitz
Chairman

Martin N. Baily
Member

Alicia H. Munnell
Member

9






Fifty Years of the Council of Economic Advisers
The Council of Economic Advisers celebrates its 50th anniversary this year. The Council was established by the Congress
in the Employment Act of 1946. Over the years, it has provided
every President since Harry Truman with rigorous and independent economic analysis and advice.
The Council’s 50-year tradition and reputation as a high
quality, professional organization allows it to attract to government service some of the most distinguished economists in the
country. For instance, a number of Council Members or staff
have earned or went on to earn the Nobel Prize or John Bates
Clark award.
Consistent with the mandate of the Employment Act, the
Council prepares each year an Economic Report of the President; provides the President with advice and analysis on a full
range of domestic and international economic issues; monitors
key macroeconomic indicators and advises the President on
how to interpret them; and publishes a monthly digest of economic statistics in conjunction with the Joint Economic Committee of the Congress.
The Council’s mission within the Executive Office of the
President is unique: it serves as a tenacious advocate for policies that facilitate the workings of the market and that emphasize the importance of incentives, efficiency, productivity, and
long-term growth. This perspective has been essential to formulating and advocating creative approaches for effectively addressing America’s economic challenges. The Council has also
been important in helping to weed out proposals that are illadvised or unworkable, proposals that cannot be supported by
the existing economic data, and proposals that could have damaging consequences for the economy.

11






C O N T E N T S
Page

CHAPTER 1. ECONOMIC POLICY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY ...........
Economic Challenges ...........................................................
Principles for Raising Living Standards ............................
Embracing Change .......................................................
Creating Opportunity ...................................................
Promoting Personal Responsibility .............................
The Administration’s Economic Policies ............................
Expanding Markets ......................................................
Investing in Physical, Human, and Technological
Capital.
Making the Government More Efficient .....................
Reducing the Deficit .....................................................
Approaching the 21st Century ............................................
CHAPTER 2. MACROECONOMIC POLICY AND PERFORMANCE ......
The Twin Roles of Macroeconomic Policy ..........................
Implications of the Policy Mix .....................................
Overview of 1995: Returning to Potential Growth ............
Explaining the Moderation in Growth During the
First Half of 1995.
Consumption Expenditures ..........................................
Business Fixed Investment ..........................................
Inventories .....................................................................
Residential Investment ................................................
Net Exports ...................................................................
Inflation .........................................................................
Employment and Productivity .....................................
Incomes ..........................................................................
Monetary Policy and Interest Rates in 1995 ..............
Fiscal Policy in 1995 .....................................................
What Causes Economic Expansions to End? .....................
Economic Symptoms Preceding a Downturn ..............
Short-Run Macroeconomic Effects of Reducing the Budget Deficit.
Forecast and Outlook ...........................................................
Conclusion ............................................................................
CHAPTER 3. MAKING FISCAL POLICY CHOICES WITHIN AND
ACROSS GENERATIONS.
The Structure of the Tax System .......................................
Characteristics of a Well-Designed Tax System ................

13



19
22
23
26
27
28
29
29
31
33
37
39
41
42
43
45
46
47
48
49
51
51
51
53
59
59
63
65
67
69
72
74
77
78
83

Page

Fairness .........................................................................
Efficiency .......................................................................
Simplicity .......................................................................
Assessing the Current Tax System ....................................
Evaluating Reform Proposals: The Flat Tax .....................
Long-Term Demographic Challenges .................................
Demographic Trends ....................................................
Economic Effects of an Aging Population ...................
Effects of Demographic Change on the Federal
Budget.
Maintaining Valuable Programs .................................
CHAPTER 4. DEVOLUTION ............................................................
Facts on Federalism ............................................................
Trends over Time ..........................................................
Composition of Spending ..............................................
The Rationale for a Federal Role ........................................
The Need for Uniformity ..............................................
Direct Spillovers ...........................................................
The Effects of Policy-Induced Mobility .......................
Inequality of Resources ................................................
Devolution of Policymaking Responsibility ........................
Ensuring Government Accountability ................................
Devolution and the Provision of Public Services ...............
Matching Grants ...........................................................
Public Services and Differences in Local Resources ..
Better Government Through Community and Individual Empowerment.
Devolution and the Safety Net ...........................................
The Federal Role in the Safety Net ............................
Moving Forward: Welfare Reform ...............................
Moving Forward: Medicaid ..........................................
The Challenges of Devolution .............................................
CHAPTER 5. ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY AND REGULATORY REFORM.
Rationales for Government Regulation ..............................
Evaluating Regulatory Performance: Principles and
Practice.
Setting Regulatory Priorities .......................................
Designing Effective Regulatory Policies .....................
Regulation and Devolution ...........................................
Regulatory Assessment in Practice .............................
Setting Regulatory Priorities for the Environment and
Natural Resources.
The Safe Drinking Water Act ......................................
Hazardous Waste ..........................................................
Agricultural Land Retirement Programs ....................

14



84
85
88
89
91
95
95
98
101
106
107
108
108
108
110
111
111
111
112
112
113
116
117
118
119
120
123
125
127
128
131
132
133
133
134
135
136
138
140
141
143

Page

Creating Cost-Effective Policies: Economic Incentives for
Environmental Protection.
Air Pollution Trading ...................................................
Tradeable Fishing Quotas ............................................
Technology Diffusion for Pollution Control in Agriculture
Conclusion ............................................................................
CHAPTER 6. PROMOTING COMPETITION IN TRADITIONALLY
REGULATED INDUSTRIES.
From Regulated Monopoly to Competition ........................
Adapting Regulation to Increase Competition ...........
Deregulation is Not Enough: Challenges to Regulatory Reform.
Promoting Competition in Telephone Service ...................
Unbundling Potentially Competitive Services from
Regulated Monopoly Services.
Entry by the Regional Operating Companies into
Long-Distance.
Implementing Local Competition ................................
Replacing Cross-Subsidies and Promoting Universal
Service.
Promoting Competition in Electricity .................................
Unbundling Generation from Transmission and Distribution.
Stranded Costs ..............................................................
Competitive Parity, Universal Service, and Environmental Protection.
Conclusion ............................................................................
CHAPTER 7. INVESTING IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING ..............
Americans are Responding to the Demand for Skills .......
Do Education and Training Lead to Higher Earnings? ....
Comparing the Earnings of Similar Workers with
Varying Educational Attainment.
Studies Using Twins .....................................................
Natural Experiments ....................................................
Random Assignment Experiments ..............................
Learning or Sorting? .....................................................
The Payoff to Public Investment in Education ..................
The Federal Role in Education and Training ....................
Ongoing Efforts in Education and Training ......................
Early Childhood Education ..........................................
Elementary and Secondary Education ........................
Postsecondary Education and Training ......................
Better Options for Those Already in the Labor Force
Conclusion ............................................................................
CHAPTER 8. THE UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD ECONOMY .....
The Benefits of Outward-Looking, Market-Opening Policies.

15



146
148
149
151
152
155
156
158
162
167
168
171
174
176
181
183
186
188
189
191
194
196
197
198
199
200
200
202
205
209
210
211
216
222
223
225
226

Page

The Evidence on Open Economies ......................................
Trade and Wage Inequality .................................................
U.S. Trade Policy in the 1990s ...........................................
The Administration’s Trade Strategy .........................
Measuring the Success of Trade Policy .......................
Causes and Consequences of the Trade Deficit .................
Sources of the U.S. Trade Deficit ................................
Consequences of the Current Account Deficit ............
Policy Options to Reduce the Current Account Deficit.
Conclusion ............................................................................

230
231
232
233
249
250
250
257
259
260

APPENDIXES
A. Report to the President on the Activities of the Council of Economic Advisers During 1995.
B. Statistical Tables Relating to Income, Employment,
and Production.
LIST
2–1.
2–2.
2–3.
3–1.
3–2.
3–3.
3–4.
4–1.
4–2.
5–1.

OF

OF

52
58
73
81
81
82
83
110
125
139

CHARTS

1–1. Federal Debt-to-GDP Ratio ...........................................
1–2. Federal Budget Deficits .................................................
1–3. General Government Deficits of the Group of Seven
Countries in 1994 .......................................................
1–4. Changes in Average Real Family Income by Quintile
1–5. Merchandise Exports .....................................................
2–1. Real Business Fixed Investment ..................................
2–2. The Sustainable Rate of Unemployment in the 1980s
2–3. Labor Force Participation Rates ...................................
2–4. Women’s Labor Force Participation Rate, Child Dependency Ratio, and Birth Rate ................................
2–5. Actual and Trend Labor Productivity ..........................
2–6. Measures of Real Compensation and Labor Productivity ............................................................................
2–7. The Yield Curve .............................................................

16



273

TABLES

Measures of Inflation .....................................................
Accounting for Growth in Real GDP, 1960–2002 ........
Administration Forecast ................................................
Selected Consumption Tax Elements of the Income
Tax ...............................................................................
Tax Share of GDP in Selected OECD Countries, 1994
Composition of Federal Receipts ..................................
Projected Distribution of Income and Federal Taxes,
1996 .............................................................................
Composition of Government Spending, 1993 ...............
Typical AFDC Payments for a Family of Three ..........
Atmospheric Emissions of Lead, by Source, 1970–94
LIST

261

20
21
21
23
31
49
54
56
57
58
61
62

Page

LIST
2–8.
2–9.
2–10.
2–11.
2–12.
2–13.
2–14.
3–1.
3–2.
3–3.
3–4.
3–5.
3–6.
4–1.
4–2.
5–1.
6–1.
6–2.
6–3.
7–1.
7–2.
7–3.
7–4.
8–1.
8–2.
8–3.
8–4.
8–5.
8–6.
8–7.

OF

CHARTS—CONTINUED

Federal Funds Rate .......................................................
Federal Budget Outlays and Receipts ..........................
Federal Budget Deficit ..................................................
Length of Economic Expansions ...................................
Probability that an Expansion or a Contraction Will
End ..............................................................................
Changes in Core Inflation .............................................
Core Inflation Rate ........................................................
Gini Indexes for Before- and After-Tax Income of
Households ..................................................................
Past and Projected Population Shares by Age ............
Past and Projected Fertility Rates ...............................
Past and Projected Elderly and Youth Dependency
Ratios ..........................................................................
Elderly Dependency Ratios in Europe, Japan, and
the United States .......................................................
Poverty Rate of the Elderly ...........................................
Expenditures by All Levels of Government .................
Federal Expenditures as a Share of Total Government Expenditures .....................................................
Air Quality in Urban Areas ..........................................
Growth in the Cellular Communications Industry .....
Telephone Industry Revenues in 1994 .........................
Potentially Stranded Costs of Investor-Owned Electric Utilities by Region ...............................................
College Enrollment Rates of Young High School
Graduates ...................................................................
Mathematics Proficiency of U.S. and Foreign Students ............................................................................
Percent Differences in Annual Earnings for College
and High School Graduates .......................................
Real Change in Maximum Pell Grant, Loan Limit,
and Tuition, 1980–1994 .............................................
Merchandise Exports to Japan .....................................
Export and Import Volumes .........................................
Employment Growth and the Trade Deficit ................
Economic Growth and Changes in Trade Balances in
the G-7 Countries, 1990–94 .......................................
Private Saving and Investment, the Fiscal Balance,
and the Current Account ...........................................
Growth of Real GDP in the United States and
Abroad .........................................................................
U.S. Dollar Exchange Rates ..........................................

17



62
64
64
66
67
68
69
83
96
97
98
101
102
108
109
139
161
169
186
193
195
197
217
246
249
252
253
254
255
256

Page

LIST

OF

BOXES

1–1. Programs That Raise Living Standards ......................
2–1. Microeconomic Policies Can Improve Long-Run Macroeconomic Performance ............................................
2–2. The Comprehensive Revision of the National Income
and Product Accounts ................................................
2–3. New Measures of Government Investment .................
2–4. Has the Sustainable Rate of Unemployment Fallen?
2–5. Macroeconomic Policy and the Sustainable Unemployment Rate ............................................................
2–6. New Productivity Estimates .........................................
2–7. Productivity and the Real Wage ...................................
2–8. Duration Analysis of Business Cycles ..........................
3–1. Taxation of Capital Gains Income ................................
3–2. Family Economic Income ..............................................
3–3. Did the 1993 Tax Rate Increases Raise the Revenues
Predicted? ....................................................................
3–4. Tax Proposals in the Middle Class Bill of Rights .......
3–5. Changes in Fertility Over Time ....................................
3–6. Will Increases in Longevity Permit Increased Work
Effort ...........................................................................
3–7. Linking Productivity Growth to Demographics ...........
3–8. Demographic Changes Around the World ...................
3–9. Gauging the Accuracy of the Consumer Price Index
4–1. Federal Grants and the ‘‘Flypaper Effect’’ ...................
4–2. The Unfunded Mandates Reform Act ..........................
4–3. Rethinking Devolution: The Job Training Partnership Act .......................................................................
4–4. Rethinking Devolution: The Case of Public Housing
5–1. Natural Resource Damages ...........................................
5–2. Land Trusts and the Tax System .................................
5–3. Protecting the Stratospheric Ozone Layer: An Incentives-Based Approach .................................................
6–1. The Telecommunications Industry ...............................
6–2. The Electric Power Industry .........................................
6–3. The Structure of the U.S. Telephone Industry ............
7–1. Is a College Education a Worthwhile Investment? .....
7–2. New Opportunities for Potential Dropouts ..................
7–3. Raising the Stakes for Students ...................................
7–4. Income-Contingent Student Loans as Forward-Looking Means Testing ......................................................
8–1. Comparative Advantage and Living Standards ..........
8–2. The New Trade Theory ..................................................
8–3. The Administration’s Trade Achievements ..................
8–4. Trade and Intellectual Property Rights .......................
8–5. Mexico’s Financial Stabilization ...................................
8–6. The APEC Action Agenda .............................................
18



25
43
48
50
53
55
59
60
66
80
82
92
93
96
99
100
101
105
114
115
121
122
144
147
150
157
158
168
198
201
206
220
227
228
235
236
240
244

CHAPTER 1

Economic Policy for the 21st
Century
The American economy has performed exceptionally well over the
past 3 years. The combined rate of unemployment and inflation fell
to its lowest level since 1968. Productivity in the manufacturing
sector has increased by an average of 4 percent per year. Investment has soared, laying the basis for increased productivity in the
future, while exports have boomed: equipment investment and merchandise exports both have climbed more than 25 percent since the
beginning of 1993. Yet despite these encouraging developments,
many Americans remain concerned about the state of their own
economic affairs. Their dissatisfaction reminds us of the many challenges that remain.
In 1992, more than 9 million Americans were unemployed, and
the unemployment rate was above 7 percent. In parts of the country, such as California, nearly one-tenth of the labor force was
without a job. By late 1995, however, the unemployment rate had
dropped to 5.6 percent, and the economy was poised to reach the
target the Administration had set for it: 8 million new jobs in 4
years.
Before the Administration could move ahead with its own positive economic agenda (which this Report describes), it had to address some of the economic problems it had inherited. The economy
suffered from multiple infirmities—a weakened banking system, increasing poverty, and lackluster overall performance—but the most
visible problem was the soaring budget deficit. The first step required to set the economy on the right course was to reduce the
Federal budget deficit. By cutting the Federal Government’s borrowing needs, deficit reduction has contributed to lower interest
rates for businesses and consumers, thereby spurring investment
and growth.
The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 (OBRA93),
which embodied the President’s deficit reduction plan, put the
country solidly on the road to fiscal responsibility. For over three
decades the country had been gradually reducing the burden of the
debt that had financed victory in World War II: the ratio of debt
to gross domestic product (GDP) fell from 82 percent in 1950 to 27
percent in 1980. Within 12 years much of this progress was lost,

19



and the debt to GDP ratio soared to 50 percent by 1992 (Chart 1–
1). Following passage of OBRA93, the debt to GDP ratio has stabilized.
Chart 1-1 Federal Debt-to-GDP Ratio
After falling throughout the early postwar era, the Federal debt as a
percent of GDP rose in the 1980s and has now leveled off.
Ratio
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
1950

1955

1960

1965

1970
1975
Fiscal Years

1980

1985

1990

1995

Note: The GDP measure used is pre-January 1996 benchmark revision.
Source: Office of Management and Budget.

Since OBRA93, the deficit has been cut nearly in half, from $290
billion in fiscal 1992 to $164 billion in fiscal 1995. The drop is even
more dramatic when compared with the deficits that would have
occurred without OBRA93 (Chart 1–2). The deficit has been reduced in dollar terms for 3 consecutive years for the first time since
the Truman Administration. The decline in the deficit as a percentage of national output has been particularly striking: at 2.3 percent
of GDP, the fiscal 1995 deficit is the lowest since fiscal 1979 and
less than half the fiscal 1992 level of 4.9 percent. The Federal Government is now running a primary budget surplus: in other words,
were it not for the interest payments on the inherited debt, there
would be no deficit. And the general government deficit is now a
smaller percentage of GDP than in any of the other major industrial economies (Chart 1–3).
This restoration of fiscal responsibility, achieved without sacrificing crucial investments in our Nation’s human, physical, and natural resources, provided the background for the current bipartisan
resolve to eliminate the deficit within 7 years. A later section of
this chapter discusses the right way and the wrong way to elimi-

20



Chart 1-2 Federal Budget Deficit
Budget deficits would have remained large relative to the size of the economy without
deficit reduction initiatives. Instead, deficits have fallen sharply.
Percent of GDP
6

5

4

Without OBRA93
3

2

With OBRA93 and
FY 1997 Administration budget

1

0

-1
1990

1992

1994

1996
Fiscal Years

1998

2000

2002

Note: The GDP measure used is pre-January 1996 benchmark revision.
Sources: Office of Management and Budget and Congressional Budget Office.

Chart 1-3 General Government Deficits of the Group of Seven Countries in 1994
The United States has the lowest general government deficit-to-GDP ratio of
any major industrialized country.
Percent of GDP
10

8

6

4

2

0
United States

Germany

Japan

Canada

Note: General government includes Federal, State and local.
Source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

21



France

United Kingdom

Italy

nate the deficit, and Chapter 2 of this Report examines budgetary
issues in more detail.

ECONOMIC CHALLENGES
The economy’s recent performance notwithstanding, pressing
challenges remain. In the short run, as discussed in Chapter 2, the
principal economic challenge is to maintain full employment with
low inflation. In the long run, the two paramount challenges are
to increase productivity growth and to ensure that all Americans
share in the benefits of a stronger economy. Since 1973, productivity growth has been relatively sluggish: its pace in the economy as
a whole is significantly slower than it was during the two and a
half decades immediately following World War II. Output per hour
grew by an average of 2.9 percent per year between 1960 and 1973,
but has grown by only 1.1 percent per year since then. The cumulative impact of this productivity shortfall, compounded over decades, is dramatic: output per hour would be over 40 percent higher
today if the pre–1973 rate of productivity growth had been maintained. Slower productivity growth since 1973 has resulted in stagnating real wages. Because of the difficulties in measurement, the
extent of the weakness in wages may be overstated, but concern
over slow wage growth is genuine and cannot be ignored.
Some evidence suggests that the tide may now be turning. In
1994 real median family income rose for the first time since 1989.
But a 20-year trend cannot be corrected in one year. Indeed, even
with the 1994 improvement, real median family income was just
2.5 percent above its 1973 level. More needs to be done. The Administration’s economic policies are intended to boost growth and
living standards well into the 21st century.
The negative effects of slower productivity growth have been
sharpened for low-income Americans by a marked increase in income inequality. Between 1966 and 1979 Americans all across the
income distribution enjoyed the benefits of economy-wide growth in
real incomes: families in the poorest fifth of the population saw
their real incomes grow by 20 percent, while families in the top
fifth experienced real income growth of 28 percent. But since 1979
family incomes have grown apart. Between 1979 and 1993 real
family incomes in the bottom fifth fell by 15 percent, while the incomes of the top fifth rose by 18 percent (Chart 1–4).
It is too soon to tell for sure, but we may be beginning to succeed
in sharing the benefits of growth and reducing poverty. The poverty rate, for example, fell in 1994 for the first time in 5 years. But
we must do more to reduce inequality and poverty: despite an improvement in 1994, over one-fifth of American children still live in
poverty.

22



Chart 1-4 Changes in Average Real Family Income by Quintile
Real incomes have fallen or stagnated for most American families since 1979. The top
5 percent of families enjoyed faster income growth than in the 1966-79 period.
Percent
40

30

20

10

0

-10

-20
Lowest Quintile Second Quintile Third Quintile
1966-79

Fourth Quintile Highest Quintile Top 5 Percent
1979-93

Note: Family income is deflated by the CPI-U-X1.
Source: Department of Commerce.

PRINCIPLES FOR RAISING LIVING STANDARDS
The Administration’s economic policies address the twin problems of slow productivity growth and rising income inequality.
Three principles guide the Administration’s efforts to solve these
long-run problems: embracing change, creating opportunity, and
promoting personal responsibility. These principles reflect core
American values, and as such they provide the basis for a national
consensus for addressing our economic challenges.
Putting this consensus into practice requires a variety of partnerships—between workers and firms, between the public and the private sector, between individuals and their communities, and between the Federal Government and State and local governments.
Competition is the driving force of a market economy, but companies compete more effectively when workers and managers cooperate. The public and private sectors can cooperate in solving environmental problems and in meeting skill shortages. And the Federal Government can work with the States to meet the need for infrastructure investment and a social safety net.
Much of the current debate over the economy and the budget
stems from different conceptions of the roles that markets, governments, and individuals should play in improving our society. Private enterprise lies at the very heart of our modern economy. Indi-

23



viduals and corporations provide the initiative and innovation that
have enabled the market economy to bring unrivaled prosperity to
our Nation, and the underlying dynamism of markets is fundamental to continued improvements in living standards.
Yet unfettered markets occasionally fail to yield desirable outcomes or to meet important national objectives. For example, in a
completely unregulated marketplace, firms may produce too much
of some ‘‘goods,’’ such as pollution, and too little of others, such as
basic research and development. This failure to produce the ‘‘right’’
amounts of certain goods and services is due to the presence of
externalities. Externalities arise when the actions of one firm or individual produce costs or benefits for others without that firm or
individual being charged for the costs or compensated for the benefits. In such cases the government has a special role. The government has an obligation to perform that role as efficiently as possible, minimizing the burden on the economy and the intrusions in
the lives of its citizens. Not every market ‘‘problem’’ calls for government action. In order to raise living standards, government actions therefore must meet two criteria: they must address some serious imperfection in the private marketplace, and they must be
designed so that their benefits outweigh their costs.
A variety of government programs have proved extremely successful in raising living standards. We take for granted many of the
government services—such as retirement and disability benefits
(Social Security), health insurance for the aged (Medicare), and unemployment insurance—that the market had failed to provide (Box
1–1). Before Medicare was enacted in the 1960s, for example, many
elderly Americans lacked health insurance, whereas today almost
all have it.
Medicare is a good example of a government program that filled
a gap in the range of services provided by the private sector. But
government programs can and do go awry. Indeed, government is
sometimes part of the problem, not part of the solution. For example, the construction of high-density public housing projects may
have contributed to some of the problems facing America’s inner
cities. Chapter 4 of this Report describes some of the efforts the Administration has made to make government work better, while
Chapter 5 examines the role of policy in making markets work better.
In sum, government has a place, but government must know its
place. We now turn to exploring what government’s place should be
with regard to the three principles enunciated above: embracing
change, creating opportunity, and promoting personal responsibility.

24



Box 1–1.—Programs That Raise Living Standards

Many public sector programs have been extremely successful
in improving living standards:
• Social Security. The Social Security system, created in
1935, provides monthly benefits to retired workers and
their dependents and to survivors of insured workers.
The program has dramatically reduced old-age poverty:
only 12 percent of elderly Americans now live in poverty,
down from almost 30 percent in 1966. The Social Security Administration is also remarkably businesslike. A
leading financial news publisher recently ranked the
quality of the agency’s telephone customer service above
those of several private companies renowned for their
excellent customer service. And administrative costs only
amount to about 1 percent of Social Security outlays.
• The G.I. bill. The first G.I. bill of rights, signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on June 22, 1944, transformed American society. It provided education benefits
for all honorably discharged World War II veterans who
had served at least 90 days during the war. Almost 8
million received education benefits under the first G.I.
bill; more than 10 million veterans have received benefits under its extensions. The G.I. bill also provided loan
guarantees for veterans to buy a home or a farm.
• Student grants and loans. The government provides various forms of financial assistance to students. Pell grants
provide aid to financially needy students for educational
costs at participating postsecondary institutions. Under
the Perkins loan program, the Federal Government contributes the capital for qualifying institutions to make
long-term, low-interest loans to needy students. Under
the Stafford loan program, commercial loans to students
are backed by the government. And the new direct lending program for college students is designed to provide
educational finance in a less costly, less cumbersome
fashion. Under the program, the government provides
loans to students directly, rather than guaranteeing
loans from financial intermediaries, and offers a variety
of repayment schemes (including a new option to link repayments to students’ incomes). Chapter 7 discusses the
role of government in education.

25



EMBRACING CHANGE
Our continued prosperity and well-being depend on our embracing, not retreating from, the constant succession of new opportunities and challenges of an ever-changing world. During the past few
years American firms have been through a technological revolution.
They have taken a hard look at what they do, how they do it, and
what they must do differently. The result: in many sectors American firms are the most competitive in the world. U.S. computer
firms continue to lead the industry at a breakneck pace of technical
innovation, of which the explosive growth of the Internet and the
increasing popularity of the World Wide Web are merely the newest manifestations. When firms and workers embrace change as
these industries have done, the economy as a whole benefits in the
form of higher real incomes, lower prices for goods, a wider variety
of products, and enhanced opportunities.
But while embracing change raises growth and average living
standards, not everyone is made better off. In a rapidly changing
economy some will find themselves without the skills required for
the new jobs being created. When workers with outdated skills lose
their jobs, they face the threat of prolonged unemployment or reemployment at much lower wages. Estimates suggest that about
one-third of full-time workers who lose their jobs and are subsequently rehired at another full-time job take a pay cut of 20 percent or more. By providing retraining, and by establishing one-stop
career development centers where workers can find out about both
training and job opportunities, the government can increase the efficiency of the economy even as it reduces the burden on those who
otherwise would be harmed by economic change.
This Administration has actively promoted change, by opening
up markets here and abroad, by sponsoring research and development, by devising tax policies to stimulate the growth of new enterprises, and by easing the burden of government regulation. Critics
sometimes claim that open trade and investment harm the economy. But as Chapter 8 of this Report argues, outward-looking trade
and investment policies remain the best choice for America. They
boost living standards by encouraging firms to innovate and become more competitive, by stimulating the flow of ideas across national borders, and by providing a wider variety of goods—at lower
prices—to consumers and firms.
This Administration has not only promoted change for others—
the workers and firms affected by its policies—but has embraced
it in its own practices. The Administration recognizes that what
the Federal Government does, and how it does it, is sometimes the
result of a seemingly haphazard accumulation of functions rather
than a coherent, concerted response to a present need. Programs
inaugurated yesterday with great optimism in response to yester-

26



day’s exigencies too often survive long after their usefulness has
passed. In an era of difficult budget choices, those programs that
have outlived their purpose, or whose benefits no longer justify
their costs, have to be cut back or eliminated to make room for programs that may be needed for success in the 21st century. Efforts
to reinvent government over the past 3 years are explored in more
detail below.

CREATING OPPORTUNITY
The Administration is committed to extending opportunity to all
Americans. Opportunity means allowing each individual to live up
to his or her full potential, and ensuring that those who suffer temporary setbacks have a chance to bounce back. The commitment to
opportunity is not only a fundamental American value; it is also
necessary for achieving faster growth rates and higher standards
of living.
Education and training are essential tools for expanding opportunity. Educational opportunities must be available at all stages of
a person’s life: from the preschool years through high school or college, and continuing through one’s career. But these opportunities
are not universally available. Children from low-income families,
for example, do not enter formal schooling with the same readiness
as their more economically advantaged peers—a disparity that
Head Start (a government program that provides a range of preschool services to young children and their families) helps redress.
And the difficulties involved in borrowing against future income
highlight the importance of government student loan programs. Although college is an investment that usually pays high returns to
the student and to society, private lenders view these loans without
collateral as simply too risky. Chapter 7 of this Report examines
the government’s role in the student loan market.
Opportunity entails more than just education and training: having learned the requisite skills, Americans should have the opportunity to obtain jobs. During the Great Depression, when the unemployment rate soared to over 25 percent, our economy failed to
offer the opportunity to work to millions of Americans, unemployed
through no fault of their own. The Employment Act of 1946 committed the government to combating unemployment. The act declared that ‘‘it is the continuing policy and responsibility of the
Federal Government to use all practicable means . . . to foster and
promote . . . conditions under which there will be afforded useful
employment opportunities, including self-employment, for those
able, willing, and seeking to work. . . .’’ The Administration’s macroeconomic policies, described in Chapter 2, have provided opportunity to millions of Americans by fostering job growth and reducing unemployment.

27



Opportunity in the labor market requires much more than active
education, training, and macroeconomic policies. It also requires
policies that make work pay for low-skilled workers and eliminate
labor market discrimination for all. Today a full-time, year-round
minimum wage worker with a family does not earn enough to stay
out of poverty. To help these low-income working Americans and
their families, in 1993 the President and the Congress expanded
the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), and the President has since
proposed an increase in the minimum wage from $4.25 to $5.15 an
hour.
All forms of discrimination contradict a fundamental tenet of
American society: that every American should have a fair chance
to succeed. Our Nation has made tremendous strides in reducing
discrimination, but the job is not finished. ‘‘Audit’’ studies, in which
white and minority job seekers are given similar resumes and sent
to the same sets of firms for interviews, indicate that discrimination remains a problem in the labor market. Our civil rights statutes and affirmative action programs combat such discrimination
and seek to ensure equal opportunity, and the Administration is
fully committed to promoting opportunities in employment, education, and government contracting for Americans subject to discrimination or its lingering effects.
Finally, opportunity also means that those who suffer temporary
setbacks have the ability to put themselves back on the right track.
The EITC can help, and it does more than help those who directly
benefit: it also provides an enhanced sense of security to the millions of other Americans who know they might need assistance at
some time in their careers.

PROMOTING PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY
It is each individual’s responsibility to make use of the opportunities that society offers, and not to abuse the protections that society affords. The Administration is firmly committed to designing
policies and programs to bolster personal responsibility. But ultimately it is up to each and every American to assume responsibility for his or her own life.
Policies must encourage people to assume responsibility for their
own lives, not discourage them from it. And policies intended to address other challenges—for example, ensuring equity—must be
carefully designed to minimize any adverse impact on individual
incentives. A number of government programs provide, or can be
thought of as providing, insurance. Yet a problem common to all
types of insurance is moral hazard: having the insurance makes
the insured-against event more likely to occur. For example, fire insurance reduces the incentives for homeowners to take precautions
against fire, and thus may make fires more likely. In the policies

28



they write, private insurance companies include mechanisms, such
as deductibles and copayment provisions, aimed at minimizing
moral hazard. Similarly, government programs that compensate for
misfortune—such as employment and disability insurance, and welfare programs—must be designed so as to promote responsibility,
minimize adverse incentive effects, and diminish moral hazard, including dependence on government programs.
In summary, an appropriate role for policy—an effective partnership between the public and the private sector—is crucial to raising
living standards. Markets are the engine of prosperity, but sometimes government must help markets to work more efficiently.

THE ADMINISTRATION’S ECONOMIC POLICIES
Embracing change, creating opportunity, and promoting personal
responsibility—these principles are a common thread running
through the Administration’s economic policies. Those policies are
intended to bolster, not replace, the underlying strength of markets
in building a better society and raising living standards. Raising
living standards entails more than just raising incomes; it also includes providing educational opportunities for our children, protecting the environment, and supplying security against devastating
adversity. The Administration’s economic policies include expanding markets; investing in human, physical, and technological capital; making government more efficient; and reducing the budget
deficit.

EXPANDING MARKETS
Promoting Competition
Competition is the driving force of efficiency and innovation. But
as we all know, life is often more comfortable with less rather than
more competition. Over 200 years ago, Adam Smith recognized
that, ‘‘People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy
against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices.’’ It is all
too easy to advocate competition for others while seeking protection
from competition for oneself. Such protection is often rationalized
by claims of ‘‘unfair’’ competition. Economists have long criticized
such self-serving arguments and have advocated strong antitrust
laws to secure the advantages of effective competition: lower prices,
greater efficiency, increased output, more rapid growth, and enhanced innovation. Under the leadership of the Justice Department’s Antitrust Division, the Administration has implemented an
aggressive policy to prevent unhealthy concentrations of market
power and promote competition.

29



Competition policy issues in telecommunications provide a
trenchant example of how ongoing change in the economy necessitates change in economic policies. The telecommunications sector
not only has grown by leaps and bounds during the past 3 years,
but has also provided a spur to changes in other sectors. Government has played a long and useful role in telecommunications,
from its financing of Samuel Morse’s first telegraph line between
Baltimore and Washington to the development of what has become
the Internet. But the 60-year-old legislation that regulated the industry until this year was out of tune with the times and stifled
innovation. Passage of the new telecommunications bill in February 1996 is expected to stimulate competition and ease access to
the information superhighway.
Most analysts agree that the telecommunications regulatory
structure needed reform. But effective reform proved more complicated than simply repeating a mantra of deregulation: an unregulated private monopoly can be just as stifling, if not more so,
than a regulated one. Deregulation done the wrong way could result in the growth of firms with market power that suppress competition and innovation; equally important, deregulation that permitted excessive media concentration could hamper the public’s access to the full panoply of viewpoints. To avoid these pitfalls, the
new legislation is designed in a way that fosters competition, recognizing that today’s bottlenecks to competition might be removed
in a few years. Chapter 6 details the constructive approach the Administration has taken to regulatory reform in this and other
areas.

Promoting Exports
Both theory and evidence demonstrate that outward-looking
trade and investment policies raise wages and living standards:
jobs supported by merchandise exports pay 13 percent more than
the national average. Chapter 8 of this Report presents the rationale for the Administration’s continued support of ‘‘compete, not retreat’’ trade policies. It also explores what trade policy can achieve
(higher living standards) and argues that the trade balance is not
the proper measure by which to judge the success of trade policies.
The Administration’s trade policy record includes several historic
trade agreements that have opened foreign markets. Over the past
3 years the Administration has brought the Uruguay Round to a
successful close; created the North American Free Trade Area with
our largest and third-largest trading partners; reached agreement
with 33 other countries to seek a Free Trade Area of the Americas
by 2005; set the vision for achieving free trade and investment in
the Asia-Pacific by 2020; concluded 20 bilateral trade agreements
with Japan; and promoted macroeconomic and trade policies that
have contributed to strong export growth (Chart 1–5). The Admin-

30



istration’s aggressive support of intellectual property rights has
benefited not only American firms, which lead the world in research and innovation, but also other innovative firms throughout
the world, providing a spur to innovation everywhere. U.S. living
standards have benefited and will continue to benefit from the Administration’s efforts to promote trade.
Chart 1-5 Merchandise Exports
Goods exports have grown by 26 percent in real terms since the Administration took office.
Subtitle line two.
Billions of chained (1992) dollars
600

550

500

450

0
400

92:Q1

1992
93:Q1
Note: Data are at annual rates.
Source: Department of Commerce.

1993

94:Q1

1994

95:Q1

1995

INVESTING IN PHYSICAL, HUMAN, AND
TECHNOLOGICAL CAPITAL
Increases in productivity are largely the consequence of investment: in physical capital (plant, equipment, and infrastructure),
human capital, and in the development of new technology. Government can promote all three. Through the sound macroeconomic
policies of the kind pursued during the past 3 years, the government can create an economic climate conducive to physical capital
investment. But the government must play an even more direct
role in making investments in people and in technology.

Investing in People
Preserving and extending lifelong investments in people has been
central to the Administration’s economic strategy. Investments in
people are estimated to account for approximately a fifth of the annual increase in productivity achieved over the past three decades,
and economic studies have demonstrated the high returns of public

31



investments in this area. As Benjamin Franklin once put it, ‘‘An investment in knowledge pays the best interest.’’ Early childhood programs such as Head Start, seem to produce fewer repeated grades,
a lower likelihood of being assigned to special education classes,
and a higher likelihood of graduating from high school.
The Administration has expanded investments in education and
training not only as a pro-growth policy, but also as an essential
ingredient in breaking the vicious cycle of poverty. As Chapter 7
of this Report argues, past cutbacks in public support for education
have aggravated trends in inequality. Between 1980 and 1994 the
average tuition at public 2-year colleges increased by 70 percent,
and that at public 4-year colleges by 86 percent, while the value
of the maximum Pell Grant—the primary Federal program for lowincome students—fell by more than 25 percent in real terms. The
results of these changes are not unexpected. Returns to education
have risen sharply in the past 15 years, but the expected response—increased enrollments—has occurred disproportionately
among the children of the better off: over the same time period, the
gap in enrollment rates between high-income and low-income children has actually increased.
This Administration is working to revitalize the Federal role in
education and training. It has supported rigorous academic standards and comprehensive school reform through the Goals 2000:
Educate America Act, which provides funding for the implementation of voluntary content standards and local educational innovation; created a new direct lending program for college tuition, to reduce costs and inefficiencies and make the terms of repayment less
onerous; and encouraged a smooth transition from school to the
workplace through the School-to-Work Opportunities Act. That
piece of legislation is especially important because it funds programs to prepare high school students for today’s careers. The Administration has also begun to transform the Nation’s unemployment system into a reemployment system, by creating one-stop career centers and proposing a system of skill grants (job training
vouchers) for low-income and dislocated workers. The Administration’s policies to improve both the quantity and quality of expenditure on education and training are examined in more detail in
Chapter 7 of this Report.

Investing in Research and Development
The Federal role in research and development and technology—
both in conducting research and in disseminating the ideas that research generates—dates back to the 19th century. That investment
has produced impressive returns: from a more productive agricultural sector to the underpinnings of what is today one of America’s
largest export sectors, aeronautics, and to the basic science that
has given rise to one of America’s most prominent high-technology

32



sectors, biotechnology. Recent studies suggest that half or more of
all increases in productivity are due to improvements in technology, and these studies have verified the high total returns to
such investments—returns far in excess of those from investments
in plant and equipment. As the 21st century approaches, our technology programs must be both strengthened and reoriented to
emerging sectors. The Administration has promoted public sector
investments in technology through programs such as the Advanced
Technology Program and the Manufacturing Extension Partnerships (at the Department of Commerce’s National Institute of
Standards and Technology) and the Technology Reinvestment
Project (at the Department of Defense’s Advanced Research Project
Agency).

MAKING THE GOVERNMENT MORE EFFICIENT
The Administration recognizes the need for change not only in
what the government does, but also in how it does it.

Reinventing Government
The reinventing government initiative was undertaken to improve the efficiency of government, learning from the private sector
wherever possible, while acknowledging the differences between
public and private sector activities. The National Performance Review, headed by the Vice President, has focused on making government agencies more performance- and customer-oriented, developing performance measures, and ensuring that those measures are
used for evaluation. These efforts are already beginning to bear
fruit, in the form of better customer service and greater efficiency.
The Administration is committed to continuing the reinvention of
the Federal Government, eliminating outmoded programs designed
for the 19th and 20th centuries, and promoting new ones designed
for the 21st. For example, the Department of Agriculture has reduced the number of its agencies from 43 to 29 and is in the process of closing or consolidating 1,200 field offices. It has also plowed
under a bumper crop of paperwork: America’s farmers this year
will fill out 3 million pages fewer of government forms than in
years past. Meanwhile the Administration has cut the overall Federal workforce by 200,000 positions. As a percentage of total employment in the United States, Federal employment is smaller
today than at any time since the early 1930s.
In its efforts to reinvent regulation, the Administration has attempted to ensure that each regulation it reviews is consistent with
its identified objectives, and that the benefits from the regulation
justify its costs. Many of the proposals for reinventing government
are intended to reduce those costs by fundamentally changing our
regulatory philosophy. In its regulatory role, government should
seek to facilitate compliance, not to act as a disciplinarian. And

33



regulations should be as market-friendly and performance-oriented
as possible. They should encourage innovation and cost-effective
ways of achieving the objectives of the regulation. They should take
advantage of incentives and market mechanisms, rather than try
to suppress them.
One set of regulations that the Administration has examined is
those affecting some private sector pensions. Two objectives of
these regulations are to prevent pension plans from becoming a vehicle for tax evasion, and to keep them from discriminating against
low-wage workers. But in the aggregate these provisions have discouraged firms from offering pensions, thus failing to encourage national saving. The Administration therefore proposed simplified
pension arrangements. The proposal would provide substantial safe
harbors from nondiscrimination rules if employers match employee
contributions; this should reduce the costs to small businesses of
administering pension plans.
Other strides have been made in reducing the burden of environmental regulations and those affecting the banking and telecommunications sectors. The proposals recognize the fundamental
changes in the economy that call for reform of regulatory structures, but also the need for real safeguards to be kept in place to
promote competition and innovation, and to protect consumers and
the environment. These reforms are described in greater detail in
Chapters 5 and 6.

Protecting the Environment
Americans want to know that the air they breathe, the water
they drink, and the rivers and lakes in which they swim and fish
are safe. They want to be sure that the places where they live and
work do not harbor threats to their health from contamination by
dangerous chemicals, and that the Nation’s natural resources are
properly protected and managed. Protecting the environment is one
of the best investments we can make on behalf of our children. Preserving and improving our environmental heritage is an essential
part of maintaining and raising overall living standards.
The country has made enormous progress in this area. The air
we breathe today is cleaner than before the Clean Air Act was
passed. Substances that pose real dangers to human health and the
environment, such as lead and DDT, have been eliminated or their
use sharply reduced. Rivers and lakes have been restored to health:
25 years ago Lake Erie was all but dead; today life thrives in it
again. With U.S. leadership, the international community has
made considerable progress in phasing out substances that damage
the earth’s stratospheric ozone layer, which shields us from dangerous radiation.
But the battle is far from over. Air quality in some locations remains unacceptably poor. The outbreak of water poisoning in Mil-

34



waukee in 1993, and other episodes in which drinking water in our
major cities has failed to meet quality standards, do more than just
raise anxiety. Chemical runoff from cities, subdivisions, and farms
into our rivers and lakes is a constant challenge. Pressures from
economic development and increased demand still threaten the Nation’s wetlands, fisheries, and other natural resources.
Although we all enjoy the benefits of cleaner air and cleaner
water, as individuals—whether managers of steel companies or of
oil refineries, or the producers or the drivers of automobiles—we
have little incentive to spend our own money to make these things
happen. Few are willing to shoulder all the costs of something for
which all share the benefits. Acceptable environmental quality cannot be achieved without collective action. With appropriate policies—including cooperation with States and localities, partnerships
with the private sector that engender creative solutions as well as
set standards, and careful assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of alternative government action—environmental protection can be secured at an affordable cost.
The Administration is improving the way in which we protect the
environment, making government a partner rather than an overseer. The Environmental Protection Agency is eliminating 1,400
pages of obsolete regulations and revising 9,400 more. In the process it is cutting paperwork requirements by 25 percent, saving private industry about 20 million hours of labor per year. Chapter 5
of this Report examines environmental policy in more detail.

Devolution
The Administration has been examining not only what roles government should play, but also at what level—Federal, State, or
local—government should play its role. It has reexamined the partnership between the Federal Government and the States and localities, to ensure that public funds are used most efficiently. In some
areas, such as national defense, the Federal Government has a
clear responsibility that cannot be delegated. Other areas have traditionally been matters of local responsibility. Chapter 4 of this Report reviews the basis on which different responsibilities should be
assigned to different levels of government, and stresses that what
is usually required is a careful balancing of roles and responsibilities between the different levels.

Redesigning Welfare Policies
The government has a crucial role to play in increasing economic
independence, rewarding work, and ensuring that children are not
trapped in poverty. This is important not only for social cohesion;
it is an economic imperative as well. Each year that a child spends
in poverty raises the probability of that child later dropping out of
school. And dropouts tend to contribute less to national income: in

35



1994, mean annual earnings for a full-time, year-round worker
aged 25 to 34 who had dropped out of high school were $18,679.
Mean earnings for high school graduates in that age range were
$23,778.
Although individuals must ultimately be responsible for their
own actions, opportunities at least partially affect our behavior.
The limited economic opportunities available to dropouts make recourse to antisocial behavior all the more likely. On any given day
in 1992, 25 percent of men aged 18 to 34 who lacked a high school
diploma were in prison, on probation, or on parole, compared to
only 4 percent of high school graduates. This is not merely a tragic
outcome for those young men: increased crime imposes a wider social cost, in the form both of greater expenditure by the criminal
justice system and of reduced personal security for all of us.
The policies adopted in the past to reduce income inequality and
poverty are in need of reform. Everyone agrees that the current
welfare system is broken. Welfare dependency does enormous harm
to individuals and families, by discouraging work and undermining
personal responsibility. Welfare recipients are robbed of their dignity, and administrators spend too much time determining eligibility and to little time helping families get back on their feet.
Figuring out how to fix the welfare system, however, is a great
challenge. With no easy answers, the Administration has worked to
give States the flexibility they need to experiment with new approaches to welfare. As of February 1996, 37 States have received
waivers allowing them to pursue a wide range of reforms. For example, Wisconsin has received a waiver to impose stringent work
requirements and time-limited benefits.
In order to help move parents from welfare to work, the Administration has proposed to impose a time limit nationwide. Within 2
years, parents would be required to work. Within 5 years, they
would lose their benefits. Children would receive vouchers for support if their parents’ benefits were terminated. Chapter 4 of this
Report discusses many of these issues in more detail.

REDUCING THE DEFICIT
Before it could pursue the rest of its economic agenda, the Administration had to bring the Federal budget deficit under control.
One of the most detrimental legacies left by previous Administrations was the perilous state of public finances. The large budget
deficits run up during the 1980s and early 1990s, and the associated increase in public debt, were restricting the private investment that is so crucial to growth and were deepening our indebtedness to foreigners.
Borrowing to finance the deficit absorbs funds that could otherwise be used to finance investment in plant and equipment—in-

36



vestment that would increase the productivity of the American
economy. Combined with a low rate of private saving, government
borrowing forces America to borrow more abroad, increasing our indebtedness to foreign countries. As discussed in Chapter 8, one of
the fallouts from previous Administrations’ economic policies was
that the United States went from being the world’s largest creditor
country to being the world’s largest debtor country in the space of
a few years.
Deficit reduction can right many of these wrongs and provide the
springboard for faster economic growth. But throughout the recent
debate over the budget, the Administration has stressed that there
is a right way and a wrong way to reduce the deficit. Deficit reduction is not an end in itself, but a means to the end of higher living
standards for all Americans. How the deficit is cut may determine
whether or not those ends are accomplished.
Deficit reduction done the wrong way will reduce living standards and worsen inequality. Cutting spending to reduce the deficit
requires hard choices. In making these hard choices, we must assess what the government does now and what it should do in the
21st century. The Federal budget is not just a bland accounting
statement—it is an expression of the Nation’s priorities and values
and should reflect a vision of where the country is going and the
problems it faces. Some proposed budget cuts, such as those that
would reduce equality of educational opportunity, represent attacks
on fundamental American values. Others, such as in programs that
protect the environment and Americans’ health and safety, would
have adverse effects on living standards in the future, and thus undermine the very purpose of deficit reduction.

Deficit Reduction and Public Investment
Investment is a key factor in stimulating growth. Reducing the
deficit should lower interest rates and stimulate private investment. Cutting the deficit by cutting high-return public investments
makes little sense: it merely substitutes one worthwhile investment
for another. Indeed, deficit reduction that reduces high-return public investments—like those in research and development, technology, education, and training—may compromise long-term economic growth. Deficit reduction should not be achieved by running
down our public infrastructure, by failing to invest in research and
development, or by neglecting education and training.

Deficit Reduction and the Social Safety Net
Deficit reduction financed through ill-conceived and excessive
cutbacks in social programs is also counterproductive. Reducing inequality not only is essential to keep from shredding the common
fabric of our Nation, but may also be important in the more limited
objective of promoting economic growth.

37



Economic growth would suffer if opportunities were reduced for
those Americans—and especially the children—at the bottom of the
income distribution. We would only worsen the inequality in our
society by reducing support for the most vulnerable members of society while handing out large tax benefits to the richest. The better
course is to ensure that all Americans who work hard and play by
the rules have a chance to escape poverty. To do so would increase
national output at the same time that it reduces inequality.

Deficit Reduction and Health Care
As the President has long emphasized, growth in health care expenditures must be contained. Failing to do so would not only pose
the renewed threat of large budget deficits; it could also force unacceptable cuts in other programs that are vital to the country. It
would be wrong, however, for the richest country in the world to
abandon its commitment to increase access to basic health care.
Ongoing changes in our health care system not only allow us to
take advantage of structural reforms (such as more extensive use
of managed care), but also offer the hope that market forces will
help contain rising health care costs. The restraint exercised by
health maintenance organizations, for example, should serve to increase the relative supply of health care services in other segments
of the market and, through the usual workings of supply and demand, help bring down costs. But more is needed, and experiments
could provide the information required to implement effective reforms in the coming decade—reforms that would protect the elderly
even as they reduce the growth rate of public expenditures. Possible demonstration initiatives include reforming the reimbursement system, developing a system of regional hospitals specializing
in certain high-cost treatments, and cutting administrative costs at
hospitals.

Deficit Reduction and Taxes
Fifteen years ago, marginal tax rates and the progressivity of the
tax system were dramatically reduced. Some suggested that these
policies would so spur economic growth that tax revenue would actually increase. The outcome of that experiment is now a matter
of record: not only did this response not occur, but the national
debt quadrupled in the span of a dozen years. Chapter 3 of this Report reviews the arguments and evidence concerning the efficacy of
new tax proposals.
In developing its tax proposals, this Administration has emphasized fairness. The Administration has proposed tax cuts for the
middle class and argued forcefully against increasing taxes on lowincome families through a reduction in the EITC. And the Administration objects to proposals that would give a disproportionate
share of tax relief to upper income individuals.

38



At the same time, the Administration has argued that existing
expenditure and tax provisions that benefit particular sectors of the
economy, and that cannot be justified in terms of some market failure, should be reduced. Although the Administration succeeded in
persuading the Congress to eliminate some of the most obvious examples—the subsidies for mohair and honey, for example, and the
tax deductions for lobbying expenses—billions of dollars in corporate subsidies and other loopholes remain.

APPROACHING THE 21ST CENTURY
The U.S. economy has changed profoundly in this century. It will
continue to change as we enter the 21st century. Advances in technology will continue at a rapid pace. The globalization of economies
will also continue. American firms will face competition from
abroad, and all the evidence indicates that they can and will rise
to the challenge. Lower priced imports and increased export sales
will play a role in increasing living standards, as the United States
is able to exploit its comparative advantage on an increasingly
global scale.
Some sectors of the economy, such as the services sector, will expand, while others will contract. In 1850, the majority of Americans worked on farms; by 1950 only 12 percent did. In 1900, 20
percent of the workforce was employed in manufacturing; by 1950
this had increased to 24 percent. The manufacturing share has
since declined and now stands at 16 percent. Today, the main
growth sectors of the economy include service industries such as
telecommunications services. Service industries in the private sector accounted for 46 percent of employment in 1950; today they account for 63 percent.
People naturally tend to recall the past in a softened light that
obscures its blemishes, and to see in the future adversities that
may never materialize. For some, the prospect of a future in which
the service economy dominates even more than it does today is one
that raises anxieties. To be sure, some of the service sector jobs
that are being created are not good jobs. On the other hand, many
new service sector jobs—in computer programming and management consulting, for example—are high-tech, high-wage jobs.
Markets and government will need to respond to ongoing changes
in the economy. For government, change will require rebalancing:
more emphasis on new problems, less emphasis on those of the
past. The best combination of policies to address the problems of
2030 will be markedly different from those that got us through the
problems of 1930 or 1830. Ideological and extremist solutions reflect neither the realities of today nor the tradition of American
pragmatism. Rather, the problems of the 21st century need to be

39



addressed with a balanced perspective. Markets are at the core of
our economy, but they do not always operate fully efficiently and
do not adequately meet all the needs—even all the economic
needs—of Americans. It is then that the government can often
help. In the face of increased income inequality, for example, it can
make greater efforts to enhance educational opportunity so that the
vicious cycle of poverty is not perpetuated.
Government cannot solve all of society’s problems, and it certainly cannot solve the more persistent problems overnight. But
even if the benefits do not manifest themselves immediately, government must continue to invest in the future. Only by making
such investments can the long-term problems of slow productivity
growth and increasing inequality be addressed. This Administration firmly believes that government—through selective, focused,
and well-designed policies—can help American workers and families achieve higher living standards and develop a more humane,
more just society.

40



CHAPTER 2

Macroeconomic Policy and
Performance
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE DURING the past 3 years has
been exceptional. The economy has grown fast enough to create
nearly 8 million new jobs and reduce the unemployment rate
sharply. Long-term interest rates have declined and remain relatively low. And inflation, at its lowest average level since the Kennedy Administration, is no longer the factor it once was in economic decisions. This strong performance has been helped by macroeconomic policies conducive to sustainable economic expansion.
A major part of this Administration’s macroeconomic strategy
has been its effort to reduce the Federal budget deficit. Reducing
the deficit is important because government borrowing to finance
budget deficits raises real interest rates, crowding out business investment that is vital for raising productivity and economic growth.
And to the extent that budget deficits spill over into current account deficits, they lead to a transfer of national wealth abroad.
But reducing the deficit is not an end in itself. Rather, it is a
way to create economic conditions favorable to this Administration’s ultimate goal of raising economic growth and thus the standard of living of all Americans. Once we recognize that deficit reduction is a means to achieving higher living standards, it becomes apparent that how we reduce the deficit is important. This Administration has supported responsible deficit reduction that preserves
and enhances investments in people, businesses, and the environment.
Thus far during the Administration’s tenure, the reduction in the
Federal budget deficit has been impressive. For the first time since
the Truman Administration the deficit has declined for 3 years in
a row. The deficit for the past 2 calendar years has been less than
the interest paid on the national debt, so that, except for interest
payments, the budget has been in surplus. And the structural
budget deficit—the deficit adjusted for the effects of the business
cycle—has declined since 1993. This reflects a sharp break with the
failed attempts to reduce the budget deficit during the 1980s. The
commitment to balance the budget over the next 7 years represents
a continuation of efforts to get the government’s fiscal house in
order.

41



This chapter first considers the role the government plays in setting macroeconomic policy. It next reviews macroeconomic developments during 1995 and argues that all signs point to the current
expansion continuing into the foreseeable future. The chapter then
considers the effects on the economy and the implications for monetary policy of the move to a balanced budget over the next 7 years.
The chapter ends with a brief analysis of the outlook for the economy and presents the Administration’s forecast for the 1996–2002
period.

THE TWIN ROLES OF MACROECONOMIC POLICY
Since the end of World War II, the Federal Government has
played an important role in stabilizing fluctuations in the economy
in the short run and in fostering a climate for maximum economic
growth with low unemployment over the long run.
The government supports sound macroeconomic performance in
two broad ways. First, its macroeconomic policies cushion the economy from the short-term ups and downs of the business cycle, helping to keep economic expansions from faltering. Both monetary policy and fiscal policy are important elements of these short-run stabilization efforts. Monetary policy stabilizes the economy through
the adjustment of credit conditions, as reflected in interest rates
and credit availability. Fiscal policy, in principle, can use changes
in discretionary spending or the tax code to stabilize the economy,
but in practice the time lags involved in legislating and implementing such changes tend to reduce their usefulness. Furthermore, in
present circumstances, the commitment to eliminate the budget
deficit limits any potential for using discretionary fiscal policy. As
a result, the ability of fiscal policy to dampen economic fluctuations
depends largely on its role as an ‘‘automatic stabilizer’’ whereby
outlays and tax revenues change in a way that reduces the amplitude of the business cycle.
Second, the government’s macroeconomic policies help lay the
groundwork for the private sector to generate long-term growth
with low unemployment. Policies that encourage businesses to invest can raise productivity, increasing the economy’s potential output. As discussed below, the Administration’s success at bringing
down the deficit has helped redress the investment shortfall that
developed during the 1980s. As the budget moves toward balance
over the next 7 years and the government reduces its drain on national saving, real interest rates should fall and investment and
growth should rise. Box 2–1 discusses how microeconomic policies
designed to address market failures also can enhance long-run
macroeconomic performance.

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Box 2–1.—Microeconomic Policies Can Improve Long-Run
Macroeconomic Performance

Microeconomic policies can reinforce macroeconomic policies.
Policies that support research and development, along with
policies that encourage education and training, complement increased capital investment in raising potential output. Indeed,
as noted elsewhere in this Report, public expenditures on research and development are complementary to private expenditures, so that these expenditures can actually induce increased
private investments. Targeted tax policies—such as the research and experimentation tax credit and the targeted capital
gains tax cut for small and emerging businesses included in
the Administration’s 1993 budget—can encourage research and
development expenditures and increase the flow of capital to
new enterprises.
Other microeconomic policies designed to make the labor
market work more efficiently—such as training programs, the
school-to-work program, and, more broadly, the Administration’s reemployment policies—can help reduce frictional unemployment (unemployment caused by workers moving from job
to job) and thereby lower the rate of unemployment associated
with stable inflation. Accordingly, microeconomic policies have
payoffs in terms of macroeconomic performance.
These twin roles are often complementary. For instance, macroeconomic policies that keep the economy on an even keel in the
short run can also spur the economy’s growth in the long run by
creating an environment in which businesses and individuals are
more certain about the future. Freed from having to worry about
how to insulate themselves from short-term economic fluctuations,
businesses and individuals can plan for the long term. They are
thus more likely to make the investments that lead to increased
productivity and higher output.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE POLICY MIX
In pursuing these goals of short-run macroeconomic stabilization
and long-run maximum growth, fiscal and monetary policy need to
act in concert. Monetary policy must reflect changes in aggregate
demand relative to the economy’s potential output. For example, a
shift to a more expansionary fiscal policy when the economy already is operating at full employment and full capacity would require monetary policy to offset the effects of the fiscal expansion.
Should it fail to do so, the prospect of an overheated economy and
rising inflation is likely to trigger an increase in long-term interest
rates, as financial markets react to the change in the economic out-

43



look. In either case, the shift in fiscal policy will be met with a financial market response that generally cushions its effects on aggregate demand. But without deliberate monetary tightening,
changes in interest rates may not be sufficient to stem a rise in inflation.
Although monetary policy can offset the effects on aggregate demand from a shift in fiscal policy, changes in the mix of fiscal and
monetary policies will invariably alter the composition of output
and its potential level in the long run. During the early 1980s,
changes in fiscal policy put the country on a path to large and rising budget deficits (over and above what would have been expected
given the cyclical weakness of the economy) and left the Federal
Reserve little choice but to restrain the overheating economy by
further tightening monetary policy.
The high real interest rates that resulted from the burgeoning
deficits and tight money of the early 1980s were in large part responsible for skewing the composition of output away from fixed investment. Private fixed investment as a share of gross domestic
product (GDP) fell from over 18 percent in 1979 to under 15 percent by 1989 (to compare 2 years when the economy was operating
close to capacity). The relative decline in private fixed investment
net of depreciation was even sharper, from about 8 percent to about
5 percent of GDP. At the same time, personal consumption expenditures increased as a share of GDP from 62 percent in 1979 to 66
percent in 1989. The effects on investment of the increase in the
budget deficit likely would have been somewhat less marked if private saving over this period had risen so as to offset the decline
in public saving. But instead both personal and business saving as
a share of GDP fell over the 1980s, exacerbating the effects of deficits on interest rates and thus on investment.
High real interest rates during the early 1980s also contributed
to a sharp rise in the value of the dollar as foreign investors, attracted by high yields, bought dollar-denominated assets. The appreciation of the dollar in turn caused a rapid swing of the current
account balance into substantial deficit. Growing current account
deficits quickly transformed the United States from the world’s
largest creditor country into the world’s largest debtor by the late
1980s. Although access to foreign capital moderated the rise in interest rates and the decline in investment, the resulting buildup in
our international indebtedness required that a portion of the economy’s output be used to service the foreign debt. In addition, the appreciation of the dollar, combined with the decline in investment’s
share of output, had strong adverse effects on U.S. international
competitiveness.
Today, with this Administration committed to eliminating the
budget deficit—and with substantial deficit reduction already

44



achieved over the past 3 years—the environment is vastly different
from that of the 1980s. The imbalances that resulted from the fiscal extremism of that decade can now be corrected. In contrast with
earlier policies that raised interest rates, restrained investment,
and impeded our international competitiveness, our progress in reducing the budget deficit has lowered interest rates, increased investment, and improved our competitiveness. As discussed later in
this chapter, further deficit reduction over the next several years
quite possibly will require monetary policy once again to stabilize
short-run movements in the economy, this time to prevent a tightening fiscal stance from pushing the economy’s growth rate below
its potential. Such an accommodative stance of monetary policy
should, in concert with deficit reduction, further enhance the climate for private investment and ensure that the economy remains
on a healthier growth path over the long term.

OVERVIEW OF 1995:
RETURNING TO POTENTIAL GROWTH
Economic growth decelerated considerably in the first half of
1995 before regaining momentum in the third quarter. Some moderation in growth was anticipated because the robust expansion of
the preceding 2 years had greatly reduced the slack in the economy. Between January 1993 and December 1994, the civilian unemployment rate fell from 7.1 to 5.4 percent, and capacity utilization in the industrial sector rose from 81.3 to 85.1 percent. Even
after accounting for the economy’s tightening capacity constraints,
however, the moderation in growth was greater than expected. Following the rebound in the third quarter, evidence suggested that
the economy was once again growing at its potential rate. This
moderate pace of growth was fully reflected in the path of the unemployment rate, which, after falling by more than a percentage
point over the course of 1994, remained virtually unchanged during
1995.
The moderate growth and reduced pace of job creation during
1995 were evidence that the economy had entered a new phase: it
had moved from recovery following the 1990–91 recession to sustained growth. Thus, with the economy operating near full capacity
by late 1994, significantly higher growth in the short term probably
could not have been accommodated without a rise in inflation. The
increase in short-term interest rates over the course of 1994 and
early 1995 represented an attempt to restrain demand pressures
and hold growth close to its long-run potential.

45



EXPLAINING THE MODERATION IN GROWTH DURING
THE FIRST HALF OF 1995
The moderation in economic growth during the first half of 1995
was to a large degree the consequence of the rise in interest rates
during 1994 and, to a lesser extent, the result of the crisis in Mexico that began in December 1994. Higher interest rates caused a
weakening in interest-sensitive spending and an associated buildup
in inventory that led producers to restrain output. The economic
crisis in Mexico induced a sharp deterioration in the U.S.-Mexico
trade balance, further moderating growth.
At the beginning of 1994, and increasingly over the course of the
year, many observers believed that the slack in the economy that
had emerged during the recession of 1990–91 had disappeared. As
already noted, this led to concern that continued growth at anywhere near the heated pace of 1993 would lead to an increase in
inflation. These concerns were evident in rising yields on long-maturity bonds beginning late in 1993 and continuing through most
of 1994. The Federal Reserve responded by raising the Federal
funds rate by 3 percentage points between February 1994 and February 1995.
Despite these rate increases, the economy continued to grow at
a rapid pace through the end of 1994, while the unemployment rate
dropped another three-quarters of a percentage point in the last
half of the year. Housing starts, one of the more interest-sensitive
indicators, did not peak until December 1994. Similarly, motor vehicle sales continued at a rapid pace through year’s end, and, anticipating continued strength, automakers boosted production in
the first quarter of 1995.
Higher interest rates did not affect economic growth until the beginning of 1995, and then their impact was reinforced by the economic crisis in Mexico. The slackening economy was evident as
housing starts dropped in the first 3 months of the year. Although
housing activity stabilized and then moved higher over the balance
of 1995, the fall in starts translated into declines in residential investment during both the first and the second quarter. Motor vehicle sales also weakened, resulting in a buildup of inventory that
reached uncomfortable levels by the end of the first quarter. In response, automakers cut production sharply in the second quarter,
restraining GDP growth by almost 1 percentage point at an annual
rate.
The magnitude of the moderation during the first half of the year
seems clear in retrospect but was harder to read at the time. The
advance estimate of first-quarter GDP showed a 2.1 percent (chainweighted) annual rate of growth—a decline from the pace of 1994,
but not a dramatic one. First-quarter growth was not revised down
to its current estimate of a 0.6 percent annual rate until the bench-

46



mark revisions of January 1996. (Box 2–2 presents an overview of
the recently released benchmark revisions of the national income
and product accounts.) Although scattered indications of weakness,
such as the declines in motor vehicle sales and housing starts, were
beginning to accumulate early in the year, the first solid evidence
was the May employment report (published in June), which showed
the first substantial drop in payroll employment in over 3 years.
Partly as a result of the moderation in growth, interest rates fell
steadily throughout the year. In response, the housing and automobile sectors retraced much of their decline during the second
half of 1995. By the end of the third quarter, reduced automobile
production and a pickup in sales had worked off much of the inventory overhang. Home sales and housing starts also had returned to
stronger levels.
A review of economic performance sector by sector provides a
more detailed picture of the economy as the expansion continued
during 1995.

CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURES
During the first quarter of 1995, consumption expenditures grew
by 0.8 percent at an annual rate, after averaging 3.0 percent during 1994. The drop in spending growth was concentrated in durable
goods, which fell by nearly 9 percent at an annual rate, with weakening demand for automobiles fueling the decline. Higher interest
rates, as discussed above, are likely to have been the primary reason for the retrenchment by consumers. Spending on durables recovered sharply in the second and third quarters, offsetting some
weakening in spending on nondurable goods and pushing overall
consumption growth back to a solid pace of about 3 percent at an
annual rate for the second and third quarters of 1995.
As the year progressed, households continued to take on debt at
a rapid rate, raising concerns that they might soon have to reduce
their spending in order to meet debt obligations. Rising delinquency rates on consumer loans, especially credit card lending, suggested that an increasing number of households were encountering
difficulties managing their debts. Household debt (consumer and
mortgage debt) grew faster than disposable personal income, continuing the pattern of the past several years. The burden of this
debt, as measured by debt service as a share of disposable personal
income, also rose during the year, although it remained below the
value reached during the late 1980s. The rise in the debt-service
ratio during 1995 occurred despite a general decline in interest
rates over the year, and reflected mainly the sharp rise in the overall debt level. As debt contracts are adjusted or renewed, however,
the recent decline in interest rates should moderate the rise in debt
service. Furthermore, consumption expenditures in the long term

47



Box 2–2.—The Comprehensive Revision of the National Income
and Product Accounts

Early in 1996, the Bureau of Economic Analysis released
new estimates of the national income and product accounts.
These comprehensive revisions have been done about once
every 5 years and incorporate definitional changes, statistical
changes, and updated source data in an effort to portray the
evolving U.S. economy more accurately. The latest revision incorporates three major improvements:
• Measures of real output and prices are estimated using
‘‘chained dollars,’’ which more accurately account for the
shifting mix of products purchased and sold in the economy (see Economic Report of the President 1995 for a detailed discussion of chain-weighted GDP).
• Government investment is estimated separately from
government consumption expenditures, allowing a more
accurate description of government activities and improving the overall measurement of gross investment
and national saving.
• Depreciation of fixed capital is estimated using a new
methodology that better reflects the service lives of different types of assets.
• The revised estimates of real GDP show average annual
growth of 3.2 percent over the period 1959 to 1994, 0.2
percentage point higher than had previously been reported using fixed (1987) weights. Between 1959 and
1987 growth averaged 3.4 percent per year, 0.3 percentage point higher than reported earlier, whereas between
1987 and 1994 it averaged 2.3 percent, 0.1 percentage
point lower than reported earlier. Most of the change in
growth rates for real GDP, as well as that of its components, is attributable to the shift from fixed weights to
chain weights. Boxes 2–3 and 2–6 discuss other aspects
of the revised data.
are related to overall net worth as well as to consumer indebtedness. Hence the stock market gain of over 30 percent during 1995
should help sustain consumer spending into 1996.

BUSINESS FIXED INVESTMENT
Business fixed investment grew solidly during the first three
quarters of 1995. The growth rate of business equipment investment fell back only slightly from its torrid pace in 1994 and was
sustained by rapid investment in computers, which grew even fast-

48



er during the first three quarters of 1995 than in 1994. Investment
in structures continued its recovery from the recession of 1990–91,
and grew almost as fast as equipment investment in 1995 (Chart
2–1). The extremely slow recovery of structures investment following the recession appears to have been due in part to the oversupply of office buildings and retail space that characterized the
runup and subsequent collapse of the real estate market during the
late 1980s and early 1990s. The vacancy rate for office space has
fallen for 3 years and is now at its lowest point in 8 years.
Chart 2-1 Real Business Fixed Investment
Investment in durable equipment and in structures continued to grow robustly
in 1995.
Percent change from four quarters earlier
20

15

Producers’ durable equipment
10

5

0

-5

-10

Structures

-15

-20

851 1985 861
871 1987 881
Note: Note.
Source: Department of Commerce.

891 1989 901

911 1991 921

931 1993 941

951 1995

It has long been recognized that reported measures of gross investment for the U.S. economy understate actual gross investment
because government investment in equipment and structures has
always been treated in the same fashion as government consumption, with both reported together as government purchases. The recently revised national income and product accounts now report
government investment separately from government consumption
and thus provide a more complete view of investment in the economy (Box 2–3).

INVENTORIES
The buildup of excess inventories during the first quarter of 1995
led some producers to cut back output in the second quarter so as

49



Box 2–3.—New Measures of Government Investment

The Bureau of Economic Analysis now measures government
expenditures for equipment and structures as investment,
similar to the treatment of such expenditures by the private
sector. Previously, government expenditures for fixed assets
were considered to be ‘‘current account’’ purchases. This treatment understated gross investment and saving for the economy
and ignored the service flow (or ‘‘output’’) of these assets over
their lifetimes. The new approach is more consistent with
international standards and will permit more accurate comparison of U.S. data with those of other countries.
The new treatment of government investment has three important effects. First, it increases the share of GDP accounted
for by gross investment expenditures. Second, it reduces the
government deficit measured on a current account basis and
thus increases measured saving of the public sector. Because
of these effects, gross domestic investment and national saving
as a share of GDP each are reported about 3 percentage points
higher compared with the earlier approach, to 18 percent and
15 percent, respectively, over the period 1970 to 1995. Finally,
the new approach partly accounts for services provided by the
government capital stock and thus raises the measured output
of the government sector and the economy. For recent years,
GDP is about 1.8 percent higher, due to the service flow of the
government capital stock.
A rough way of measuring the importance of government investment is to compare it to total investment. Between 1959
and 1994, total government investment as a share of private
nonresidential fixed investment plus government investment
fluctuated between 20 and 40 percent, while government
nondefense investment varied between 14 and 23 percent.
Thus, even leaving aside investment for defense purposes, the
earlier approach to measuring the economy’s fixed investment
misclassified a significant portion of spending aimed at augmenting and maintaining the Nation’s productive capacity.
The new approach does not measure government investment
in human capital or the environment. Investments in education or a cleaner environment are hard to measure, but also
yield returns over time just as certain as those from investments in highways and office buildings.

50



to reduce inventories relative to sales. Producers continued to pare
inventories, especially in the automotive sector, during the third
quarter. By late in the year much of the earlier overhang had been
worked off. By year’s end, however, automobile industry data
showed the inventory-to-sales ratio moving back up, although it remained below the levels reached earlier in the year.

RESIDENTIAL INVESTMENT
As alluded to above, a decline in residential investment during
the first half of the year was a major factor in slowing the rate of
economic growth. The rise in mortgage interest rates in 1994 had
a lagged effect on the housing market, which began to lose its footing in early 1995 as housing starts and home sales both fell during
the first quarter. Residential investment, which had shown hints of
weakness toward the end of 1994, declined abruptly during the
first half of 1995. By June, however, declining mortgage rates had
revived the housing sector, as both starts and sales regained some
ground. The improvement held firm over the summer and was reflected in a bounceback in residential investment during the third
quarter.

NET EXPORTS
After declining during the last quarter of 1994, the net export
deficit (imports minus exports of goods and services) rose sharply
during the first half of 1995. The rise was due in part to the severe
contraction of the Mexican economy that began at the end of 1994
following the peso crisis, and which resulted in a sharp fall in U.S.
exports to Mexico. The U.S. merchandise trade balance with Mexico
deteriorated from a surplus of about $1 billion in 1994 to a deficit
over the first half of the year of about $8 billion.
By the latter part of the year, however, other factors, notably
strong U.S. competitiveness and the lagged effects of earlier movements in exchange rates reestablished the trend toward a shrinking external deficit (see Chapter 8 for further discussion of exchange rates and the current account balance). By the third quarter, exports of goods and services were once again growing briskly,
outpacing a slowing rate of growth for imports of goods and services. As a result, net exports contributed importantly to growth
during the third quarter.

INFLATION
Inflation remained remarkably low and stable during 1995
(Table 2–1). The consumer price index (CPI) increased by 2.5 percent over the 12 months of 1995—down 0.2 percentage point from
its year-earlier pace. Inflation as measured by the CPI has now run
at less than 3 percent per year for the past 4 years, for the first

51



time since the 1960s. This impressive record suggests that a regime
change has taken place, whereby households and businesses have
come to expect low inflation for the foreseeable future.
TABLE 2–1.—Measures of Inflation
Measure

1994

1995

Percent change
GDP chain-type price index .....................................................................................................................

2.3

1 2.7

Non-oil import prices ...............................................................................................................................

3.8

2.3

CPI-U:
All items ..........................................................................................................................................
All items less food and energy ......................................................................................................

2.7
2.6

2.5
3.0

1.7
1.6
5.2
−.5

2.2
2.5
3.1
4.1

3.3
2.9
4.0

2.6
2.8
2.1

PPI:
Finished goods ................................................................................................................................
Finished goods less food and energy .............................................................................................
Intermediate materials less food and energy ................................................................................
Crude materials ..............................................................................................................................
Employment cost index: 2
Total compensation .........................................................................................................................
Wages and salaries ...............................................................................................................
Benefits ..................................................................................................................................
1

Preliminary.
2 For private industry workers.
Note.—Inflation as measured by the GDP price index and the employment cost index is computed from third quarter to
third quarter; by non-oil import prices, from November to November; and by the CPI-U and PPI, from December to December.
Sources: Department of Commerce and Department of Labor.

The increase in the CPI during 1995 was held down by a decline
in energy prices and a slowing in the rise of food prices, which increased almost a percentage point less than a year earlier. Core inflation, as measured by the CPI excluding food and energy, increased at a 3.0 percent annual rate over the 12 months of 1995,
up 0.4 percentage point from the year-earlier rate. Inflation seemed
to be proceeding at a faster pace during the first 5 months of the
year but eased off thereafter. The early runup and the subsequent
moderation largely reflected the pattern of used car prices, airfares,
and automobile finance charges.
Hourly compensation in the private sector, as measured by the
employment cost index, increased 2.6 percent in the year ending in
the third quarter, versus a 3.3 percent increase during the yearearlier period. A slowdown in benefit costs—especially for health
insurance and retirement programs—accounted for almost all of
the deceleration. The increase in wages and salaries, in contrast,
was little changed from its year-earlier pace. Overall, the evidence
suggested an absence of any wage pressures as the expansion continued. The absence of significant acceleration in inflation, either
for prices or for wages, especially as the unemployment rate remained around 5.6 percent for the year, led some observers to suggest that the unemployment rate consistent with stable inflation
had fallen (Box 2–4). A possible decline in the sustainable unem-

52



ployment rate raises important challenges for macroeconomic policymaking (Box 2–5).
Box 2–4.—Has the Sustainable Rate of Unemployment Fallen?

As the economic expansion continued during 1995, and unemployment remained well below 6 percent without sparking
a rise in inflation, some economists suggested that the minimum sustainable unemployment rate or so-called NAIRU
(Non-Accelerating-Inflation Rate of Unemployment) has declined.
During the 1980s, the core rate of inflation increased when
the unemployment rate was below 6 percent and decreased
when it was above 6 percent (Chart 2–2). In contrast, for over
a year now the unemployment rate has fluctuated narrowly
around 5.6 percent, yet the core rate of inflation has remained
roughly stable rather than risen. (Wage inflation, as measured
by the employment cost index, also has remained stable.) This
recent evidence strongly argues that the sustainable rate of unemployment has fallen below 6 percent, perhaps to the range
of 5.5 to 5.7 percent. The Administration’s forecast falls on the
conservative end of this range by projecting the unemployment
rate at 5.7 percent over the near term.
Explanations for why the sustainable rate of unemployment
may have fallen generally focus on structural changes in the
U.S. economy that may have restrained increases in wages and
prices. For example, increased domestic and international competition, a decline in unionization, and increased concern about
job security are possible reasons why, at current levels of unemployment, wage and price pressures have been so subdued.
In addition, since the sustainable unemployment rate is related to frictional unemployment, and since such job mobility is
high among young workers, the recent fall in the labor-force
share of young workers may have contributed to the possible
decline in the sustainable rate, just as the increase in young
workers during the 1970s contributed to its rise.

EMPLOYMENT AND PRODUCTIVITY
During 1995, the economy managed to create enough jobs not
only to replace those lost as a result of corporate restructuring and
downsizing, but also to provide employment for new entrants. As
a result, the unemployment rate remained roughly constant.
A deceleration in the pace of job creation accompanied the economy’s move from economic recovery to sustained economic expansion. Growth in payroll employment dropped to 146,000 per month

53



Chart 2-2 The Sustainable Rate of Unemployment in the 1980s
In the 1980s, inflation picked up when the unemployment rate fell below 6 percent. For over 17
months now, unemployment has remained below 6 percent without sparking a rise in inflation.
Change in inflation (percentage point)

Percent
11

2

Change in
inflation (right scale)

10

0
9

-2

8

7

-4

6
-6

Lagged
unemployment rate
(left scale)

5

4

-8
821
1983 831

8411985851

8611987871

8811989891

9011991911

9211993931

9411995951

Note: Change in inflation is the difference between the eight-quarter percent change in the CPI excluding food
and energy and its eight-quarter lagged value. Unemployment rate is lagged four quarters.
Sources: Department of Labor and Council of Economic Advisers.

in 1995—down from 294,000 per month a year earlier. Coming on
the heels of a strong fourth quarter of 1994, job gains remained
solid in the first quarter, slowed in the second, and then averaged
138,000 per month during the third and fourth quarters. The moderate pace of job growth in the second half is about what can be
expected as the economy grows at its potential rate.
Official statistics show that 7.7 million jobs have been created
since this Administration took office, but the best estimate is considerably stronger. Analysis of forthcoming revisions to estimates of
payroll employment indicates that the job gains between March
1994 and March 1995 were stronger than currently estimated. As
a result, after the revisions are announced this June, measured job
growth through the end of 1995 should exceed 8 million. Over 50
percent of job growth in the private sector during 1995 occurred in
‘‘high wage’’ industries—those with an average wage above an employment-weighted median for all industries in 1993. For the past
3 years, the share of employment growth concentrated in these industries has continually risen.
The unemployment rate fluctuated in a narrow band around 5.6
percent during 1995, as increases in the number of jobs fully absorbed increases in the labor force. The growth rate of the labor
force from 1994 to 1995 differed little from the growth rate of the
population—a pattern that has persisted since 1989. Over this pe-

54



Box 2–5. Macroeconomic Policy and the Sustainable
Unemployment Rate

A controversial issue in macroeconomic policy is whether the
benefits from further reducing the unemployment rate when
the economy is operating near full capacity outweigh the costs
of possibly increasing the inflation rate. This controversy centers on how the sacrifice ratio (the change in unemployment
associated with a given change in inflation) varies as inflation
is reduced or increased. For example, in terms of output and
unemployment, is the loss from reducing inflation by 1 percentage greater than the benefit from increasing inflation by 1 percentage?
The view that the unemployment rate must change by more
when inflation is reduced than when it is increased, and the
related view that a small increase in inflation may spark runaway inflation, have been used as a basis for cautious policy.
For instance, some economists urge waiting until the evidence
is overwhelming that the sustainable rate of unemployment
has fallen before allowing an additional decline in the actual
unemployment rate. The argument is that the cost of returning
to the initial low rate of inflation if the sustainable rate has
not changed vastly outweighs the benefit of learning whether
it has in fact changed.
Much empirical work suggests, however, that for small
changes, increases and decreases in inflation exhibit the same
sacrifice ratio. And, small increases in inflation historically
have not triggered runaway inflation. Thus, if policymakers reduced unemployment in the belief that the sustainable rate
had fallen but were wrong and inflation increased, inflation is
unlikely to ‘‘take off,’’ and the cost of returning inflation to its
earlier level would roughly equal the benefit of having temporarily lowered the unemployment rate. The gain, of course, if
policymakers were right and the sustainable rate had fallen
would be lower unemployment with unchanged inflation.
Furthermore, the sustainable rate itself is determined, in
part, by institutional arrangements that result from the overall
economic environment. As the economy gradually moves to
lower inflation, arrangements that tend to amplify wage and
price movements, such as cost-of-living clauses, become less
common. In such an environment, gradual reductions in the
unemployment rate that cause little change in inflation can actually reinforce market participants’ views that the sustainable
rate has fallen.

55



riod the labor force participation rate has remained virtually flat,
in sharp contrast to rising participation rates during the 1970s and
1980s (Chart 2–3). Because the participation rate is cyclical, rising
toward the end of an expansion, one might have expected the earlier trend to reassert itself as the current expansion matured. Instead, the stagnant participation rate has been one of the more enduring features of this expansion.
Chart 2-3 Labor Force Participation Rates
The overall participation rate has recently fallen below its trend rate of increase. A slower rise
in the rate for women accounts for most of this break from trend.
Percent
90

1970-89 trend

Men

80

70

60

Total

50

Women
40

30
1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

Note: Data refer to persons 16 years and over. Pre-1994 participation rates are corrected for effects of the
revised Current Population Survey questionnaire.

Sources: Department of Labor and Council of Economic Advisers.

The stalling of the rise in the overall labor force participation
rate is due mainly to a deceleration in the participation rate for
women; the participation rate for men has fallen no faster than in
earlier years. The flattening out of the female participation rate is
probably the result of long-term demographic trends. As Chart 2–
4 shows, the ratio of children per woman aged 20 to 54 fell between
the late 1960s and the early 1980s, echoing the earlier pattern in
the birth rate. The decline in this ratio allowed an increasing fraction of women to enter the labor force between the mid-1970s and
mid-1980s, but its subsequent flattening in the late 1980s has limited further increases in participation.
While the increase in the overall labor force participation rate
has slowed since the late 1980s, productivity growth appears to be
little changed. Labor productivity has grown at an estimated 1.1
percent annual rate since the last business cycle peak in the second

56



Chart 2-4 Women’s Labor Force Participation Rate, Child Dependency Ratio,
and Birth Rate
The upward trend in women’s labor force participation has stalled, as both the
birth rate and the number of children per woman have leveled off.
Percent
160

Per thousand population
30

140

Child dependency ratio
(left scale)

25

120

Birth rate
(right scale)

100

20
80

Labor force participation rate
(left scale)

60

15
40

20

10
0
1950

1954

1958

1962

1966

1970

1974

1978

1982

1986

1990

1994

Note: Labor force participation rate refers to women age 20 to 54. Pre-1994 participation rates are corrected
for effects of the revised Current Population Survey questionnaire. The child dependency ratio is the ratio of
children age 14 and under to the female civilian population age 20 to 54. The birth rate is the number of
live births per thousand population.
Sources: Departments of Health and Human Services and Labor, and Council of Economic Advisers.

quarter of 1990, about the same as the trend rate during the entire
post–1973 period (Chart 2–5). The figures discussed here are new
estimates of productivity using the recently revised GDP data. See
Box 2–6 for details about these estimates and Box 2–7 for a discussion of the relationship between productivity and real wages.
Table 2–2 shows the relative contributions of productivity and
labor force growth to output growth, both over the past few decades
and as projected for the next several years. In the past, the relative
importance of these determinants of long-run growth have varied
substantially across time periods. During the 1960–73 period, output growth was fueled by a rapid increase in both the working-age
population and productivity. Productivity growth slowed dramatically after 1973, but was partially offset in the mid- and late 1970s
by an increasing rate of labor force participation. From 1981 to
1995, the growth rate of the working-age population slowed dramatically, but was countered by stabilization in the length of the
workweek and other factors. The Administration forecast of 2.3
percent average GDP growth for the next 7 years reflects projections of 1.2 percent average growth in productivity and 1.1 percent
average growth in the labor force. Measured productivity is expected to grow a bit faster than in the recent past as further deficit
reduction boosts investment, and planned adjustments to the CPI,
which affect productivity measures, are implemented.

57



TABLE 2–2.—Accounting for Growth in Real GDP, 1960–2002
[Average annual percent change]
1960 II
to
1973 IV

Item

1973 IV
to
1981 III

1981 III
to
1995 III

1995 III
to
2002

1) Civilian noninstitutional population aged 16 and over ..........................
2) PLUS: Civilian labor force participation rate 1 ...................................

1.8
.2

1.8
.5

1.1
.3

1.0
.1

3) EQUALS: Civilian labor force 1 .................................................................
4) PLUS: Civilian employment rate 1 .......................................................

2.0
.0

2.4
−.4

1.4
.1

1.1
.0

5) EQUALS: Civilian employment 1 ...............................................................
6) PLUS: Nonfarm business employment as a share of civilian employment 1 2 ................................................................................................

2.0

2.0

1.5

1.1

.1

.1

.1

.1

7) EQUALS: Nonfarm business employment ................................................
8) PLUS: Average weekly hours (nonfarm business sector) ...................

2.1
−.5

2.1
−.7

1.7
.0

1.2
.0

9) EQUALS: Hours of all persons (nonfarm business) ................................
10) PLUS: Output per hour (productivity, nonfarm business) ...............

1.6
2.9

1.3
1.1

1.6
1.1

1.2
1.2

11) EQUALS: Nonfarm business output .........................................................
12) LESS: Nonfarm business output as a share of real GDP 3 ................

4.5
−.3

2.5
.0

2.8
−.2

2.4
−.1

13) EQUALS: Real GDP ..................................................................................

4.2

2.5

2.5

2.3

1

Adjusted for 1994 revision of the Current Population Survey.
Line 6 translates the civilian employment growth rate into the nonfarm business employment growth rate.
Line 12 translates nonfarm business output back into output for all sectors (GDP), which includes the output of farms
and general government.
Note.—Data may not sum to totals due to rounding.
Except for 1995, time periods are from business-cycle peak to business-cycle peak to avoid cyclical variation.
Sources: Council of Economic Advisers, Department of Commerce, and Department of Labor.
2
3

Chart 2-5 Actual and Trend Labor Productivity
Smoothed for cyclical fluctuations, labor productivity has grown at a steady
1.1 percent average annual rate since 1973.
Index, 1992 = 100 (ratio scale)
110
100

Trend

90

Trend = 1.1% (annual rate)
(1973 Q4 to 1995 Q3)

80

Actual

70

60

Trend = 2.9% (annual rate)
(1960 Q2 to 1973 Q4)

50
601
661 681 701
761 781 801
861 881 901
1960 621 641 1965
1970 721 741 1975
1980 821 841 1985
1990 921 941 1995
611 631 651 671 691 711 731 751 771 791 811 831 851 871 891 911 931 951

Note: Data are for the nonfarm business sector.
Source: Provisional estimates calculated by the Council of Economic Advisers from data provided by the
Departments of Commerce and Labor.

58



Box 2–6. New Productivity Estimates

The estimates of productivity in Chart 2–5 use the new,
chain-weighted measure of output and data from the product
side rather than the income side of the national income accounts. The new estimates avoid the biases inherent in a fixedweight measure of output. The previous fixed-weight measure
biased productivity growth downward before the base year
(1987) and upward thereafter, with larger biases in years further from the base year. These biases produce the illusion that
productivity growth had improved from the 1970s to the 1980s
and improved again to the 1990s. Still, many problems remain.
For example, quality improvements often go unrecognized, especially in the service sector, biasing estimates of service-sector
output downward. Although it is not clear that
mismeasurement in services is more important today than in
past decades, the increasing size of the service sector raises the
suspicion that these problems are now relatively larger (see
Economic Report of the President 1995 for a discussion of the
problems associated with measuring productivity).

INCOMES
Income growth during the first three quarters of 1995 moderated
a bit from its pace during 1994, reflecting mainly the deceleration
in employment growth. Real disposable income increased at an annual rate of 2.4 percent for the first three quarters, just below the
2.6 percent rate over 1994. The slight decline from the year-earlier
pace was due to a pause in income growth during the second quarter, which accompanied the overall moderation in economic growth.
Corporate profits increased in 1995, at about the same pace as
1994. The pattern over the year followed that of overall economic
growth, with profits softening during the first half and rebounding
strongly during the third quarter. Other components of national income likewise increased at more moderate rates during 1995, with
the exception of rental income which declined through the third
quarter.

MONETARY POLICY AND INTEREST RATES IN 1995
Monetary policy changed little during 1995. After raising the
Federal funds rate by half a percentage point (to 6.0 percent) in
February, the Federal Reserve held it constant until July, when it
lowered the rate by a quarter of a percentage point. In late December, the Federal Reserve cut the rate another quarter percentage
point, so that 1995 ended with the Federal funds rate at 5.5 percent, exactly where it had begun the year. In line with the relative

59



Box 2–7. Productivity and the Real Wage

Do employees benefit on average, either directly through an
increase in compensation or indirectly through lower prices,
from increases in their productivity? Conventional economic
theory says that they should, at least over long periods. Historically, the evidence has borne this out. During the past few
years, however, questions increasingly have been raised about
whether the benefits of recent productivity gains have indeed
gone to employees.
Some observers point out that hourly compensation (wages
plus benefits) adjusted for changes in consumption prices has
not kept pace with productivity in recent years. This ‘‘real consumption wage,’’ however, is not the appropriate measure for
assessing whether firms are remunerating employees for increases in productivity. Because firms hire an additional employee only if the cost of doing so is less than or equal to the
value of that employee’s output, a more appropriate measure
to compare with productivity is compensation adjusted for output prices. This ‘‘real product wage’’ has tracked productivity
in recent years (Chart 2–6).
The real consumption wage has risen recently by less than
the real product wage because prices for goods and services
that employees consume have risen by more than prices for
goods and services they produce. A large part of this divergence likely is due to computer prices, which have fallen relative to most other prices. Because spending on computers represents a smaller share of personal consumption expenditures
than computer production does of aggregate output, the decline
in their price has restrained output prices by more than it has
consumption prices.
Although the divergence between consumption and output
prices explains much of the gap between productivity and the
real consumption wage, pre-benchmark data also had shown a
small gap between productivity and the real product wage. The
new GDP data eliminate this gap.
Employees, of course, care more about the purchasing power
of their wages (the real consumption wage) than about any
‘‘wage-productivity gap.’’ And the stagnation of wages over the
past two decades, particularly for the lower part of the income
distribution, is cause for concern. Ultimately, however, the only
way in the long run to raise real wages is to raise productivity.

60



Chart 2-6 Measures of Real Compensation and Labor Productivity
The real product wage has kept pace with productivity, whereas the real
consumption wage has not.
Index, 1979=100
120

110

Real product wage

100

Nonfarm labor productivity
90

Real consumption wage
80

70

60
601
661 681 701
761 781 801
861 881 901
1960 621 641 1965
1970 721 741 1975
1980 821 841 1985
1990 921 941 1995
611 631 651 671 691 711 731 751 771 791 811 831 851 871 891 911 931 951

Note: Wages are compensation per hour in the nonfarm business sector divided by the consumption deflator
for the real consumption wage and by the nonfarm business deflator for the real product wage.
Sources: Departments of Commerce and Labor, and Council of Economic Advisers.

constancy of the Federal funds rate, other short-term interest rates
declined only modestly during 1995, with the rate on 3-month
Treasury bills dropping just half a percentage point compared with
the end of 1994.
In contrast, longer term rates declined sharply over the course of
the year. At the end of 1995, yields on 30-year, 10-year, and 3-year
Treasury securities had fallen more than 2 percentage points from
their peaks in late 1994. As a consequence, the spread between
long- and short-term interest rates narrowed sharply, and the yield
curve (which plots rates of interest for debt of different maturities)
was remarkably flat at the end of 1995 (Chart 2–7).
The flatness of the yield curve is consistent with several explanations. The most probable is that investors expect short-term interest rates, including the Federal funds rate, to decline further.
Certainly, evidence from the futures market for Federal funds supports this hypothesis and suggests that, as of February 5, 1996, investors expected a decline in the Federal funds rate on the order
of half a percentage point to occur by July 1996 (Chart 2–8).
An expected decline in short-term nominal interest rates could
reflect an expected decline in real interest rates or an expected decline in future inflation, or both. Real short-term interest rates
might be expected to decline because the tightening stance of fiscal
policy (as the deficit is reduced) increases the probability that eco-

61



Chart 2-7 The Yield Curve
The yield curve flattened in 1995 as long-term interest rates declined by more
than short-term interest rates.
Percent
10

December 1994
8

6

December 1995
4

2

0

33 months
months

years
5 5years

years
1010years

30 years
30 years

Maturity
Note: Interest rates are yields on Treasury securities adjusted to constant maturities.
Source: Department of the Treasury.

Chart 2-8 Federal Funds Rate
The futures market for Federal funds anticipates a decline in the Federal
funds rate over the first half of 1996.
Percent per year
6.5

6.0

5.5

5.0

Futures market
prediction as
of February 5, 1996

4.5

4.0

Actual
(monthly average)

3.5

3.0

2.50
Jan-93

1993

Jan-94

1994

Jan-95

1995

Note: February is average for first week of month.
Sources: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and Chicago Board of Trade.

62



Jan-96

1996

nomic growth will slow in the short run, and thus makes it more
likely that the monetary authorities would have to lower real shortterm interest rates to stabilize output. On the other hand, if output
is not fully stabilized and falls below its potential, the rate of inflation should decrease. In this case, much of the expected decline in
future nominal interest rates would reflect a drop in the expected
premium for inflation.
The superb performance of the stock market—both the Dow industrial average and the broader S&P 500 index rose by more than
33 percent during 1995—seems to favor the view that real shortterm interest rates are expected to fall. In general, equity prices
should move positively with the current level and expected real
growth rate of dividends, and inversely with the real rate of interest. Although dividend growth was very strong over the year, these
gains probably were not sufficient, even with an associated permanent shift upward in the level of expected future real dividends, to
explain the phenomenal gains in stock prices during 1995. More
likely, investors anticipated that a decline in real short-term interest rates would be forthcoming.

FISCAL POLICY IN 1995
The budget deficit for fiscal 1995 was $164 billion, substantially
below estimates made earlier in the year. The budget deficit has
now declined for 3 years in a row, for the first time since the 1940s.
Were it not for the interest payments on debt accumulated during
past Administrations, the budget last year would have been in surplus (see Chart 2–9). The sharp decline in the budget deficit has
slowed the rise in the national debt sufficiently that the ratio of the
national debt to GDP has remained roughly constant for the past
2 fiscal years.
Part of the improvement in the deficit is likely to be associated
with the state of the business cycle. Tax revenues relative to expenditures tend to rise during an expansion and fall during a recession. To assess changes in fiscal policy, economists adjust the
budget deficit (or surplus) for economic conditions. On this basis,
the Administration’s progress in reducing the deficit also was evident during 1995, as the cyclically adjusted, or structural, budget
deficit continued to decline (Chart 2–10).
The progress in reducing the deficit was made possible by the
Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, which cut constantdollar government purchases of goods and services over the past 2
years. Furthermore, as part of the ongoing efforts of this Administration to downsize government, the Federal workforce has been reduced substantially. Between January 1993 and November 1995,
Federal civilian employment (excluding the Postal Service) has declined by about 215,000, leaving the Federal workforce smaller

63



Chart 2-9 Federal Budget Receipts and Non-Interest Outlays
The Federal budget excluding net interest payments was in surplus last fiscal year.
in surplus last fiscal year.
Percent of GDP
22

21

Outlays
less net interest
20

19

18

Receipts

170
1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

Fiscal Years
Note: The GDP measure used is pre-January 1996 benchmark revision.
Source: Office of Management and Budget.

Chart 2-10 Federal Budget Deficit
As the Federal budget deficit has declined over the past 3 years, the deficit adjusted
for the business cycle--the so-called structural deficit--also has fallen.
Percent of GDP
7

6

Deficit
5

4

3

2

Structural deficit
1

0
1970

1975

1980

1985
Fiscal Years

Note: The GDP measure used is pre-January 1996 benchmark revision.
Sources: Office of Management and Budget and Congressional Budget Office.

64



1990

1995

than at any time since the mid-1960s. Moreover, as the next few
years unfold, the drop in employment should approach the target
of 272,911 agreed to as part of the Federal Workforce Restructuring Act of 1994.
Two government shutdowns occurred late in the year and temporarily interrupted the disbursement of some Federal spending. Because most of this spending was restored once the shutdowns
ended, the overall stance of fiscal policy was largely unaffected.
However, the shutdowns did exact a significant budgetary cost and
lowered real GDP growth by roughly 0.25 to 0.5 percentage point
at an annual rate during the fourth quarter of 1995.
The Congress also failed to pass legislation acceptable to the Administration for an extended increase in the debt ceiling on Federal
borrowing authority, forcing the Secretary of the Treasury to take
extraordinary actions to ensure that the United States did not default for the first time in its history. As this Report went to press,
the Congressional leadership had made a commitment in a letter
to the President to pass a mutually acceptable debt limit increase
by February 29. Passage of a straightforward long-term extension
of the debt ceiling still is required to avoid a potential future default.

WHAT CAUSES ECONOMIC EXPANSIONS TO END?
The current economic expansion began in March 1991 and, as of
February 1996, had run for 59 months, a little longer than the 50month average for expansions since the end of World War II and
the third-longest of the 10 postwar expansions (Chart 2–11). As the
expansion continued past the postwar average, some reports pointed to its age and raised the possibility that it might soon falter,
with the economy dipping into recession. Expansions, however, do
not end simply because they have somehow reached the end of
their ‘‘normal’’ life span. Rather, expansions end because of changes
in economic conditions or policies.
The length of postwar economic expansions has varied substantially, with the shortest one, in 1980–81, lasting only 12 months
and the longest, that of 1961–69, 106 months. Such large differences make the average length of expansions a relatively
uninformative guide to the life expectancy of the current expansion
(Box 2–8). A far better way to judge whether the expansion is
about to end is to assess whether the economic symptoms that
often precede a downturn—rising inflation, rising interest rates, financial imbalances, banking sector troubles, or an inventory overhang—have begun to appear, and if so, whether monetary or fiscal
policies could successfully offset these symptoms. In the early
1960s, for example, the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations ju-

65



Chart 2-11 Length of Economic Expansions
The current expansion has run for 59 months, slightly longer than the average
postwar expansion.
Months
120
106

100
92

80

Postwar
average:
50 months
59

58

60
45

40

37

39

36
24

20
12

0
1945-48 1949-53 1954-57 1958-60 1961-69 1970-73 1975-80 1980-81 1982-90

1991-

Note: Note.
Sources: National Bureau of Economic Research and Council of Economic Advisers.

diciously applied tax policy as a tool of aggregate demand management to abort an impending downturn.
Box 2–8.—Duration Analysis of Business Cycles

Economists have used statistical methods to determine
whether the end of an expansion or a recession becomes more
likely the longer it goes on. Most findings show that, for business cycles since World War II, expansions are not significantly
more likely to end simply because they get older, whereas recessions are (Chart 2–12). Although this difference between expansions and recessions is consistent with several explanations, the most likely reason is that policymakers since
World War II have more actively engaged in countercyclical
monetary and fiscal policies. With policymakers attempting to
sustain expansions, events that precipitate downturns—such
as oil price shocks or policy mistakes—are as likely to occur
early as late in an expansion, so the length of an expansion
does not affect the chance that it will soon end. On the other
hand, if the pressure on policymakers to stimulate the economy
grows stronger the longer a recession persists, then a recession
that has lasted a while will be more likely to end in the next
month than a recession that has just begun.

66



Chart 2-12 Probability that an Expansion or a Contraction Will End
The longer a contraction lasts, the higher the probability that it will end in the next month.
This is not true for expansions--they do not exhibit "duration dependence."
Probability of ending (percent)
80

Probability of ending (percent)
40
Expansion (right scale)
Contraction (left scale)

60

30

40

20

20

10

0

0
0

12

24

36
48
60
72
Length of expansion or contraction (months)

84

96

Note: Each data point represents one or more post-World War II expansions or contractions.
Sources: Diebold, F., G. Rudebusch, and D. Sichel (1993), "Further Evidence on Business-Cycle Duration
Dependence," in Stock, J. and M. Watson, eds., NBER Studies in Business Cycles, vol. 28, University of
Chicago Press; National Bureau of Economic Research; and Council of Economic Advisers.

ECONOMIC SYMPTOMS PRECEDING A DOWNTURN
The onset of most recessions since World War II has followed a
sustained increase in the core rate of inflation (Chart 2–13). The
rise in inflation sometimes has been precipitated by external
events—such as foreign crises that have raised oil prices—and
sometimes has resulted from overly stimulative fiscal or monetary
policies. In the case of a foreign price shock, core inflation may rise
if the foreign price increase gets incorporated into the process of
setting domestic wages and prices. In the case of overly stimulative
policies, core inflation may rise if the economy is pushed to operate
at a level above full capacity (the unemployment rate is forced
below its sustainable level).
A common pattern is that a sustained increase in the core rate
of inflation eventually triggers an increase in short-term interest
rates. In general, a greater ongoing acceleration of prices can lead
to a sharper subsequent downturn. For example, during the late
1970s, although the Federal Reserve had begun to tighten policy
just prior to the pickup in core inflation, the bulk of its tightening
came only as inflation was rising rapidly. As a result, the subsequent tightening was much greater than it might have been if
tightening had started somewhat earlier. Accordingly, one of the
most important factors in assessing the chance that an expansion
will end is the recent evidence on the core rate of inflation.

67



Chart 2-13 Changes in Core Inflation
A sustained rise in core inflation has preceded most postwar recessions.
A sustained rise in core inflation has preceded most post-war recessions.
Percentage points
3

2

1

0

-1

-2

-3
1969 711
1975 771
1977 791
1981 831
1983 851
1985 871
1987 891
1991 931
1967 691
1971 731
1973 751
1979 811
1989 911
1993 951
1995
671
Note: Data are differences in four-quarter percent changes in the CPI less food and energy. Shaded
areas denote recessions.
Sources: Department of Labor and Council of Economic Advisers.

After trending downward from its recent peak in 1990, core inflation has been low and stable over the past 2 years (Chart 2–14).
In addition, during 1995 interest rates fell, especially during the
last part of the year. As they did so, the interest-sensitive housing
and automobile sectors recovered from their slackening earlier in
the year. Thus, with inflation stable and interest rates likely to decline further, the evidence strongly supports continuing economic
expansion.
The 1990–91 recession, however, did not follow the typical pattern of rising interest rates preceding a downturn (although it did
follow the pattern of a prior increase in core inflation). When that
downturn arrived, some short-term interest rates had been falling
for a full year. But a distinguishing feature of the period preceding
that recession was the weakened condition of financial institutions,
especially savings and loan associations and banks. Unlike in the
late 1980s and early 1990s, when savings and loan associations
and many banks were in financial difficulty due in part to the collapse of an overheated real estate market, banks today are on a
more stable footing. The better financial situation of the banks suggests that the system should be able to adapt more easily today to
any adverse shift in interest rates or real estate values, thereby
limiting the consequences for the overall economy.

68



Chart 2-14 Core Inflation Rate
Core inflation has remained low and roughly stable for the past 3 years.
has remained low and roughly stable for the past 2 years.
Percent
6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0
Jan89 1989 Jan90 1990 Jan91

1991 Jan92 1992 Jan93 1993 Jan94
Note: Data are 12-month percent changes in the CPI excluding food and energy.
Shaded area denotes recession.
Source: Department of Labor.

1994 Jan95

1995

Finally, a sharp rise in inventories can often signal that spending
has unexpectedly fallen, and can lead firms to cut production, possibly precipitating a recession. After a buildup of inventory during
the early part of last year, the subsequent moderation in production helped to reduce the overhang. As a result, inventories presently are at more manageable levels.

SHORT-RUN MACROECONOMIC EFFECTS OF
REDUCING THE BUDGET DEFICIT
As the budget moves toward balance over the next 7 years, two
factors will help to ensure that deficit reduction sustains economic
growth in the short run. First, a forward-looking response of financial markets to deficit reduction can accelerate the decline in real
long-term interest rates, bringing forward the investment dividend
associated with balancing the budget. Second, an accommodative
monetary policy can validate the market’s response and reinforce
its positive effects on short-run growth. But such a response by financial markets that is backed-up by monetary policy ultimately
depends on the credibility of the deficit reduction itself.

The Response of Financial Markets
Cutting the deficit reduces the government’s claim on the output
of the economy, either directly through lower purchases of goods

69



and services or indirectly through reduced transfer payments, freeing up resources for use by the private sector. Thus, the critical
question for the outlook is whether or not spending by the private
sector will rise and take advantage of the newly available resources, thereby sustaining growth in the short term. The answer
depends largely on whether financial markets adjust sufficiently in
response to deficit reduction so as to support the level of aggregate
spending.
Adjustments in financial markets can stimulate spending in the
economy in two major ways. First, deficit reduction raises private
investment spending, primarily through a decline in real long-term
interest rates, that is, long-term interest rates adjusted for expectations of future inflation. Second, deficit reduction spurs international competitiveness, leading to an improvement in the current
account balance. Part of this improvement comes through expansion of exports to our trading partners and part comes through
shifts by consumers and businesses away from imports and toward
more competitive U.S. products. How much of the stimulus comes
through investment and how much through net exports depends on
the response of interest rates and interactions between interest
rates and exchange rates. In the end, however, the stimulus will
depend largely on the magnitude and timing of the decline in real
long-term interest rates.
Some increase in spending could occur purely as a result of a fall
in nominal interest rates that reflects entirely a drop in expectations about future inflation, leaving real rates unchanged. This
might happen, for example, if qualifying standards for access to
mortgage credit are specified in nominal terms, so that a decline
in nominal interest rates allows more individuals or businesses to
borrow even though real interest rates have not declined. Overall,
though, a rise in aggregate spending due to this effect is likely to
be far less important than the rise in spending accompanying a
drop in real interest rates.
Deficit reduction can lower real long-term interest rates through
three channels. First, a shrinking deficit directly lowers real longterm interest rates through a ‘‘portfolio’’ channel, as reduced government borrowing over time lowers the supply of government
bonds relative to other assets. Second, a shrinking deficit lowers
real long-term interest rates through an ‘‘aggregate demand’’ channel, as the shift to a contractionary fiscal policy weakens aggregate
spending and money demand. Third, a shrinking deficit lowers real
long-term interest rates through a ‘‘term-structure’’ channel. More
prudent fiscal policy diminishes the likelihood that monetary policy
in the future may have to restrain an overheating economy and
lowers expected real short-term interest rates. Since long-term interest rates depend on the current and expected future levels of

70



short-term rates, an expected decline in future short-term rates
will be reflected in a decline in long-term rates.

The Importance of Forward-Looking Expectations
When market participants are forward-looking and anticipate
(correctly) that the monetary authority will accommodate future
credible deficit reduction, real long-term interest rates fall by more
than when market participants either do not view future deficit reduction as credible or believe that monetary accommodation will
not be forthcoming. To understand why credible deficit reduction
accompanied by appropriate monetary accommodation leads to
greater declines in long-term interest rates, we have to understand
the relationship between short-term and long-term interest rates.
Market participants investing their funds for say, 10 years, have
a choice of buying a 10-year bond, or buying a 1-year bond, and
rolling it over next year into another 1-year bond, and so forth. Adjusting for the differences in risk, the two investment strategies
should yield the same return. In the absence of risk, this would
mean that the long rate would simply equal the average of expected short rates over the 10-year period.
Deficit reduction that is viewed as credible and likely to be accompanied by future monetary accommodation leads investors to
expect a future decline in short-term rates. Because long-term
bonds must yield the same return (up to a risk premium) as a series of successive short-term bonds, long-term rates also will decline, typically by more than current short-term rates. In addition,
credible deficit reduction that is accompanied by a more stable and
certain fiscal policy, could further lower real long-term interest
rates through a reduction in the ‘‘risk premium.’’ With investors
more certain about the future, long-term investments become less
risky and the premium paid on such investments falls. On the
other hand, if market participants believe the deficit reduction is
not credible, then they will not expect additional future declines in
real short-term interest rates and the risk premium will not fall,
so that the decline in current real long-term rates will be less. In
this case, a larger drop in current short-term interest rates would
be necessary to lead to a sufficient decline in long-term rates so as
to sustain aggregate spending and ensure full employment.
The evidence over the past 3 years, which witnessed deficit reduction combined with economic recovery, shows that interest rate
declines can more than offset the contractionary effects when market participants are forward looking. In particular, the decrease in
long-term interest rates occurred in anticipation of the deficit reduction, and had the desired effects of stimulating investment—not
only in offsetting the shift to a contractionary fiscal stance, but in
supporting the economic recovery.

71



The success thus far of financial markets in ensuring that deficit
reduction does not compromise near-term growth does not mean
that appropriate monetary policy is unimportant. Monetary policy—which operates with long and variable lags—needs to anticipate both the pattern of deficit reduction and other events which
affect the level of aggregate economic activity. If monetary policy,
for instance, follows a rule and responds to increases in the unemployment rate above its sustainable level only after the increases
have occurred, then paths of more rapid deficit reduction would be
accompanied by higher average levels of unemployment. But with
a pre-announced schedule of credible deficit reduction, the shifting
fiscal stance could be incorporated into monetary policymaking,
taking account of normal lags. And, with investors expecting future
deficit reduction, the market does much of the work of accelerating
the decline in interest rates, so that relatively little change may be
required in monetary policy to sustain growth in the short run.
Analysis using macroeconometric model simulations confirm
these patterns. In one simulation, with monetary policy following
a feedback rule (but not fully offsetting the effects of deficit reduction on the output gap) and with investors perfectly anticipating future changes in interest rates, long-term interest rates fall much
more quickly than short-term interest rates—mirroring the pattern
observed during 1995. In another simulation, investors are not forward-looking and monetary policy fails to accommodate the effects
of deficit reduction and instead holds constant the rate of increase
in the money supply. Although market forces lead to a decline in
short-term and long-term interest rates and an associated increase
in investment, in this simulation the decline in rates is not sufficient to sustain the economy at full employment. The message from
this analysis is that the combination of credible deficit reduction
and a well-designed monetary policy that anticipates future deficit
reduction can avoid potential contractionary effects on the economy.

FORECAST AND OUTLOOK
The economic expansion is forecast to continue throughout 1996,
as the effects of recent declines in long-term rates boost spending.
Over the 7-year forecast horizon, output is projected to track potential output and the rate of inflation is expected to remain roughly
constant (Table 2–3).
Real GDP is projected to grow at its potential rate of 2.2 percent
during 1996 (on a fourth-quarter-over-fourth-quarter basis), as investment in both the housing and the business sectors responds to
lower interest rates and as consumption spending is supported by
recent gains in stock market prices. Inflation, as measured by the

72



TABLE 2–3.—Administration Forecast
Actual
Item

1996
1994

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

1995
Percent change, fourth quarter to fourth quarter

Nominal GDP .............

5.9

1 4.1

Real GDP (chaintype) .....................

3.5

1 1.5

2.2

2.3

2.3

2.3

2.3

2.3

2.3

GDP price index
(chain-type) ..........

2.3

1 2.5

2.8

2.7

2.7

2.7

2.7

2.7

2.7

Consumer price index
(CPI-U) ..................

2.6

2.7

3.1

2.9

2.8

2.8

2.8

2.8

2.8

5.1

5.1

5.1

5.1

5.1

5.1

5.1

Calendar year average
Unemployment rate
(percent) ...............

6.1

5.6

5.7

5.7

5.7

5.7

5.7

5.7

5.7

Interest rate, 91-day
Treasury bills ........
(percent) ...................

4.3

5.5

4.9

4.5

4.3

4.2

4.0

4.0

4.0

Interest rate, 10-year
Treasury notes
(percent) ...............

7.1

6.6

5.6

5.3

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

Nonfarm payroll employment (millions)

114.0

116.6

118.3

119.8

121.2

122.6

124.1

126.0

127.9

1

Estimates.
Note.—The figures for 1994 and 1995 reflect the benchmark revisions to GDP announced in January 1996 and may differ
from those used to prepare the Administration’s 1997 budget.
Sources: Council of Economic Advisers, Department of Labor, Department of the Treasury, and Office of Management and
Budget.

CPI, is expected to increase to 3.1 percent in 1996 from 2.7 percent
in 1995, as food and energy prices, which had held down the overall rate of price increase last year, are expected to rise in line with
overall inflation this year. The core rate of inflation is expected to
remain roughly unchanged during 1996, consistent with our forecast that unemployment is likely to remain relatively unchanged,
and that at current unemployment rates, pressures for increasing
inflation are weak or nonexistent.
Although true inflation is expected to remain constant from 1996
onward, inflation as measured by the CPI is expected to edge lower
as revised procedures gradually remove part of the upward biases
in current CPI inflation figures. CPI inflation is likely to slow by
0.2 percentage point in 1997, when the Bureau of Labor Statistics
(BLS) will implement procedures to correct for problems associated
with bringing new stores into the survey sample. CPI inflation is
expected to slow by another 0.1 percentage point in 1998, when the
BLS updates the CPI market basket to reflect more recent data on
expenditure patterns. As a result of these adjustments, CPI inflation is expected to fall from 3.1 percent in 1996 to 2.8 percent in
1998 and thereafter. Some of these CPI adjustments pass through
to the GDP price index and, given the growth rate of nominal GDP,

73



raise estimates of real GDP growth. Consequently, real GDP
growth is projected to rise to 2.3 percent from 1997 onward.
The impetus from the decline in interest rates in the second half
of 1995 is expected to keep aggregate demand growing at the
economy’s potential rate for 1996. Over the medium term, interest
rates are expected to edge lower as projected reductions in the Federal deficit reduce demands on capital markets. The projected decline in interest rates is expected to sustain growth at its potential
rate as deficit reduction further restrains Federal spending.
The unemployment rate is projected at 5.7 percent in the near
term and is expected to remain at that level throughout the forecast period. Economic growth of 2.3 percent over the forecast horizon is expected to generate enough jobs to employ all the new entrants implied by the expected 1.1 percent annual growth rate of
the labor force. This unemployment rate is also expected to be consistent with long-term stability of the inflation rate.
As always, the forecast has risks. A basic assumption is that
monetary policy will be calibrated to offset the ongoing effects of
fiscal contraction. Obviously, monetary policy may not achieve this
goal. Monetary policy has long lags, and so the course of fiscal policy must be properly anticipated. But fiscal policy depends on budgetary and other policy decisions of the Congress, and at present future Congressional action remains uncertain, despite bipartisan
consensus toward achieving a balanced budget.
In the short term, the economy may hit a pothole in the first
quarter of 1996, resulting at least in part from the effects of the
government shutdown and bad weather in the eastern United
States during January. But even if this should come to pass, the
economy is expected to rebound, and the growth rate over the four
quarters of 1996 is likely to be unaffected. The economy also faces
the risk that foreign economic growth may stall, reducing foreign
demand for U.S. exports. Still, the U.S. economy’s export performance in 1995, in the face of economic weakening in three of our
major trading partners, was impressive. Increased exports to
strengthening economies in Canada, Japan, and Mexico would help
offset any losses elsewhere.

CONCLUSION
As the year 1995 ended, the economy was fundamentally sound.
None of the imbalances that typically precede a recession were evident. All signs pointed to continued economic expansion at a sustainable pace. Unemployment was expected to stay low, the inflation rate was expected to remain low and stable, and business investment was expected to continue powering the economy as interest rates declined.

74



The economy during 1995 made the transition from economic recovery, during which growth was driven by removing slack from
labor and capital markets, to a period where growth is and will
continue to be determined by expansion of the economy’s capacity.
Although the transition to sustained growth was not entirely
smooth, the economy rebounded smartly during the second half of
1995 from the earlier bump in the road and should continue to expand during 1996.
Perhaps the best news during the year was that inflation remained low and stable despite an unemployment rate that in the
past was associated with rising inflation. The stability of inflation
even as the unemployment rate was essentially unchanged at
about 5.6 percent appears to signal a shift in the economic environment. The improved economic environment also was apparent in
bond and stock markets, as long-term interest rates fell and stock
prices soared, reflecting in part an outlook for inflation reminiscent
of the early 1960s.
The bipartisan commitment to balance the budget over the next
7 years was the major macroeconomic policy event of the year, and
represents a continuation of Administration efforts to redress the
fiscal imbalance inherited from the past. As the deficit is further
reduced, private investment should increase, helping to raise living
standards. And, deficit reduction that is credible means that the
decline in interest rates needed to sustain growth in the short run
is likely to be forthcoming with only modest accommodation from
monetary policy. A significant portion of the decline in long-term
interest rates during 1995, particularly over the second half of the
year, probably reflected investors’ perception that credible further
deficit reduction was on the horizon. The Administration’s success
in reducing the deficit over the last 3 years certainly demonstrates
the firmness of its commitment to restoring balance to the Federal
budget.

75






CHAPTER 3

Making Fiscal Policy Choices Within
and Across Generations
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT in a modern market economy
was discussed in Chapter 1. That discussion largely centered on
what government should do. This chapter shifts the focus to how
government should be financed. Although these decisions are interrelated, separating them permits more detailed analysis of each. In
particular, this chapter examines the tradeoffs between equity and
efficiency that are pervasive in government finance.
The primary means of obtaining resources to fund government
activities is the tax system. Even if public goods and services are
financed initially by debt, the costs of debt service in later years
and the ultimate repayment of the debt are covered through taxes.
Decisions regarding the design of tax systems incorporate compromises between the sometimes competing concerns of economic
efficiency and equity, as well as reflect competition among entities
seeking favorable treatment. The current U.S. tax system reflects
these considerations in various ways both large (the proportion of
revenue raised by various components of the tax system) and small
(provisions affecting single industries).
Recently numerous policymakers and others have called for an
overhaul of the tax system because the current system is complex
and sometimes has inappropriate economic incentives. In thinking
about major or minor reforms to the tax system, it is important to
judge them on several criteria: equity, economic efficiency, revenue
adequacy, and simplicity. One should also remember that the details of tax proposals can affect greatly the extent to which a reform would satisfy these criteria.
As if the fiscal policy environment facing today’s policymakers
were not challenging enough, demographic trends are likely to
make future fiscal policy choices even more difficult. Today the
United States has 3.3 workers for every retiree. Under reasonable
projections, by 2030 that number is expected to fall to 2.0. This will
have major implications for government transfer programs such as
Social Security and Medicare. Private sector institutions may also
come under stress from these large and largely predictable demographic changes. How the U.S. economy adjusts to these changes
may be the single greatest economic challenge facing today’s chil-

77



dren as they grow older. The second part of this chapter examines
the policy implications of these demographic changes.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE TAX SYSTEM
The Federal Government raises revenues from payroll taxes, individual and corporate income taxes, estate and gift taxes, and excise taxes on a wide range of commodities. Revenues from each
component of the tax system are the product of established tax
rates (e.g., cents per gallon, percentages of taxable income) applied
to defined tax bases (e.g., gallons of gasoline, dollars of taxable income). In some cases, tax bases are easy to define, while in others
(such as taxable income) the definitions can be quite lengthy and
complex. Statutory rules and administrative interpretations affect
the amounts raised, as do the levels of compliance.
For over 200 years, Americans have debated the appropriate
base for taxation of individuals. Some have claimed that income is
the most appropriate base, because it provides a measure of an individual’s (or household’s) ability to pay tax. Others have claimed
that consumption is a more appropriate tax base, because it measures how much of the resources available to society are claimed (or
consumed) by an individual or household. Economics generally cannot settle this debate over what is, at heart, a philosophical concern. However, economists can contribute to the debate by analyzing the consequences of choosing alternative tax bases. For instance, generally the broader the tax base, the lower the rate required to raise a given amount of revenue. Since income in any period equals consumption plus saving, a broad-based consumption
tax is assessed on a smaller base than a comprehensive income tax.
In effect, a consumption tax exempts saving from taxation, whereas
an income tax does not. This means that to raise the same revenue,
lower tax rates can be applied to an income base than to a consumption base. But this simple arithmetic ignores possible supply
responses to different tax systems (e.g., changes in saving behavior
or labor supply). Economic analysis can provide insight into the
likely magnitudes of these responses, contributing further to the
policy debate.
The Federal tax system (like most State and local systems) has
evolved into a hybrid, incorporating elements of both a consumption tax and an income tax. Elements of consumption taxation are
the various excise taxes and the favorable tax treatment provided
to capital income under both the individual income tax (e.g., individual retirement arrangements, pensions, favorable treatment of
capital gains income, favorable treatment of investment in owneroccupied housing) and some provisions of the corporate income tax
(e.g., immediate expensing of certain investments and accelerated

78



depreciation). These provisions either partly or completely exempt
the normal returns to capital investments from tax, either directly
through a low or zero tax rate on this income (as with capital gains
income; Box 3–1), or by allowing a deduction of all or part of an
investment from taxable income. Table 3–1 lists a number of consumption tax components of today’s income tax (individual and corporate), along with the amount of tax expenditure associated with
each. (A tax expenditure is the revenue loss due to preferential provisions of tax law, such as special exclusions, exemptions, deductions, credits, deferrals, or preferential tax rates. These revenue
losses are measured against a comprehensive income tax base.)
Taken together, these components mean that the existing tax system is part income tax, part consumption tax.
Contrary to what some have claimed, taxes collected at all levels
of government—Federal, State, and local—have been a fairly constant proportion (between 26 and 30 percent) of gross domestic
product (GDP) for the last 30 years, despite numerous major
changes in the Federal and State tax structures. By this same
measure, the United States ranks among the lowest taxed of the
countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (Table 3–2).
Federal revenues as a fraction of GDP have not changed dramatically over the past few decades (mostly fluctuating between 17
and 20 percent). However, the same cannot be said for the composition of revenues. Three major changes in revenue composition are
illustrated in Table 3–3: an increased reliance on payroll taxes (Social Security, Medicare, and unemployment insurance), a reduced
reliance on the corporate income tax, and a reduced reliance on excise taxes. Increased payroll taxes reflect changes in the Social Security system as well as the creation of Medicare. The reduction in
corporate tax revenues reflects both lower corporate income tax
rates and, more important, a reduction in recent years in domestic
corporate profits as a share of the economy, as business organizational structures and financing arrangements have evolved.
Through this period, the significance of the individual income tax
has ebbed and flowed without any discernible pattern. Over time,
tax base and rate changes have combined to more or less maintain
the relative importance of the individual income tax as a Federal
revenue source.
The level of taxation is important, but so is the distribution of
the tax burden among individuals of different incomes. The recent
debate over the tax system reveals considerable confusion about
the share of taxes borne by taxpayers at various income levels. The
Office of Tax Analysis of the Treasury Department estimates that,
in 1995, effective tax rates for households generally increased with
family economic income, which is a broad measure of income (Box

79



Box 3–1.—Taxation of Capital Gains Income

A capital gain (or loss) is the difference between what a taxpayer sells an asset for and the purchase price. Under current
law, capital gains income is favored compared with other forms
of income, and especially other forms of capital income:
• Capital gains income for individuals is never taxed at
more than 28 percent, whereas other income is taxed at
rates up to 39.6 percent. This preferential rate provides
those facing the highest marginal tax rate with a benefit
equivalent to excluding 30 percent of the gain.
• Capital gains income is not taxed until the asset generating the gain is sold with the timing of the sale at the
option of the owner. Other forms of income (e.g., labor
and interest income) are taxed as earned. This feature
provides two distinct advantages to capital gains income.
First, for assets held many years, deferral of tax liability
significantly reduces the tax burden on capital gains assets compared with assets that generate income taxed
annually. Second, taxpayers can strategically time sales
of assets with accumulated gains and choose to realize
gains in a year when they face a temporarily low tax
rate.
• Under the ‘‘step-up in basis at death’’ provision, the income tax liability on assets with accumulated gains is
forgiven when the asset holder dies. Heirs claim a new
tax basis for these assets: the fair market value at the
time of the previous owner’s death. Each year more than
$25 billion in capital gains income escapes taxation permanently through this provision.
• Taxpayers may defer gains from the sale of one primary
residence by purchasing another of greater value. Moreover, those age 55 and over may exclude up to $125,000
of gain on personal residences from taxation.
• The 1993 budget act contained a provision excluding half
of the gains on equity investments in certain ‘‘small’’
businesses held at least 5 years.
The tax advantages enjoyed by capital gains income tend to
benefit disproportionately those taxpayers with the highest incomes, who tend to have the largest asset holdings. The 1 percent of the population with the highest adjusted gross incomes
report over half the total capital gains realized and Treasury
Department estimates that for a recent year, about 12,000 taxpayers realized gains over $1 million.

80



TABLE 3–1.—Selected Consumption Tax Elements of the Income Tax
[Billions of dollars]
Consumption tax elements

Estimated tax
expenditure at
FY 1996 level

Expensing of:
Small investments .....................................................................................................................................
Research and development costs .............................................................................................................
Timber-growing costs ................................................................................................................................
Multiperiod agricultural production costs .................................................................................................

1.1
2.6
0.4
0.1

Accelerated depreciation of:
Nonresidential real property ......................................................................................................................
Machinery and equipment .........................................................................................................................

4.4
20.9

Exclusion of:
Pension contributions and earnings (employer plans) .............................................................................
Interest on life insurance savings ............................................................................................................

59.0
11.2

Deduction of IRA contributions and deferral of earnings .................................................................................

6.4

Source: Office of Management and budget.

TABLE 3–2.—Tax Share of GDP in Selected OECD Countries, 1994
Country

Percent of GDP

Group of Seven
United States ...........................................................................................................................................
Japan .......................................................................................................................................................
Germany ...................................................................................................................................................
France ......................................................................................................................................................
Italy ..........................................................................................................................................................
United Kingdom .......................................................................................................................................
Canada ....................................................................................................................................................

31.5
32.3
46.5
48.9
44.9
36.4
42.2

Australia ...........................................................................................................................................................
Austria ..............................................................................................................................................................
Belgium .............................................................................................................................................................
Denmark ............................................................................................................................................................

32.9
47.5
51.1
60.0

Finland ..............................................................................................................................................................
Greece ...............................................................................................................................................................
Ireland ...............................................................................................................................................................
Netherlands .......................................................................................................................................................

53.1
35.4
41.6
51.4

Norway ..............................................................................................................................................................
Portugal ............................................................................................................................................................
Spain .................................................................................................................................................................
Sweden ..............................................................................................................................................................

55.3
45.7
39.0
58.4

Source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

3–2). These data (shown in Table 3–4) indicate that the Federal tax
system maintains some degree of progressivity. (A progressive tax
system is one where the proportion of income paid in taxes rises
with a person’s income.) This overall progressivity reflects the fact
that the more progressive elements in the tax system outweigh the
effects of the less progressive elements. When State and local taxes
are factored into the analysis, this overall progressivity is reduced
but not eliminated.
The Federal tax system has become somewhat less progressive
over the past few decades, as payroll taxes came to account for a
greater proportion of overall revenues. But the tax changes made

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TABLE 3–3.—Composition of Federal Receipts
[Percent of total receipts]

Fiscal year

1950 .......................................................................
1955 .......................................................................
1960 .......................................................................
1965 .......................................................................
1970 .......................................................................
1975 .......................................................................
1980 .......................................................................
1985 .......................................................................
1990 .......................................................................
1995 2 ....................................................................

Individual
income
taxes

Corporation
income
taxes

39.9
43.9
44.0
41.8
46.9
43.9
47.2
45.6
45.3
43.7

26.5
27.3
23.2
21.8
17.0
14.6
12.5
8.4
9.1
11.2

Social insurance
taxes and
contributions
11.0
12.0
15.9
19.0
23.0
30.3
30.5
36.1
36.9
36.0

Excise taxes

Other 1

19.1
14.0
12.6
12.5
8.1
5.9
4.7
4.9
3.4
4.3

3.4
2.8
4.2
4.9
4.9
5.4
5.1
5.0
5.4
4.8

1

Includes estate and gift taxes, customs duties and fees, and Federal Reserve earnings transferred to the Treasury.
Estimate.
Note.—Detail may not add to 100 percent because of rounding.
Source: Office of Management and Budget.
2

Box 3–2.—Family Economic Income

The Treasury Department uses a broad measure of economic
well-being, called family economic income, when performing
distributional analyses on tax proposals. Family economic income combines the incomes and taxes of related family members who form a single economic unit. This fairly comprehensive measure of income starts with adjusted gross income as
reported to the Internal Revenue Service and then adds an estimate of unreported income; deductions claimed for individual
retirement account (IRA) and Keogh contributions; employerprovided fringe benefits such as health coverage; earnings on
pensions, IRAs, Keoghs, and life insurance policies; tax-exempt
interest; nontaxable cash transfer payments; and imputed rent
on owner-occupied housing. Capital gains are computed on an
accrual basis, with the inflation component removed (if possible). Inflation adjustments are also made to the incomes of
borrowers and lenders.
in the 1990 and 1993 budget acts tended to increase progressivity,
both in the income tax and overall.
Chart 3–1 shows Gini coefficients for the before-tax distribution
of income in the United States and for the distribution after tax
and transfer programs are included. (The Gini coefficient is a measure of income inequality, indicating the extent to which the actual
income distribution differs from equal incomes for all. A coefficient
of 0.0 indicates exactly equal incomes and a coefficient of 1.0 maximum income inequality.) The smaller Gini coefficient for after-tax
incomes indicates that the Federal tax and transfer system acts to
reduce income inequality. In general, the after-tax data tell a story

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TABLE 3–4.—Projected Effective Federal Tax Rates, 1996
Effective
tax rate 2

Family economic income class 1
0–$10,000 ....................................................................................................................................................................

8.0

$10,000–$20,000 .........................................................................................................................................................

8.8

$20,000–$30,000 .........................................................................................................................................................

13.3

$30,000–$50,000 .........................................................................................................................................................

17.5

$50,000–$75,000 .........................................................................................................................................................

19.9

$75,000–$100,000 .......................................................................................................................................................

21.1

$100,000–$200,000 .....................................................................................................................................................

22.0

$200,000 and over .......................................................................................................................................................

23.7

Total .....................................................................................................................................................................

20.1

1

Family economic income (FEI) is defined as the sum of adjusted gross income, unreported income, IRA and Keogh deductions, nontaxable transfer payments, employer–provided fringe benefits, tax–exempt interest, inside build–up on tax–favored investments, imputed rental value of owner–occupied housing, and inflation–adjusted capital gains and losses accrued during the year. FEI aggregates the incomes for all family members.
2 Effective tax rate equals total taxes divided by family economic income.
Note.—Estate and gift taxes and custom duties are excluded. It is assumed that: individual incomes taxes are borne by
the people who pay them; corporate income taxes are borne by all owners of capital; excise taxes on purchases by individuals are borne by the purchaser and those on business purchases are borne by individuals in proportion to total consumption; and payroll taxes are assumed borne by employees.
Source: Department of the Treasury.

similar to the before-tax measures, with substantial increases in
income inequality occurring in the 1980s.

Chart 3-1 Gini Indexes for Before- and After-Tax Income of Households
After-tax income inequality, as measured by the Gini index, is less than before-tax inequality.
Both before- and after-tax incomes became more unequal in the 1980s.
Index
0.46

0.44

Before tax
0.42

0.40

After tax
0.38

0.36

0.34
1967

1970

1973

1976

1979

1982

1985

1988

1991

Note: Different methods are used in calculating the two Gini indexes shown. For details see Current
Population Reports, Series P60-188. After-tax income is definition 14.
Source: Department of Commerce.

83



1994

When considering the distributional consequences of government
actions, it would be desirable to incorporate all aspects of the taxand-transfer system. However, distributional analysis for some important government transfer programs (such as Medicare, Medicaid, Food Stamps, and others) and discretionary spending is not as
completely developed as the analysis for the tax system. Steps to
integrate both tax and transfer programs into the same distribution tables can, in principle, lead to more informed decisionmaking.
In contrast, omitting tax components such as the earned income
tax credit from a distributional analysis of a tax proposal may be
misleading.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A WELL-DESIGNED TAX
SYSTEM
Three main traits define a well-designed tax system: fairness,
economic efficiency, and simplicity. As with almost everything else
in government finance, design of a tax system requires tradeoffs
among these desirable properties. Policymakers need to be aware
how the various components of the existing tax system contribute
toward meeting these objectives and how any potential reform of
the tax system measures up.

FAIRNESS
Fairness is generally characterized as horizontal and vertical equity. Horizontal equity means similar tax treatment (i.e., tax payments of equal size) for similarly situated taxpayers. Economists
generally view taxpayers as similarly situated when they have
similar abilities and similar levels of human capital and financial
wealth. However, economists may not agree about the type of adjustments necessary to reflect other personal circumstances (e.g.,
health status). Components of a tax system that do not meet the
basic standards of horizontal equity will appear unfair.
Vertical equity is often associated with a progressive tax system.
For the overall tax system to be progressive requires that at least
some major revenue-raising components be progressive. The individual and corporate income taxes are generally judged to be the
most progressive elements in the portfolio of taxes that make up
the U.S. tax system. These elements more than offset the effects
of the other, less progressive elements.
Horizontal and vertical equity can be thought of as objective,
measurable indicators of fairness. But the perceived fairness (a less
measurable indicator) of a tax system is also key to its acceptance
by the public, which in turn is a very important determinant of the
level of compliance.

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EFFICIENCY
To be economically efficient, a tax system should not impede economic growth and should avoid excessive interference with private
economic decisionmaking. In general, a tax characterized by a
broad base and a low tax rate will cause less distortion of economic
decisionmaking than one with a narrower base and higher rates
that raises a similar amount of revenue. Minimal distortion means
that competitive prices can better serve as reliable market signals,
promoting an efficient allocation of resources and, hence, overall
economic efficiency. These efficiency effects can be quite large and,
if economic decisions affected by the tax are sensitive (elastic) to
the tax rate, these distortions can be quite costly to the economy.
A key issue in this regard is how sensitive various economic decisions are to contemplated changes in tax rates. For instance, many
economists believe that the interest elasticity of saving is relatively
low, so that reducing taxes on returns to a broad range of saving
may not elicit much additional private saving. In fact, unless revenues are made up elsewhere, aggregate national saving may actually be reduced, as the increased Federal deficit (lower public sector
saving) resulting from lower tax revenues more than offsets any increased private saving.
Correcting Market Failure. A tax system can also be used to address market failure: the under- or overprovision of goods by the
private sector. For instance, a tax subsidy for research activities
may offset the tendency for private organizations to undertake too
little research because they cannot appropriate for themselves all
the benefits of that activity. In the case of negative externalities,
or spillover effects (e.g., pollution), a tax on the activities generating the externality may discourage them. It may be possible to design a revenue-neutral ‘‘tax swap’’ where, for example, revenues
generated by a pollution tax can be used to reduce the rate of a
distortionary tax elsewhere in the tax system. Judicious choice of
the elements of such a tax swap can, in principle, enhance economic efficiency.
Direct Spending Versus Tax Expenditures. The government often
has a choice of methods to promote activities considered desirable
(e.g., because they yield positive externalities): it can do so either
through the tax system (tax expenditures) or through direct spending programs. Two key issues in assessing the relative merits of
these alternative approaches are targeting and administrative
costs. The essential goal in targeting is ‘‘bang for the buck’’: how
much extra stimulation of the desired activity can be accomplished
per dollar of forgone tax revenue or dollar of direct expenditure.
Some beneficiaries of either tax expenditures or direct expenditures
would have undertaken the desired activity anyway, but claim the
benefit nonetheless. This concern may be addressed in a direct

85



spending program by screening mechanisms to identify subsidized
activities that would not have been undertaken without the subsidy. Of course, such mechanism requires administrative resources
(e.g., the cost of obtaining the required information). However, direct spending programs are not always better at targeting. In some
situations, the tax system may be more effective than spending
programs at targeting subsidies, especially where income is a criterion for targeting.
Sometimes the administrative costs of providing incentives
through the tax code can be lower than those for direct spending
provisions. Because tax incentives piggyback on the existing structure of the tax system, the added administrative costs of providing
an additional subsidy may be minimal. In contrast, spending programs may require a bureaucratic structure to deliver the subsidy,
increasing administrative costs. For some cases, then, the savings
in administrative costs associated with a tax subsidy can outweigh
its somewhat inferior targeting, compared with a well-designed direct spending program. In other cases, however, the overall cost to
the Internal Revenue Service of administering tax expenditure programs can be quite substantial. Moreover, the costs of tax administration for particular incentives may be hidden in the overall budget for the Internal Revenue Service. The administrative costs of direct spending programs, however, are explicitly accounted for.
The annual review process to which appropriated expenditures
are subjected may be another advantage of direct spending programs over tax expenditures. This regular review is especially important in today’s austere fiscal environment to ensure that obsolete programs do not remain on the books. Tax code provisions do
not generally undergo annual scrutiny (although a handful routinely expire and must be renewed by the Congress). A determination that tax subsidies are desirable policy should be subject to the
same criterion that spending programs are: do the society-wide
benefits delivered exceed the social costs of the forgone revenues?
Corporate Subsidies and Loopholes. Subsidies can take the form
of tax preferences or direct Federal payments, or more subtle forms
such as import quotas that limit competition with domestically produced goods, below-market-rate sales or credits, or implicit government guarantees. Recently many observers have called for a reexamination of these subsidies, with an eye toward trimming those
that lack adequate justification.
One strength of a market economy is that the incentives provided
by prices and profits—not government subsidy—generally lead to
the efficient supply of essential goods and services. The argument
for government intervention must be predicated on the
undersupply, absent government help, of valuable goods and services. Such is the case for many expenditures on research and tech-

86



nology development where large spillovers benefit other individuals
and firms. Government support for research activity can offset a
tendency for the private sector to underinvest in research. But
other subsidies do not generate such spillover benefits and are
much more difficult to justify on efficiency grounds.
Some might argue that government subsidies are necessary to
prevent profits in an industry from falling below the normal rate
of return, threatening the industry’s existence. However, with or
without subsidies, industries whose products are valued by consumers will survive. The only issue is their ultimate scale of operation and absent a significant market failure, such as associated
with an externality, market prices provide appropriate signals for
expansion or contraction. Market entry and competitive markets
tend to ensure that private, risk-adjusted rates of return, taking
into account all available government subsidies, are equated across
activities through adjustments in prices and aggregate supply. Removing unwarranted subsidies would begin a process of exit from
the industry, driving up the returns for those that remain until
they reach competitive levels. In the end, ironically, because the
value of government subsidies is likely to get capitalized in the
value of scarce resources associated with an industry, the benefit
of current subsidy payments may accrue not to the current subsidy
recipient but to a previous owner of the scarce resource.
The bottom line is that unwarranted business subsidies lower
economic efficiency. In contrast, subsidies that compensate for market failures, such as large positive spillovers, increase economic efficiency (as described in detail in Chapter 1).
Many business subsidies are hidden and receive scant attention
from policymakers, in part because they do not show up in annual
appropriations bills or on lists of tax expenditures, and because
they confer relatively subtle benefits. However, hidden subsidies
can be brought to light and undone in many ways. User fees can
be set to cover the full costs of service provision. Auctions can be
used to transfer resources to the private sector (e.g., portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum). Other hidden subsidies could include
below-market interest rates on government provision of credit to
businesses and the implicit Federal guarantee provided to government-sponsored enterprises. Addressing these subsidies could increase overall economic efficiency (for instance, well-designed auctions would ensure that resources are allocated to those who can
best use them), eliminate a source of unfairness, and raise substantial Federal revenues.
Other Efficiency Effects. Two other effects of the tax system contribute to economic efficiency: the provision of macroeconomic automatic stabilizers and the provision of a form of society-wide income
insurance. Automatic stabilizers are mainly associated with the in-

87



come tax components of the tax system (i.e., the individual and corporate income taxes). As the economy expands sharply, progressive
tax rates ensure that individual income tax revenues grow even
faster than the economy. Similarly, since corporate profits follow
the business cycle, an economic expansion leads to increased corporate income tax revenues. These increased revenues exert a
contractionary effect by lowering the Federal deficit (or increasing
the surplus). The same effect happens in reverse when the economy
slumps: tax revenues fall, widening the deficit (or reducing the surplus). The tax system thus helps stabilize the swings of the broader
economy. Although any tax that raises additional revenue when incomes increase may function as an automatic stabilizer, progressive
taxes are likely to be more effective automatic stabilizers than proportional or regressive taxes.
A progressive component of the tax system, such as the individual income tax, can also provide a form of income insurance in an
economy where income fluctuations are unpredictable. This occurs
because a progressive income tax can substantially reduce the variability of after-tax incomes without reducing average income very
much. If incomes increase, in part because of an earner’s good fortune, a progressive income tax system claims more than a proportional share of this increase. These additional revenues can be
thought of as providing income insurance to those whose incomes
are low, in part because of bad luck, by reducing their tax burden
more than proportionally. The progressive rate structure of the income tax (including the earned income tax credit) accomplishes a
significant amount of this income insurance.
This income insurance has the direct benefit of reducing the income risk borne by individuals themselves, shifting it to society as
a whole, but it also provides an indirect benefit. Because households will be willing to bear more risk if they have access to income
insurance, they will undertake investments (in both financial and
human capital, including increased labor mobility) with greater
risk and greater expected return. Aggregated over all individuals,
the effect of undertaking such investments is a higher expected national income. Private markets will not offer such income insurance
because the inherent difficulty of separating effort and luck from
an individual’s ability subjects private purveyors to adverse selection: those who expect poor outcomes would be more likely to purchase the insurance. The income tax system, in contrast, applies to
virtually all economically active people, mitigating concerns with
adverse selection.

SIMPLICITY
The third element of a desirable tax system is simplicity, as
measured both by the cost of compliance to taxpayers and by the

88



administrative cost to the government. Recent studies have suggested high costs of compliance (e.g., one study reports total compliance and administrative costs of around $75 billion, or around 6
percent of revenues). These estimates may be overstated, however,
because it is difficult for taxpayers (especially businesses, for which
the costs may be especially high) to separate out tax compliance
costs from accounting and business planning costs they would incur
anyway. However, even if true compliance costs (those above costs
incurred for ordinary business reasons) are only half those reported, the concern is well-founded, because resources used to comply with the tax system do not increase output but are simply the
costs associated with transferring resources from one party to another. A well-designed tax system attempts to minimize the sum of
administrative and compliance costs, subject, of course, to the system attaining the other objectives.

ASSESSING THE CURRENT TAX SYSTEM
With respect to horizontal equity, the current U.S. tax system
has some shortcomings. Different types of income are taxed differently, the composition of a household or family can affect its tax
liability but not its ability to pay tax, and some forms of consumption are favored over others. Many of these departures from horizontal equity result from decisions by the Congress and partly reflect the difficulty in determining whether individuals are truly in
‘‘similar’’ positions in terms of ability to pay taxes.
Evaluating the current system in terms of vertical equity is more
difficult, because economic reasoning provides no objective guide to
what the degree of progressivity should be. We do know that the
current tax system is progressive and that the tax-and-transfer system accomplishes a significant amount of redistribution. But observers disagree about whether the overall system exhibits an appropriate degree of progressivity.
Survey data provide one way to analyze the perceived fairness of
the tax system. Public opinion polls often find that a substantial
portion of Americans view their tax system as unfair. This may reflect the concern that others are able to exploit loopholes and avoidance mechanisms to reduce their tax payments. Whatever their origin, these feelings that the tax system is unfair have attracted the
attention of policymakers and tax administrators. One concern is
that, absent corrective action, these perceived inequities could lead
to erosion of the present level of compliance.
Concerns with efficiency often focus on the possible adverse incentive effects of high marginal tax rates. Some advocates of the
reforms that lowered the highest individual marginal tax rates in
1981 and 1986 argued that they would unleash supply-side re-

89



sponses that would lift the economy to new heights and, as a result, would raise rather than lower overall tax revenues. The evidence does not support these claims. Far from raising total tax revenues, the tax reductions of 1981 were followed by reduced individual and corporate income tax revenues as a share of GDP. Even
though payroll taxes were increased, this led to the first huge
peacetime budget deficits in the United States. These deficits
crowded out private investment and led to the fiscal morass from
which we are now just emerging. Moreover, the statistical evidence
shows no significant break in the pace of productivity increases or
labor force participation rates with either the 1981 or the 1986 tax
changes. Whatever can be said for these tax changes, it cannot be
claimed that they had marked effects on economic growth.
The minor effects of these tax rate reductions on labor supply are
consistent with other evidence. Conventional estimates suggest
that primary earners in a household generally change their behavior very little in response to relatively small changes in tax rates.
The response of secondary earners is generally found to be larger.
However, since secondary earners work fewer hours than primary
earners, the overall labor supply response to a change in marginal
tax rates is often quite limited. Similarly, conventional estimates of
the response of saving behavior to changes in after-tax rates of return suggest that changes in individual income tax rates should
not have a major effect on our low national saving rate.
Since 1986, marginal rates for individuals with the very highest
incomes have been raised modestly in order to reduce the Federal
deficit. Some have claimed that these rate increases (e.g., in 1993)
would do severe harm to the economy by creating a disincentive for
individuals to work and save. Again, these forecasts turned out to
be false, just as did the earlier, supply-side forecasts of rapid economic growth from tax reductions.
Some critics claim that increases in marginal tax rates fail to
raise the predicted revenues. One recent study estimated that the
rate increases on high-income individuals in the 1993 budget act
raised less than half the revenues predicted by the Treasury. But
as Box 3–3 argues, subsequent analysis indicates that the 1993
provisions did raise the revenues predicted.
The current income tax system is often characterized as complex.
A large part of the complexity results from eight decades of statutory and administrative modifications to address economic situations unforeseen when the income tax was originally enacted. Another part stems from tax initiatives intended to address important
policy concerns. Policymakers should periodically review existing
law to determine which provisions have outlived their usefulness
and which can be streamlined or otherwise simplified. This Administration, as part of its National Performance Review and other ef-

90



forts, has proposed several simplifications. One example is the pension simplification initiative announced in June 1995 and incorporated in the Administration’s 1997 budget proposal. Other examples include simplified forms, greater use of electronic filing, and
increased access to filing individual tax returns by telephone.
The Administration recognizes that the current tax system has
some real and perceived problems. Some progress toward addressing them was made in the 1993 budget act. Further steps proposed
in the budget for fiscal 1996 are described in Box 3–4.

EVALUATING REFORM PROPOSALS:
THE FLAT TAX
Several proposals for a so-called flat tax have been offered over
the past few years. In its most basic form, a flat tax applies a single tax rate on all business activities and individuals. This discussion focuses on the flat tax in its prototypical form, which may differ in some details from any particular legislative proposal.
The prototype flat tax is effectively a consumption tax—that is,
a tax on wage income plus a tax on consumption from existing
wealth at the time the tax is imposed. As such, a flat tax shares
many of the benefits and shortcomings of other consumption taxes.
On the business side, all new investment could be immediately
expensed under a flat tax, effectively exempting the normal returns
to investment from tax. All types of business organizations would
be subject to the flat tax: sole proprietorships, partnerships, and
corporations. No deduction would be allowed for interest or dividends paid. Purchases from other businesses could be deducted, as
could wage payments. However, the cost of fringe benefits (except
for employer-provided pensions) would not be deductible.
For individuals, a flat tax would provide a standard deduction
and some level of personal exemption for dependents. These
amounts are intended to be large enough to exempt many households from tax. But few, if any, other deductions would be allowed.
Moreover, individuals who run a business likely would have to file
both a business and an individual return, with wage compensation
from the business appearing as income on the individual return.
The prototypical flat tax would be less progressive than the current income tax. Its single tax rate would be set far below the highest marginal rate in the present individual income tax. Therefore,
for the same amount of total revenue, it would raise less revenue
from upper income households than the taxes it would replace
(generally the individual and corporate income taxes). It follows
that lower and middle-income households would see their taxes
raised. If the earned income tax credit were repealed as part of the

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Box 3–3.—Revenue Effects of the 1993 Tax Rate Increases

The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 (OBRA93)
raised income tax rates on higher income taxpayers. The marginal tax rate on couples with taxable income over $140,000
(over $115,000 for single taxpayers) was raised from 31 to 36
percent, and a 39.6 percent marginal rate was imposed on taxpayers with taxable incomes above $250,000. A taxable income
of $140,000 roughly corresponds to an adjusted gross income of
$200,000, so these rate increases apply to the 1.2 percent of
the population with the highest incomes.
The Treasury Department predicted that these rate changes
would raise $16 billion in the initial year. But some claim that
revenues from these high-income taxpayers were as much as
50 percent smaller than predicted, as taxpayers reacted to the
changes. The data generally do not support these claims and
show that the revenues came in as predicted.
Analysts claiming substantial revenue shortfalls point to the
difference between income growth among a ‘‘control group’’ not
affected by the tax change and that of the affected group. This
technique has several shortcomings. First, the Treasury Department estimates that taxpayers shifted at least $20 billion
in income from early 1993 to late 1992 in anticipation of higher
tax rates for 1993. This estimate is corroborated by data from
the Bureau of Economic Analysis, which show a $20 billion
spike in personal income in the fourth quarter of 1992. Such
income shifting (which is to be expected when taxpayers can
choose the timing of income receipts) is sufficient to explain
the revenue shortfall claimed by critics of the OBRA93 tax increases. This is true even after accounting for another income
shift: some wage and salary payments moved from 1994 to
1993 in response to a scheduled increase in the Medicare payroll tax.
Second, the incomes of taxpayers affected by the OBRA93
tax rate changes are notoriously hard to predict. Year-to-year
income variations for those in the top 1 percent of the income
distribution are large, because of the large share (over 50 percent in 1993) of nonwage income (interest, dividends, capital
gains, and business income) in these taxpayers’ total income.
Predictions of income for this group on the basis of changes in
a lower income control group’s income are very imprecise.
Thus, although the marginal rate increases in OBRA93 may
affect economic behavior over the longer term, the evidence to
date suggests that they raised the revenues predicted.

92



Box 3–4.—Tax Proposals in the Middle Class Bill of Rights

The Administration’s Middle Class Bill of Rights contains a
three-part tax package: a tax credit of $500 per child, a tax deduction for postsecondary training and education, and an expansion of individual retirement accounts to all middle-class
families. These proposals would encourage taxpayers to save
and invest in themselves and their children.
The proposed child tax credit is meant to partly compensate
for the failure of the personal exemption for dependent children to keep pace with inflation and income growth over the
last 50 years. The $500 credit would apply to taxpayers with
children under age 13 and would be nonrefundable (that is, it
would not exceed the amount of tax otherwise due). It would
be phased out for families with adjusted gross incomes (AGIs)
between $60,000 and $75,000.
Taxpayers, their spouses, and dependents would be eligible
for the proposed deduction for postsecondary training and education. When fully phased in, the measure would allow taxpayers to deduct up to $10,000 per year in qualifying educational expenses (generally those paid to institutions and programs eligible for Federal assistance). The deduction would be
phased out for married couples with AGIs between $100,000
and $120,000.
The expanded IRA is intended to encourage households to
save more. The proposal doubles the existing income limits on
deductible IRAs for taxpayers with employer-provided pension
coverage. IRA contributions up to $2,000 would be completely
deductible for joint filers with AGIs below $80,000, with the
amount deductible phased out for those with AGIs up to
$100,000. In addition, these income limits and the maximum
deductible contribution ($2,000) would be indexed for future inflation. The proposal would also permit taxpayers to make
withdrawals from an IRA before age 591⁄2 without payment of
the 10 percent excise tax for the following purposes: to buy a
first home, to pay for postsecondary education, to defray large
medical expenses, or to cover expenses during spells of longterm unemployment. Finally, the Administration proposes a
new form of IRA to which contributions would not be deductible but whose earnings would never be subject to income tax.
proposal, the tax burden of lower income working families would be
raised substantially.
Often the tax rate contained in flat tax proposals is between 15
and 20 percent. Revenue estimates generally conclude that such

93



proposals would raise significantly less revenue than the taxes they
would replace, increasing future Federal budget deficits. One example is the Treasury Department analysis of H.R. 2060 (the ArmeyShelby flat tax proposal). At its proposed 17 percent rate, this tax
plan would raise about $138 billion less per year (at 1996 income
levels) than the taxes it would replace. Proponents of a flat tax respond that lower tax rates will so stimulate economic growth, and
therefore raise tax revenues, that the projected shortfalls will vanish. However, these claims are generally not supported by the
available evidence, including the historical record of the 1980s. A
prudent reading of the economic literature suggests that the effects
of a shift to a flat tax on economic growth are likely to be small.
Other shortcomings of a flat tax have received much less attention. For instance, since a flat tax effectively exempts capital income from taxation at the individual level, it would create strong
incentives for entities to recharacterize payments to individuals as
capital income. Similarly, since businesses would be taxed on gross
receipts from the sale of goods and services but not on interest income, they would have an incentive to relabel payments they receive from other entities as interest. This distinction between the
taxation of payments labeled ‘‘interest’’ and other payments creates
an enormous potential loophole, and the concern is magnified when
multinational firms enter the picture (because firms outside the
United States would be subject to completely different tax regimes).
This is a problem that could be solved, but only at the expense of
introducing some complexity in distinguishing between payment
types. Such a solution, though, undercuts one of the main arguments for the flat tax, namely simplicity. In addition, it indirectly
points out that defining the tax base often is a major source of complexity, rather than the tax rate schedule.
The flat tax would change the relative desirability of many assets. Owner-occupied housing has received particular scrutiny in
this regard. Housing would become much less tax-advantaged
under a flat tax that eliminates the deduction for mortgage interest. The result could be a sizable drop in housing values. But
owner-occupied housing is only one type of asset that could be affected in this manner. For example, existing plant and equipment
or tax-exempt bonds could also suffer a marked decline in value.
The impact on these assets indicates that tax reform proposals
must be attentive to short-run effects; designing adequate transition rules is a crucial task.
A flat tax would apply to more types of organizations than the
current tax. In addition to requiring separate business and individual tax returns for sole proprietorships and partnerships, a flat tax
could require many currently tax-exempt entities to file.

94



Finally, since much middle-class saving is in the form of pensions
and IRAs and is thus already effectively exempt from income tax,
a flat tax would provide little additional benefit to saving for many
middle-income families. Instead, it would skew much of the benefit
of exempting capital income to the very wealthiest in society.
Although the flat tax discussed here is not the answer, reforms
of the current tax system can certainly be found that can meet
these three traditional tests. Our challenge is to design policies
that recognize the inherent tradeoffs among them and that reflect
deeply held American values. Moreover, decisions made today regarding tax reform are not made in a static economy. Any reforms
made must not only be appropriate for today’s economy but, more
important, must also be flexible enough to address the long-term
challenges affecting tomorrow’s economy.

LONG-TERM DEMOGRAPHIC CHALLENGES
Both Republicans and Democrats agree that the Federal budget
should be balanced over the next 7 years. Balancing the budget will
require many tough choices, but putting our fiscal house in order
is an important first step toward meeting the many challenges that
stem from the aging of the population that is projected to begin in
the early part of the next century.

DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS
The median age in the United States in 1995 was 33 years. By
2015 it is projected to be 37, and by 2030 it will be 39. The elderly
as a share of the population is projected to increase from roughly
13 percent today to over 20 percent by 2035 (Chart 3–2).
This aging of the U.S. population is the result of two demographic forces: a decline in fertility (lifetime births per woman of
childbearing age) since the 1950s and 1960s (Box 3–5), and an increase in life expectancy. Whereas the average woman in 1950 had
three children over her lifetime, the average woman today has only
two. This decline in fertility means fewer children today and fewer
workers tomorrow. With the increase in life expectancy, more people survive to age 65, and those who do live longer beyond 65. The
result is an increase in the share of the over–65 population. Between 1950 and 1995, life expectancy at birth increased roughly 7
years for men and 8 years for women; life expectancy at age 65 increased 2.5 years for men and 4 years for women over this same
period. In the future, life expectancy is projected to continue to increase, although at a somewhat slower rate.
The total dependency ratio—the ratio of dependents (children
and elderly) to workers—can be used to summarize the effects on
the economy of the decline in fertility and the increase in life ex-

95



Chart 3-2 Past and Projected Population Shares by Age
The U.S. population is aging. By 2030 more than 20 percent of the population
will be age 65 and over, and only 25 percent will be under age 20.
Percent
50

40

Under age 20
30

20

Age 65 and over

10

0
1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

2040

2050

2060

2070

Note:
Note.
Source:
Social Security Administration.

Box 3–5.—Changes in Fertility Over Time

Chart 3–3 reports changes in the total fertility rate, defined
as the number of children a woman would bear in her lifetime
(assuming she survives her entire childbearing period) if she
were to experience the average birth rate by age observed in
the selected year. It seems clear that the baby bust associated
with the Great Depression and World War II, and the postwar
baby boom that followed it, were temporary blips in a long-run
trend of declining fertility. Without the postwar baby boom, elderly dependency ratios would be climbing steadily and by
2070 would reach the levels currently projected. The cycle of
baby bust and baby boom actually observed accounts for the
path of dependency between now and then: relatively little
change over the next 20 years, as the relatively small cohort
born in the 1930s and 1940s reaches retirement, followed by
the rapid increases associated with the retiring of the babyboom generation.

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Chart 3-3 Past and Projected Fertility Rates
The baby boom of the 1940s and 1950s appears to be a temporary
aberration in a long-run trend of declining fertility.
Births per woman
6

5

4

Social Security
Administration
alternative
projections

3

2

1

0
1860

1880

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2020

2040

Note: Data prior to 1920 are for whites only.
Source: Data prior to 1920: Coale, A. and M. Zelnick (1963), "New Estimates of Fertility and Population in the U.S.,"
Princeton University Press; all other data: Social Security Administration.

pectancy. The ratio is a rough measure of how many nonworking
people must be supported by the output of the economy’s workers.
Chart 3–4 reports trends in the total dependency ratio and its two
major components: the elderly dependency ratio, calculated as the
ratio of the population over 65 to the population aged 20 to 64, and
the youth dependency ratio, the ratio of those under 20 to those
aged 20 to 64.
The chart reveals that the total dependency ratio is currently
quite low by recent historical standards, because the youth dependency ratio is relatively low and the elderly dependency ratio has
risen very little recently. In contrast, in the 1960s the ratio of children to workers was very high, and in the future (after 2010) the
ratio of elderly to workers is expected to be high. Although the
total dependency ratio is expected to climb significantly in the future, it will be climbing from a relatively low level and is not projected to reach the high rates experienced—and supported without
great difficulty—in the mid-1960s. From this perspective, the expected aging of the population does not look so threatening.
Yet children demand different resources from society than the elderly, so it is worth separating elderly dependency from total dependency. Looking only at the elderly dependency ratio does show
a dramatically different picture. The ratio of elderly to the workingage population rose slowly between 1950 and 1995, is expected to

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Chart 3-4 Past and Projected Elderly and Youth Dependency Ratios
The projected increase in total dependency is smaller than the projected
increase in elderly dependency.
Ratio
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

Elderly dependency

2020

2030

2040

2050

2060

2070

Youth dependency

Note: Elderly dependency is the ratio of the population age 65 and over to those age 20-64; youth dependency
is the ratio of the population under 20 to those age 20-64.
Source: Social Security Administration.

stay roughly constant between 1995 and 2010, and then is expected
to increase sharply, by roughly 75 percent, in the years between
2010 and 2035.

ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF AN AGING POPULATION
Much public discussion of the impact of demographic changes on
the economy has focused on the potential effects of aging on government programs like Social Security and Medicare. This focus,
although certainly not misplaced, may give the impression that the
aging of the population would have little impact in an economy
with no government programs for the aged. This is clearly not the
case. Population aging has broad economic implications in any
economy, regardless of the breadth of government support for the
elderly.
As discussed above, the aging of the U.S. population stems from
increased life spans and declining fertility. Increased life expectancy—which accounts for only a small fraction of the change in dependency over the next 40 years—has relatively direct effects on
individuals. Although living longer is undoubtedly a good thing
(and something in which we invest many research dollars), it does
require individuals to make certain adjustments. People need to
generate enough resources to support themselves over more years
of life. They can do this by working more years (if they are able

98



to, Box 3–6), by increasing their saving rate while working, by reducing their consumption when retired, or by receiving greater
transfers from those of working age during their retirement.
Box 3–6.—Will Increases in Longevity Permit Increased Work
Effort?

The impact of an older population will depend, in part, on
the ability of the elderly to remain active and economically productive. An important question, therefore, is whether tomorrow’s 65-year-olds will be healthier than today’s. If so, delaying
retirement may be a viable option for many people. Advances
in medical technology not only save lives but also improve lives
by reducing the severity of disabling illnesses. For example,
cataract surgery preserves vision, and hip replacements preserve the ability to walk, permitting people to remain independent and active. On the other hand, to the extent that medical advances extend life without reducing disabilities, increasing years of work would not be a viable response to the increase in longevity.
Which of these effects dominates the other is still uncertain.
Still, so long as the first effect is present, some individuals can
extend their working years, and the average work span can
thus increase.
The decline in fertility rates from the levels of the 1960s means
that the current generation of workers now has fewer children to
care for; they can therefore consume more. This corresponds to the
finding that the total dependency ratio is quite low now relative to
the 1960s. As members of this generation age, however, they will
also find that they have fewer children in the workforce. This corresponds to the increase in the elderly and total dependency ratios
expected in the early part of the next century. Since workers today
generally do not support their parents’ retirement directly, this reduction in the ratio of workers to elderly should not have large direct effects. But it may have a number of indirect effects.
People can save for their retirement by purchasing homes and by
investing in financial assets, either directly or through a pension
fund, if they have one. When they retire, they support themselves
with the income they earn on these assets, and with money they
receive from selling them, and of course with benefits they receive
from programs such as Social Security and Medicare. The value of
those assets may be affected, however, by the number of workers
in the next generation. For example, if the number of workers in
the United States declines, the total value of what can be produced
may also decline (relative to what could have been produced by a

99



constant number of workers). The result might be to reduce the
value of U.S. financial assets. Similarly, an economy with fewer
people of working age has less demand for houses, leading some
analysts to predict that housing values will not increase by as
much as they might otherwise, or might actually decline. On the
other hand, at our current rate of productivity growth, future generations will undoubtedly be better off than current generations.
And this Administration has focused on policies devoted to improving productivity—policies like job training, education, and technology investment—which should make future generations even
better off. Furthermore, some researchers have found that slow
growth in the workforce could actually spur productivity growth,
substantially offsetting or even eliminating the effects of aging on
output and on the value of assets (Box 3–7).
Box 3–7.—Linking Productivity Growth to Demographics

Demographic developments and the rate of productivity
growth have a number of potential links. Some observers argue
that population aging will lead to slower productivity growth
because of two factors. First, as the growth rate of the labor
force slows, so does growth in demand for new capital goods.
Innovation could become less profitable as the fixed costs of innovation are spread over fewer goods. Second, the aging of the
population means that the average age of the workforce will
rise. If innovators tend to be young, productivity growth could
suffer.
On the other hand, many analysts believe that the incentives
to innovate are strongest when labor is scarce. This theory,
that ‘‘necessity is the mother of invention,’’ predicts that as
labor force growth slows, labor-saving technology will be developed to keep economic output from falling.
Finally, the actual effects of population aging in the United
States will depend on international factors. If the United States
were a small economy that traded freely with the rest of the world,
the effects of population aging would be small: demographic
changes in the United States would have little effect on the value
of tradeable assets, which would largely reflect values established
in international markets. But the United States is not a small
economy—its population and income are too large for its demographic changes not to have significant worldwide effects. Furthermore, the demographic changes observed here are not confined to
the United States—if anything, the countries that are our current
principal trading partners are aging faster than we are (Box 3–8).
If current trading patterns continue, we are likely to see lower returns to saving as labor force growth in the United States and in

100



the rest of the industrialized world declines. If, however, conditions
for trade between the United States and what are today’s developing countries improve substantially over the next few decades, as
they have over the past decade, it is possible that high-yielding investment opportunities in these countries will keep the rate of return on savings relatively high.
Box 3–8.—Demographic Changes Around the World

Chart 3–5 summarizes trends in the dependency ratios of the
United States, Japan, and the countries of the European
Union, as projected by the United Nations. Although the U.N.
projections are somewhat different from those in Chart 3–4,
which uses data generated by the Social Security Administration, the same general patterns emerge. In 1995, elderly dependency is quite similar across the three regions. Dependency
in Europe and the United States is not projected to climb until
around 2010. In contrast, the elderly dependency ratio in
Japan is already on the rise. The U.N. projects that dependency in Japan will be 54 percent higher by 2010 and 110 percent higher by 2030.
Chart 3-5 Elderly Dependency Ratios in Europe, Japan, and the United States
Elderly dependency is projected to rise higher and faster in Japan than in the
United States or Europe.
Ratio
0.7

0.6

Japan
0.5

0.4

Europe
0.3

United States

0.2

0.1

0.0
1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

2025

2030

2035

2040

Note: Elderly dependency is the ratio of the population age 65 and over to those age 20-64.
Source: United Nations.

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2045

2050

EFFECTS OF DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGE ON THE
FEDERAL BUDGET
Government support programs make up a large fraction of the
retirement income of the elderly. These programs have worked successfully to reduce poverty among the aged (Chart 3–6) and enhance the health and economic security of both the aged and their
families. Social Security and the insurance value of Medicare alone
represent roughly half of all income (including the value of Medicare) received by elderly households. These programs also account
for a significant portion of Federal expenditures—over 30 percent
in 1995.
Chart 3-6 Poverty Rate of the Elderly
The percent of America’s elderly who are poor has fallen by more than half
since the 1960s and is near an all-time low.
Percent
30

25

20

15

10

5

0
1966

1970

1974

1978

1982

1986

1990

1994

Note: Note.
Source: Department of Commerce.

Social Security
The largest program for the elderly is Social Security. This program has traditionally been financed on a pay-as-you-go basis; that
is, most of the payroll taxes collected from the current generation
of workers (largely the baby-boom generation) are used to pay current benefits. However, Social Security is now developing a trust
fund that will permit some advance funding in the future, at least
temporarily. Accumulated assets in the trust fund are currently
equal to roughly 1.5 years of benefits.
As currently structured, then, Social Security is mainly an
intergenerational transfer program. The aging of the population

102



will make such a transfer between workers and retirees more difficult. The Social Security actuaries consider three different scenarios for the program’s future: one in which the Social Security
program is in relatively good financial shape, with relatively high
birth rates and real growth in income, and relatively slow growth
in longevity; one in which the system is in relatively bad financial
shape; and an intermediate scenario, which we focus on here.
Small differences in growth rates, compounded over decades, result in large differences in estimates of levels of expenditures and
receipts. This means that we need to be cautious in interpreting
any particular scenario. On the other hand, we need to be at least
aware of some of the potential risks. How policy responds will depend on our degree of risk aversion and the consequences of delay.
Under the Social Security actuaries’ intermediate assumptions,
benefits are expected to increase from the current 11.5 percent of
payroll to 17.3 percent by 2030; Social Security income (tax collections plus interest on the trust fund assets) climb more slowly:
from 12.6 percent now to 13.1 percent in 2030. Total income is projected to exceed benefits until 2020. After that, redemption of trust
fund holdings can help finance benefits for an additional 10 years,
until the trust fund finally runs out in 2030.
Clearly, steps need to be taken to ensure the long-term solvency
of Social Security, and a bipartisan effort will be required. The
Quadrennial Advisory Council on Social Security was charged with
developing ways to balance Social Security in the long run, and is
expected to release its recommendations in the near future.
Even without any changes to the program, the rate of return that
people will receive on their Social Security contributions is declining. In the early years of the program, the benefits conferred on retirees far exceeded their contributions. Since then rates of return
have declined because of statutory increases in tax rates, increases
in the number of years that workers’ wages have been subject to
tax, and the slowdown in labor productivity growth, although these
have been offset somewhat by increases in life expectancy. (Productivity growth affects the rate of return received on Social Security
contributions because the calculation of a worker’s initial benefit
level reflects the productivity gains that occurred over his or her
working years.) Even at current levels, Social Security, by providing returns that are fully indexed for inflation, offers a kind of economic security that is simply not available elsewhere in the market. And, increases in productivity growth beyond what is currently
projected could lead to higher rates of return on Social Security
contributions in the future.

Medicare
Government expenditures on Medicare, the program that provides health insurance for the elderly, are also projected to grow

103



over the next 75 years. The projected expenditure growth over the
first 25 years of that period is primarily due to projected increases
in the cost of providing health care. For the remainder of the projection period, however, most of the growth is attributable to increases in enrollment stemming from the retirement of the babyboom generation.
Medicare is composed of two parts. Part A covers inpatient hospital services, and Part B covers primarily physician and outpatient hospital services. Part A is financed by a 2.9 percent payroll tax, shared equally by employers and employees. Most of the
taxes are used to finance current benefits, but like Social Security,
at least until recently, some tax revenue was retained in a trust
fund to finance future health care benefits. According to the 1995
Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Hospital Insurance
Trust Fund, the trust fund for Medicare Part A is projected to be
exhausted by the year 2002. Medicare reforms proposed by this Administration should extend the life of the Medicare Part A trust
fund through at least 2011. Medicare Part B is financed partly
from general revenues, but partly from premiums paid by beneficiaries. Expenditures on Part B are also expected to increase with
the aging of the population.
Many policymakers have called for a commission, similar to the
Quadrennial Advisory Council for Social Security, to develop recommendations to ensure the long-term solvency of the overall Medicare program.

Medicaid
Medicaid, the program that provides health care to low-income
people with little wealth, is not exclusively a program for the elderly. But Medicaid does pay for nursing home care for elderly and
other Americans who have depleted their assets. In 1995 roughly
one-third of total Medicaid expenditures went to the elderly (with
the remaining two-thirds split about equally between people with
disabilities and the nonelderly, nondisabled poor).
The aging of the population is bound to lead to a significant increase in the number of people needing long-term care assistance.
Not only will the number of old people increase, but so will the average age of those over 65. People over 85 made up about 11 percent of the elderly population in 1995; according to the Social Security Administration’s projections, by 2050, they will make up over
16 percent. Older people are much more likely to be in a nursing
home: in 1993, 31 percent of those 85 and older spent time in a
nursing home, compared to just 7 percent of the general population
over 65. If this rate of nursing home utilization is maintained, population aging will bring significant increases in the nursing home
population and in expenditures on long-term care.

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Box 3–9.—Gauging the Accuracy of the Consumer Price Index

The consumer price index (CPI) is used to index Social Security benefits as well as elements of the tax code (e.g., personal
exemptions, standard deductions, and tax bracket thresholds).
It is generally believed that the CPI overstates changes in the
cost of living, although opinion varies about the exact magnitude of the overstatement. Correcting any bias in the CPI
would ensure that Social Security benefits and tax brackets increase as intended—that is, to keep pace with the cost-of-living.
The bias comes from a variety of sources, including the problem inherent in approximating a cost-of-living index by a fixed
weight price index like the CPI, and the difficulty of assessing
the value to consumers of quality changes in new and existing
products. (See Economic Report of the President, 1995 for details concerning bias in the CPI.) The Bureau of Labor Statistics is engaged in a multiyear revision of the CPI and has, as
well, been working to fix a technical limitation in the formula
used to compute basic components of the index. By 1998, these
efforts should reduce the bias in the CPI. It is more difficult
to address the remaining sources of bias because they are
harder to gauge and thus there is greater controversy over
their magnitude.

MAINTAINING VALUABLE PROGRAMS
The aging of the population will pose significant challenges for
the economy and in particular for the government. Although
changes to these programs are inevitable, certain features should
be maintained. Medicare and Social Security do provide unique
benefits that the private sector cannot provide. In particular, because Medicare and Social Security cover all Americans, they are
not subject to the adverse selection problems that can plague the
private annuity and health insurance markets. And Social Security
and Medicare provide income streams that generate constant real
purchasing power (Box 3–9). Administrative costs (which are less
than 1 percent of benefits for Social Security) are far lower than
for most private insurance plans or pensions. Social Security and
Medicare are programs of universal participation that have received a great deal of public support. To maintain this support, it
is important that these programs remain universal, but it is also
important that they be put on a sound financial footing.

105






CHAPTER 4

Devolution
THE APPROPRIATE ROLE of the Federal Government in the
U.S. economy has been a fundamental issue in this past year’s debate over the budget. At issue are both the role for government in
general and the division of responsibility between Federal and
State governments. Chapter 1 of this Report addressed the question
of the broader role of government. This chapter addresses how responsibilities might best be apportioned among the levels of government.
This Administration has dedicated itself from the outset to making government work better. Improving the efficiency of government requires a rational division of responsibility among Federal,
State, and local entities. Today many support the notion that, in
several policy areas, authority ought to be devolved from Federal
agencies to States, localities, and individuals, to foster more creative and responsive solutions to the problems of diverse communities.
This Administration has been at the forefront of efforts to empower State and local governments by removing impediments to innovation and experimentation in public health, welfare, public
housing, and environmental protection, and by reducing the proliferation of Federal unfunded mandates. But devolution of responsibilities must be done carefully, to ensure that national objectives
are still met. In particular, a profound national interest lies in
maintaining a social safety net, to guarantee at least a minimum
standard of living for today’s vulnerable families, and in promoting
investment in education, research, and infrastructure, to ensure
high living standards for tomorrow’s families. The Federal Government also has a clear interest in ensuring that all of its expenditures, including those over which States and localities have some
degree of control, are spent in the manner intended. Devolution
that merely inserts an extra level of bureaucracy makes little
sense: in many cases it is far better to empower individuals directly
than to dispense funds to State and local governments on their behalf.

107



FACTS ON FEDERALISM
Despite major changes in our economy and in government programs over the past 25 years, the roles of the States and the Federal Government in the economy have remained relatively stable.

TRENDS OVER TIME
Total government expenditures—Federal, State, and local—have
rose slowly as a share of gross domestic product (GDP) over the
past three decades, from roughly 28 percent in the early 1960s to
over 34 percent today (Chart 4–1).
Chart 4-1 Expenditures by All Levels of Government
Government expenditures in relation to the broader economy have climbed slowly
over the past three decades.
Percent of GDP
40

30

State and local

20

Grants

10

Federal

0
1959

1964

1969

1974

1979

1984

1989

1994

Note: Grants are Federal grants-in-aid to State and local governments.
Source: Department of Commerce.

The Federal Government accounts for the largest share of this
spending. In 1993, if expenditures on State and local grants are included, the Federal Government accounted for 69 percent of total
government spending. As Chart 4–2 shows, this share has not
changed dramatically over the past 25 years: the Federal share of
expenditures rose from 67 percent to 72 percent between 1970 and
1984, but has shrunk back to 69 percent since then.

COMPOSITION OF SPENDING
The Federal Government’s major responsibilities include national
defense, Social Security, and Medicare. States and localities have

108



Chart 4-2 Federal Expenditures as a Share of Total Government Expenditures
The Federal Government’s share of all government expenditures has been
relatively stable.
Percent
100

Including grants

80

60

Excluding grants
40

20

0
1959

1964

1969

1974

1979

1984

1989

1994

Note: Note.
Source: Department of Commerce.

primary responsibility for public education, police and fire protection, and sewerage and sanitation. Highways are generally maintained by States and localities, but funds for new construction are
largely provided by the Federal Government. Medicaid and some
welfare programs are jointly financed by the Federal and State governments but administered by the States. Table 4–1 documents the
current division of responsibility between the Federal Government
and State and local government.
This division of responsibility has evolved gradually. Public roads
and support for the needy, for example, are two areas where responsibility has traditionally rested with States and localities, but
in both areas the Federal Government has assumed an increasingly
important role. The Highway Revenue Act of 1956 created the
Highway Trust Fund and dedicated the revenue received from
taxes on diesel fuel and gasoline to this fund. These funds were
used to build the interstate highway system, which has changed
the face of America.
The growth of the Federal role in welfare arose in part out of the
widely shared view that all children, no matter where they were
born or who their parents were, should be entitled to certain basic
standards of nutrition, housing, and health—common decency in a
country as rich as the United States demanded no less. Although
the acceptance of this national obligation was fundamentally a

109



TABLE 4–1.—Composition of Government Spending, 1993
Percent of
non-interest
expenditures

Spending by function

Percent of
expenditures
financed with
Federal grants

Federal Government:
National defense .....................................................................................................
Social security .........................................................................................................
Medicare ..................................................................................................................
Veterans benefits and services, welfare and social services, and housing subsidies ..................................................................................................................
Civilian and military retirement .............................................................................
Other .......................................................................................................................

26.6
23.4
13.2

............................
............................
............................

9.0
4.9
22.9

............................
............................
............................

37.5
15.9
8.0
7.5
6.2
3.7
1.5
19.6

4.7
57.9
58.0
26.1
.8
.7
15.5
19.7

State and local government:
Education ................................................................................................................
Medicaid ..................................................................................................................
Welfare and social services ....................................................................................
Highways .................................................................................................................
Police and fire protection .......................................................................................
Corrections ..............................................................................................................
Water, sewerage, and sanitation ............................................................................
Other .......................................................................................................................

Note.—Data are on a national income and product accounts (NIPA) basis, and are as published in the Survey of Curent
Business, September 1994. No later data are available.
In this table, Federal grants-in-aid to State and local governments are not included in Federal Government expenditures.
Source: Department of Commerce.

moral decision, it was supported by self-interest, in the recognition
that the cost to society of not providing these minimal standards—
in terms of lost wages, higher crime rates, and the like—could be
very high.

THE RATIONALE FOR A FEDERAL ROLE
The reasons for the creation and expansion of these Federal programs provide considerable insight into the forces that drive the
expanded Federal presence in American society. Yet a sensible allocation of responsibilities for governments in the future must be
based on more than historical precedent.
Some might make the case that the Federal Government should
do nothing other than national defense. After all, States and localities are better able to tailor their programs to meet the different
needs and preferences of their residents, and competition among
the States may enhance efficiency and innovation, just as it does
in the private sector. But this view ignores the benefits of Federal
action in a number of areas. The enumeration of powers given to
the Federal Government under the Constitution suggests that our
forefathers, even in the early infancy of the Republic, recognized
the advantages of Federal involvement across a broad range of endeavors. The economic strength of the United States rests in part
on our vast national market, fostered not only by the free flow of
commerce without artificial trade barriers, but also by national
standards and a national transportation and communications system.

110



Economists have sought to identify some general principles that
would elucidate a ‘‘rational’’ division of responsibilities between levels of government. At least four categories of arguments justifying
Federal action can be identified.

THE NEED FOR UNIFORMITY
Although diversity among State government programs is often
desirable, in some cases the benefits of uniform government action
across the States tip the scale toward Federal involvement. Uniformity of standards and regulations may improve efficiency. For
example, uniform rules for interstate commerce preserve one of
America’s strengths: our large national market. Conflicting State
regulation could fragment this market and impede producers’ ability to take advantage of economies of scale. Likewise, uniformity in
minimum safety net benefits would guarantee that all needy Americans, regardless of where they lived, enjoyed at least a certain
level of well-being, and would avoid distorting and inefficient movements of households in response to differences in benefits.

DIRECT SPILLOVERS
Actions taken or not taken by States sometimes affect residents
of other States. Residents of a State might be willing to tolerate
pollution of their ground water, but the contaminated water could
seep across State boundaries and harm residents of other States.
States may also engage in activities that unintentionally benefit
the residents of other States. For example, one State’s successful
innovation in its schools can lead the way for other States to reform their education systems, and States’ efforts to prevent communicable diseases can benefit the health of nonresidents. Similarly, when States invest more in education, and incomes rise as
a consequence, they confer a positive benefit on all taxpayers: the
Federal Government reaps some of the rewards of the higher incomes in the form of higher Federal tax revenues. When the policies of one State affect the residents of others, for good or for ill,
States may lack the right incentives to provide an appropriate level
of public services, because the effects of policies on nonresidents
may not factor strongly in their decisionmaking.

THE EFFECTS OF POLICY-INDUCED MOBILITY
The freedom of people and firms to move at will from State to
State promotes competition among State governments. Although
this competition can enhance the efficiency of government, it can
also make it difficult for States to pursue certain worthwhile policies. For example, the fear of welfare-induced migration may cause
States to reduce welfare benefits to a level below what they would

111



otherwise provide. Similarly, State competition for jobs may limit
the generosity of unemployment insurance programs.

INEQUALITY OF RESOURCES
States that are poorer than the average, or that are experiencing
temporary downturns, are able to raise less revenue, yet have to
spend more than other States to provide services for the needy.
Clearly, only the Federal Government can transfer resources
among the States. Not only does such redistribution help poorer
States, but financial assistance from the Federal Government that
increases during economic downturns can also help to stabilize regional economies. This assistance can be given through a number
of channels: direct transfers of cash or in-kind benefits to lower income individuals, grants to lower income States or localities,
matching grants to State or local programs for the needy, or direct
provision of public services in poor communities. The role of the
Federal Government in transferring resources to States and localities is more complicated, both in theory and in practice, than is
often recognized, and will be discussed at greater length below.
These rationales for a Federal role are not mutually exclusive,
and sometimes it is their interaction that makes a strong case for
a Federal role in policy. For example, national safety standards,
when desirable, might evolve on their own, were it not for
spillovers. States could simply agree to a set of voluntary standards, and each State would weigh the benefits and costs of complying. In doing so, however, it would ignore the costs it might impose
on others. A State might adopt more lax safety regulation for its
cars, but then when its cars cross over into another State, the other
State bears part of the costs. Federal action is therefore needed to
ensure uniform national standards that avoid these spillover effects.

DEVOLUTION OF POLICYMAKING
RESPONSIBILITY
Determining which level of government should be responsible for
a particular program or activity is a delicate balancing act. It requires weighing the benefits of innovation, greater responsiveness,
and competition that State and local control offers against the rationales for Federal involvement just outlined. Sometimes the answer is simple and obvious: either purely Federal control and financing or purely State control and financing. But many cases call
for a sharing of responsibilities.
All government activities have three basic elements: policymaking, financing, and administration. These activities can be apportioned between the Federal Government and State and local

112



governments in various ways. The current debate centers largely
on how the policymaking role for programs that receive financing
from the Federal government should be shared. At one extreme,
the Federal Government could provide funds to States with no
strings attached—States would not even be told on which programs
to spend the money. Such an arrangement, used in other countries
and in the past in the United States (where it was called ‘‘general
revenue sharing’’), is not currently under consideration. Instead the
debate has focused on whether to convert existing programs into
block grants (grants that can be used to fund programs in broad
policy areas) and on how much discretion to allow States in determining how those grants should be used.
This Administration strongly supports enhancing the role of
States and localities in policymaking. In many areas—job training,
community development, and welfare, for example—enhanced flexibility for States and local communities is likely to yield better results. But it is important that this enhanced flexibility be provided
in a way that protects the national interest. For all the reasons
cited earlier, some Federal role in policy may need to be maintained. Furthermore, the Federal Government has a significant role
in financing programs, it also should have some role in policy in
order to ensure accountability.

ENSURING GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTABILITY
The Administration is committed to ensuring that government
funds are spent wisely, whether the Federal Government or States
and localities are doing the spending. A problem with revenuesharing arrangements or pure block grants is that the level of government making the policy decisions is no longer the one responsible for financing the program. This separation of functions may
increase the likelihood that taxpayer money is not well spent. Indeed, some evidence suggests that States spend money they receive
from the Federal Government differently from funds they raise
themselves—and restrictions on spending imposed by the Federal
Government do not account for all of the difference. Thus, the
availability of Federal highway money results in more spending on
highways than States would otherwise undertake, even though, at
the margin, most States pay 100 percent of each additional dollar
of highway spending (Box 4–1). Evidently, State taxpayers are content to give government officials more discretion over funds coming
from Washington than over funds contributed by their own State
tax dollars.
This is a two-edged sword. On the one hand, it means that the
Federal Government can influence the pattern of State spending
more easily than it might otherwise: Federal money may not just

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Box 4–1.—Federal Grants and the ‘‘Flypaper Effect’’

The Federal Government provides substantial grants to
States and localities—over $228 billion in 1995. Most of this
grant money can be used for projects that these governments
might otherwise fully fund themselves, and most do not require that the State or locality contribute any matching funds.
Because these grants can simply serve to free up State and
local government funds for other uses, they can be viewed as
equivalent to pure transfers of cash from the Federal Government. From an economic perspective, then, one would expect
States and localities to spend these grants in the same manner
as they would any other increase in income. For example,
States might allocate 5 to 10 cents of each grant dollar to increases in their spending, and the rest would simply be used
to reduce State taxes.
Researchers have consistently found, however, that Federal
grants have much larger effects on State and local government
spending than this logic would suggest. Recent studies find
that the actual increase is on the order of 40 to 65 cents on
the dollar. This result has been dubbed the ‘‘flypaper effect’’:
the money sticks where it hits. Moreover, not only does State
and local spending increase when Federal grants increase, but
the money tends to remain in the program area for which the
grant was intended: grants for education tend to increase education spending, grants for infrastructure tend to increase infrastructure spending, and so on. Some of the grant money is
used to finance other areas of government and to finance tax
cuts, but such ‘‘leakages’’ are much smaller than economic theory would predict.
substitute for State money, as many critics of block granting have
feared. (And, as is discussed later in the chapter, it is precisely the
Federal Government’s desire to influence patterns of State spending that justifies a Federal role at all.) On the other hand, if the
substitution of Federal for local funding leads to less diligent monitoring by taxpayers, the money may not be well spent.
Federal actions can also impose costs on the States. And just as
States may spend Federal money more readily than money raised
through State taxes, so the Federal Government may spend State
money more readily than funds raised through Federal taxes. Federal legislation that raises States’ costs—so-called unfunded mandates—has recently received considerable attention. Legislation
passed in 1995 attempted to address some of the most important
problems posed by unfunded mandates (Box 4–2).

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Box 4–2.—The Unfunded Mandates Reform Act

The Unfunded Mandates Reform Act, enacted in early 1995,
will restrict the ability of the Congress to impose costly mandates on States, localities, and tribal governments. This legislation requires the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) to analyze
the costs of any proposed mandates on State and local governments. Mandates certified by the CBO as costing States and localities $50 million or more in any of the first 5 years after becoming effective are not permitted. However, majority votes in
both the House and the Senate can waive this prohibition. The
CBO also is required to estimate the cost of any mandate on
private companies which exceeds $100 million in any year over
this same 5-year period.
The unfunded mandates legislation was enacted to restore
equilibrium to the relationships between Federal, State, and
local governments. For too long, Washington has placed overly
burdensome mandates on States and localities. The new law
rectifies this imbalance but also permits mandates that are in
the national interest. For example, some unfunded mandates
may be designed to control cross-jurisdictional externalities. A
State that dumps garbage in a river, polluting the shores of a
neighboring State, causes an externality every bit as important
as that generated by a private firm. The law provides a flexible
way of addressing unfunded mandates: it requires the disclosure of relevant information, without being overly prescriptive.
With a majority vote, the Federal Government could, for instance, still proscribe States from dumping garbage in ways
that adversely affect neighboring States. To do so imposes costs
on States, but these are costs that they should rightly bear.
The legislation also requires Federal agencies to assess the
qualitative and quantitative costs and benefits of any proposed
regulatory actions that would result in annual expenditures of
$100 million or more by State, local, and tribal governments or
the private sector before promulgating such actions. Agencies
must ‘‘. . . [1] identify and consider a reasonable number of regulatory alternatives and [2] from those alternatives select the
least costly, most cost-effective or least burdensome alternative
that achieves the objectives of the proposed rule,’’ or explain
their decisions if a different action is adopted. Finally, the legislation requires the Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, an independent agency, to make recommendations on paring existing mandates.

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DEVOLUTION AND THE PROVISION OF PUBLIC
SERVICES
In many cases, government action can correct inefficiencies in
the private market—so-called market failures—and so improve the
overall allocation of resources. As discussed in Chapter 1, to correct
market failures, government may need to provide certain goods directly (so-called public goods), adopt or enforce standards that
apply to other goods (such as safety standards), or encourage,
through subsidies or regulation, private firms to provide goods that
would otherwise be underprovided (i.e., those with positive
externalities). All of these activities can be viewed as providing
public services.
State and local governments have many advantages in providing
these public services. They can more easily address the differing
needs and preferences of particular communities. For example,
building codes should reflect local weather and geological conditions, and communities should be able to choose their own level of
community services. Having a number of communities with different mixes of services (and of taxes to pay for them) improves
overall efficiency, if people can choose to live in the jurisdiction
that best meets their needs and desires.
Competition among localities can enhance this efficiency by making it easier for people to hold their local government accountable
for the decisions it makes. For example, if a city, by operating efficiently, is able to maintain a high level of public services with relatively low taxes, residents of nearby cities may demand equally efficient government from their policymakers—and use the threat of
relocation to the efficient city to make their demands resonate.
But the problems described above require some Federal role in
the provision of many public services. Uniformity of regulations or
of standards, such as safety standards, can improve the effectiveness and efficiency of certain policies. A uniform set of minimum
water and air quality regulations ensures that all Americans, regardless of where they live, have clean air to breathe and water to
drink. Cross-jurisdictional spillovers also can be important. Some
types of public services, like national defense and subsidies to scientific research, need to be provided by the Federal Government
because the spillovers from government action are so large. Public
services and goods, like national defense, that can only be provided
effectively at the national level are called national public goods.
Those whose benefits accrue exclusively to residents of a particular
locale are called local public goods.
Between purely local and purely national public goods are many
intermediate cases: many public services create some spillovers,
but still much of the benefit accrues within the community. High-

116



ways are a prominent example. Many highways are used primarily
by residents of the State where the highway is located. But these
highways also provide significant benefits to out-of-State residents
who travel on them and who purchase goods that have been transported on them. If State residents had to pay for all the costs of
building highways in their State, their choices regarding highway
construction might take into account only the benefits they expect
for themselves. Thus they would construct fewer roads with smaller capacity than would be socially desirable.

MATCHING GRANTS
One method used to solve this problem is the categorical matching grant, in which the Federal Government pays a fraction of the
overall costs of the program. For example, the Federal Government
could match additional State spending on a 1-to-1 basis, or on a 2to-1 or 4-to-1 basis. Ideally, the match rate would be set so that the
fraction of the total costs paid by the States equals the fraction of
the total benefits that accrue to their residents. Under such a financial arrangement, the decision on the level of expenditures can
be delegated to the States. Because the spillover effects are taken
into account in the ‘‘price’’ States have to pay, they will set the
level of expenditures at an efficient level.
In practice, however, a large share of Federal grants for public
infrastructure, education, and social services is not in the form of
matching grants, but rather in the form of categorical unmatched
grants (grants that provide funds for particular purposes, such as
education of the disabled or tuberculosis control, but do not require
States or localities to put up any of their own money). Furthermore, while there are grant programs that do require States to
spend their own funds in order to receive Federal money, many are
in the form of capped matching grants, which place a ceiling on the
total amount that the Federal Government will pay. From an
economist’s perspective, capped matching grants are much like categorical grants. Once the cap on Federal grants is reached, State
and local governments bear the full cost of additional projects. And
since, for many capped matching grant programs, States likely do
spend more than the amount required to receive the maximum allowable Federal grant, the grants probably do little to change the
incremental costs of projects, but simply allow States and localities
to shift resources to other projects. Capped matching grants may
thus insufficiently address the problem of underspending arising
from cross-jurisdictional spillovers. Surprisingly, however, evidence
indicates that categorical grants and capped matching grants do
stimulate a significant amount of additional investment in the targeted activities (Box 4–1), although they also serve to free up State
funds for other purposes. Open-ended matching grants, which

117



would change the marginal cost to States, could have significantly
greater effects on State spending decisions, because they would affect the prices faced by the States at the margin.

PUBLIC SERVICES AND DIFFERENCES IN LOCAL
RESOURCES
One of the rationales cited above for a Federal role in provision
of public goods is that some jurisdictions lack the resources to finance public services at a level deemed adequate by the Nation as
a whole. But a lack of sufficient State resources to provide services
does not necessarily imply that the Federal Government should
provide those services instead. In principle, the Federal Government could, instead of providing grants for public services to poor
States, provide income transfers to poor individuals. Just as individuals, not the government, should decide how their income is
spent, so too individuals should decide for themselves about the
level of consumption of local public goods.
If taxpayers closely monitored their policymakers, the level of
public services would not depend on whether resources were transferred to State and local governments or directly to taxpayers, and
the transfer of resources to the States would simply substitute for
State governments levying taxes. But the evidence cited earlier
suggests that the way money is distributed does matter. Direct
transfers to individuals force State and local policymakers to justify
their choices of public services.
This general principle has two exceptions. First, Americans believe that society has a special responsibility to children, regardless
of the economic condition of their parents. Providing services that
go directly to children, rather than providing cash to their parents,
may be a more effective way of making sure that it is children who
ultimately benefit. More generally, society may not care so much
about inequality of income as about inequality in the consumption
of certain goods, and so may prefer to provide these goods instead
of cash. To the extent that these goods are public services—like
health care, clean water, decent schools, good job opportunities, and
safe places for children to play—Federal funding of such services
for poor neighborhoods is warranted.
A second reason why it may be better for the Federal Government to provide direct financing for public services is to save on administrative costs. Indirect financing, through Federal transfers to
citizens residing within the jurisdiction, involves two steps: disbursing funds to individuals and collecting the money once again
at the State or community level. Because each step has its costs,
direct transfers to State and local governments may save on overall
transaction costs.

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BETTER GOVERNMENT THROUGH COMMUNITY AND
INDIVIDUAL EMPOWERMENT
Over time, a large number of Federal programs have evolved primarily to meet certain perceived needs that were not being adequately addressed at the State and local level. Although these programs direct attention and resources to real problems, in some
cases they leave too little discretion to States and localities in allocating the funds, and Federal paperwork requirements lead States
and localities to devote too large a share of their resources toward
administrative costs. Furthermore, in some cases these funds could
be more effective if they were used to empower individuals, by providing them the wherewithal and the information to make appropriate choices, rather than having government—Federal, State, or
local—in the driver’s seat.
This Administration has put forward a new approach to Federal
grants:
• The Federal Government would provide States and local governments with greatly enhanced flexibility: funds from numerous programs would be consolidated, and regulations would be
pared back.
• Accountability would be ensured not by restrictions on the use
of funds but by performance measures. Programs that live up
to their stated goals could receive more funding.
• Individuals benefiting from government programs would also
be given as much discretion as possible to choose how those
funds should be spent, reducing the possibility that they would
be spent unwisely.
One example of this new approach is the Administration’s proposed G.I. Bill for America’s Workers (Box 4–3). Under the current
Job Training Partnership Act, States are provided the funds to obtain training for dislocated workers. Under the Administration’s
proposal, funds would instead be dispensed directly to individuals,
in the form of ‘‘skill grants’’ which they could use for tuition at private or public institutions. States and localities would create onestop career development centers, which would provide individuals
with the information necessary to make good choices about how to
use their skill grants, would track participant earnings and job retention, and would work with businesses to help match newly
trained workers with jobs. Allowing individuals to make informed
choices about what skills to obtain and where to obtain them will
ensure that only those institutions that provide high-quality, relevant training will survive.
The Administration has also encouraged legislative efforts, such
as the proposed Local Empowerment and Flexibility Act, that
would waive programmatic regulations for local communities that
have a federally approved ‘‘Local Flexibility Plan’’ from certain Fed-

119



eral laws and regulations that impede their efforts to meet their
plan. Similarly, as part of its overhaul of environmental regulation,
the Administration has initiated Project XL, which gives responsible companies and other regulated parties the flexibility to replace the requirements of the current regulatory system with their
own alternative strategies to achieve better bottom-line environmental results.
These efforts are similar to the project currently under way to revitalize distressed communities: The Empowerment Zone and Enterprise Community (EZ/EC) initiative provides block grants, tax
subsidies, and regulatory flexibility to a number of designated communities that have formulated innovative strategic development
plans. A major element of these plans, and of the EZ/EC initiative,
is the inclusion of performance benchmarks, so that policymakers
can learn what works and what does not.
In cases where local control has not done the job, a reconsideration of the intergovernmental partnership is in order. Public housing is one example of a program that needs major change (Box 4–
4). In its plan to reorganize the Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD), the Administration proposed providing greatly increased flexibility to well-performing housing agencies and
overhauling those public housing agencies that are chronically
troubled. In some cases, residents of severely distressed units will
be provided with rental vouchers, which could be used to obtain
private housing. After all, individuals have the best incentive to ensure that the dollars they receive for housing are well spent.

DEVOLUTION AND THE SAFETY NET
This country has reached a general consensus that providing a
minimum level of subsistence for our most vulnerable citizens, regardless of where they live, is an essential government role. But
because differences exist across States—in job opportunities, in
family characteristics, and even in views on the appropriate level
of support for the poor—States also have a role in providing and
administering the safety net.
At the same time, safety net programs—programs that provide
assistance to those meeting certain income or asset tests, such as
Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) or Medicaid—
present several problems that require some Federal role. One problem stems from the mobility of the population. For example, whenever one State chooses to expand its welfare program—by raising
benefits or relaxing eligibility criteria—it may encourage poor people from other States to move in. As they do, the welfare program
becomes more expensive, forcing the State either to reduce benefits
or eligibility, raise taxes, or both. If the State raises taxes to pay

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Box 4–3.—Rethinking Devolution: The Job Training
Partnership Act

The history of the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA)
shows that simply shifting accountability and policy discretion
to the States does not always improve performance. When enacted in 1982, JTPA was designed as a block grant to the
States. JTPA reduced the role of the Federal Government, enhanced the role of the States, and retained a strong role for
policymaking and initiative at the local level. However, the
program became the subject of a growing number of reports.
The General Accounting Office concluded that Federal dollars
were being misused, while the Department of Labor’s Office of
the Inspector General found a serious lack of uniform control
and guidance. JTPA’s problems led the previous Administration and a coalition in Congress to reassert Federal accountability through a set of new rules and regulations enacted in
1992.
The 1992 legislation was an understandable response, but it
made JTPA less flexible. The dilemma facing JTPA is one of
the reasons why the present Administration has proposed a
G.I. Bill for America’s Workers. The new bill is based on a different model, one that replaces bureaucratic accountability
with market-driven accountability based on individual
empowerment, informed customer choice, and competition
among providers. It establishes appropriate and complementary roles for all three levels of government—Federal, State,
and local—in the design, implementation, and oversight of effective workforce development systems. It also provides for the
close participation of businesses, labor organizations, and local
elected officials to facilitate effective training and placement.
for the more expensive welfare program, residents with higher incomes may migrate to other States with lower taxes, again making
it harder for the State to finance its established level of benefits.
Accordingly, States and localities are discouraged from providing
safety net benefits. This phenomenon—sometimes labeled the ‘‘race
to the bottom’’—limits the ability of States to offer their residents
welfare benefits that are as generous as they would like in the absence of migration.
The severity of this problem depends on how prone people are to
move in response to differences in the generosity of welfare benefits
across States. The evidence is inconclusive. Some researchers have
found that low-income households are indeed more likely to move
from low-benefit to high-benefit States, whereas others have found
no evidence of welfare-induced migration. Even when welfare bene-

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Box 4–4. Rethinking Devolution: The Case of Public Housing

Since 1937 the Federal Government has invested some $90
billion in Federal housing. The legacy of that investment is
mixed. Public housing does provide affordable shelter for approximately 1.3 million households. But many public housing
projects are in abject disrepair.
One problem with the current system is the lack of accountability. The discipline of the real estate market seldom extends
to public housing. Instead, local public housing agencies administer the public housing stock, subject to the rules and regulations of a distant Federal bureaucracy. Under the reorganization plan for the Department of Housing and Urban Development, well-performing public housing agencies will be given
greater flexibility to improve their housing stock, through modernization or demolition, and to attract and retain a broader
range of families by setting their own rules for admission to
public housing.
But public housing agencies that exhibit persistent management deficiencies will be overhauled. And some projects, such
as Chicago’s infamous Cabrini-Green, will be demolished. In
many cases, residents of demolished units will be given rental
vouchers to live in better housing in the private market.
Vouchers permit tenants to demand quality housing, and also
make it easier for them to seek out gainful employment and
jobs that maximize their income, regardless of where they are
located. In other communities, a new form of public housing is
being tested. Instead of mammoth apartment buildings, smallscale, townhouse-style housing is being constructed that would
provide housing to residents with a wide range of incomes. Instead of purely public ownership and management, this housing will be owned and managed by partnerships between public entities and for-profit and non-profit developers.
fits are found to affect migration, the effects are generally small
and slow to happen. But even if the effects are small on average,
they could be substantial for neighboring States with population
centers in close proximity. Furthermore, the studies examining the
effects of differences in AFDC benefit levels on migration were all
done within the context of the current AFDC program, which does
impose some limits on the differences across States. For instance,
although average benefit levels and eligibility requirements vary
widely, States are required to provide coverage for all families
meeting the State income and asset requirements. Interstate competition might be more of a problem if some States imposed rigid

122



time limits on welfare recipiency or denied benefits to certain families while others did not.
Some State legislatures have taken the position that welfare-induced migration occurs and should be discouraged. As a result,
under waivers granted by the previous Administration, California
and Wisconsin were permitted to create ‘‘two-tier’’ welfare systems,
in which new residents on AFDC could receive a different level of
benefits than longer term residents of those States. However, some
have questioned the legality of the two-tier system: California’s
waiver was voided by the Court of Appeals, and Wisconsin’s is the
subject of pending litigation.
Disparities in State resources—particularly in relation to the demands put upon them—provide another rationale for a Federal
role. Poorer States feel that they cannot afford the same level of
safety net protection that wealthier States can. As in the case of
public services, this rationale does not necessarily imply that the
Federal Government should finance the safety net programs. Just
as the government can help provide public services in two ways, it
also has two ways of helping individuals: directly, and indirectly by
first giving it to States and communities. The direct method can
save on transaction costs, and the resulting empowerment of individuals may enhance the efficiency of the funds. On the other
hand, in cases where benefit recipients also require other government help—for example, in finding child care or getting job training—transfers to States or communities to fund such services may
prove more effective.
Some States have historically been poorer than others, and these
differences are not likely to change any time soon. But in addition
to these persistent disparities, shorter term disparities arise from
fluctuations in the business cycle. In the past, Federal funding has
acted in part as a form of insurance against these shocks, with
those States experiencing increases in their poverty population receiving greater Federal funding. To some extent States can insure
themselves against temporary economic shocks if they maintain
‘‘rainy day’’ funds or if they permit themselves to borrow during
hard times. However, political constraints that States face, such as
balanced budget requirements, may reduce their ability to insure
their safety net programs against adverse economic shocks.

THE FEDERAL ROLE IN THE SAFETY NET
All these considerations argue for a strong Federal role in safety
net programs. And in fact, most safety net programs are either federally run or run jointly by the Federal and State governments.
The Federal Government finances and makes policy decisions for
Food Stamps and Supplemental Security Income (SSI, the cash assistance program for the low-income aged, blind, or disabled);

123



States do have an administrative role in both, however, and many
States supplement SSI benefits with their own funds. Medicaid and
AFDC—which along with Food Stamps are the largest programs
for the nonelderly poor—are administered by the States, but States
and the Federal Government share responsibility for funding and
for policymaking. Other safety net programs, like housing subsidies
and energy assistance, are provided by both the Federal Government and the States.
The Federal share of spending on safety net and social service
programs increased with the introduction of Medicaid, SSI, and
Food Stamps: from roughly 44 percent of the nationwide total in
1960 to over 70 percent in 1976, and has remained relatively stable
since then.
Under current law the Federal Government provides open-ended
matching grants to States for Medicaid and AFDC, with the Federal share of expenditures in 1995 varying, from 50 percent to 79
percent, according to State income. This open-ended matching reduces the States’ marginal price of providing benefits, giving States
an incentive to provide higher levels of benefits than they otherwise would. Federal matching also helps offset the problems of
States offering lower benefits for fear of becoming welfare magnets
or because of insufficient resources. Yet despite their significantly
higher Federal matching rates, poorer States still tend to pay lower
AFDC benefits (Table 4–2).
Although the theoretical arguments supporting a Federal role in
welfare are strong, almost all observers, including welfare program
participants themselves, agree that the welfare system is not working well. For too long, it has undermined the values of work and
personal responsibility, not strengthened them.
Welfare policy presents a dilemma with which the Nation has
been struggling for 60 years: providing adequate support to low-income families who fall upon hard times, and especially to their children, without generating dependency. Despite a broad consensus
that the goal of welfare reform should be to move people from welfare to work, how best to accomplish this goal is still unclear.
In such uncertain circumstances, the potential value of innovation and experimentation is high, and States have shown increasing interest in trying new approaches. This Administration has
used waivers effectively to allow States to engage in valuable experimentation. The Administration has made clear that it is open
to States’ proposals for alternative approaches to providing welfare
support. Since January 1993 the Administration has approved welfare demonstration projects in 37 states. In an average month
these demonstrations will cover more than 10 million people, or approximately 73 percent of all AFDC recipients.

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TABLE 4–2.—Typical Maximum AFDC Payments for a Family of Three
[Dollars per month]
State

Three-person
family
typical maximum

State

Three-person
family
typical maximum

Alabama .................................................
Alaska .....................................................
Arizona ....................................................
Arkansas .................................................
California ................................................
Colorado ..................................................
Connecticut .............................................
Delaware .................................................
District of Columbia ...............................
Florida .....................................................
Georgia ...................................................
Hawaii .....................................................
Idaho .......................................................
Illinois .....................................................
Indiana ...................................................
Iowa ........................................................
Kansas ....................................................
Kentucky .................................................
Louisiana ................................................
Maine ......................................................
Maryland .................................................
Massachusetts ........................................
Michigan .................................................
Minnesota ...............................................
Mississippi ..............................................
Missouri ..................................................

164
923
347
204
607
356
581
338
420
303
280
712
317
377
288
426
403
262
190
418
373
579
459
532
120
292

Montana .................................................
Nebraska ................................................
Nevada ...................................................
New Hampshire .....................................
New Jersey .............................................
New Mexico ............................................
New York ................................................
North Carolina .......................................
North Dakota .........................................
Ohio .......................................................
Oklahoma ...............................................
Oregon ...................................................
Pennsylvania ..........................................
Rhode Island .........................................
South Carolina .......................................
South Dakota .........................................
Tennessee ..............................................
Texas ......................................................
Utah .......................................................
Vermont .................................................
Virgin Islands ........................................
Virginia ..................................................
Washington ............................................
West Virginia .........................................
Wisconsin ...............................................
Wyoming ................................................

375
364
348
550
424
381
577
272
431
341
307
460
403
554
200
430
185
188
426
656
240
291
546
253
517
360

Note.—‘‘Typical maximum’’ is amount paid for basic needs to a family (including one adult) with no income or special
needs in State’s highest caseload area.
Source: Department of Health and Human Services.

In their reform efforts, many States have sought to reduce welfare dependency by beginning to experiment with time limits on
families’ welfare benefits. Others have sought to facilitate the
movement from welfare to work by setting strict job search or work
requirements, or by providing subsidies to private employers who
hire welfare recipients. Many States require recipients to sign ‘‘personal employability plans’’ or ‘‘self-sufficiency agreements,’’ with
specific goals and deadlines. Failure to meet the deadlines can result in reduction or denial of benefits.
The Administration has reinforced these state welfare reform efforts with other policies that reward work over welfare. In 1993 the
President’s economic plan cut the taxes of 15 million working families through the earned income tax credit. The Administration has
also proposed raising the minimum wage to ensure that, in combination with the Earned Income Tax Credit, a single parent with
two children working full-time would escape poverty. The Administration has also strengthened collection of child support, enabling
more single parents to support themselves through a combination
of child support and work, instead of welfare.

MOVING FORWARD: WELFARE REFORM
The Administration has called for comprehensive, bipartisan welfare reform legislation to impose time limits, work requirements,

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and tough child support enforcement nationwide. Many in the Congress, believing that the waiver process is still too burdensome and
uncertain, have proposed converting AFDC into a block grant program, providing States the flexibility to design their own approaches to welfare reform without the need for waivers from
Washington, and putting an end to the open-ended entitlement
funding structure.
Converting AFDC to a pure block grant could have a number of
effects. First, under pure block grants, States would no longer receive additional funding for increases in benefits arising from economic downturns or population growth, making it more difficult to
provide needed benefits. Second, under a block grant program,
States would receive a fixed amount of money from the Federal
Government, independent of the level of State expenditures. The
elimination of the Federal matching program would mean that
States would no longer receive extra Federal money when they
raised benefits, nor lose Federal support when they cut benefits.
This change in incentives (which would be greater for low-income
States since they now have the most generous Federal match rates)
might induce some States to cut their welfare spending.
On the other hand, converting AFDC to a block grant program
would also mean that States that managed to get people off welfare
and into jobs would realize all the resulting welfare savings. Under
the current program most State job training expenditures are not
matched, even though the Federal Government receives a large
fraction of the resulting welfare savings.
In any reform of the welfare system, the Administration has consistently argued for crucial safeguards to promote work and responsibility and to protect children. It has insisted on a strong maintenance-of-effort requirement so that States keep their welfare
spending at adequate levels, and sufficient resources to pay for
child care so that recipients can leave welfare and go to work. Finally, the Administration has required that additional resources be
made available to States during economic downturns. Under the
current system, this occurs automatically through the Federal
match, but an adequately financed contingency fund with an effective trigger mechanism could also accomplish this goal.
Because the current system frustrates taxpayers and recipients
alike, the Administration plans to work with the Congress to enact
a bipartisan welfare reform bill. As part of its 7-year balanced
budget proposal, the Administration has proposed repealing the
AFDC program and replacing it with a new Federal program with
strict time limits on welfare benefits. The new program would require parents to go to work after 2 years or lose their benefits;
after 5 years benefits would end unconditionally. States would
enjoy new flexibility to tailor their welfare systems to local condi-

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tions. At the same time, the plan would provide vouchers to protect
children whose parents reach the time limit. Because the Federal
government would continue to match State welfare spending,
States would be protected in the event of economic downturns or
caseload growth.

MOVING FORWARD: MEDICAID
This Administration has insisted upon maintaining the Federal
entitlement to Medicaid, for two main reasons. First, this Administration believes that all Americans should be guaranteed access to
quality medical care, regardless of income or State of residence.
Second, the Medicaid program is not performing badly: it needs reform, not repeal. Although overall Medicaid expenditures have
been increasing at a rapid rate, part of this increase is attributable
to legislated increases in the eligible population.
This Administration’s insistence upon maintaining the guarantee
of health care coverage for poor families in no way contradicts its
commitment to flexibility, innovation, and experimentation. The
President’s plan expands State flexibility in administering Medicaid programs, but maintains protection for beneficiaries and for
States facing population growth or economic downturns. To this
end, the Administration is committed to working in partnership
with the States to test new approaches to Medicaid through the
waiver process. The Administration shares States’ interest in developing innovative delivery systems, improving quality of care, and
expanding coverage to uninsured Americans. To date, the Administration has approved 12 comprehensive health care reform demonstrations. These waivers have allowed States to greatly increase
their use of managed care, to subsidize health insurance for employed but uninsured workers, and to expand Medicaid eligibility
by eliminating asset tests and increasing income limits. Furthermore, the Administration has granted 14 States Medicaid waivers
as part of larger welfare reform projects. These waivers enable
States to continue providing essential health care services while
encouraging independence from welfare. The Administration’s 7year budget plan would give States further flexibility to modify
their programs. In particular, it would no longer require States to
obtain a waiver in order to expand coverage to any person whose
income is at or below 150 percent of the poverty line, to use managed care plans to provide health insurance to their Medicaid population, or to move people from nursing homes to home- and community-based settings. The plan also repeals the Boren Amendment,
thus allowing States greater flexibility in establishing their provider payment rates.

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THE CHALLENGES OF DEVOLUTION
This Administration is committed to making government more
efficient and effective. Designing government programs so that activities are performed at the appropriate government level—Federal, State, or local—is one of the most difficult challenges associated with this task. Although in many areas the answers are
clear—national defense is a Federal responsibility, whereas sewage
treatment and water supply are local responsibilities—in many
other areas the advantages of Federal responsibility must be balanced against the advantages of State and local responsibility. Federal grants to fund certain public services can reduce the problems
of spillovers, but if the sense of accountability for Federal funds is
different from that for funds raised through State or local taxes,
Federal grants may be spent unwisely. Restrictions on the use of
Federal funds may reduce this problem, but they may also impose
significant administrative burdens and severely limit State innovation.
One approach to solving this problem is to ensure accountability
through results-oriented measures, rather than through conventional rules and regulations. A results-oriented approach allows
States much more flexibility without severely hampering efficiency.
The Administration has proposed using this approach in housing,
job training, the environment, welfare, and numerous other policy
areas. Subjecting government expenditures to this discipline is likely to be the best way to improve government efficiency. Furthermore, when possible, government should use the private market directly. For example, individuals can be provided housing vouchers
that permit them to live wherever they choose, and those in need
of job training can receive funds to pay for training at the institution of their choice. In this way, individuals are provided the
wherewithal to choose what is best for them, and only those providers that bring desirable services to market at the lowest cost—
whether it be rental housing or job training—will survive.
States must also be provided with greater flexibility where no
consensus has emerged on how to accomplish the goal. In these
cases, experimentation and innovation by the States could prove invaluable. But this enhanced flexibility must be provided in a way
that protects the national interest and advances the objectives of
the programs. What is appropriate in one program may not be appropriate in another. In some cases the solution may entail Federal
regulation as a ‘‘default option,’’ with wide latitude for waivers to
allow for State and local adaptation. In other cases, block grants
with little Federal policy involvement may be called for.
Devising policies that ensure accountability and that protect the
national interest, while also allowing for flexibility, adaptability,

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and innovation at the State, local, and individual levels is a great
challenge. What worked in the past may no longer work today.
Carefully balancing the advantages and disadvantages to find the
right mix of policies is vital if government is to work at its best.

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CHAPTER 5

Economic Efficiency and Regulatory
Reform
OUR LIVING STANDARDS depend on more than just our monetary income. We benefit from open spaces and clean rivers and
lakes. We gain a sense of security from safer airplanes, cars, food,
and toys for our children. We benefit from safer workplaces and
from safer financial institutions.
Over the years the U.S. Government has enacted a number of
laws and issued a number of regulations designed to protect consumers, workers, and investors. These efforts are important for improving our environment, public health, and safety. Reducing the
corrosion of factory equipment by polluted water, or the loss of agricultural productivity due to air pollution, also lowers business
costs. In some cases, efforts to correct environmental or safety
problems may stimulate other productivity improvements.
But regulation also inevitably imposes costs, and these can be
substantial. They include not only direct expenditures to enforce
and comply with regulation, but also indirect costs, such as loss of
flexibility and choice for consumers and businesses, diversion of investment from other productive activities, and delays in redeveloping inner cities where hazardous waste sites are located.
To best serve the public interest, regulation should impose the
least burden necessary to achieve its objective, and its benefits
should justify its costs. A major theme of this Administration has
been reinventing regulation: taking a new look at regulation and
the regulatory process to ensure that regulations meet legitimate
social needs, and where necessary changing both content and process to improve efficiency and effectiveness.
This chapter begins by surveying the broad and continuing debate over the scope and design of regulation. It identifies the rationales for regulation and the basic principles of effective and efficient regulation of threats to human health, safety, and the environment. The balance of the chapter then illustrates the application of these principles in the context of ongoing efforts to restructure regulations affecting the environment and natural resources.

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RATIONALES FOR GOVERNMENT REGULATION
The fundamental strength of a market economy is that the pursuit of private gain serves the public interest by stimulating efficiency and innovation. But private gain and public interest are not
always so firmly tethered: they can and do diverge. In the absence
of regulation, polluters do not have an incentive to pay adequate
attention to the environmental damage they cause. Workplaces
may be unsafe. Consumers may be unwittingly exposed to defective
or unsafe products and services.
Economists refer to such divergences between public and private
interest as externalities, because in each case the amount paid for
a good or service fails to reflect its full cost to society—some costs
remain ‘‘external’’ to the transaction. Externalities are a form of
market failure. Government action is needed to correct this market
failure, by confronting economic actors with the full costs of their
behavior. Correcting externalities improves economic efficiency and
the quality of life. The United States has long used regulations as
a way of better aligning public and private interests within the
market. For example, legislation in the area of food and drug safety
was enacted in the 1930s. Internalization of externalities is an important role of government in modern society, to be set alongside
the provision of public goods like national defense and the maintenance of a social safety net.
Although this chapter focuses on regulation, governments have a
variety of other tools to address market failure. These include direct changes in incentives through subsidies or fees; changes in
legal liability standards; provision of information about products,
markets, and technologies; support for the development of new
technologies; and voluntary, cooperative ventures with the private
sector.
Changes in our economy and our society call for changes in regulatory policies. When pressures mount for both land development
and the preservation of undeveloped natural areas, new tensions in
land use and resource protection policies will have to be addressed.
As States demand a greater say over their own affairs, FederalState partnerships grow, leading to tensions between the objectives
of consistency and flexibility. Regulation also must adjust to reflect
changes in technology. For example, it is important to focus on the
risks posed by contaminants, not just the ability to measure their
concentrations in human tissues and the environment.
The Administration’s strategy of reinventing regulation addresses these varied and sometimes conflicting concerns. It encompasses
not just deregulation and reform of the content of regulation, but
also a rethinking of how government regulates. The goal is to de-

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vise a regulatory system that both works better and is more responsive to public concerns.
Efforts to reinvent regulation are taking a variety of forms. One
important step is better targeting of regulatory efforts to where the
need is greatest. Another is a shift in emphasis from prescribing
methods of compliance to specifying desired outcomes. Still another
is harnessing economic incentives through market-based regulatory
mechanisms. The process of regulating can be improved through reduced paperwork burdens and streamlined reporting requirements,
better dissemination of information to the public, and increased opportunities for public participation in the regulatory process.

EVALUATING REGULATORY PERFORMANCE:
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
Evaluating regulatory reforms requires consideration of the benefits and costs of alternatives. This can raise a number of questions.
What range of consequences from regulation should be considered?
How does one address benefits or costs that are uncertain or inherently difficult to quantify? How should concerns about fairness be
dealt with? How should regulators balance the need for consistency
in rulemaking with the advantages of flexibility? How can the assessment process itself obtain high-quality analysis without creating an excessive administrative burden, and without imposing excessive societal costs from the delay of necessary actions?

SETTING REGULATORY PRIORITIES
Executive Order 12866, which the President signed on September 30, 1993, reflects the Administration’s basic philosophy and
principles for regulatory planning and review. The order stipulates
a number of criteria that should apply both to assessments of ‘‘significant’’ new regulations (including but not limited to regulations
with an expected annual economic effect of $100 million or more)
and to reevaluations of existing regulations. The order requires
that Federal regulations address real needs while avoiding undue
economic burdens. In assessing the need for regulation, agencies
should consider a variety of alternatives, including alternatives to
new regulation. The assessment should use the best reasonably
available information, including information about risks and costs
and the uncertainties surrounding them, and it should encompass
both quantitative and qualitative benefits and costs. To the extent
compatible with existing statutes, agencies should show that the
chosen regulatory approach maximizes net benefits (including economic, environmental, public health and safety, and other advantages, as well as distributional impacts and equity), and that those
benefits justify the costs. The means of regulating should be cost-

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effective, imposing the least possible cost on society to achieve the
objective (after taking into account the potential for technical innovation, requirements for verifying compliance, and equity concerns). Federal agencies should also reduce regulatory inconsistency and overlap; they should coordinate their activities with State,
local, and tribal governments; and they should provide significant
opportunities for contribution by the public to regulatory review.
The criteria for regulatory planning and review established in
the order recognize that some benefits and costs are difficult to
quantify but nevertheless important. The order acknowledges the
importance and limitations of benefit-cost evaluations for obtaining
good regulatory outcomes. The Administration opposes legislative
changes that would burden the regulatory system with rigidly prescribed assessment methods, unnecessary costs and delay, and excessive opportunities for litigation.

DESIGNING EFFECTIVE REGULATORY POLICIES
To make regulation less burdensome, the order states that, wherever possible, agencies specify regulatory goals in terms of performance standards, which specify desired outcomes, rather than design
standards, which prescribe methods of compliance. Performancebased regulation lowers the cost of compliance by allowing a variety of compliance options and encouraging technical innovation. In
contrast, the input-oriented, design standards approach tends to
raise the cost of achieving regulatory objectives by limiting flexibility. For example, standards for atmospheric pollutants could specify a desired reduction in emissions or in the damages caused by
emissions, and a means for determining whether that reduction
has been achieved. This obviates the need to mandate investment
in specific pollution abatement technology such as scrubbers for
power plants.
Performance standards may require greater effort on the part of
regulators to ascertain the level of compliance. They also require
public confidence in the approach. The applicability of performance
standards in practice is limited by constraints on the ability to
monitor compliance and public acceptance. Improved measurement
capacities and increased confidence in the approach can be expected to increase its applicability, yielding significant improvements in the cost-effectiveness of regulation.
Even with performance standards in place, the total cost to the
economy of complying with regulation may be higher than necessary. The total cost can be reduced if those who face lower compliance costs undertake more of the total effort required. Regulations can employ economic incentives toward this end, rather than
rigid requirements. Society further benefits from incentive-based
policies because they can provide a strong inducement to the devel-

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opment of new technologies that reduce the cost of compliance for
all.
Tradeable emissions allowances for pollution control illustrate
these points. A tradeable emissions regime sets a limit on total
emissions from all sources and a nominal emissions limit for each
source. Sources can then vary their actual emissions above or
below that limit through voluntary exchange of emissions allowances with other emitters. Those that can comply at lower cost can
cheaply cut emissions below their nominal limit, then sell their unused allowances to emitters with higher costs, who can then exceed
their nominal emissions levels. A further advantage of allowances
is that they essentially put a price on allowed emissions, providing
an incentive for the development of lower cost options for pollution
control and prevention.
Although regulation is necessary to curb negative externalities
such as pollution, in some cases government policy itself contributes to externalities. Then the challenge to designing effective policies includes reducing these government-induced distortions. For
example, ill-designed subsidies can contribute to environmental
harm. These include agricultural commodity programs that encourage overuse of soil, water, and chemical fertilizers, and access to
forests on government land at less than their opportunity cost. Reducing or eliminating distorting subsidies offers an opportunity to
improve the environment and market performance simultaneously.

REGULATION AND DEVOLUTION
The question of who should regulate can be as important as how
to regulate. This question has no easy answer. Many of the arguments parallel those raised in Chapter 4 on the devolution of expenditure programs. If regulatory authority goes to that level of
government whose jurisdiction best corresponds to the scope of the
externality, this can help ensure a solution that is tailored to the
problem. For example, plans to clean up and rehabilitate contaminated industrial sites might be better made at the State or the
local level. State and local decisionmakers may be better able to assess the benefits and costs of additional cleanup—greater public
safety, cleaner sites, but increased expense and delay—and to ensure that resources are used most efficiently.
Devolution of regulatory responsibility may not be appropriate,
however, for several reasons. Broader, cross-jurisdictional environmental interests may be at stake. For example, protecting wetlands
and endangered species habitats is a national as well as a local
issue. The impacts of pollution may transcend local boundaries.
Federal regulation of air and surface water pollution is intended in
part to address the fact that some of these problems spill over city
limits and State lines. State or local authorities might have a weak

135



interest in preventing or containing damages outside their jurisdictions. Devolution of regulatory authority might also compromise
protection because of limits on local regulatory capacity (such as inadequate resources for monitoring or lack of enforcement experience), or because States or localities are in competition with each
other for economic development opportunities. In addition, disparate State or local regulatory standards can increase costs of compliance by, for example, requiring excessive product differentiation.
Problems can arise when the impacts of externalities are felt by
one group of people, but political decisions are made by others. By
the same token, however, problems can arise when the beneficiaries of policies to address externalities do not have a stake in
balancing the costs and benefits of policy intervention. This can
happen when decisions are made by States or localities but costs
are borne at the Federal level. Conversely, the imposition of requirements on State and local governments without the funding to
meet those requirements—so-called unfunded mandates—has become a point of contention. Some mandates could be seen as undue
restrictions on local discretion, but others may appropriately compensate for market or policy failures at the State or local level. For
example, if a mandate restricts the ability of States or localities to
impose externalities on others, it can be justified on the same economic grounds that apply to the regulation of private entities that
generate externalities. It can be difficult in practice to ascertain
into which category a particular mandate falls. In any case, the
Federal Government should be aware of the costs it imposes on
other levels of government. As noted in Chapter 4, legislation
passed in 1995 ensures that this information will be available during congressional debates.

REGULATORY ASSESSMENT IN PRACTICE
The capacity to estimate the consequences of regulation has
grown enormously since the early days of benefit-cost analysis. And
even imprecise analyses can at least be useful in placing bounds
around potential benefits and costs. Nevertheless, a number of
methodological questions persist and are addressed in newly updated guidelines issued by the Office of Management and Budget.
The following examples illustrate these issues and the means available to address them.
The primary purpose of much regulation is to reduce an identified threat to human health, safety, or the environment. However,
there are gaps in current knowledge about the nature and magnitude of the hazards that different substances and practices pose
to different parts of the population, and about the costs of reducing
those hazards. With limited information, analysts will be able to
describe only a few possible scenarios; in other cases a more com-

136



plete characterization of outcomes and probabilities may be possible. Such information may include measures of central tendency
(e.g., the median risk), upper and lower bounds, measures of the
uncertainty of possible outcomes, and effects on different populations. Where the level of risk depends on more than one factor
(e.g., both exposure and toxicity), statistical techniques can combine these factors in a way that accurately describes the overall
risk without putting excessive emphasis on those outcomes that are
very unlikely.
The valuation of risk reduction is an important element of many
regulatory assessments. It is complicated, however, by the fact that
typically there are no markets that directly value the reductions in
risk achieved through regulation. Instead, indirect methods must
be employed. For example, the assessment of many health and
safety regulations centers on the question, By how much will this
regulation reduce the risk of illness or premature death? It is possible in principle to assign an economic value to the reduced risk
of premature mortality by posing the question, How much would
members of the affected public willingly pay for this reduction in
the probability of earlier death? This makes the issue analogous to
the willingness to pay for insurance—and quite different from placing a monetary value on a specific person’s life. (Even the notion
of putting a monetary value on risk reductions of this kind remains
controversial for many.) The question can be approached by examining, for example, how much more people pay for safer but costlier
products, or by estimating the wage premiums offered for riskier
occupations. However, debate continues about the reliability and
applicability of this information to the assessment of other kinds of
risks. Among the questions at issue are the degree to which the
risks in question are assumed voluntarily or involuntarily, and the
extent to which valuations should reflect the age of those affected
and the latency of the risk (that is, the lag with which any ill effects are likely to occur).
Discounting future benefits and costs is another complicated
methodological issue. Benefits received now or soon are generally
worth more to people—have higher present value—than the same
benefits received later. An important question here is the extent to
which the costs of regulation displace private consumption or investment. Displacement of investment implies a loss of future consumption possibilities. Higher market returns on investment imply
a larger consumption displacement. The weighing of long-term benefits and costs should also attempt to account for changes in the
relative scarcity of resources and the potential for irreversible
losses that result in a sacrifice of future as well as current benefits.
Analysis of issues with very long-term consequences, such as climate change and depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer, in-

137



volves yet another complicated issue: tradeoffs among the interests
of different generations that may give rise to ethical considerations.
One way to introduce ethical elements into the analysis is through
intergenerational discount rates that explicitly reflect assumptions
about society’s attitudes toward such tradeoffs. Discount rates derived from ethical considerations about fairness to future generations were calculated in one study to range between 0.5 and 3.0
percent (in real terms) for an advanced industrial economy. This
range is generally below rates of return to private capital, but not
necessarily below real short-term yields on government bonds.

SETTING REGULATORY PRIORITIES FOR THE
ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES
Over the past 25 years environmental regulation has succeeded
in reducing a number of threats to human health and the environment. For example, emissions of lead into the air, which pose serious threats to human health, have fallen sharply (Table 5–1), and
lead paint has been banned. As a consequence, blood lead levels
have dropped sharply. Air quality in many cities has improved considerably (Chart 5–1). The past quarter century has also seen efforts to protect valuable natural resources such as wetlands, and
the ban on the pesticide DDT has reduced serious threats to species like the bald eagle. The agreement to phase out the production
of substances that deplete stratospheric ozone is an important first
step toward greater international cooperation in protecting the
global environment. Nevertheless, concerns about local environmental quality remain. For example, the frequency with which concentrations of fecal coliform bacteria in rivers and streams are
found to exceed standards shows little decline. And other regional
and global problems have come to the fore, such as the global loss
of biodiversity, marine pollution, stress on fisheries, and the threat
of global warming.
It is important to consider the costs of environmental policies as
well as their benefits. Direct public and private expenditures associated with the regulations of the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) have been estimated to be between 1.6 and 1.8 percent of
GDP since the mid-1970s, a small but significant share of total economic activity. In absolute terms, current-dollar expenditures in
1992 and 1993 were slightly over $100 billion, or almost as much
as total personal expenditures for religious and philanthropic activities. These estimates exclude indirect costs associated with environmental regulations, and the costs of other regulations to restrict land and natural resource use. They also do not indicate the
marginal cost of stricter regulation.

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TABLE 5–1.—Atmospheric Emissions of Lead, by Source, 1970–94
[Thousand short tons]

Year

Total

Nontransportation
fuel combustion

Transportation

Industrial
processes

1970 ...............................................................................................................

219.5

10.6

180.3

28.6

1975 ...............................................................................................................

158.5

10.3

135.2

13.0

1980 ...............................................................................................................

75.0

4.3

65.5

5.1

1985 ...............................................................................................................

20.1

.5

16.2

3.4

1990 ...............................................................................................................

5.7

.5

1.9

3.3

1994 ...............................................................................................................

5.0

.5

1.6

2.9

Note.—Detail may not add to totals because of rounding.
Source: Environmental Protection Agency.

Chart 5-1 Air Quality in Urban Areas
Air quality has improved markedly in just the last decade.
the last decade.
Days per year of "good" or "moderate" air quality
355

350

345

340

335

330

325
0
1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

Note: Data are averages for 23 urban areas.
Source: Environmental Protection Agency.

Satisfying public concern for protection of the environment and
natural resources without imposing an undue burden on the economy is a challenge. Part of the Administration’s response is
through programs like EPA’s Common Sense Initiative. This program is a pilot collaborative effort among government, business,
and the public to identify areas for improvement in how regulations are structured and implemented, and how technologies can be
improved to help protect the environment. Another new initiative
is EPA’s Project XL, which invites companies to propose their own

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environmental performance standards, to increase flexibility and
improve environmental performance. The Army Corps of Engineers
has streamlined permitting procedures related to protection of wetlands to reduce regulatory burdens on activities involving small
tracts of land.
Beyond these efforts, resources devoted to regulation can be used
more efficiently through careful evaluation of benefits and costs,
keeping in mind the uncertainties inherent in such evaluations and
the need to consider qualitative or subjective factors such as distributional equity and environmental justice, as noted above. Three
recent regulatory reform initiatives—the reauthorization of the
Safe Drinking Water Act, the reform of waste management programs, and shifts in the focus of agricultural land retirement programs—illustrate efforts to target regulation better.

THE SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT
The unanimous reauthorization by the Senate of the Safe Drinking Water Act in the fall of 1995 is a good example of bipartisan
legislative reform to increase the role of benefit-cost assessments in
setting more rational priorities. The previous version of the act put
EPA on a regulatory treadmill, requiring new standards for 25 substances every 3 years, regardless of the threat they posed. A study
by the Congressional Budget Office estimated the cost of reducing
cancer risk under standards that various administrations have
been required to promulgate for different contaminants under the
act. The estimates ranged from less than $1 million to over $4 billion per expected cancer death avoided. Although other important
health benefits besides reduced risk of cancer are also tied to
drinking water standards, a range this wide suggests that much
could be gained from better targeting of regulatory efforts on those
substances that pose the greatest risk.
The Senate revisions to the act would explicitly allow EPA to
consider the balance between potential public health benefits and
the costs when establishing drinking water standards. EPA would
be able to target those threats to public health that scientific assessments indicate are more important. EPA could also modify
standards whose benefits do not justify the costs, so long as the alternative standard chosen maintains or increases health benefits.
This general approach—protecting public health and environmental
values, but also providing greater latitude for balancing benefits
and costs—is an instructive example of how such balancing provisions could be incorporated in other environmental laws and regulations.

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HAZARDOUS WASTE
There are several important Federal programs for disposal of
hazardous wastes and cleanups of waste contamination. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
Act (CERCLA, otherwise known as the Superfund program) established a program to clean up major disused contaminated sites.
CERCLA also requires those responsible to restore, replace, or provide compensation for the loss, injury, or destruction of natural resources (Box 5–1). The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA) established a program that regulates ongoing management
of hazardous and solid wastes, as well as cleanups of facilities covered by the permitting requirements of the act. The Federal Government also is subject to these laws and cleans up sites managed
by Federal agencies or contractors.
CERCLA and RCRA require that cleanups and waste management protect human health and the environment. To achieve this
goal, CERCLA currently contains a strong preference for remedies
that are permanent and involve treatment of contaminants, as opposed to lower cost alternatives that contain the contamination and
limit human exposure or environmental damage, without a full
long-term cleanup. CERCLA currently puts only limited weight on
cleanup costs as one of a number of factors to be balanced in selecting remedies. In addition, remedies must satisfy a variety of other
Federal and State statutory requirements directly or indirectly related to site cleanups; these can impose stricter standards than
CERCLA itself would require. Some standards for hazardous waste
disposal under RCRA require threats to human health and the environment to be ‘‘minimized,’’ regardless of the level of risk posed
by the waste or the cost of compliance. This requirement could
imply the need for waste management efforts to intensify as technical capacity improves, regardless of background environmental
quality or the hazard posed by the material.
The advantages of reform in waste cleanup could be substantial.
The Administration estimated that its 1994 CERCLA reform proposals (discussed below) could reduce cleanup costs by 19 to 25 percent (including savings at Federal facilities). A review of CERCLA
cleanup decisions by researchers at the University of Tennessee
found that increasing the flexibility of remedy selection could reduce the cost of actual site cleanup by anywhere from 20 percent
to more than 50 percent without compromising the basic statutory
goal of protecting human health and the environment. Since governments and private parties spend several billion dollars each
year on CERCLA site remediation, the total savings could be substantial. Significant cost savings could also be realized from reforms of RCRA. For example, EPA has estimated that billions of
dollars in cumulative cost savings could be obtained by increasing

141



the flexibility with which one category of materials—contaminated
materials excavated during site cleanups—is handled, without an
unacceptable increase in risk.
Improving the balance between the benefits of risk reduction, on
the one hand, and the costs of cleaning up old waste and managing
new waste, on the other, calls for both legislative and administrative changes. These should build upon the basic principles laid out
earlier in this chapter. Cleanup remedies and regulations for managing new wastes should protect human health and the environment. Policies should reflect sound assessments of the risks involved. Decisionmakers should have greater flexibility in designing
remedies and waste management policies, and greater weight
should be given to costs than in the past. Decisions should take
into account the concerns of affected communities and the potential
for redevelopment of contaminated sites. And regulatory actions
should be able to proceed without bogging down in red tape. The
policy debate seems to center not so much on these basic principles
as on how reforms should be implemented and how tradeoffs
should be structured to achieve the stipulated goals.
During the 1994 debate on CERCLA reform, the Administration
proposed legislation that would have given more weight to cleanup
costs in choosing remedies, limited requirements for more stringent
cleanups due to other statutes, and required greater consideration
of the likely future uses of the site (e.g., residential versus industrial) in assessing risks and selecting remedies. The reforms would
have limited the preference for permanent treatment to so-called
‘‘hot spots,’’ such as portions of sites with high concentrations of
contaminants. Under this approach, greater use could be made of
remedies that prevent the spread of contaminants or avoid human
exposure without requiring the more expensive removal or destruction of contaminants. Although this legislation was supported by
industry and environmental interests, the 103d Congress failed to
vote on it before adjourning.
Legislation introduced in the 104th Congress proposes more
sweeping changes to the remediation process. The Administration
opposes changes to the remediation process that provide inadequate protection, fail to give due weight to State and community
interests, or pose an excessive administrative burden. Meanwhile
the Administration is pursuing a number of administrative reforms
to strengthen the reliability of risk assessments, put greater emphasis on sites of greater risk, and compare the potential risk reductions and costs of alternative remedies. For example, high-cost
remedies will be subject to additional review to determine whether
a lower cost remedy would meet the cleanup goals. A finding of
high cost and limited risk reduction would provide a rationale for
waiving more restrictive remedy requirements.

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The Administration organized public discussions on reinventing
RCRA. These generated a variety of suggestions for the management of newly created wastes: disposal restrictions could be made
more risk-based, barriers to economically and environmentally
sound recycling could be lowered, and there could be more flexibility in determining what substances will be regulated as hazardous
wastes. The Administration currently supports carefully targeted
legislative efforts to relax restrictions on certain low-risk types of
waste disposal. Through rulemaking, EPA is attempting to exclude
certain low-risk materials from RCRA hazardous waste requirements.
As indicated previously, cost savings also can be obtained from
increased regulatory flexibility in handling materials produced in
the course of cleanups. Even if these materials have low levels of
contamination, under current law they must be treated the same
as the most hazardous industrial process wastes. When large volumes of these materials become subject to strict cleanup standards,
they can pose a significant cost burden. Reform can be achieved
without jeopardizing human health and the environment by combining some relaxation of waste disposal requirements with a requirement that a cleanup plan be approved by Federal or State regulators.

AGRICULTURAL LAND RETIREMENT PROGRAMS
Over the last decade, agricultural policies have reflected a broadening of priorities to include concerns for environmental quality
and market efficiency as well as farm income. This can be seen in
changes in commodity programs that give farmers greater planting
flexibility and provide greater incentives to respond to market
prices rather than government support prices. Removal of market
price distortions and planting restrictions can stem the overuse of
chemicals and fertilizers on program crops and can encourage the
adoption of environmentally beneficial crop rotations.
Concern for environmental quality is also reflected in government programs to idle cropland. These programs have been used
since the 1930s both to control agricultural output and to achieve
environmental goals. Program eligibility guidelines requiring the
removal of land from production impose costs on society by reducing output, raising consumer prices, and distorting agricultural
input markets. But idling certain tracts of land can also provide environmental benefits, for example by maintaining soil productivity
through erosion control, reducing water pollution from sediment
and chemical runoff, and increasing area for wildlife habitat. The
net benefits of land retirement programs depend on whether they
are designed primarily to control agricultural production or to protect the environment.

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Box 5–1.—Natural Resource Damages

In addition to authorizing the cleanup of contaminated sites,
CERCLA provides authority for certain ‘‘trustees’’ (Federal
agencies, State governments, and Indian tribes) to seek compensation on behalf of the public for damages to public natural
resources and ecosystems caused by contamination with hazardous substances. The 1990 Oil Pollution Act provides similar
authority to address damages from oil spills. The laws require
trustees to restore, replace, or acquire the equivalent of the
damaged or destroyed resources. Trustees must also obtain
compensation for interim losses incurred by the public while
recovery, restoration, or replacement is taking place.
Natural resources and ecosystems support recreation and
commercial ventures (such as fisheries) and provide a variety
of important ecological functions such as waste absorption and
species habitat. Beyond these more or less tangible benefits,
the very existence of natural areas can be a source of value for
people. However, quantifying the economic value of natural resource damages can be challenging. Even where the physical
effects on ecosystems (such as fish kills or beach contamination) can be measured with some precision, the corresponding
loss of benefits to people may be much more uncertain. The
EPA and the National Science Foundation are supporting a research program to improve our understanding of the value of
ecological resources, as part of the Administration’s larger effort to expand and strengthen environmental research. The Administration has also issued revised rules for assessing damages under the Oil Pollution Act. Under these rules, economic
assessment would determine the scale of investment when direct comparisons are not possible between the damaged resources and the resources being provided to compensate for the
damages.
The Department of Agriculture’s annual acreage reduction programs (ARPs) have historically required farmers to set aside a portion of their assigned crop base acreage in order to receive direct
government payments and other benefits. Current law, however,
gives the Secretary of Agriculture limited discretion over how and
when planting restrictions are imposed. In many years, over 10
percent of U.S. cropland has been idled under the ARPs. By limiting supply and raising market prices, ARPs reduce deficiency payments and shift the cost of farm income support from taxpayers to
consumers. The use of acreage restrictions to limit supply can also
cause overuse of other inputs. By raising prices, ARPs create incentives to farm the land remaining in production more intensively.

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This can have unfortunate environmental consequences if more fertilizer and pesticide are applied to the remaining acreage.
The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), established in 1985,
allows farmers to enter into long-term land retirement contracts
with the Agriculture Department. Farmers receive ‘‘rental payments’’ from the government for taking environmentally sensitive
land out of production. The primary goal of the legislation was to
reduce soil erosion and its adverse environmental consequences, although control of agricultural output was also a key objective at
the time (about one-quarter of the land enrolled in CRP may not
be highly erodible, although much of this land provides wildlife
habitat and other environmental benefits). Landowners bid competitively for CRP contracts. Bid selection is based on the cost of
the rental payments and on an environmental benefit index. Tracts
of land receive an index score that indicates the potential environmental benefits of idling those acres.
Agricultural land idled under all Federal programs has declined
considerably since the late 1980s, and the CRP has supplanted annual ARPs as the main land retirement program. The 1990 Farm
Bill extended the CRP, placing greater emphasis on curbing water
pollution and other environmental problems. It also established the
Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP) to protect and restore wetlands
through long-term and permanent easements. These targeted programs complement the conservation efforts of private land trusts
(Box 5–2).
Recent Administration initiatives have continued to emphasize
the goal of environmental protection over that of controlling agricultural supply. For the current Farm Bill the Administration recommended that ARPs be made a discretionary tool to be used only
when supply and demand are critically out of balance. Eliminating
annual ARPs could also reduce the costs of operating the CRP and
the WRP if the annual set-aside programs bid up the price of agricultural land, making environmental easement contracts more costly to acquire. In 1995 the Department of Agriculture allowed the
early release of over 683,000 acres from CRP contracts, using a
new bid selection system to replace those acres with more environmentally sensitive cropland.
How costs and environmental benefits are weighed in ranking
CRP bids also affects the geographic distribution of land enrolled
in the program. Most CRP acreage is currently in the Great Plains,
the Mountain States, and the Corn Belt. But as more recent
signups have placed more weight on water quality and habitat protection, enrollment has shifted toward the Great Lakes States, with
the Corn Belt also still accounting for a large share. If funding for
the CRP is reduced, decisionmakers may face more difficult tradeoffs between targeting the program for greater environmental bene-

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fit and maintaining income support for current beneficiaries. Research to estimate the economic value of environmental improvements from land retirement can provide better information on the
nature of these tradeoffs.

CREATING COST-EFFECTIVE POLICIES:
ECONOMIC INCENTIVES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION
Policymakers can create and enhance economic incentives for
protecting the environment in a number of ways. Laws that specify
liability for environmental damages, such as those in the
Superfund program, can create incentives for increased care before
the fact. Economic theory also has long advocated the use of
charges or fees that induce more sparing use of nonmarket environmental resources.
The use of tradeable allowances or harvest quota shares is another approach for limiting the use of environmental resources (in
this case limiting pollution discharges) or the use of natural resources such as ocean fisheries that are subject to excessive exploitation. As described earlier, this approach sets a limit on total use
of the resource (a limit on the total fish harvest or waste discharge)
and nominal limits on individual users. Users can, however, exceed
their nominal limit by purchasing allotments from others, who then
use less than their allotments. The market price that emerges for
the use of the resource creates incentives to limit that use, just as
a user fee does. Unlike a fee, however, trading can be used without
a revenue transfer from the private sector to the government. The
ability to trade allotments helps to ensure a cost-effective outcome,
since those who can comply with the constraint on total resource
use most economically—that is, those with the most efficient harvesting operations or lowest pollution control costs—assume the
greatest share of responsibility for meeting the limit. The approach
also creates incentives to devise new technologies that lower compliance costs, since all participants would like to reduce their allowance purchases or increase their allowance sales. Finally, regulators can use their flexibility in the initial allotment of allowances
or quota shares to treat distributional or equity concerns that may
arise from the limit on resource use.
This section discusses several examples of the use of pollution
trading or tradeable harvest quotas in practice. The discussion focuses on the use of emissions trading for air pollution control and
tradeable fishing quotas for regulation of overfishing. However, the
approach has a number of other potential applications. For example, the Administration’s 1994 assessment of the Clean Water Act
reauthorization estimated compliance cost savings of several hun-

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Box 5–2.—Land Trusts and the Tax System

Land trusts are private, voluntary, nonprofit conservation organizations that complement Federal and State programs by
preserving 14 million acres of scenic areas, farmland, and wildlife habitat—more land than is held in State parks and recreation areas in the entire United States. Land trusts are established by national organizations such as the Nature Conservancy, the Conservation Fund, and the National Audubon Society as well as by groups at the local, State, and regional levels.
Land is preserved through outright purchase, purchase of development easements, leases, and land management agreements.
Land acquired by land trusts is often purchased later by
Federal resource management agencies. This acquisition sequence has several advantages. Local organizations may have
better information about the environmental characteristics of
particular tracts of land and more flexibility in conducting
timely transactions with private landowners. Resale of land to
the Federal Government, in turn, provides trusts with revenue
to continue their preservation activities. Federal tax policy also
affects land preservation activities. Land trusts try to acquire
land through donations or below-market-value purchases, relying on incentives provided by the income, property, and estate
tax codes to obtain properties or land use rights.
Federal interaction with land trusts raises two policy questions. First, do Federal agencies pay fair market value for land
purchased from trusts? A recent report by the General Accounting Office suggests that they do. Second, should incentives for land preservation be altered directly through targeted
programs such as the WRP, or more indirectly through
changes in tax codes? Direct land retirement programs have
some advantages over increases in broad-based tax incentives
in their ability to target properties and set priorities for land
preservation. For example, the WRP ranks easement bids according to cost, significance of ecological functions, and geographic location, among other criteria. In contrast, income or
property tax credits or estate tax deferrals are available to all
owners of eligible lands. Eligibility can be conditioned on providing environmental benefits, but the lands eligible for the tax
incentive may not be the most ecologically desirable or cost-effective locations for such efforts. On the other hand, the greater budgetary visibility of direct programs may make them
more difficult to sustain.

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dred million to several billion dollars per year from expanded water
pollution trading. EPA is developing a framework for expanded use
of effluent trading. Expanded use of trading programs to protect
wetlands and species habitats, provided they are ecologically
sound, can also achieve regulatory goals while providing cost-reducing flexibility in the timing and location of protection efforts.

AIR POLLUTION TRADING
Precursors of today’s air pollution emissions trading programs
were established in the 1970s. An example is the ‘‘offset’’ program,
which allows new pollution sources in areas with poor air quality,
provided they reduce other emissions sources in the area by more
than their own emissions. Another example is the ‘‘bubble’’ program. This program subjects a group of individual sources in close
proximity to a single common limit on total emissions, and allows
the sources to trade emissions rather than comply with individual
limits. Even though subject to numerous restrictions, these programs have delivered emission reductions at lower cost.
A more comprehensive approach to emissions trading was implemented in the national program that allows power plants to trade
sulfur dioxide emissions (a precursor to acid rain) under the 1990
amendments to the Clean Air Act. This program, whose initial
phase began in 1995, allows firms to save money by complying with
performance standards rather than strict emissions controls requiring the use of specific technologies. The shift to performance standards makes possible a broader range of cost-effective compliance
strategies, such as blending coals with different sulfur contents.
This flexibility has also created competition among compliance options, lowering the costs of both fuel switching and removal of sulfur from stack exhausts. These benefits have been achieved even
though the initial phase of the program has so far resulted in limited trading of allowances among firms. This phase requires only
a limited number of plants to participate and sets sulfur dioxide
standards that are less restrictive than standards in the second
phase will be. Under these circumstances, electricity producers
have been able to achieve the benefits of more flexible regulation
without extensive reliance on allowance trading with other producers. In the second phase of the program, beginning in 2000, performance standards will be tighter and more plants will be involved. Consequently, emissions trading among firms seems likely
to become more important.
Local and regional efforts along these lines are emerging as well.
In 1994 Southern California implemented a regional emissions
trading market for nitrogen oxides, which also cause acid rain and
contribute to haze and ground-level ozone pollution. Known as the
Regional Clean Air Incentives Market, or RECLAIM, the Southern

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California program is broadly similar to the national market for
sulfur dioxide emissions discussed above, but with some distinctive
features. For example, the program sets limitations on the location
of emissions that are traded, to help prevent ‘‘hot spots.’’ The RECLAIM program for nitrogen oxides is part of a larger compliance
strategy that seeks to lower total emissions in the region toward
levels needed to achieve mandated air quality standards. Under
such an approach, regulators can simultaneously improve the environment, enhance cost-effectiveness, and provide flexibility for economic growth in the region. Other areas (notably the Northeast)
are in the process of developing their own nitrogen oxide trading
programs.
Programs like the national sulfur dioxide allowance market and
RECLAIM, which establish an aggregate emissions limit for a
whole class of emitters, entail setup costs to establish allowable aggregate emissions limits, initial allocations of allowances, and trading rules. EPA has proposed an ‘‘open markets’’ system for trading
of allowances for both nitrogen oxides and volatile hydrocarbon
emissions in the absence of these elements. Under this approach,
various types of emitters can participate in a variety of cost-reducing trades. For example, a paint shop switching to a lower volatility paint for 6 months could sell the short-term emissions reductions to a refinery with a temporary need to cover surplus emissions. A similar approach to bilateral trading could be an important
complement to international efforts aimed at protecting the stratospheric ozone layer (Box 5–3).
Regulators face an important challenge in using the open market
approach: how will Federal and State air quality regulators obtain
adequate assurance that proposed emissions reductions are credible? EPA’s proposal reflects several approaches. The agency’s preferred approach is a ‘‘buyer beware’’ plan whereby the user of an
open markets emission reduction credit ultimately is responsible
for the quality and integrity of the credit. This approach provides
maximum environmental security by giving buyers strong incentives to check the legitimacy of credits, but it could also deter buyers from participating in the market, since they would incur a liability if sellers fail to live up to their obligations. EPA has identified alternative liability arrangements, such as placing more liability on sellers (with a system of spot checks to detect inadequate
performance) and using third-party verification through brokers,
who would be able to absorb legal liability for the quality of credits
and provide warranties to buyers.

TRADEABLE FISHING QUOTAS
Overfishing—the consequence of unrestricted access to ocean fish
stocks—has put heavy pressure on many of the world’s fisheries.

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Box 5–3.—Protecting the Stratospheric Ozone Layer: An
Incentives-Based Approach

Methyl bromide is a pesticide that is damaging to the stratospheric ozone layer which shields the earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Recent adjustments to the Montreal Protocol, the international treaty governing ozone layer protection,
place the first global limits on methyl bromide. Industrial
countries must phase out methyl bromide production and use
by 2010, except for certain essential uses such as treatment of
imports and exports (currently less than 10 percent of global
use). Use by developing countries (currently about 20 percent
of the world total) will be frozen in 2002, with additional controls to be negotiated in the next 2 years.
Interim reductions by industrial countries en route to a
phaseout will also be required. By limiting the total quantity
of methyl bromide available, rising methyl bromide prices will
automatically and cost-effectively allocate the remaining supply to more highly valued uses. The signatories to the Montreal
Protocol will review the expanded use of market-based measures for controlling methyl bromide. One option, an international trading system, could allow some countries to reduce
their methyl bromide use more slowly, by purchasing allowances from countries that have reduced use ahead of schedule.
Current U.S. law requires more stringent control on methyl
bromide use than do the adjustments to the Montreal Protocol.
The Clean Air Act bans, without exemption, all U.S. methyl
bromide production and use by 2001. U.S. agricultural producers have expressed concern that they will be placed at a competitive disadvantage if other countries are allowed to continue
methyl bromide use. The Administration supports legislative
changes necessary to allow for continued methyl bromide use
beyond 2001, in cases where alternatives do not exist, to safeguard U.S. agricultural competitiveness.
Without limits on access, anyone with the necessary skills and financing can enter the industry. The exercise of individual self-interest in this case leads to serious economic waste from excess
entry and damage to the resource, since individual boat operators
do not take into account the long-term consequences of depletion in
their own harvesting decisions. Any unilateral exercise of forbearance simply expands the catch available to others.
Traditionally, fisheries management has attempted to cope with
this problem through such measures as limited fishing seasons and
restrictions on allowable gear. These efforts slow depletion of stocks
in a costly manner by requiring the use of less efficient technology

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and creating market gluts during the abbreviated fishing seasons.
And in any event these efforts often are overwhelmed by technical
advances in harvesting methods.
A promising alternative is the use of individually transferable
quotas (ITQs). In a manner analogous to air pollution trading programs, ITQs operate by setting a limit on the total allowable harvest and creating tradeable rights to a share of the harvest. With
trade in ITQs, the harvest is undertaken by the most efficient operators, and since the quota rights can be used at any time during
the year, the harvest rate does not glut the market. The sale of
ITQs also provides a temporary financial buffer for less efficient operators, who are induced to leave the industry as overcapitalization
declines.
Several challenges must be addressed in establishing an ITQ program. These include determining the initial size of the quota, allocating the quotas, and addressing the effects of an ITQ for one fish
species on others; setting up a monitoring program; and dealing
with the plight of fishing communities whose residents might not
remain competitive in the ITQ market.
ITQs are currently being used by two East Coast regional fishery
management councils, on a larger scale in an Alaskan fishery, and
in other countries. The effects of harvest limits and pressures to increase harvest efficiency are shown in the decline of excess capital
applied in the East Coast fisheries: the number of vessels has decreased by more than 50 percent. Similarly, in one application in
British Columbia the decreased economic waste is indicated by an
increase in the net overall economic return to the fishery of 65 percent.

TECHNOLOGY DIFFUSION FOR POLLUTION
CONTROL IN AGRICULTURE
Government can play a role in improving environmental quality
not only by internalizing externalities, but also by correcting market failures in the provision of information. Improved production
techniques and management practices can improve efficiency and
cut waste and pollution, in effect substituting one clean input—information—for other, polluting inputs. However, information has
certain aspects of a public good—it is difficult for individual suppliers to restrict its use to those who have paid for it. As a result, private markets may undersupply information about environmentally
beneficial technologies. Information problems can also constrain the
adoption of new technologies by farmers. In such cases, the government may be able to improve efficiency by collecting and providing
information about resource-conserving practices.

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U.S. agricultural policy has a long tradition of emphasizing education, technical assistance, and subsidies to achieve economic and
environmental goals. Technology transfer programs dating back to
the 1930s have encouraged farmers to adopt soil conservation practices to maintain soil productivity through erosion control. The traditional extension and technology transfer system has increasingly
emphasized technologies aimed at off-site environmental damages.
Integrated pest management and conservation tillage are examples
of the environmentally beneficial practices that have been promoted.
More recent programs have aimed at curbing water pollution
from agriculture through provision of public information and financial incentives for farmers. Demonstration programs have been set
up to encourage the adoption of best management practices
(BMPs). An assumption underlying such voluntary environmental
programs is that technological options can reduce both production
costs and pollution. In theory, if these practices do reduce costs
through more efficient use of water, fertilizer, and pesticides, demonstration programs will encourage their long-term adoption. Programs frequently include short-term subsidies to encourage initial
adoption.
The adoption of BMPs has yielded some impressive results. For
example, one study found that depending on field conditions, corn
farmers in Nebraska who adopted soil nitrogen testing could reduce
their use of fertilizer up to 25 percent with no loss in yields. In this
case, the soil testing procedure substitutes information for chemical
fertilizer applications. Moreover, farmers who participated in the
Department of Agriculture’s educational programs appeared to
have made more effective use of nitrogen testing results than did
nonparticipants.
Although the history of government programs to promote BMPs
is still somewhat limited, useful lessons have already emerged.
First, familiarity with new management practices has been found
to encourage adoption, especially for BMPs that represent minor
changes in current operations. Second, although profitability is a
prime consideration in BMP adoption, it is not the only one. The
belief that a BMP improves water quality has been found to be an
important incentive for adoption, particularly in areas where agriculture has impaired ground water used for drinking. Third, significant regional differences exist in the perceived profitability and
adoption rates of BMPs. Thus, no single set of practices may be
widely adopted, and a decentralized approach may be needed to
promote environmental technologies in agriculture. There may also
be a role at the State level for research that tailors BMPs to local
environmental conditions.

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CONCLUSION
Without regulation to protect health, safety, and the environment, the quality of life Americans enjoy would be significantly
lower than it is today. At the same time, regulation and the regulatory process must keep pace with changes in knowledge, technology, the economy, and social priorities. Reinventing regulation
to work more cost-effectively and to address the greatest needs is
a crucial step down this path. The efforts made thus far to enhance
the performance of environmental regulation illustrate how broad
are the opportunities for improvement.

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CHAPTER 6

Promoting Competition in
Traditionally Regulated Industries
AT THE CENTER OF THE SUCCESS OF our economy is the
market, and at the core of the success of the market is competition:
it is competition that drives down costs and prices, induces firms
to produce the goods consumers want, and spurs innovation and
the expansion of new markets abroad.
In stark contrast to the gains from competition are the inefficiencies that result from monopoly. Monopolists typically set an artificially high price and restrict output, and often have weaker incentives to innovate than do competitive firms. The disadvantages of
monopoly are sufficient to warrant government action to ensure
competition or regulate the conduct of monopolies. Part of this Administration’s commitment to strengthen the private sector involves ensuring that robust competition prevails where competition
is possible, and guarding against the abuse of market power in
those limited instances where it is not.
Powerful market forces, coupled with increased recognition of the
costs of regulation, are strengthening the consensus to reform regulation in order to promote competition in two of our country’s major
regulated industries: electric power and telecommunications. Regulatory policy needs to respond to the forces of change in these industries, and important reform initiatives are under way.
At the Federal level the Congress, with the Administration’s support, has recently passed sweeping legislation to rewrite the Communications Act of 1934 and other rules governing competition in
telecommunications services. The Federal Communications Commission, which helped foster competition in telephone equipment
and long-distance service, is developing policies for the interconnection of telephone networks that will promote competition in local
telephone service as well. And the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission is trying to ensure access to electric utilities’ transmission
lines for all power generators. Various States also are moving to
promote competition in intrastate phone service and in electricity.
The stakes are high. Electricity and telecommunications are critical
elements of an economy’s infrastructure, and in the United States
each sector accounts for over $200 billion in annual sales or, collectively, over $800 per U.S. resident.

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Regulatory reform enjoys broad support, but disagreement exists
over how best to make the transition from regulated monopoly to
competition, and over the role of government once that transition
is complete. Although the debate is often couched in terms of ‘‘regulation’’ versus ‘‘deregulation,’’ implying that deregulation by itself
will encourage competition and thus efficiency and innovation,
what is at issue is something far more subtle, namely, the form
and nature of regulation, with profound effects on both efficiency
and equity. It cannot be overemphasized that immediate blanket
deregulation is not a panacea. Well-designed regulations and antitrust safeguards are likely to result, ultimately, in more competitive markets with more innovation than immediate deregulation
could provide. Moreover, until competition develops, it is important
to maintain safeguards to protect consumers and to prevent incumbent monopolists from stifling the growth of competition.
This chapter discusses the challenges facing regulatory and antitrust policies in the telecommunications (Box 6–1) and electric
power (Box 6–2) industries. It begins by discussing the growing
consensus for increased reliance on competition in traditionally regulated industries, then provides an overview of the main challenges
to successful regulatory reform. The two subsequent sections elaborate on these challenges in the telephone industry, which accounts
for most telecommunications revenues, and in the electric power industry.

FROM REGULATED MONOPOLY TO COMPETITION
Public policy has historically taken two approaches to the problem of monopoly power: antitrust and regulation. The Congress
passed the first antitrust law, the Sherman Act, in 1890. Antitrust
policy seeks to encourage free market competition wherever possible by prohibiting parties from stifling competition through certain mergers, collusive practices, or unreasonable exclusion of competitors. Antitrust policy does not outlaw monopoly or monopoly
prices, but instead seeks to prevent monopoly by promoting competition.
But the main policy approach in public utility industries like
electricity, gas pipelines, and telephones has been regulation of private monopolies. (Some countries have tried government ownership
as an alternative, but with few exceptions these have proven less
effective than private ownership and regulation.) The first Federal
law permitting regulation of monopoly, the Interstate Commerce
Act, dates back to 1887.
Usually the stated reason for resorting to regulation of a monopoly rather than promoting competition through antitrust is that the
industry in question is believed to be a natural monopoly—an in-

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Box 6–1.—The Telecommunications Industry

The boundaries of the telecommunications industry are not
clearly defined. In the broadest sense, the industry spans the
entire backbone of our information economy. Some divide the
industry into three segments: ‘‘conduit’’ (including local and
long-distance telephone service; cable television; wireless services; emerging services that combine data, voice, and image
transmissions; and communications equipment); ‘‘content’’
(such as broadcast television and radio and cable programming); and ‘‘computers’’ (computer hardware and software, and
computing and processing services). In this chapter, ‘‘telecommunications’’ generally refers to conduits, especially telephones, cable television, and wireless services.
Telephone service generated about $150 billion in revenues
in 1994, television and radio broadcasting almost $42 billion,
and cable television about $28 billion. Cable television, although small compared with the telephone industry, is an important component of the telecommunications industry. Almost
two-thirds of American households with televisions—more than
60 million households—subscribe to at least basic cable service,
and the industry employs about 112,000 people.
The telecommunications equipment market includes a vast
array of hardwares, from sophisticated equipment to facsimile
machines to public pay phones. This market is growing rapidly:
its sales of more than $63 billion in 1994 are projected to rise
to almost $100 billion by 1997.
dustry in which product demand can be supplied most efficiently
by a single firm. Natural monopolies arise mainly from large fixed
costs relative to the size of the market: for example, the cost of running telephone or video cables to a home, or the cost of electric
transmission lines. Such conditions create large economies of scale;
that is, unit costs drop significantly with the volume of firm’s output. In such cases the judgment may be made that competition is
not workable and that the market is best served by a single monopoly firm that can fully exploit economies of scale but is prevented
by price regulation from exercising monopoly power over customers.
The last 25 years have witnessed a sea change in attitudes toward regulating industries on grounds of natural monopoly. Economic studies have increasingly questioned the extent of economies
of scale, challenging the view that many such industries are ubiquitous natural monopolies. More important, there has been a growing awareness of the major inefficiencies spawned by the regime of
regulated monopoly.

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Box 6–2.—The Electric Power Industry

Four main types of electric utilities operate in the United
States: investor-owned utilities, which are typically privately
owned, regulated monopolies; non-Federal publicly owned utilities, which are nonprofit State and local government agencies
established to serve their communities and nearby customers
at cost; cooperative utilities, which are owned by and provide
electricity to their members; and Federal power agencies,
which are primarily electricity producers, wholesalers, and
transmitters. Although only about 250 out of the 3,204 electric
utilities nationwide in 1994 were investor-owned, they are by
far the most economically significant group, earning almost 80
percent of all electricity revenues. Over 99 percent of investorowned utilities’ revenues accrued to the 179 largest utilities.
Total electricity revenues in 1994 were $203 billion, or about
3.2 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). Of that sum, residential users accounted for almost $85 billion, commercial
users for about $63 billion, and industrial users for $48 billion.
The electric utility industry is one of the most capital-intensive
in the United States; the 179 largest investor-owned utilities
alone had almost $575 billion in assets in 1994, amounting to
almost 5 percent of the gross capital stock of all industries.
Competition typically offers important advantages over monopoly: it encourages innovation, which lowers costs and increases the
variety of products available to consumers. And regulated monopolists generally have weaker incentives than unregulated monopolists to cut costs, to launch new products, and to respond to changing customer demands. In addition, there are administrative costs
of regulation and, more important, the potential for losses due to
protracted disputes between the regulated firm, customers, and
regulators, which can cause long delays in adjusting prices or in
authorizing new investments.
The bottom line is that competition need not be perfect for it to
be preferable to regulated monopoly. The advantages of competition
can easily outweigh the disadvantage of not fully exploiting economies of scale.

ADAPTING REGULATION TO INCREASE COMPETITION
Although regulation has been the primary tool for addressing
monopoly in infrastructure industries, these industries have also
been subject to antitrust rules in some aspects of their operation,
such as interconnection in the case of the telephone industry. Regulation and antitrust have had an uneasy coexistence, given their
somewhat inconsistent thrusts: antitrust encourages competition

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but for the most part does not attempt to control a firm’s prices,
investments, and technology choices, whereas regulation does attempt to control such decisions and often restricts entry into the industry as well, thereby reducing competition. The difficulties in reconciling these approaches, and the distortions that stem from regulating monopolies, have created growing support for moving toward
a more integrated competition-cum-antitrust regime.
Regulatory reforms in the 1970s and 1980s demonstrated that
largely unregulated competition yields more efficient performance
in such traditionally regulated industries as air transport and
trucking, natural gas production, and long-distance telephone service. More recently, technological advances have further increased
the scope for competition in local telephone and cable service and
in the electric power industry. Regulatory regimes should adapt to
changing conditions, to help shrink the boundaries of the regulated
sector and rely more on competition.

Removing Legal Entry Barriers
The need for regulatory reform is nowhere more glaring than in
telecommunications, with its blistering pace of technological
change. Several technologies may in the future offer economical alternatives to today’s local telephone network. Cable companies are
experimenting with upgrading their existing lines to deliver telephone service. Wireless technologies now used mainly for mobile
communications might also be used for ordinary telephone service
if costs fall sufficiently. Fiberoptic lines, now used principally by
companies that specialize in providing access to long-distance carriers, could be extended to homes and businesses. Mobile telephone
service from low-orbiting satellites could eventually provide basic
local service. Similarly, large-scale competition to cable companies
in delivering video services may come from various sources including satellites, wireless land-based technologies, or telephone companies upgrading their networks. Meanwhile the rapid technological
change that is blurring industry boundaries in telecommunications
is also leading to the emergence of hybrid services such as multimedia, which defy easy classification into traditional industry definitions.
With so much uncertainty about the shape of the communications networks of the future, and with significant potential for competition, the best course is to leave their evolution to be determined
by the private sector. Policymakers should not attempt to prejudge
the outcome by assuming that local telephone and cable service are
natural monopolies best provided by regulated franchise monopolists. Attempts to preserve artificial industry lines for the sake of
maintaining regulation under traditional monopoly franchises become arbitrary, futile, and counterproductive.

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For many years, local telephone and cable monopolies were sheltered from competition by legal restrictions: States granted monopoly franchises to local phone companies, municipalities could grant
monopoly cable franchises, and, with some exceptions, Federal law
restricted phone companies’ ability to offer cable service. During
the past few years a broad consensus has arisen, both in the Congress and in the executive branch, that it is desirable to try to
eliminate existing regulatory and artificial technical barriers to
competition in these industries. A number of States have started
to open up their local telephone markets to competition. The recently passed telecommunications legislation requires immediate
removal of all State and local laws and regulations that unduly
prevent entry into telecommunications and cable services.
In electric power generation, the advent of smaller, more efficient
gas-fueled generators, coupled with falling prices for natural gas,
led to greatly reduced economies of scale. In addition, since the
1980s it has been demonstrated that independent generators can
be successfully integrated into utility-owned transmission grids.
These and other developments have prompted growing interest in
further promoting competition in electricity generation. Although
States now retain monopoly franchises for electric utilities virtually
everywhere moves to relax legal barriers to competition are gathering steam. Many States are considering initiatives to permit some
competition, and some, like California, have developed concrete
proposals.

Assigning Spectrum Licenses Through Auctions
A major step taken by this Administration to promote competition and market forces in telecommunications is the recent, highly
successful use of auctions to assign certain licenses for use of the
so-called ‘‘spectrum’’—the range of electromagnetic wave frequencies used in wireless communications services, including radio
and television broadcasting, paging, and mobile telephones. The
huge sums of revenues raised in recent auctions have focused attention on budget and equity issues. Auctions for other parts of the
spectrum, if appropriately designed, could raise billions of additional dollars. When the government does not auction off but simply assigns spectrum licenses for free, it is giving away public resources worth billions of dollars. But more than revenue is at
stake. Auctions can help promote economic efficiency, by ensuring
that spectrum is deployed in the highest-return uses, including
emerging growth industries that entail innovative technologies and
services.
Assigning spectrum efficiently has taken on increased urgency as
the value of spectrum has risen with the growth of wireless technologies. Wireless technologies are among the most promising avenues for delivering new services and for eventually providing com-

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petition to wireline local telephone and cable monopolies. The exciting potential of wireless technologies is evidenced by the rapid
growth of cellular telephone systems (Chart 6–1) and of direct
broadcast satellite television service, which since its inception in
June 1994 has already attracted almost 2.5 million subscribers.
Chart 6-1 Growth in the Cellular Communications Industry
The cellular telecommunications industry has grown dramatically, illustrating
the market potential for wireless technologies in general.
Millions
30

Thousands
70

60

25

50
20
40

Employees
(right scale)

15

30
10
20

Subscribers
(left scale)

5

10

0

0
1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

Note: Data are for end of year, except 1995 are as of June 1995.
Source: Cellular Telecommunications Industry Association.

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC), charged with
managing spectrum use by the private sector, traditionally assigned licenses without charge, using hearings to judge which applicants would best serve the public interest. These trial-like hearings resulted in large wasteful expenditures by applicants and long
delays in assigning licenses. In 1981 the Congress authorized the
FCC to use lotteries in certain cases. Lotteries reduced the delay
in assigning licenses, and the ability of lottery winners to resell licenses allowed users that valued spectrum highly to try to obtain
licenses in a secondary market. However, using the secondary market can entail inefficiently large transaction costs, especially in assembling suitable blocks of licenses. The lotteries also created
windfall profits for lottery winners—windfalls that became transparent when certain lottery winners resold their licenses at huge
profits.
To avoid such inefficiencies and windfall gains to a lucky few,
economists have long urged the use of auctions to allocate scarce

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public resources such as the spectrum. Spectrum auctions have also
been advocated by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) of the Department of Commerce, the
Council of Economic Advisers, and the FCC. In 1993 the Congress
gave the FCC limited authority to use auctions in assigning spectrum licenses to provide services for which subscribers pay fees (in
contrast to advertising-financed broadcasting), such as personal
communication services (PCS; these are advanced mobile two-way
voice and data communications services).
Designing good rules for PCS and other spectrum auctions presents novel and difficult problems. Bidders are often interested not
in a single license but in suitable blocks of licenses, which makes
the values of different licenses interdependent. Interdependence
arises, for example, because aggregating licenses over adjoining regions allows a PCS device to use the same spectrum frequency over
a wider area and makes boundary coordination easier. Interdependence can also arise because a bidder may be able to
reconfigure its planned network to use a different set of frequencies
as prices for some frequencies increase. Designing auction rules to
help bidders cope with such interdependence in license values can
both promote economic efficiency and bring in greater auction revenue.
To date, the FCC—in consultation with economists—has developed innovative auction rules and has conducted very successful
auctions. For example, in the largest auction to date, winners were
able to assemble suitable aggregations of PCS licenses over frequency bands and regions, as needed to form efficient communications networks. The auctions have attracted participation by numerous entrepreneurial companies and promise to speed up the
availability of innovative services to consumers. In the short time
since their inauguration in July 1994, spectrum auctions have
raised over $15 billion for U.S. taxpayers.

DEREGULATION IS NOT ENOUGH: CHALLENGES TO
REGULATORY REFORM
Removing legal barriers to entry into traditional monopoly industries, although critical, is unlikely by itself to ensure the rapid development of competition or an efficient and equitable transition.
To promote these and other goals, regulatory reform must address
several difficult and important challenges, which are outlined
below and discussed further in the later sections on the telephone
and electric power industries.

Promoting and Preserving Competition
Preventing regulated monopolists from distorting competition in
related markets. A common and difficult problem arises in bringing
competition to traditionally regulated industries when, whether for

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jurisdictional or technological reasons, a vital ‘‘bottleneck’’ segment
will continue for some time under the control of a regulated monopoly. For example, competition is envisaged in electric power generation, but for the time being transmission and distribution will remain regulated monopolies. Similarly, competition is expected to
develop more slowly in certain elements of local telephone networks, notably the final set of wires to a customer’s premises (the
‘‘local loop’’), which will therefore remain regulated longer.
The difficulty posed by such a mixture of regulation and deregulation is that a price-regulated bottleneck monopolist has strong incentives to provide its own affiliates in unregulated segments better access to the bottleneck than it offers to rivals. (This and related issues are explored further in the section on the telephone industry below.) Such discrimination can inefficiently exclude rivals
from the potentially competitive segments, harming both the
would-be rivals and consumers. Preventing such access discrimination (and cross-subsidization, which, as discussed later, also distorts competition) could be approached in alternative ways, all of
which have certain limitations.
Relying solely on regulation to prevent the regulated monopolist
from favoring its unregulated operations over rivals raises problems. Firms can devise many clever technological games to circumvent regulation, such as varying the quality of connections provided to competitors. An alternative approach is to separate the
regulated and unregulated parts of a monopolist’s business into different companies. This was done in the Department of Justice’s
landmark case that resulted in the 1982 consent decree and the
1984 breakup of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company
(AT&T, then the dominant U.S. telephone services provider). The
seven regional Bell operating companies (RBOCs) created under
the 1982 consent decree were allowed to offer regulated regional
telephone service but were barred from the largely unregulated
long-distance market.
Such forced structural separation helps promote level-playingfield competition in the unregulated markets, but it may sacrifice
economies of scope—efficiencies in joint ownership and operation of
related segments of an industry. How to prevent discrimination
without unduly sacrificing economies of scope is a central challenge
in assessing whether and under what safeguards the RBOCs
should be permitted to offer long-distance service while they still
dominate local telephone networks; and whether electric utilities
should be allowed to sell unregulated power in competition with rivals while they still control the vital transmission grids.
Preventing monopolists from unreasonably denying interconnections. One way in which network monopolists can stifle competition
is by denying potential competitors interconnection with their net-

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works. The telephone industry exhibits strong positive network
externalities—a user’s benefit from the network increases greatly
as additional users are connected. This feature marks an important
distinction between telephones and, say, textiles. A new textile producer does not need much cooperation from other textile producers,
but an entrant to local telephone service needs the incumbent’s cooperation to let its customers communicate with the incumbent’s
customers. With its much larger customer base, the incumbent
could hamper entry even by efficient entrants, by denying interconnection or by providing connections of poor quality or at an exorbitant price. Ensuring suitable and fairly priced interconnection
may require government intervention.
Restricting mergers between likely potential competitors. Regulation must be forward looking: it must consider the market not only
as it is today but also as it is likely to evolve. In most traditionally
unregulated industries, it is actual competitors—the firms already
present in a market—that largely determine the prospects for
present and future competition. But in traditionally regulated monopolies, future competition must largely come from the outside.
Mergers between regulated monopolists that are likely potential
competitors therefore can significantly reduce the likelihood of future competition.
For this reason, the Administration opposes excessive loosening
of restrictions on mergers and cross-ownership between cable and
telephone companies in the same local area. Although there are
technological challenges in using telephone wires to deliver video,
and cable wires to deliver telephone service, cable and telephone
companies nevertheless are likely potential competitors because
both have wires to the home. Thus, consolidations among them
could delay competition.
Antitrust enforcers could attempt to block such anticompetitive
consolidations, but reviewing and challenging a potentially large
number of transactions in different regions on a case-by-case basis
would be quite costly. Maintaining clear prohibitions may be the
better course as long as such mergers promise no significant economies, and as long as local cable and telephone companies remain
among each other’s most likely potential competitors.

Improving the Regulation of Remaining Monopoly Segments
As noted earlier, although promoting competition is generally the
preferred approach, some segments of telephone and electric utilities’ operations will continue to be regulated for some time. In
those segments it is important to devise better ways to regulate
prices. Traditionally, utilities have been subject to cost-of-service
regulation, under which prices are set to cover the regulated firm’s
costs plus a ‘‘fair rate of return’’ on capital. Such regulation, however, reduces incentives to innovate or to contain costs, because the

164



firm realizes essentially the same profits regardless of its efforts:
success at cutting costs is penalized by reducing the allowed prices.
Performance-based regulation (PBR) loosens the link between the
firm’s controllable costs and its allowable price. For example, pure
price-cap regulation places a ceiling on the firm’s price at some initial level based on estimated cost, then lets the cap change only
with conditions outside the firm’s control, such as the rate of inflation. The firm then has an incentive to cut costs, because to do so
increases its profit. On the other hand, the firm also has an incentive to cut costs by shading quality, and regulators must guard
against such attempts. Recognizing that suitably designed PBR can
often create better incentives than pure cost-based regulation, ultimately benefiting both the firm and consumers, many States are
moving toward PBR in telephone service and in the transmission
and distribution of electricity.

Protecting Consumers and Investors During the Transition
Protecting consumers. When should an incumbent monopolist’s
prices be deregulated? Setting a fixed date reduces investors’ uncertainty, but at the risk that competition may not have developed
enough by that time to substitute for regulation in disciplining
prices. For example, critics of rapid deregulation of cable television
rates point out that substantial actual competition (not merely potential competition) is needed to discipline prices, and argue that
the requisite competition will develop more slowly than proponents
of quick deregulation assume. In electricity, many economists favor
some temporary regulation of the prices that utilities can charge,
even if reforms are instituted to make generation competitive, because it will take time to build new plants and reduce existing utilities’ dominant share of generation assets.
A complicating factor in deregulating prices is that competition
often develops faster for some customers than others, typically faster for large business customers than for residential users. It therefore may be appropriate to deregulate prices on a phased basis,
starting with those customers for whom competition develops earliest. But if the utility has large (current or past) fixed costs that are
common to all of its operations, which regulators allow to be recovered through regulated rates, it becomes important to ensure that
deregulating one group’s prices will not shift onto others an increased share of these common costs. One way to prevent this is
to deregulate some prices, but on condition that the utility agrees
not to raise prices to its remaining captive customers. Competition
should increase overall benefits, not be used as a cover for cost
shifting among customers.
Protecting investors. Nor should competition be a cover for unreasonably shifting costs from customers to utility investors. To meet
their obligation to serve all customers in their monopoly franchise

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areas, electric utilities have made costly investments in long-lived
generating plant and other assets—with the regulators’ implicit
promise of a guaranteed return. Opening up utilities’ traditional
monopoly franchises to competition at a time when they have significant excess capacity would greatly reduce the value of such investments, and subject utilities to so called ‘‘stranded costs.’’ As
discussed further in the section on the electricity industry below,
it is important to ensure that, in the transition to competition, utilities are not saddled with these stranded costs.

Promoting Universal Service and Other Social Goals
Promoting universal service—reasonably priced access to essential services for all customers—has been a longstanding goal of regulators in both the telephone and the electric power industries.
Traditionally this and other social goals (such as assisting certain
disadvantaged customers and reducing environmental pollution)
have been pursued by imposing obligations on and regulating the
price structure of utilities.
These regulations, however, have spawned inefficiencies. Moving
to competition and letting prices respond to market forces, so that
they more accurately reflect true costs, are likely to reduce these
inefficiencies and cut the cost to society of providing universal service by lowering overall costs and prices. But doing so may require
devising alternative ways of funding service to those consumers
who would not be able or willing to pay the prices that might
emerge under competition.

Reassessing Jurisdictional Boundaries
In both the telephone and the electric power industries, State
and Federal regulators share jurisdiction. This can lead to differing
regulatory objectives and inconsistent policies. As is discussed in
Chapter 4, a main advantage of decentralizing regulatory jurisdiction is to allow States the flexibility to pursue social and economic
policies tailored to different local preferences and conditions. As
markets become more competitive, the scope for pursuing such
goals through regulation may decline, although the States will play
a major role in ushering in an efficient and equitable transition to
competition.
On the other hand, decentralizing regulation also has its drawbacks. Efficient networks in telecommunications and electricity
often involve facilities used to serve several States, which can lead
to inconsistent policies when such networks are regulated at the
State level. Multiple State regulatory regimes also can increase
firms’ uncertainty and costs of compliance. For these and other reasons, jurisdictions such as the European Union have been moving
to harmonize the regulation of network industries. As the United
States attempts to increase competition in such industries, it too

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will have to reassess what jurisdictional boundaries are most efficient. In any event, regulators must work across jurisdictional
boundaries to foster cooperative and consistent public policy goals.

PROMOTING COMPETITION IN TELEPHONE
SERVICE
The 1984 breakup of AT&T was a landmark event in fostering
competition in parts of the U.S. telephone industry. As explained
earlier, a regulated monopolist operating in related, unregulated
markets has incentives to stifle competition in such markets. To
prevent such behavior, the breakup aimed to separate local telephone service, which many viewed as a natural monopoly that
would remain regulated, from manufacturing of telephone equipment and from long-distance service, which were viewed as potentially competitive and could eventually be deregulated. AT&T retained its equipment manufacturing and long-distance service divisions. Seven new regional Bell operating companies inherited
AT&T’s regulated local-service monopolies, each within its region,
and were prohibited from entering the less regulated markets for
equipment and long-distance service.
Today the long-distance market is relatively competitive, whereas local service remains largely a regulated monopoly, in most
cases provided by the RBOCs (Box 6–3). The new telecommunications legislation aims to increase competition further in equipment manufacturing and long-distance service and allows the
RBOCs back into these markets under certain conditions. The legislation also aims to introduce competition in local telephone service, by removing State barriers to entry and by requiring local telephone companies to grant entrants reasonable access to their networks. These legislative and related regulatory initiatives, together
with technological advances discussed previously, promise to foster
increased competition throughout the telephone industry.
The terms for allowing the RBOCs to enter long-distance service
have been one of the most contentious issues in the debate over
telecommunications reform and may have the greatest economic
consequences. Telephone service is by far the largest telecommunications industry (see Box 6–1), and establishing appropriate conditions for allowing entry by the RBOCs into the other markets is
critical to achieving the legislation’s goals.
Allowing immediate, unrestricted entry by the RBOCs while they
still control vital local telephone networks would have been unlikely to promote efficiency and consumer welfare in the way that
unrestricted entry normally does. To clarify this point, the next
part of this section explains the incentive—and the ability—of a
price-regulated monopolist in local telephone service to distort com-

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Box 6–3.—The Structure of the U.S. Telephone Industry

The 1982 AT&T consent decree distinguished ‘‘local’’ from
‘‘long-distance’’ service by dividing those parts of the country
served by the Bell System into local access and transport areas
(LATAs). Each RBOC’s territory encompasses multiple LATAs,
but an RBOC may provide service only within LATAs. For
interLATA service it must use the facilities of long-distance
carriers, also known as interexchange carriers. Local exchange
carriers (LECs) are the companies that provide the wire to the
home. There are many independent LECs, especially in rural
areas, but LECs owned by the RBOCs account for about 75
percent of total LEC revenues.
Although competition has been growing in parts of the local
network, notably in the provision of private lines connecting
business customers directly to long-distance companies, the
LECs still have virtual monopolies over local networks. They
receive over 96 percent of all fees paid to access local networks.
Their prices for local calls and for access to interexchange carriers are regulated by the States and the FCC.
In contrast, the long-distance market is largely unregulated
and relatively competitive; several carriers provide national
service (the three largest through their own facilities), and
many more carriers provide regional service. Reflecting this
competition, the FCC ruled in October 1995 that AT&T should
be reclassified as ‘‘non-dominant.’’ Chart 6–2 provides a breakdown of revenues from local and long-distance service.
petition in related, unregulated markets such as long-distance service that are dependent on access to the monopolist’s bottleneck facilities. We then analyze further the issues of RBOC entry into
long-distance and of local competition. The final part of this section
discusses the relation between increased competition and universal
service.

UNBUNDLING POTENTIALLY COMPETITIVE SERVICES
FROM REGULATED MONOPOLY SERVICES
As noted above, traditional cost-of-service regulation sets prices
so as to allow the regulated monopolist a ‘‘fair rate of return’’ on
its investment. Under such regulation, a monopolist can gain from
engaging in related businesses that are potentially competitive. As
long as regulation is not too stringent, the more businesses the monopolist is engaged in, the more likely it is to successfully conceal
profits from the regulators, because overstating costs slightly in
many businesses is more likely to escape detection than overstating
costs dramatically in a single monopoly business. Moreover, by ex-

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Chart 6-2 Telephone Industry Revenues in 1994
Local exchange carriers (LECs) account for two-thirds of all telephone industry
revenues when one includes the access fees paid by interexchange carriers (IXCs).
LEC revenues:
$100 billion

Local service
($51.7 billion)

Cellular and other
($16.3 billion)

IntraLATA toll calls
($13.4 billion)

Subscriber line charge
($7 billion)

The four major IXCs,
net of access fees
($35.7 billion)

Access fees paid
by IXCs to LECs
($27.7 billion)

Note: Access fees are not double-counted as net IXC revenues. Some cellular revenue accrues to LECs.
Source: Federal Communications Commission.

cluding all rivals from potentially competitive businesses, the monopolist can prevent regulation of these segments from becoming
more stringent: the exclusion of competitors denies regulators a signal of the true costs in those businesses.
To promote competition, regulators can mandate unbundling—
that is, they can require the firm to offer the monopoly service separately from other services, at a regulated price. But problems
arise if, as is often the case, regulators allow the monopolist to
offer the potentially competitive services at unregulated (or less
tightly regulated) prices, on the theory that competition will keep
these unregulated prices low. For example, a local telephone company’s access charges to long-distance carriers might be regulated,
but not its long-distance prices to consumers. Such partial regulation induces the monopolist to favor its unregulated affiliates over
rivals in ways that are difficult for regulators to prevent. The motive of this favoritism may be largely to shift profits to unregulated
affiliates, but the effect can be to stifle competition.

Cross-Subsidization and Discrimination in Bottleneck Access
One way that such profit shifting occurs is through
misattribution of costs incurred by a firm’s unregulated businesses
to the regulated business. This is sometimes referred to as crosssubsidization. Under cost-based regulation, shifting costs to the
regulated business allows the firm to argue for higher regulated

169



rates. In principle, cross-subsidization may be a problem whenever
a regulated firm also operates in unregulated markets; but it is
more likely to escape regulatory detection when the markets are related, since there is more scope for interaffiliate transactions and
for mischaracterizing costs as common to both businesses.
Discrimination poses an even greater threat to competition. The
monopolist controlling the price-regulated bottleneck facility may
try to evade regulation through what is known as ‘‘tying.’’ Suppose
that customers seek to purchase an unregulated service, the provision of which hinges on access to the bottleneck service. The monopolist can then require, as a condition of access to the bottleneck,
that customers also purchase from it the unregulated service at a
high price. To implement such tying, the monopolist reduces competition in the unregulated market by discriminating against competitors in the technological and other nonprice terms it grants
them for access to the bottleneck.
AT&T’s behavior before its breakup is consistent with these incentives. The monopoly local telephone service was a major customer of equipment and a vital input into long-distance service.
AT&T’s prices for long-distance service and equipment were regulated more lightly than those for local service, creating incentives
for AT&T to favor its less regulated affiliates. Indeed, AT&T’s local
affiliates were alleged to have paid its equipment affiliate Western
Electric inflated prices for possibly inferior equipment. AT&T is
also alleged to have discriminated against long-distance rivals in
various ways, including offering poorer connections to local networks and imposing unnecessary delays in honoring requests.

Resulting Inefficiencies and Harm to Consumers
When it occurs, cross-subsidization inflates the reported cost of
regulated services, leading to higher prices. For this reason regulators consistently try to keep the cost accounting of unregulated
and regulated businesses as separate as possible. Prices of unregulated services—whose costs are underreported—could fall, but need
not (for example, if underreporting involves fixed rather than variable costs). Even if prices do fall, they will be artificially below cost,
and consumption of unregulated services will be inefficiently high.
Also, sales may be diverted away from more efficient competitors
in the unregulated markets, because the regulated firm attains an
artificial advantage through the cross-subsidies.
Discrimination in access terms raises the prices of unregulated
services, because the excluded competitors might have been more
efficient, and because even equally efficient competitors could curb
the monopolist’s prices more effectively than can regulation alone.
Consumers also are denied the variety and innovation that competitors might have offered. Finally, such potentially more efficient
or innovative competitors are denied profit opportunities. These

170



losses resulting from discrimination can far exceed the gain to the
regulated monopolist: the monopolist is willing to exclude a rival
that would generate large benefits to consumers (say, by offering
a superior alternative), as long as exclusion yields even a modest
increase in its own profit.

ENTRY BY THE REGIONAL OPERATING COMPANIES
INTO LONG-DISTANCE
The Department of Justice sought AT&T’s breakup, which separated the ownership of the regulated-monopoly local telephone
service from other services, because it believed that regulation
alone could not, without imposing undue burdens, prevent the
many ways in which AT&T could use its control of local telephone
service to inefficiently favor its affiliates. (The Justice Department
and AT&T at one point tried to negotiate a settlement without divestiture; the result was a draft consent decree which for its length
and complexity became known as Quagmire II, or the Telephone
Book decree.)
Maintaining the consent decree’s prohibition of RBOC entry into
other markets may forgo some economies of scope that could be realized therefrom, but it is likely to be more effective than regulation alone in curbing access discrimination by the RBOCs against
competitors in these other markets. The new legislation attempts
to achieve the best of both worlds, by linking the RBOCs’ entry authority to the emergence of competition in their local markets—
competition that should reduce their control of local networks and
ability to discriminate against competitors.

Arguments in Favor of Entry: The Drawbacks of Separation
Consumers could well benefit from one-stop shopping for all their
telephone needs; for example, an integrated provider could offer
simplified calling plans. The RBOCs could provide such one-stop
shopping if allowed into long-distance, although in principle this
could be provided even without RBOC entry. For example, the new
legislation requires all incumbent local telephone companies to sell
local service to other companies at discounted wholesale prices.
When authorized, long-distance or other companies could resell
such local service together with long-distance and other services.
Some economists contend that RBOC entry into long-distance
service is particularly important for lowering prices because the
long-distance industry is far from perfectly competitive. Although
there is some debate about how competitive the long-distance industry already is, the real issue is why entry would be more profitable for the RBOCs than for other firms. This could be the case either because the RBOCs could use such entry to circumvent local
rate regulation (a ‘‘bad’’ reason), or because they have special cost
advantages in offering long-distance service (a ‘‘good’’ reason).

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A clear such cost advantage arises because any RBOC could link
its existing networks to provide long-distance service at lower cost
than could other entrants deploying entirely new facilities. Indeed,
the separation between local area service and long-distance service
(see Box 6–3) can be arbitrary and artificial: the boundaries of
‘‘local areas’’ at times do not track economic or technological realities. This highlights a general problem with using structural separation to prevent a regulated bottleneck monopolist from stifling
competition in potentially competitive markets. Where to draw the
boundaries depends on where the monopoly bottleneck lies, but the
bottleneck can shift location as technology changes. For local telephone networks, most agree that the bottleneck includes the local
loop, but experts disagree over whether it includes additional upstream elements such as switches. The issue of where the bottleneck lies is relevant also for policy toward promoting local competition.

Arguments Against Entry: Preventing Access Discrimination
Combining local and long-distance service within a single firm is
likely to offer some economies of scope, but such economies also existed at the time of AT&T’s breakup. The policy judgment then was
that breakup was needed to protect competition in the potentially
competitive segments, given the incentive and ability of local network monopolists to stifle it, and that the gains from competition
would outweigh the loss of economies of scope. On many counts the
breakup has succeeded: today the equipment and the long-distance
markets are reasonably competitive. Opponents fear that if the
RBOCs are allowed to reenter these markets before they face competition in their core local phone markets, regulation alone could
not prevent them from inefficiently excluding competitors.
Long-distance service still hinges on access to local networks,
which for now are still largely monopolies controlled by the RBOCs.
Although cross-subsidization by the RBOCs from their regulated
local phone service to their unregulated businesses may be less of
a threat today, access discrimination against other providers of
long-distance service and perhaps of central-office switching equipment remains a real concern.
Cross-subsidization may now be less of a threat because, in order
to improve regulated firms’ incentives, States are replacing pure
cost-of-service regulation of local phone rates with performancebased regulation. Such regulation also reduces the regulated firm’s
incentives to cross-subsidize, because higher costs of the regulated
business are not passed through as fully or as rapidly in higher
regulated rates as under pure cost-of-service regulation. As added
protection, the new legislation requires the RBOCs to manufacture
equipment and provide long-distance service through separate sub-

172



sidiaries for some time, to help regulators detect cross-subsidization.
However, preventing RBOC discrimination against long-distance
companies in access to local networks remains a thorny challenge.
Performance-based regulation of local rates leaves intact incentives
to discriminate against long-distance rivals, in order to raise prices
in the unregulated long-distance market. Requiring long-distance
service to be offered through a separate subsidiary does not eliminate discrimination incentives, because the subsidiary’s profits accrue to common shareholders. Finally, regulators today may be
more attuned to the dangers of discrimination, but preventing
through regulation all avenues of technological discrimination in
network access is still likely to be difficult.
Allowing the regulated RBOCs to provide unregulated long-distance service gives them incentives to discriminate against longdistance rivals. Allowing them to manufacture switches and other
network equipment could enhance their ability to discriminate, by
making it easier for them to retain proprietary control of important
technical information needed to interface with long-distance and
other unregulated services that rely on the network. If, as is likely,
regulation alone cannot adequately curb such discrimination, then
allowing the RBOCs to enter these other markets while they retain
monopolies over local networks could reduce prices temporarily in
those markets; but it could threaten rivals’ long-run viability, raising the specter of ultimately reducing competition and causing
higher prices and less innovation.

Competitive Safeguards
Local competition can greatly help prevent access discrimination.
It provides alternative ways of reaching some customers. It also offers regulators a useful yardstick for policing discrimination: claims
that certain network services cannot be provided to competitors
will ring hollow if a local network competitor finds no difficulty providing such services. Although competition is coming to local networks, the RBOCs’ dominance is unlikely to disappear overnight
even if regulatory entry barriers are relaxed. Potential entrants
have encountered technological problems, for example, in delivering
telephone service over cable lines. Wireless connections may eventually offer alternatives to the local loop for reaching a customer’s
premises, but those currently available are higher in cost, less secure, and of lower quality than wireline connections.
Since local competition is both critical to safeguarding competition in long-distance and related markets but is in a nascent stage,
the new legislation not only imposes regulatory safeguards against
discrimination and other abuses but, importantly, links the RBOCs’
authority to enter these other markets to the emergence of local
competition. In broad brush terms, the new legislation provides the

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following process for authorizing RBOC entry into long-distance
(i.e. interLATA) service. Such service, as well as the manufacturing
of equipment, must be offered through a separate subsidiary. An
RBOC may offer long-distance service immediately on enactment of
the legislation in any State where it currently provides no local
service. But an RBOC must receive FCC approval to offer service
originating in any State where it does provide local service (and
likely controls many local networks). FCC approval is granted only
after the following requirements are met.
Within 6 months of the new law’s enactment the FCC will formulate rules for interconnection and network unbundling, discussed
further below, that all incumbent local exchange companies must
follow in dealing with new local competitors. At a minimum, an
RBOC must offer terms, including prices, which the State public
utility commission certifies are consistent with the FCC rules.
Moreover, if a new local competitor has requested interconnection
from an RBOC, then before being eligible to offer long-distance
service the RBOC must have fully implemented a binding interconnection agreement with the competitor. That agreement must
satisfy the FCC rules; the competitor must use predominantly or
exclusively its own facilities; and it must provide local exchange
service to both business and residential customers in the State
(pure access providers, for example, do not suffice). In short, the
local competitor is intended to have a significant presence.
Because these requirements help promote local competition but
do not guarantee its imminence or durability, the new legislation
provides further safeguards. Before authorizing RBOC entry, the
FCC must consult with the Department of Justice regarding the
likely competitive implications and give the Department’s evaluation ‘‘substantial weight.’’ This procedure offers an important safeguard, given the leading role that the Department’s Antitrust Division has played in bringing competition to long-distance telephone
service through the AT&T breakup, and given its analytical expertise in competition matters. Finally, the FCC must determine that
RBOC entry would be in the public interest. Preservation of competition requires that antitrust enforcers and regulators have the
latitude to make judgments of this kind, because no mere checklist
could hope to capture all the relevant contingencies.

IMPLEMENTING LOCAL COMPETITION
As mentioned earlier, in order to foster local competition the new
legislation would require existing local exchange companies to cooperate with entrants. Even a full facilities-based entrant (one that
serves its customers entirely through its own physical facilities)
would still require interconnection to the incumbent’s network—to
enable its customers to communicate with the incumbent’s cus-

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tomers, to let customers keep their telephone numbers if they
switch to the entrant, and to access common signaling facilities and
data bases. The new legislation requires incumbent carriers to provide such cooperation on reasonable terms.
Other entrants might lease some or all facilities from the incumbent. A reseller of local services would lease all network facilities
in bulk but undertake all customer-related functions such as marketing and billing (‘‘retailer’’ might therefore be a better term). It
could offer to customers a package of local and other services such
as interexchange service or cellular service. A partial facilitiesbased entrant would lease some elements and supply the rest itself;
it might, for example, install its own switches but use the incumbent’s local loops. Both types of entrants require unbundling of the
local exchange carrier’s integrated functions. A reseller would require unbundling of network functions from marketing and other
customer-related functions. A partial facilities-based entrant would
additionally require unbundling of some network functions. To accommodate such entrants, the new legislation requires incumbents
to unbundle their networks and provide nondiscriminatory access
to all the unbundled components.
Inevitably the new legislation provides only a framework and
leaves such ‘‘details’’ as the pricing of interconnection and
unbundled services to be determined later by the FCC and State
regulatory commissions. But these details will be crucial. To stay
in business, a reseller must be able to buy the local network services at a sufficient discount below retail rates, reflecting the fact
that it undertakes costly retailing functions otherwise performed by
the incumbent. (The new legislation requires incumbents to offer
their services to resellers at wholesale rates, defined as retail rates
less the costs avoided by incumbents.) If the discount is too small,
even an efficient reseller will be unprofitable. A partial facilitiesbased entrant likewise needs reasonably priced access to the facilities it wishes to lease.
Determining the proper discount to resellers has already raised
controversy, embroiling regulators in defining and measuring the
costs a local phone company could avoid by delegating some retailing functions. In long-distance there is already an active market in
capacity resale, as multiple owners of facilities compete to provide
capacity. But until competition arrives in local networks, implementing resale of local service through mandated discounts will be
difficult. Mandated unbundling of physical network elements, as
opposed to just retailing functions as with resale, is likely to be
even harder. There are many joint and common costs, network congestion is important in determining efficient prices, and
unbundling certain elements may pose technical problems.

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In short, introducing competition into local networks will be a
complex process, requiring continued active involvement by State
regulators, the FCC, the Justice Department, and possibly the
courts. Nevertheless, by defining the broad rules and providing for
active government involvement in implementing agreements and
refereeing disputes, the new legislation holds the promise of stimulating ubiquitous, vigorous competition with potentially enormous
benefits to businesses and

REPLACING CROSS-SUBSIDIES AND PROMOTING
UNIVERSAL SERVICE
A longstanding policy goal in the United States has been universal service: widespread access to telephone service at reasonable
prices. Such a goal can be defended on narrow economic grounds
because the benefits of having a telephone on one’s premises accrue
not only to the subscriber but also to others who might be interested in calling that subscriber. Encouraging telephone subscription by people who would not otherwise have a phone on their
premises can therefore also benefit others. Support for universal
service, however, is based also on broader social considerations—
that all members of a society should be entitled to a certain level
of key services.
Where attaining universal service is thought to require government intervention, because without it prices would be deemed too
high in certain regions or to certain customer groups, economists
generally advocate the use of targeted, explicit subsidies, financed
through broadly based taxes. Traditional regulatory policy has not
taken this route. Instead, regulators have used the rate structure
of regulated telephone monopolists to promote universal service
and other goals. Many economists believe that this rate structure
is inefficient and incompatible with a move toward increased competition in telephone service.
The new legislation requires the formation of a Federal-State
Joint Board, representing regulators and consumers, to thoroughly
review the existing system of Federal support for universal service
and recommend reforms within 9 months of the law’s enactment.
Within 15 months of enactment, the FCC is to establish a specific
timetable for implementation of reforms. This envisaged reform for
the most part promises to better harmonize the goals of promoting
competition and universal service.

Cross-Subsidies and the Tension with Competition
Cross-subsidization arises when the price in one market does not
cover the incremental cost of serving that market, and the deficit
is financed by charging a price significantly above incremental cost
in another market. The different markets can be for different products (e.g., long-distance versus local calls) or different identifiable

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customer groups (e.g., residential versus business customers of
local calls). As discussed earlier, cross-subsidies can arise from attempts by a regulated monopolist to evade cost-based regulation by
misattributing costs of its unregulated business to the regulated
business. But cross-subsidies also can be mandated by regulators.
For many years regulators, with the support of the Congress,
used cross-subsidies between regulated monopolists to pursue universal service goals. Through a complicated nationwide pooling of
telephone costs and revenues, local telephone companies, especially
in high-cost rural areas, received substantial subsidies to keep
their rates low. The subsidies were financed by setting prices of
long-distance calls and of telephone equipment artificially high. In
addition, long-distance rates were set by geographic averaging:
rates for routes of the same distance were set equal despite different traffic densities and therefore different costs. There may also
have been subsidies from business to residential customers generally.
This system was administered by AT&T, whose affiliate companies provided most local telephone service nationwide and virtually
all long-distance service. The system came under strain once
AT&T’s virtual monopoly began to erode. The growth of competition in supplying customer premises equipment (such as telephone
sets) in the 1970s and later in long-distance service reduced the
funds available for cross-subsidies. In response, after the breakup
of AT&T the FCC introduced fixed monthly fees for all telephone
subscribers, reducing the need for subsidies; the FCC and State
regulators also instituted explicit access fees for all long-distance
carriers originating and terminating calls on local carriers’ networks. These access fees are still used to finance subsidies to rural
carriers.
The inflated access fees, however, prompted large long-distance
customers to bypass the local exchange and instead use private
lines to connect their premises directly to an interexchange carrier.
Such bypass again threatens the revenue used to cross-subsidize
other services. Some local telephone companies have also alleged
that revenue from high-volume local business customers cross-subsidizes basic local service to residential customers, so that permitting entry into local service also will threaten cross-subsidies: entrants will siphon off lucrative business customers and reduce the
revenue available for subsidizing rates to other customers.
Universal service and other social goals that may be threatened
by competition can be pursued through diametrically different approaches, as discussed below. One is to try to maintain a broad monopoly charged with meeting these social objectives, by legally prohibiting entry or by requiring all entrants to make substantial contributions to cover the incumbent’s cost of providing below-cost

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services. The other is to permit widespread competition and develop alternative, market-based ways of funding legitimate social
goals.

Joint Costs, Natural Monopoly, and Cream Skimming
Defenders of retaining monopoly might paint the following picture of local telephone service. Serving the different markets—be
they different customers or different services—is largely a natural
monopoly, because it entails large fixed and common costs. The
markets are therefore most efficiently served by a single firm, but
to cover the fixed costs, prices in some or all markets will have to
exceed the incremental costs of serving those markets. Entry could
then be profitable but economically inefficient, because an entrant
could engage in cream skimming—targeting only the monopolist’s
more lucrative markets where the gap between prices and incremental costs is greatest, thus saddling other groups with a higher
proportion of the common costs.
Charging different price-cost margins, which are vulnerable to
cream skimming, can be efficient if demands in different markets
exhibit different degrees of price sensitivity. The fixed costs are
then best covered by charging higher margins where demands are
less price-sensitive, as this pricing pattern minimizes the inefficiency from reduced consumption due to prices that exceed marginal costs (economists call this ‘‘Ramsey pricing’’). For example, if
demand for local service were less price-sensitive than demand for
long-distance service, it might make sense to charge higher margins for local calls to finance the common costs, such as for wires
to the home, entailed in providing local and long-distance service.

Distortions in the Current System
If the view of the industry just outlined—as a ubiquitous,
multimarket natural monopoly that is pricing efficiently to recover
common costs but is vulnerable to cream-skimming entry—were accurate, policymakers would face a tradeoff: restricting entry would
better allow exploitation of scale and scope economies, but would
deny the benefits of competition and impose regulatory costs. Many
economists, however, challenge this portrait of the local telephone
service industry. They are skeptical about characterizing too many
costs as ‘‘fixed and common’’ and the industry as a ubiquitous natural monopoly. Moreover, to the extent there do exist fixed and common costs, current regulated prices do not recover such costs efficiently. Rather, the current price structure sends wrong signals
about the true costs, thereby distorting the decisions of entrants
and consumers.
Distorted entry decisions. Access fees charged by local network
operators to long-distance companies far exceed marginal costs.
These high fees cross-subsidize service in rural areas and perhaps

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basic local service nationwide, which may be priced below its marginal cost. Such pricing can distort entry decisions in two ways: artificially high prices can encourage inefficient entry, and artificially
low prices can discourage efficient entry.
Regarding possibly inefficient entry, inflated access fees may
have provided an artificial stimulus to the growth of so-called competitive access providers: companies that bypass local networks and
link businesses directly to long-distance companies. Regarding the
discouragement of efficient entry, there may be greater potential
for competition in local services than is currently evident. Artificially low prices for the subsidized incumbent’s services (such as to
rural areas) can make it unprofitable for entrants to compete for
providing such services, even if the entrants are more efficient.
This comes about because under the current system only incumbents are eligible for certain subsidies.
Distorted consumer decisions. The current rate structure also distorts consumer decisions. High long-distance rates subsidize telephone subscription but discourage calling; raising the fixed charge
for telephone subscription and reducing the prices for calls would
stimulate calling. The benefits from lower toll rates and expanded
calling would make many consumers better off even after paying
higher fixed charges. Cross-subsidies from long-distance to local
service are sometimes defended on the grounds that low-income individuals use local service relatively intensively, but the correlation
between income and long-distance versus local calling may not be
strong, and some studies have indicated that high toll bills often
lead to low-income subscribers being disconnected for nonpayment.
Better ways can be found to assist those with low incomes.
Lack of transparency. A vital ingredient of any sound economic
policy is to make costs and objectives explicit and transparent. The
goals and methods of telephone cross-subsidies are now opaque; as
a result, the true extent of cross-subsidies needed to ensure universal service or other legitimate social goals remains unclear. In some
cases, cross-subsidies may instead reflect regulatory capture—some
groups may simply be more adept than others at manipulating the
regulatory process so as to procure subsidies for themselves. Competition is likely to reduce the cost to society of providing universal
service by lowering costs and most prices and by introducing new
technologies. It may well reveal that most people would have affordable access to basic telecommunications services even without
subsidies.

Challenges for Reform
The rapid changes in technology and the accompanying changes
in regulation described earlier imply that protecting universal service by maintaining regulated monopolies is likely to become both
increasingly inefficient and untenable. Many economists favor giv-

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ing competition freer rein and letting prices adjust to better reflect
true costs. Any legitimate social goals served by the current regulated price structure should be addressed through other means that
are more transparent, more targeted to explicit goals, and do not
distort competition. A strong collaborative effort between Federal
and State regulators should be established in pursuit of these
goals.
What should be included in universal service? For many years
there was only one basic service to be universalized or not: a telephone was a telephone. Today, however, telephone and other telecommunications networks are evolving to permit a much broader
range of enhanced services. As conditions change, it will be important to review, perhaps on an evolving basis, the range of services
targeted for universal service and to be clear about what is meant
by ‘‘sufficiently affordable’’ prices.
Increasingly, we have realized the potential of modern communications to affect other aspects of life, from health (via
telemedicine) to education. Access to computers and the Internet
can put at the instantaneous disposal of every child in America resources superior to those available in even the best schools only a
couple of decades ago. This Administration, through the National
Telecommunications and Information Administration, has been
striving to ensure that all Americans have access to advanced information services, for example, through public institutions such as
schools and libraries. The new legislation includes the provision of
such access as a core principle to guide universal-service reform.
Who should be eligible for support? For example, should all rural
residents be eligible or only low-income consumers wherever they
reside? And how much should prices be allowed to vary so as to reflect differences in the cost of providing service? Another reform
principle adopted by the new legislation is that all consumers
should have access to telecommunications and information services
that are ‘‘reasonably comparable’’ in quality, variety, and rates to
those available in urban areas. It goes further, however, with regard to interexchange and interstate telecommunications services
(which include, at a minimum, telephone service), by requiring the
rates charged to residential subscribers in rural areas to be ‘‘no
higher’’ than those charged in urban areas. Many economists would
hesitate to recommend such a stringent requirement.
How should universal service be funded? Once the goals have
been clearly identified, funding mechanisms should be devised that
do not distort competition. At present, subsidies to serve ostensibly
unprofitable markets are not offered to all comers on an equal footing but are largely reserved for incumbent monopolists and financed through surcharges on long-distance and other services. Alternative financing methods would be less distorting and more

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compatible with competition. An example might be a universal
service fund, financed by charges levied on all telecommunications
carriers, or even more broadly. All eligible consumers could draw
on the fund, to help them pay for the provider of their choice. Alternatively, the right to provide subsidized service to a designated
group could be allocated through competitive bidding among all
qualified potential providers.
In the absence of explicit mechanisms to fund universal service
or other social goals, regulators might feel compelled to meet such
goals by imposing obligations on entrants. Such obligations could
easily stifle competition. For example, regulators might be led to
require entrants to offer a configuration of services, regional coverage, and rate structure very similar to that of the incumbent
local monopolist. But entry is more likely to occur and to be more
valuable if entrants have flexibility in choosing their technologies
and mix of services to best exploit their comparative advantage.
Revamping the funding of universal service therefore is an integral
part of a successful move toward increased competition in telephone service. Consistent with this goal, the principles in the new
legislation call for making support mechanisms explicit and predictable; requiring all providers of telecommunications services to
make nondiscriminatory support contributions; and making all interested carriers eligible for support to provide service in designated areas, with the exception of any area served by a rural
telephone company.

PROMOTING COMPETITION IN ELECTRICITY
The Nation’s major electric utilities have historically been vertically integrated, engaged in both the generation and the delivery
of electricity. Delivery is over high-voltage transmission lines from
generators to substations, and from there over local distribution
lines to users. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)
regulates interstate transmission services and interstate wholesale
power transactions (sales to utilities for resale), whereas the States
regulate their investor-owned utilities’ retail sales. In the past the
supply of electricity within a given geographic area was seen as a
natural monopoly, and State public utility commissions awarded
utilities exclusive franchise areas. They required utilities to serve
all consumers in their franchise areas at regulated, bundled rates,
covering generation and delivery, based on cost of service.
A major crack in the vertically integrated structure of the industry came with the Public Utilities Regulatory Policy Act (PURPA)
of 1978, which required utilities to buy power from nonutility generating companies that employed renewable energy sources or cogeneration (co-generation uses steam both to generate power and

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to heat adjoining buildings). Although its primary goals were to reduce dependence on imported oil and encourage renewable energy
sources, PURPA played a major role in promoting competition in
power generation. By giving rise to a class of nonutility generating
firms, PURPA created momentum for efforts to unbundle generation from delivery. Moreover, experience with PURPA demonstrated that independents could build generators on time and on
budget and could be reliably integrated into the transmission grid,
subject to utilities’ control. Nonutility generating firms have grown
rapidly since PURPA’s enactment. Their share of nationwide generating capacity has doubled from 3.6 percent in 1987 to 7.2 percent
in 1995; since 1990 they have contributed over half of all new investment in generating plant.
An obvious reason for some independents’ growth is obligations
imposed on utilities to purchase power from PURPA-qualifying facilities. Although PURPA required purchases at prices that were
supposed to reflect utilities’ expected costs were they to supply
power from their own sources, regulators in a few States calculated
these prices in ways that led to artificially high purchase prices.
But technological change also played a major role in the growth of
independents. The advent of small, efficient, natural gas-fueled
generators, coupled with falling gas prices, drastically reduced the
capital cost and minimum efficient scale of generating plants, making it easier for independents to finance plants (because of shorter
construction lags and lower financing needs) and to build plants
under contract to serve a particular utility. Market innovations in
the financing of power plant construction by independents also
were important.
Asymmetrical regulatory treatment also contributed to the independents’ growth. Independents had stronger incentives than utilities to cut costs, because only they were exempt from cost-based
regulation. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 expanded this exemption
to a broader class of independents than PURPA had covered, allowing such independents to enter the wholesale power market, where
they could sell power to utilities at unregulated market rates (unlike PURPA, however, the 1992 Act did not oblige utilities to purchase from the independents). In addition, some utilities may have
refrained from building their own plants, fearing that regulators
would later reject some of the costs when it came to resetting their
rates. And regulators in some States required utilities to look first
elsewhere, to nonutility generating firms or to other utilities with
excess capacity, to supply their incremental generating capacity
needs before building more plants themselves. In this the regulators’ intent was to foster competition, as part of an effort to curb
the rise in electricity prices following the oil shocks of the 1970s.

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These changes expanded wholesale competition among generating firms to sell power to utilities. Pressure is growing to allow retail competition as well: for generating companies or utilities to sell
directly to final customers in the franchise area of a different utility, paying regulated rates to use the utilities’ existing transmission and distribution lines. This pressure comes mainly from
large customers, who, among other things, can credibly threaten to
bypass their local utility by generating their own electricity using
small natural gas plants, or through municipalization (discussed
later in this section). Promoting increased wholesale competition
and introducing retail competition present three major challenges,
which are discussed below.

UNBUNDLING GENERATION FROM TRANSMISSION
AND DISTRIBUTION
To deliver power to final consumers, generating firms require access to the transmission and distribution facilities that utilities
own and operate. These facilities appear to be natural monopolies,
likely to remain subject to price regulation. This gives rise to a bynow familiar problem: if utilities are also permitted to generate
their own power and sell it at unregulated rates, they will have an
incentive to evade regulation by favoring their own generators and
realizing profits through unregulated power sales. Such favoritism
could involve cross-subsidizing the unregulated power generation
business from the regulated transmission and distribution business
or, more important, discriminating against outside generators in
providing access to transmission and distribution networks.
If there were no significant economies of scope between generation and other functions, an obvious way to prevent discrimination
would be to require separate ownership of regulated transmission
and distribution assets and of unregulated generation assets. However, as discussed below, transmission and generation may be subject to important economies of scope. The challenge to policymakers
and market participants is to devise solutions that balance potentially conflicting goals: preventing access discrimination, but without comprising the reliability of electricity supply, sacrificing economies of scope, or imposing excessive regulation.
The technological relationship between the generation and transmission of electricity is more complex than that between production
and transportation in most other industries. Modern alternatingcurrent transmission networks require tight and rapid balancing
between power generated into and power withdrawn from the
transmission grid. Storing electricity in significant volumes is generally impractical, and failure to balance power inflows and outflows can result within seconds in serious deterioration of system
operation and widespread damage to equipment. The system is

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much less tolerant than, say, gas pipelines, which can accommodate imbalances for longer periods through external storage and by
changing the degree of gas compression within the pipelines. Moreover, electricity flows cannot be easily routed within an integrated
transmission network; rather, power flows automatically and instantaneously along the path of least impedance. Imbalances at one
point on the grid therefore can have widespread and unpredictable
consequences throughout the network.
Although network operations are largely computerized, unforeseen contingencies can require central intervention by the grid operator: transmission constraints may result from unforeseen demand surges or equipment failures, requiring some generating sets
to be unexpectedly dispatched and others turned off. In addition,
there are common costs in operating a transmission network, such
as maintenance of reserves, and charging individual generators for
such costs requires a central authority. Operating such a complex
system therefore requires the grid operator to have substantial control over at least some generating assets, and over some network
functions that entail common costs.
Until now such complications have been addressed within the
context of a vertically integrated industry, and through regional
power pools and other voluntary associations. However, moving to
a more competitive regime may require devising alternative institutions. Vertical integration opens the possibility that utilities
would use their control of transmission to discriminate in favor of
their own generating plant. And, as explained below, reliance on
voluntary cooperation to resolve regional transmission issues may
be more difficult in a competitive environment.
The FERC has addressed the issue of expanding transmission access by requiring utilities situated between one utility seeking to
purchase power and another utility or independent power producer
seeking to sell power to allow use of their transmission lines to
complete the sale. At first efforts to expand access were episodic;
for instance, approvals of utilities’ merger requests were made contingent on their granting transmission access. The 1992 Energy
Policy Act explicitly authorized the FERC to require wholesale
transmission access upon request. The FERC is in the midst of an
important rulemaking to establish a comprehensive framework for
implementing open, nondiscriminatory wholesale transmission access: a utility would have to grant access to outsiders seeking to
consummate wholesale transactions on the same terms as to its
own generating facilities.
Important as these initiatives are, some observers believe that
more will have to be done. Defining and policing against discriminatory access may be difficult when an integrated utility runs the
grid. In addition, increased competition will strain the current sys-

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tem of informal coordination between utilities, each operating
transmission facilities that are connected into regional grids. Connecting such systems offers important advantages: it provides alternative transmission paths and economizes on redundant facilities, and it facilitates power sales to resolve temporary local imbalances between supply and demand or to benefit from differences in
the cost of power over a wider region. Such informal coordination
worked reasonably well in an era when utilities had exclusive franchises, but may become increasingly frayed in a competitive environment.
To address these concerns, some observers have proposed, and
California regulators have recently endorsed, the formation of an
‘‘independent system operator.’’ Investor-owned utilities and independent nonpublic generating companies would bid competitively to
sell power into a regional grid. Utilities would retain ownership of
transmission facilities but would turn over their operation under
contract to an independent entity, which would manage the system
on a regional basis. The operator would have authority over decisions such as how to respond to unforeseen contingencies and,
under FERC oversight, how to price certain network services and
allocate certain common costs. Although promising, this model also
raises some questions. Can an operator be truly independent of
utilities while they retain ownership of transmission and distribution? And will such a system cope well with coordinating investments in transmission and generation, given that different generating firms that rely on the grid can often have diverging interests?
In short, moving toward a more competitive market in electric
power generation will require innovations in both regulation and
market institutions. Maximizing the benefits from competition will
also require implementing pricing policies that more accurately reflect transmission congestion and the costs of generation at different times (peak and off-peak). Finally, the gains from increased
competition beyond those already being realized from today’s
wholesale competition may be modest in the short run, because
much of utilities’ expenses are associated with past investments,
and with fuel expenses, which cannot be greatly reduced.
Nevertheless, some efficiency gains could materialize even in the
short run: from increased utilization of excess capacity, from superior operation and maintenance of existing plants, and from boosting labor productivity. In the longer run the gains may be greater,
since generation accounts for about half of the cost of electricity to
the end user, and increased reliance on competition rather than
regulation could allow both better operating decisions and better
investment decisions regarding the amount, mix, and speed of construction of new plant.

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STRANDED COSTS
Allowing competition would put pressure on utilities’ prices and
customer base, threatening to create stranded costs. Stranded costs
are those unamortized costs of prior investments that are scheduled for recovery through regulated monopoly rates but would not
be recovered under competition. Stranded costs for the industry as
a whole have been estimated at $135 billion—well over half the
total equity value of all investor-owned utilities. Many of the vulnerable utilities are concentrated in California, New York, New
England, Pennsylvania, and Texas (Chart 6–3 provides a breakdown by region). Many of these utilities would be threatened with
bankruptcy if unfettered wholesale and, especially, retail competition were allowed without providing utilities assistance in covering
stranded costs.
Chart 6-3 Potentially Stranded Costs of Investor-Owned Electric Utilities by Region
Northeastern electric utilities have the highest potentially stranded costs,
both in dollars and as a percent of equity.
Percent of equity

Billions of dollars
35

30

12

200
7

150

25
5

6

20
2

100

2

15

0
0

10

50
5

0

0

0
Northeast

East Central
Mid-Atlantic
West
Southwest
Southeast
Billions of dollars (left scale)

Texas

Mid-Continental
Mid-America

Percent of equity (right scale)

Note: Data are estimated present values of total costs minus revenues from 1996 through 2005, assuming a move
to competition. Some utilities located in Texas are included in the "Southwest," and not in the "Texas" category.
Source: Moody’s Investors Service.

One source of stranded costs is past investments that turned out
differently than expected. In some cases nuclear power proved
more expensive than projected, and gas prices much lower; therefore some investments in nuclear generators led to higher generating costs than those of modern gas-based plants at today’s gas
prices. Second, in many regions utilities overestimated power demand, leading them to build excess generating capacity. If this capacity were fully used under the pressure of competition, it would

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drive the price of power down to the short-run marginal cost, and
thus well below average cost (which includes sunk capital costs).
Although such pricing promotes short-run efficiency, it would impose large losses on some utilities. Finally, stranded costs also
arise from regulatory obligations imposed on some utilities but not
on other suppliers, including requirements to buy power from
PURPA-qualifying facilities at prices above today’s market prices,
to invest in pollution control equipment, and to fund demand conservation programs.
In unregulated markets the possibility of stranded costs typically
does not raise an issue for public policy—it is simply one of the
risks of doing business. However, there is an important difference
between regulated and unregulated markets. Unregulated firms
bear the risk of stranded costs but are entitled to high profits if
things go unexpectedly well. In contrast, utilities have been limited
to regulated rates, intended to yield no more an a fair return on
their investments. If competition were unexpectedly allowed, utilities would be exposed to low returns without having had the
chance to reap the full expected returns in good times, thus denying them the return promised to induce the initial investment. A
strong case therefore can be made for allowing utilities to recover
stranded costs where these costs arise from after-the-fact mistakes
or changes in regulatory philosophy toward competition, as long as
the investments were initially authorized by regulators.
The case for allowing recovery is even stronger where stranded
costs arise from regulatory obligations imposed on utilities. Several
States, notably California, required utilities to purchase power
from qualifying facilities under PURPA at long-term contract prices
based on high estimates of future oil and gas prices, even after utilities resisted purchasing all the capacity offered at the high prices.
Utilities also were required to fit coal-fired generators with costly
pollution control equipment, again with the expectation that costs
would be recovered through regulated rates. Utilities should be allowed to recover such costs mandated by regulation.
To be sure, utilities should be granted recovery only of costs prudently incurred pursuant to legal and regulatory obligations to
serve the public. Investments made after utilities are notified that
competition is coming and are relieved of their obligation to serve
should not qualify; and utilities must try to mitigate their losses.
But recovery should be allowed for legitimate stranded costs. The
equity reason for doing so is clear, but there is also a strong efficiency reason for honoring regulators’ promises. Credible government is key to a successful market economy, because it is so important for encouraging long-term investments. Although policy reforms inevitably impose losses on some holders of existing assets,
good policy tries to mitigate such losses for investments made

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based on earlier rules, for instance, by grandfathering certain investments when laws and regulations change.
Because stranded costs are sunk, economic reasoning suggests
that they should be recovered through mechanisms that do not artificially reduce power consumption. One possibility is a charge levied on transmission, but as a fixed fee rather than a marginal
charge: customers would be required to pay specified amounts,
based perhaps on their past consumption, regardless of their future
use of electricity.
Since stranded costs reflect policy decisions, recovery should be
borne broadly by all parties on whose behalf the stranded costs
were incurred, including customers that switch to other suppliers.
Consistent with this principle, the FERC proposed that wholesale
customers departing a utility be assessed a contribution toward
stranded costs. Although the FERC proposal would directly apply
to stranded costs resulting only from increased wholesale competition, it could also serve as a model for States contemplating retail
competition, and serve as the FERC approach to recovering stranded costs resulting from retail competition in the unlikely event that
the State lacked authority to address the issue.
Most State discussions of initiatives to foster retail competition
in fact have included, as an integral part, mechanisms to recover
stranded costs. But some retail customers threaten to bypass this
process, for example, by resorting to ‘‘municipalization.’’ A municipal utility within the franchise area of an investor-owned utility
may generate none or only some of its required power, and as a
power reseller it qualifies for FERC-mandated wholesaler access to
outside suppliers. Although municipal utilities typically serve legitimate functions, they might at times provide a loophole for
avoiding fair sharing of stranded costs. A municipality might extend its boundaries to encompass the premises of a large industrial
customer served by the investor-owned utility; that customer becomes eligible to buy power from outside suppliers, using the municipal utility as conduit. Such actions raise important issues of equity and cost-shifting, both for the local utility and for other customers in its franchise area that may be stuck with a larger share
of stranded costs. The FERC has stated that municipalization
should not be a vehicle to escape responsibility for stranded costs.

COMPETITIVE PARITY, UNIVERSAL SERVICE, AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
For competition to work well, it must take place on a level playing field: competition will be distorted if producers are given selective privileges, or subjected to selective obligations imposed to further even legitimate social goals. This principle raises several issues as we move toward increased competition.

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As competition grows, increasing distortions may result from
some entities having access to special privileges such as federally
tax-exempt bonds or other preferential treatment. Accordingly, reexamining special privileges of various entities may become more
important.
On the other hand, producers should not be subjected to selective
obligations. New ways must be found, as in the telephone industry,
to address universal service, assist low-income consumers, and
meet other social goals currently addressed through obligations on
regulated monopoly utilities. Continuing to impose such requirements only on some producers would place them at a competitive
disadvantage and imperil their ability to meet these obligations.
Accordingly, these obligations would be better financed through
more broadly based mechanisms.
Increased competition in electricity can also affect the environment. To reap the advantages of more efficient electricity markets
and a cleaner environment, environmental policy will need to respond to any risks that restructuring may pose for environmental
quality. But policy toward restructuring should also recognize those
risks and, where possible, facilitate appropriate responses. For example, the burden of funding renewable energy sources or energy
conservation programs to reduce pollution should be shared broadly, not placed solely on vertically-integrated utilities. Symmetrical
treatment of all players will address environmental concerns more
effectively and provide competitive parity.

CONCLUSION
Our telecommunications and electricity sectors are undergoing
sweeping transformations, which hold the promise of increased reliance on market forces and competition, with potentially large dividends for consumers and business. To facilitate such transformations, regulatory and competition policy must adapt. Unnecessary legal restrictions on entry must be removed, and regulation
must be reformed to better address those industry segments where
monopoly power will persist. But blanket deregulation will not ensure an equitable, efficient, and durable transition to competition.
To ensure a successful transition and protect important social
goals, government will have to play an evolving but ongoing role.

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CHAPTER 7

Investing in Education and Training
THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HAS BEEN a vital partner in
education for more than 200 years. Even before the Constitution
was adopted, the Ordinance of 1785 set aside a section in every
township in the new territories west of Pennsylvania to support a
school. In 1862 the first Morrill Act authorized Federal land grants
to States for the establishment of colleges. As World War II came
to an end, a grateful Nation offered the G.I. bill, which eventually
served nearly 8 million returning veterans—and fundamentally
changed the educational landscape of the country. Today, Federal
educational loans and grants open the doors to college for millions
of students who could not otherwise attend, and Federal grants to
low-income schools help more than 6 million children learn to read
and to do math.
Learning is a lifelong process, not limited to those between the
ages of 5 and 25. From early childhood education to college to
training for the unemployed, this Administration has sought to
complement the efforts of State and local governments in responding to the new demands of the labor market. The Nation is in the
midst of an educational renewal, and families, teachers, local school
districts, colleges, States, employers, and the Federal Government
all have a role to play in the transformation.
The renewed Federal interest in education and training is in part
a response to the two challenges outlined in Chapter 1: the slowdown in the growth of productivity and the increase in earnings inequality. Education and training policy is one of the few policy levers available to address both problems simultaneously.
One of the most dramatic changes in our economy during the
past 15 years has been the increased economic payoff to skills, as
reflected in the increased inequality in earnings between high
school and college graduates. In 1979 full-time male workers aged
25 and over with at least a bachelor’s degree earned on average 49
percent more per year than did comparable workers with only a
high school degree. By 1993 the difference in wages had nearly
doubled, to 89 percent. To the extent that this rise in the payoff
to education reflects an increase in the value of skill, improving our
schools and expanding access to postsecondary training stimulate
economic growth. Based on estimates from the Bureau of Labor
Statistics, the rise in the average educational attainment of the

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workforce accounted for one-fifth of the annual growth in productivity between 1963 and 1992. International evidence reveals that,
all else equal, those nations with the highest school enrollment
rates in the early 1960s tended to enjoy the most robust growth in
subsequent decades.
Education and training policies can also help address the problem of growing inequality. A primary goal of Federal policy must
be to ensure that educational opportunities are not restricted to
those whose parents can finance an education out of their own
pockets. Federal programs such as Head Start, which helps low-income children prepare for school; Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, which provides supplemental Federal assistance to low-income schools and school districts; and Federal financial aid for college students are all designed to support those who
would otherwise not have an equal opportunity to invest in learning.
The sharp rise in family income inequality should not be allowed
to cause greater inequity in access to educational opportunities.
The widening disparity in earnings prospects between the more
and the less educated makes such efforts to equalize educational
opportunities even more imperative. Since the 1980s the Nation’s
track record in equalizing educational opportunity has been mixed.
In elementary and secondary schools, racial gaps in test scores in
mathematics, reading, and science have closed somewhat, even as
mean scores have risen for whites as well as blacks and Hispanics.
The black-white gap in high school graduation rates has also narrowed since the mid-1970s, as high school graduation rates rose for
blacks.
However, gaps in college enrollment rates between low- and
high-income youth and between minority and white, non-Hispanic
youth have widened since the late 1970s (Chart 7–1). Although all
groups have responded to changes in the labor market by attending
college at higher rates, the increases have been larger for middleand higher income youth than for low-income youth. Because
blacks and Hispanics are overrepresented at the bottom of the income distribution, the racial and ethnic enrollment gaps have widened as well.
The widening gaps in college enrollment are troubling for at least
two reasons. First, they may imply an increasing perpetuation of
inequity from one generation to the next—with access to higher
education increasingly allocated on the basis of ability to pay, not
ability to learn. In this country, which values the principle that
children’s success in life should not be held hostage to their parents’ lack of resources, this is unacceptable. A second reason is that
low enrollments deprive the economy of the skills of those unable
to finance those investments. The labor market is demanding high-

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Chart 7-1 College Enrollment Rates of Young High School Graduates
Enrollment rates have increased for white, black, and Hispanic high school
graduates, but the increase in white enrollment has been larger.
Percent
50
White
non-Hispanic

40

White
non-Hispanic

30

Black
non-Hispanic
Black
non-Hispanic

Hispanic

Hispanic

20

10

0
1976-80

1990-94

Note: Data are for high school graduates age 18 to 24.
Source: Department of Education.

er levels of skill, and the economy will grow more quickly if we succeed in producing more skilled workers.
Education and training policy can contribute to reversing the
growth of inequality in the country in two ways. First, by targeting
educational resources more effectively, education and training policy may enable more of our citizens to benefit from the rising payoff
to skill. Second, a robust supply response that creates an abundance of skilled labor and causes less-skilled labor to become relatively more scarce may slow the rise in the price of skill in the
labor market, reducing the growth of wage inequality and possibly
even reversing it somewhat.
In short, the Administration’s education and training policies are
predicated on the three principles outlined in Chapter 1. They encourage students and schools to embrace change by developing the
skills demanded by the new labor market. They create opportunity
by targeting resources to the disadvantaged, providing greater opportunity to participate fruitfully in that market. And they promote
personal responsibility, by stressing to young people and workers
that they are responsible for making their own educational choices,
and by requiring them to share some portion of the cost: through
their efforts in school, through the earnings they forgo to remain
in school, through their participation in the Federal Work Study
program, and through their obligation to repay educational loans.

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This chapter first reviews the good news on the extent to which
the Nation has responded to the rise in the value of education since
the early 1980s, as well as the sobering news on how far we still
have to go. The chapter then examines the evidence from the economics literature on the payoff to investments in schooling and
training. Finally, we describe the Federal role in education and
training policy in complementing State and local efforts.

AMERICANS ARE RESPONDING TO THE DEMAND
FOR SKILLS
Americans have always placed a high value on education, seeing
it as a ladder of opportunity. Therefore, the country was ready to
respond when A Nation at Risk, the 1983 report of a commission
appointed by the Secretary of Education, sounded the alarm over
declining nationwide test scores. Since then a number of States and
local school districts have launched ambitious reform projects.
After a decade of effort, progress clearly has been made:
• Students are spending more time on homework than they did
at the end of the 1970s. The proportion of 13-year-olds reporting that they had no homework or that they had not done their
homework declined from 38 percent in 1980 to 25 percent in
1992.
• The proportion of 11th- and 12th-grade students taking advanced placement courses grew by 138 percent between 1984
and 1992.
• In 1992 the average public high school graduate had completed
49 percent more courses in algebra or higher mathematics, 33
percent more coursework in science, and 8 percent more
coursework in English than his or her counterpart in 1982.
• Between 1980 and 1993, the proportion of students in grades
10 through 12 remaining in school rose for whites, blacks, and
Hispanics. The decline in the dropout rate was particularly
steep for blacks.
The hard work of students, parents, teachers, and school administrators has borne fruit in the form of higher test scores and higher college enrollment rates. Some year-to-year fluctuations notwithstanding, most of the trends suggest that progress is being made:
• As measured by scores on the National Assessment of Educational Progress, average mathematics proficiency rose for
nearly every age, gender, and racial or ethnic group between
1978 and 1992.
• Average mathematics scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test
(SAT) rose by 13 points overall and by 28 points for blacks between 1980 and 1994. These gains are particularly impressive
given the large increase in the proportion of high school stu-

194



dents taking the SAT, which would have tended to reduce average scores.
• The proportion of college-age youth (those 18 to 24 years old)
enrolled in college grew by more than one-third between 1980
and 1994, from 26 percent to 35 percent.
• The numbers of associate, bachelor’s, and doctoral degrees
awarded grew by 28 percent, 25 percent, and 29 percent, respectively, between 1980 and 1993, even though the population
of college-age youth declined by 15 percent.
However, much remains to be done. Although average scores
have been rising in mathematics and science, much of the gain has
occurred in lower level computational skills rather than in higher
level problem solving. Reading and writing test scores declined
slightly for the weakest students during the late 1980s. Perhaps
most disturbing, students in the United States continue to lag behind their counterparts in many Asian and European countries in
math and science (Chart 7–2).
Chart 7-2 Mathematics Proficiency of U.S. and Foreign Students
The median performance of U.S. 13-year olds in 1991 was below that of students
in several other countries.
Score
800

700
99th percentile
90th percentile

600

Median

500

400
10th percentile
1st percentile

300

200
Taiwan

South Korea Soviet Union

France

Canada

Spain

United States

Note: Test instrument is International Assessment of Educational Progress.
Source: Department of Education.

Although it is tempting to extrapolate from current trends and
to assume that the rise in skill-related earnings inequality will continue unabated, economic historians tell us that the payoff to education has fluctuated over the past 50 years, rising and falling with
changes in supply and demand. For example, the ratio of the aver-

195



age earnings of a college graduate to the average for high school
graduates is today roughly what it was in 1940. Economic theory
predicts that positive shifts in demand will be met by increases in
the quantity supplied. Although Americans have responded by enrolling in college in record proportions, so far the demand for skill
has outpaced the Nation’s ability to produce more skilled workers.
But the demographic tide is gradually turning, as the number of
18- to 24-year-olds is expected to rise by 20 percent over the next
15 years. Eventually the rise in the labor market value of skill, and
the wage inequality it has brought about, may be dampened if
these new workers are better equipped to meet the demands of the
labor market. The remainder of this chapter discusses the role of
government policy in aiding that response.

DO EDUCATION AND TRAINING LEAD TO HIGHER
EARNINGS?
Throughout the 1980s the gap in real annual earnings widened
between American workers with different levels of education (Chart
7–3). Labor economists have argued for decades over whether education actually causes differences in earnings, or whether those
with better earnings prospects—because of more favorable family
backgrounds or greater native ability—simply consume more education. After literally hundreds of studies of the economic importance of education, most economists now agree that education does,
indeed, lead to higher earnings (although they may disagree about
the size of the effect). Each additional year of formal schooling is
associated with a 5 to 15 percent increase in annual earnings later
in life. Even without counting the other benefits offered by education—a more active citizenry, breakthroughs in science and the
arts, less reliance on social welfare programs—such benefits are
often large enough to justify the public and private investments involved (Box 7–1).
Questions of causation are difficult to resolve, however, because
unlike natural scientists working in the controlled setting of the
laboratory, researchers cannot simply assign people randomly to
different educational careers. Even if one tried to perform such an
experiment, those assigned to lower levels of educational attainment or training could always decide to pursue their options elsewhere. This implies that random assignment experiments can only
evaluate the incremental impact of specific programs over that of
opportunities available elsewhere—not the full value of the training. The more options available for education and training, the
smaller will be the incremental impact of any specific program—
even if the training itself is quite worthwhile. Therefore, in addition to using experimental evidence, economists have exploited sev-

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Chart 7-3 Percent Difference in Annual Earnings for College and High School Graduates
Differences in mean earnings by educational attainment have widened.
Subtitle line two.
Percent
100
89

80
74

60
49
44

40

20

0
Males

Females
1979

1993

Note: Data are for year-round, full-time workers, age 25 and over.
Source: Department of Labor.

eral other sources of variation in educational attainment in studying the effect of additional education and training on earnings.

COMPARING THE EARNINGS OF SIMILAR WORKERS
WITH VARYING EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
For decades survey researchers have collected information not
just on education and earnings but on other characteristics, such
as standardized test scores, parental education, and family income,
which might be related to both educational attainment and future
earnings. In analyzing these data, economists have attempted to
control for prior differences in earnings prospects between the more
and less educated, by studying the relationship between education
and earnings only among those who might be expected to have
similar earnings given their other characteristics.
In such studies, more than 75 percent of the estimated impact
of education typically remains even after controlling for test scores
prior to entering college. One recent study compared the earnings
14 years after high school of a sample of graduates of the high
school class of 1972 who had attended different types of postsecondary institutions. Although those who had attended 4-year institutions had higher earnings than either community college students
or those with no postsecondary training, they also had higher
grades, higher standardized test scores, and more favorable family

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Box 7–1.—Is a College Education a Worthwhile Investment?

Calculating the return on any investment involves assessing
both costs and benefits. Here we do some back-of-the-envelope
calculations of the economic return to a college education.
Although a college education certainly yields other benefits,
earnings differentials after college—the additional wages that
a college graduate earns compared with a high school graduate—are perhaps the easiest to measure. It remains to be
seen how today’s college graduates will fare over the next 45
years of their careers; absent that information, the most
straightforward approach is to assume that the difference in
earnings observed among people of various ages and educational attainments today will persist into the future.
A college education clearly has high costs as well. In addition
to the $10,000 in average educational costs per year of college,
students forgo potential earnings while in school. Since a fulltime college student would typically miss 9 months of work experience in a year, three-quarters of the average annual earnings of an 18- to 24-year-old male high school graduate, or
$12,200, is a reasonable estimate of earnings forgone for each
year of full-time college study. Therefore the total cost of a
year in college is the combination of educational costs and forgone earnings, approximately $22,200.
If these measures of costs and benefits are accurate, the internal rate of return on 4 years of college for a male, 13 percent, is higher than that for most financial instruments. Even
if one attributes only 75 percent of the earnings difference between high school and college graduates to schooling, the internal rate of return is still 11 percent. Despite the high costs,
then, a college education continues to be a worthwhile investment.
backgrounds upon graduating from high school—all characteristics
that would have predicted higher earnings for them even if they
had not attended college. Comparing those who had similar family
backgrounds and academic characteristics in high school, the researchers found that a year of community college was associated
with an increase in earnings of 4 to 7 percent, roughly the same
as that associated with a year in a 4-year college.

STUDIES USING TWINS
Admittedly, however, many of the characteristics that affect
earnings are difficult to measure. Such easily quantifiable variables
as family income or years of education received by one’s parents
may not fully capture the myriad differences in family background.

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Rather than attempt to collect information on a seemingly infinite
list of characteristics, some survey researchers have gone to great
lengths to follow the experience of pairs of identical twins. Because
identical twins growing up in the same household share a variety
of environmental and genetic factors, analyzing differences in their
earnings and educational attainment eliminates the need to measure the subtle ways in which backgrounds may differ between families.
The conclusion of this research is that, even among identical
twins, those with more education tend to earn more. In some studies, the difference in earnings associated with a year of education
has been as great as the 5 to 15 percent earnings difference per
year of education observed in the broader population. For example,
a recent study of this type found that each year of education was
related to a difference in earnings of between 12 and 16 percent.

NATURAL EXPERIMENTS
Just as individuals from different families may differ in ways
that are not easily measured, identical twins may have different
experiences growing up that would lead one twin to attend school
longer and to earn more in the labor market than his or her sibling. A third approach, therefore, is to identify laws or institutional
differences that may have an effect on educational attainment but
are expected to have no independent effect on earnings.
Compulsory schooling laws provide one such opportunity. Many
States once had regulations that allowed only those turning 6 during the current calendar year to enter first grade in the fall. In
other words, 5-year-olds with their 6th birthdays falling on or before December 31 could begin classes in the fall, while those born
on January 1 or later had to wait an additional year. Because compulsory schooling laws specify a minimum age of mandatory attendance (usually age 16 or 17) and not a minimum grade level,
those born during the first calendar quarter reached the age at
which they could drop out after having completed a year less of
school than those born in the last calendar quarter. As long as the
earnings of those born at different times of the year do not vary
systematically for reasons unrelated to educational attainment, the
interaction between compulsory schooling laws and calendar quarter of birth provides a ‘‘natural experiment’’ for measuring the impact of education on earnings. Researchers have found that those
with birthdays in the first calendar quarter were indeed slightly
more likely to drop out at lower grade levels than those born later
in the year. Moreover, each year of additional education was associated with a 5 to 10 percent increase in hourly wages later in life.
The study of compulsory schooling laws is particularly important
because it identifies the payoff to a year of schooling only for those

199



who are constrained by such laws to remain in school, rather than
describing the average return to education for all who remain.
Therefore, the results suggest that even those who would have
dropped out earlier than compulsory schooling laws allowed seemed
to benefit from additional schooling. This is a strong argument for
measures to deter high school students from dropping out (Box 7–
2).

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT EXPERIMENTS
Even though, as noted above, random assignment experiments
can identify only the incremental impact of specific programs and
not the value of training itself, some programs do indeed seem to
raise the earnings of those who are assigned to them. The primary
advantage of being able to randomly assign some subjects to training and others to a comparison group is that one can expect that
any resulting difference in average earnings for the two groups is
due to the incremental training provided and not to some other difference between the two groups. Although the studies are usually
conducted on a small scale, random assignment evaluations have
often found that education and training raise the earnings of participants. For instance, in recent years the Center for Employment
Training (CET) in San Jose, California, has achieved impressive results in two different random assignment evaluations. Out-of-school
youth receiving an average of 4.1 months of training at CET
earned 40 percent more per year (approximately $3,000 per year in
1993 dollars) than the control group during the third and fourth
year after being assigned. The total cost of the program per enrollee was $4,200. In a separate random assignment evaluation of
a program for minority single female parents, participants earned
$1,500 (again in 1993 dollars) more than the control group in the
second year after training. Earnings increases remained large in
the fifth year of the study, by which time those who had received
training and job placement services were still earning 16 percent
more than the control group.
Education and training for experienced workers yield economic
benefits as well. A recent random assignment evaluation of the Job
Training Partnership Act (JTPA), a Federal program providing
training for economically disadvantaged clients, found that participation increased the earnings of adult male participants by 7 percent and those of adult female participants by 10 percent. These
earnings gains were one and one-half times greater than the costs
of producing them.

LEARNING OR SORTING?
Although labor economists would generally agree that education
and training do lead to higher earnings, it is more difficult to deter-

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Box 7–2.—New Opportunities for Potential Dropouts

One of the eight goals set out in the Goals 2000 Act is to
raise high school graduation rates to 90 percent by the year
2000. Indeed, dropping out of high school is not a good financial decision. A male youth who finishes the last 2 years of
high school will reap a net lifetime earnings increase of
$99,000 (stated in present value terms at a 3 percent discount
rate). Even when one considers the cost to taxpayers of 2 additional years of public secondary education ($5,600 per year),
the internal rate of return for a male completing high school
is 9.5 percent. Persuading young people to remain in high
school seems a particularly worthwhile investment.
Between 1987 and 1989 the Department of Labor conducted
a random assignment evaluation of JTPA programs for out-ofschool youth. The average youth assigned to JTPA did not receive higher earnings during the 30-month evaluation than did
those assigned to the control group, many of whom participated in other non-JTPA education and training programs. In
other words, the availability of JTPA programs did not seem
to add much to the existing array of services for out-of-school
youth.
In response, the Department of Labor is exploring alternative strategies. For instance, rather than providing training
to students once they drop out of school, the department is
funding a replication of a promising high school dropout prevention program. The Quantum Opportunities Program (described in more detail in the 1995 Economic Report of the
President) will be replicated with over 1,000 participants at
seven sites around the country.
The Labor Department is also conducting a major evaluation
of the Job Corps program, a comprehensive, residential job
training program for high school dropouts. Treatment and control subjects will be followed for 5 to 6 years to determine the
impact of the program on employment and other social outcomes.
The Labor Department has also experimented with ‘‘geographic targeting,’’ saturating high poverty communities in
inner cities and rural areas with job training, work opportunities, school-to-work programs, and sports and recreation activities. The aim is to reach enough young people in a neighborhood to reverse the effect of peer pressure. Although the saturation approach made random assignment difficult, a
nonexperimental evaluation is yielding promising results.

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mine why they matter. Do employers pay their highly educated
workers more because of the skills they have learned, or do the
more educated earn more because educational attainment provides
other signals to an employer about them, such as their perseverance or level of motivation? The question is very difficult to resolve
empirically, since it is difficult to measure acquired skill as distinct
from educational attainment. For instance, we infer the extent of
a physician’s training not by directly measuring his or her medical
knowledge but by observing his or her educational credentials.
It is likely that some portion of the observed payoff to schooling
is due to both the ‘‘skills’’ and the ‘‘sorting’’ explanations. However,
it appears that technological change has increased the value of
some skills more than others. Even if sorting accounts for some
portion of the value of education, higher level problem-solving skills
have almost certainly increased in value with the availability of
computers. Furthermore, it would be difficult to attribute the large
increase in the payoff to schooling, even among those who have
been in the labor market for decades, to an increase in the value
of education as a signal. Greater success in producing these skills
not only would raise the earnings of those benefiting, but also
would contribute to economic growth. Moreover, when it comes to
improving the earnings prospects of the disadvantaged, whether it
is the skill learned or the credential acquired that opens the door,
such investments improve the prospects of those who may lack the
resources to invest in themselves and reduce the perpetuation of
poverty.

THE PAYOFF TO PUBLIC INVESTMENT IN
EDUCATION
Since the publication of Equality of Educational Opportunity
(commonly known as the Coleman Report) in 1966, researchers
have struggled with the question of whether increased expenditure
on schools improves student performance. The debate is often quite
contentious because of the large differences in expenditure per
pupil between rich and poor school districts. For example, during
the 1992–93 school year, New Jersey spent more than $9,400 per
pupil in public elementary and secondary schools, while Alabama
and Mississippi spent less than $3,900. Regional differences in the
cost of living can explain only a small part of such variation. Furthermore, given the importance of local financing of public education, expenditure per pupil can differ by a factor of two or three
even between districts in the same State.
Typically, analysts compare average test scores in high-spending
and low-spending districts to learn about the effect of additional resources on scores. Not surprisingly, the high-spending districts

202



have higher average scores. However, since high-spending districts
also tend to have higher average family income and parental education, the differences in student performance may be caused not
by differences in the level of spending but by differences in family
resources. When analysts compare test scores in high- and lowspending districts with similar family incomes and parental education, the results are often considered provocative: districts that
spend more are often found not to have higher test scores.
However, additional resources could have other beneficial impacts. The standardized tests used in much of the research may not
reliably measure the kinds of improvements that parents or policymakers would expect schools to produce with additional resources.
The benefits of new courses in American history, geometry, or calculus or improved learning opportunities for the disabled—valuable
as they may be—would not be captured by such measures.
Consistent with this hypothesis, studies of the long-term impacts
of school expenditure on earnings and educational attainment—in
contrast to those that focus on test scores—yield more optimistic
evidence that public investment in elementary and secondary
schooling does generate benefits later in students’ lives. For instance, better paid and better educated teachers and smaller classroom size have been associated with greater educational attainment and higher payoffs to education later in life, even if they have
not had large effects on the particular test scores used. One recent
study concluded that the payoff was not only positive but financially lucrative: a 10 percent increase in expenditures from kindergarten through 12th grade would produce additional lifetime earnings valued at 1.2 times the additional cost (in present value
terms). Admittedly, studies of this kind remain few, and some authors have reported less positive results, but some evidence suggests that past increases in spending on education did bear fruit,
even if the results did not register on the particular tests used.
But the debate over such findings often misses a more relevant
question: rather than continue to debate how much of a difference
additional resources have made in the past, we should be asking
how programs and incentives could be structured today to ensure
even greater benefits from resources invested now and in the future. It is difficult to believe that a knowledgeable school principal
could not find a way to use additional resources to improve student
learning, as long as the incentives in the environment rewarded
such gains. The task of policymakers should be to create an environment in which incentives dictate that resources be invested
profitably.
On this question, Federal, State, and local governments are already a step ahead of the academic debate. Many of the educational reforms being pursued today seek to produce more decen-

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tralization and greater accountability, both of which are designed
to create an environment in which resources are used more efficiently. The charter school movement is a good example. Minnesota
was the first State to pass a law allowing for charter schools in
1991. Since then 19 other States have enacted laws permitting the
development of charter schools. A charter school is usually the
brainchild of a committed group of teachers or set of parents who
want the flexibility to try a different approach. Typically, they
apply to the local school board or the State department of education for a charter allowing them to open a new school with public
funding. Since charter schools are public schools, they do not
charge tuition. Such charters typically waive many of the regulatory requirements imposed on other public schools for 3 to 5
years, at which time they are subject to review.
Charter schools enhance accountability in two ways. First, charter contracts often specify benchmarks for performance, such as
scores on specific State assessments. In exchange for the freedom
to innovate, charter school organizers are expected to produce results. Some contracts are more specific in spelling out such performance expectations than others. As States develop better assessment tools under the Goals 2000: Educate America Act (described
below), these performance expectations can be more explicitly stated. Second, the presence of charter schools is intended to encourage
innovation by nearby public and private schools, through the demonstration of successful educational strategies and through the
threat of lost enrollment.
The Department of Education has helped to nurture the charter
school movement by providing seed money for the establishment of
charter schools. In the 1995 fiscal year, the Federal Government
provided nearly $6 million in grants to help cover startup costs for
charter schools. The Administration hopes to increase this commitment significantly over the next few years.
But the establishment of charter schools represents only one way
in which States and local school districts are seeking to provide
better incentives for schools and teachers. School report cards, performance bonuses for schools, magnet schools, and other forms of
public school choice are also being tested.
Publicly funded vouchers for use at private schools are another,
more radical approach. But vouchers have several problems. Their
advocates fail to recognize the many ways in which education for
children differs from conventional goods. The primary risk of
vouchers is that they may produce a dramatic increase in social
stratification. The cost in terms of the resulting damage to social
mobility and social cohesion could exceed any benefit in terms of
better school performance. Because they are public schools dependent upon public support, charter schools can be more carefully

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planned to serve all children’s interests by locating them in urban
areas, by insisting on open admissions policies, by holding them directly accountable for results, and—when oversubscribed—by requiring them to establish lotteries for admission. Charter schools
provide a framework for an improved educational system, with parents and teachers working together to develop new and creative solutions to the challenges they face, and demanding accountability
of all participants in the educational process.
Some approaches to accountability are better suited to some environments than others. For instance, school report cards are better
indicators of school performance when mobility between schools is
low and when one can control for differences in student characteristics. Charter schools and magnet schools provide better incentives
when the quality of local transportation is good and parents are engaged and well informed. Still another approach, which several European countries employ, raises the stakes for students, through
more widespread use of achievement tests as a criterion for high
school graduation and college admission, or even by employers in
their hiring decisions (Box 7–3). Given the diversity of circumstances around the country, it is appropriate that each State
and school district pursue its own strategy for encouraging more
decentralization and accountability. The next section discusses the
various ways in which the Federal Government has chosen to complement these efforts.

THE FEDERAL ROLE IN EDUCATION AND
TRAINING
The environment facing providers of education and training is
changing. Today parents and taxpayers increasingly expect results
from their investments. In partnership with State and local policymakers, Federal policy is helping to create this new environment
in several ways: by providing seed money to States developing content standards in core subject areas, by supporting States in the
development of assessment tools for measuring progress, by helping
States to invest in their teachers, and by supporting the establishment of charter schools. But in addition to these efforts the Federal
Government serves many other roles in our education and training
system, such as guaranteeing student loans, channeling resources
to low-income schools and school districts, helping disadvantaged
children prepare to enter kindergarten, and helping States develop
new pathways from school to the world of work. As mentioned at
the outset of this chapter, the Federal Government has played a
vital role in education since before the Constitution was signed.
There are at least five reasons why.

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Box 7–3.—Raising the Stakes for Students

Despite recent gains, American youth continue to perform
poorly in science and mathematics relative to their counterparts in many other industrialized countries. American students also seem to spend less time on their studies than students in other countries. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development has suggested that one of the
causes of the poorer U.S. performance is the lack of connection
between high school achievement and employment or schooling
opportunities.
Unless they are planning to attend a selective college, high
school students in America often have little incentive to do well
academically. Surveys suggest that employers have difficulty
collecting and interpreting transcripts from many different
schools. And except for the most competitive colleges, a student’s performance in high school has little impact on his or
her chances of admission to college. The skills developed in
school may well matter later in students’ careers, but many
students may fail to see a connection between performance in
school and immediate prospects for a job or college admission.
In contrast, many European countries require students graduating from high school to take tests in various subject areas.
Universities use these scores in making admission decisions, as
do employers in their hiring decisions. Some precedent for such
high-stakes testing exists in the United States—the Regents
Examination in New York is an example. By raising the stakes
for high school performance—or, possibly more important,
making the actual consequences more visible—these tests may
induce students to work harder.
An achievement test may also strengthen the incentives of
students and teachers to work together. Absent an external
standard, schools judge individual students relative to their
classmates. But the relative scale gives students an incentive
to discourage their peers from ‘‘wrecking the curve.’’ In contrast, an external standard unites teachers, students, and their
classmates in a common objective: to perform well.
To focus attention on the value of high school achievement,
the Administration has proposed providing $1,000 scholarships
to the top 5 percent of every high school class, public and private, for use at college. Although the reward is still based on
a relative standard, the goal of the awards will be to make the
new realities of the labor market more salient, giving students
in school a more immediate reason to strive harder.

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First, Americans are a mobile people. Between 1993 and 1994
alone, 6.7 million Americans moved from one State to another. The
consequences of a good—or a bad—educational system therefore extend well beyond the borders of a single State. For this reason,
education is a national concern as well as a local one.
One consequence of that mobility is that the Federal Government
has a distinct advantage in administering educational loan programs. The average cost of a year at a public 4-year college is approximately $10,000, not counting room and board, earnings forgone while attending school, college expenditures on sponsored research, or scholarships and fellowships. Even though States often
pay a large share of these costs through subsidies to public institutions, relatively few families have the resources to finance such
large investments out of pocket. Moreover, because an education
cannot be repossessed like a car or a house, private lenders have
not been willing, absent government guarantees, to lend at reasonable rates, even to the most promising student. Given the mobility
of the population, the Federal Government is in the best position
to guarantee these loans and to pool the risk associated with them.
Second, the Federal Government must share the responsibility of
guaranteeing equality of opportunity for all children. The commitment to equal opportunity is founded upon both moral imperatives
and economic interests. The commitment to opportunity for all children has long been a fundamental American value. The economic
interest is also clear. Without intervention by higher levels of government, many communities would not be able to invest to the full
extent worthwhile in their children’s educations. Although many
State governments do target resources on the most disadvantaged
schools and school districts, as argued in Chapter 4, Federal involvement may be necessary to avert a ‘‘race to the bottom’’ in the
provision of State services to the disadvantaged. And even if there
were no race to the bottom, differences in resources would mean
children in disadvantaged communities or poor States might receive an inadequate education. The Federal Government can help
to equalize access to educational opportunities across States and
school systems.
Indeed, some progress has been made over the past decades. As
already mentioned, black youth have closed part of the gap in test
scores with their white classmates in elementary and secondary
school. Nevertheless, students continue to come out of our school
system with enormous disparities in basic skills. One recent study
has suggested that differences in basic skills among youth emerging from our school system may account for a significant share of
the difference in average earnings between black and white males
in their late 20s.

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Third, the Federal Government must play a role in research and
evaluation and in informing local decisionmakers about the payoffs
to alternative strategies. This is true of research and innovation in
education no less than in other areas. How much does classroom
size matter? Which teaching techniques produce better student performance? Which training programs best meet workers’ and employers’ needs? To deploy a school’s resources wisely, teachers and
administrators must know which strategies work best for which
youth. The answers to these questions are public goods, of value to
educators everywhere. Although some school districts have conducted evaluations of their own, no individual school or school district has a sufficient incentive to invest, to the full extent worthwhile, in the kind of careful, expensive random assignment evaluation necessary to resolve critical issues. The Federal Government—
through the Departments of Education and Labor, in particular—
has an important role in promoting, analyzing, and disseminating
this knowledge.
Fourth, the Federal Government has a critical role to play in encouraging States to set content standards in education and to develop testing methods that are consistent with those standards.
Just as industries have found it essential to set national standards
to support a national market for their goods, so it is with education: the national labor market is more effective and efficient
when employers in California know that a job applicant graduating
from school in New York was held to a reasonably stringent set of
standards. The recently enacted Goals 2000: Educate America Act
provides seed money to States to develop standards and assessments.
Fifth, the Federal Government has a particularly important role
to play as a catalyst in developing a national response whenever
change occurs as suddenly as it has in the labor market over the
last 15 years. It performed this role admirably in the post-Sputnik
era, leading reforms in the math and science curricula of our Nation’s schools. It is playing that role today in a number of areas.
For instance, the School-to-Work Opportunities Act allows the Departments of Education and Labor to jointly offer relatively small,
short-term grants to States to begin developing pathways to careers for high school students. Although the Federal funding is
short-term, scheduled to be phased out by 2001, the presumption
is that thereafter States and local governments will continue to finance the experiments that worked and drop those that did not.
Similarly, in response to an evolving labor market in which some
workers find themselves in need of retooling, the Administration
has been working to transform the unemployment system into a reemployment system. A third example is the Federal Government’s
encouragement of charter schools. In these and other areas the

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Federal Government acts as a catalyst, providing startup funds to
encourage States to think in new ways about the problems presented by a changing world.
Federal efforts—in particular, research and evaluation and the
encouragement of standards and assessments—complement States’
systemic reform efforts. With the knowledge gained from rigorous
experimental evaluations of alternative educational interventions,
school principals will make better decisions. With well-defined
standards and assessments, parents and local school administrators will have better information to back their demands for accountability from the schools. Teachers, too, will have a clearer
idea about where to invest in their own training and classroom
preparation, so that they can effectively teach the material defined
in content standards at the State and local level.

ONGOING EFFORTS IN EDUCATION AND
TRAINING
State and local governments have traditionally borne most of the
burden of financing elementary and secondary education. As recently as 1920, the Federal Government provided only 0.3 percent
of nationwide funding for public education from kindergarten
through 12th grade. (Currently, 9 out of 10 youth attend public elementary and secondary schools.) With the advent of the Great Society programs of the 1960s and the growth in Federal aid to lowincome school districts, the Federal share rose, reaching a peak of
10 percent in 1980. That share has generally declined over the past
decade and a half, however. In 1992–93 the Federal Government
provided only 7 percent of total funding for public elementary and
secondary education, with State and local governments roughly
splitting the remaining 93 percent.
The Federal Government has traditionally played a larger role in
higher education than in elementary and secondary education. In
1993 Federal spending accounted for approximately 25 percent of
the revenues of all American institutions of higher education. (Of
that 25 percent, 9 percent went to provide student grants and
loans, 12 percent was for sponsored research, and the remaining 4
percent for direct appropriations and unrestricted grants.) In part,
the greater Federal role in higher education may reflect the fact
that highly educated people are more likely to move across State
lines. In 1990, 49 percent of 25- to 34-year-olds with a bachelor’s
degree, but only 33 percent of those with less education, lived outside their State of birth.

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EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
The Head Start program, begun in 1965, provides educational,
nutritional, and health services to children up to the age of 5; 90
percent of program beneficiaries must be from families with incomes below the poverty level. The program has enjoyed bipartisan
support, as reflected in the fact that funding for Head Start more
than doubled between 1989 and 1995. In the 1995 fiscal year, the
Head Start program cost $3.5 billion and provided funds to approximately 2,000 programs and 750,000 children. In addition to
increased funding, the Administration has sought to improve program quality by increasing the number of expanded day slots for
children from families with working parents and by seeking to improve the quality of program staff.
Evaluations of Head Start have reported short-term gains in IQ
among children enrolled in the program; enrollees are also less
likely in their later school careers to repeat grades or be assigned
to special education classes. The long-term impacts of Head Start
are more difficult to assess, given the long lag between investments
and results. One recent evaluation reported sustained improvements in cognitive test scores for white participants, whereas initial favorable impacts seemed to diminish for black youth. Early
benefits may wither if they are not nurtured in elementary school.
Evaluations of Head Start have also pointed to its significant improvement in the delivery of preventive health services to children
from low-income families, as reflected in measures such as immunization rates.
Despite recent additional investments in Head Start, children
from high-income families remain much more likely to start school
having had the benefit of early childhood education. In 1993 only
33 percent of children from the poorest 20 percent of families were
enrolled in preschool or kindergarten, compared with 59 percent of
children with family incomes in the top quintile. Because Head
Start still serves fewer than 40 percent of eligible families, the Administration has proposed its continued expansion. If we are to
reach the goal of equal access to high-quality early childhood education, the Head Start program deserves continued and expanded
bipartisan support.

ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION
To sustain the gains achieved in early childhood programs, elementary and secondary schools must provide challenging and engaging curricula that set high expectations for all their students.
Three major initiatives over the past 2 years—the Goals 2000: Educate America Act, the reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, and the School-to-Work Opportunities Act—

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were designed to complement and support the reform efforts of
State and local school officials.

The Goals 2000: Educate America Act
The Goals 2000: Educate America Act, passed by the Congress in
1994, is the centerpiece of the Administration’s effort to support
State and local school reform to raise standards of achievement. Its
purpose is twofold: to provide grants to States to set rigorous
standards for academic achievement, and to support local grassroots efforts to ensure that all students meet those standards. In
the first round of grants every State but two applied for funding
to support statewide systemic reform efforts as well as promising
local initiatives. In the first year of the program, total funding for
State grants was $90 million. States were required to distribute 60
percent of these grants directly to school districts, to support innovative programs to improve student achievement in core subjects.
The remaining 40 percent could be used for statewide planning,
such as the development of academic standards and better statewide assessment tools. In the second year of the program, 33 States
have so far received grants totaling $274 million, of which States
are obligated to pass 90 percent along to school districts.
As argued above, educational investments are most likely to pay
off when the objectives are clear and when some measure exists for
tracking the progress of students and schools. Accordingly, States
applying for funding under the second year of the program must
develop or adopt challenging content and performance standards
and a means of assessing whether the standards were met. States
must also outline their plans for helping teachers develop their
abilities to teach to the challenging standards. States, school districts, and schools are given a great deal of flexibility in their planning to achieve these goals. Indeed, the act expressly proscribes
Federal mandates, direction or control of a school’s curriculum or
program of instruction or the allocation of State or local resources.
According to a survey by the Council of Chief State School Officers in May 1995, 47 States were working on more rigorous content
standards and means of assessment. In Vermont, for example, the
assessments encompass a broader range of student achievement
than do standardized tests. The mathematics standards are typically the furthest along, drawing on the efforts of the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics during the mid-1980s. Perhaps
it is no coincidence that mathematics test scores have shown the
greatest gains since 1980.
In addition to providing grants for systemic reform, the Goals
2000: Educate America Act codified into law eight national goals,
for improving high school graduation rates, student achievement
and citizenship, math and science performance, adult literacy,
teacher education, school safety, school readiness, and parental

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participation. The act also provided funding for the National Education Goals Panel, to monitor the Nation’s progress toward meeting those goals. The panel, an autonomous body established in
1990, is charged with publishing regular progress reports and with
making suggestions to Federal, State, and local governments that
will further the achievement of those goals.

The Improving America’s Schools Act
Whereas the Goals 2000: Educate America Act intends to provide
momentum and direction to State education reform efforts, the Improving America’s Schools Act (IASA) seeks to better coordinate
Federal aid with those State reform efforts. The most important
part of this act was its reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965. The most significant budgetary change was the overhaul of Title I (formerly Chapter 1) of the
ESEA, which provides grants to States and local school districts for
the education of disadvantaged students. The program, for which
$6.7 billion was appropriated in 1995, was improved in five important ways.
First, the act allows more schools with high proportions of students from poor families to use their Title I grants for schoolwide
reform programs. Until the IASA was enacted, only schools in
which more than 75 percent of children came from poor families
had been allowed to use the money for schoolwide programs. The
IASA lowered the threshold further: eventually it will allow schools
with more than 50 percent poor children to use Title I grants for
schoolwide reforms. This corrects a longstanding problem that prevented some students and teachers even in high-poverty schools
from using equipment purchased with Chapter 1 funds.
Second, States and local educational authorities are required to
monitor the progress of students in Title I programs using the
same standards and assessments used for other students. State
and local educational authorities are given greater authority to intervene in schools that fail to show progress. Both measures should
allow local administrators to better coordinate Title I programs
with State and local reform efforts.
Third, the IASA eliminated the perverse penalty imposed on lowincome schools that succeeded in raising test scores. Prior to the
IASA, while poverty rates determined school eligibility, resources
were distributed among individual schools according to the performance of their students. Low-income schools that raised their
performance could actually lose funds. Thirteen percent of principals in a survey of elementary schools reported that their Chapter 1 (now Title I) program had lost some funding as a result of
improved performance. Under the reauthorization, disbursement
within local educational authorities depends only upon the number

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and percentage of poor children, not on their academic performance.
Fourth, school districts are required to involve parents and communities in the education of their children, and to use 1 percent
of their Title I money for such programs. Research consistently
finds that close parent and teacher collaboration is needed to help
students learn.
Fifth, Title I establishes two new, better targeted formulas for
disbursing money to poor districts and schools. As part of its 1996
budget, the Administration proposed distributing an additional $1
billion through the more targeted of the two new formulas, combining $700 million that was to have been distributed under the old
formula with $300 million in new money.
The IASA includes other legislation intended to improve teaching
and learning. For instance, the Eisenhower grants (Title II of the
ESEA) are designed to support the efforts of schools and communities to develop high-quality teacher training in all core subject
areas, with particular emphasis on math and science. The Safe and
Drug-Free Schools Act (Title IV of the ESEA) provides funds to
States and communities to support prevention of drug abuse and
violence in their schools. In combination with the Goals 2000: Educate America Act, the IASA for the first time also grants the Secretary of Education waiver authority to give States and local
schools more flexibility in implementing their reforms.

Promoting Uses of Technology in Education
The Administration has supported the creative use of technology
in schools. The Technology Learning Challenge, funded under Title
III of the ESEA, provides challenge grants to partnerships of
schools, colleges, and the private sector for the development and
demonstration of educational technology. In 1995 the initial challenge grant competition for elementary and secondary education attracted over 500 proposals and resulted in 19 grants totaling $10
million. The challenge grants have been matched by $70 million in
private sector contributions in the first year. For example, the Capital School District in Dover, Delaware, received a challenge grant
to bring educational curricula and communication links into students’ and teachers’ homes. Using a device connected to their telephone or cable lines, students use their family television sets to
communicate with their teachers and classmates, and so replace
passive television watching with learning time. The project, intended eventually to reach all 16 of Delaware’s school districts, also
receives considerable support from the State government and private sources.
During 1995 the President and the Vice President appealed to a
group of firms to bring Internet access to schools in California. The
goal of the privately funded effort is to establish Internet access to

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all elementary and secondary schools and set up local area networks within 20 percent of them by the end of this school year. Before this effort, California ranked near the bottom in the ratio of
students to computers available in schools, even though it is home
to much of the computer industry.
The Star Schools program provided $25 million in matching
grants in fiscal 1995 for projects using telecommunications technology in distance learning. For instance, a Star Schools grant supported the development of software to allow teachers from around
the country to contribute and draw from a data bank of lesson
plans in various topic areas such as math and science.
The IASA also provided $10 million in funding in fiscal 1995 for
six regional technology consortia. For instance, the South Central
consortium is made up of the Kansas State Board of Education and
colleges of education at Texas A&M University, University of Oklahoma, University of Missouri-Columbia, and University of Nebraska-Lincoln. The consortia are intended to provide consulting
services to States and school districts interested in finding new
uses for technology in their schools.
To give teachers, school administrators, and researchers around
the country better access to the inventory of educational research
maintained by the Educational Resources Information Center
(ERIC), the Administration created the AskERIC service. Educators and researchers are able to send questions to the service by
electronic mail and receive a response within 48 hours.
Although the Federal investment in each of these programs is
relatively small, the lessons learned from experimenting with the
uses of technology in education may eventually have much broader
applications in elementary and secondary schools around the country.

The School-to-Work Initiative
Young people leaving high school often lack the skills and the social networks to make the transition to work. A successful transition means that a young person soon finds a job that puts him or
her on a career ladder at the hiring firm or imparts skills that
make him or her more widely employable. The experience of other
countries and some of the experiments in the United States have
shown that programs that help young people learn skills in the
context of an actual workplace make successful transitions from
school to work more likely. For instance, Germany’s apprenticeship
system is often given credit for the low unemployment rates for
youth in that country.
The School-to-Work Opportunities Act, passed in 1994, provides
States and communities with funds to assist young people in making the transition to work after secondary schooling. Through the
combined efforts of the Departments of Education and Labor, the

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Federal Government is to act as a catalyst, providing venture capital to States for the development and implementation of school-towork systems. In 1994 the Federal Government gave 52 development awards—one to each State, the District of Columbia, and
Puerto Rico—to assist in the initiation of these systems. Also included were eight implementation awards: funds competitively
awarded to States with operating school-to-work systems. The
States receiving the implementation awards in 1994 were Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Jersey, New York,
Oregon, and Wisconsin. By the end of 1995, 27 States had received
school-to-work implementation grants, as had almost 90 urban and
rural communities. Since the inception of the program, the Departments of Labor and Education have provided $345 million to advance the school-to-work initiative.
For example, the Socorro High School for the Health Professions
in El Paso, Texas, combines a traditional college preparatory course
of study with applied health occupations classes. In the first 2
years of the 4-year program, students take an introductory course
in the health professions, a health occupations laboratory, enhanced mathematics, and a foreign language, in addition to standard subject matter. In the 11th grade, students spend half of each
school day in clinical rotations; they undertake 12 unpaid 3-week
rotations, formally observing health care providers and administrators at work. Students also visit local colleges to learn about postsecondary education in health fields. In the last year of the program students work between 15 and 20 hours per week in competitively allocated, year-long internships. Students receive performance evaluations from supervisors in these internships; those receiving positive evaluations are typically hired as part-time regular
employees. The program receives guidance from the El Paso Hospital Council, a coalition of senior executives from all the major
health care facilities in the city. More than three-quarters of the
students in the Socorro program are from low-income bilingual
families; the school receives funds from Title I of ESEA and the Job
Training Partnership Act.
An apprenticeship program in rural Pickens County, South Carolina, accepts exemplary students for youth apprenticeships. The
program offers high school courses at the district career center,
where students learn skills from agricultural mechanics to graphic
communications to welding. Even in traditional subject areas, students apply their knowledge in situations that simulate the workplace. During their senior year advanced vocational students work
as apprentices for 20 hours a week, earning an average of $6 per
hour at local businesses while taking classes both at their high
school and at the district career center. After graduating from high
school, the apprentices continue to work part-time while studying

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for an associate degree at a technical college in the area. Local
businesses and large corporations with local establishments have
taken apprentices in the program. The Partnership for Academic
and Career Education (PACE), a consortium of businesses and educators, assists with curriculum development, provides staff development opportunities, and contributes materials to area high schools.
The Department of Education recognized PACE with the first
Award for Technical Preparation Program Excellence in 1991.
Both these programs have some degree of employer involvement,
a critical component of success. Employers can be counted upon to
maintain their investments in apprenticeships and worker training
only to the extent that they learn that it is in their economic interest to do so. If employers are expected to share the costs, they must
be rewarded with some of the benefits. Some evidence suggests
that there are indeed benefits to be shared. A recent study of small
manufacturing firms in Michigan that received training grants
from the State government significantly raised productivity by reducing wastage. Another survey of manufacturing firms that introduced formal training programs in 1983 suggested that these firms
enjoyed faster productivity growth than other firms. How these
benefits are shared will depend upon turnover rates among trained
workers. The experience of those firms that have been willing to
participate in the school-to-work initiative, or have invested in incumbent workers, will have an important impact on future investment in education and training by the private sector.

POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION AND TRAINING
As described above, many young people seem to have responded
to the rising payoff to college. The proportion of 18- to 24-year-olds
enrolled in college increased by one-third between 1980 and 1994.
Moreover, college students are increasingly likely to earn degrees
in the fields where earnings are rising the most, such as in engineering, the sciences, and the health occupations. But not all young
people have reacted similarly. Although college enrollment rates
have increased for most groups, differences in college enrollment
rates by race and by family income have widened since 1980.
One possible cause of the widening gaps in college enrollment
rates is the dramatic increase in the cost of a college education, at
public as well as at private institutions. Between 1980 and 1994
the real average tuition at public 2-year and 4-year colleges rose
by 70 percent and 86 percent, respectively. Over the same period,
however, the value of the maximum Pell grant, the primary Federal grant program for low-income students, fell by more than 25
percent in real value. Not counting parental borrowing, the maximum amount a dependent undergraduate student could borrow
over 4 years of college also declined by 5 percent in real value

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(Chart 7–4). Even if one takes State and institutional need-based
aid into account, the net cost at a public 4-year college for the average youth with family income in the bottom quartile rose between
1987 and 1993.
Chart 7-4 Real Change in Maximum Pell Grant, Loan Limit, and Tuition, 1980-94
Inflation-adjusted college tuition and fees have increased, while the maximum
Pell grant and Federal student loan limit have decreased.
Percent change
100
86

80

77
70

60

Maximum
Pell grant

Loan limit for
4 years

Tuition,
public 2-year

Tuition,
public 4-year

Tuition,
private 4-year

college

college

college

40

20

0
-5

-20
-27

-40
Note: Tuition includes tuition and required fees. The CPI-U-X1 is used to adjust all values.
Sources: Department of Education and The College Board.

The college entry decisions of young adults, particularly those
from low-income families, seem to be quite sensitive to increases in
tuition. A number of studies have attempted to measure this price
sensitivity by comparing enrollment rates in high- and low-tuition
States. These studies suggest that a $100-per-year difference in college tuition levels is associated with a 1.2 to 1.6 percent difference
in college enrollment rates among 18- to 24-year-olds. Some recent
evidence also suggests that those States that have raised tuition
see slower rates of growth in enrollment, and that the gaps in enrollment rates between high- and low-income youth have grown
most in those States that have raised tuition.
Rising costs were not the primary cause of rising tuition at public institutions. Educational expenses per full-time student (including costs of instruction, administration, student services, libraries,
and operation and maintenance of physical plant, but excluding
sponsored research and scholarships and fellowships) rose by only
15 percent in real terms between 1980 and 1992 at public 4-year
colleges and by only 12 percent at public 2-year colleges. Rather,

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public tuition rose primarily because State and local taxpayers
were paying a smaller percentage of the cost than they had in the
past. As enrollments have risen and as other demands on State
budgets have grown, States have responded by raising tuition rather than increasing their appropriations proportionately.

Reforming Student Aid Policy
Given the forces at work, the Nation faces a number of difficult
choices in the financing of higher education. In addition to a continuing increase in the demand for a college education, demographic trends indicate a 20 percent increase over the next 15
years in the population of traditional college-age youth. In some
States, such as California, the demographic shift will be even more
pronounced. Unless State budgets for higher education grow, public
tuitions are likely to continue rising, not because costs are rising,
but because State appropriations will be spread over larger enrollments. This will make a college education even less accessible for
many Americans. Therefore Federal student loan and grant programs are likely to be more critically important than ever before.
To meet these new challenges, the Administration’s direct lending program has sought to provide educational financing in a less
costly, less cumbersome manner, with more flexible terms of repayment. The Federal Government issues loans to students through
the financial aid offices of colleges, bypassing the more than 7,500
private lenders, 41 guaranty agencies, and 90 secondary market
participants that make up the Federal Family Education Loan
(FFEL) program.
Under the FFEL program, the Federal Government guarantees
a return to banks that provide financing for student loans. Under
the direct lending program, on the other hand, the Federal Government provides the capital. Whether or not direct lending saves taxpayers money depends on whether the Department of Education
can service the loans for less than the subsidies it pays the private
banks to carry the loans. Based on the prices it has already negotiated with private contractors to service the loans, the Administration believes that the program can deliver substantial budgetary
savings. At the time the Student Loan Reform Act was passed in
1993, gradual conversion to direct lending was projected to save
more than $4 billion over 5 years.
However, the debate over the cost savings generated by direct
lending has overshadowed discussion of the quality of service received by students and colleges participating in the program. On
this question there seems to be little disagreement, at least among
the colleges and students themselves. Direct lending clearly provides more timely, more accessible service to students and universities. After the first year of direct lending, in which 104 schools
participated, a survey funded by the Department of Education re-

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vealed that 61 percent of participating schools reported themselves
very satisfied and an additional 28 percent were satisfied. The
General Accounting Office (GAO) also evaluated the program. Officials interviewed at 11 of the 17 schools examined by the GAO described themselves as greatly satisfied with direct lending, and the
remaining 6 reported being generally satisfied. None of the schools
reported serious misgivings. The GAO report also cited a number
of ways in which direct lending helped students and universities:
parents and students do not have to file separate loan applications
to banks; students receive their loans more quickly; students know
whom to contact for deferments or other questions, because their
loans are not resold; and each college works with a single lender,
the Federal Government, rather than hundreds of financial
intermediaries.

More Flexible Options for Repayment
The average student borrower completing 4 years of undergraduate education today leaves school approximately $11,000 in debt.
As loan burdens grow with ever-rising tuitions, flexibility in the
terms of repayment can lighten the burden significantly. The direct
lending program offers four different repayment options to provide
such flexibility: the standard plan, the extended plan, the graduated plan, and income-contingent repayment. Private banks also
can offer some choice in the form of repayment.
Under the standard repayment plan, borrowers pay fixed nominal monthly payments over a 10-year term. At an annual interest
rate of 8.25 percent, a borrower with the average debt for someone
finishing a bachelor’s degree pays $135 per month. Under the extended repayment option the same borrower would pay $107 per
month, with payments spread over 15 years.
Under both the standard and the extended plan, the nominal
payment is fixed over the term of the loan, so that the real value
of the payment actually declines over time. However, a declining
real payment schedule may impose unnecessary hardship since
young college graduates often earn significantly more after a few
years on the job than they did immediately out of college. The
graduated plan therefore attempts to ease their debt burden by
matching payments more closely to this expected rise in earnings.
For instance, a borrower with $11,000 in debt would make payments of $77 per month during the first 2 years and end with a
$175 monthly payment during the 15th year.
The income-contingent option is even more flexible: monthly payments are calculated on the basis of the borrower’s adjusted gross
income, as reported by the borrower and verified by the Internal
Revenue Service. The above graduate starting his or her career
making $18,000 and enjoying annual earnings increases of 5 percent would begin by paying $90 per month and end, after 15 years,

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paying $121 per month. Borrowers whose earnings are so low that
they still have loan balances after 25 years of repayment will have
those balances forgiven. Income-contingent student loans may thus
be viewed as an innovative form of ‘‘forward-looking’’ means testing
(Box 7–4). Although it is too early to tell, more flexible terms of repayment may also lower default rates by helping to deter borrowers from getting behind in their payments early in their careers.

Box 7–4.—Income-Contingent Student Loans as ForwardLooking Means Testing

Means testing in student aid programs ‘‘taxes’’ the income
and assets of parents and students at a high rate by providing
less aid for those with higher incomes or more assets. Because
the implicit taxes apply for every year that one has a child in
college, the marginal tax rates on savings can approach 50 percent for families with two children attending college for 8
years. In other words, for every dollar in savings above a
threshold, parents may lose 50 cents in financial aid, lowering
parents’ incentive to save. In the past these very high tax rates
did not apply to very many families, because many families’ incomes were too high to qualify for any aid. However, as tuition
levels rise, the marginal tax rates apply to an increasing number.
High marginal tax rates are an inevitable result of ‘‘backward-looking’’ means testing, in which financial aid is distributed according to the recent past income and assets of applicants and their parents (usually a single year of income and
assets). In contrast, the income-contingent loan program may
be thought of as a form of ‘‘forward-looking’’ means testing. It
has three advantages: it targets resources on those with low
earnings after they leave college (rather than just low family
incomes in the year before they enter college); it provides some
‘‘insurance’’ to students from middle- and higher income families who may be anxious about their future labor market prospects given a large debt; and it broadens the base of income
used for means testing from a single year to the student’s
whole career. Because parents’ savings are not taxed when
means testing is forward-looking, parents may even save more
to contribute to their children’s education. Moreover, this forward-looking means testing is more suited to the needs of older
workers seeking to return to school, since the traditional backward-looking financial aid formulas were often designed with
traditional college-age dependent students in mind.

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In a time of rising tuition and strained public budgets, publicly
guaranteed loans make the most of public resources while ensuring
that young people use the Nation’s educational resources prudently. The availability of the income-contingent repayment scheme
protects those with very low or highly variable earnings later in
their careers. If tuition levels continue to increase, limits on student borrowing under both the direct lending and the FFEL programs may need to be raised in coming years. At present, dependent undergraduate students (those who are unmarried, not veterans, with no dependents, and less than 24 years of age) can borrow
only $2,625 during their first year in college, $3,500 during the second year, and $5,500 per year during the junior and senior years.
Parents are allowed to borrow more under the Parental Loans for
Undergraduate Students (PLUS) program. However, since payments on PLUS loans begin immediately, many parents may be reluctant or unable to take on the additional burden. Tuition expenses alone exceed the $2,625 limit at a group of public 4-year institutions that together enroll 42 percent of all undergraduate students. As a result, unless borrowing limits are raised, an increasing
number of dependent students will not even be able to borrow
enough under the Federal programs to pay their college tuition and
living expenses.

Default Rates
Ever since the inception of the Federal student loan programs,
defaults have been a significant concern. This concern was heightened, however, when default claims paid to lenders exceeded $2 billion for the first time in 1989. Under this Administration, the Department of Education has made lowering student loan default
rates a high priority. Default rates differ markedly according to the
institution the borrower attended. Therefore the Department of
Education has imposed standards to preclude schools whose
attendees have high default rates from receiving federally guaranteed loans: postsecondary institutions can lose eligibility to participate if they have a default rate in excess of 25 percent for 3 consecutive years. (The default rate is calculated as the percentage of
loans going into repayment in a given year that default by the end
of the following year. This threshold has been lowered from 35 percent in 1991 and 1992.) Approximately 250 schools have been declared ineligible to participate in the loan programs based upon
their 1992 default rates. An additional 190 schools have appealed
the calculation of their default rates, and it is anticipated, based
on past appeals, that many of these institutions will also lose eligibility. Although it is difficult to distinguish the impact of regulatory efforts from the effects of an improving economy, the default
rate has been cut nearly in half over the past few years: from 22

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to 12 percent for debts going into repayment in the years 1990 and
1993, respectively.

Future Challenges
A college education is becoming both more expensive and more
important for a successful career. The combination of these two
trends is making parents and students increasingly anxious. The
Federal Government provides a number of separate grant, loan,
and work-study programs for college students, but this variety of
programs may itself add to the lack of transparency in the financial
aid process, increasing families’ anxiety. Students and their parents could make better decisions regarding college if they knew
more about how much they could borrow or receive in grants and
how much they were likely to have to finance out of their own income and savings. Complicated means tests necessarily make it difficult for students to anticipate the exact mixture of grants and
loans they will receive. Even so, there could be much better information about the size of the total package available. Moreover, parents and students who are worried about rising debt burdens may
find that the more flexible options for repayment now available
help relieve their concern.

BETTER OPTIONS FOR THOSE ALREADY IN THE
LABOR FORCE
As different skills appreciate or depreciate in value, workers
must have the opportunity to react to these changes in the labor
market. As proposed in the G.I. Bill for America’s Workers, the Administration has also been working to reinvent how the Nation delivers education and training services to those already in the
workforce. Both the Congress and the Administration have proposed consolidating many of the separate education and training
programs now administered by the Departments of Labor and Education and providing block grants to the States. These reforms are
intended to convert our unemployment system into a re-employment system. Although the proposals differ in some details—particularly in the level of funding—they are similar in at least two
important dimensions.
First, States would coordinate the delivery of employment and
training services through one-stop career development centers. The
goal of the one-stop centers would be to allow workers to find out
about employment opportunities, apply for jobless benefits, learn
about available training programs, and receive assistance in financing that training all in one place. Sixteen States have already received multiyear implementation grants from the Department of
Labor to begin integrating an array of education, training, and employment programs into the one-stop centers. The remaining

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States, which are at an earlier stage in the process, have all received grants to plan the transition to the one-stop concept.
Second, the Congress and the Administration have both proposed
consolidating more than 70 existing training programs and giving
training recipients the ability to choose the program that best
meets their needs. Under the Administration’s proposal, dislocated
and low-income workers would be eligible for so-called skill grants
of up to $2,620 per year to complete an associate degree, enough
to cover tuition, supplies, and fees at a typical community college.
Other proposals would provide the funding to States in the form of
block grants but would also encourage States to allow recipients
more discretion in choosing the training program that is right for
them. Unlike the current system, in which government agencies
often choose what training workers will receive and who will provide it, grants could be used by workers themselves to find the best
match among eligible training providers. But any worker, regardless of his or her income or employment status, could use the centers to learn about training and education options and would receive guidance in applying for educational loans.
Both reforms are intended to enhance accountability among providers: training providers that do not attract workers’ interest
would be allowed to founder and the more successful programs to
flourish. Accountability will be enhanced if the quality of information available to workers for assessing different programs, such as
graduation rates or placement rates (using, for instance, unemployment insurance wage records to track the employment histories of
graduates of each program), can be improved. By voting with their
feet, workers themselves will be empowered to shut down ineffective training programs and expand those that meet the changing
needs of the labor market—decisions that may be more difficult for
program administrators to make.
The $10,000 tax deduction for tuition expenses in the Middle
Class Bill of Rights (described in Chapter 3, Box 3–4) will also
lower the cost of further training for those workers going back to
school, as well as for families with dependent children struggling
with large tuition increases.

CONCLUSION
Ever since the Nation’s founding, the Federal Government has
been a partner in education and training. It has served as a clearinghouse for research and evaluation results, contributed to equality of educational opportunity by targeting resources to low-income
schools and college students, and guaranteed educational loans for
college students. No other layer of government could assume these
responsibilities as effectively and efficiently.

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In addition to these traditional responsibilities, the Federal Government must also help coordinate a national response to the dramatic changes in the labor market. The Federal Government has
responded by providing funds to States interested in developing
new pathways from school to work. To add focus and momentum
to school reform efforts, the Department of Education has offered
seed money to States for the development of voluntary content
standards in core subject areas and has encouraged States to develop testing tools for measuring their progress. Federal grants
have supported the startup of charter schools and investments in
educational technology. In these new endeavors, the Federal role is
properly understood as that of a catalyst—vital but temporary.
Progress has been made. Despite some year-to-year fluctuations,
test scores in math and science have risen for all age groups since
1980. High school graduation and college enrollment rates have
also risen. But this is no time to drastically scale back those efforts. The shift in demand has continued to outpace the increased
output of more skilled workers: earnings differences between the
more and the less educated continue to widen. Someday the increase in supply may begin to overtake the increasing demand of
the labor market and dampen future increases in wage inequality,
but at least until that day arrives, the Federal Government must
continue to support State and local efforts to transform their educational systems.
In the midst of efforts to balance the Federal budget, it is important to keep in mind that the objective of deficit reduction is to
spur long-term economic growth by freeing up more of the Nation’s
savings for productive investment. To cut investment in education
and training simply for the sake of balancing the Federal budget
in the short term runs counter to that goal. Education and training
have always been a major source of U.S. growth; as the economic
returns have increased, these undertakings should represent a
larger share of the Nation’s investment portfolio, not a smaller one.
As families and communities respond to the rise in the payoff to
skill by investing in themselves, the Federal Government should
not shrink from the task of encouraging and complementing their
efforts.

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CHAPTER 8

The United States in the World
Economy
AMERICA HAS LONG LED THE WORLD in championing open
trade and competition. The result has been an unprecedented period of worldwide growth in incomes and trade. The expansion of
international trade that supported postwar growth in incomes has
been accompanied by dramatic transformations in the economies of
the United States and other countries. In 1960, trade—exports plus
imports—was equivalent to just 9 percent of U.S. gross domestic
product (GDP); that figure is now 23 percent. Twelve million American workers now owe their jobs to exports, and the opportunities
for global sales represent a critical part of firms’ investment, research and development, and hiring decisions. The importance of
exports to the U.S. economy has been strikingly apparent in the
last 3 years; U.S. exports of goods and services have grown by 20
percent, accounting for about one-third of real GDP growth.
Not only the size but also the geography of the international
market has changed since the 1950s. Developing countries that
adopted market-oriented policies grew significantly faster than
those that clung to closed markets and statist policies. Now many
of these successful emerging economies have become major markets. Whereas in 1970, 29 percent of U.S. exports went to developing countries, in 1995 these same countries absorbed 41 percent of
U.S. exports. These will be the major growth markets into the next
century and will generate huge demands for capital goods, infrastructure, and an increasing variety of consumer goods.
But a high-income, highly competitive economy poses challenges
as well as opportunities. Technological change, business reorganization, and international competition have at times required
painful adjustments of workers and firms. Critics of international
trade often point to the trade deficit, ‘‘lost’’ domestic production due
to imports, or expanding income differentials as evidence that foreign trade and investment are harmful to the United States.
Americans have legitimate concerns about job security and
standards of living, and the Administration is strongly committed
to fostering better jobs and greater economic security. But neither
job security nor future income growth will be enhanced by closing
the American economy to foreign competition. As the 21st century

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approaches, the Administration firmly believes that economic isolation would lead only to economic decline, and that the most promising way forward is to rise to the challenges of the international
market. We can and must compete, not retreat, in the face of global
competition.
The Administration has pursued an aggressive trade policy to
open markets abroad. Despite historic reductions in trade barriers
and the striking growth in U.S. exports, many countries still maintain formal trade barriers, or more subtle administrative or collusive barriers, that prevent other nations’ firms from competing on
an equal basis. This Administration has insisted that other countries live up to their obligations under international and bilateral
agreements and has attacked remaining barriers that discriminate
against U.S. exports.
This chapter explains why outward-looking, competitive policies
remain the best choice for America and examines the Administration’s record in promoting open competition across the globe. Special attention is given to the role of trade policy and to the proper
measure of its success. This chapter also discusses the causes and
consequences of the trade deficit and effective policy for reducing
it.

THE BENEFITS OF OUTWARD-LOOKING, MARKETOPENING POLICIES
Open, competitive trade promotes the economic welfare of all
countries that engage in it, and does so in four ways. It secures the
benefits of national comparative advantage, allowing each trading
economy to devote more of its resources to producing those goods
and services that it can produce most efficiently. It sharpens domestic competitive pressures, spurring productivity gains. It quickens the flow of technology and ideas, allowing countries to learn
from each other. And it broadens the variety of inputs available to
producers and final goods available to consumers, boosting efficiency and standards of living.
Nations that engage in trade benefit from the logic of comparative advantage, as each imports those goods that are produced
more cheaply abroad, and exports those goods that are produced
more cheaply at home. Box 8–1 offers a simple example that illustrates this traditional argument favoring free trade. Critics argue,
however, that many industries of increasing importance in the
world economy (including many high-technology industries) are
characterized by economies of scale in production, and that these
scale economies undermine the simple comparative advantage argument. But although economies of scale do complicate the story,
they do not invalidate the principle of comparative advantage or

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lessen its importance, as Box 8–2 explains. Now more than ever,
unimpeded access to a world market is crucial.
Box 8–1.—Comparative Advantage and Living Standards

The classic argument for free trade is based on the principle
of comparative advantage. Suppose U.S. workers are much better at producing computer software and somewhat better at
producing shoes than workers in Thailand. Comparative advantage states that trade between the two countries—with the
United States exporting software and Thailand exporting
shoes—can still boost living standards in both.
A simple analogy may help illustrate this abstract and seemingly implausible intuition. Imagine a lawyer who happens to
be a very good typist—so good that she is somewhat faster
than her secretary. Even though the lawyer is better than her
secretary at both practicing law and typing, it makes sense for
her to spend all her time on the law and leave the typing to
her secretary. A greater combined total of lawyering and typing will get done in the same amount of time than if each did
some or all of the other’s work, and the incomes of both workers will be greater than they would otherwise.
Similarly, by allowing countries to focus their resources on
what they do relatively well, international trade boosts living
standards. Especially when an economy is near full employment, the primary impact of trade is on the allocation of jobs
among industries rather than the overall number of jobs. Trade
allows employment to be shifted into relatively more productive, better jobs. This effect is manifest in U.S. wage data: jobs
in the United States supported by goods exports pay 13 percent
more than the national average. This is not surprising, given
that U.S. comparative advantage lies in highly specialized
manufacturing and service activities, not in low-skill, low-wage
sectors. Comparative advantage in high-skill industries, however, appears to provide only a partial explanation for the
higher wages paid in export jobs. Even after plant size, location, industry, and skill category are controlled for, exporting
plants seem to pay higher wages than nonexporting plants.
The second argument in favor of open competition is that exposure to the challenges of the international marketplace strengthens
competitive pressures in the domestic economy, stimulating efficiency and growth. An open trade regime effectively increases the
number of both actual and potential competitors in the domestic
market by including those located beyond the Nation’s borders.
This encourages domestic producers to innovate and become more

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Box 8–2.—The New Trade Theory

Over the past 15 years, economists have formalized new
models of international trade that offer theoretical justifications for protectionism. These models, often referred to collectively as the ‘‘new trade theory,’’ have prompted a reexamination of the costs and benefits of open trade.
The new trade theory assumes that certain industries enjoy
increasing returns to scale or generate positive spillover benefits to society as a whole, for which the industry is not compensated. Increasing returns actually raise the gains from
trade: they make it even more efficient to sell to a global market. But in some cases, unilateral protection can raise social
welfare. Under the right conditions, for example, temporary
protection can secure a permanent cost advantage for a domestic firm by discouraging foreign producers from entering the
market. If the monopoly rents that then accrue to the domestic
firm are large enough to offset the costs of capturing them, the
nation as a whole benefits.
These sophisticated arguments for protectionism do not necessarily invalidate the case for free trade. Even with scale
economies, if all countries adopt protectionist policies in the
hope of making their national champion the global monopolist,
the costs will be even higher than in the absence of increasing
returns. With access to foreign markets blocked, all hope of
any firm exploiting the increasing scale returns is lost; the traditional losses from protectionism (arising from ignoring comparative advantage) are then compounded by the failure to
produce at efficient scale. In a sense, therefore, protectionism
is even more costly with increasing returns than without them.
But perhaps the greatest challenge in the new trade theory
sweepstakes is targeting only those industries and firms that
best meet the theory’s narrow conditions. In practice, selection
would be complicated by political pressures from special interests, who are likely to exaggerate the positive spillovers their
industries contribute. And the costs of an erroneous choice may
prove counterproductive: granting protection in inappropriate
cases may outweigh the benefits of granting it in appropriate
ones. In sum, the new trade theories provide a possible theoretical justification for protectionist policies in some limited
cases. But practical considerations suggest that the potential
gains, if any, are likely to be small.

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competitive. Consumers, both at home and abroad, reap the benefits.
A third, related argument is that access to international markets
stimulates the flow of information across borders. Domestic firms
engaged in international competition assimilate new ideas about
production methods, product design, organizational structure, and
marketing strategy, allowing them to employ their resources more
efficiently. Open competition thus boosts productivity.
Finally, trade expands the menu of goods and services available
to both producers and consumers. Firms gain access to a wider variety of inputs, and consumers get to choose from a broader assortment of final goods and services. By expanding the choices available to all, trade boosts efficiency and improves living standards.
One can also gauge the benefits of open markets by assessing the
cost of the alternative, namely, protectionism. It is impossible to
protect all industries; protecting some inevitably distorts market
signals and imposes higher costs on other industries and on domestic consumers. For example, extending protection to the steel industry imposes a cost on automobile manufacturers, who pay more for
steel, and on consumers, who pay more for a new car than they
would if steel were available at the lower world price. Because the
impact of such restrictions is both indirect and spread over a large
number of consumers, the total cost may be difficult to discern. But
it is nevertheless quite real, and it is likely to grow over time. By
raising the relative price of the protected sectors’ output, and thus
drawing capital and labor into those sectors and away from others,
protectionist policies prevent the most efficient long-run use of an
economy’s resources. These distortions may be particularly harmful
when restrictions are imposed on inputs used by industries that
are characterized by economies of scale in production (that is, by
lower average costs per unit at higher levels of output; Box 8–2).
Finally, every protectionist action invites retaliatory reaction.
The costs of a tit-for-tat escalation are so high that in the long run
all countries are likely to lose from the adoption of restrictive policies. The experience of the 1930s provides a grim demonstration:
the major industrial countries responded to the onset of the Great
Depression by raising trade barriers against each other, which provoked retaliation in kind and succeeded only in weakening their
economies still further. A better strategy is for all to strive for a
regime of open and fair competition, rather than to focus on any
possible (and in any case usually illusory) short-term gains from
protection.
Many of the same advantages that accrue from an open trade regime also accrue from international investment flows. Inward flows
of foreign direct investment can boost efficiency and cross-border
learning. Direct investment in the opposite direction—that by do-

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mestic firms in countries overseas—also promotes such learning
and is closely linked to export expansion: approximately threefifths of U.S. exports are sold by U.S. firms with operations abroad,
and several recent studies have confirmed that foreign direct investment is more likely to increase trade than reduce it.

THE EVIDENCE ON OPEN ECONOMIES
Trade affects growth through various channels, but the causeand-effect relationship is difficult to establish in practice: even if
expanded trade is statistically associated with growth in income,
does the expansion in trade cause the expansion in income, or vice
versa? There can be no definitive answer, but careful studies generally conclude that trade liberalization establishes powerful direct
linkages between the domestic and the world economy,
unencumbering the flow of ideas and technology across borders,
bolstering competitive pressures.
A recent economic analysis, which controlled for other national
characteristics such as education, starting income, and political instability, found that the open economies in a sample of 79 countries
grew by an average of 2.5 percentage points more per year (over
a 20-year period) than did the closed economies. A comprehensive
study of productivity across manufacturing industries in Germany,
Japan, and the United States recently concluded that trade restrictions generally hurt productivity by reducing competitive pressures; productivity growth is the single most important factor underlying sustained increases in income. Other studies have found
that protection of industries that produce intermediate inputs reduces growth. For example, one recent study found that, across a
sample of over 70 countries, a 10-percentage-point increase in the
tariffs on capital goods and intermediate products was associated
with a decline in real growth of GDP per capita of 0.2 percentage
point per year. For the United States, such a reduction in growth
over the 10-year period through 1994 would have lowered GDP per
capita by $500 from its actual 1994 level of $26,558.
Even when trade restrictions are used to curtail unfair foreign
competition, they can still impose costs on consumers. The U.S.
antidumping and countervailing duty laws, for example, are intended to offset the effects of unfair foreign competition: antidumping laws seek to counter unfair pricing by foreign firms, while
countervailing duties seek to compensate for the anticompetitive effects of foreign government subsidies. The concern is a legitimate
one: U.S. living standards could be diminished by certain types of
predatory foreign behavior. But many analysts believe that many
of the cases filed under these statutes have little to do with preventing unfair competition, and the duties make consumers and do-

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mestic businesses pay higher prices for imported goods and inputs.
In any case, a recent study found that the net cost of the 163 antidumping duty orders and 76 countervailing duty orders in place in
the United States in 1991 was $1.6 billion.

TRADE AND WAGE INEQUALITY
Over the past 15 years the real earnings of low-skilled U.S.
workers have fallen sharply while those of highly skilled workers
have risen: between 1980 and 1994, real average annual earnings
for high school dropouts aged 25 to 34 fell by 18 percent, while
those for college graduates rose by over 3 percent. Over the same
period, imports have risen as a percentage of GDP. Are these two
trends related? Is increased trade hurting low-skilled workers, and
if so, is this an argument for protectionism?
In theory, increased trade could worsen inequalities in wages
even while raising aggregate income. The U.S. economy has a relative abundance of skilled labor, and so U.S. comparative advantage is in producing skill-intensive goods. Traditional models of
trade therefore suggest that the United States would tend to export
goods requiring relatively large amounts of skilled labor and import
goods requiring relatively large amounts of unskilled labor. International trade would in effect increase the supply of unskilled labor
to the U.S. economy, lowering the wages of unskilled American
workers relative to those of skilled workers, thus aggravating wage
inequality.
Economic theory does not, however (except under extremely restrictive assumptions), tell us how great the resulting gap in wages
will be. Moreover, careful examination of the channels through
which trade should affect wages suggests that other factors bear a
larger responsibility for the widening of wage differentials. Foreign
workers do not compete with American workers directly, but rather
through the products that they produce and sell. The argument
that imports drive down wages for unskilled labor is predicated on
a relationship between the relative prices of goods and the prices
of inputs used to produce them. If competition from developing
countries lowers the prices of goods requiring unskilled labor as
their major input, the wages of unskilled workers will be driven
down, widening income disparities. The problem with this argument is that there has been no such change in relative goods
prices: over the 1980s the average relative price of goods that require substantial inputs of unskilled labor actually increased.
If trade, or factors such as immigration that affect the relative
supply of workers, were the predominant cause of wage disparities,
one would expect to see domestic producers taking advantage of the
lower cost of unskilled workers by using more of them. Yet just the

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opposite has occurred. In almost all industries, employment of
skilled workers has increased relative to that of unskilled workers,
despite the higher cost of skilled workers. This suggests that factors affecting the demand for different kinds of workers, such as
technological changes that have increased the demand for skilled
workers, have been the more powerful force in influencing relative
wages.
Yet even if the effect is small, trade may indeed have some adverse impact on wage inequality. In many ways the effects of trade
are similar to those of technological advance: both raise national
income but can worsen inequality. Yet just as a neo-Luddite crusade against technology is not the solution to increased inequality
due to technological progress, neither is protectionism the answer
to wage inequality resulting from expanded trade. Several recent
studies show that protection can impose costs on the economy that
far outweigh the targeted benefits. Moreover, import protection
cannot promise continuing reductions in inequality over time. At
best, a strategy of import protection would narrow the wage gap
temporarily at the risk of slowing the rate of productivity and income growth generally.
Ultimately, the only lasting solution to the increase in wage inequality that results from increased trade is the same as that for
wage inequality arising from any other source: better education
and increased training, to allow low-income workers to take advantage of the technological changes that raise productivity. In addition, programs such as the earned income tax credit and the minimum wage can be effective in raising the after-tax wages of lowincome workers.

U.S. TRADE POLICY IN THE 1990s
Governments play a decisive role in determining the rules of
competition in international markets. Just as governments must be
responsible for regulating domestic markets, they must also be responsible for the rules that govern international trade and investment. This is a responsibility that cannot be shirked—even the absence of a formal trade policy is itself a policy. The objective is
therefore to structure government involvement so as to help, not
hurt economic performance.
The United States has led international efforts to liberalize world
trade and investment, and this Administration has actively sought
to eliminate foreign market barriers to U.S. exports. Regardless of
their effects on the overall trade balance, these market-opening
policies raise U.S. incomes by securing the gains from international
trade. As already noted, the expansion of market opportunities is
especially important in industries characterized by economies of

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scale (e.g., those with high fixed costs). The opportunity to sell in
a larger market allows these fixed costs to be spread over a larger
number of units, reducing average cost.
Opening up markets to U.S. exports also increases world demand
for our products by removing artificial barriers to their consumption by foreigners. Stronger demand raises the prices that our products command on world markets, and so improves our terms of
trade with the rest of the world. The terms of trade (defined as the
ratio of the average price of our exports to that of our imports) affects U.S. real incomes. An increase in the terms of trade means
that, for any given volume of exports, Americans can purchase
more foreign goods. Even a small change in the terms of trade can
have a huge effect: a 1 percent rise in the terms of trade corresponds to a real increase in income of more than $7 billion.
Open markets benefit all participants in international trade,
even those whose own national markets are closed to foreign competition. Open markets are a public good, the benefits of which are
available to all. As with any public good, countries have some incentive to ‘‘free ride’’—to seize a share of the benefits without assuming any of the costs (the case of trade may be special, however,
in that every country may have an incentive to adopt open trade
policies regardless of what other countries do). The negotiators in
the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) recognized the importance of ensuring every nation’s participation in lowering trade barriers: in almost all respects, membership in the new World Trade Organization (WTO), created
under the 1994 Uruguay Round agreement, requires adherence to
all of its rules. Indeed this is one of the reasons why the Administration strongly supported the Uruguay Round agreement.
Even those nations that have adopted the general rules of the
trading system often come under pressure to intervene in particular instances—to protect industries going through difficult adjustments to foreign competition, to skew the rules in favor of domestic
companies, or to try to influence foreigners to purchase from domestic firms. An aggressive policy to protect American interests
from such practices abroad helps ensure that U.S. firms do not lose
out, and that foreign governments are less inclined to try to bend
the rules. The strengthened dispute settlement process within the
WTO, together with the United States’ own Section 301 legislation,
which addresses unfair or unjustified foreign practices, are the
most important tools that the United States uses to enforce our
rights in the trade and investment arenas.

THE ADMINISTRATION’S TRADE STRATEGY
This Administration has embraced an outward-oriented,
protrade, progrowth economic strategy. In its first 3 years in office,

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this Administration has concluded over 200 trade agreements and
done more to promote trade and open markets abroad than any
previous Administration (Box 8–3). We are using all the tools available to us—multilateral, regional, and bilateral—to advance our
protrade agenda. This multilevel approach to trade policy has become particularly important as the nontraditional aspects of trade
policy have assumed increasing importance (Box 8–4), and as global trade patterns have shifted toward emerging markets. Recognizing that success is measured not by the number of agreements
signed, but by concrete results, the Administration has taken great
pains not only to reach mutually beneficial agreements with our
trading partners, but also to follow through in implementing, monitoring, and enforcing those agreements.
In assessing the results of the Administration’s trade policies to
date, it is important to recognize what trade policy can and cannot
do. Trade policy can raise U.S. income and productivity, but it cannot significantly affect the overall trade balance. That is determined by domestic saving and investment and by government fiscal
policy. Although the overall trade balance may not change, trade
policy can alter the composition (both the sectoral breakdown of
products traded and the shares of individual trading partners) and
the overall level of trade. But U.S. trade policy should not be
judged by whether our trade is in balance in any particular product
or with any particular country. Even if our overall trade were balanced, there is simply no reason to expect (or desire) that our imports of cabbages or computers will match our exports of cabbages
or computers, or that our sales to Japan or Zambia will cancel out
our purchases from those countries, in any given year or even over
an extended period. As we have already seen, it is precisely the
ability to specialize, to concentrate on what we produce most efficiently, and to sell it in those markets that offer the highest returns, that is the fundamental source of the gains from international trade.

Multilateral Initiatives
The Uruguay Round trade agreement was signed in April 1994.
The agreement went into force on January 1, 1995, with some provisions phased in over a 10-year period. The 1995 Economic Report
of the President describes the agreement in detail.
Over nearly five decades, a series of GATT negotiating rounds
has developed basic principles for the international trading system,
which have guided trade negotiations in other spheres and have informed (and been informed by) U.S. trade policy. These principles
include nondiscrimination, transparency, and reciprocity. Nondiscrimination is defined by two precepts: the most-favored-nation
(MFN) precept requires that the most favorable concessions that a
country gives to any trade partner be applied to all its trade part-

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Box 8–3.—The Administration’s Trade Achievements

Over the last 3 years the Administration has:
• Brought the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations to a successful close after 7 years. The Uruguay
Round agreement cuts global tariffs by an average of 40
percent and extends international trade rules to agriculture, services, and intellectual property rights. The
United States will eventually gain an estimated additional $100 billion to $200 billion in income per year
from the agreement.
• Through the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA), created a free-trade area encompassing our
largest and third-largest trading partners. NAFTA has
helped maintain and indeed increase U.S. exports to
Mexico despite a financial crisis and recession there.
• Reached agreement with 33 other countries—including
some of the world’s biggest emerging markets—to seek
a Free Trade Area of the Americas by 2005. Trade with
countries in the hemisphere already accounts for roughly
40 percent of U.S. exports.
• Articulated a vision for achieving free trade and investment by 2020 in the fastest-growing region of the world:
the Asia-Pacific. At the 1995 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation summit in Osaka, Japan, the leaders of the 18
member countries detailed the steps they will take to
make this vision a reality.
• Negotiated 20 bilateral trade agreements with Japan. In
those goods sectors covered by these agreements for
which precise data are available, U.S. exports to Japan
have grown nearly 80 percent since this Administration
took office.
• Established a National Export Strategy under the leadership of the Trade Promotion Coordinating Committee,
which for the first time coordinates the Federal Government’s efforts to assist U.S. exporters through advocacy,
export financing, and business counseling.
• Promoted macroeconomic and trade policies that have
contributed to strong export growth. Exports of goods
and services have grown 20 percent in real terms since
the Administration took office.

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Box 8–4.—Trade and Intellectual Property Rights

A major nontariff barrier to U.S. exports is the lack of adequate protection for intellectual property rights (IPR) in certain countries. The nature of intellectual property has always
made it vulnerable to piracy: theft of intellectual property costs
U.S. exporters billions of dollars in lost sales and royalties annually. Many of the top U.S. export earners—including copyrighted products such as films, sound recordings, and computer
software, and patented products such as new pharmaceuticals—are among the most vulnerable. Piracy not only reduces U.S. export earnings but also discourages the development of new products by lowering the returns to innovation.
Efforts to establish strong IPR protection abroad have therefore been an essential element of this Administration’s trade
policy, advanced through multilateral, regional, and bilateral
mechanisms.
The Uruguay Round Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) makes significant
progress in securing stronger protection for IPR worldwide. It
is the first international agreement to protect a full range of
intellectual property and to provide for the establishment of
the legal and judicial structures needed to enforce IPR protection. The TRIPs agreement requires all WTO members to set
improved rules for the protection of copyrights, integrated circuits, patents, trademarks, trade secrets, and designs. The new
rules will then be subject to the WTO’s improved dispute settlement system.
ners; national treatment requires that a country’s laws and regulations treat foreign products no differently from domestic products.
Transparency ensures that the rules governing trade are explicit
and that due process is followed in applying them, and reciprocity
refers to the balancing of concessions from different countries. In
addition, the GATT process has endorsed the use of safeguards—
escape clauses and other forms of temporary relief from import
surges—to protect against job dislocation during transitions.
The Uruguay Round agreement called for negotiations in three
service sectors to be extended beyond the Round’s conclusion: financial services, telecommunications, and maritime transport. The
WTO’s major negotiating effort in 1995 focused on the first of
these. As the extended negotiating period for financial services
drew to a close, the United States concluded that many offers—especially those from several emerging economies—provided inadequate new market access or did not formally protect even existing
market access. The United States therefore announced that it

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would take an MFN exemption (that is, that it would not apply
MFN treatment to all WTO members), allowing the United States
to grant differential market access for new entrants and the new
activities of foreign financial services suppliers. The United States
also indicated that, while reserving its legal right to do so, it had
no intention of imposing new restrictions on foreign firms. The participants in the negotiations nonetheless reached an interim agreement on July 28, to be reconsidered by the end of 1997. The United
States is a party to the agreement and is entitled to all the commitments made by all participants.
WTO negotiations on telecommunications liberalization were initiated at the meeting of trade ministers of the WTO member countries in Marrakesh in April 1994. The talks are scheduled to conclude by April 30, 1996. As of January 1996 there were 48 WTO
members participating, 33 of which had submitted offers detailing
the liberalization they are prepared to undertake. The telecommunications negotiations are taking place at a critical point in
the evolution of the global telecommunications industry. As Chapter 6 has described, the telecommunications sector was long considered a natural monopoly and has been heavily regulated or state
owned in most countries. In recent years, however, technological
change has greatly increased the scope for entry and competition.
At the same time, systems of regulation and public ownership that
were designed to protect consumers have in many cases become obstacles to competition and further progress, from both domestic and
foreign firms. Thus deregulation and trade liberalization are closely
intertwined, and the outcome of the trade negotiations depends on
legislative reform in the major participating countries.
The goals of the United States in these negotiations are to ensure market access and national treatment for U.S. telecommunications firms abroad and to secure agreement on procompetitive
regulatory principles in the participating countries. Competition in
this sector requires that all entrants be able to connect to existing
networks on equal terms. It also requires safeguards to ensure
competition and the independence of regulators from the operating
companies they oversee. The United States has indicated that if
there is a critical mass of high-quality offers from industrial and
developing countries, it will be willing to lift restrictions on foreign
ownership in the U.S. telecommunications industry and to guarantee national treatment for foreign firms operating in the United
States. However, if offers of sufficient quality are not forthcoming,
the United States has reserved the right to amend or withdraw its
existing offer or to take an exemption to the MFN requirement, as
it did in financial services.

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Regional Initiatives
The Administration has promoted the creation of regional trade
agreements as stepping stones toward global free trade. The Administration has set ambitious goals for free trade in the two most
dynamic markets of the world: the Asia-Pacific and Latin America.
The combination of rapid growth and unprecedented liberalization
is likely to make export and investment opportunities in these markets a key engine of growth for the U.S. economy over the next decade, and developing countries already account for over 40 percent
of U.S. exports.
Regional initiatives founded on the principles of openness and
inclusivity serve to strengthen the multilateral trading system. The
principle of inclusivity encourages members of a regional agreement to pursue additional liberalization with nonmembers, including possible accession to the agreement. Regional free-trade agreements that do not raise external barriers and that welcome new
members can set off a virtuous cycle of liberalization. As the market encompassed by a free-trade area expands and becomes increasingly dynamic, other countries become more interested in joining.
The GATT has always recognized the ‘‘desirability of increasing
freedom of trade by the development, through voluntary agreements, of closer integration between the economies of the countries
parties [sic] to such agreements’’ (Article XXIV), as long as such
agreements do not result in an increase in the parties’ external
barriers. This restriction helps to ensure that preferential regional
agreements create more trade among the participants (and others)
than they divert from nonparticipants. In general, cheaper imports
improve the well-being of the member countries and create trade.
But regional liberalization may reduce trade with nonmember
countries, since imports from such countries do not benefit from the
reduction of trade barriers. Trade diversion arises when countries
within a regional agreement switch from importing goods from the
lowest-cost nonmember to importing from other members. Minimizing such distortionary trade diversion is a key objective in well-designed regional agreements.
Regional agreements often achieve deeper and broader economic
integration than multilateral agreements because, as neighbors,
members have substantial interests in common. Such agreements
therefore often become models for future multilateral liberalization
in new areas such as services, investment, and environmental and
labor standards. The expansion of regional free-trade areas has
also encouraged nations to find more common ground in multilateral negotiations. The U.S. regional initiatives in North America
and the Asia-Pacific, for example, were an impetus for the successful conclusion of the Uruguay Round.

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The North American Free Trade Agreement. NAFTA liberalizes
trade with our two closest neighbors—who are also our largest and
third-largest trade partners—over a period of 10 to 15 years. The
impact of NAFTA on bilateral trade flows is difficult to isolate because Mexico experienced a severe financial crisis during 1995 (Box
8–5). In NAFTA’s first year U.S. merchandise exports to Mexico
and Canada grew by 16 percent—over twice as fast as U.S. exports
to the rest of the world. Although U.S. exports to Mexico fell as
Mexico entered recession, they remained higher during 1995 than
they had been in 1993, before NAFTA. And despite the recession
Mexico continued to honor its commitments to the United States,
cutting tariffs on U.S. products in accordance with NAFTA’s provisions—even as it increased tariffs on many goods from non-NAFTA
partners by 15 percentage points. In part because of this, the U.S.
share of Mexico’s imports has grown from 69 percent in the first
9 months of 1994 to 74 percent over the same period in 1995. The
performance of U.S. exports to Mexico in 1995 stands in sharp contrast to what happened after the previous Mexican financial crisis,
in 1982, when the Mexican Government imposed 100 percent duties and import permit requirements on products from the United
States and other countries. U.S. exports to Mexico were cut in half
during that episode, and it took 6 years for U.S. exporters to recover their pre-1982 position. In contrast, U.S. exports to Mexico
during the current episode fell by less than 10 percent and remain
higher than before NAFTA.
In some instances, expanded trade with Mexico and Canada has
displaced workers in the United States. Consequently, the President made it a priority to include a strong transitional program of
trade adjustment assistance as part of the legislation implementing
NAFTA. This program provides support to displaced workers in industries experiencing large increases in imports from, or whose
plants have relocated to, Mexico or Canada, regardless of whether
the job losses are directly related to NAFTA. In addition, the Department of Commerce’s Economic Development Administration,
through its Trade Adjustment Assistance program (which predates
NAFTA), has provided assistance to a significant number of firms
adversely affected by increased imports from Mexico and Canada.
NAFTA will serve both as a model for future multilateral liberalization in areas such as investment and as a vehicle for further regional liberalization. The Administration is committed to conducting negotiations with Chile on accession to NAFTA. Since Chile’s
population is only about one-seventh the size of Mexico’s, the economic impact on the United States from Chile’s accession is likely
to be comparatively small. But Chile’s accession will provide opportunities for American businesses to expand operations in this fastgrowing market (which has grown by 7 percent per year on average

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Box 8–5.—Mexico’s Financial Stabilization

In December 1994 Mexico faced a balance of payments crisis.
Investors lost confidence in Mexico’s ability to maintain the exchange rate of the peso within its trading band, in part because of Mexico’s large current account deficit, which had
reached almost 8 percent of GDP in 1994. Intense pressure on
the peso in foreign exchange markets threatened to exhaust
Mexico’s international reserves, compelling the Mexican Government to float the peso.
The President responded swiftly to Mexico’s crisis, leading a
$50 billion multilateral effort to assist in Mexico’s stabilization
and making available $20 billion in U.S. credit. This effort
helped attenuate the impact of the crisis on other emerging
markets. At the same time, the newly inaugurated Mexican
President took the difficult steps essential to restoring stability
and growth in Mexico. Government spending was cut, resulting
in a budget surplus of 1.5 percent of GDP in the first three
quarters of 1995. The Mexican Government also implemented
a tight monetary policy, and because a lack of timely information was seen as having contributed to the crisis, Mexico took
steps to make key financial and economic data more transparent and more widely available to investors.
Together these measures have begun to work, setting the
stage for a return to growth. Nearly all of the $29 billion stock
of tesobonos—short-term, dollar-denominated government
debt—has been retired. Mexico’s international reserves have
risen from $6 billion at the beginning of 1995 to $16 billion at
year’s end. Monthly inflation has fallen to 2 to 3 percent from
a high of 8 percent. As of mid-January 1996 the peso had stabilized, after an additional sharp decline in November, and the
stock market had staged a partial recovery. Interest rates have
declined from over 80 percent at the height of the crisis to
below 40 percent. In addition, Mexico appears to have largely
regained access to the international capital markets after only
7 months—far less than the 7 years it took Mexico to regain
the trust of foreign investors after the debt crisis of 1982.
The financial crisis engendered a severe recession in Mexico,
leading to a contraction of 7 percent in the first three quarters
of 1995. But U.S. support, Mexico’s tough stabilization policies,
and the strong economic foundation that had been laid by the
preceding 7 years of structural reform in Mexico should accelerate a return to sustainable growth.

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since 1988), help encourage sound economic policies in the region,
and serve as an important step on the road to creating a Free
Trade Area of the Americas.
The Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). In December 1994
in Miami, leaders from 33 Western Hemisphere countries joined
with the President in embracing the goal of achieving free trade in
the Western Hemisphere by 2005. Even though the FTAA will take
years to achieve, by securing a commitment to work toward a hemispheric free-trade area now, hemispheric leaders set a high standard for the region, ensuring that subregional trade agreements will
evolve in a manner consistent with the FTAA and the multilateral
system.
The United States should reap significant benefits from establishment of the FTAA. It will create a market of over 850 million
consumers with a combined income of roughly $13 trillion. Latin
America is one of the fastest-growing regions in the world. Total
exports of countries in the hemisphere grew nearly 17 percent on
a year-over-year basis in the first half of 1995. Import growth was
also strong at over 18 percent. Total trade flows in the hemisphere
are estimated to have reached over $2 trillion in 1995. The FTAA
will also level the playing field for U.S. exporters, reducing Latin
American trade barriers that are currently three times higher on
average than U.S. barriers. The increase in growth and improved
access to new ideas that freer trade will bring should also promote
U.S. goals of development and democracy in the region.
Trade ministers from throughout the hemisphere met in Denver
in June 1995 to lay out a road map for achieving the leaders’ vision
of regional free trade. They agreed that trade liberalization should
be consistent with WTO principles and comprehensive in scope.
The Denver Ministerial established working groups in seven important areas: tariffs and nontariff barriers, customs procedures and
rules of origin, investment, standards and technical barriers, sanitary and phytosanitary measures, antidumping and countervailing
duties, and smaller economies. Each working group is responsible
for compiling an inventory of regulations and regimes in its assigned area and undertaking a variety of other projects to prepare
the foundations for the negotiated dismantling of trade and investment barriers. In March, trade ministers will meet again in
Cartagena, Colombia. At the Cartagena Ministerial four additional
working groups will be established, covering government procurement, IPR, services, and competition policy.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). The 18 members of
APEC include some of the largest and most dynamic economies in
the world today. Indeed, APEC is a unique combination of some of
the world’s most important established markets and some of its
most important emerging markets. With a combined population of

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2.1 billion and $13 trillion in combined annual income (over half
of world income), the members make up the largest consumer market in the world. More than 30 percent of global trade takes place
between APEC countries. The Asia-Pacific region continues to grow
at a faster pace than any other region in the world: in 1994 China
grew by 12 percent in real terms, Singapore by 10 percent, and
South Korea, Malaysia, and Thailand by more than 8 percent. Over
the next decade the developing East Asian economies are projected
to invest between $1.2 trillion and $1.5 trillion in infrastructure,
generating enormous opportunities for sales of American goods and
services. Already APEC accounts for over 60 percent of U.S. merchandise exports, and these exports have grown 35 percent since
the beginning of the Administration. U.S. exports to the Asian
countries of APEC have grown 55 percent since the beginning of
this Administration.
APEC was formed in 1989 as an informal group of 12 nations focused on increasing economic cooperation in the region. Initially
only the members’ designated APEC ministers attended the group’s
meetings. In November 1993, however, the President hosted the
first summit of the leaders of the APEC countries. At that meeting,
held at Blake Island in Washington State, the Asia-Pacific leaders
embraced the President’s vision of a Pacific community based on
shared strength, peace, and prosperity, as well as his determination to make APEC relevant to the everyday problems of businesses throughout the region. Having set their course in 1993,
APEC leaders again met in Bogor, Indonesia, in 1994, where they
made a momentous commitment. The Bogor Declaration set a goal
of achieving free trade and investment between the member economies over the next 25 years. For the industrialized countries in
APEC the benefits come even sooner: full implementation is scheduled to occur within 15 years.
This year at Osaka, Japan, the APEC leaders put in place a work
program and a liberalization process to make the vision of freer
and fairer trade a reality, and meanwhile to deliver some concrete
measures of immediate value to business. The leaders adopted an
Action Agenda for implementing free trade and investment in the
region by 2020 (Box 8–6). The Action Agenda covers 15 broad areas
for liberalization and sets out 135 specific actions that members
should take to open their markets and reduce the costs of doing
business. The agenda’s broad scope covers market access issues
such as tariffs, quotas, and services. It also includes new areas that
are the source of some of the most pernicious market barriers in
Asia, such as IPR protection and investment, and other issues of
growing importance to the region such as competition policy and
deregulation. In each of these areas the Action Agenda sets out key
objectives, benchmarks, time frames, and specific actions. The prin-

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ciples embodied in the Action Agenda ensure that liberalization in
each country will be comprehensive, covering all products, services,
and investment, and require each country to achieve results that
are balanced and comparable to those of other APEC members. In
the coming months, each member will detail the specific steps it
will take to begin implementing the Action Agenda, to be presented
at the next meeting of the APEC leaders in Manila in 1996. Implementation could begin as early as January 1997—only 2 years after
APEC leaders made the commitment to achieve free trade.
The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Initiative. The U.S.-European relationship is one of the oldest and most durable in international affairs. To further strengthen this partnership, the United
States and the European Union initiated a Joint Action Plan at
their Madrid summit in December 1995. The summit declaration
included the commitment to foster a Transatlantic Marketplace. As
part of this effort, the United States and the European Union have
pledged to seek agreements on mutual recognition of testing data
and standards certification, to cooperate and assist each other on
customs procedures, to begin work on a comprehensive agreement
on cooperation in science and technology, and to initiate a joint
study on market barriers confronting transatlantic trade. The two
sides will draw heavily on the advice of the private sector. Their
cooperation will also extend to environmental and labor issues.
The OECD Multilateral Agreement on Investment. After 4 years
of intensive work, the ministers of the member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
agreed in May 1995 to launch negotiations toward a multilateral
agreement on investment. The aim is to conclude negotiations by
1997. At the negotiators’ first meeting in September 1995, broad
consensus was reached on ensuring a high standard of principles
(including full national and MFN treatment of investment). Exceptions to such treatment will be limited in number and narrowly
drawn. In future negotiations the United States hopes to establish
international legal standards governing expropriation, freedom
from performance requirements (such as the requirement that a
foreign subsidiary’s products contain at least a specified minimum
local content, or that a specified minimum quantity be exported),
guaranteed access to binding international arbitration of disputes
between private investors and national governments, and the right
to unrestricted investment-related transfers across borders. If these
principles are adopted, the multilateral agreement on investment
would establish a high standard for future work on investment issues in Asia.

Bilateral Initiatives
Disputes and negotiations between one country and another are
inevitable in international trade relations. The United States ac-

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Box 8–6.—The APEC Action Agenda

The Action Agenda details steps that APEC members will
take to dismantle key trade barriers that currently impede foreign businesses. Examples include:
• Tariffs: According to one estimate, automobile sales to
Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand combined could equal
U.S. auto sales to Canada and Mexico combined by 2000.
Under NAFTA, U.S. car exports to Canada face no tariffs; those to Mexico face a 10 percent tariff, which will
be eliminated by 2003. But tariffs on U.S. car exports to
Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand range between 30
and 60 percent. The Action Agenda stipulates that members will progressively lower these tariffs. Some members will start reducing tariffs as early as January 1997.
• Air transport: Demand for air transport services in Asia
is projected to grow by 8.5 percent annually through the
end of the decade. This is a key opportunity for U.S. carriers, whose costs per passenger-mile are half those of
their Japanese competitors. Yet barriers are high. APEC
has commissioned a group of experts to develop options
to lower barriers to competition in this fast-growing
market.
The Action Agenda also contains a variety of measures that
will reduce the cost of doing business in the region:
• Infrastructure database: APEC is assembling an infrastructure opportunity database, which will provide information on the Internet—in English—on all government
procurement open to foreign bidding. APEC has already
launched a pilot home page on the World Wide Web that
includes projects from Hong Kong, the United States,
Japan, and Australia.
• Customs harmonization: APEC is working to promote
uniform customs classifications and procedures and to
establish common forms for manifests, travel documents,
and the electronic transmission of business documents.
Businesses can look forward to the day when a single
customs form is accepted in all APEC countries.
• Standards harmonization: APEC is developing so-called
mutual recognition agreements in toys and some food
products, which will enable companies to sell their products throughout the APEC countries after a single laboratory test.

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tively engages in bilateral consultations, negotiations, and dispute
settlement procedures to defend U.S. commercial interests and to
ensure that trade agreements are implemented, market access is
expanded, and offending foreign practices are addressed. The focus
of U.S. bilateral agreements is to open foreign markets to producers from all countries, not just those from the United States. These
agreements are designed to support a more open, less distorted
world trade regime. This Administration has also insisted on agreements that lead to tangible market opening, not simply agreements
in form. The Administration’s trade agreements specify qualitative
and quantitative indicators of progress, agreed to by both countries,
and the Administration has actively reviewed and monitored the
agreements it has reached, comparing actual progress made
against these indicators.
Japan. Japan remains among the most important of our economic partners. The Administration’s goals in our relationship with
Japan are to increase both access for and sales by non-Japanese
firms in the Japanese market, to stimulate demand-led growth in
the Japanese economy, and to raise standards of living in both
Japan and the United States. To these ends, in 1993 the Administration signed the Framework for a New Economic Partnership
with Japan. The Framework laid out macroeconomic goals and
identified areas for sector-specific and structural negotiations. In
the past year alone the Administration has signed new agreements
under the Framework in automobiles and auto parts (discussed
below), financial services, and investment. These agreements bring
to 20 the number of trade agreements that the Administration has
concluded with Japan.
The sectoral agreements with Japan are beginning to produce results. The Framework set up mechanisms, including qualitative
and quantitative criteria, for both countries to use in reviewing the
progress made on these agreements. Although it is still too early
to judge the effects of the 1995 agreements, the results from the
agreements concluded in 1993 and 1994 have generally been positive. By any measure, growth of U.S. exports to Japan has been
striking, especially given that country’s continuing economic stagnation. Overall U.S. exports to Japan were 20 percent higher in the
period from January through November 1995 than in the previous
year, and 47 percent higher than when the Administration took office. Growth of U.S. exports to Japan has been even stronger in
those goods sectors covered by the Administration’s trade agreements with Japan (Chart 8–1).
After 2 years of negotiations to open Japan’s markets in automobiles and auto parts to U.S. and other foreign suppliers, an
agreement was reached in the summer of 1995 to increase Japanese purchases of foreign automobiles and parts. Under the agree-

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Chart 8-1 Merchandise Exports to Japan
Exports in goods sectors covered by Administration trade agreements with Japan
have increased at a faster rate than other U.S. exports to Japan since 1993.
Index, January 1993=100
200

180

Exports covered by
trade agreements

160

140

Other exports
120

100

80
Jan

1992

Jan

Jan

1993

1994

Jan

1995

Note: Data are 6-month moving averages.
Sources: Department of Commerce and Council of Economic Advisers.

ment, Japan promised to improve foreign automakers’ access to
Japanese dealerships. U.S. industry expectations are for access to
1,000 new outlets and the annual export of 300,000 U.S.-made vehicles to Japan by 2000. Also in connection with the agreement, the
Japanese Big Five automakers announced plans for their U.S. assembly plants that are expected to increase those plants’ purchases
of North American auto parts by $6.75 billion by 1998. Japan also
agreed to deregulate the repair and replacement market for auto
parts in Japan, which will make it much easier for foreign firms
to sell auto parts in the Japanese aftermarket. Finally, the Japanese Government will increase the budget of the Japan Fair Trade
Commission and consider U.S. suggestions for improved antitrust
enforcement.
The two countries also signed an investment agreement in July
1995. Despite the abolition of most formal barriers to foreign direct
investment in Japan, Japan has absorbed only 1 percent of world
foreign direct investment—remarkably little for an economy that
accounts for about 16 percent of world output. A tangible market
presence is increasingly important for overseas sales in many industries, and for many service industries it is indispensable for
conducting business. Efforts to facilitate foreign direct investment
in Japan were therefore an important part of the Framework negotiations. Under the United States-Japan Investment Arrangement,

246



Japan will review the few remaining restrictions on foreign investment, make foreign investors eligible for low-interest loans from
the Japan Development Bank, and ensure that foreign-owned firms
are eligible for government-funded employment programs. Japan
has also pledged to make land available to foreign investors in designated foreign access zones, and the Keidanren (Japan’s major
business organization) has pledged to facilitate foreign contacts
with its members.
China. China is an increasingly important player in the world
economy. China’s share of world trade has tripled since market reforms were launched in the late 1970s, making it the world’s 10thlargest exporter. The Chinese economy has recently recorded some
of the fastest growth rates in the world (12 percent in 1994 and
roughly 10 percent in 1995). Already the world’s most populous
country, China may have the world’s largest economy by early in
the next century. U.S. exports to China continue to grow quickly,
as incomes, and hence demand for high-quality U.S. goods, increase. This Administration is committed to encouraging further
economic liberalization and to integrating China more fully into the
world economy. Success at these efforts will support U.S. foreign
policy objectives of democratization, economic reform, and development in China. Although great progress has been made on these
fronts, there is still a long way to go.
China’s accession to the WTO is an important goal for both the
United States and China, with negotiations under way since 1988.
The United States and other WTO members have stipulated that
China must join the organization on commercial terms. Every country that has joined the GATT in the past has agreed to adhere to
the basic principles of the multilateral trading regime, such as
transparency of the trade regime and uniform application of trade
rules. The United States is working with China to reach these
world trade standards in a variety of forums, including bilateral
trade initiatives on market access, protection of intellectual property, and services.
In February 1995 the United States reached a bilateral agreement with China on IPR protection. The new agreement lays out
specific enforcement measures for China to undertake, and consultations between China and the United States have been occurring frequently to ensure that these measures are being carried
out. In addition to creating a new enforcement structure, the agreement increases market access for U.S. audiovisual products, software, books, and periodicals by placing a ban on quotas and by allowing U.S. companies to set up joint ventures in several urban
areas around the country.
Chinese pirating of U.S. software and audiovisual materials and
infringements of U.S. trademarks and patents had become a con-

247



cern to the United States as exports of pirated goods began turning
up in Southeast Asia, Latin America, and even Canada and the
United States. China has more than 29 factories with the capacity
to produce 75 million compact discs annually—in a domestic market that, according to estimates, can absorb only 5 million. Under
the new agreement, task forces have been set up to raid illegal retail and manufacturing establishments as well as to provide border
control. As of the end of 1995, implementation of the agreement
has been mixed. Although China has attacked piracy at the retail
level, massive production, distribution, and export of pirated materials continue. In particular, China has yet to halt production of pirated CDs.
Korea. Although Korea is the fifth-largest manufacturer and a
rapidly growing exporter of automobiles, a variety of barriers have
effectively closed the Korean automobile market to imports. These
barriers include onerous standards and certification procedures,
limits on consumer financing and advertising by foreign firms, and
excise and registration taxes that fall disproportionately on the medium-sized and larger models that U.S. automakers produce. Until
recently, Koreans were required to report the automobiles that
they owned on their income tax returns, and owners of foreign cars
feared tax audits. These barriers, which help explain why the foreign share of Korea’s automobile market is only 0.3 percent, were
serious enough to warrant active consideration as a ‘‘priority foreign country practice’’ in the U.S. Super 301 process this past year.
Negotiations led to the signing of a memorandum of understanding with Korea on September 27, 1995. The Korean Government
agreed to reduce significantly the tax burden on larger automobiles
and to affirm that foreign car ownership would not subject Koreans
to tax audit or other harassment. In addition, Korea will substantially reduce the documentation required to secure safety approval
and will allow testing for a new noise standard to be done outside
Korea. Foreign firms will be able to establish or acquire automobile
finance companies and will be given equal access to television advertising time.
Monitoring foreign practices. One of the principal objectives of
U.S. trade policy has been the identification and elimination of unfair foreign trade barriers. The Administration has placed a high
priority on enforcing U.S. trade agreements and on ensuring that
other countries do not engage in practices that violate trade agreements they have signed with the United States. The U.S. Trade
Representative, in close consultation with U.S. firms, its private
sector advisory committees, and other interested parties, monitors
the trade practices of other countries and their compliance with
U.S. trade agreements and is responsible for addressing those practices identified as unfair.

248



MEASURING THE SUCCESS OF TRADE POLICY
The Administration’s protrade policies have been associated with
rapid export growth. Real exports of goods and services have grown
by 20 percent since the first quarter of 1993 (Chart 8–2). Real export growth has risen: from 3.3 percent in 1993 to 8.3 percent in
1994 and 9.0 percent through the third quarter of 1995 (on a yearover-year basis). The United States is once again the largest merchandise exporter in the world, accounting for roughly 12 percent
of global exports. Moreover, the U.S. share of industrial-country
merchandise exports has grown to 18 percent, from 15 percent in
1986, and now exceeds the shares of Germany and Japan (at 15
and 14 percent, respectively).
Chart 8-2 Export and Import Volumes
Exports have grown vigorously in recent years, but, with imports also rising,
the trade balance remains in deficit.
Billions of chained (1992) dollars
1000

800

Imports

600

400

Exports

200

0
1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

Note: Data are for goods and services; data for 1995 are estimates.
Sources: Department of Commerce and Council of Economic Advisers.

Although U.S. exporters are once again extremely competitive on
world markets, the U.S. trade balance remains in deficit. The next
section explains why the trade deficit is a misleading measure of
the success of U.S. trade policies and the strength of the U.S. economy. Fundamentally, the trade deficit is caused by macroeconomic
factors, not trade policy, which is capable of making only marginal
changes in the overall deficit. Eliminating or substantially reducing
the trade deficit will require macroeconomic policy measures, such
as the elimination of the Federal budget deficit.

249



CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE TRADE
DEFICIT
International trade and competition make a vital contribution to
the growth and well-being of the United States, and U.S. firms and
workers have proved themselves successful in that competition. Yet
despite the rapid growth of U.S. exports and export-related jobs,
public commentary often focuses on the overall trade balance,
which shows a large and seemingly intractable deficit. Many critics
point to the trade deficit as evidence that the United States is not
competing successfully and that international trade is detrimental
to the health of the economy. Therefore, they argue, the United
States should modify its longstanding policy of encouraging open
markets and liberal trade.
This focus is unfortunate, because the trade balance is a deceptive indicator of the Nation’s economic performance and of the benefit that the United States derives from trade. Trade policy is neither responsible for, nor capable of significantly changing, the overall trade balance. As noted above, trade policy can have a substantial impact on the sectoral and geographic composition of trade, but
the aggregate trade balance is determined by larger macroeconomic
factors. Persistent external deficits do entail costs, but effective
policies to reduce these costs by narrowing the external deficit are
beyond the realm of trade policy.

SOURCES OF THE U.S. TRADE DEFICIT
The trade balance is simply the difference between the value of
goods and services sold by U.S. residents to foreigners and the
value of goods and services that U.S. residents buy from foreigners.
Most of what the United States produces (89 percent in 1995) is
sold to residents of the United States; the rest is exported. And
most of what the United States buys (88 percent in 1995) is produced here; the rest is imported. When we compare total production and total expenditure, those goods and services that we purchase from ourselves net out, and the difference is exports minus
imports, or the trade balance. A trade deficit thus results when the
Nation’s expenditure exceeds its production.
Trade is by far the largest source of foreign income and foreign
payments, but there are other external income flows: the main ones
are interest and other investment earnings, aid grants, and transfers. Adding these other current flows to the trade balance produces the current account balance, which is the net income that the
United States receives from the rest of the world. The current account balance thus represents the bottom line on the income statement of the United States. If it is positive, the United States is
spending less than its total income and accumulating asset claims

250



on the rest of the world. If it is negative, as it has been in most
recent years, our expenditure exceeds our income, and we are borrowing from the rest of the world.
The net borrowing of the Nation can be expressed as the sum of
the net borrowing by each of the principal sectors of the economy:
government (Federal, State, and local), firms, and households. In
other words, the current account deficit (CAD) is equal to the government’s budget deficit (G ¥ T, or net borrowing by the public
sector) plus the difference between private sector investment and
private sector saving (I ¥ S, or net borrowing by the private sector):
(G ¥ T)

+

Government
deficit

(I

¥

Private
investment

S)
Private
saving

=

CAD
Current account
deficit

The crucial insight of this identity is that the current account
deficit is a macroeconomic phenomenon: it reflects an imbalance between national saving and national investment. The fact that the
relationship is an identity and always holds true also means that
any effective policy to reduce the current account deficit must, in
the end, narrow the gap between U.S. saving and U.S. investment.

Economic Performance and the Current Account
If the current account deficit has little to do with trade policy,
neither does it necessarily indicate poor economic performance. In
fact, in the short run it may indicate precisely the opposite. Consider two situations: one in which the economy is operating with
fully employed resources, and one in which the economy is operating with excess capacity.
When resources are fully employed, a current account deficit does
not constrain the level of economic activity and thus cannot represent ‘‘lost’’ production. The U.S. economy in the past 2 years provides a good example, since it has been very close to full employment and production capacity. During 1994 and the first three
quarters of 1995, total U.S. production of goods and services (GDP)
averaged $7.1 trillion per year. Total U.S. expenditure was $7.2
trillion. The difference, just over $100 billion worth of goods and
services per year, came from overseas, as reflected in the trade deficit.
It would have been very difficult to have produced those extra
goods and services ourselves and thus eliminated the trade deficit.
The monthly unemployment rate in 1994 and 1995 averaged 5.8
percent and twice fell to 5.4 percent, very near the point at which
economists believe inflation begins to accelerate. Both labor force
participation and overtime in manufacturing were at postwar
highs. In such a tight labor market, any attempt to close the trade
deficit in 1994 or 1995 by producing more domestically would un-

251



doubtedly have been frustrated by rising prices, or by an increase
in interest rates that would have reduced output in other sectors.
In sum, when the economy is near full employment, the trade deficit does not affect the level of economic activity and therefore provides no insight into how well or poorly the economy is performing.
The second case to consider is an economy operating at less than
full employment. Here trade outcomes can affect the level of economic activity. Rates of foreign economic growth and the exchange
rate of the dollar have a strong influence on U.S. export sales, and
therefore on the level of U.S. production. And unlike in the case of
full employment, the expansionary impact from export sales in this
situation is not necessarily fully offset. At the same time, the cyclical state of the U.S. economy exerts a strong influence on the demand for imports. In practice, this channel is so strong that the
trade and current account deficits have tended to increase when
the U.S. economy is growing rapidly, as it has in the last 3 years,
and to diminish when the U.S. economy is weak. An increasing
trade deficit is therefore usually the result of a strong economy, not
the cause of a weak one. Over the past 15 years, U.S. employment
growth has tended to be highest when the trade deficit was large,
not when it was small (Chart 8–3).

Chart 8-3 Employment Growth and the Trade Deficit
The trade deficit tends to rise when employment growth is strong because of
increased demand for imported goods and services.
Percent
5
Employment growth

4

3

2

Trade deficit as
a share of GDP

1

0

-1

-2
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Note: Data for 1995 are estimates.
Sources: Departments of Commerce and Labor, and Council of Economic Advisers.

252



The same conclusion holds if we look across the other major industrial countries. In the 1990s trade balances have improved in
those of the seven leading industrial market economies (the Group
of Seven, or G–7) where economic growth and employment creation
was weak (Chart 8–4).
Chart 8-4 Economic Growth and Changes in Trade Balances in the G-7 Countries, 1990-94
Across the major industrial countries, recent improvements in the trade balance
have been associated with weak economic performance.
Average annual GDP growth (percent)
2.0

United States

1.8

1.6

Canada

1.4

Japan

1.2

1.0

France
United Kingdom

Germany

0.8

Italy
0.6
-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

This istrade
a white
title (billions of dollars)
Change in merchandise
balance
Note: Germany refers to unified Germany, 1991-94.
Sources: Department of Commerce, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, and
Council of Economic Advisers.

Growth of the Current Account Deficit
From 1946 until 1982 the U.S. current account balance fluctuated around zero but was generally in surplus. Government deficits during recessions were balanced by weak domestic investment
and an excess of private saving (Chart 8–5). The adoption, early in
the 1980s, of tight monetary policy to combat inflation led to a
sharp increase in U.S. interest rates, an inflow of foreign capital,
and an appreciation of the dollar. At the same time, fiscal (tax and
expenditure) policy led to large budget deficits that did not disappear when the economy was growing strongly and private investment was high. The so-called structural budget deficit, which is the
actual deficit corrected for short-term fluctuations in GDP, increased by a full 2 percentage points of GDP between 1982 and
1984. Econometric simulations indicate that the shift in fiscal policies, coupled with a move toward more restrictive budget policies
abroad, explains about two-thirds of the deterioration in the current account in the first half of the 1980s.

253



Chart 8-5 Private Saving and Investment, the Fiscal Balance, and the Current Account
The emergence of large fiscal deficits in the 1980s and a rebound in
investment in the 1990s led to increasing current account deficits.
Percent of GDP
6

Private saving minus private investment

4

2

0

-2

Fiscal balance

-4

Current
account

-6
1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

Note: The private saving and investment measures are gross private saving and gross private investment.
The fiscal balance is gross government saving less gross government investment. The current account equals
net foreign investment plus capital grants received. Data for 1995 are estimates.
Sources: Department of Commerce and Council of Economic Advisers.

Fiscal policy changes in the middle of the 1980s partly reversed
the widening of the Federal budget deficit. But the slight reduction
in the budget deficit was more than offset by a fall in private saving: the U.S. gross private saving rate (the sum of the saving rates
of businesses and households), which averaged 18.3 percent of GDP
in the first half of the decade, fell to 16.0 percent in the second
half. In broad terms, then, the increase in the budget deficit and
the fall in the domestic saving rate were responsible for the chronically large U.S. current account deficit. Although the budget deficit
(both actual and structural) has fallen significantly during this Administration, a sharp increase in domestic investment during the
cyclical recovery has driven the current account further into deficit
over the past 3 years.

Current Account Developments in 1995
The current account deficit continued to increase in 1995, driven
largely by high U.S. economic growth relative to our major trading
partners. Although U.S. growth has been below the OECD average
for much of the postwar period, in the period since 1992, the U.S.
economy has grown faster than the economies of most other OECD
countries, including major trading partners such as Germany and
Japan (Chart 8–6). Although U.S. economic growth moderated in
1995, consistent with a desired ‘‘soft landing’’ of the economic expansion, it remained above the OECD average.

254



Chart 8-6 Growth of Real GDP in the United States and Abroad
Faster growth relative to other industrial countries since 1992 has contributed
to the rise in the current account deficit.
Real GDP growth (percent)
5

4

United States
3

2

1

OECD less
United States

0

-1

-2
1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

Note: Data for 1995 are estimates.
Sources: Department of Commerce, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, and
Council of Economic Advisers.

Along with relative economic growth rates, changes in relative
prices (most often due to exchange-rate changes) have important
short-run influences on both bilateral trade balances and the overall current account balance. Beginning in February 1995 the U.S.
dollar depreciated against the currencies of our major trading partners, and most sharply against the Japanese yen (Chart 8–7). The
depreciation of the dollar went beyond what many viewed as justified by economic fundamentals, and a statement by the G–7 finance ministers and central bank governors at the end of April
called for an orderly reversal of the preceding exchange-rate movements. Interest rate reductions in Japan and Germany and concerted currency market intervention in July and August were followed by a recovery of the dollar. Between the end of April and the
end of August, the dollar appreciated by 16 percent against the yen
and by 6 percent against the deutsche mark. Although these bilateral moves are noteworthy and will have a significant effect on bilateral trade, the movement of the dollar against a weighted average of the currencies of U.S. trading partners was more modest,
particularly when an index covering a broad range of trading partners is examined.
Relative price and income movements influence bilateral trade
balances in the short run, and there were important developments
along these lines with several U.S. trading partners in 1995. The

255



Chart 8-7 U.S. Dollar Exchange Rates
The dollar has fluctuated sharply against the currencies of Japan and other major
trading partners, but less sharply against broader indexes of foreign currencies.
Index, fourth quarter 1993=100
120

110
German mark/dollar

Broad real trade-weighted index

100

Trade-weighted index,
G-10 countries

90

80

Japanese yen/dollar

70
9301

1993

9401

1994

9501

1995

Note: The broad real trade-weighted index is relative to 101 trading partners, adjusted for domestic inflation.
A rise in an index indicates an appreciation of the dollar.
Sources: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, and
Council of Economic Advisers.

most dramatic change was in the balance with Mexico, following a
severe financial and exchange-rate crisis in that country beginning
in December 1994 (Box 8–5). The dramatic nominal depreciation of
the peso outstripped the sharp increase in Mexico’s price level, and
so the real (inflation-adjusted) value of the peso fell, encouraging
exports and discouraging imports. In addition, the downturn in economic activity within Mexico greatly affected that country’s demand for imports. Consequently, the U.S. bilateral balance with
Mexico fell from a $1.4 billion surplus in the first 11 months of
1994 to a deficit of $14.4 billion for the first 11 months of 1995.
Even so, as was emphasized above, U.S. exports to Mexico have
held up far better than those of Mexico’s other trading partners,
and the provisions of NAFTA spared U.S. exporters from the emergency measures that Mexico imposed on its trade with other countries. Despite the severity of the crisis, Mexico appears to be adjusting successfully, and its longer term prospects are encouraging.
As Mexican economic growth resumes, imports from the United
States should rebound strongly.
Trends in the U.S. trade balance with Japan over the past year
are the result of income and relative price forces pulling in opposite
directions. The Japanese economy has seen almost no growth in
output since 1991, and the recovery that was expected to occur in
1995 failed to materialize; current estimates of Japanese economic

256



growth for 1995 are about half a percent. Despite this stagnation
in demand, imports by Japan have surged because of the appreciation of the yen over the past 3 years, coupled with some marketopening measures, and Japan’s current account surplus has narrowed. U.S. exports to Japan have grown rapidly in the last 3
years, particularly in those sectors covered by Framework and
other trade agreements. The U.S. bilateral deficit with Japan has
declined since mid-1995 and for the first 11 months of the year it
was down 7 percent relative to 1994. Should the long-awaited recovery in Japan begin this year, the deficit with Japan should decline further.
As the events of the past year illustrate, individual exchangerate movements and shifts in economic growth rates have large influences on bilateral balances. Movements in the overall current account balance are generally less extreme, because of the averaging
that takes place across various country markets. But the rate of
U.S. growth relative to that of its trading partners, together with
overall movements in the dollar’s exchange rate, has a considerable
influence on the U.S. external balance, particularly on a year-toyear basis. Over longer periods cyclical movements tend to average
out, and real exchange rates are influenced more by the requirements of long-run current account positions and current account
servicing requirements. Over this longer time frame it makes sense
to think in terms of propensities rather than levels (in other words,
the shares of national income devoted to private saving, to domestic investment, and to financing the government budget deficit).
The emergence of the U.S. current account deficit over the past 15
years has been the result of a decline in national saving as a share
of GDP (resulting from lower private saving and an increase in the
Federal budget deficit, both as shares of GDP), which has more
than offset a decline in the investment-GDP ratio since the early
1980s.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE CURRENT ACCOUNT
DEFICIT
The current account deficits that arose in the 1980s are an indicator neither of the ability of the United States to compete in the
world market, nor of the efficacy of U.S. trade policy. U.S. export
growth, and more broadly the growth of the U.S. economy, are
much more informative measures of our relative economic standing. The current account deficit has not prevented a rapid increase
in employment, and the recent increase in the external deficit is
primarily the result of rapid economic growth. Furthermore, given
the fiscal policy adopted in the early 1980s and the subsequent decline in the U.S. saving rate, the ability to borrow overseas and run
a current account deficit has been critical in maintaining domestic

257



investment and growth over the last 15 years. Had the United
States been forced to run a balanced current account, interest rates
would have been higher, and investment and economic growth
lower, than what we experienced.
If this is so, why should one care about the trade and current account deficits? As explained above, the current account deficit is
the difference between our expenditure and our income, and represents our net borrowing from the rest of the world. By running
a large and persistent current account deficit we have been borrowing against future income, building up liabilities to the rest of the
world that will have to be serviced in the future. Estimates show
the United States moving from a net creditor position of over $250
billion in the early 1980s to a net debtor position of over half a trillion dollars by 1994. The positive net international asset position
that the United States had built up over 100 years was eliminated
in the space of about 6 years during the 1980s.
The debt-servicing requirements of this buildup of external debt
are already making their presence felt. Net income on U.S. external assets was over $30 billion per year in the early 1980s. This
inflow declined over the 1980s and eventually turned negative: in
1995 our net overseas payments are likely to be over $11 billion.
Although these numbers are still quite manageable in an economy
that produces $7,000 billion in income each year, the current trend
is for an increasing share of U.S. income to be paid out to foreigners, and thus to be unavailable to support U.S. consumption and
investment. In a period in which the size of the retirement-aged
population will increase sharply, servicing our net foreign debt will
be a further drain on the future working population.
The extent to which we rely on foreign borrowing also influences
the terms on which we can borrow. Modern portfolio theory emphasizes the importance of relative rates of return in determining asset
holdings. To induce foreigners to hold a larger share of their assets
as claims on the United States, we may have to offer a higher interest rate. Very rough estimates place the share of U.S. assets in
foreign portfolios at about 9 percent, about 2 percentage points
higher than in 1982. This does not appear to be unduly large given
the low transactions costs, high liquidity, and strong investor protection that characterize U.S. financial markets. In addition, the
ratio of U.S. external debt to GDP is still moderate, and well below
the ratios of some other industrial countries. But as the stock of
foreign claims on the United States increases, U.S. financial markets will inevitably be more sensitive to foreign perceptions and external considerations.

258



POLICY OPTIONS TO REDUCE THE CURRENT
ACCOUNT DEFICIT
Given that a sustained current account deficit is costly to the Nation, what policy options are available to reduce it? As we have
seen, trade policy has little impact on the overall current account
balance. To shrink or eliminate the current account deficit, either
the government budget deficit must be narrowed, or private saving
must rise relative to investment, or both. Maintaining and if possible increasing the rate of investment in the United States is critical for the growth of American incomes and is a firmly held goal
of the Administration. So the only desirable options are to raise the
rate of saving and to reduce the government budget deficit. Unfortunately, the policy tools to raise private saving are inherently limited: anything that might strengthen incentives to save by raising
the return to saving would also reduce the amount of saving required to meet a future wealth or consumption target. And if private saving incentives take the form of tax expenditures (‘‘tax
breaks’’), the induced increase in private saving must be greater
than the loss of tax revenue in order for national (public plus private) saving to increase. The budget deficit is under far more direct
policy control. The Administration’s budget, which would eliminate
the Federal deficit by 2002, provides the most promising way of reducing the U.S. current account and trade deficits.
Reducing the U.S. current account deficit is primarily, but not
entirely, in our own hands. Since global saving equals global investment, the sum of all countries’ current account balances (when
accurately measured) must equal zero. Thus a reduction in the U.S.
current account deficit must go hand in hand with a decline in the
current account surplus of the rest of the world. Complementary
policy in foreign countries, particularly those with large current account surpluses, would assist in the transition. That is why an important component of the Framework negotiations with Japan focused on the promotion of macroeconomic policies in that country
that would encourage strong domestic demand-led growth. But one
should not exaggerate the foreign responsibility for reducing the
U.S. deficit. A reduction in one country’s surplus will not ensure a
corresponding fall in the U.S. deficit. And even without any policy
actions by foreign countries, changes in exchange rates and in
world interest rates would accommodate the elimination of the U.S.
current account deficit. Fundamentally, the U.S. current account
balance will be determined by our own saving, investment, and
budget policy, and continued reduction of the Federal budget deficit
is the most effective tool for reducing our external deficit.

259



CONCLUSION
A system of liberal international trade and investment boosts
overall living standards by allowing all participants to concentrate
on what they do best, to learn from others, and to ensure competition. Consumers in open economies enjoy access to a wider variety
of goods at lower prices than those living in economies that insulate domestic producers from foreign competition. Trade shifts jobs
into sectors in which an economy is relatively efficient, and therefore boosts productivity and wages. In the United States, jobs supported by goods exports pay 13 percent more than the national average. Open trade and investment also have positive dynamic effects: exposure to the competitive pressures of the international
marketplace spurs domestic firms to improve productivity and
boost innovation. At the same time, exposure to international markets and foreign direct investment facilitates the flow of technology
across borders, allowing producers to employ domestic resources
more efficiently.
Abundant evidence testifies to the advantages of open markets
over protectionism. Countries with outward-looking, liberal trade
and investment policies grow faster, the data show, than countries
with inward-looking, closed policies. The general consensus among
economists is that open markets raise growth and productivity.
Achieving the benefits of trade requires continual change and adaptation. And even though most studies suggest that the effect has
been small in the United States, trade can worsen wage inequality.
The Administration therefore recognizes that, while outward-looking trade and foreign direct investment policies are critical to the
future strength of the economy, we must help those injured by the
lowering of trade barriers to make the requisite adjustments. In today’s global economy, there is simply no alternative to competing.
This Administration has been remarkably successful in promoting competition around the world. A concerted set of multilateral,
regional, and bilateral trade negotiations has produced the Uruguay Round agreement, NAFTA, and the Framework agreement
with Japan. Ambitious plans have been laid for free trade across
the Pacific and throughout the Americas. Partly reflecting this active trade policy, U.S. exports of goods and services have grown by
20 percent since this Administration took office.
The continuing external deficit remains a cause for concern, but
it must be kept in mind that the deficit is caused by macroeconomic factors, not trade policy. It should not be used as a test
of whether trade is beneficial or whether our trade policy is effective. The most effective policy option for reducing the trade deficit
is the reduction or elimination of the Federal budget deficit.

260



Appendix A
REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT ON THE ACTIVITIES
OF THE
COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISERS DURING 1995







LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISERS
Washington, D.C., January 29, 1996
MR. PRESIDENT:
The Council of Economic Advisers submits this report on its
activities during the calendar year 1995 in accordance with the
requirements of the Congress, as set forth in section 10(d) of the
Employment Act of 1946 as amended by the Full Employment and
Balanced Growth Act of 1978.
Sincerely,
Joseph E. Stiglitz, Chairman
Martin N. Baily, Member
Alicia H. Munnell, Member

263



Council Members and their Dates of Service
Name

Position

Oath of office date

Edwin G. Nourse .......................
Leon H. Keyserling ....................

Chairman ..................................
Vice Chairman ..........................
Acting Chairman .......................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Vice Chairman ..........................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................
Chair .........................................
Member .....................................
Chairman ..................................
Member .....................................
Member .....................................

August 9, 1946 .........................
August 9, 1946 .........................
November 2, 1949 ....................
May 10, 1950 ...........................
August 9, 1946 .........................
May 10, 1950 ...........................
June 29, 1950 ...........................
September 8, 1952 ...................
March 19, 1953 ........................
September 15, 1953 .................
December 2, 1953 ....................
April 4, 1955 ............................
December 3, 1956 ....................
May 2, 1955 .............................
December 3, 1956 ....................
November 1, 1958 ....................
May 7, 1959 .............................
January 29, 1961 ......................
January 29, 1961 ......................
January 29, 1961 ......................
August 3, 1962 .........................
November 16, 1964 ..................
May 17, 1963 ...........................
September 2, 1964 ...................
November 16, 1964 ..................
February 15, 1968 ....................
February 2, 1966 ......................
February 15, 1968 ....................
July 1, 1968 ..............................
February 4, 1969 ......................
February 4, 1969 ......................
February 4, 1969 ......................
January 1, 1972 ........................
September 9, 1971 ...................
March 13, 1972 ........................
July 23, 1973 ............................
October 31, 1973 ......................
September 4, 1974 ...................
June 13, 1975 ...........................
July 22, 1975 ............................
January 22, 1977 ......................
March 18, 1977 ........................
March 18, 1977 ........................
June 6, 1979 .............................
August 20, 1980 .......................
February 27, 1981 ....................
June 12, 1981 ...........................
July 14, 1981 ............................
October 14, 1982 ......................
December 10, 1982 ..................
April 18, 1985 ..........................
July 1, 1985 ..............................
August 18, 1986 .......................
February 2, 1989 ......................
June 9, 1989 .............................
October 3, 1989 ........................
November 13, 1991 ..................
November 13, 1991 ..................
July 27, 1993 ............................
February 5, 1993 ......................
July 27, 1993 ............................
June 28, 1995 ...........................
June 30, 1995 ...........................
January 29, 1996 ......................

John D. Clark ............................
Roy Blough ................................
Robert C. Turner .......................
Arthur F. Burns .........................
Neil H. Jacoby ...........................
Walter W. Stewart .....................
Raymond J. Saulnier .................
Joseph S. Davis .........................
Paul W. McCracken ...................
Karl Brandt ...............................
Henry C. Wallich .......................
Walter W. Heller ........................
James Tobin ..............................
Kermit Gordon ...........................
Gardner Ackley ..........................
John P. Lewis ............................
Otto Eckstein .............................
Arthur M. Okun .........................
James S. Duesenberry ...............
Merton J. Peck ...........................
Warren L. Smith ........................
Paul W. McCracken ...................
Hendrik S. Houthakker ..............
Herbert Stein .............................
Ezra Solomon ............................
Marina v.N. Whitman ................
Gary L. Seevers .........................
William J. Fellner ......................
Alan Greenspan .........................
Paul W. MacAvoy .......................
Burton G. Malkiel ......................
Charles L. Schultze ...................
William D. Nordhaus .................
Lyle E. Gramley .........................
George C. Eads .........................
Stephen M. Goldfeld .................
Murray L. Weidenbaum .............
William A. Niskanen ..................
Jerry L. Jordan ...........................
Martin Feldstein ........................
William Poole ............................
Beryl W. Sprinkel .......................
Thomas Gale Moore ..................
Michael L. Mussa ......................
Michael J. Boskin ......................
John B. Taylor ...........................
Richard L. Schmalensee ...........
David F. Bradford .....................
Paul Wonnacott .........................
Alan S. Blinder ..........................
Laura D’Andrea Tyson ...............
Joseph E. Stiglitz ......................
Martin N. Baily ..........................
Alicia H. Munnell ......................

264



Separation date
November 1, 1949.
January 20, 1953.
February 11, 1953.
August 20, 1952.
January 20, 1953.
December 1, 1956.
February 9, 1955.
April 29, 1955.
January 20, 1961.
October 31, 1958.
January 31, 1959.
January 20, 1961.
January 20, 1961.
November 15, 1964.
July 31, 1962.
December 27, 1962.
February 15, 1968.
August 31, 1964.
February 1, 1966.
January 20, 1969.
June 30, 1968.
January 20, 1969.
January 20, 1969.
December 31, 1971.
July 15, 1971.
August 31, 1974.
March 26, 1973.
August 15, 1973.
April 15, 1975.
February 25, 1975.
January 20, 1977.
November 15, 1976.
January 20, 1977.
January 20, 1981.
February 4, 1979.
May 27, 1980.
January 20, 1981.
January 20, 1981.
August 25, 1982.
March 30, 1985.
July 31, 1982.
July 10, 1984.
January 20, 1985.
January 20, 1989.
May 1, 1989.
September 19, 1988.
January 12, 1993.
August 2, 1991.
June 21, 1991.
January 20, 1993.
January 20, 1993.
June 26, 1994.
April 22, 1995.

Report to the President on the Activities of the Council
of Economic Advisers During 1995
The Council of Economic Advisers was established by the Employment Act of 1946 to provide the President with objective economic analysis and advice on the development and implementation
of a wide range of domestic and international economic policy issues.

The Chairman of the Council
Joseph E. Stiglitz, who had been a Member of the Council since
1993, was appointed Chairman on June 28, 1995. Dr. Stiglitz replaced Laura D’Andrea Tyson who was appointed Assistant to the
President for Economic Policy at the National Economic Council.
Dr. Stiglitz is on leave from Stanford University, where he is the
Joan Kenney Professor of Economics. Dr. Stiglitz is responsible for
communicating the Council’s views on macro and microeconomic issues directly to the President through both oral and written briefings and reports. Dr. Stiglitz represents the Council at meetings of
the National Economic Council and the National Security Council
and at daily White House senior staff meetings. He also participates in a range of other formal and informal meetings with the
President, senior White House staff, and other senior government
officials. Finally, Dr. Stiglitz is the Council’s chief public spokesperson. He guides the work of the Council and exercises ultimate
responsibility for the work of the professional staff.

The Members of the Council
Martin N. Baily is a Member of the Council of Economic Advisers. Dr. Baily is on leave from the University of Maryland where
he is Professor of Economics.
Alicia H. Munnell is also a Member of the Council of Economic
Advisers. Dr. Munnell had previously served in the Administration
as Assistant Secretary for Economic Policy at the Department of
the Treasury and had served as Senior Vice President and Director
of Research at the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston.
The Chairman and Members work as a team on most economic
policy issues. There is, however, an informal division of subject
matter among the Members. Dr. Baily and Dr. Munnell share responsibility for domestic macroeconomic analysis, the Administra-

265



tion’s economic forecast, and budget and tax issues. Dr. Baily is responsible for international economic issues and certain microeconomic issues, including technology and agriculture. Dr. Munnell
has primary responsibility for health care, welfare reform, environmental, and labor issues. Finally, all three Council Members participate in the deliberations of the National Economic Council
(NEC). Dr. Stiglitz is one of six members of the NEC Principals
Committee.
WEEKLY ECONOMIC BRIEFING

Dr. Stiglitz continued to conduct a weekly briefing for the President, the Vice President, and the President’s other senior economic
and policy advisers. Dr. Baily and Dr. Munnell also were active
participants. The Council, in cooperation with the Office of the Vice
President, prepares a written Weekly Economic Briefing of the
President, which serves as the basis for the oral briefing. The briefing includes analysis of current economic developments, more extended treatments of a wide range of economic issues and problems, and summaries of economic news on different regions and
sectors of the economy.
MACROECONOMIC POLICIES

One of the primary functions of the Council is to advise the
President on all major macroeconomic issues and developments.
The Council prepares for the President, the Vice President, and the
White House senior staff a comprehensive series of memoranda
monitoring key economic indicators and analyzing current macroeconomic events.
The Council, the Department of the Treasury, and the Office of
Management and Budget—the economic ‘‘Troika’’ —are responsible
for producing the economic forecasts that underlie the Administration’s budget proposals. The Council, under the leadership of Drs.
Baily and Munnell, initiates the forecasting process twice each
year. The first forecast is included in the Federal budget document
published in February and the second forecast is published in the
summer as part of the Administration’s Mid-Session Review. In
preparing these forecasts, the Council consults with a wide variety
of outside sources, including leading private sector forecasters.
In 1995, the Council spent a substantial amount of time on budget and tax issues. The Council participated in the preparation of
the President’s balanced budget proposal. The Council also participated extensively in meetings on a range of budget issues, including Medicare and Medicaid, discretionary spending priorities, the
Administration’s tax proposals, and the elimination of corporate
subsidies and loopholes. In addition, the Council participated in
consultations with the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) on the

266



economic assumptions that were developed for the 7-year balanced
budget plan.
The Council prepared, with the Department of Labor, a report titled ‘‘Educating America: An Investment for Our Future,’’ which
presented the overwhelming evidence on the beneficial impact of
education on our workers and on our economy. The Council also
prepared a report titled ‘‘Supporting Research and Development to
Promote Economic Growth: The Federal Government’s Role,’’ which
describes the Federal role in research and development (R&D) and
the importance of R&D investments to economic growth. These reports presented the case for protecting our Federal Government’s
investments in education and technology.
The Council continued its efforts to improve the American
public’s understanding of economic issues and the Administration’s
economic agenda through regular briefings with the economic and
financial press corps, periodic discussions with outside economists
and forecasters, and presentations to outside organizations.
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC POLICIES

Because international trade and financial developments are increasingly important to the U.S. economy, they have played an important role in the Administration’s foreign policy and economic
agenda. The Council has been an active participant in the National
Economic Council/National Security Council international economic
policy process, providing both technical and analytical support and
policy guidance. In 1995, the Council’s role included policy development and planning for the G-7 Economic Summit in Halifax, the
APEC leaders meeting in Osaka, the Denver Ministerial for the
Hemispheric Initiative and the U.S.¥EU Summit in December.
The Council also participated at the policy and analytical level in
preparation for trade negotiations, including those with Japan on
autos and auto parts, and with China on market access and intellectual property.
The Council has focused on the impacts of international trade
and financial developments on overall U.S. economic performance
and on U.S. financial markets. The Council has used its expertise
on developments in other countries to identify lessons, successes as
well as failures, to be gleaned from policy initiatives undertaken
elsewhere. The Weekly Economic Briefing of the President regularly
includes articles on international events and issues. In addition,
the Council, along with the Department of the Treasury, issued a
white paper in November titled ‘‘U.S. Trade Policy with Japan: Assessing the Record.’’
Because of the increasing importance of international economic
issues to the U.S. economy, the Council has increasingly been
called upon to represent the United States at international meetings and other forums. Dr. Stiglitz was asked to give the keynote

267



address at the U.S.-R.O.C. Economic Conference in Anchorage in
September and participated in meetings of the Joint Economic Development Group with Israel in September.
The Council plays a leading role in U.S. participation in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).
The Council heads the U.S. delegation to the semiannual Economic
Policy Committee meetings, and Dr. Stiglitz is the Committee’s
Chairman. In that role, Dr. Stiglitz has led an effort to refocus the
Economic Policy Committee meetings and the OECD’s Economics
Department’s activity in order to make their work more timely and
relevant to member country policy discussions. Dr. Baily was a
member of the OECD’s Working Party 3 on macroeconomic policy
coordination, and Dr. Munnell led the U.S. delegation for Working
Party 1 on microeconomic and structural issues.
MICROECONOMIC POLICIES

The Council was an active participant on microeconomic policy
issues in 1995. Dr. Stiglitz is a member of the Regulatory Working
Group, which addresses numerous policy issues related to regulatory reform. Dr. Stiglitz was deeply involved in preparation of the
new ‘‘best practice’’ guidelines for economic assessments of regulatory impacts, issued by the Office of Management and Budget.
The Council also participated in a range of other Administration efforts to reform regulation.
The Council was an active participant in the Administration’s
‘‘Reinventing Government’’ effort, which has made government
agencies more efficient and more performance oriented, and has revised and eliminated thousands of pages of regulations. The Council was active in efforts to restructure government agencies and
programs, such as the Federal Aviation Administration and the
housing programs of the Department of Housing and Urban Development. The Council was also deeply involved in developing the
Administration’s pension simplification proposal, which will make
it easier and less costly for employers—especially small businesses—to set up retirement plans that deliver tax-favored retirement benefits to all employees.
The Council was heavily involved in efforts to implement comprehensive and procompetitive reform of telecommunications policy.
These efforts are reflected in the sweeping new telecommunications
legislation passed by the Congress in early 1996. The Council also
played an important role in ongoing efforts to restructure
INTELSAT, an international satellite consortium, to promote more
competition in the market for satellite communications services
while preserving universal access to such services.
The Council was active in various issues affecting natural resources and the environment. The Council assisted the Vice President in developing a program for reinventing environmental regu-

268



lation. As part of that effort, the Council helped to develop options
for expanding the use of market-based policies for air pollution control. The Council was involved in addressing administrative and
legislative changes to the Nation’s programs for managing hazardous wastes and cleaning up contaminated sites. The Council also
participated in ongoing assessments of policies for addressing climate change. The Council was actively involved in the preparation
of the Administration’s positions on reauthorization of the Farm
Bill, and Dr. Baily chaired an interagency group responsible for developing options to fund land acquisition and restoration projects in
the Everglades.
Dr. Stiglitz and Dr. Munnell played key roles in assessing the
implications of welfare reform policy, including the consequences of
block grants. They also participated in the Administration’s efforts
to anticipate the impact of welfare reform on child poverty rates.
In addition, Dr. Munnell participated in working groups on urban
policy and initiatives for children.
Dr. Baily co-chaired a group studying the state of our Nation’s
economic statistics. This effort was designed to improve the quality
and understanding of government economic statistics.

The Staff of the Council of Economic Advisers
The professional staff of the Council consists of the Chief of Staff,
the Senior Statistician, thirteen senior economists, six staff economists, and two research assistants. The professional staff and their
areas of concentration at the end of 1995 were:
Chief of Staff and General Counsel
Michele M. Jolin

Senior Economists
S. Lael Brainard ..................
Steven N. Braun ..................
Robert S. Dohner .................
George B. Frisvold ...............
Thomas J. Kane ...................
Eileen Mauskopf ..................
Mark J. Mazur .....................
Robert G. Murphy ................
Peter R. Orszag ....................
Raymond Prince ...................
Marius Schwartz ..................
Louise M. Sheiner ................
Michael A. Toman ...............

International Economics
Macroeconomics and Forecasting
International Economics
Agriculture
Labor, Welfare, and Education
Macroeconomics and Finance
Public Finance
Macroeconomics and the Weekly Economic
Briefing of the President
International Economics
Environment and Natural Resources
Regulation, Industrial Organization, and
Antitrust
Public Finance
Environment and Natural Resources

269



Senior Statistician
Catherine H. Furlong

Staff Economists
Michael A. Ash ..................... Labor, Education, and Public Sector
Carrie S. Cihak .................... International Economics
Jonah B. Gelbach ................. Public Finance and the Weekly Economic
Briefing of the President
Valerie A. Mercer ................ Macroeconomics
Andrea Richter ..................... International Economics and the Weekly
Economic Briefing of the President
Scott J. Wallsten .................. Industrial Organization, Science &
Technology, and Regulation

Research Assistant
Ronald C. Chen .................... Macroeconomics and the Weekly Economic
Briefing of the President

Statistical Office
Mrs. Furlong directs the Statistical Office. The Statistical Office
maintains and updates the Council’s statistical information, oversees the publication of the Economic Indicators and the statistical
appendix to the Economic Report, and verifies statistics in Presidential and Council memoranda, testimony, and speeches.
Susan P. Clements ..............
Linda A. Reilly .....................
Brian A. Amorosi .................
Margaret L. Snyder .............

Statistician and Information Systems
Statistical Assistant
Research Assistant
Statistical Aide

The Administrative Office
Elizabeth A. Kaminski ........ Administrative Officer
Catherine Fibich .................. Administrative Assistant

Office of the Chairman
Alice H. Williams ................. Executive Assistant to the Chairman
Sandra F. Daigle .................. Executive Assistant to the Chairman and
Assistant to the Chief of Staff
Lisa D. Branch ..................... Executive Assistant to Dr. Baily
Francine P. Obermiller ....... Executive Assistant to Dr. Munnell

Staff Secretaries
Mary E. Jones
Rosalind V. Rasin
Mary A. Thomas

Mrs. Thomas also served as executive assistant for the Weekly
Economic Briefing of the President.

270



Michael Treadway provided editorial assistance in the preparation of the 1995 Economic Report. Robert E. Cumby, Georgetown
University, and David M. Cutler, Harvard University, served as
consultants during the year. Student assistants during the year
were Matthew W. Alsdorf, Stacy M. Bondanella, Christopher L.
Boyster, Loren A. Briggs, Michele M. Campbell, William P. Cowin,
David B. Edelstein, William B. Ferretti, Amy C. Fisher, Barbara J.
Hawkins, Michael G. Rand, Michael D. Rosenbaum, Toby Stickler,
Megan R. Sweeney, Gregory P. Wolf, and Ari Zweiman. The following student assistants joined the Council in January to assist with
the preparation of the Economic Report: Joseph W. Corrigan, Jason
Imfeld, Samuel Krasnow, Mary Lesh, Robert P. Martin, and Michael Pond.
DEPARTURES

Thomas P. O’Donnell, who served as Chief of Staff, resigned in
April 1995 to accept a position as Chief of Staff at the National
Economic Council.
The Council’s senior economists, in most cases, are on leave of
absence from faculty positions at academic institutions or from
other government agencies or research institutions. Their tenure
with the Council is usually limited to 1 or 2 years. Most of the senior economists who resigned during the year returned to their previous affiliations. They are Michael R. Donihue (Colby College),
Robert D. Innes (University of Arizona), Sally M. Kane (National
Oceans and Atmospheric Administration, Department of Commerce), David I. Levine (University of California, Berkeley), Ellen
E. Meade (Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System), Jay
S. Stowsky (University of California), and David W. Wilcox (Board
of Governors of the Federal Reserve System). Jonathan B. Baker
went on to a new position at the Federal Trade Commission.
Staff economists are generally graduate students who spend 1
year with the Council and then return to complete their dissertations. Those who returned to their graduate studies in 1995 are:
Kimberly A. Clausing (Harvard University), Maya N. Federman
(Harvard University), Carolyn Fischer (University of Michigan),
Christopher L. Foote (University of Michigan), F. Halsey Rogers
(University of California, Berkeley and The Brookings Institution)
and Eric D. Wolff (Massachusetts Institute of Technology). Clark
Dees served for 2 years as a Research Assistant at the Council. He
is now at the University of Virginia.
Public Information
The Council’s Annual Report is the principal medium through
which the Council informs the public of its work and its views. It
is an important vehicle for presenting the Administration’s domes-

271



tic and international economic policies. Annual distribution of the
Report in recent years has averaged about 45,000 copies. The
Council also has primary responsibility for compiling the monthly
Economic Indicators, which is issued by the Joint Economic Committee of the Congress and has a distribution of approximately
10,000.

272



Appendix B
STATISTICAL TABLES RELATING TO INCOME,
EMPLOYMENT, AND PRODUCTION







CONTENTS
NATIONAL INCOME OR EXPENDITURE:
B–1.
B–2.
B–3.
B–4.
B–5.
B–6.
B–7.
B–8.
B–9.
B–10.
B–11.
B–12.
B–13.
B–14.
B–15.
B–16.
B–17.
B–18.
B–19.
B–20.
B–21.
B–22.
B–23.
B–24.
B–25.
B–26.
B–27.
B–28.
B–29.

Gross domestic product, 1959–95 .....................................................
Real gross domestic product, 1959–95 ..............................................
Chain-type price indexes for gross domestic product, 1959–95 ......
Quantity and price indexes for gross domestic product, and percent changes, 1959–95 ....................................................................
Percent changes in real gross domestic product, 1960–95 ..............
Gross domestic product by major type of product, 1959–95 ...........
Real gross domestic product by major type of product, 1959–95
Gross domestic product by sector, 1959–95 .....................................
Real gross domestic product by sector, 1959–95 .............................
Gross domestic product of nonfinancial corporate business, 1959–
95 .....................................................................................................
Output, costs, and profits of nonfinancial corporate business,
1959–95 ...........................................................................................
Personal consumption expenditures, 1959–95 .................................
Real personal consumption expenditures, 1959–95 ........................
Private gross fixed investment by type, 1959–95 ............................
Real private gross fixed investment by type, 1959–95 ....................
Government consumption expenditures and gross investment by
type, 1959–95 ..................................................................................
Real government consumption expenditures and gross investment by type, 1959–95 ...................................................................
Inventories and final sales of domestic business, 1959–95 ............
Real inventories and final sales of domestic business, 1959–95 ....
Foreign transactions in the national income and product accounts, 1959–95 ..............................................................................
Real exports and imports of goods and services and receipts and
payments of factor income, 1959–95 .............................................
Relation of gross domestic product, gross national product, net
national product, and national income, 1959–95 .........................
Relation of national income and personal income, 1959–95 ...........
National income by type of income, 1959–95 ...................................
Sources of personal income, 1959–95 ...............................................
Disposition of personal income, 1959–95 .........................................
Total and per capita disposable personal income and personal
consumption expenditures in current and real dollars, 1959–95
Gross saving and investment, 1959–95 ............................................
Median money income (in 1994 dollars) and poverty status of
families and persons, by race, selected years, 1976–94 ...............

Page
280
282
284
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
308
310
311
312
314

POPULATION, EMPLOYMENT, WAGES, AND PRODUCTIVITY:
B–30.
B–31.
B–32.

Population by age group, 1929–95 ....................................................
Civilian population and labor force, 1929–95 ..................................
Civilian employment and unemployment by sex and age, 1947–
95 .....................................................................................................

275



315
316
318

B–33.
B–34.
B–35.
B–36.
B–37.
B–38.
B–39.
B–40.
B–41.
B–42.
B–43.
B–44.
B–45.
B–46.

Civilian employment by demographic characteristic, 1954–95 ......
Unemployment by demographic characteristic, 1954–95 ...............
Civilian labor force participation rate and employment/population ratio, 1948–95 ......................................................................
Civilian labor force participation rate by demographic characteristic, 1954–95 ..........................................................................
Civilian employment/population ratio by demographic characteristic, 1954–95 ..........................................................................
Civilian unemployment rate, 1948–95 .............................................
Civilian unemployment rate by demographic characteristic,
1954–95 ...........................................................................................
Unemployment by duration and reason, 1950–95 ...........................
Unemployment insurance programs, selected data, 1963–95 ........
Employees on nonagricultural payrolls, by major industry, 1946–
95 .....................................................................................................
Hours and earnings in private nonagricultural industries, 1959–
95 .....................................................................................................
Employment cost index, private industry, 1980–95 ........................
Productivity and related data, business sector, 1959–95 ................
Changes in productivity and related data, business sector, 1960–
95 .....................................................................................................

Page
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
330
331
332
333

PRODUCTION AND BUSINESS ACTIVITY:
B–47.
B–48.
B–49.
B–50.
B–51.
B–52.
B–53.
B–54.
B–55.

Industrial production indexes, major industry divisions, 1947–95
Industrial production indexes, market groupings, 1947–95 ...........
Industrial production indexes, selected manufactures, 1947–95 ...
Capacity utilization rates, 1948–95 ..................................................
New construction activity, 1959–95 ..................................................
New housing units started and authorized, 1959–95 .....................
Manufacturing and trade sales and inventories, 1954–95 .............
Manufacturers’ shipments and inventories, 1954–95 .....................
Manufacturers’ new and unfilled orders, 1954–95 ..........................

334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342

Consumer price indexes for major expenditure classes, 1950–95
Consumer price indexes for selected expenditure classes, 1950–
95 .....................................................................................................
Consumer price indexes for commodities, services, and special
groups, 1950–95 ..............................................................................
Changes in special consumer price indexes, 1958–95 .....................
Changes in consumer price indexes for commodities and services,
1929–95 ...........................................................................................
Producer price indexes by stage of processing, 1950–95 .................
Producer price indexes by stage of processing, special groups,
1974–95 ...........................................................................................
Producer price indexes for major commodity groups, 1950–95 ......
Changes in producer price indexes for finished goods, 1958–95 ....

343

PRICES:
B–56.
B–57.
B–58.
B–59.
B–60.
B–61.
B–62.
B–63.
B–64.

344
346
347
348
349
351
352
354

MONEY STOCK, CREDIT, AND FINANCE:
B–65.
B–66.
B–67.
B–68.
B–69.
B–70.

Money stock, liquid assets, and debt measures, 1959–95 ...............
Components of money stock measures and liquid assets, 1959–95
Aggregate reserves of depository institutions and monetary base,
1959–95 ...........................................................................................
Bank credit at all commercial banks, 1972–95 ................................
Bond yields and interest rates, 1929–95 ..........................................
Total funds raised in credit markets, 1986–95 ................................

276



355
356
358
359
360
362

Page
B–71.
B–72.
B–73.

Mortgage debt outstanding by type of property and of financing,
1940–95 ...........................................................................................
Mortgage debt outstanding by holder, 1940–95 ..............................
Consumer credit outstanding, 1955–95 ............................................

364
365
366

GOVERNMENT FINANCE:
B–74.
B–75.
B–76.
B–77.
B–78.

B–79.

B–80.
B–81.
B–82.
B–83.
B–84.

B–85.

Federal receipts, outlays, surplus or deficit, and debt, selected
fiscal years, 1929–95 ......................................................................
Federal budget receipts, outlays, surplus or deficit, and debt, as
percent of gross domestic product, 1934–95 .................................
Federal receipts and outlays, by major category, and surplus or
deficit, 1940–95 ...............................................................................
Federal receipts, outlays, and debt, fiscal years 1989–95 ..............
Federal and State and local government receipts and current expenditures, national income and product accounts (NIPA),
1959–95 ...........................................................................................
Federal and State and local government receipts and current expenditures, national income and product accounts (NIPA), by
major type, 1959–95 .......................................................................
Federal Government receipts and current expenditures, national
income and product accounts (NIPA), 1959–95 ...........................
State and local government receipts and current expenditures,
national income and product accounts (NIPA), 1959–95 ............
State and local government revenues and expenditures, selected
fiscal years, 1927–92 ......................................................................
Interest-bearing public debt securities by kind of obligation,
1967–95 ...........................................................................................
Maturity distribution and average length of marketable interestbearing public debt securities held by private investors, 1967–
95 .....................................................................................................
Estimated ownership of public debt securities by private investors, 1976–95 ...................................................................................

367
368
369
370

371

372
373
374
375
376

377
378

CORPORATE PROFITS AND FINANCE:
B–86.
B–87.
B–88.
B–89.
B–90.
B–91.
B–92.

Corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments, 1959–95 .............................................................
Corporate profits by industry, 1959–95 ............................................
Corporate profits of manufacturing industries, 1959–95 ................
Sales, profits, and stockholders’ equity, all manufacturing corporations, 1952–95 .........................................................................
Relation of profits after taxes to stockholders’ equity and to sales,
all manufacturing corporations, 1947–95 .....................................
Common stock prices and yields, 1955–95 .......................................
Business formation and business failures, 1950–95 .......................

379
380
381
382
383
384
385

AGRICULTURE:
B–93.
B–94.
B–95.
B–96.
B–97.
B–98.

Farm income, 1945–95 .......................................................................
Farm business balance sheet, 1950–94 ............................................
Farm output and productivity indexes, 1948–93 .............................
Farm input use, selected inputs, 1948–95 .......................................
Indexes of prices received and prices paid by farmers, 1975–95
U.S. exports and imports of agricultural commodities, 1940–95 ...

386
387
388
389
390
391

INTERNATIONAL STATISTICS:
B–99.

U.S. international transactions, 1946–95 .........................................

277



392

Page
B–100. U.S. merchandise exports and imports by principal end-use
category, 1965–95 ...........................................................................
B–101. U.S. merchandise exports and imports by area, 1986–95 ..............
B–102. U.S. international trade in goods on balance of payments (BOP)
and Census basis, and trade in services on BOP basis, 1974–
95 .....................................................................................................
B–103. International investment position of the United States at yearend, 1986–94 ...................................................................................
B–104. Industrial production and consumer prices, major industrial
countries, 1970–95 ..........................................................................
B–105. Civilian unemployment rate, and hourly compensation, major industrial countries, 1970–95 ...........................................................
B–106. Foreign exchange rates, 1969–95 ......................................................
B–107. International reserves, selected years, 1952–95 ..............................
B–108. Growth rates in real gross domestic product, 1977–95 ...................

278



394
395

396
397
398
399
400
401
402

General Notes
Detail in these tables may not add to totals because of rounding.
Unless otherwise noted, all dollar figures are in current dollars.
Symbols used:
p Preliminary.
.... Not available (also, not applicable).
Data in these tables reflect revisions made by the source agencies from
January 1995 through early February 1996.
In particular, tables containing national income and product accounts (NIPA)
estimates reflect the comprehensive revisions released by the Department of
Commerce in early 1996. For information on the revisions, see Box 2–2 in
Chapter 2 of this Report. For further details, see the January/February 1996
issue of the Survey of Current Business.

279



NATIONAL INCOME OR EXPENDITURE
TABLE B–1.—Gross domestic product, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars, except as noted; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Personal consumption expenditures

Gross private domestic investment
Fixed investment

Year or
quarter

Gross
domestic
product

Nonresidential
Total

Durable
goods

Nondurable
goods

Services

Total
Total
Total

Structures

Producers’
durable
equipment

Residential

Change
in
business
inventories

1959 ......................

507.2

318.1

42.7

148.5

127.0

78.8

74.6

46.5

18.1

28.3

28.1

4.2

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

526.6
544.8
585.2
617.4
663.0

332.2
342.6
363.4
383.0
411.4

43.3
41.8
46.9
51.6
56.7

152.9
156.6
162.8
168.2
178.7

136.0
144.3
153.7
163.2
176.1

78.8
77.9
87.9
93.4
101.7

75.5
75.0
81.8
87.7
96.7

49.2
48.6
52.8
55.6
62.4

19.6
19.7
20.8
21.2
23.7

29.7
28.9
32.1
34.4
38.7

26.3
26.4
29.0
32.1
34.3

3.2
2.9
6.1
5.7
5.0

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

719.1
787.8
833.6
910.6
982.2

444.3
481.9
509.5
559.8
604.7

63.3
68.3
70.4
80.8
85.9

191.6
208.8
217.1
235.7
253.2

189.4
204.8
222.0
243.4
265.5

118.0
130.4
128.0
139.9
155.0

108.3
116.7
117.6
130.8
145.5

74.1
84.4
85.2
92.1
102.9

28.3
31.3
31.5
33.6
37.7

45.8
53.0
53.7
58.5
65.2

34.2
32.3
32.4
38.7
42.6

9.7
13.8
10.5
9.1
9.5

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

1,035.6
1,125.4
1,237.3
1,382.6
1,496.9

648.1
702.5
770.7
851.6
931.2

85.0
96.9
110.4
123.5
122.3

272.0
285.5
308.0
343.1
384.5

291.1
320.1
352.3
384.9
424.4

150.2
176.0
205.6
242.9
245.6

148.1
167.5
195.7
225.4
231.5

106.7
111.7
126.1
150.0
165.6

40.3
42.7
47.2
55.0
61.2

66.4
69.1
78.9
95.1
104.3

41.4
55.8
69.7
75.3
66.0

2.2
8.5
9.9
17.5
14.1

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

1,630.6
1,819.0
2,026.9
2,291.4
2,557.5

1,029.1
1,148.8
1,277.1
1,428.8
1,593.5

133.5
158.9
181.1
201.4
213.9

420.6
458.2
496.9
549.9
624.0

475.0
531.8
599.0
677.4
755.6

225.4
286.6
356.6
430.8
480.9

231.7
269.6
333.5
403.6
464.0

169.0
187.2
223.2
272.0
323.0

61.4
65.9
74.6
91.4
114.9

107.6
121.2
148.7
180.6
208.1

62.7
82.5
110.3
131.6
141.0

−6.3
16.9
23.1
27.2
16.9

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

2,784.2
3,115.9
3,242.1
3,514.5
3,902.4

1,760.4
1,941.3
2,076.8
2,283.4
2,492.3

213.5
230.5
239.3
279.8
325.1

695.5
758.2
786.8
830.3
883.6

851.4
952.6
1,050.7
1,173.3
1,283.6

465.9
556.2
501.1
547.1
715.6

473.5
528.1
515.6
552.0
648.1

350.3
405.4
409.9
399.4
468.3

133.9
164.6
175.0
152.7
176.0

216.4
240.9
234.9
246.7
292.3

123.2
122.6
105.7
152.5
179.8

−7.6
28.2
−14.5
−4.9
67.5

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

4,180.7
4,422.2
4,692.3
5,049.6
5,438.7

2,704.8
2,892.7
3,094.5
3,349.7
3,594.8

361.1
398.7
416.7
451.0
472.8

927.6
957.2
1,014.0
1,081.1
1,163.8

1,416.1
1,536.8
1,663.8
1,817.6
1,958.1

715.1
722.5
747.2
773.9
829.2

688.9
712.9
722.9
763.1
797.5

502.0
494.8
495.4
530.6
566.2

193.3
175.8
172.1
181.3
192.3

308.7
319.0
323.3
349.3
373.9

186.9
218.1
227.6
232.5
231.3

26.2
9.6
24.2
10.9
31.7

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

5,743.8
5,916.7
6,244.4
6,550.2
6,931.4

3,839.3
3,975.1
4,219.8
4,454.1
4,698.7

476.5
455.2
488.5
530.7
580.9

1,245.3
1,277.6
1,321.8
1,368.9
1,429.7

2,117.5 799.7
2,242.3 736.2
2,409.4 790.4
2.554.6 871.1
2,688.1 1,014.4

791.6
738.5
783.4
850.5
954.9

575.9
547.3
557.9
598.8
667.2

200.8
181.7
169.2
171.8
180.2

375.1
365.6
388.7
427.0
487.0

215.7
191.2
225.6
251.7
287.7

8.0
−2.3
7.0
20.6
59.5

1990: I ...................
II ..................
III .................
IV .................

5,660.4
5,751.0
5,782.4
5,781.5

3,759.2
3,811.8
3,879.2
3,907.0

493.3
477.6
473.2
461.9

1,220.7
1,230.2
1,256.2
1,274.1

2,045.3
2,104.1
2,149.8
2,171.0

822.5
835.2
804.9
736.1

813.9
794.0
791.2
767.5

581.2
571.6
580.3
570.6

201.9
202.4
203.5
195.4

379.3
369.2
376.7
375.1

232.7
222.4
210.9
196.9

8.6
41.2
13.8
−31.4

1991: I ...................
II ..................
III .................
IV .................

5,822.1
5,892.3
5,950.0
6,002.3

3,910.7
3,961.0
4,001.6
4,027.1

449.0
452.7
462.0
457.3

1,268.3
1,279.7
1,283.4
1,279.0

2,193.5
2,228.6
2,256.3
2,290.7

723.6
716.2
743.9
760.9

739.7
736.2
738.6
739.5

555.4
550.2
544.3
539.2

192.3
187.6
176.1
170.8

363.1
362.6
368.2
368.4

184.3
185.9
194.3
200.3

−16.1
−19.9
5.3
21.4

1992: I ...................
II ..................
III .................
IV .................

6,121.8
6,201.2
6,271.7
6,383.0

4,127.6
4,183.0
4,238.9
4,329.6

474.1
481.3
492.5
506.2

1,303.1
1,308.4
1,326.3
1,349.5

2,350.4
2,393.3
2,420.1
2,473.9

755.2
790.8
799.7
816.1

755.4
780.5
788.1
809.7

544.1
556.8
561.0
569.6

171.6
170.4
167.6
167.1

372.5
386.3
393.4
402.5

211.3
223.7
227.1
240.1

−0.3
10.2
11.6
6.4

1993: I ...................
6,442.8
II ..................
6,503.2
III .................
6,571.3
IV .................
6,683.7
1994: I ...................
6,772.8
II ..................
6,885.0
III .................
6,987.6
IV .................
7,080.0
...................
7,147.8
Digitized1995:
for IIIFRASER
..................
7,196.5
http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/
III .................
7,297.2

4,367.8
4,424.7
4,481.0
4,543.0
4,599.2
4,665.1
4,734.4
4,796.0
4,836.3
4,908.7
4,965.1

508.3
525.2
536.7
552.3
562.6
573.1
585.3
602.7
593.0
604.0
616.0

1,354.1
1,364.2
1,371.4
1,386.1
1,399.7
1,416.6
1,443.5
1,459.0
1,471.6
1,486.9
1,491.3

2,505.3
2,535.4
2,572.9
2,604.6
2,636.8
2,675.4
2,705.6
2,734.4
2,771.7
2,817.9
2,857.8

843.6 823.8
855.9 834.3
873.8 851.8
911.2 892.3
957.6 917.4
1,016.5 942.0
1,033.6 968.9
1,050.1 991.4
1,072.0 1,013.9
1,050.3 1,016.3
1,067.1 1,036.5

580.3
591.1
599.2
624.6
638.8
653.5
678.5
697.9
723.6
734.4
746.3

170.2
169.7
171.4
175.8
171.8
179.1
181.0
188.8
194.5
197.6
202.3

410.1
421.3
427.7
448.8
467.0
474.4
497.5
509.1
529.0
536.8
544.0

243.5
243.2
252.6
267.7
278.5
288.5
290.4
293.5
290.4
281.9
290.2

19.9
21.6
22.0
18.8
40.2
74.5
64.7
58.7
58.1
34.0
30.6

Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

See next page for continuation of table.

280

TABLE B–1.—Gross domestic product, 1959–95—Continued
[Billions of dollars, except as noted; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Net exports of goods
and services
Year or
quarter

Government consumption expenditures
and gross investment
Federal

Net
exports Exports

Imports

Total
Total

National
defense

Nondefense

State
and
local

AddenFinal
Gross
dum:
sales of domesGross
domes- tic pur- national
tic
1
prodproduct chases
uct 2

Percent change
from preceding
period
Gross
Gross
domes- domestic
tic
prodpuruct
chases 1

−1.7

20.6

22.3

112.0

67.2

55.7

11.5

44.8

503.0

508.9

510.1 .............. ..............

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

..............
..............
..............
..............
..............

2.4
3.4
2.4
3.3
5.5

25.3
26.0
27.4
29.4
33.6

22.8
22.7
25.0
26.1
28.1

113.2
120.9
131.4
137.7
144.4

65.6
69.1
76.5
78.1
79.4

54.9
57.7
62.3
62.2
61.3

10.8
11.4
14.2
15.9
18.1

47.6
51.8
55.0
59.6
65.0

523.3
541.9
579.1
611.7
658.0

524.1
541.5
582.8
614.1
657.6

529.8
548.4
589.4
621.9
668.0

3.8
3.5
7.4
5.5
7.4

3.0
3.3
7.6
5.4
7.1

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

..............
..............
..............
..............
..............

3.9
1.9
1.4
−1.3
−1.2

35.4
38.9
41.4
45.3
49.3

31.5
37.1
39.9
46.6
50.5

153.0
173.6
194.6
212.1
223.8

81.8
94.1
106.6
113.8
115.8

62.0
73.4
85.5
92.0
92.4

19.7
20.7
21.0
21.8
23.4

71.2
79.5
88.1
98.3
108.0

709.4
774.0
823.1
901.4
972.7

715.3
785.9
832.2
911.8
983.4

724.5
793.0
839.1
916.7
988.4

8.5
9.5
5.8
9.2
7.9

8.8
9.9
5.9
9.6
7.8

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

..............
..............
..............
..............
..............

1.2
−3.0
−8.0
.6
−3.1

57.0
59.3
66.2
91.8
124.3

55.8
62.3
74.2
91.2
127.5

236.1
249.9
268.9
287.6
323.2

115.9
117.1
125.1
128.2
139.9

90.6
88.7
93.2
94.7
101.9

25.3
28.3
31.9
33.5
38.0

120.2
132.8
143.8
159.4
183.3

1,033.4
1,116.9
1,227.4
1,365.2
1,482.8

1,034.4
1,128.4
1,245.3
1,382.0
1,500.0

1,042.0
1,133.1
1,246.0
1,395.4
1,512.6

5.4
8.7
9.9
11.7
8.3

5.2
9.1
10.4
11.0
8.5

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

..............
..............
..............
..............
..............

13.6
−2.3
−23.7
−26.1
−24.0

136.3
148.9
158.8
186.1
228.7

122.7
151.1
182.4
212.3
252.7

362.6
385.9
416.9
457.9
507.1

154.5
162.7
178.4
194.4
215.0

110.9
116.1
125.8
135.6
151.2

43.6
46.6
52.6
58.9
63.8

208.1
223.1
238.5
263.4
292.0

1,636.9
1,802.0
2,003.8
2,264.2
2,540.6

1,617.1
1,821.2
2,050.5
2,317.5
2,581.5

1,643.9
1,836.1
2,047.5
2,313.5
2,590.4

8.9
11.5
11.4
13.0
11.6

7.8
12.6
12.6
13.0
11.4

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

..............
..............
..............
..............
.............

−14.9
−15.0
−20.5
−51.7
−102.0

278.9
302.8
282.6
277.0
303.1

293.8
317.8
303.2
328.6
405.1

572.8
633.4
684.8
735.7
796.6

248.4
284.1
313.2
344.5
372.6

174.2
202.0
230.9
255.0
282.7

74.2
82.2
82.3
89.4
89.9

324.4
349.2
371.6
391.2
424.0

2,791.9
3,087.8
3,256.6
3,519.4
3,835.0

2,799.1
3,130.9
3,262.6
3,566.2
4,004.5

2,819.5
3,150.6
3,273.2
3,546.5
3,933.5

8.9
11.9
4.1
8.4
11.0

8.4
11.9
4.2
9.3
12.3

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

..............
..............
..............
..............
..............

−114.2
−131.5
−142.1
−106.1
−80.4

303.0
320.7
365.7
447.2
509.3

417.2
875.0
452.2
938.5
507.9
992.8
553.2 1,032.0
589.7 1,095.1

410.1
435.2
455.7
457.3
477.2

312.4
332.4
350.4
354.0
360.6

97.7
102.9
105.3
103.3
116.7

464.9
503.3
537.2
574.7
617.9

4,154.5
4,412.6
4,668.1
5,038.7
5,407.0

4,294.9
4,553.7
4,834.5
5,155.6
5,519.1

4,201.0
4,435.1
4,701.3
5,062.6
5,452.8

7.1
5.8
6.1
7.6
7.7

7.3
6.0
6.2
6.6
7.0

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

..............
..............
..............
..............
..............

−71.3
−20.5
−29.5
−64.9
−96.4

557.3
601.8
639.4
660.0
722.0

628.6
622.3
669.0
724.9
818.4

1,176.1
1,225.9
1,263.8
1,289.9
1,314.7

503.6
522.6
528.0
522.1
516.3

373.1
383.5
375.8
362.2
352.0

130.4
139.1
152.2
159.9
164.3

672.6
703.4
735.8
767.8
798.4

5,735.8
5,919.0
6,237.4
6,529.7
6,871.8

5,815.1
5,937.2
6,274.0
6,615.2
7,027.8

5,764.9
5,932.4
6,255.5
6,560.0
6,922.4

5.6
3.0
5.5
4.9
5.8

5.4
2.1
5.7
5.4
6.2

1990: I ...........
II ..........
III .........
IV .........

−74.3
−60.3
−78.5
−72.0

541.6
554.8
555.5
577.3

615.9
615.1
634.1
649.2

1,153.0
1,164.3
1,176.9
1,210.4

496.4
500.1
501.2
516.7

369.7
370.6
368.9
383.3

126.7
129.5
132.3
133.3

656.6
664.2
675.7
693.7

5,651.8
5,709.8
5,768.7
5,812.9

5,734.7
5,811.3
5,861.0
5,853.5

5,681.4
5,767.8
5,796.8
5,813.6

9.1
6.6
2.2
−.1

8.8
5.5
3.5
−.5

1991: I ...........
II ..........
III .........
IV .........

−32.9
−12.3
−22.0
−14.8

577.4
602.7
602.6
624.4

610.3
615.0
624.5
639.3

1,220.6
1,227.4
1,226.5
1,229.2

525.6
528.2
520.9
515.5

389.7
389.3
382.1
373.0

136.0
138.9
138.8
142.6

695.0
699.2
705.5
713.6

5,838.2
5,912.2
5,944.7
5,980.9

5,855.0
5,904.6
5,972.0
6,017.1

5,849.0
5,904.5
5,959.4
6,016.6

2.8
4.9
4.0
3.6

.1
3.4
4.6
3.1

1992: I ...........
II ..........
III .........
IV .........

−8.9
−29.0
−37.6
−42.7

632.4
635.9
640.2
649.1

641.3
664.9
677.8
691.8

1,247.9
1,256.4
1,270.7
1,280.0

521.8
523.2
532.0
535.0

372.8
374.1
380.9
375.3

149.0
149.1
151.1
159.7

726.1
733.2
738.7
745.1

6,122.1
6,191.0
6,260.1
6,376.6

6,130.7
6,230.2
6,309.3
6,425.7

6,138.3
6,212.2
6,281.1
6,390.5

8.2
5.3
4.6
7.3

7.8
6.7
5.2
7.6

1993: I ...........
II ..........
III .........
IV .........

−47.4
−62.0
−77.1
−73.2

649.4
662.5
648.5
679.4

696.8
724.6
725.6
752.6

1,278.8
1,284.6
1,293.6
1,302.7

525.0
519.6
520.8
522.9

365.2
362.2
360.7
360.8

159.8
157.4
160.1
162.2

753.8
765.0
772.7
779.7

6,422.9
6,481.6
6,549.3
6,664.9

6,490.1
6,565.2
6,648.4
6,756.9

6,458.4
6,512.3
6,584.8
6,684.5

3.8
3.8
4.3
7.0

4.1
4.7
5.2
6.7

1994: I ...........
II ..........
III .........
IV .........

−80.3
−97.4
−108.4
−99.7

681.5
708.6
734.2
763.6

761.7
806.0
842.6
863.3

1,296.4
1,300.8
1,328.0
1,333.5

511.3
509.4
523.6
520.9

346.7
349.3
362.1
349.6

164.6
160.0
161.5
171.2

785.0
791.4
804.4
812.6

6,732.6
6,810.5
6,922.9
7,021.3

6,853.1
6,982.5
7,096.0
7,179.6

6,773.6
6,876.3
6,977.6
7,062.2

5.4
6.8
6.1
5.4

5.8
7.8
6.7
4.8

1995: I ...........
II ..........
III .........

−106.6
−122.4
−100.6

778.6
796.9
813.2

885.1 1,346.0
919.3 1,359.9
913.7 1,365.5

519.9
522.6
517.3

347.7
352.3
346.2

172.1
170.3
171.1

826.1
837.3
848.2

7,089.7
7,162.5
7,266.6

7,254.3
7,318.9
7,397.7

7,140.5
7,187.0
7,281.3

3.9
2.8
5.7

4.2
3.6
4.4

1959 ..............

1 Gross

domestic product (GDP) less exports of goods and services plus imports of goods and services.
plus net receipts of factor income from rest of the world.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.

2 GDP




281

TABLE B–2.—Real gross domestic product, 1959–95
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars, except as noted; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Personal consumption expenditures

Gross private domestic investment
Fixed investment

Year or
quarter

Gross
domestic
product

Nonresidential
Total

Durable
goods

Nondurable
goods

Services

Total
Total
Total

Structures

Producers’
durable
equipment

Residential

Change
in
business
inventories

1959 ..................

2,212.3

1,394.6

103.1

606.3

687.4

274.2

267.1

147.7

85.8

71.4

131.1

13.5

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

2,261.7
2,309.8
2,449.1
2,554.0
2,702.9

1,432.6
1,461.5
1,533.8
1,596.6
1,692.3

105.2
101.2
113.0
124.0
135.5

615.4
626.7
646.5
660.0
692.5

717.4
746.5
783.4
818.7
868.4

270.5
265.2
298.5
318.1
344.6

269.2
267.9
292.0
313.7
343.7

155.9
154.5
168.0
176.4
197.1

92.6
93.9
98.1
99.2
109.5

74.3
72.5
81.0
87.1
98.1

121.8
122.2
133.9
149.6
158.3

10.6
8.9
20.0
18.1
15.6

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

2,874.8
3,060.2
3,140.2
3,288.6
3,388.0

1,799.1
1,902.0
1,958.6
2,070.2
2,147.5

152.6
165.5
168.1
186.6
193.3

729.3
769.2
781.4
816.9
838.6

914.6
961.0
1,007.6
1,059.6
1,110.8

392.5
423.5
406.9
429.8
454.4

378.5
399.1
391.0
418.1
442.9

231.3
259.4
255.3
266.4
285.6

126.9
135.6
132.2
134.1
141.3

115.9
133.8
132.5
140.5
152.2

153.7
140.0
135.6
154.0
158.6

30.2
42.3
32.1
26.9
27.2

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

3,388.2
3,500.1
3,690.3
3,902.3
3,888.2

2,197.8
2,279.5
2,415.9
2,532.6
2,514.7

187.0
205.7
231.9
255.8
238.2

859.1
874.5
912.9
942.9
924.5

1,155.4
1,197.9
1,262.5
1,319.4
1,351.2

419.5
467.4
522.1
583.5
544.4

432.1
464.9
520.3
567.5
530.2

282.8
282.4
307.7
352.5
354.4

141.7
139.4
143.7
155.4
152.2

149.5
150.7
169.8
201.2
205.4

149.1
190.0
223.7
222.3
176.4

5.7
22.7
25.2
39.0
24.0

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

3,865.1
4,081.1
4,279.3
4,493.7
4,624.0

2,570.0
2,714.3
2,829.8
2,951.6
3,020.2

238.1
268.5
293.4
308.8
307.3

938.3
984.8
1,010.4
1,045.7
1,069.7

1,398.3
1,457.1
1,518.2
1,589.3
1,639.8

440.5
536.6
627.1
686.0
704.5

471.0
517.6
593.7
660.8
695.6

317.3
332.6
371.8
422.6
463.3

136.2
139.6
146.4
162.3
182.7

183.9
195.2
225.6
259.6
280.7

153.5
189.7
229.8
245.0
236.0

−11.0
29.0
38.0
42.3
23.1

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

4,611.9
4,724.9
4,623.6
4,810.0
5,138.2

3,009.7
3,046.4
3,081.5
3,240.6
3,407.6

282.6
285.8
285.5
327.4
374.9

1,065.1
1,074.3
1,080.6
1,112.4
1,151.8

1,670.7
1,696.1
1,728.2
1,809.0
1,883.0

626.2
689.7
590.4
647.8
831.6

648.4
660.6
610.4
654.2
762.4

461.1
485.7
464.3
456.4
535.4

195.0
210.4
207.2
185.7
212.2

268.2
278.2
260.3
272.4
324.6

186.1
171.2
140.1
197.6
226.4

−10.0
33.1
−15.6
−5.9
74.8

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

5,329.5
5,489.9
5,648.4
5,862.9
6,060.4

3,566.5
3,708.7
3,822.3
3,972.7
4,064.6

411.4
448.4
454.9
483.5
496.2

1,178.3
1,215.9
1,239.3
1,274.4
1,303.5

1,977.3
2,041.4
2,126.9
2,212.4
2,262.3

829.2
813.8
820.5
826.0
861.9

799.3
805.0
799.4
818.3
832.0

568.4
548.5
542.4
566.0
588.8

227.8
203.3
195.9
196.8
201.2

342.4
345.9
346.9
369.2
387.6

229.5
257.0
257.6
252.5
243.2

29.8
10.9
26.2
11.6
33.3

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

6,138.7
6,079.0
6,244.4
6,383.8
6,604.2

4,132.2
4,105.8
4,219.8
4,339.7
4,471.1

493.3
462.0
488.5
524.1
562.0

1,316.1
1,302.9
1,321.8
1,348.9
1,390.5

2,321.3
2,341.0
2,409.4
2,466.8
2,519.4

817.3
737.7
790.4
857.3
979.6

805.8
741.3
783.4
836.4
921.1

585.2
547.7
557.9
593.6
652.1

203.3
181.6
169.2
166.3
168.8

381.9
366.2
388.7
427.6
484.1

220.6
193.4
225.6
242.7
268.9

10.4
−3.0
7.3
19.1
58.9

1990: I ...............
II ..............
III .............
IV .............

6,154.1
6,174.4
6,145.2
6,081.0

4,128.9
4,134.7
4,148.5
4,116.4

511.2
495.4
490.4
476.3

1,319.2
1,316.9
1,319.8
1,308.4

2,295.7
2,321.1
2,337.3
2,331.2

844.1
856.1
820.8
748.1

834.7
811.2
803.1
774.4

595.3
583.4
588.1
573.9

206.5
205.5
205.2
196.0

388.8
377.8
383.0
377.9

239.4
227.8
214.9
200.3

11.0
43.8
14.9
−28.2

1991: I ...............
II ..............
III .............
IV .............

6,047.9
6,074.1
6,089.3
6,104.4

4,084.5
4,110.0
4,119.5
4,109.1

458.6
460.5
467.3
461.5

1,300.6
1,308.0
1,307.1
1,295.7

2,325.3
2,341.5
2,345.0
2,352.0

725.5
718.0
744.9
762.4

742.6
739.4
741.0
742.0

555.1
550.9
545.3
539.5

192.2
187.2
175.5
171.4

362.9
363.8
369.8
368.1

187.4
188.3
195.6
202.4

−17.5
−20.8
4.9
21.4

1992: I ...............
II ..............
III .............
IV .............

6,175.3
6,214.2
6,260.9
6,327.3

4,173.8
4,196.4
4,226.7
4,282.3

476.1
481.1
491.9
505.0

1,314.4
1,312.0
1,321.1
1,339.8

2,383.2
2,403.2
2,413.6
2,437.6

757.9
792.8
798.6
812.4

758.3
782.4
787.3
805.8

544.4
557.5
560.6
569.1

172.7
171.0
167.4
165.6

371.7
386.4
393.1
403.5

213.9
224.9
226.7
236.7

−.1
11.3
12.1
5.8

1993: I ...............
II ..............
III .............
IV .............

6,327.0
6,353.7
6,390.4
6,463.9

4,290.0
4,319.0
4,359.7
4,390.0

506.0
519.6
528.9
541.9

1,336.9
1,344.7
1,354.2
1,359.8

2,447.0
2,454.9
2,476.7
2,488.6

834.8
843.2
857.6
893.4

815.4
821.1
835.4
873.5

577.5
586.4
593.1
617.6

167.0
164.8
165.1
168.2

410.5
421.7
428.2
449.8

237.9
234.8
242.2
255.8

18.5
20.8
19.5
17.4

1994: I ...............
II ..............
III .............
IV .............

6,504.6
6,581.5
6,639.5
6,691.3

4,418.8
4,457.7
4,485.8
4,522.3

549.6
555.4
563.0
579.9

1,372.7
1,383.7
1,397.2
1,408.4

2,497.0
2,519.0
2,526.3
2,535.1

933.5
984.6
994.1
1,006.3

892.4
911.4
930.8
949.7

628.6
639.5
660.4
679.7

163.0
169.0
169.1
174.3

466.5
471.2
492.4
506.4

263.6
271.6
270.3
270.3

40.1
74.1
64.0
57.3

1995: I ...............
II ..............
III .............

6,701.6
6,709.4
6,763.2

4,530.9
4,568.8
4,601.1

566.9
576.6
589.8

1,416.8
1,423.5
1,425.3

2,548.1
2,569.6
2,586.9

1,024.2
998.3
1,008.9

969.6
966.1
980.6

704.4
710.6
719.8

178.5
180.0
182.4

527.1
531.9
538.6

265.9
256.6
261.8

54.5
30.6
27.1

See next page for continuation of table.




282

TABLE B–2.—Real gross domestic product, 1959–95—Continued
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars, except as noted; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Net exports of goods and
services
Year or
quarter

Government consumption expenditures
and gross investment

State
and
local

Final
sales of
domestic
product

Gross
domestic purchases 1

Federal
Net
exports Exports Imports

Total

National
defense

Total

Nondefense

Addendum:
Gross
national
product 2

Percent change
from preceding
period
Gross
Gross
domes- domestic
tic
prodpuruct
chases 1

1959 ......................

−34.8

71.9

106.6

618.5 360.5

307.6

58.8 256.8

2,206.9

2,270.4 2,224.3

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

−21.3
−19.1
−26.5
−22.7
−15.9

86.8
88.3
93.0
100.0
113.3

108.1
107.3
119.5
122.7
129.2

617.2
647.2
686.0
701.9
715.9

349.4
363.0
393.2
391.8
385.2

301.3
313.8
332.4
324.0
309.9

54.1
55.5
66.8
72.9
79.2

267.2
283.8
292.1
309.7
330.9

2,264.2
2,318.0
2,445.4
2,552.4
2,705.1

2.303.1
2,349.7
2,497.4
2,598.9
2,740.5

2,274.8
2,324.6
2,465.9
2,572.0
2,722.3

2.2
2.1
6.0
4.3
5.8

1.4
2.0
6.3
4.1
5.4

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

−27.4
−40.9
−50.1
−67.2
−71.3

115.6
123.4
126.1
135.3
142.7

143.0
164.2
176.2
202.5
214.0

737.6
804.6
865.6
892.4
887.5

385.2
429.1
471.7
476.3
459.9

303.8
348.2
393.5
400.9
381.6

84.6
85.7
84.7
82.5
84.3

353.2
375.9
394.2
416.5
428.0

2,860.4
3,033.5
3,125.1
3,278.0
3,377.2

2,925.9
3,124.9
3,214.2
3,377.4
3,480.1

2,895.2
3,078.9
3,159.4
3,309.2
3,407.8

6.4
6.4
2.6
4.7
3.0

6.8
6.8
2.9
5.1
3.0

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

−65.0
−75.8
−88.9
−63.0
−35.6

158.1
159.2
172.0
209.6
229.8

223.1
235.0
261.0
272.6
265.3

866.8
851.0
854.1
848.4
862.9

427.2
397.0
390.2
371.1
368.8

349.0
313.7
300.3
281.2
273.5

83.0
86.3
91.9
91.5
96.4

440.0
454.4
464.5
478.5
495.6

3,406.5
3,499.8
3,689.5
3,883.9
3,873.4

3,469.1
3,592.5
3,794.0
3,975.2
3,925.7

3,407.7
3,522.2
3,714.3
3,936.0
3,927,1

.0
3.3
5.4
5.7
−.4

−.3
3.6
5.6
4.8
−1.2

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

−7.2
−39.9
−64.2
−65.6
−45.3

228.2
241.6
247.4
273.1
299.0

235.4
281.5
311.6
338.6
344.3

876.3
876.8
884.7
910.6
924.9

367.9
364.3
370.1
377.7
383.3

269.7
264.7
266.4
266.7
271.0

99.1
100.4
104.3
111.4
112.7

510.0
514.3
516.4
534.7
543.5

3,906.4
4,061.7
4,240.8
4,464.4
4,614.4

3,867.2
4,122.9
4,351.5
4,565.7
4,668.2

3,894.5
4,116.9
4,320.2
4,534.4
4,680.8

−.6
5.6
4.9
5.0
2.9

−1.5
6.6
5.5
4.9
2.2

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

10.1
5.6
−14.1
−63.3
−127.3

331.4
335.3
311.4
303.3
328.4

321.3 941.4
329.7 947.7
325.5 960.1
366.6 987.3
455.7 1,018.4

399.3
415.9
429.4
452.7
463.7

280.7
296.0
316.5
334.6
348.1

119.0
120.4
113.3
118.5
115.9

543.6
532.8
531.4
534.9
555.0

4,641.9
4,691.6
4,651.2
4,821.2
5,061.6

4,578.6
4,697.3
4,622.7
4,870.7
5,274.4

4,667.7
4,774.1
4,665.4
4,851.2
5,176.1

−.3
2.5
−2.1
4.0
6.8

−1.9
2.6
−1.6
5.4
8.3

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

−147.9
−163.9
−156.2
−114.4
−82.7

337.3
362.2
402.0
465.8
520.2

485.2
526.1
558.2
580.2
603.0

1,080.1
1,135.0
1,165.9
1,180.9
1,213.9

495.6
518.4
534.4
524.6
531.5

374.1
393.4
409.2
405.5
401.6

121.8
125.2
125.3
119.1
130.1

584.7
616.9
631.8
656.6
682.6

5,296.9
5,480.9
5.626.0
5,855.1
6,028.7

5,488.8
5,666.1
5,815.7
5,983.9
6,146.1

5,352.7
5,503.4
5,657.2
5,876.2
6,074.0

3.7
3.0
2.9
3.8
3.4

4.1
3.2
2.6
2.9
2.7

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

......................
......................
......................
......................
......................

−61.9
−22.3
−29.5
−74.4
−108.1

564.4
599.9
639.4
660.6
715.1

626.3
622.2
669.0
735.0
823.3

1,250.4
1,258.0
1,263.8
1,260.5
1,259.9

541.9
539.4
528.0
508.7
489.7

401.5
397.5
375.8
354.9
336.9

140.5
142.0
152.2
153.8
152.6

708.6
718.7
735.8
751.8
770.5

6,126.7
6,082.6
6,237.4
6,362.9
6,546.3

6,202.1
6,101.1
6,274.0
6,457.3
6,709.7

6,159.4
6,094.4
6,255.5
6,393.7
6,596.6

1.3
−1.0
2.7
2.2
3.5

.9
−1.6
2.8
2.9
3.9

1990: I ...................
II ..................
III .................
IV .................

−67.1
−66.7
−71.2
−42.5

555.2
566.8
561.8
573.9

622.3
633.5
633.0
616.4

1,246.5
1,248.2
1,246.8
1,259.9

542.9
543.0
538.2
543.5

404.1
402.8
396.1
403.1

138.9
140.4
142.2
140.5

703.8
705.4
708.7
716.5

6,144.6
6,127.5
6,126.6
6,108.1

6,222.9
6,242.9
6,218.4
6,124.3

6,174.3
6,190.8
6,158.8
6,113.4

4.1
1.3
−1.9
−4.1

3.2
1.3
−1.6
−5.9

1991: I ...................
II ..................
III .................
IV .................

−24.3
−17.1
−29.8
−17.9

572.3
600.3
603.6
623.5

596.6
617.4
633.4
641.4

1,262.6
1,263.8
1,255.1
1,250.7

547.3
547.1
536.3
526.9

408.4
405.0
395.0
381.7

139.0
142.2
141.4
145.3

715.5
716.8
718.8
723.8

6,065.4
6,095.9
6,085.4
6,083.8

6,072.2
6,091.1
6,119.1
6,122.3

6,074.8
6,085.8
6,098.3
6,118.7

−2.2
1.7
1.0
1.0

−3.4
1.2
1.9
.2

1992: I ...................
II ..................
III .................
IV .................

−14.8
−32.5
−30.8
−40.0

633.0
635.8
639.7
649.1

647.8
668.3
670.5
689.1

1,258.5
1,257.5
1,266.5
1,272.5

525.1
523.3
529.6
534.0

374.2
373.3
378.7
376.8

150.8
150.0
150.9
157.1

733.5
734.2
736.9
738.5

6,175.8
6,203.8
6,249.5
6,320.7

6,190.0
6,246.8
6,291.9
6,367.3

6,191.6
6,225.1
6,270.4
6,334.8

4.7
2.5
3.0
4.3

4.5
3.7
2.9
4.9

1993: I ...................
II ..................
III .................
IV .................

−55.2
−67.0
−89.1
−86.2

649.8
662.3
648.9
681.4

705.1
729.4
738.1
767.6

1,257.2
1,257.9
1,261.1
1,265.7

515.7
509.2
505.4
504.5

361.2
356.4
351.2
350.8

154.5
152.7
154.2
153.7

741.6
748.8
755.7
761.3

6,307.7
6,331.6
6,368.2
6,444.1

6,382.0
6,420.2
6,478.3
6,548.7

6,342.7
6,362.9
6,404.0
6,465.1

.0
1.7
2.3
4.7

.9
2.4
3.7
4.4

1994: I ...................
II ..................
III .................
IV .................

−101.3
−112.2
−113.3
−105.8

680.4
704.3
724.8
751.0

781.7
816.5
838.1
856.8

1,252.3
1,249.7
1,271.0
1,266.6

489.8
483.3
496.6
489.1

334.8
335.5
346.1
331.3

154.8
147.7
150.5
157.5

762.7
766.8
774.7
777.7

6,464.0
6,509.0
6,576.8
6,635.2

6,603.9
6,691.0
6,749.7
6,794.0

6,506.2
6,573.9
6,631.1
6,675.4

2.5
4.8
3.6
3.2

3.4
5.4
3.6
2.7

1995: I ...................
II ..................
III .................

−119.0
−126.8
−114.1

755.8
764.3
779.7

874.9 1,263.0 481.3
891.2 1,265.8 479.9
893.9 1,264.4 473.2

325.3 155.6 782.2
326.1 153.6 786.3
319.8 153.1 791.7

6,647.5
6,677.4
6,735.0

6,816.9 6,695.7
6,832.0 6,701.2
6,873.6 6,749.5

.6
.5
3.2

1.4
.9
2.5

1 Gross

domestic product (GDP) less exports of goods and services plus imports of goods and services.
plus net receipts of factor income from rest of the world.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.

2 GDP




283

.............. .............

TABLE B–3.—Chain-type price indexes for gross domestic product, 1959–95
[Index numbers, 1992=100, except as noted; quarterly data seasonally adjusted]
Personal consumption expenditures

Gross private domestic investment
Fixed investment

Year or
quarter

Gross
domestic
product

Nonresidential
Total

Durable
goods

Nondurable
goods

Services

Total
Total
Total

Structures

Producers’
durable
equipment

Residential

1959 ........................

23.0

22.8

41.4

24.5

18.5

29.6

27.9

31.5

21.2

39.7

21.4

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

........................
........................
........................
........................
........................

23.3
23.6
23.9
24.2
24.6

23.2
23.4
23.7
24.0
24.3

41.2
41.3
41.5
41.6
41.8

24.8
25.0
25.2
25.5
25.8

19.0
19.3
19.6
19.9
20.3

29.7
29.7
29.7
29.6
29.8

28.1
28.0
28.0
28.0
28.1

31.6
31.5
31.5
31.5
31.7

21.1
21.0
21.2
21.4
21.7

40.0
39.9
39.7
39.5
39.5

21.6
21.6
21.6
21.5
21.6

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

........................
........................
........................
........................
........................

25.0
25.7
26.6
27.7
29.0

24.7
25.3
26.0
27.0
28.2

41.4
41.3
41.9
43.3
44.5

26.3
27.1
27.8
28.9
30.2

20.7
21.3
22.0
23.0
23.9

30.2
30.8
31.6
32.8
34.4

28.6
29.2
30.1
31.3
32.9

32.1
32.5
33.4
34.6
36.0

22.3
23.1
23.8
25.0
26.7

39.6
39.7
40.6
41.7
42.9

22.3
23.1
23.9
25.1
26.9

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

........................
........................
........................
........................
........................

30.6
32.1
33.5
35.4
38.5

29.5
30.8
31.9
33.6
37.0

45.4
47.1
47.6
48.3
51.3

31.7
32.6
33.7
36.4
41.6

25.2
26.7
27.9
29.2
31.4

35.8
37.6
39.3
41.3
45.3

34.3
36.0
37.6
39.7
43.7

37.8
39.6
41.0
42.6
46.8

28.4
30.6
32.8
35.4
40.2

44.5
45.9
46.5
47.3
50.9

27.7
29.4
31.1
33.9
37.4

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

........................
........................
........................
........................
........................

42.2
44.6
47.5
50.9
55.3

40.0
42.3
45.1
48.4
52.8

56.0
59.2
61.7
65.2
69.6

44.8
46.5
49.2
52.6
58.3

34.0
36.5
39.5
42.6
46.1

51.0
53.8
57.5
62.4
68.0

49.2
52.1
56.2
61.1
66.7

53.3
56.3
60.0
64.4
69.7

45.0
47.2
50.9
56.3
62.9

58.6
62.2
65.9
69.6
74.1

40.9
43.5
48.0
53.7
59.7

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

........................
........................
........................
........................
........................

60.4
66.1
70.2
73.2
75.9

58.5
63.7
67.4
70.5
73.1

75.6
80.6
83.8
85.5
86.7

65.3
70.6
72.8
74.6
76.7

51.0
56.2
60.8
64.9
68.2

74.5
81.4
85.6
85.4
86.0

73.0
79.9
84.5
84.4
85.0

76.0
83.5
88.3
87.5
87.5

68.7
78.2
84.4
82.2
82.9

80.7
86.6
90.2
90.6
90.0

66.2
71.6
75.5
77.2
79.4

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

........................
........................
........................
........................
........................

78.6
80.6
83.1
86.1
89.7

75.8
78.0
81.0
84.3
88.4

87.8
88.9
91.6
93.3
95.3

78.7
78.7
81.8
84.8
89.3

71.6
75.3
78.2
82.2
86.6

87.0
89.0
91.0
93.5
96.1

86.2
88.6
90.4
93.2
95.9

88.3
90.2
91.3
93.7
96.2

84.9
86.5
87.9
92.1
95.6

90.1
92.2
93.2
94.6
96.4

81.5
84.9
88.3
92.1
95.1

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

........................
........................
........................
........................
........................

93.6
97.3
100.0
102.6
105.0

92.9
96.8
100.0
102.6
105.1

96.6
98.5
100.0
101.3
103.4

94.6
98.1
100.0
101.5
102.8

91.2
95.8
100.0
103.6
106.7

98.4
99.7
100.0
101.7
103.6

98.2
99.6
100.0
101.7
103.7

98.4
99.9
100.0
100.9
102.3

98.8
100.1
100.0
103.3
106.7

98.2
99.8
100.0
99.9
100.6

97.8
98.8
100.0
103.7
107.0

1990: I .....................
II ....................
III ...................
IV ...................

92.0
93.2
94.2
95.1

91.0
92.2
93.5
94.9

96.5
96.4
96.5
96.9

92.6
93.4
95.2
97.4

89.1
90.7
92.0
93.1

97.6
98.0
98.6
99.3

97.5
97.9
98.5
99.1

97.6
98.0
98.7
99.4

97.8
98.5
99.2
99.7

97.5
97.7
98.4
99.3

97.2
97.6
98.1
98.3

1991: I .....................
II ....................
III ...................
IV ...................

96.3
97.0
97.7
98.3

95.7
96.4
97.1
98.0

97.9
98.4
98.8
99.1

97.5
97.8
98.2
98.7

94.3
95.2
96.2
97.4

99.7
99.7
99.7
99.7

99.6
99.6
99.7
99.6

100.1
99.9
99.8
99.9

100.1
100.2
100.4
99.7

100.1
99.8
99.5
99.9

98.4
98.7
99.3
99.0

1992: I .....................
II ....................
III ...................
IV ...................

99.1
99.8
100.2
100.9

98.9
99.7
100.3
101.1

99.6
100.1
100.1
100.2

99.2
99.7
100.4
100.7

98.6
99.6
100.3
101.5

99.6
99.8
100.1
100.5

99.6
99.8
100.1
100.5

99.9
99.9
100.1
100.1

99.3
99.7
100.1
100.9

100.2
100.0
100.1
99.8

98.8
99.5
100.2
101.5

1993: I .....................
II ....................
III ...................
IV ...................

101.8
102.4
102.8
103.4

101.8
102.5
102.8
103.5

100.5
101.1
101.5
101.9

101.3
101.5
101.3
101.9

102.4
103.3
103.9
104.7

101.0
101.6
101.9
102.1

101.0
101.6
102.0
102.2

100.5
100.8
101.0
101.1

101.9
103.0
103.8
104.6

99.9
99.9
99.9
99.8

102.3
103.6
104.3
104.7

1994: I .....................
II ....................
III ...................
IV ...................

104.1
104.6
105.2
105.8

104.1
104.7
105.5
106.1

102.4
103.2
104.0
103.9

102.0
102.4
103.3
103.6

105.6
106.2
107.1
107.9

102.8
103.3
104.0
104.4

102.8
103.4
104.1
104.4

101.6
102.2
102.8
102.7

105.5
106.0
107.1
108.4

100.1
100.7
101.1
100.6

105.7
106.2
107.4
108.6

1995: I .....................
II ....................
III ...................

106.7
107.3
108.0

106.8
107.5
108.0

104.7
104.9
104.8

103.9
104.5
104.7

108.8
109.7
110.5

104.6
105.4
106.1

104.6
105.3
106.0

102.8
103.5
104.0

109.0
109.8
110.8

100.4
101.1
101.4

109.2
109.9
110.9

See next page for continuation of table.




284

TABLE B–3.—Chain-type price indexes for gross domestic product, 1959–95—Continued
[Index numbers, 1992=100, except as noted; quarterly data seasonally adjusted]
Exports and imports
of goods and
services

Government consumption expenditures
and gross investment
Federal

Year or
quarter

State
and
local

Final
sales
of
domestic
product

Percent change 2

Gross domestic purchases 1
Less
food
and
energy

Gross
national
product

Gross
domestic
product

Gross domestic purchases
Less
food
and
energy

Total

National
defense

Nondefense

18.1

18.6

18.1

19.5

17.4

22.8

22.5

..........

23.0

..........

..........

..........

18.3
18.7
19.1
19.6
20.2

18.8
19.0
19.4
19.9
20.6

18.2
18.4
18.7
19.2
19.8

19.8
20.5
21.1
21.7
22.8

17.8
18.2
18.8
19.3
19.6

23.1
23.4
23.7
24.0
24.3

22.8
23.1
23.4
23.7
24.0

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

23.4
23.6
23.9
24.2
24.6

1.4
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.5

1.4
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.5

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

22.1
22.6
22.7
23.0
23.6

20.7
21.6
22.5
23.7
25.2

21.2
21.9
22.6
23.8
25.1

20.4
21.1
21.7
22.9
24.2

23.2
24.0
24.7
26.3
27.7

20.2
21.1
22.3
23.6
25.2

24.8
25.5
26.3
27.5
28.8

24.5
25.1
25.9
27.0
28.3

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

25.0
25.8
26.6
27.7
29.0

1.9
2.8
3.2
4.4
4.7

1.8
2.8
3.0
4.3
4.7

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

36.0
37.3
38.5
43.8
54.1

25.0
26.5
28.4
33.4
48.0

27.2
29.3
31.5
33.9
37.4

27.1
29.4
32.0
34.5
37.9

25.9
28.2
31.0
33.7
37.2

30.3
32.7
34.5
36.5
39.3

27.3
29.2
31.0
33.3
37.0

30.3
31.9
33.3
35.1
38.3

29.8
31.4
32.8
34.7
38.2

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

30.6
32.2
33.5
35.4
38.5

5.3
5.2
4.2
5.6
8.9

5.4
5.3
4.5
5.8
10.2

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

.........
.........
.........
.........
.........

59.7
61.6
64.2
68.2
76.5

52.1
53.7
58.5
62.7
73.4

41.4
44.0
47.1
50.3
54.8

41.9
44.6
48.2
51.5
56.1

41.1
43.9
47.2
50.8
55.8

43.8
46.3
50.3
52.8
56.6

40.8
43.4
46.2
49.3
53.7

41.9
44.4
47.2
50.7
55.1

41.8
44.2
47.2
50.7
55.3

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

42.2
44.6
47.5
51.0
55.3

9.4
5.8
6.4
7.3
8.5

9.3
5.8
6.8
7.4
9.0

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

.........
.........
.........
.........
.........

84.2
90.3
90.8
91.3
92.3

91.4
96.4
93.1
89.6
88.9

60.9
66.8
71.3
74.5
78.2

62.2
68.3
72.9
76.1
80.4

62.0
68.2
73.0
76.2
81.2

62.3
68.3
72.6
75.4
77.5

59.7
65.6
69.9
73.2
76.4

60.1
65.8
70.0
73.0
75.8

61.1
66.8
70.7
73.3
75.9

..........
..........
69.0
72.0
74.6

60.4
66.1
70.2
73.2
76.0

9.3
9.4
6.3
4.2
3.8

10.7
9.2
5.9
3.8
3.5

..........
..........
..........
4.3
3.7

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

.........
.........
.........
.........
.........

89.8
88.5
91.0
96.0
97.9

86.0
86.0
91.0
95.3
97.8

81.0
82.7
85.2
87.4
90.2

82.7
84.0
85.3
87.2
89.8

83.5
84.5
85.6
87.3
89.8

80.2
82.2
84.0
86.7
89.7

79.5
81.6
85.0
87.5
90.5

78.4
80.5
83.0
86.1
89.7

78.4
80.4
83.1
86.1
89.8

77.3
80.1
82.9
86.1
89.6

78.6
80.6
83.1
86.1
89.8

3.4
2.6
3.1
3.7
4.2

3.2
2.6
3.4
3.6
4.2

3.5
3.6
3.5
3.9
4.0

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

.........
.........
.........
.........
.........

98.7
100.3
100.0
99.9
101.0

100.4
100.0
100.0
98.6
99.4

94.1
97.4
100.0
102.3
104.3

92.9
96.9
100.0
102.6
105.4

92.9
96.5
100.0
102.1
104.5

92.8
97.9
100.0
104.0
107.7

94.9
97.9
100.0
102.1
103.6

93.6
97.3
100.0
102.6
105.0

93.8
97.3
100.0
102.5
104.8

93.3
97.0
100.0
102.6
105.0

93.7
97.3
100.0
102.6
104.9

4.4
3.9
2.8
2.6
2.3

4.5
3.7
2.8
2.5
2.2

4.2
3.9
3.1
2.6
2.4

1990: I ......
II .....
III ....
IV ....

97.5
97.9
98.9
100.6

98.8
97.1
100.0
105.6

92.5
93.3
94.4
96.1

91.4
92.1
93.1
95.0

91.5
92.1
93.1
95.0

91.2
92.3
93.0
94.9

93.3
94.2
95.3
96.8

92.0
93.2
94.2
95.1

92.2
93.1
94.3
95.7

91.8
92.9
93.9
94.9

92.1
93.2
94.2
95.2

4.9
5.2
4.3
4.1

5.4
4.2
5.2
5.9

4.4
4.9
4.3
4.3

1991: I ......
II .....
III ....
IV ....

100.9
100.5
99.8
100.1

102.2
99.7
98.5
99.6

96.6
97.2
97.7
98.3

95.9
96.6
97.1
97.8

95.4
96.1
96.7
97.7

97.5
97.9
98.3
98.2

97.1
97.6
98.2
98.6

96.2
97.0
97.7
98.3

96.4
97.0
97.6
98.3

95.9
96.6
97.4
98.1

96.3
97.0
97.7
98.3

4.8
3.2
2.8
2.5

3.1
2.2
2.6
2.9

4.4
3.0
3.2
3.1

1992: I ......
II .....
III ....
IV ....

99.9
100.1
100.1
100.0

99.0
99.6
101.0
100.4

99.2
99.9
100.3
100.6

99.4
100.0
100.4
100.2

99.6
100.2
100.6
99.6

98.8
99.5
100.1
101.6

99.0
99.9
100.2
100.9

99.1
99.8
100.2
100.9

99.0
99.8
100.3
100.9

99.0
99.8
100.3
100.9

99.1
99.8
100.2
100.9

3.4
2.8
1.5
2.8

3.2
2.9
2.1
2.6

3.8
2.9
2.0
2.8

1993: I ......
II .....
III ....
IV ....

99.9
100.1
99.9
99.7

98.8
99.4
98.3
98.0

101.7
102.1
102.6
102.9

101.8
102.0
103.0
103.7

101.1
101.6
102.7
102.9

103.4
103.1
103.8
105.6

101.7
102.2
102.3
102.4

101.8
102.4
102.8
103.4

101.7
102.3
102.6
103.2

101.8
102.4
102.9
103.4

101.8
102.4
102.8
103.4

3.8
2.2
1.8
2.3

3.1
2.4
1.3
2.2

3.5
2.4
1.8
2.1

1994: I ......
II .....
III ....
IV ....

100.1
100.6
101.3
101.8

97.4
98.7
100.6
100.9

103.5
104.1
104.5
105.3

104.4
105.4
105.5
106.5

103.5
104.1
104.7
105.6

106.3
108.3
107.4
108.7

102.9
103.2
103.8
104.5

104.2
104.6
105.3
105.8

103.8
104.4
105.1
105.7

104.1
104.7
105.4
106.0

104.1
104.6
105.2
105.8

2.8
1.9
2.4
2.2

2.3
2.3
3.0
2.1

2.7
2.5
2.5
2.2

1995: I ......
II .....
III ....

103.2
104.6
104.8

101.4
103.6
103.0

106.6
107.5
108.1

108.2
109.0
109.5

107.1
108.2
108.5

110.7
110.9
111.8

105.6
106.5
107.1

106.7
107.3
108.0

106.5
107.2
107.8

106.8
107.5
108.2

106.7
107.3
108.0

3.3
2.5
2.4

2.9
2.9
2.0

3.1
2.8
2.4

Exports

Imports

Total

1959 .........

28.7

20.9

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

.........
.........
.........
.........
.........

29.1
29.5
29.5
29.4
29.6

21.1
21.1
20.9
21.3
21.7

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

.........
.........
.........
.........
.........

30.6
31.6
32.8
33.5
34.5

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

.........
.........
.........
.........
.........

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

1 Gross

Total

domestic product (GDP) less exports of goods and services plus imports of goods and services.
change from preceding period; quarterly changes are at annual ratres.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.

2 Percent




285

Total

TABLE B–4.—Quantity and price indexes for gross domestic product, and percent changes, 1959–95
[Quarterly data are seasonally adjusted]
Gross domestic product
Index numbers, 1992=100

Percent change from preceding period

1

Year or quarter
Current
dollars
1959 ............................................

Chain-type
quantity
index

Chain-type
price index

Implicit
price
deflator

Current
dollars

Chain-type
quantity
index

Chain-type
price index

Implicit
price
deflator

8.1

35.4

23.0

22.9

..................

..................

..................

..................

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................

8.4
8.7
9.4
9.9
10.6

36.2
37.0
39.2
40.9
43.3

23.3
23.6
23.9
24.2
24.6

23.3
23.6
23.9
24.2
24.5

3.8
3.5
7.4
5.5
7.4

2.2
2.1
6.0
4.3
5.8

1.4
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.5

1.5
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.5

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................

11.5
12.6
13.3
14.6
15.7

46.0
49.0
50.3
52.7
54.3

25.0
25.7
26.6
27.7
29.0

25.0
25.7
26.5
27.7
29.0

8.5
9.5
5.8
9.2
7.9

6.4
6.4
2.6
4.7
3.0

1.9
2.8
3.2
4.4
4.7

2.0
2.9
3.1
4.3
4.7

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................

16.6
18.0
19.8
22.1
24.0

54.3
56.1
59.1
62.5
62.3

30.6
32.1
33.5
35.4
38.5

30.6
32.2
33.5
35.4
38.5

5.4
8.7
9.9
11.7
8.3

.0
3.3
5.4
5.7
−.4

5.3
5.2
4.2
5.6
8.9

5.4
5.2
4.3
5.7
8.7

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................

26.1
29.1
32.5
36.7
41.0

61.9
65.4
68.5
72.0
74.1

42.2
44.6
47.5
50.9
55.3

42.2
44.6
47.4
51.0
55.3

8.9
11.5
11.4
13.0
11.6

−.6
5.6
4.9
5.0
2.9

9.4
5.8
6.4
7.3
8.5

9.6
5.6
6.3
7.7
8.5

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................

44.6
49.9
51.9
56.3
62.5

73.9
75.7
74.0
77.0
82.3

60.4
66.1
70.2
73.2
75.9

60.4
65.9
70.1
73.1
75.9

8.9
11.9
4.1
8.4
11.0

−.3
2.5
−2.1
4.0
6.8

9.3
9.4
6.3
4.2
3.8

9.2
9.2
6.3
4.2
3.9

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................

67.0
70.8
75.1
80.9
87.1

85.3
87.9
90.5
93.9
97.1

78.6
80.6
83.1
86.1
89.7

78.4
80.6
83.1
86.1
89.7

7.1
5.8
6.1
7.6
7.7

3.7
3.0
2.9
3.8
3.4

3.4
2.6
3.1
3.7
4.2

3.3
2.7
3.1
3.7
4.2

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................
............................................

92.0
94.8
100.0
104.9
111.0

98.3
97.3
100.0
102.2
105.8

93.6
97.3
100.0
102.6
105.0

93.6
97.3
100.0
102.6
105.0

5.6
3.0
5.5
4.9
5.8

1.3
−1.0
2.7
2.2
3.5

4.4
3.9
2.8
2.6
2.3

4.3
4.0
2.7
2.6
2.3

1990: I .........................................
II ........................................
III .......................................
IV .......................................

90.6
92.1
92.6
92.6

98.6
98.9
98.4
97.4

92.0
93.2
94.2
95.1

92.0
93.1
94.1
95.1

9.1
6.6
2.2
−.1

4.1
1.3
−1.9
−4.1

4.9
5.2
4.3
4.1

4.9
5.2
4.2
4.2

1991: I .........................................
II ........................................
III .......................................
IV .......................................

93.2
94.4
95.3
96.1

96.9
97.3
97.5
97.8

96.3
97.0
97.7
98.3

96.3
97.0
97.7
98.3

2.8
4.9
4.0
3.6

−2.2
1.7
1.0
1.0

4.8
3.2
2.8
2.5

5.1
3.1
2.9
2.5

1992: I .........................................
II ........................................
III .......................................
IV .......................................

98.0
99.3
100.4
102.2

98.9
99.5
100.3
101.3

99.1
99.8
100.2
100.9

99.1
99.8
100.2
100.9

8.2
5.3
4.6
7.3

4.7
2.5
3.0
4.3

3.4
2.8
1.5
2.8

3.3
2.7
1.5
2.9

1993: I .........................................
II ........................................
III .......................................
IV .......................................

103.2
104.1
105.2
107.0

101.3
101.7
102.3
103.5

101.8
102.4
102.8
103.4

101.8
102.4
102.8
103.4

3.8
3.8
4.3
7.0

.0
1.7
2.3
4.7

3.8
2.2
1.8
2.3

3.8
2.1
1.9
2.2

1994: I .........................................
II ........................................
III .......................................
IV .......................................

108.5
110.3
111.9
113.4

104.2
105.4
106.3
107.2

104.1
104.6
105.2
105.8

104.1
104.6
105.2
105.8

5.4
6.8
6.1
5.4

2.5
4.8
3.6
3.2

2.8
1.9
2.4
2.2

2.8
1.9
2.4
2.2

1995: I .........................................
II ........................................
III .......................................

114.5
115.2
116.9

107.3
107.4
108.3

106.7
107.3
108.0

106.7
107.3
107.9

3.9
2.8
5.7

.6
.5
3.2

3.3
2.5
2.4

3.2
2.3
2.4

1 Percent

changes shown here are calculated using unrounded data. Quarterly percent changes are at annual rates.

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




286

TABLE B–5.—Percent changes in real gross domestic product, 1960–95
[Percent change from preceding period; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Personal consumption
expenditures
Year or
quarter

Gross
domestic
product

Total

Exports and imports of goods
and services

Government consumption expenditures and
gross investment

Residential

Exports

Imports

Total

Gross private domestic
investment
Nonresidential fixed

Durable
goods

Nondurable
goods

Services

Total

Structures

Producers’
durable
equipment

Federal

State
and
local

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

...................
...................
...................
...................
...................

2.2
2.1
6.0
4.3
5.8

2.7
2.0
4.9
4.1
6.0

2.0
−3.8
11.7
9.7
9.2

1.5
1.8
3.1
2.1
4.9

4.4
4.1
4.9
4.5
6.1

5.6
−.9
8.7
5.0
11.8

7.9
1.4
4.5
1.1
10.4

4.1
−2.4
11.6
7.6
12.6

−7.1
.3
9.6
11.8
5.8

20.8
1.7
5.4
7.5
13.3

1.3
−.7
11.3
2.7
5.3

−0.2
4.9
6.0
2.3
2.0

−3.1
3.9
8.3
−.4
−1.7

4.1
6.2
2.9
6.0
6.8

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

...................
...................
...................
...................
...................

6.4
6.4
2.6
4.7
3.0

6.3
5.7
3.0
5.7
3.7

12.7
8.5
1.6
11.0
3.6

5.3
5.5
1.6
4.5
2.7

5.3
5.1
4.8
5.2
4.8

17.3
12.1
−1.6
4.3
7.2

15.9
6.8
−2.5
1.4
5.4

18.2
15.5
−1.0
6.1
8.3

−2.9
−8.9
−3.1
13.6
3.0

2.0
6.7
2.2
7.3
5.5

10.6
14.9
7.3
14.9
5.7

3.0
9.1
7.6
3.1
−.6

.0
11.4
9.9
1.0
−3.4

6.7
6.4
4.9
5.7
2.8

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

...................
...................
...................
...................
...................

.0
3.3
5.4
5.7
−.4

2.3
3.7
6.0
4.8
−.7

−3.2
10.0
12.7
10.3
−6.9

2.4
1.8
4.4
3.3
−2.0

4.0
3.7
5.4
4.5
2.4

−1.0
−.1
9.0
14.6
.5

.3
−1.6
3.1
8.2
−2.1

−1.8
.8
12.7
18.5
2.1

−6.0
27.4
17.8
−.6
−20.6

10.8
.7
8.1
21.8
9.6

4.3
5.3
11.0
4.5
−2.7

−2.3
−1.8
.4
−.7
1.7

−7.1
−7.1
−1.7
−4.9
−.6

2.8
3.3
2.2
3.0
3.6

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

...................
...................
...................
...................
...................

−.6
5.6
4.9
5.0
2.9

2.2
5.6
4.3
4.3
2.3

.0
12.8
9.3
5.3
−.5

1.5
5.0
2.6
3.5
2.3

3.5
4.2
4.2
4.7
3.2

−10.5
4.8
11.8
13.7
9.6

−10.5
2.5
4.9
10.9
12.6

−10.5
6.1
15.6
15.1
8.1

−13.0
23.6
21.2
6.6
−3.7

−.7
5.9
2.4
10.4
9.5

−11.3
19.6
10.7
8.7
1.7

1.5
.1
.9
2.9
1.6

−.2
−1.0
1.6
2.1
1.5

2.9
.8
.4
3.6
1.6

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

...................
...................
...................
...................
...................

−.3
2.5
−2.1
4.0
6.8

−.3
1.2
1.2
5.2
5.2

−8.0
1.2
−.1
14.7
14.5

−.4
.9
.6
2.9
3.5

1.9
1.5
1.9
4.7
4.1

−.5
5.3
−4.4
−1.7
17.3

6.7
7.9
−1.5
−10.4
14.3

−4.4
3.7
−6.4
4.6
19.2

−21.1
−8.0
−18.2
41.1
14.6

10.8
1.2
−7.1
−2.6
8.3

−6.7
2.6
−1.3
12.6
24.3

1.8
.7
1.3
2.8
3.1

4.2
4.2
3.2
5.4
2.4

.0
−2.0
−.3
.7
3.8

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

...................
...................
...................
...................
...................

3.7
3.0
2.9
3.8
3.4

4.7
4.0
3.1
3.9
2.3

9.7
9.0
1.5
6.3
2.6

2.3
3.2
1.9
2.8
2.3

5.0
3.2
4.2
4.0
2.3

6.2
−3.5
−1.1
4.4
4.0

7.3
−10.8
−3.6
.5
2.2

5.5
1.0
.3
6.4
5.0

1.4
12.0
.2
−2.0
−3.7

2.7
7.4
11.0
15.9
11.7

6.5
8.4
6.1
3.9
3.9

6.1
5.1
2.7
1.3
2.8

6.9
4.6
3.1
−1.8
1.3

5.3
5.5
2.4
3.9
4.0

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

...................
...................
...................
...................
...................

1.3
−1.0
2.7
2.2
3.5

1.7
−.6
2.8
2.8
3.0

−.6
−6.4
5.8
7.3
7.2

1.0
−1.0
1.5
2.0
3.1

2.6
.8
2.9
2.4
2.1

−.6
−6.4
1.9
6.4
9.8

1.1
−10.7
−6.8
−1.7
1.5

−1.5
−4.1
6.2
10.0
13.2

−9.3
−12.3
16.6
7.6
10.8

8.5
6.3
6.6
3.3
8.3

3.9
−.7
7.5
9.9
12.0

3.0
.6
.5
−.3
.0

2.0
−.5
−2.1
−3.7
−3.7

3.8
1.4
2.4
2.2
2.5

1990: I .................
II ...............
III ..............
IV ..............

4.1
1.3
−1.9
−4.1

3.4
.6
1.3
−3.1

16.3
−11.8
−4.0
−11.0

1.3
−.7
.9
−3.4

1.7
4.5
2.8
−1.0

4.5
−7.8
3.3
−9.3

6.8
−1.9
−.7
−16.6

3.3
−10.8
5.5
−5.2

5.9
−18.0
−20.8
−24.5

15.5
8.6
−3.5
8.9

5.9
7.4
−.3
−10.1

6.0
.5
−.4
4.3

6.1
.1
−3.5
4.0

6.0
.9
1.9
4.5

1991: I .................
II ...............
III ..............
IV ..............

−2.2
1.7
1.0
1.0

−3.1
2.5
.9
−1.0

−14.1
1.7
6.1
−4.9

−2.4
2.3
−.3
−3.4

−1.0
2.8
.6
1.2

−12.5
−3.0
−4.0
−4.1

−7.7
−10.0
−22.7
−8.9

−14.9
.9
6.8
−1.8

−23.4
2.0
16.4
14.7

−1.1
21.0
2.3
13.8

−12.2
14.7
10.8
5.1

.9
.4
−2.7
−1.4

2.8
−.1
−7.7
−6.8

−.6
.7
1.2
2.8

1992: I .................
II ...............
III ..............
IV ..............

4.7
2.5
3.0
4.3

6.4
2.2
2.9
5.4

13.3
4.3
9.3
11.0

5.9
−.7
2.8
5.8

5.4
3.4
1.7
4.0

3.6
10.0
2.2
6.2

2.9
−3.9
−8.1
−4.3

3.9
16.9
7.1
11.0

24.7
22.2
3.3
18.7

6.3
1.8
2.5
6.0

4.1
13.3
1.3
11.6

2.5
−.3
2.9
1.9

−1.4
−1.4
4.9
3.4

5.4
.4
1.4
.9

1993: I .................
II ...............
III ..............
IV ..............

.0
1.7
2.3
4.7

.7
2.7
3.8
2.8

.8
11.2
7.3
10.2

−.9
2.3
2.9
1.7

1.6
1.3
3.6
1.9

6.0
6.3
4.7
17.5

3.5
−5.3
.8
7.5

7.1
11.4
6.3
21.7

2.1
−5.1
13.2
24.3

.4
7.9
−7.9
21.5

9.6
14.5
4.9
17.0

−4.7
.2
1.0
1.5

−13.1
−4.9
−2.9
−.7

1.7
3.9
3.8
3.0

1994: I .................
II ...............
III ..............
IV ..............

2.5
4.8
3.6
3.2

2.6
3.6
2.5
3.3

5.8
4.3
5.6
12.6

3.8
3.3
4.0
3.2

1.4
3.6
1.2
1.4

7.3
7.1
13.7
12.2

−11.8
15.7
.2
13.0

15.6
4.1
19.3
11.9

12.8
12.7
−1.8
−.1

−.6
14.8
12.2
15.3

7.5
19.1
11.0
9.3

−4.2
−.8
7.0
−1.4

−11.1
−5.3
11.5
−5.9

.7
2.2
4.2
1.6

1995: I .................
II ...............
III ..............

.6
.5
3.2

.8
3.4
2.9

−8.7
7.0
9.5

2.4
1.9
.5

2.1
3.4
2.7

15.3
3.6
5.3

9.9
3.4
5.6

17.4
3.7
5.2

−6.3
−13.3
8.4

2.6
4.6
8.3

8.7
7.7
1.2

−1.1
.9
−.4

−6.3
−1.1
−5.5

2.3
2.1
2.8

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




287

TABLE B–6.—Gross domestic product by major type of product, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Goods 1

Year or
quarter

Final Change
in
Gross
sales of
domestic domes- business
product
tic
product inventories

Total

Total

Final
sales

Durable goods
Change
in
business
inventories

Final
sales

Change
in
business
inventories

Nondurable goods

Final
sales

Change
in
business
inventories

Services 1

Structures

1959 ................................

507.2

503.0

4.2

252.0

247.8

4.2

92.3

3.1

155.5

1.1

192.7

62.5

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

................................
................................
................................
................................
................................

526.6
544.8
585.2
617.4
663.0

523.3
541.9
579.1
611.7
658.0

3.2
2.9
6.1
5.7
5.0

257.8
260.4
281.2
292.7
313.2

254.6
257.5
275.1
287.1
308.1

3.2
2.9
6.1
5.7
5.0

95.1
94.3
104.5
111.0
120.5

1.7
−.1
3.4
2.7
4.0

159.5
163.2
170.7
176.1
187.6

1.6
3.0
2.7
3.0
1.0

206.8
220.8
236.1
252.0
271.4

61.9
63.6
67.8
72.7
78.4

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

................................
................................
................................
................................
................................

719.1
787.8
833.6
910.6
982.2

709.4
774.0
823.1
901.4
972.7

9.7
13.8
10.5
9.1
9.5

342.9
380.6
394.5
426.7
455.8

333.3
366.8
384.0
417.6
446.2

9.7
13.8
10.5
9.1
9.5

133.3
149.0
153.8
167.8
178.6

6.7
10.2
5.5
4.6
6.3

199.9
217.8
230.2
249.8
267.6

3.0
3.6
5.0
4.5
3.2

291.5
319.2
349.5
383.9
418.2

84.7
88.0
89.6
100.0
108.3

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

................................
................................
................................
................................
................................

1,035.6
1,125.4
1,237.3
1,382.6
1,496.9

1,033.4
1,116.9
1,227.4
1,365.2
1,482.8

2.2
8.5
9.9
17.5
14.1

467.5
493.2
539.8
619.2
665.7

465.3
484.7
529.9
601.8
651.6

2.2
8.5
9.9
17.5
14.1

180.2
187.0
209.3
241.4
256.7

.0
3.2
7.2
14.6
11.0

285.1
297.7
320.6
360.3
394.9

2.2
5.3
2.7
2.9
3.1

458.5
503.8
550.5
600.5
665.6

109.7
128.4
146.9
162.9
165.6

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

................................
................................
................................
................................
................................

1,630.6
1,819.0
2,026.9
2,291.4
2,557.5

1,636.9
1,802.0
2,003.8
2,264.2
2,540.6

−6.3
16.9
23.1
27.2
16.9

718.1 724.5
804.0 787.1
883.7 860.6
996.5 969.3
1,115.2 1,098.3

−6.3
16.9
23.1
27.2
16.9

288.1
322.5
366.9
416.9
475.0

−7.5
10.6
10.2
20.3
12.5

436.4
464.6
493.7
552.5
623.3

1.2
6.3
12.8
6.9
4.3

745.8
823.8
916.4
1,023.1
1,131.7

166.7
191.2
226.8
271.8
310.6

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

................................
................................
................................
................................
................................

2,784.2
3,115.9
3,242.1
3,514.5
3,902.4

2,791.9
3,087.8
3,256.6
3,519.4
3,835.0

−7.6
28.2
−14.5
−4.9
67.5

1,191.1
1,342.6
1,333.2
1,426.9
1,607.0

1,198.7
1,314.5
1,347.7
1,431.8
1,539.6

−7.6
28.2
−14.5
−4.9
67.5

502.9
546.0
544.4
586.1
655.1

−2.7
7.5
−15.5
4.0
43.6

695.8
768.4
803.3
845.7
884.5

−4.9
20.6
1.0
−8.9
23.9

1,274.1
1,423.3
1,566.9
1,720.9
1,871.8

319.1
350.0
342.0
366.8
423.6

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

................................
................................
................................
................................
................................

4,180.7
4,422.2
4,692.3
5,049.6
5,438.7

4,154.5
4,412.6
4,668.1
5,038.7
5,407.0

26.2
9.6
24.2
10.9
31.7

1,669.8
1,720.6
1,804.8
1,942.9
2,124.0

1,643.6
1,711.0
1,780.6
1,932.0
2,092.3

26.2
9.6
24.2
10.9
31.7

713.2
741.3
764.7
837.0
907.3

8.6
.6
21.5
16.4
21.3

930.4
969.7
1,015.9
1,095.0
1,185.0

17.6
9.0
2.8
−5.5
10.5

2,054.6
2,224.2
2,398.1
2,600.0
2,795.3

456.3
477.4
489.3
506.7
519.4

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

................................
................................
................................
................................
...............................

5,743.8
5,916.7
6,244.4
6,550.2
6,931.4

5,735.8
5,919.0
6,237.4
6,529.7
6,871.8

8.0
−2.3
7.0
20.6
59.5

2,203.8
2,234.0
2,321.0
2,421.5
2,593.8

2,195.8
2,236.3
2,314.0
2,400.9
2,534.2

8.0 935.7
−2.3 926.6
7.0 965.9
20.6 1,013.8
59.5 1,085.9

2.5
−16.6
−10.9
15.7
31.9

1,260.1
1,309.7
1,348.1
1,387.2
1,448.3

5.6
14.3
17.9
4.9
27.6

3,016.9
3,201.3
3,411.1
3,581.7
3,742.3

523.1
481.4
512.3
547.0
595.3

1990: I .............................
II ............................
III ..........................
IV ..........................

5,660.4
5,751.0
5,782.4
5,781.5

5,651.8
5,709.8
5,768.7
5,812.9

8.6
41.2
13.8
−31.4

2,194.9
2,223.6
2,210.7
2,186.1

2,186.3
2,182.4
2,196.9
2,217.5

8.6
41.2
13.8
−31.4

957.9
932.7
929.3
922.9

1.4
16.9
9.9
−18.4

1,228.4
1,249.7
1,267.7
1,294.6

7.2
24.3
3.9
−13.1

2,924.9
2,997.8
3,051.3
3,093.7

540.6
529.6
520.5
501.7

1991: I .............................
II ............................
III ..........................
IV ..........................

5,822.1
5,892.3
5,950.0
6,002.3

5,838.2
5,912.2
5,944.7
5,980.9

−16.1
−19.9
5.3
21.4

2,207.9
2,225.1
2,249.2
2,253.8

2,224.0
2,245.0
2,243.9
2,232.4

−16.1
−19.9
5.3
21.4

912.1
936.0
933.6
924.8

−38.7
−29.5
5.9
−4.2

1,311.8
1,309.0
1,310.3
1,307.6

22.6
9.5
−.6
25.5

3,131.6
3,186.7
3,221.9
3,264.9

482.6
480.5
478.9
483.6

1992: I .............................
II ............................
III ..........................
IV ..........................

6,121.8
6,201.2
6,271.7
6,383.0

6,122.1
6,191.0
6,260.1
6,376.6

−.3
10.2
11.6
6.4

2,281.1
2,301.3
2,329.4
2,372.2

2,281.4
2,291.0
2,317.8
2,365.8

−.3
10.2
11.6
6.4

944.6
955.7
969.2
994.2

−18.8
1.1
−11.1
−14.9

1,336.8
1,335.4
1,348.6
1,371.6

18.5
9.1
22.7
21.3

3,338.4
3,387.5
3,432.1
3,486.4

502.3
512.4
510.1
524.4

1993: I .............................
II ............................
III ..........................
IV ..........................

6,442.8
6,503.2
6,571.3
6,683.7

6,422.9
6,481.6
6,549.3
6,664.9

19.9
21.6
22.0
18.8

2,382.7
2,412.9
2,416.5
2,474.0

2,362.8
2,391.3
2,394.5
2,455.1

19.9 986.4
21.6 1,014.1
22.0 1,007.9
18.8 1,046.6

13.1
11.3
14.2
24.3

1,376.5
1,377.1
1,386.5
1,408.5

6.8
10.3
7.9
−5.5

3,528.5
3,555.0
3,605.3
3,638.1

531.5
535.4
549.5
571.6

1994: I .............................
II ............................
III ..........................
IV ..........................

6,772.8
6,885.0
6,987.6
7,080.0

6,732.6
6,810.5
6,922.9
7,021.3

40.2
74.5
64.7
58.7

2,524.4
2,572.9
2,618.2
2,659.6

2,484.2
2,498.3
2,553.5
2,600.9

40.2
74.5
64.7
58.7

1,062.6
1,067.9
1,099.9
1,113.3

25.1
35.1
34.2
33.1

1,421.6
1,430.4
1,453.6
1,487.6

15.1
39.5
30.5
25.6

3,673.8
3,720.3
3,769.0
3,806.3

574.7
591.9
600.5
614.1

1995: I .............................
II ............................
III ..........................

7,147.8
7,196.5
7,297.2

7,089.7
7,162.5
7,266.6

58.1
34.0
30.6

2,675.4 2,617.3
2,676.3 2,642.3
2,715.6 2,685.0

58.1 1,118.6
34.0 1,134.0
30.6 1,162.6

54.4
28.5
25.5

1,498.7
1,508.3
1,522.5

3.7
5.4
5.1

3,852.6
3,904.5
3,949.1

619.8
615.7
632.4

1 Exports and imports of certain goods, primarily military equipment purchased and sold by the Federal Government, are included in services.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




288

TABLE B–7.—Real gross domestic product by major type of product, 1959–95
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Goods 1

Year or
quarter

1959 ............................
1960 ............................
1961 ............................
1962 ............................
1963 ............................
1964 ............................
1965 ............................
1966 ............................
1967 ............................
1968 ............................
1969 ............................
1970 ............................
1971 ............................
1972 ............................
1973 ............................
1974 ............................
1975 ............................
1976 ............................
1977 ............................
1978 ............................
1979 ............................
1980 ............................
1981 ............................
1982 ............................
1983 ............................
1984 ............................
1985 ............................
1986 ............................
1987 ............................
1988 ............................
1989 ............................
1990 ............................
1991 ............................
1992 ............................
1993 ............................
1994 ............................
1990: I .........................
II .......................
III ......................
IV ......................
1991: I .........................
II .......................
III ......................
IV ......................
1992: I .........................
II .......................
III ......................
IV ......................
1993: I .........................
II .......................
III ......................
IV ......................
1994: I .........................
II .......................
III ......................
IV ......................
1995: I .........................
II .......................
III ......................

Final Change
in
Gross
sales of
domestic domes- business
product
tic
product inventories

2,212.3
2,261.7
2,309.8
2,449.1
2,554.0
2,702.9
2,874.8
3,060.2
3,140.2
3,288.6
3,388.0
3,388.2
3,500.1
3,690.3
3,902.3
3,888.2
3,865.1
4,081.1
4,279.3
4,493.7
4,624.0
4,611.9
4,724.9
4,623.6
4,810.0
5,138.2
5,329.5
5,489.9
5,648.4
5,862.9
6,060.4
6,138.7
6,079.0
6,244.4
6,383.8
6,604.2
6,154.1
6,174.4
6,145.2
6,081.0
6,047.9
6,074.1
6,089.3
6,104.4
6,175.3
6,214.2
6,260.9
6,327.3
6,327.0
6,353.7
6,390.4
6,463.9
6,504.6
6,581.5
6,639.5
6,691.3
6,701.6
6,709.4
6,763.2

2,206.9
2,264.2
2,318.0
2,445.4
2,552.4
2,705.1
2,860.4
3,033.5
3,125.1
3,278.0
3,377.2
3,406.5
3,499.8
3,689.5
3,883.9
3,873.4
3,906.4
4,061.7
4,240.8
4,464.4
4,614.4
4,641.9
4,691.6
4,651.2
4,821.2
5,061.6
5,296.9
5,480.9
5,626.0
5,855.1
6,028.7
6,126.7
6,082.6
6,237.4
6,362.9
6,546.3
6,144.6
6,127.5
6,126.6
6,108.1
6,065.4
6,095.9
6,085.4
6,083.8
6,175.8
6,203.8
6,249.5
6,320.7
6,307.7
6,331.6
6,368.2
6,444.1
6,464.0
6,509.0
6,576.8
6,635.2
6,647.5
6,677.4
6,735.0

13.5
10.6
8.9
20.0
18.1
15.6
30.2
42.3
32.1
26.9
27.2
5.7
22.7
25.2
39.0
24.0
−11.0
29.0
38.0
42.3
23.1
−10.0
33.1
−15.6
−5.9
74.8
29.8
10.9
26.2
11.6
33.3
10.4
−3.0
7.3
19.1
58.9
11.0
43.8
14.9
−28.2
−17.5
−20.8
4.9
21.4
−.1
11.3
12.1
5.8
18.5
20.8
19.5
17.4
40.1
74.1
64.0
57.3
54.5
30.6
27.1

Total

Total

Final
sales

786.4
795.6
796.0
853.5
882.4
936.7
1,013.0
1,099.9
1,114.7
1,166.6
1,200.3
1,181.6
1,209.3
1,296.5
1,413.2
1,400.9
1,373.4
1,478.3
1,560.0
1,644.4
1,700.6
1,687.4
1,765.7
1,684.1
1,754.8
1,924.8
1,971.7
2,020.9
2,076.9
2,178.9
2,300.2
2,307.1
2,262.3
2,321.0
2,389.6
2,524.3
2,328.3
2,335.6
2,304.6
2,260.1
2,251.8
2,256.1
2,271.1
2,270.1
2,288.9
2,301.1
2,327.4
2,366.7
2,357.4
2,385.4
2,384.9
2,430.7
2,467.9
2,508.8
2,541.9
2,578.5
2,580.3
2,573.2
2,602.6

780.9
795.6
799.7
848.6
878.8
935.8
999.9
1,077.9
1,101.2
1,156.5
1,189.9
1,193.4
1,206.1
1,293.2
1,396.0
1,386.5
1,404.4
1,459.9
1,525.7
1,617.8
1,690.7
1,711.2
1,735.1
1,706.7
1,762.6
1,853.3
1,940.6
2,011.7
2,055.0
2,171.0
2,269.2
2,295.4
2,265.9
2,314.0
2,368.7
2,465.6
2,318.8
2,289.5
2,286.4
2,286.8
2,269.0
2,277.7
2,267.2
2,249.6
2,289.3
2,290.7
2,316.0
2,360.1
2,338.0
2,363.2
2,362.7
2,410.7
2,426.8
2,435.3
2,478.5
2,521.8
2,525.6
2,541.1
2,574.3

Durable goods
Change
in
business
inventories
13.5
10.6
8.9
20.0
18.1
15.6
30.2
42.3
32.1
26.9
27.2
5.7
22.7
25.2
39.0
24.0
−11.0
29.0
38.0
42.3
23.1
−10.0
33.1
−15.6
−5.9
74.8
29.8
10.9
26.2
11.6
33.3
10.4
−3.0
7.3
19.1
58.9
11.0
43.8
14.9
−28.2
−17.5
−20.8
4.9
21.4
−.1
11.3
12.1
5.8
18.5
20.8
19.5
17.4
40.1
74.1
64.0
57.3
54.5
30.6
27.1

Final
sales

221.1
227.3
224.3
247.7
262.0
283.8
313.9
350.0
359.2
378.7
391.2
383.2
385.8
431.8
496.6
496.9
495.8
520.9
567.0
615.3
654.6
638.1
638.8
604.4
637.6
703.1
758.2
793.6
819.8
897.0
951.9
963.9
934.2
965.9
1,006.9
1,068.0
991.4
963.8
955.6
944.7
926.0
944.9
938.2
927.5
945.2
953.8
970.0
994.8
982.8
1,007.4
999.5
1,038.0
1,048.7
1,048.4
1,077.3
1,097.4
1,097.9
1,112.2
1,140.0

Change
in
business
inventories
9.9
5.2
−.1
10.7
8.3
12.1
20.4
30.9
16.3
13.2
17.4
−.1
8.0
18.0
34.6
20.6
−13.9
18.9
17.2
31.7
18.4
−3.6
9.1
−17.8
4.9
49.7
10.0
.9
23.5
17.6
22.4
2.7
−16.6
−10.9
15.4
30.6
1.9
17.3
10.2
−18.4
−38.9
−29.5
6.1
−4.2
−18.7
1.2
−11.4
−14.8
13.1
11.2
13.5
23.6
24.3
33.9
32.7
31.6
51.6
26.7
23.6

Nondurable goods

Final
sales

595.6
602.6
612.1
634.7
648.2
682.7
713.4
751.8
765.4
801.8
822.6
837.8
848.8
885.4
916.7
905.9
926.7
956.4
970.8
1,011.7
1,042.9
1,085.6
1,111.0
1,122.6
1,142.6
1,160.9
1,189.0
1,223.5
1,239.2
1,274.8
1,317.2
1,331.3
1,331.8
1,348.1
1,361.8
1,398.0
1,326.5
1,325.5
1,330.8
1,342.2
1,343.3
1,332.8
1,329.0
1,322.1
1,344.2
1,336.9
1,346.0
1,365.3
1,355.2
1,355.9
1,363.2
1,373.0
1,378.4
1,387.1
1,401.6
1,424.8
1,428.2
1,429.4
1,435.2

Change
in
business
inventories
3.5
5.3
9.3
9.1
9.8
3.0
9.2
10.9
15.6
13.6
9.6
5.9
14.8
7.2
6.0
4.5
2.3
10.2
20.8
10.5
5.1
−6.3
23.6
2.0
−10.4
25.6
19.7
10.2
2.2
−6.2
11.0
7.6
13.4
18.3
3.7
28.2
9.1
26.3
4.7
−9.9
21.0
8.4
−1.3
25.6
18.6
10.1
23.7
20.8
5.4
9.7
6.1
−6.4
15.8
40.4
31.2
25.6
2.2
3.6
3.2

Services 1

1,115.3
1,167.1
1,219.9
1,277.5
1,336.9
1,406.3
1,472.5
1,557.8
1,639.4
1,712.0
1,774.1
1,824.0
1,875.8
1,936.1
2,004.4
2,063.3
2,123.5
2,182.9
2,250.5
2,334.3
2,391.3
2,441.4
2,475.8
2,518.7
2,598.4
2,678.0
2,797.8
2,903.2
3,011.6
3,128.6
3,208.5
3,295.4
3,332.3
3,411.1
3,464.9
3,521.7
3,264.8
3,293.9
3,310.1
3,312.7
3,308.8
3,335.0
3,338.3
3,347.2
3,379.4
3,398.6
3,424.2
3,442.3
3,448.8
3,449.3
3,475.8
3,485.6
3,491.1
3,513.4
3,536.4
3,545.9
3,552.6
3,574.7
3,589.7

Structures

299.4
296.5
304.7
322.2
343.9
367.0
385.4
385.9
380.2
403.6
408.8
391.1
427.4
459.0
469.0
420.5
382.3
418.3
458.7
498.1
511.7
475.9
468.8
428.5
460.7
523.1
550.3
558.4
554.6
550.8
546.0
533.3
484.5
512.3
529.4
559.8
555.9
541.4
528.2
507.5
487.3
483.4
480.1
487.3
507.1
514.4
509.4
518.5
520.9
519.3
529.5
548.1
546.6
560.6
562.8
569.1
570.8
563.3
573.0

1 Exports and imports of certain goods, primarily military equipment purchased and sold by the Federal Government, are included in services.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




289

TABLE B–8.—Gross domestic product by sector, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Business 1
Year or quarter

Gross
domestic
product

Total 1

Nonfarm 1

Farm

Households
and
institutions

General government 2
Total

Federal

State
and
local

1959 ...................................................................................

507.2

436.9

418.0

18.9

12.4

57.9

31.8

26.1

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................

526.6
544.8
585.2
617.4
663.0

451.1
464.9
499.5
525.9
564.7

431.3
444.8
479.3
505.5
545.5

19.8
20.1
20.2
20.4
19.3

13.9
14.5
15.6
16.7
17.9

61.5
65.5
70.1
74.8
80.4

32.9
34.2
36.3
38.1
40.5

28.6
31.3
33.8
36.7
40.0

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................

719.1
787.8
833.6
910.6
982.2

613.8
670.4
703.7
766.1
823.3

591.9
647.5
681.5
743.4
798.1

21.9
22.9
22.2
22.7
25.2

19.3
21.3
23.4
26.1
29.5

86.0
96.1
106.5
118.4
129.5

42.3
47.1
51.6
56.5
60.2

43.7
49.0
54.9
61.9
69.3

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................

1,035.6
1,125.4
1,237.3
1,382.6
1,496.9

860.3
933.9
1,028.3
1,154.6
1,246.0

834.1
905.8
995.6
1,104.9
1,198.6

26.2
28.1
32.6
49.8
47.4

32.4
35.6
39.0
43.0
47.2

142.9
155.9
170.1
185.0
203.7

64.3
68.2
73.1
76.9
83.5

78.7
87.7
96.9
108.1
120.3

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................

1,630.6
1,819.0
2,026.9
2,291.4
2,557.5

1,351.5
1,516.0
1,697.5
1,931.7
2,164.3

1,302.7
1,469.6
1,650.3
1,877.0
2,099.8

48.8
46.4
47.2
54.7
64.5

52.0
57.1
62.4
69.8
77.3

227.1
245.8
266.9
289.9
315.9

91.7
97.9
106.1
113.8
122.3

135.4
147.9
160.9
176.1
193.6

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................

2,784.2
3,115.9
3,242.1
3,514.5
3,902.4

2,346.3
2,631.8
2,714.7
2,950.0
3,289.6

2,290.2
2,561.9
2,649.5
2,900.8
3,221.1

56.1
69.9
65.1
49.2
68.5

87.1
97.6
108.2
119.2
131.2

350.8
386.4
419.2
445.3
481.7

135.6
151.0
164.0
173.5
190.8

215.2
235.4
255.2
271.8
290.9

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................

4,180.7
4,422.2
4,692.3
5.049.6
5,438.7

3,520.2
3,716.7
3,933.1
4,233.4
4,563.7

3,453.1
3,653.7
3,868.0
4,169.6
4,487.5

67.1
63.0
65.1
63.8
76.2

140.9
153.7
173.3
195.1
214.6

519.6
551.9
586.0
621.0
660.3

203.6
211.1
221.3
230.0
240.5

316.0
340.7
364.7
391.0
419.8

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................

5,743.8
5,916.7
6,244.4
6,550.2
6,931.4

4,796.9
4,908.5
5,184.4
5,448.9
5,794.0

4,717.3
4,835.6
5,103.8
5,376.7
5,711.7

79.6
72.9
80.6
72.1
82.3

237.9
257.4
279.1
294.9
310.3

709.0
750.7
781.0
806.5
827.0

252.7
268.1
274.4
276.6
275.7

456.3
482.6
506.6
529.9
551.4

1990: I ................................................................................
II ...............................................................................
III ..............................................................................
IV ..............................................................................

5,660.4
5,751.0
5,782.4
5,781.5

4,739.6
4,812.7
4,825.7
4,809.7

4,660.9
4,730.1
4,746.1
4,732.1

78.7
82.6
79.6
77.6

228.6
235.5
242.8
244.8

692.3
702.8
713.9
727.0

248.7
250.4
253.1
258.5

443.5
452.4
460.8
468.4

1991: I ................................................................................
II ...............................................................................
III ..............................................................................
IV ..............................................................................

5,822.1
5,892.3
5,950.0
6.002.3

4,830.5
4,887.5
4,937.6
4,978.6

4,759.9
4,810.5
4,866.8
4,905.1

70.6
77.0
70.7
73.5

249.2
255.7
259.7
265.1

742.4
749.1
752.8
758.6

267.9
268.5
268.1
267.9

474.5
480.6
484.7
490.6

1992: I ................................................................................
II ...............................................................................
III ..............................................................................
IV ..............................................................................

6,121.8
6,201.2
6,271.7
6,383.0

5,080.1
5,143.0
5,205.2
5,309.2

5,000.9
5,062.7
5,121.0
5,230.6

79.1
80.3
84.2
78.7

270.1
278.3
281.7
286.2

771.7
780.0
784.8
787.6

274.4
275.8
275.2
272.1

497.3
504.2
509.6
515.5

1993: I ................................................................................
II ...............................................................................
III ..............................................................................
IV ..............................................................................

6,442.8
6,503.2
6,571.3
6,683.7

5,351.5
5,408.8
5,462.9
5,572.3

5,279.8
5,333.7
5,397.7
5,495.7

71.7
75.1
65.1
76.6

290.5
290.8
298.7
299.4

800.7
803.6
809.7
812.0

278.8
275.9
276.9
275.0

522.0
527.7
532.9
537.0

1994: I ................................................................................
II ...............................................................................
III ..............................................................................
IV ..............................................................................

6,772.8
6,885.0
6,987.6
7,080.0

5,646.3
5,750.0
5,847.1
5,932.6

5,559.2
5,667.6
5,767.5
5,852.6

87.1
82.4
79.6
80.0

306.0
309.5
312.3
313.4

820.5
825.5
828.2
834.0

277.1
277.2
274.0
274.3

543.4
548.3
554.2
559.7

1995: I ................................................................................
II ...............................................................................
III ..............................................................................

7,147.8
7,196.5
7,297.2

5,986.0
6,024.7
6,117.0

5,909.3
5,947.9
6,039.2

76.6
76.8
77.8

316.7
321.3
324.3

845.1
850.4
855.9

278.6
278.9
278.8

566.5
571.6
577.1

1 Includes

compensation of employees in government enterprises.
of government employees.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.

2 Compensation




290

TABLE B–9.—Real gross domestic product by sector, 1959–95
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Business 1
Year or quarter

Gross
domestic
product

Total 1

Nonfarm 1

Farm

Households
and
institutions

General government 2
Total

Federal

State
and
local

1959 ............................................................................

2,212.3

1,723.6

1,677.8

34.0

105.0

415.1

232.1

186.4

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................

2,261.7
2,309.8
2,449.1
2,554.0
2,702.9

1,757.1
1,791.7
1,906.5
1,992.8
2,117.6

1,711.2
1,748.7
1,868.2
1,953.3
2,083.3

34.3
33.5
32.6
33.9
32.7

112.1
113.1
117.2
120.1
123.4

429.3
444.6
461.8
475.7
492.4

236.4
241.5
251.7
254.3
256.8

196.2
206.4
213.6
224.6
238.4

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................

2,874.8
3,060.2
3,140.2
3,288.6
3,388.0

2,263.0
2,410.9
2,463.9
2,585.4
2,665.6

2,227.6
2,383.9
2,430.1
2,554.6
2,634.4

34.5
32.5
35.8
35.5
36.4

127.9
132.6
136.9
141.0
145.5

509.3
542.1
571.1
592.6
607.3

258.8
276.4
295.1
300.6
301.7

253.0
268.4
279.2
294.8
307.8

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................

3,388.2
3,500.1
3,690.3
3,902.3
3,888.2

2,665.1
2,768.0
2,946.8
3,145.7
3,122.6

2,634.9
2,736.2
2,920.2
3,126.9
3,094.9

35.9
37.5
36.9
36.3
38.7

144.0
147.2
151.4
154.9
156.1

609.7
611.3
611.5
614.8
625.2

288.9
276.1
263.5
253.8
252.0

321.5
334.9
347.4
360.2
372.6

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................

3,865.1
4,081.1
4,279.3
4,493.7
4,624.0

3,091.8
3,296.6
3,481.4
3,678.8
3,798.4

3,049.7
3,255.9
3,431.3
3,651.6
3,762.6

43.4
44.6
50.2
41.7
46.3

161.2
163.0
167.5
170.3
173.7

631.1
634.3
639.1
649.2
654.2

249.0
247.5
246.3
247.3
245.1

381.7
386.4
392.6
401.8
409.3

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................

4,611.9
4,724.9
4,623.6
4,810.0
5,138.2

3,777.0
3,882.5
3,776.0
3,952.8
4,264.2

3,740.8
3,816.0
3,705.4
3,915.7
4,211.3

46.2
63.3
65.2
45.0
56.4

178.7
182.7
188.0
192.3
197.1

660.9
662.3
666.6
668.7
676.0

246.7
248.3
250.3
254.2
258.2

414.5
414.2
416.4
414.4
417.6

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................

5,329.5
5,489.9
5,648.4
5,862.9
6,060.4

4,431.3
4,565.2
4,698.8
4,880.0
5,047.8

4,357.5
4,500.0
4,636.1
4,826.8
4,984.8

71.9
65.5
63.7
56.6
64.8

203.4
213.5
224.1
240.6
253.4

693.2
709.9
724.2
741.3
758.1

263.9
266.9
272.3
274.1
276.2

429.2
443.0
452.0
467.3
481.9

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................

6,138.7
6,079.0
6,244.4
6,383.8
6,604.2

5,099.4
5,025.9
5,184.4
5,313.0
5,525.8

5,026.5
4,954.9
5,103.8
5,242.0
5,442.2

72.9
71.2
80.6
71.0
83.9

264.1
272.1
279.1
287.9
296.2

774.7
781.1
781.0
782.9
782.4

280.3
281.0
274.4
267.3
256.8

494.5
500.1
506.6
515.6
525.8

1990: I ..........................................................................
II ........................................................................
III .......................................................................
IV .......................................................................

6,154.1
6,174.4
6,145.2
6,081.0

5,123.5
5,137.7
5,101.6
5,034.7

5,055.1
5,063.4
5,028.8
4,958.9

69.4
74.1
72.7
75.3

259.3
262.7
266.5
267.8

770.3
773.3
776.7
778.5

279.8
280.0
280.9
280.4

490.5
493.4
495.9
498.1

1991: I ..........................................................................
II ........................................................................
III .......................................................................
IV .......................................................................

6,047.9
6,074.1
6,089.3
6,104.4

4,995.5
5,020.2
5,037.2
5,050.8

4,924.8
4,947.2
4,968.1
4,979.6

70.9
73.1
69.3
71.4

269.0
271.6
272.8
274.9

783.7
782.5
779.3
778.9

284.9
282.3
279.4
277.5

498.9
500.2
499.9
501.5

1992: I ..........................................................................
II ........................................................................
III .......................................................................
IV .......................................................................

6,175.3
6,214.2
6,260.9
6,327.3

5,118.7
5,156.7
5,198.8
5,263.3

5,039.7
5,075.3
5,115.8
5,184.4

79.0
81.4
83.0
78.9

277.3
277.2
279.8
282.0

779.3
780.3
782.3
782.0

275.8
275.0
274.0
272.7

503.5
505.3
508.4
509.3

1993: I ..........................................................................
II ........................................................................
III .......................................................................
IV .......................................................................

6,327.0
6,353.7
6,390.4
6,463.9

5,260.4
5,283.3
5,317.2
5,391.2

5,184.8
5,209.7
5,256.0
5,317.4

75.6
73.7
60.8
73.8

283.5
287.1
289.6
291.4

783.2
783.2
783.6
781.5

271.5
269.0
266.4
262.3

511.7
514.3
517.3
519.2

1994: I ..........................................................................
II ........................................................................
III .......................................................................
IV .......................................................................

6,504.6
6,581.5
6,639.5
6,691.3

5,428.2
5,503.1
5,559.7
5,612.0

5,344.1
5,418.9
5,475.7
5,530.0

84.6
84.8
84.3
82.1

293.4
295.9
296.8
298.8

783.1
782.7
783.2
780.8

261.1
258.1
255.9
252.1

522.2
524.7
527.5
529.0

1995: I ..........................................................................
II ........................................................................
III .......................................................................

6,701.6
6,709.4
6,763.2

5,621.6
5,628.4
5,680.5

5,542.4
5,551.2
5,607.0

79.1
76.9
72.9

300.1
301.7
303.1

780.1
779.7
779.9

250.2
249.1
247.7

530.2
530.9
532.5

1 Includes

compensation of employees in government enterprises.
of government employees.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.

2 Compensation




291

TABLE B–10.—Gross domestic product of nonfinancial corporate business, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Net domestic product
Gross
domestic
product
of
nonfinancial
corporate
business

Consumption
of
fixed
capital

1959 .............

267.5

26.3

241.2

26.0

215.2

171.5

40.6

43.6

20.7

22.9

10.0

12.9

−0.3

−2.8

3.1

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

278.1
285.5
311.7
331.8
358.1

27.2
27.8
28.8
29.8
31.3

250.9
257.8
282.9
302.0
326.8

28.3
29.5
32.0
34.0
36.6

222.6
228.2
250.9
267.9
290.2

181.2
185.3
200.1
211.1
226.7

38.0
38.9
46.3
52.0
58.2

40.3
40.1
45.0
49.8
56.0

19.2
19.5
20.6
22.8
24.0

21.1
20.7
24.3
27.0
32.1

10.6
10.6
11.4
12.6
13.7

10.6
10.1
13.0
14.4
18.4

−.2
.3
.0
.1
−.5

−2.2
−1.5
1.3
2.2
2.7

3.5
4.0
4.5
4.8
5.3

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

393.5
431.0
453.4
500.5
543.3

33.5
36.7
40.1
43.8
47.5

360.0
394.3
413.4
456.7
495.8

39.2
40.5
43.1
49.7
54.7

320.8
353.8
370.3
407.0
441.1

246.5
274.0
292.3
323.2
358.8

68.2
72.5
69.2
73.6
69.1

66.2
71.4
67.5
74.0
70.8

27.2
29.5
27.8
33.6
33.3

39.0
41.9
39.7
40.4
37.5

15.6
16.8
17.5
19.1
19.1

23.4
25.1
22.2
21.3
18.4

−1.2
−2.1
−1.6
−3.7
−5.9

3.3
3.2
3.3
3.3
4.1

6.1
7.4
8.8
10.1
13.2

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

561.4
606.4
673.3
754.5
814.6

51.6
56.3
62.1
67.6
78.7

509.8
550.1
611.2
686.8
736.0

58.8
64.5
69.2
76.3
81.4

451.0
485.6
542.1
610.5
654.6

378.7
402.0
447.1
505.9
556.8

55.2
65.5
75.8
82.1
69.5

58.1
67.1
78.6
98.6
109.2

27.2
29.9
33.8
40.2
42.2

31.0
37.1
44.8
58.4
67.0

18.5
18.5
20.1
21.1
21.7

12.5
18.7
24.7
37.3
45.2

−6.6
−4.6
−6.6
−20.0
−39.5

3.6
3.0
3.9
3.6
−.2

17.1
18.1
19.2
22.5
28.3

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

881.2
995.3
1,125.4
1,284.1
1,429.7

94.4
786.8 87.4
699.5
104.5
890.8 95.1
795.6
125.8
999.7 104.1
895.6
142.1 1,142.0 116.4 1,025.5
163.7 1,266.0 125.4 1,140.6

580.3
657.4
742.6
852.9
968.1

90.4
110.7
122.4
136.3
127.4

109.9
137.3
158.6
183.5
195.5

41.5
53.0
59.9
67.1
69.6

68.4
84.4
98.7
116.4
125.9

24.8
28.0
31.5
36.4
38.1

43.6
56.3
67.2
80.0
87.9

−11.0
−14.9
−16.6
−25.0
−41.6

−8.5
−11.7
−19.5
−22.1
−26.6

28.7
27.5
30.6
36.3
45.1

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

1,553.8
1,767.3
1,823.4
1,950.3
2,187.5

187.8
218.3
235.4
248.9
255.1

1,365.9
1,549.1
1,588.0
1,701.4
1,932.4

141.6
170.4
172.1
189.0
210.2

1,224.3
1,378.7
1,415.9
1,512.4
1,722.2

1,058.5
1,171.5
1,217.0
1,280.5
1,421.7

107.6
135.3
116.4
155.3
212.7

181.6
181.4
133.7
157.4
191.0

67.0
63.9
46.3
59.4
73.7

114.6
117.5
87.4
97.9
117.3

45.3
53.3
53.3
64.2
67.8

69.2
64.2
34.2
33.8
49.5

−43.0 −30.9
−25.7 −20.4
−9.9 −7.4
−9.1
7.0
−5.6 27.3

58.2
71.9
82.5
76.6
87.8

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

2,319.3
2,416.3
2,589.6
2,805.2
2,950.9

266.5
283.7
296.9
316.5
335.5

2,052.8
2,132.6
2,292.7
2,488.7
2,615.4

224.4
235.8
246.7
263.5
280.8

1,828.4
1,896.8
2,046.0
2,225.3
2,334.6

1,521.9
1,603.2
1,715.5
1,846.7
1,950.0

215.9
195.5
225.2
257.5
238.7

167.6
151.5
214.9
260.6
237.0

69.9
75.6
93.5
101.7
98.8

97.6
75.9
121.4
158.8
138.3

72.3
73.9
75.9
79.4
103.5

25.4
2.1
45.5
79.4
34.8

.5
11.4
−20.7
−29.3
−17.5

47.8 90.6
32.6 98.1
31.0 105.3
26.3 121.0
19.1 145.9

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

3,084.0
3,132.1
3,262.6
3,437.5
3,688.4

352.7
366.7
376.1
390.1
412.8

2,731.3
2,765.3
2,886.5
3,047.4
3,275.5

296.8
318.0
337.0
356.2
379.6

2,434.5
2,447.3
2,549.5
2,691.2
2,895.9

2,056.0
2,090.6
2,195.3
2,294.3
2,433.8

231.0
223.1
250.0
297.3
364.6

237.3
218.1
257.8
303.7
372.5

95.7
85.4
91.1
103.5
129.9

141.6
132.8
166.7
200.3
242.7

118.4
124.6
133.6
152.6
161.8

23.3
8.2
33.1
47.6
80.9

−13.5
4.0
−7.5
−6.6
−13.3

7.2 147.5
1.0 133.7
−.3 104.2
.1 99.6
5.3 97.5

1990: I ..........
II .........
III ........
IV ........

3.042.8
3,103.0
3,092.7
3,097.4

346.4
351.6
356.0
356.9

2,696.4
2,751.5
2,736.7
2,740.5

290.5
292.6
299.7
304.3

2,405.9
2,458.9
2,437.0
2,436.2

2,022.0
2,055.8
2,074.7
2,071.4

237.5
254.2
214.7
217.7

227.9
239.0
250.1
232.3

90.5
96.4
101.1
94.7

137.3
142.7
148.9
137.7

119.5
116.5
118.1
119.5

17.8
26.2
30.8
18.2

−1.3
7.7
−40.0
−20.3

10.9
7.4
4.7
5.6

146.5
148.9
147.6
147.1

1991: I ..........
II .........
III ........
IV ........

3,107.7
3,119.1
3,142.0
3,159.5

363.2
365.7
369.0
369.1

2,744.5
2,753.4
2,773.0
2,790.4

309.2
314.2
321.2
327.3

2,435.3
2,439.2
2,451.8
2,463.1

2,060.0
2,078.8
2,101.2
2,122.2

232.6
222.8
219.4
217.5

213.3
215.0
220.6
223.7

83.1
84.0
86.8
87.5

130.3
131.0
133.8
136.2

120.7
125.4
124.9
127.5

9.5
5.6
8.9
8.7

17.6
6.8
−.8
−7.6

1.7
1.1
−.3
1.5

142.7
137.6
131.1
123.3

1992: I ..........
II .........
III ........
IV ........

3,202.2
3,236.1
3,270.5
3,341.7

368.6
371.8
387.9
376.3

2,833.6
2,864.3
2,882.7
2,965.4

330.4
331.8
337.8
348.0

2,503.1
2,532.5
2,544.9
2,617.4

2,152.8
2,183.2
2,209.3
2,236.1

240.2
243.3
234.8
281.6

236.3
262.6
254.4
277.9

82.4
93.6
89.9
98.4

153.9
169.0
164.5
179.5

124.0
129.7
134.3
146.3

29.9
39.3
30.2
33.2

.3
3.6 110.2
−21.9
2.6 106.0
−8.6 −11.0 100.8
.2
3.5 99.7

1993: I ..........
II .........
III ........
IV ........

3,345.3
3,407.8
3,458.7
3,538.0

382.8
387.5
395.8
394.2

2,962.5
3,020.4
3,062.8
3,143.8

346.9
352.9
355.9
368.9

2,615.6
2,667.4
2,706.9
2,774.9

2,251.4
2,279.8
2,308.4
2,337.6

260.5
286.9
301.1
340.6

275.9
303.2
296.4
339.5

93.8
103.9
100.1
116.0

182.1
199.3
196.3
223.4

153.4
150.1
150.8
156.3

28.7
49.2
45.5
67.2

−14.6
−15.6
7.9
−4.0

1994: I ..........
II .........
III ........
IV ........

3,594.4
3,664.9
3,707.2
3,786.9

427.9
404.3
408.7
410.4

3,166.5
3,260.6
3,298.5
3,376.6

372.6
376.5
382.1
387.2

2,793.9
2,884.1
2,916.4
2,989.4

2,374.6
2,419.7
2,443.8
2,497.1

323.6
366.3
374.2
394.3

346.0
364.4
378.0
401.8

121.0
126.9
130.9
140.6

225.0
237.5
247.1
261.1

154.9
160.9
161.0
170.2

70.1
76.7
86.1
91.0

−3.9 −18.4
−9.8 11.7
−16.5 12.7
−22.8 15.3

1995: I ..........
II .........
III ........

3,796.4 415.0 3,381.4 394.1 2,987.3 2,521.8
3,832.4 421.3 3.411.1 401.1 3,009.9 2,543.5
3,916.2 426.4 3,489.8 401.7 3,088.1 2,581.7

364.6
364.5
404.7

405.1
397.9
406.0

142.2
138.5
141.3

262.9
259.4
264.7

172.1
176.1
174.9

90.8
83.3
89.7

−51.9
−42.3
−9.8

Year or
quarter

Domestic income

Total

Indirect
business
taxes 1

Corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital
consumption adjustments

Total

Compensation of
employees

Profits

Inventory
valuation
Divi- Undis- adjustdends tributed
profits ment

Profits after tax
Total

1 Indirect

Profits Profits
before tax
tax liability Total

business tax and nontax liability plus business transfer payments less subsidies.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




292

Capital Net
con- intersump- est
tion
adjustment

−.7 103.6
−.7 100.7
−3.3 97.5
5.1 96.7
95.7
98.1
98.4
97.9

11.4 101.0
8.9 101.9
8.5 101.7

TABLE B–11.—Output, costs, and profits of nonfinancial corporate business, 1959–95
[Quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]

Year or quarter

Gross domestic
product of
nonfinancial
corporate
business
(billions of
dollars)

Current-dollar cost and profit per unit of real output (dollars) 1

Total
cost
and
profit 2

Consumption
of
fixed
capital

Indirect
business
taxes 3

Compensation
of
employees

Corporate profits with
inventory valuation and
capital consumption
adjustments
Profits
tax
liability

Profits
after
tax 4

Net
interest

Current
dollars

Chained
(1992)
dollars

1959 ...........................................................

267.5

921.6

0.290

0.028

0.028

0.186

0.044

0.023

0.022

0.003

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................

278.1
285.5
311.7
331.8
358.1

947.5
967.6
1,046.8
1,110.7
1,189.4

.294
.295
.298
.299
.301

.029
.029
.027
.027
.026

.030
.031
.031
.031
.031

.191
.192
.191
.190
.191

.040
.040
.044
.047
.049

.020
.020
.020
.021
.020

.020
.020
.025
.026
.029

.004
.004
.004
.004
.004

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................

393.5
431.0
453.4
500.5
543.3

1,283.6
1,363.1
1,396.5
1,488.1
1,545.6

.307
.316
.325
.336
.351

.026
.027
.029
.029
.031

.031
.030
.031
.033
.035

.192
.201
.209
.217
.232

.053
.053
.050
.049
.045

.021
.022
.020
.023
.022

.032
.032
.030
.027
.023

.005
.005
.006
.007
.009

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................

561.4
606.4
673.3
754.5
814.6

1,525.5
1,592.0
1,717.2
1,811.4
1,780.6

.368
.381
.392
.416
.457

.034
.035
.036
.037
.044

.039
.041
.040
.042
.046

.248
.253
.260
.279
.313

.036
.041
.044
.045
.039

.018
.019
.020
.022
.024

.018
.022
.025
.023
.015

.011
.011
.011
.012
.016

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................

881.2
995.3
1,125.4
1,284.1
1,429.7

1,744.6
1,892.2
2,041.1
2,165.7
2,214.2

.505
.526
.551
.593
.646

.054
.055
.062
.066
.074

.050
.050
.051
.054
.057

.333
.347
.364
.394
.437

.052
.059
.060
.063
.058

.024
.028
.029
.031
.031

.028
.031
.031
.032
.026

.016
.015
.015
.017
.020

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................

1,553.8
1,767.3
1,823.4
1,950.3
2,187.5

2,222.2
2,328.8
2,298.8
2,407.8
2,634.6

.699
.759
.793
.810
.830

.085
.094
.102
.103
.097

.064
.073
.075
.078
.080

.476
.503
.529
.532
.540

.048
.058
.051
.064
.081

.030
.027
.020
.025
.028

.018
.031
.030
.040
.053

.026
.031
.036
.032
.033

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................

2,319.3
2,416.3
2,589.6
2,805.2
2,950.9

2,748.0
2,832.4
2,967.0
3,122.1
3,175.4

.844
.853
.873
.898
.929

.097
.100
.100
.101
.106

.082
.083
.083
.084
.088

.554
.566
.578
.591
.614

.079
.069
.076
.082
.075

.025
.027
.031
.033
.031

.053
.042
.044
.050
.044

.033
.035
.035
.039
.046

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................

3,084.0
3,132.1
3,262.6
3,437.5
3,688.4

3,212.5
3,168.8
3,262.6
3,380.0
3,567.1

.960
.988
1.000
1.017
1.034

.110
.116
.115
.115
.116

.092
.100
.103
.105
.106

.640
.660
.673
.679
.682

.072
.070
.077
.088
.102

.030
.027
.028
.031
.036

.042
.043
.049
.057
.066

.046
.042
.032
.029
.027

1990: I ........................................................
II ......................................................
III .....................................................
IV .....................................................

3,042.8
3,103.0
3,092.7
3,097.4

3,208.3
3,243.0
3,208.5
3,190.2

.948
.957
.964
.971

.108
.108
.111
.112

.091
.090
.093
.095

.630
.634
.647
.649

.074
.078
.067
.068

.028
.030
.032
.030

.046
.049
.035
.039

.046
.046
.046
.046

1991: I ........................................................
II ......................................................
III .....................................................
IV .....................................................

3,107.7
3,119.1
3,142.0
3,159.5

3,164.3
3,158.4
3,170.1
3,182.5

.982
.988
.991
.993

.115
.116
.116
.116

.098
.099
.101
.103

.651
.658
.663
.667

.074
.071
.069
.068

.026
.027
.027
.027

.047
.044
.042
.041

.045
.044
.041
.039

1992: I ........................................................
II ......................................................
III .....................................................
IV .....................................................

3,202.2
3,236.1
3,270.5
3,341.7

3,216.6
3,238.1
3,267.3
3,328.5

.996
.999
1.001
1.004

.115
.115
.119
.113

.103
.102
.103
.105

.669
.674
.676
.672

.075
.075
.072
.085

.026
.029
.028
.030

.049
.046
.044
.055

.034
.033
.031
.030

1993: I ........................................................
II ......................................................
III .....................................................
IV .....................................................

3,345.3
3,407.8
3,458.7
3,538.0

3,304.0
3,357.4
3,398.4
3,460.1

1.012
1.015
1.018
1.023

.116
.115
.116
.114

.105
.105
.105
.107

.681
.679
.679
.676

.079
.085
.089
.098

.028
.031
.029
.034

.050
.055
.059
.065

.031
.030
.029
.028

1994: I ........................................................
II ......................................................
III .....................................................
IV .....................................................

3,594.4
3,664.9
3,707.2
3,786.9

3,496.2
3,554.5
3,576.2
3,641.5

1.028
1.031
1.037
1.040

.122
.114
.114
.113

.107
.106
.107
.106

.679
.681
.683
.686

.093
.103
.105
.108

.035
.036
.037
.039

.058
.067
.068
.070

.027
.028
.028
.027

1995: I ........................................................
II ......................................................
III .....................................................

3,796.4
3,832.4
3,916.2

3,631.6
3,646.1
3,715.2

1.045
1.051
1.054

.114
.116
.115

.109
.110
.108

.694
.698
.695

.100
.100
.109

.039
.038
.038

.061
.062
.071

.028
.028
.027

Total

1 Output is measured by gross domestic product of nonfinancial corporate business in chained (1992) dollars.
2 This is equal to the deflator for gross domestic product of nonfinancial corporate business with the decimal point shifted two places to
the left.
3 Indirect business tax and nontax liability plus business transfer payments less subsidies.
4 With inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




293

TABLE B–12—Personal consumption expenditures, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Durable goods

Year or
quarter

Nondurable goods

Personal
FurniconMotor ture
sumption
vehiand
expendi- Total 1 cles housetures
and
hold
parts equipment

Total 1

Food

Cloth- Gasoing
line
and
and
shoes
oil

Services

Fuel
oil
and
coal

Household
operation
Total 1 Housing 2

Trans- MediElec- portacal
tion
care
Total 1 tricity
and
gas

1959 ...............

318.1

42.7

18.9

18.1

148.5

80.7

26.4

11.3

4.0

127.0

45.0

18.7

7.6

10.5

16.4

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

332.2
342.6
363.4
383.0
411.4

43.3
41.8
46.9
51.6
56.7

19.7
17.8
21.5
24.4
26.0

18.0
18.3
19.3
20.7
23.2

152.9
156.6
162.8
168.2
178.7

82.3
84.0
86.1
88.3
93.6

27.0
27.6
29.0
29.8
32.4

12.0
12.0
12.6
13.0
13.6

3.8
3.8
3.8
4.0
4.1

136.0
144.3
153.7
163.2
176.1

48.2
51.2
54.7
58.0
61.4

20.3
21.2
22.4
23.6
25.0

8.3
8.8
9.4
9.9
10.4

11.2
11.7
12.2
12.7
13.4

17.6
18.7
20.8
22.6
25.8

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

444.3
481.9
509.5
559.8
604.7

63.3
68.3
70.4
80.8
85.9

29.9
30.3
30.0
36.1
38.4

25.1
28.2
30.0
32.9
34.7

191.6
208.8
217.1
235.7
253.2

100.7
109.3
112.5
122.2
131.5

34.1
37.4
39.2
43.2
46.5

14.8
16.0
17.1
18.6
20.5

4.4
4.7
4.8
4.7
4.6

189.4
204.8
222.0
243.4
265.5

65.4
69.5
74.1
79.7
86.8

26.5
28.2
30.2
32.3
35.1

10.9
11.5
12.2
13.0
14.0

14.5
15.9
17.3
18.9
20.9

28.0
30.7
33.9
39.2
44.7

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

648.1 85.0
702.5 96.9
770.7 110.4
851.6 123.5
931.2 122.3

35.5
44.5
51.1
56.1
49.5

35.7
37.8
42.4
47.9
51.5

272.0
285.5
308.0
343.1
384.5

143.8
149.7
161.4
179.6
201.8

47.8
51.7
56.4
62.5
66.0

21.9
23.2
24.4
28.1
36.1

4.4
4.6
5.1
6.3
7.8

291.1
320.1
352.3
384.9
424.4

94.0
102.7
112.1
122.7
134.1

37.8
41.0
45.3
49.8
55.5

15.2
16.6
18.4
20.0
23.5

23.7
27.1
29.8
31.2
33.3

50.4
56.9
63.8
71.6
80.6

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

1,029.1
1,148.8
1,277.1
1,428.8
1,593.5

133.5
158.9
181.1
201.4
213.9

54.8
71.3
83.5
93.1
93.5

54.5
60.2
67.1
74.0
82.3

420.6
458.2
496.9
549.9
624.0

223.1 70.8
242.4 76.6
262.4 84.1
289.2 94.3
324.2 101.2

39.7
43.0
46.9
50.1
66.2

8.4
10.1
11.1
11.5
14.4

475.0
531.8
599.0
677.4
755.6

147.0 63.7
161.5 72.4
179.5 81.9
201.7 91.2
226.6 100.0

28.5
32.5
37.6
42.1
46.8

35.7
41.3
49.2
53.5
59.1

93.5
106.7
123.0
140.0
158.0

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

1,760.4
1,941.3
2,076.8
2,283.4
2,492.3

213.5 87.0
230.5 95.8
239.3 102.9
279.8 126.9
325.1 152.5

86.0
91.3
92.5
105.3
117.2

695.5
758.2
786.8
830.3
883.6

355.4
382.8
402.6
422.9
446.3

107.3
117.2
120.5
130.9
142.5

86.7
97.9
94.1
93.1
94.6

15.4 851.4 255.2 113.0
15.8 952.6 287.9 126.0
14.5 1,050.7 313.2 141.4
13.6 1,173.3 339.0 155.9
13.9 1,283.6 370.6 168.0

56.3
63.4
72.6
80.7
84.7

64.7
68.7
70.9
79.4
90.0

181.2
213.0
239.4
267.8
294.1

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

2,704.8
2,892.7
3,094.5
3,349.7
3,594.8

361.1
398.7
416.7
451.0
472.8

175.7
192.4
193.1
207.5
214.4

126.3 927.6 466.5 152.1
140.3 957.2 490.8 163.1
150.4 1,014.0 513.9 174.4
162.8 1,081.1 551.2 185.9
173.3 1,163.8 588.4 199.9

97.2
80.1
85.4
87.1
96.6

13.6
11.3
11.2
11.4
11.4

1,416.1
1,536.8
1,663.8
1,817.6
1,958.1

407.1
442.2
476.6
512.9
547.4

180.3
186.9
194.9
206.6
219.8

88.8
87.2
88.9
94.1
98.8

100.0
107.3
118.2
130.5
137.8

321.8
346.1
381.1
428.7
477.1

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

3,839.3
3,975.1
4,219.8
4,454.1
4,698.7

476.5
455.2
488.5
530.7
580.9

210.3
187.6
206.9
226.1
245.3

176.0
178.5
189.4
205.5
226.8

1,245.3
1,277.6
1,321.8
1,368.9
1,429.7

630.5
650.0
660.0
685.7
715.7

205.9
211.3
225.5
235.7
247.8

109.2
103.9
106.6
108.1
109.9

12.0
11.3
10.9
10.6
10.1

2,117.5
2,242.3
2,409.4
2,554.6
2,688.1

586.3
616.5
646.8
673.2
706.6

226.3
237.6
248.2
268.5
278.9

98.7
104.9
106.6
115.9
115.6

143.7
145.3
158.1
169.6
181.3

537.7
586.5
646.6
697.4
739.1

1990: I ............
II ..........
III .........
IV .........

3,759.2
3.811.8
3,879.2
3,907.0

493.3
477.6
473.2
461.9

223.4
211.5
208.5
198.0

178.9
176.4
175.0
173.7

1,220.7
1,230.2
1,256.2
1,274.1

617.6
627.5
637.1
639.7

205.8
205.6
206.8
205.5

102.8
100.4
109.6
124.1

11.5
11.3
12.7
12.6

2,045.3
2.104.1
2,149.8
2,171.0

571.1
581.5
593.5
599.2

219.1 93.5
227.0 99.5
229.6 101.0
229.6 100.9

141.5
143.2
144.2
145.8

514.2
530.6
547.2
558.8

1991: I ............
II ..........
III .........
IV .........

3,910.7
3,961.0
4,001.6
4,027.1

449.0
452.7
462.0
457.3

183.6
183.3
192.5
191.1

175.2
179.7
180.6
178.3

1,268.3
1,279.7
1,283.4
1,279.0

644.0
652.9
653.2
649.8

207.2
212.7
214.1
211.1

108.4
103.6
102.1
101.4

11.9
10.8
11.3
11.0

2,193.5
2,228.6
2,256.3
2,290.7

605.8
612.9
619.7
627.5

230.7
239.9
240.5
239.3

101.6
108.1
106.1
104.0

143.0
143.9
145.9
148.5

568.2
578.6
591.3
607.7

1992: I ............
II ..........
III .........
IV .........

4,127.6
4,183.0
4,238.9
4,329.6

474.1
481.3
492.5
506.2

199.1
204.0
208.3
216.1

184.8
186.5
190.6
195.5

1,303.1
1,308.4
1,326.3
1,349.5

657.3
652.3
657.9
672.3

219.6
222.3
228.1
232.1

102.3
105.8
109.4
108.9

10.4
11.8
10.6
10.8

2,350.4
2,393.3
2,420.1
2,473.9

636.6
643.4
649.9
657.4

241.5
248.8
243.6
259.0

102.1
106.2
106.6
111.4

154.9
156.9
156.0
164.5

624.2
640.6
655.0
666.8

1993: I ............
II ..........
III .........
IV .........

4,367.8
4,424.7
4,481.0
4,543.0

508.3
525.2
536.7
552.3

214.2
225.4
228.3
236.4

198.3
202.1
207.7
213.9

1,354.1
1,364.2
1,371.4
1,386.1

676.5
683.0
687.9
695.5

230.6
234.0
236.7
241.3

110.6
108.0
106.6
107.1

10.9
10.6
10.6
10.4

2,505.3
2,535.4
2,572.9
2,604.6

663.7
670.1
675.9
683.2

260.8
264.2
273.6
275.5

113.2
113.3
118.6
118.5

166.7
168.4
170.0
173.4

681.9
691.9
702.9
712.7

1994: I ............
II ..........
III .........
IV .........

4,599.2
4,665.1
4,734.4
4,796.0

562.6
573.1
585.3
602.7

243.3
242.4
245.0
250.7

216.0
223.4
230.2
237.6

1,399.7
1,416.6
1,443.5
1,459.0

701.4
710.7
721.1
729.5

242.8
245.4
249.4
253.8

105.9
106.4
113.4
113.9

11.3
9.8
9.9
9.3

2,636.8
2,675.4
2,705.6
2,734.4

693.2
701.6
711.3
720.3

270.4
282.5
281.6
281.2

117.3
119.2
114.4
111.6

176.5
180.6
183.2
185.0

722.4
732.9
743.6
757.5

1995: I ............
II ..........
III .........

4,836.3 593.0 240.6
4,908.7 604.0 248.3
4,965.1 616.0 254.0

237.1 1,471.6 738.4 252.8 116.2
239.2 1,486.9 744.6 254.3 118.3
244.3 1,491.3 750.9 255.5 113.1

1 Includes

other items not shown separately.
imputed rental value of owner-occupied housing.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.

2 Includes




294

9.5 2,771.7 729.8 286.3 113.6
10.4 2,817.9 739.0 293.7 118.2
9.8 2,857.8 747.7 300.0 123.4

187.1 771.0
191.6 779.5
194.2 787.9

TABLE B–13.—Real personal consumption expenditures, 1959–95
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]

Year or
quarter

Durable goods
Personal
Furnicon
Motor ture
sumpvehiand
tion
Total 1 cles houseexpendand
hold
itures
parts equipment

Nondurable goods

Total 1

Food

Cloth- Gasoing
line
and
and
shoes
oil

Services

Fuel
oil
and
coal

Household
operation
Total 1

Housing 2
Total 1

Electricity
and
gas

Trans- Mediporcal
tation care

1959 ...............

1,394.6

103.1

53.5

31.7

606.3

355.9

68.6

46.9

26.7

687.4

195.4

79.7

36.9

55.1 132.7

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

1,432.6
1,461.5
1,533.8
1,596.6
1,692.3

105.2
101.2
113.0
124.0
135.5

56.8
51.2
60.8
68.4
72.4

31.3
31.9
33.9
36.4
41.1

615.4
626.7
646.5
660.0
692.5

358.7
362.7
367.3
371.4
386.3

69.3
70.6
73.7
75.1
81.0

48.5
49.0
51.1
52.7
55.5

25.6
24.4
24.3
25.5
26.5

717.4
746.5
783.4
818.7
868.4

205.6
215.3
227.4
237.9
249.0

83.5
86.5
90.7
94.6
99.2

38.9
40.9
43.7
45.8
48.3

56.9
57.5
59.7
62.1
65.4

136.7
141.7
153.3
162.7
180.5

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

1,799.1
1,902.0
1,958.6
2,070.2
2,147.5

152.6
165.5
168.1
186.6
193.3

84.0
85.5
83.6
97.2
101.2

44.9
50.7
53.1
56.5
58.0

729.3
769.2
781.4
816.9
838.6

407.9
424.7
430.2
450.9
462.5

84.3
90.0
90.5
94.3
96.0

58.2
61.8
63.8
68.2
72.8

27.7
914.6
28.5
961.0
28.6 1,007.6
27.0 1,059.6
25.6 1,110.8

262.6
274.6
286.8
300.9
316.8

104.2
109.8
115.3
119.9
125.9

50.6
53.4
56.4
59.4
62.7

68.4
72.7
77.2
81.9
86.5

188.9
197.6
204.8
220.8
237.2

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

2,197.8
2,279.5
2,415.9
2,532.6
2,514.7

187.0
205.7
231.9
255.8
238.2

91.2
108.7
124.3
135.7
112.5

58.6
60.9
67.5
74.8
75.6

859.1
874.5
912.9
942.9
924.5

477.2
481.6
496.8
498.4
490.6

94.8
99.4
106.1
113.5
111.9

77.3
81.1
84.4
88.8
84.4

23.8
23.0
25.3
27.5
21.7

1,155.4
1,197.9
1,262.5
1,319.4
1,351.2

329.3
343.5
361.5
379.4
399.1

130.2
132.2
138.9
146.0
147.5

65.4
67.2
70.8
72.8
73.7

89.1
92.3
98.1
100.6
101.1

250.8
268.3
286.4
307.6
320.2

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

2,570.0
2,714.3
2,829.8
2,951.6
3,020.2

238.1
268.5
293.4
308.8
307.3

113.2
136.8
151.5
158.0
147.4

73.9
938.3
78.8
984.8
85.5 1,010.4
90.5 1,045.7
95.4 1,069.7

502.6
529.4
541.2
545.7
555.1

115.7
121.2
127.8
139.9
145.8

86.9
90.4
93.2
95.3
94.0

21.3
23.9
23.1
23.0
21.3

1,398.3
1,457.1
1,518.2
1,589.3
1,639.8

410.6
422.9
433.3
454.5
472.7

154.6
161.4
170.3
178.6
183.3

77.8
80.5
84.4
87.6
88.3

103.0
107.3
114.8
118.0
121.7

337.3
353.5
371.2
385.7
401.1

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

3,009.7
3,046.4
3,081.5
3,240.6
3,407.6

282.6
285.8
285.5
327.4
374.9

127.5
130.5
133.9
160.5
187.7

93.5
93.5
91.3
103.5
115.5

1,065.1
1,074.3
1,080.6
1,112.4
1,151.8

558.7
557.9
565.1
579.7
589.9

148.1
156.0
157.1
167.3
179.9

88.6
89.9
91.0
93.0
95.9

16.5
13.8
12.8
12.9
12.8

1,670.7
1,696.1
1,728.2
1,809.0
1,883.0

486.6
497.8
500.9
511.8
531.8

187.4
185.9
187.0
193.0
197.7

90.7
89.4
90.3
93.0
93.6

115.6
111.7
109.9
117.0
128.6

415.5
436.4
442.2
459.7
472.4

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

3,566.5
3,708.7
3,822.3
3,972.7
4,064.6

411.4
448.4
454.9
483.5
496.2

211.2
224.8
216.2
229.4
230.3

125.3
140.6
149.9
160.8
170.9

1,178.3
1,215.9
1,239.3
1,274.4
1,303.5

602.2
614.0
620.8
641.6
650.1

186.5
199.9
205.4
210.0
220.7

97.8
102.5
105.3
106.5
108.1

13.0
13.4
13.0
13.2
12.6

1,977.3
2,041.4
2,126.9
2,212.4
2,262.3

551.1
565.5
583.4
600.9
614.6

205.6
209.8
219.4
229.2
237.6

96.1
95.1
98.4
103.4
105.6

140.6
145.7
151.0
159.0
160.8

490.7
510.3
537.3
561.3
575.8

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

4,132.2
4,105.8
4,219.8
4,339.7
4,471.1

493.3
462.0
488.5
524.1
562.0

224.3
193.2
206.9
218.6
228.2

173.5
177.0
189.4
208.4
230.1

1,316.1
1,302.9
1,321.8
1,348.9
1,390.5

662.9
659.6
660.0
674.3
689.1

217.9
215.9
225.5
233.3
247.2

107.3
103.4
106.6
109.1
110.4

11.2
10.8
10.9
10.7
10.3

2,321.3
2,341.0
2,409.4
2,466.8
2,519.4

627.2
635.2
646.8
655.0
668.2

240.1
243.4
248.2
261.2
266.0

103.7
107.0
106.6
112.4
111.5

159.9
152.3
158.1
162.6
171.3

602.8
621.6
646.6
658.8
668.8

1990: I ............
II ...........
III ..........
IV ..........

4,128.9
4,134.7
4,148.5
4,116.4

511.2
495.4
490.4
476.3

237.6
226.4
223.1
210.0

176.0
173.9
172.5
171.5

1,319.2
1,316.9
1,319.8
1,308.4

659.0
664.2
665.5
662.9

221.5
217.3
217.6
215.1

109.3
107.5
107.4
104.9

10.7
11.8
12.3
9.9

2,295.7
2,321.1
2,337.3
2,331.2

623.4
626.3
628.5
630.6

233.7
241.3
243.7
241.9

98.6
104.8
106.2
105.3

161.7
160.9
159.7
157.3

591.9
600.7
608.0
610.6

1991: I ............
II ...........
III ..........
IV ..........

4,084.5
4,110.0
4,119.5
4,109.1

458.6
460.5
467.3
461.5

191.4
189.6
197.2
194.6

173.0
177.7
179.2
178.0

1,300.6
1,308.0
1,307.1
1,295.7

658.7
661.5
661.6
656.5

214.0
218.9
217.5
213.1

103.3
104.0
103.8
102.5

10.4
10.8
11.4
10.6

2,325.3
2,341.5
2,345.0
2,352.0

631.6
634.1
636.4
638.6

238.2
246.9
246.1
242.5

103.5
110.9
108.5
105.1

152.6
152.1
151.8
152.6

614.3
617.9
623.3
630.8

1992: I ............
II ...........
III ..........
IV ..........

4,173.8
4,196.4
4,226.7
4,282.3

476.1
481.1
491.9
505.0

201.7
204.5
207.4
213.9

183.7
186.0
191.3
196.4

1,314.4
1,312.0
1,321.1
1,339.8

661.0
653.9
656.4
668.6

220.4
223.2
227.7
230.9

104.8
106.1
108.2
107.3

10.5
11.9
10.5
10.7

2,383.2
2,403.2
2,413.6
2,437.6

642.6
645.5
648.5
650.6

243.6
249.9
243.3
256.1

103.2
106.8
106.6
109.7

155.4
156.7
160.5
159.6

638.2
645.9
650.3
652.2

1993: I ............
II ...........
III ..........
IV ..........

4,290.0
4,319.0
4,359.7
4,390.0

506.0
519.6
528.9
541.9

210.8
219.0
219.1
225.4

200.8
205.1
211.0
216.8

1,336.9
1,344.7
1,354.2
1,359.8

670.5
672.9
675.7
677.9

227.4
232.3
235.0
238.6

108.2
108.0
110.9
109.3

10.9
10.6
10.7
10.6

2,447.0
2,454.9
2,476.7
2,488.6

652.2
653.5
655.9
658.5

257.0
258.0
264.9
265.0

111.6
110.0
114.1
113.7

160.6
161.5
162.8
165.7

656.6
657.5
659.7
661.4

1994: I ............
II ...........
III ..........
IV ..........

4,418.8
4,457.7
4,485.8
4,522.3

549.6
555.4
563.0
579.9

230.3
226.7
226.4
229.4

219.0
226.1
232.5
242.7

1,372.7
1,383.7
1,397.2
1,408.4

682.2
688.5
690.6
695.1

241.1
243.3
249.0
255.5

108.8
109.5
111.6
111.6

11.4
10.0
10.2
9.6

2,497.0
2,519.0
2,526.3
2,535.1

662.1
666.1
670.7
674.1

258.8
269.8
268.1
267.1

112.9
115.1
110.4
107.6

168.2
170.3
172.1
174.5

663.2
667.6
670.4
674.2

1995: I ............
II ...........
III ..........

4,530.9
4,568.8
4,601.1

566.9
576.6
589.8

216.2
220.7
226.1

243.3 1,416.8
247.5 1,423.5
254.9 1,425.3

700.7
701.6
703.9

254.6
258.0
258.9

113.4
113.6
112.5

9.9 2,548.1
10.6 2,569.6
10.0 2,586.9

677.4
680.0
682.9

270.1
277.3
282.0

109.4
114.3
118.7

175.7 677.8
175.9 681.3
176.4 686.1

1 Includes

other items not shown separately.
imputed rental value of owner-occupied housing.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.

2 Includes




295

TABLE B–14.—Private gross fixed investment by type, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Nonresidential
Structures

Year or
quarter

Private
fixed
investment

Total
nonresidential

Producers’ durable equipment
Information processing and
related equipment

Total 1

Nonresidential
buildings
including
farm

Utilities

Mining
exploration,
shafts,
and
wells

Total 1
Total

Computers and
peripheral
equipment 2

Other

Industrial
equipment

Transportation and
related
equipment

Residential

1959 .......

74.6

46.5

18.1

10.6

4.9

2.5

28.3

4.0

0.0

4.0

8.4

8.3

28.1

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

75.5
75.0
81.8
87.7
96.7

49.2
48.6
52.8
55.6
62.4

19.6
19.7
20.8
21.2
23.7

12.0
12.7
13.7
13.9
15.8

5.0
4.6
4.6
5.0
5.4

2.3
2.3
2.5
2.3
2.4

29.7
28.9
32.1
34.4
38.7

4.7
5.1
5.4
6.1
6.8

.2
.3
.3
.7
.9

4.5
4.8
5.1
5.3
5.8

9.3
8.7
9.2
10.0
11.4

8.5
8.0
9.8
9.4
10.6

26.3
26.4
29.0
32.1
34.3

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

108.3
116.7
117.6
130.8
145.5

74.1
84.4
85.2
92.1
102.9

28.3
31.3
31.5
33.6
37.7

19.5
21.3
20.6
21.1
24.4

6.1
7.1
7.8
9.2
9.6

2.4
2.5
2.4
2.6
2.8

45.8
53.0
53.7
58.5
65.2

7.8
9.6
10.0
10.6
12.9

1.2
1.7
1.9
1.9
2.4

6.6
7.9
8.1
8.6
10.4

13.6
16.1
16.8
17.2
18.9

13.2
14.5
14.3
17.6
18.9

34.2
32.3
32.4
38.7
42.6

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

148.1
167.5
195.7
225.4
231.5

106.7
111.7
126.1
150.0
165.6

40.3
42.7
47.2
55.0
61.2

25.4
27.1
30.1
35.5
38.3

11.1
11.9
13.1
15.0
16.5

2.8
2.7
3.1
3.5
5.2

66.4
69.1
78.9
95.1
104.3

14.3
14.9
16.5
19.8
22.9

2.7
2.8
3.5
3.5
3.9

11.6
12.1
13.1
16.3
19.0

20.2
19.4
21.3
25.9
30.5

16.2
18.4
21.8
26.6
26.3

41.4
55.8
69.7
75.3
66.0

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

231.7
269.6
333.5
403.6
464.0

169.0
187.2
223.2
272.0
323.0

61.4
65.9
74.6
91.4
114.9

35.6
35.9
39.9
49.7
65.7

17.1
20.0
21.5
24.1
27.5

7.4
8.6
11.5
15.4
19.0

107.6
121.2
148.7
180.6
208.1

23.5
27.2
33.1
41.8
49.9

3.6
4.4
5.7
7.6
10.2

19.9
22.8
27.5
34.2
39.8

31.1
33.9
39.2
47.4
55.8

25.2
30.0
39.3
47.3
53.6

62.7
82.5
110.3
131.6
141.0

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

473.5
528.1
515.6
552.0
648.1

350.3
405.4
409.9
399.4
468.3

133.9
164.6
175.0
152.7
176.0

73.7
86.3
94.5
90.5
110.0

30.2
33.0
32.5
28.7
30.0

27.4
42.5
44.8
30.0
31.3

216.4
240.9
234.9
246.7
292.3

58.9
69.5
72.7
82.0
98.6

12.5
17.1
18.9
23.9
31.6

46.4
52.3
53.9
58.1
67.0

60.4
65.2
62.2
58.2
67.4

48.4
50.6
46.8
53.7
64.8

123.2
122.6
105.7
152.5
179.8

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

688.9
712.9
722.9
763.1
797.5

502.0
494.8
495.4
530.6
566.2

193.3
175.8
172.1
181.3
192.3

128.0
123.3
126.0
133.3
142.7

30.6
31.2
26.5
27.1
29.4

27.9
15.7
13.1
15.7
14.4

308.7
319.0
323.3
349.3
373.9

104.2
108.8
109.8
118.2
127.1

33.7
33.4
35.8
38.1
43.3

70.5
75.4
74.0
80.1
83.8

71.7
74.6
75.9
82.9
91.5

69.7
71.8
70.4
76.0
71.2

186.9
218.1
227.6
232.5
231.3

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

791.6
738.5
783.4
850.5
954.9

575.9
547.3
557.9
598.8
667.2

200.8
181.7
169.2
171.8
180.2

148.9
126.1
113.2
116.6
126.2

27.5
31.6
34.5
32.0
33.7

17.5
17.1
13.3
15.6
13.5

375.1
365.6
388.7
427.0
487.0

124.2
122.6
134.2
141.8
160.4

38.9
38.1
43.9
48.7
54.5

85.2
84.5
90.2
93.0
106.0

89.8
86.4
89.3
97.6
109.7

75.5
79.5
86.2
99.2
117.1

215.7
191.2
225.6
251.7
287.7

1990: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

813.9
794.0
791.2
767.5

581.2
571.6
580.3
570.6

201.9
202.4
203.5
195.4

150.8
151.2
151.4
142.1

27.0
27.0
27.5
28.4

16.8
17.6
17.6
18.1

379.3
369.2
376.7
375.1

127.8
123.9
121.5
123.4

41.3
38.9
36.8
38.6

86.5
85.0
84.7
84.7

91.7
88.9
90.3
88.1

74.0
71.4
78.5
78.3

232.7
222.4
210.9
196.9

1991: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

739.7
736.2
738.6
739.5

555.4
550.2
544.3
539.2

192.3
187.6
176.1
170.8

136.4
130.9
121.4
115.7

30.0
31.3
32.3
33.0

19.4
18.9
15.2
15.0

363.1
362.6
368.2
368.4

119.3
121.6
123.5
125.9

36.7
37.2
37.8
40.7

82.7
84.5
85.6
85.2

87.8
86.4
86.3
85.2

78.1
77.3
81.9
80.6

184.3
185.9
194.3
200.3

1992: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

755.4
780.5
788.1
809.7

544.1
556.8
561.0
569.6

171.6
170.4
167.6
167.1

117.2
114.0
110.6
111.0

34.3
34.8
34.7
34.2

12.8
13.3
13.3
13.8

372.5
386.3
393.4
402.5

129.2
133.0
137.7
136.8

41.9
44.4
44.6
44.9

87.3
88.6
93.1
91.9

86.2
87.7
90.5
92.8

79.5
87.8
85.5
91.9

211.3
223.7
227.1
240.1

1993: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

823.8
834.3
851.8
892.3

580.3
591.1
599.2
624.6

170.2
169.7
171.4
175.8

113.6
113.8
117.1
121.8

32.8
31.9
31.7
31.7

15.8
16.0
15.5
15.1

410.1
421.3
427.7
448.8

136.8
137.9
144.5
148.0

47.2
46.8
49.7
51.2

89.6
91.0
94.8
96.8

94.3
95.6
97.8
102.8

94.0
100.9
97.0
105.1

243.5
243.2
252.6
267.7

1994: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

917.4
942.0
968.9
991.4

638.8
653.5
678.5
697.9

171.8
179.1
181.0
188.8

118.7
125.3
126.4
134.4

32.3
33.0
34.2
35.2

14.4
14.1
13.0
12.4

467.0
474.4
497.5
509.1

152.5
157.7
161.6
169.9

52.1
53.7
54.4
57.7

100.4
104.0
107.2
112.2

105.4
107.6
111.3
114.6

113.0
110.5
122.9
122.1

278.5
288.5
290.4
293.5

1995: I ....
II ...
III ..

1,013.9
1,016.3
1,036.5

723.6
734.4
746.3

194.5
197.6
202.3

137.9
140.3
143.9

36.3
37.9
39.4

13.2
11.5
11.9

529.0
536.8
544.0

174.6
183.3
183.1

58.4
62.8
63.3

116.2
120.6
119.7

120.4
126.9
125.8

127.2
121.0
128.6

290.4
281.9
290.2

1 Includes

other items, not shown separately.
new computers and peripheral equipment only.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.

2 Includes




296

TABLE B–15.—Real private gross fixed investment by type, 1959–95
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Nonresidential
Structures

Year or
quarter

Private
fixed
investment

Total
nonresidential

Producers’ durable equipment
Information processing
and related equipment

Total 1

Nonresidential
buildings
including
farm

Utilities

Mining
exploration,
shafts,
and
wells

Total 1
Total

Computers and
peripheral
equipment 2

Other

Industrial
equipment

Transportation
and related
equipment

Residential

1959 .......

267.1

147.7

85.8

52.4

20.2

11.0

71.4

2.5 ...............

9.8

38.8

28.0

131.1

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

269.2
267.9
292.0
313.7
343.7

155.9
154.5
168.0
176.4
197.1

92.6
93.9
98.1
99.2
109.5

59.9
63.3
67.4
67.5
75.0

20.4
18.9
19.0
20.4
22.2

10.3
10.5
11.0
10.4
11.1

74.3
72.5
81.0
87.1
98.1

3.0
3.2
3.6
4.1
4.6

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

11.1
11.8
12.5
13.0
14.1

41.9
39.7
41.8
45.1
51.0

28.8
27.0
33.4
32.1
36.3

121.8
122.2
133.9
149.6
158.3

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

378.5
399.1
391.0
418.1
442.9

231.3
259.4
255.3
266.4
285.6

126.9
135.6
132.2
134.1
141.3

89.4
94.2
88.7
86.2
92.7

24.4
27.8
29.8
33.3
33.4

11.0
10.4
9.9
10.0
10.4

115.9
133.8
132.5
140.5
152.2

5.5
7.1
7.5
8.0
9.7

...............
...............
...............
...............
0.1

16.0
18.9
18.9
19.5
22.8

60.2
69.2
69.5
68.1
72.6

45.5
50.1
48.4
58.2
60.5

153.7
140.0
135.6
154.0
158.6

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

432.1
464.9
520.3
567.5
530.2

282.8
282.4
307.7
352.5
354.4

141.7
139.4
143.7
155.4
152.2

91.1
89.4
91.8
100.3
97.6

35.7
36.1
37.6
40.0
37.6

9.8
9.1
9.7
10.4
12.3

149.5
150.7
169.8
201.2
205.4

10.7
11.4
12.9
15.4
17.5

.1
.1
.2
.2
.2

24.5
24.7
26.0
31.7
34.8

73.7
67.7
73.0
86.2
92.8

49.7
53.6
62.3
75.0
67.9

149.1
190.0
223.7
222.3
176.4

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

471.0
517.6
593.7
660.8
695.6

317.3
332.6
371.8
422.6
463.3

136.2
139.6
146.4
162.3
182.7

82.5
80.6
83.6
95.3
113.5

34.4
38.0
38.2
40.0
41.3

14.4
15.6
18.0
20.0
21.3

183.9
195.2
225.6
259.6
280.7

16.9
19.4
24.1
31.7
38.6

.2
.3
.5
1.0
1.5

33.3
36.6
43.8
52.4
59.5

78.6
79.0
83.6
93.0
99.8

58.4
65.0
79.1
87.3
91.0

153.5
189.7
229.8
245.0
236.0

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

648.4
660.6
610.4
654.2
762.4

461.1
485.7
464.3
456.4
535.4

195.0
210.4
207.2
185.7
212.2

114.4
122.8
126.6
117.6
137.6

41.2
42.0
39.5
34.2
35.4

30.0
34.9
32.2
26.7
30.3

268.2
278.2
260.3
272.4
324.6

45.4
52.5
54.5
63.4
79.8

2.4
3.8
4.7
7.1
11.6

64.9
68.5
67.0
70.4
79.0

95.5
94.1
85.5
78.5
89.9

74.2
72.0
63.7
71.7
85.1

186.1
171.2
140.1
197.6
226.4

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

799.3
805.0
799.4
818.3
832.0

568.4
548.5
542.4
566.0
588.8

227.8
203.3
195.9
196.8
201.2

155.2
144.5
142.4
145.3
150.2

35.6
36.5
30.7
30.0
30.9

27.0
15.8
15.5
15.8
13.9

342.4
345.9
346.9
369.2
387.6

88.0
94.1
97.5
106.6
116.2

14.5
16.7
21.0
24.0
29.4

81.9
84.6
80.2
85.7
88.1

94.1
93.5
91.1
95.3
101.5

88.4
85.6
82.1
87.1
78.9

229.5
257.0
257.6
252.5
243.2

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

805.8
741.3
783.4
836.4
921.1

585.2
547.7
557.9
593.6
652.1

203.3
181.6
169.2
166.3
168.8

152.0
126.9
113.2
112.8
117.7

28.1
32.0
34.5
31.1
31.7

16.1
15.7
13.3
14.8
12.6

381.9
366.2
388.7
427.6
484.1

116.2
117.8
134.2
147.1
170.4

29.4
32.4
43.9
56.2
69.3

88.2
85.9
90.2
91.5
102.6

95.0
88.3
89.3
96.3
105.9

81.2
81.7
86.2
97.5
111.7

220.6
193.4
225.6
242.7
268.9

1990: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

834.7
811.2
803.1
774.4

595.3
583.4
588.1
573.9

206.5
205.5
205.2
196.0

155.4
154.7
153.8
143.8

27.7
27.6
28.1
28.9

15.8
16.3
16.1
16.3

388.8
377.8
383.0
377.9

119.2
116.1
113.8
115.7

30.6
29.3
27.9
29.9

89.8
88.2
87.6
87.1

98.6
94.8
95.1
91.4

80.3
77.4
84.3
82.8

239.4
227.8
214.9
200.3

1991: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

742.6
739.4
741.0
742.0

555.1
550.9
545.3
539.5

192.2
187.2
175.5
171.4

137.6
131.7
121.7
116.4

30.4
31.7
32.6
33.3

17.3
17.0
14.0
14.4

362.9
363.8
369.8
368.1

112.5
116.2
119.7
122.5

29.2
30.8
33.2
36.6

84.3
86.2
87.1
86.2

89.7
88.7
88.4
86.4

81.2
79.9
83.9
81.6

187.4
188.3
195.6
202.4

1992: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

758.3
782.4
787.3
805.8

544.4
557.5
560.6
569.1

172.7
171.0
167.4
165.6

118.1
114.4
110.4
109.8

34.6
34.8
34.6
33.9

12.7
13.3
13.4
13.7

371.7
386.4
393.1
403.5

126.7
132.4
138.6
138.9

39.2
43.4
45.7
47.5

87.7
88.9
92.8
91.5

86.8
88.1
89.8
92.6

79.9
87.9
85.4
91.5

213.9
224.9
226.7
236.7

1993: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

815.4
821.1
835.4
873.5

577.5
586.4
593.1
617.6

167.0
164.8
165.1
168.2

111.4
110.6
112.7
116.3

32.4
31.0
30.7
30.5

15.2
15.2
14.6
14.2

410.5
421.7
428.2
449.8

139.5
142.2
150.7
156.0

51.1
52.9
58.3
62.5

88.6
89.6
93.1
94.6

93.7
94.4
96.3
100.7

93.0
99.5
95.0
102.7

237.9
234.8
242.2
255.8

1994: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

892.4
911.4
930.8
949.7

628.6
639.5
660.4
679.7

163.0
169.0
169.1
174.3

112.4
117.8
117.4
123.3

30.7
31.2
32.1
32.7

13.4
13.3
12.2
11.5

466.5
471.2
492.4
506.4

161.2
166.6
171.5
182.5

64.6
67.1
69.3
76.3

97.8
100.8
103.6
108.3

102.8
104.3
107.0
109.4

109.0
105.3
115.9
116.5

263.6
271.6
270.3
270.3

1995: I ....
II ...
III ..

969.6
966.1
980.6

704.4
710.6
719.8

178.5
180.0
182.4

125.4
126.8
129.2

33.7
34.8
35.6

12.5
10.7
11.0

527.1
531.9
538.6

189.2
199.9
202.0

80.2
88.2
92.1

111.5
115.1
114.0

114.2
118.4
116.7

121.7
114.8
120.5

265.9
256.6
261.8

1 Includes

other items, not shown separately.
new computers and peripheral equipment only.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.

2 Includes




297

TABLE B–16.—Government consumption expenditures and gross investment by type, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Government consumption expenditures and gross investment
Federal
Year or
quarter

State and local

National defense
Total
Total
Total

Consumption expenditures

Structures

Nondefense

Gross
investment
Total
Equipment

Consumption expenditures

Gross
investment
Structures

Total

Equipment

Gross
investment

Consumption expenditures

Structures

Equipment

1959 .......

112.0

67.2

55.7

42.0

2.5

11.2

11.5

9.9

1.5

0.2

44.8

30.9

12.8

1.1

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

113.2
120.9
131.4
137.7
144.4

65.6
69.1
76.5
78.1
79.4

54.9
57.7
62.3
62.2
61.3

42.5
43.9
47.8
49.6
49.9

2.2
2.4
2.0
1.6
1.3

10.1
11.5
12.5
11.0
10.2

10.8
11.4
14.2
15.9
18.1

8.8
9.0
11.3
12.4
14.0

1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5

0.3
0.5
0.8
1.1
1.6

47.6
51.8
55.0
59.6
65.0

33.7
36.7
39.1
42.2
46.0

12.7
13.8
14.5
16.0
17.2

1.2
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.7

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

153.0
173.6
194.6
212.1
223.8

81.8
94.1
106.6
113.8
115.8

62.0
73.4
85.5
92.0
92.4

52.0
61.2
71.3
78.9
80.0

1.1
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.5

8.9
11.0
13.0
11.8
10.9

19.7
20.7
21.0
21.8
23.4

15.1
15.9
17.0
18.2
20.0

2.8
2.8
2.2
2.1
1.9

1.8
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.5

71.2
79.5
88.1
98.3
108.0

50.5
56.5
62.9
70.8
79.8

19.0
21.0
23.0
25.2
25.6

1.8
2.0
2.2
2.3
2.6

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

236.1
249.9
268.9
287.6
323.2

115.9
117.1
125.1
128.2
139.9

90.6
88.7
93.2
94.7
101.9

78.6
79.2
82.3
83.7
90.1

1.3
1.8
1.8
2.1
2.2

10.7
7.7
9.1
8.9
9.7

25.3
28.3
31.9
33.5
38.0

21.9
24.6
27.8
29.2
33.2

2.1
2.5
2.7
3.1
3.4

1.3
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.4

120.2
132.8
143.8
159.4
183.3

91.6
102.9
113.4
126.4
144.0

25.8
27.0
27.1
29.1
34.7

2.8
2.9
3.3
3.8
4.6

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

362.6
385.9
416.9
457.9
507.1

154.5
162.7
178.4
194.4
215.0

110.9
116.1
125.8
135.6
151.2

97.0
101.3
109.6
118.4
130.7

2.3
2.1
2.4
2.5
2.5

11.6
12.6
13.8
14.6
18.0

43.6
46.6
52.6
58.9
63.8

38.0
40.4
45.7
50.4
55.2

4.1
4.6
5.0
6.1
6.3

1.4
1.6
1.9
2.3
2.4

208.1
223.1
238.5
263.4
292.0

164.9
179.7
196.1
214.5
235.9

38.1
38.1
36.9
42.8
49.0

5.1
5.3
5.4
6.1
7.1

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

572.8
633.4
684.8
735.7
796.6

248.4
284.1
313.2
344.5
372.6

174.2
202.0
230.9
255.0
282.7

150.9
174.3
197.6
214.9
236.3

3.2
3.2
4.0
4.8
4.9

20.1
24.5
29.4
35.4
41.5

74.2
82.2
82.3
89.4
89.9

64.3
71.7
72.3
78.2
77.9

7.1
7.7
6.8
6.7
7.0

2.9
2.8
3.2
4.5
5.0

324.4
349.2
371.6
391.2
424.0

261.3
285.3
307.9
326.2
350.8

55.1
55.4
54.2
54.2
60.5

8.1
8.5
9.4
10.8
12.7

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

.......
875.0
.......
938.5
.......
992.8
....... 1,032.0
....... 1,095.1

410.1
435.2
455.7
457.3
477.2

312.4
332.4
350.4
354.0
360.6

257.6
272.7
287.6
297.9
303.3

6.2
6.8
7.7
7.4
6.4

48.5
52.9
55.1
48.7
51.0

97.7
102.9
105.3
103.3
116.7

84.9
89.7
90.7
89.9
101.9

7.3
8.0
9.0
6.8
6.9

5.4
5.2
5.6
6.6
7.9

464.9
503.3
537.2
574.7
617.9

382.6
412.7
441.1
471.3
507.2

67.6
74.2
78.8
84.8
88.7

14.8
16.4
17.2
18.6
21.9

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

1,176.1
1,225.9
1,263.8
1,289.9
1,314.7

503.6
522.6
528.0
522.1
516.3

373.1
383.5
375.8
362.2
352.0

312.7
325.4
319.7
313.0
305.7

6.1
4.6
5.2
4.8
4.9

54.3
53.5
50.9
44.4
41.4

130.4
139.1
152.2
159.9
164.3

113.9
120.6
131.4
138.4
144.9

8.0
9.2
10.3
11.2
10.5

8.6
9.3
10.5
10.3
8.9

672.6
703.4
735.8
767.8
798.4

550.1
579.4
603.6
627.9
651.7

98.5
100.5
108.1
113.9
119.0

23.9
23.4
24.0
25.9
27.7

1990: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

1,153.0
1,164.3
1,176.9
1,210.4

496.4
500.1
501.2
516.7

369.7
370.6
368.9
383.3

311.7
310.8
307.3
321.0

6.3
6.3
6.4
5.3

51.7
53.5
55.2
57.0

126.7
129.5
132.3
133.3

110.0
112.9
115.9
116.7

8.2
8.1
8.1
7.6

8.5
8.4
8.3
9.1

656.6
664.2
675.7
693.7

535.3
543.9
554.0
567.3

97.7
96.5
97.6
102.4

23.6
23.9
24.1
24.1

1991: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

1,220.6
1,227.4
1,226.5
1,229.2

525.6
528.2
520.9
515.5

389.7
389.3
382.1
373.0

331.3
328.6
323.1
318.5

4.8
4.8
4.5
4.5

53.6
55.9
54.5
50.0

136.0
138.9
138.8
142.6

119.3
120.5
120.6
122.0

7.7
9.1
9.1
10.8

9.0
9.3
9.1
9.8

695.0
699.2
705.5
713.6

572.1
576.9
581.5
587.3

99.3
99.0
100.8
102.9

23.7
23.3
23.2
23.4

1992: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

1,247.9
1,256.4
1,270.7
1,280.0

521.8
523.2
532.0
535.0

372.8
374.1
380.9
375.3

317.2
317.3
323.5
320.7

5.2
5.5
4.8
5.5

50.4
51.4
52.7
49.1

149.0
149.1
151.1
159.7

128.5
129.1
130.9
137.0

10.3
10.2
9.6
11.0

10.1
9.9
10.5
11.6

726.1
733.2
738.7
745.1

592.6
600.8
607.4
613.6

109.9
108.6
107.1
106.9

23.6
23.8
24.2
24.6

1993: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

1,278.8
1,284.6
1,293.6
1,302.7

525.0
519.6
520.8
522.9

365.2
362.2
360.7
360.8

313.9
312.1
314.6
311.5

4.7
4.7
4.9
4.7

46.6
45.5
41.1
44.6

159.8
157.4
160.1
162.2

136.9
135.9
138.4
142.3

11.7
10.8
11.3
11.0

11.2
10.7
10.5
8.9

753.8
765.0
772.7
779.7

620.8
626.0
630.8
634.1

107.7
113.3
115.7
119.1

25.3
25.7
26.2
26.5

1994: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

1,296.4
1,300.8
1,328.0
1,333.5

511.3
509.4
523.6
520.9

346.7
349.3
362.1
349.6

301.3
303.4
313.3
304.9

4.8
4.7
5.1
4.9

40.7
41.3
43.8
39.8

164.6
160.0
161.5
171.2

145.4
141.7
142.2
150.4

10.6
9.9
10.0
11.5

8.5
8.4
9.4
9.4

785.0
791.4
804.4
812.6

642.4
647.3
655.4
661.9

115.5
116.7
121.1
122.7

27.1
27.5
27.9
28.1

1995: I ....
II ...
III ..

1,346.0
1,359.9
1,365.5

519.9
522.6
517.3

347.7
352.3
346.2

303.0
305.3
301.9

5.7
4.9
5.5

39.1
42.1
38.8

172.1
170.3
171.1

151.8
150.8
152.2

11.0
10.2
9.3

9.3
9.3
9.6

826.1
837.3
848.2

672.1
680.1
686.5

125.5
128.3
132.4

28.5
28.9
29.3

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




298

TABLE B–17.—Real government consumption expenditures and gross investment by type, 1959–95
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Government consumption expenditures and gross investment
Federal
Year or
quarter

State and local

National defense
Total
Total
Total

Nondefense

ConGross
sumpinvestment
tion expendi- Struc- Equiptures
tures
ment

Total

ConGross
sumpinvestment
tion expendi- Struc- Equiptures
tures
ment

Total

Gross
Coninvestment
sumption expendi- Struc- Equiptures
tures
ment

1959 .......

618.5

360.5

307.6

259.3

15.5

28.4

58.8

53.9

7.2

0.4

256.8

191.6

59.9

3.1

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

617.2
647.2
686.0
701.9
715.9

349.4
363.0
393.2
391.8
385.2

301.3
313.8
332.4
324.0
309.9

260.8
265.8
284.2
287.9
279.3

13.7
14.6
12.1
9.9
7.5

25.6
29.0
30.9
26.4
24.4

54.1
55.5
66.8
72.9
79.2

47.1
46.5
56.4
60.4
64.5

8.1
9.0
10.1
10.9
11.7

.6
1.0
1.4
1.9
2.5

267.2
283.8
292.1
309.7
330.9

201.8
213.0
218.7
229.5
244.9

60.0
65.0
67.1
72.7
77.5

3.4
3.5
3.8
4.3
4.8

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

737.6
804.6
865.6
892.4
887.5

385.2
429.1
471.7
476.3
459.9

303.8
348.2
393.5
400.9
381.6

281.1
318.9
360.2
376.7
361.6

6.7
7.0
6.4
6.3
6.8

21.0
25.8
29.9
26.1
23.1

84.6
85.7
84.7
82.5
84.3

67.7
68.4
71.5
71.4
75.1

12.4
12.3
9.3
8.3
7.1

3.2
3.4
3.0
2.5
2.2

353.2
375.9
394.2
416.5
428.0

261.1
277.7
289.8
307.5
324.4

83.0
88.2
93.9
98.1
92.9

5.1
5.6
5.8
6.1
6.5

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

866.8
851.0
854.1
848.4
862.9

427.2
397.0
390.2
371.1
368.8

349.0
313.7
300.3
281.2
273.5

330.1
304.6
285.3
265.5
256.5

5.5
7.0
6.3
6.4
5.9

21.7
14.6
17.5
17.1
17.9

83.0
86.3
91.9
91.5
96.4

74.6
77.5
83.0
82.3
87.3

7.1
7.9
8.1
8.7
8.5

1.9
1.8
1.8
1.6
1.8

440.0
454.4
464.5
478.5
495.6

344.1
362.1
376.0
389.9
406.8

86.0
83.1
78.9
78.3
78.1

6.7
6.8
7.6
8.5
9.3

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

876.3
876.8
884.7
910.6
924.9

367.9
364.3
370.1
377.7
383.3

269.7
264.7
266.4
266.7
271.0

248.9
242.5
243.7
244.7
245.9

5.7
5.0
5.1
5.1
4.3

20.4
21.5
22.0
21.5
24.5

99.1
100.4
104.3
111.4
112.7

89.9
90.2
93.5
98.1
100.4

8.9
9.5
9.8
11.3
10.6

1.7
1.9
2.1
2.7
2.6

510.0
514.3
516.4
534.7
543.5

423.1
429.5
437.6
448.1
452.3

77.4
76.1
71.3
78.1
81.4

9.0
8.8
8.6
9.0
9.7

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

941.4
947.7
960.1
987.3
1,018.4

399.3
415.9
429.4
452.7
463.7

280.7
296.0
316.5
334.6
348.1

254.0
266.4
282.0
293.3
301.3

5.0
4.8
5.6
6.6
6.4

25.5
28.3
32.0
37.0
41.7

119.0
120.4
113.3
118.5
115.9

106.0
107.9
102.3
105.9
102.3

10.7
10.5
8.6
8.4
8.7

3.1
2.9
3.2
4.7
5.2

543.6
532.8
531.4
534.9
555.0

451.7
450.3
455.6
458.2
467.9

81.3
73.3
67.0
66.3
73.8

10.3
10.1
10.7
12.1
14.2

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

1,080.1
1,135.0
1,165.9
1,180.9
1,213.9

495.6
518.4
534.4
524.6
531.5

374.1
393.4
409.2
405.5
401.6

318.2
331.1
341.1
345.3
340.9

7.9
8.6
9.2
8.5
6.9

48.6
53.7
58.4
51.9
53.8

121.8
125.2
125.3
119.1
130.1

107.4
110.6
109.2
104.8
114.8

8.9
9.4
10.3
7.6
7.4

5.7
5.4
5.9
6.8
7.9

584.7
616.9
631.8
656.6
682.6

487.8
513.3
525.5
545.3
566.3

80.9
85.9
87.8
91.6
93.5

16.4
18.0
18.8
20.0
23.0

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

.......
.......
.......
.......
.......

1,250.4
1,258.0
1,263.8
1,260.5
1,259.9

541.9
539.4
528.0
508.7
489.7

401.5
397.5
375.8
354.9
336.9

338.9
338.7
319.7
306.9
293.5

6.4
4.7
5.2
4.4
4.3

56.1
54.1
50.9
43.6
39.1

140.5
142.0
152.2
153.8
152.6

123.8
123.6
131.4
132.4
133.5

8.3
9.3
10.3
11.0
10.0

8.5
9.2
10.5
10.4
9.0

708.6
718.7
735.8
751.8
770.5

583.2
593.8
603.6
614.6
629.0

100.7
101.3
108.1
111.5
114.4

24.7
23.6
24.0
25.7
27.1

1990: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

1,246.5
1,248.2
1,246.8
1,259.9

542.9
543.0
538.2
543.5

404.1
402.8
396.1
403.1

343.6
340.0
332.4
339.7

6.7
6.7
6.7
5.6

53.9
56.0
56.9
57.7

138.9
140.4
142.2
140.5

122.0
123.7
125.7
124.0

8.5
8.4
8.4
7.7

8.5
8.3
8.2
8.9

703.8
705.4
708.7
716.5

578.1
581.6
585.0
588.2

101.0
99.0
99.0
103.7

24.6
24.8
24.8
24.6

1991: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

1,262.6
1,263.8
1,255.1
1,250.7

547.3
547.1
536.3
526.9

408.4
405.0
395.0
381.7

348.9
343.8
335.2
326.7

4.9
4.9
4.5
4.6

54.6
56.3
55.3
50.4

139.0
142.2
141.4
145.3

122.4
123.8
123.2
124.7

7.9
9.2
9.1
10.9

8.8
9.2
9.0
9.7

715.5
716.8
718.8
723.8

590.9
593.5
594.2
596.7

100.6
99.7
101.2
103.7

23.9
23.7
23.5
23.4

1992: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

1,258.5
1,257.5
1,266.5
1,272.5

525.1
523.3
529.6
534.0

374.2
373.3
378.7
376.8

318.3
316.5
321.2
322.6

5.2
5.5
4.8
5.4

50.7
51.3
52.7
48.9

150.8
150.0
150.9
157.1

130.4
129.9
130.7
134.5

10.4
10.2
9.6
10.9

10.1
9.8
10.5
11.7

733.5
734.2
736.9
738.5

599.0
601.7
605.9
607.9

110.8
108.8
106.8
106.1

23.6
23.8
24.2
24.6

1993: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

1,257.2
1,257.9
1,261.1
1,265.7

515.7
509.2
505.4
504.5

361.2
356.4
351.2
350.8

310.4
307.1
306.6
303.4

4.5
4.4
4.4
4.2

46.2
44.9
40.2
43.2

154.5
152.7
154.2
153.7

131.7
131.4
132.6
134.0

11.5
10.6
11.0
10.6

11.3
10.8
10.6
9.0

741.6
748.8
755.7
761.3

610.3
612.4
616.6
619.1

106.2
110.9
113.2
115.9

25.1
25.5
26.0
26.3

1994: I ....
II ...
III ..
IV ..

1,252.3
1,249.7
1,271.0
1,266.6

489.8
483.3
496.6
489.1

334.8
335.5
346.1
331.3

291.6
292.7
300.2
289.6

4.2
4.1
4.4
4.2

39.0
38.7
41.4
37.4

154.8
147.7
150.5
157.5

135.8
129.6
131.5
137.2

10.3
9.5
9.5
10.8

8.6
8.5
9.4
9.4

762.7
766.8
774.7
777.7

624.0
626.9
631.2
633.7

112.0
113.0
116.2
116.5

26.7
26.9
27.2
27.6

1995: I ....
II ...
III ..

1,263.0
1,265.8
1,264.4

481.3
479.9
473.2

325.3
326.1
319.8

283.8
283.2
279.3

4.9
4.2
4.7

36.6
38.7
35.8

155.6
153.6
153.1

135.9
134.7
134.8

10.3
9.4
8.5

9.4
9.4
9.7

782.2
786.3
791.7

636.1
637.9
640.6

118.2
120.2
122.7

27.9
28.2
28.5

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




299

TABLE B–18.—Inventories and final sales of domestic business, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars, except as noted; seasonally adjusted]
Inventories 1
Nonfarm
Quarter
Total 2

Farm
Total 2

Fourth quarter:
1959 ...........................

Manufacturing

Wholesale
trade

Retail
trade

Other

Final
sales of
domestic
business 3

Ratio of inventories
to final sales of
domestic business
Total

Nonfarm

131.0

32.1

98.9

51.6

18.3

20.0

9.0

36.5

3.59

2.71

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

...........................
...........................
...........................
...........................
...........................

134.7
138.0
145.8
148.3
154.0

32.9
34.6
36.8
33.9
32.5

101.8
103.4
109.0
114.4
121.4

52.8
54.3
57.6
59.6
63.2

18.6
19.1
19.9
21.3
22.7

21.4
20.9
22.3
23.6
24.9

8.9
9.2
9.2
9.8
10.6

37.7
39.5
41.8
44.5
47.4

3.57
3.49
3.48
3.33
3.25

2.70
2.62
2.61
2.57
2.56

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

...........................
...........................
...........................
...........................
...........................

168.8
186.2
198.4
214.1
233.7

37.0
37.5
37.0
40.3
43.8

131.9
148.6
161.4
173.8
189.9

68.2
78.3
85.2
91.4
99.0

24.3
27.7
29.9
31.7
35.2

27.7
30.1
31.1
34.4
37.7

11.7
12.5
15.3
16.3
18.1

52.5
55.6
59.2
65.1
69.1

3.22
3.35
3.35
3.29
3.38

2.51
2.67
2.73
2.67
2.75

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

...........................
...........................
...........................
...........................
...........................

242.0
261.2
289.7
345.8
398.6

42.3
49.7
60.9
78.1
68.4

199.7
211.5
228.8
267.8
330.3

102.8
103.5
109.4
125.1
158.2

39.0
42.1
46.0
54.8
69.8

38.7
44.9
50.0
58.7
64.2

19.3
20.9
23.4
29.2
38.0

72.9
79.4
88.5
97.5
105.4

3.32
3.29
3.28
3.55
3.78

2.74
2.66
2.59
2.75
3.13

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

...........................
...........................
...........................
...........................
...........................

410.6
443.4
494.2
581.9
676.8

72.3
68.3
73.3
97.9
114.9

338.4
375.1
421.0
484.0
561.9

164.5
181.1
202.8
228.4
268.7

69.3
77.2
86.6
101.9
120.5

64.7
73.3
81.2
94.5
105.3

39.8
43.5
50.4
59.1
67.5

118.0
129.7
145.0
167.6
186.4

3.48
3.42
3.41
3.47
3.63

2.87
2.89
2.90
2.89
3.01

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

...........................
...........................
...........................
...........................
...........................

737.5
783.1
768.4
787.8
860.7

114.7
104.9
110.4
106.7
109.2

622.8
678.2
658.0
681.1
751.5

296.5
318.1
299.5
302.6
333.4

138.5
151.4
150.3
154.1
169.0

113.7
123.9
123.5
138.0
157.3

74.0
84.9
84.6
86.4
91.8

204.8
221.8
232.8
255.4
276.7

3.60
3.53
3.30
3.08
3.11

3.04
3.06
2.83
2.67
2.72

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

...........................
...........................
...........................
...........................
...........................

875.3
862.7
927.5
992.8
1,044.6

106.3
94.5
98.0
102.0
103.6

769.1
768.2
829.5
890.8
941.0

325.3
314.6
332.9
358.8
382.1

173.4
177.2
190.6
208.5
218.4

171.9
176.8
199.5
213.8
232.7

98.4
99.5
106.4
109.6
107.8

297.7
315.7
333.1
362.8
384.9

2.94
2.73
2.78
2.74
2.71

2.58
2.43
2.49
2.46
2.44

1990: I ............................
II ...........................
III ..........................
IV ..........................

1,051.9
1,062.7
1,087.1
1,082.4

106.2
107.2
109.1
108.3

945.7
955.5
977.9
974.1

385.9
387.5
401.0
399.7

221.6
226.3
230.9
232.4

229.8
234.1
237.3
237.1

108.4
107.6
108.7
104.8

394.2
397.6
401.0
403.4

2.67
2.67
2.71
2.68

2.40
2.40
2.44
2.41

1991: I ............................
II ...........................
III ..........................
IV ..........................

1,072.3
1,056.5
1,053.0
1,058.1

111.2
105.5
99.0
97.2

961.1
951.0
954.1
961.0

393.7
385.5
383.5
383.4

233.7
230.3
231.3
235.5

232.7
233.6
237.5
240.1

101.0
101.7
101.7
102.0

403.9
409.0
411.0
413.1

2.65
2.58
2.56
2.56

2.38
2.33
2.32
2.33

1992: I ............................
II ...........................
III ..........................
IV ..........................

1,065.6
1,070.8
1,076.3
1,077.9

105.0
104.1
104.8
104.9

960.6
966.8
971.5
973.1

379.2
378.1
380.1
375.5

236.9
240.5
242.0
245.3

240.1
244.1
246.4
249.4

104.4
104.1
103.0
103.0

423.4
427.7
432.8
441.9

2.52
2.50
2.49
2.44

2.27
2.26
2.24
2.20

1993: I ............................
II ...........................
III ..........................
IV ..........................

1,097.3
1,101.3
1,103.4
1,112.8

109.9
105.5
101.7
101.6

987.4
995.8
1,001.7
1,011.2

378.0
380.5
380.1
380.9

248.0
249.6
252.8
255.2

259.0
261.7
263.3
267.0

102.5
104.0
105.5
108.1

444.3
448.9
453.4
462.8

2.47
2.45
2.43
2.40

2.22
2.22
2.21
2.19

1994: I ............................
II ...........................
III ..........................
IV ..........................

1,130.2
1,147.0
1,167.4
1,196.5

107.2
103.3
102.5
104.9

1,023.0
1,043.8
1,064.9
1,091.6

385.5
390.3
397.7
406.7

257.3
263.3
270.7
279.8

270.2
278.1
283.4
289.8

110.1
111.9
113.1
115.3

467.2
473.0
481.9
489.5

2.42
2.43
2.42
2.44

2.19
2.21
2.21
2.23

1995: I ............................
II ...........................
III ..........................

1,235.4
1,246.0
1,250.6

105.8
101.2
99.3

1,129.6
1,144.8
1,151.4

421.0
426.5
429.3

291.9
297.8
299.7

296.1
298.0
299.9

120.6
122.5
122.4

494.0
499.2
507.2

2.50
2.50
2.47

2.29
2.29
2.27

1 Inventories at end of quarter. Quarter-to-quarter change calculated from this table is not the current-dollar change in business inventories (CBI) component of GDP. The former is the difference between two inventory stocks, each valued at their respective end-of-quarter
prices. The latter is the change in the physical volume of inventories valued at average prices of the quarter. In addition, changes calculated
from this table are at quarterly rates, whereas CBI is stated at annual rates.
2 Inventories of construction establishments are included in ‘‘other’’ nonfarm inventories.
3 Quarterly totals at monthly rates. Final sales of domestic business equals final sales of domestic product less gross product of households and institutions and general government and includes a small amount of final sales by farms.
Note.—The industry classification of inventories is on an establishment basis. Estimates for nonfarm industries other than manufacturing
and trade for 1986 and earlier periods are based on the 1972 Standard Industrial Classification (SIC). Manufacturing estimates for 1981 and
earlier periods and trade estimates for 1966 and earlier periods are based on the 1972 SIC; later estimates for these industries are based on
the 1987 SIC. The resulting discontinuities are small.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




300

TABLE B–19.—Real inventories and final sales of domestic business, 1959–95
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars, except as noted; seasonally adjusted]
Inventories 1
Nonfarm
Quarter
Total 2

Farm
Total 2

Fourth quarter:
1959 .........................

Manufacturing

Wholesale
trade

Retail
trade

Other

Final
sales of
domestic
business 3

Ratio of inventories
to final sales of
domestic business
Total

Nonfarm

401.4

89.8

303.6

148.2

56.5

59.4

37.6

144.3

2.78

2.10

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................

412.0
420.9
440.9
459.0
474.7

91.5
93.9
95.9
97.5
93.9

312.4
318.6
336.7
353.1
372.6

150.6
155.1
165.2
171.5
180.4

57.9
59.3
61.9
66.3
70.3

63.6
62.3
66.7
70.3
74.2

38.3
40.1
40.1
42.2
45.0

147.0
153.5
160.8
169.5
178.4

2.80
2.74
2.74
2.71
2.66

2.13
2.08
2.09
2.08
2.09

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................

504.8
547.2
579.2
606.1
633.3

96.3
94.9
97.4
101.1
101.4

400.3
445.0
474.5
497.5
524.8

192.6
217.6
234.4
245.0
256.0

74.7
84.6
91.0
94.1
100.6

81.7
88.5
88.4
95.8
102.3

48.4
49.8
56.9
58.1
61.4

194.2
199.4
206.4
217.8
221.7

2.60
2.74
2.81
2.78
2.86

2.06
2.23
2.30
2.28
2.37

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................

639.0
661.7
686.9
725.9
749.8

99.3
103.6
104.2
106.5
102.2

533.0
551.1
576.5
615.0
646.8

256.0
253.1
259.8
277.7
296.8

108.0
113.8
119.0
122.4
133.0

102.4
116.1
124.9
134.8
132.9

62.6
64.9
69.9
77.4
80.8

224.0
234.4
252.7
261.1
254.6

2.85
2.82
2.72
2.78
2.94

2.38
2.35
2.28
2.36
2.54

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................

738.8
767.8
805.8
848.1
871.2

107.6
105.6
111.7
113.3
117.0

628.3
660.4
692.1
733.6
752.8

289.7
303.4
311.8
325.8
338.5

127.5
135.9
146.5
158.8
166.3

126.3
136.0
143.7
153.1
153.1

81.5
81.7
87.1
93.2
91.5

265.6
277.5
291.7
311.9
319.3

2.78
2.77
2.76
2.72
2.73

2.37
2.38
2.37
2.35
2.36

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................

861.2
894.3
878.7
872.8
947.6

110.1
119.6
126.9
109.8
115.8

751.3
774.1
751.3
763.4
832.4

338.9
343.5
329.5
329.5
358.4

171.3
176.0
174.1
173.5
189.6

148.9
157.2
153.3
166.2
186.4

88.7
94.4
91.7
92.4
96.7

319.9
318.9
319.2
338.2
355.7

2.69
2.80
2.75
2.58
2.66

2.35
2.43
2.35
2.26
2.34

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................

977.4
988.3
1,014.5
1,026.2
1,059.5

122.2
120.5
111.5
98.8
98.9

855.8
868.2
902.5
927.2
960.7

353.9
349.7
354.8
364.3
383.5

194.8
201.9
208.5
217.8
223.3

201.3
204.4
223.9
231.3
245.0

105.1
111.6
115.1
113.7
108.9

370.8
384.3
393.8
411.7
420.7

2.64
2.57
2.58
2.49
2.52

2.31
2.26
2.29
2.25
2.28

1990: I ...........................
II .........................
III ........................
IV ........................

1,062.2
1,073.2
1,076.9
1,069.9

98.9
100.0
102.0
101.4

963.4
973.2
974.9
968.4

386.9
389.2
391.1
390.1

225.9
230.5
231.1
231.3

240.5
244.1
245.0
243.5

109.9
109.3
107.6
103.4

426.2
424.2
423.6
421.8

2.49
2.53
2.54
2.54

2.26
2.29
2.30
2.30

1991: I ...........................
II .........................
III ........................
IV ........................

1,065.5
1,060.3
1,061.5
1,066.9

100.8
101.5
99.3
99.7

964.7
958.8
962.2
967.2

390.4
386.1
384.5
384.0

234.1
232.0
233.1
236.9

238.4
238.0
241.7
243.3

101.6
102.6
102.9
103.0

417.7
420.2
419.4
419.2

2.55
2.52
2.53
2.55

2.31
2.28
2.29
2.31

1992: I ...........................
II .........................
III ........................
IV ........................

1,066.9
1,069.7
1,072.7
1,074.2

101.6
104.1
105.4
105.1

965.3
965.6
967.3
969.1

380.6
377.5
378.5
374.7

237.2
239.8
241.6
244.7

242.0
244.3
245.1
247.2

105.4
104.1
102.1
102.6

426.6
428.9
432.3
438.1

2.50
2.49
2.48
2.45

2.26
2.25
2.24
2.21

1993: I ...........................
II .........................
III ........................
IV ........................

1,078.8
1,084.0
1,088.9
1,093.2

103.3
101.9
99.0
97.9

975.6
982.3
990.0
995.5

375.0
377.7
379.6
380.2

245.2
247.0
250.1
250.6

255.1
256.1
257.5
259.6

100.2
101.5
102.7
105.1

436.7
438.4
441.3
447.6

2.47
2.47
2.47
2.44

2.23
2.24
2.24
2.22

1994: I ...........................
II .........................
III ........................
IV ........................

1,103.3
1,121.8
1,137.8
1,152.1

100.6
105.7
109.3
110.1

1,003.0
1,016.5
1,029.1
1,042.4

382.8
383.9
386.9
388.5

251.3
256.4
261.5
267.2

262.2
267.9
271.8
276.1

106.5
108.1
108.6
110.4

449.0
452.5
458.1
463.0

2.46
2.48
2.48
2.49

2.23
2.25
2.25
2.25

1995: I ...........................
II .........................
III ........................

1,165.8
1,173.4
1,180.2

109.0
108.1
106.7

1,056.9
1,065.4
1,073.3

390.7
393.5
397.4

273.4
277.2
279.0

279.3
280.7
282.0

113.4
113.8
114.9

464.0
466.4
471.0

2.51
2.52
2.51

2.28
2.28
2.28

1 Inventories at end of quarter. Quarter-to-quarter changes calculated from this table are at quarterly rates, whereas the real-dollar
change in business inventories component of GDP is stated at annual rates.
2 Inventories of construction establishments are included in ‘‘other’’ nonfarm inventories.
3 Quarterly totals at monthly rates. Final sales of domestic business equals final sales of domestic product less gross product of households and institutions and general government and includes a small amount of final sales by farms.
Note.—The industry classification of inventories is on an establishment basis. Estimates for nonfarm industries other than manufacturing
and trade for 1986 and earlier periods are based on the 1972 Standard Industrial Classification (SIC). Manufacturing estimates for 1981 and
earlier periods and trade estimates for 1966 and earlier periods are based on the 1972 SIC; later estimates for these industries are based on
the 1987 SIC. The resulting discontinuities are small.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




301

TABLE B–20.—Foreign transactions in the national income and product accounts, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Receipts from rest of the world
Exports of goods and
services

Year or quarter
Total 1

ServTotal Goods 2 ices
2

Payments to rest of the world

Receipts of
factor income 3

Imports of goods and
services
Total
Total

Goods 2

Services 2

Payments of
factor
income 4

Transfer payments (net)

Total

From
persons
(net)

From
government
(net)

Net
foreign
investment

From
business

1959 ...........

25.0

20.6

16.5

4.2

4.3

25.0

22.3

15.3

7.0

1.5

2.4

0.4

1.8

0.1

−1.2

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

30.2
31.4
33.5
36.1
41.0

25.3
26.0
27.4
29.4
33.6

20.5
20.9
21.7
23.3
26.7

4.8
5.1
5.7
6.1
6.9

5.0
5.4
6.1
6.6
7.4

30.2
31.4
33.5
36.1
41.0

22.8
22.7
25.0
26.1
28.1

15.2
15.1
16.9
17.7
19.4

7.6
7.6
8.1
8.4
8.7

1.8
1.8
1.8
2.1
2.4

2.4
2.7
2.8
2.8
3.0

.5
.5
.5
.6
.7

1.9
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1

.1
.1
.1
.1
.2

3.2
4.3
3.9
5.0
7.5

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

43.5
47.2
50.2
55.6
61.2

35.4
38.9
41.4
45.3
49.3

27.8
30.7
32.2
35.3
38.3

7.6
8.2
9.2
10.0
11.0

8.1
8.3
8.9
10.3
11.9

43.5
47.2
50.2
55.6
61.2

31.5
37.1
39.9
46.6
50.5

22.2
26.3
27.8
33.9
36.8

9.3
10.7
12.2
12.6
13.7

2.7
3.1
3.4
4.1
5.8

3.0
3.2
3.4
3.2
3.2

.8
.8
1.0
1.0
1.1

2.1
2.2
2.1
1.9
1.8

.2
.2
.2
.3
.3

6.2
3.9
3.5
1.7
1.8

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

70.8 57.0 44.5
74.2 59.3 45.6
83.4 66.2 51.8
115.6 91.8 73.9
152.6 124.3 101.0

12.4
13.8
14.4
17.8
23.3

13.0
14.1
16.4
23.8
30.3

70.8
74.2
83.4
115.6
152.6

55.8
62.3
74.2
91.2
127.5

40.9
46.6
56.9
71.8
104.5

14.9
15.8
17.3
19.3
22.9

6.6
6.4
7.7
11.1
14.6

3.6
4.1
4.3
4.6
5.4

1.2
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.2

2.0
2.4
2.5
2.5
3.2

.4
.4
.5
.7
1.0

4.9
1.3
−2.9
8.7
5.1

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

164.4
181.7
196.6
233.5
300.3

136.3
148.9
158.8
186.1
228.7

109.6
117.8
123.7
145.4
184.0

26.7
31.1
35.1
40.7
44.7

28.2
32.9
37.9
47.4
70.4

164.4
181.7
196.6
233.5
300.3

122.7
151.1
182.4
212.3
252.7

99.0
124.6
152.6
177.4
212.8

23.7
26.5
29.8
34.8
39.9

14.9
15.7
17.2
25.3
37.5

5.4
6.0
6.0
6.4
7.5

1.2
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.4

3.5
3.7
3.4
3.8
4.1

.7
1.1
1.4
1.4
2.0

21.4
8.9
−9.0
−10.4
2.6

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

361.9
399.5
379.5
374.6
421.8

278.9
302.8
282.6
277.0
303.1

225.8
239.1
215.0
207.3
225.6

53.2
63.7
67.6
69.7
77.5

81.8
95.6
96.9
97.6
118.7

361.9
399.5
379.5
374.6
421.8

293.8
317.8
303.2
328.6
405.1

248.6
267.8
250.5
272.7
336.3

45.3
49.9
52.6
56.0
68.8

46.5
60.9
65.8
65.6
87.6

9.0
13.4
16.7
17.7
20.6

1.6
5.2
6.2
6.5
7.4

5.0
5.0
7.0
7.8
9.7

2.4
3.2
3.4
3.4
3.5

12.5
7.4
−6.1
−37.3
−91.5

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

411.1
427.1
481.8
591.9
678.3

303.0
320.7
365.7
447.2
509.3

222.2 80.8
226.0 94.7
257.5 108.2
325.8 121.4
371.7 137.6

108.1
106.5
116.0
144.7
169.0

411.1
427.1
481.8
591.9
678.3

417.2
452.2
507.9
553.2
589.7

343.3
370.0
414.8
452.1
484.5

73.9
82.2
93.1
101.1
105.3

87.7
93.6
107.1
131.7
154.8

23.1
24.3
23.3
25.1
26.1

7.8
8.1
8.7
9.1
9.6

12.2
12.9
11.2
11.4
11.4

3.1
3.3
3.3
4.6
5.1

−116.9
−142.9
−156.4
−118.1
−92.4

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

734.8
757.9
777.3
799.7
881.1

557.3
601.8
639.4
660.0
722.0

398.5
426.4
448.7
459.5
509.1

158.8
175.4
190.7
200.4
212.9

177.5
156.2
137.9
139.7
159.2

734.8
757.9
777.3
799.7
881.1

628.6
622.3
669.0
724.9
818.4

508.0
500.7
544.9
592.7
677.3

120.6
121.6
124.1
132.1
141.1

156.4
140.5
126.8
129.9
168.1

28.4
−12.1
32.0
33.1
34.2

9.9
10.4
9.6
9.9
10.6

13.3
−27.9
16.6
16.9
16.2

5.2
5.4
5.8
6.2
7.3

−78.6
7.3
−50.5
−88.2
−139.6

1990: I ........
II .......
III ......
IV .....

715.2
728.1
728.6
767.3

541.6
554.8
555.5
577.3

391.6
399.8
394.6
408.2

150.0
155.1
160.9
169.1

173.6
173.3
173.1
190.0

715.2
728.1
728.6
767.3

615.9
615.1
634.1
649.2

500.4
497.4
511.3
522.9

115.5
117.8
122.7
126.4

152.5
156.4
158.7
157.9

26.1
30.3
29.1
28.2

9.9
9.5
10.2
10.1

11.5
15.5
13.2
12.9

4.7
5.3
5.7
5.3

−79.4
−73.8
−93.3
−68.1

1991: I ........
II .......
III ......
IV .....

751.4
758.7
750.6
771.0

577.4
602.7
602.6
624.4

414.8
428.8
423.9
438.1

162.7
173.9
178.7
186.3

174.0
156.0
148.1
146.6

751.4
758.7
750.6
771.0

610.3
615.0
624.5
639.3

488.3
493.5
504.6
516.5

122.1
121.6
119.9
122.7

147.1
143.8
138.7
132.2

−61.3
−16.1
10.0
18.9

10.4
10.3
10.2
10.6

−76.9
−32.0
−5.4
2.6

5.2
5.6
5.2
5.7

55.3
16.0
−22.6
−19.4

1992: I ........
II .......
III ......
IV .....

773.1
779.2
774.0
783.0

632.4
635.9
640.2
649.1

442.1
445.9
447.7
459.0

190.3
190.0
192.5
190.1

140.7
143.3
133.8
133.9

773.1
779.2
774.0
783.0

641.3
664.9
677.8
691.8

516.8
541.1
557.2
564.4

124.5
123.8
120.6
127.4

124.2
132.3
124.3
126.4

27.5
30.7
27.8
42.0

9.4
9.7
9.2
9.9

12.4
15.0
12.9
26.1

5.7
6.0
5.8
5.9

−19.9
−48.7
−56.0
−77.2

1993: I ........
II .......
III ......
IV .....

784.8
803.8
788.6
821.6

649.4
662.5
648.5
679.4

451.2
461.8
448.3
477.0

198.3
200.8
200.2
202.4

135.3
141.2
140.1
142.1

784.8
803.8
788.6
821.6

696.8
724.6
725.6
752.6

569.7
593.8
593.7
613.8

127.1
130.8
131.9
138.8

119.7
132.1
126.6
141.3

27.7
30.5
31.1
42.9

9.9
9.9
9.8
10.1

12.3
14.4
15.1
25.8

5.5
6.2
6.2
6.9

−59.4
−83.4
−94.7
−115.2

1994: I ........
II .......
III ......
IV .....

825.8
859.7
899.7
939.3

681.5
708.6
734.2
763.6

476.0
497.7
517.2
545.4

205.5
210.9
216.9
218.2

144.4
151.1
165.6
175.7

825.8
859.7
899.7
939.3

761.7
806.0
842.6
863.3

622.4
665.7
699.9
720.9

139.3
140.3
142.6
142.3

143.6
159.9
175.6
193.4

29.5
31.6
31.2
44.5

10.8
11.0
10.3
10.5

11.5
13.2
13.7
26.5

7.2
7.3
7.3
7.6

−109.0
−137.7
−149.6
−161.9

196.9 975.5
205.6 1,002.4
203.9 1,017.1

885.1
919.3
913.7

740.3
771.0
765.4

144.8
148.3
148.3

204.1
215.0
219.8

30.6
28.2
32.2

10.5
10.5
10.6

12.3
9.9
13.8

7.8
7.8
7.9

−144.4
−160.1
−148.7

1995: I ........ 975.5 778.6 558.9 219.7
II ....... 1,002.4 796.9 574.7 222.2
III ...... 1,017.1 813.2 588.3 224.9
1 Includes

capital grants received by the United States (net), not shown separately. See Table B–28 for data.
goods, primarily military equipment purchased and sold by the Federal Government, are included in services.
receipts by U.S. residents of interest and dividends and reinvested earnings of foreign affiliates of U.S. corporations.
4 Mainly payments to foreign residents of interest and dividends and reinvested earnings of U.S. affiliates of foreign corporations.
2 Certain
3 Mainly

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




302

TABLE B–21.—Real exports and imports of goods and services and receipts and payments of factor
income, 1959–95
[Billions of chained (1992) dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Exports of goods and services

Imports of goods and services

Goods 1
Year or quarter
Total
Total

1959 .........................................

Durable
goods

Nondurable
goods

Services 1

Receipts
of
factor
income 2

Goods 1
Total
Total

Durable
goods

Nondurable
goods

Services 1

Payments
of
factor
income 3

71.9

51.7

23.7

30.4

18.6

20.8

106.6

71.1

23.7

49.5

34.9

7.5

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................

86.8
88.3
93.0
100.0
113.3

63.8
64.2
67.0
72.3
82.2

29.3
29.5
31.0
32.7
37.7

36.5
36.8
38.6
42.2
47.2

20.6
22.0
24.0
25.5
28.6

23.4
25.2
27.6
29.8
32.6

108.1
107.3
119.5
122.7
129.2

70.0
69.9
80.2
83.5
89.0

22.6
21.8
25.6
27.0
30.0

50.1
51.8
58.4
60.1
62.5

37.7
37.0
38.8
38.7
39.7

8.7
8.8
8.9
9.9
11.0

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................

115.6
123.4
126.1
135.3
142.7

82.6
88.4
88.8
95.8
100.8

39.3
42.2
48.8
53.4
57.7

45.9
48.8
40.4
42.8
43.2

30.8
32.6
35.5
37.3
39.6

34.6
34.3
35.7
39.5
43.7

143.0
164.2
176.2
202.5
214.0

101.6
117.6
123.8
149.4
157.5

37.1
46.2
49.5
63.0
67.3

67.2
72.5
74.7
84.6
87.8

40.9
46.0
51.7
52.6
55.9

12.0
13.4
14.3
16.6
21.9

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................

158.1
159.2
172.0
209.6
229.8

112.3
111.9
123.9
152.4
164.5

63.1
62.7
69.2
86.3
99.6

49.5
49.6
55.1
66.5
65.9

43.1
45.0
44.7
52.6
61.6

45.0
46.4
51.7
70.4
82.5

223.1
235.0
261.0
272.6
265.3

163.7
177.4
201.6
215.8
209.8

69.2
76.1
87.6
93.2
93.6

92.6
98.3
109.8
118.4
111.0

58.8
57.2
59.1
56.7
55.4

23.6
22.0
25.3
34.1
41.0

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................

228.2
241.6
247.4
273.1
299.0

160.7
168.3
170.5
189.5
211.9

97.5
98.9
98.7
110.0
125.2

64.2
70.3
72.8
80.6
87.9

65.6
72.5
77.2
83.0
83.9

70.2
77.2
83.4
96.8
132.4

235.4
281.5
311.6
338.6
344.3

183.4
224.8
252.2
274.8
279.5

76.5
93.7
106.0
122.5
125.4

103.0
126.4
140.7
145.3
147.0

52.5
56.2
58.4
62.5
63.4

38.7
38.7
39.5
53.5
73.0

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................

331.4
335.3
311.4
303.3
328.4

237.2
234.7
213.5
207.3
223.7

139.6
134.7
117.0
114.6
127.0

98.9
101.4
98.4
94.4
98.1

89.2
98.5
98.5
96.8
105.9

141.1
150.1
143.5
138.2
160.3

321.3
329.7
325.5
366.6
455.7

258.7
264.0
257.4
292.4
363.1

126.3
136.8
138.4
166.8
221.9

126.6
122.8
115.6
123.1
140.2

61.8
65.4
68.9
74.4
92.9

83.1
99.4
100.7
95.9
121.9

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................

337.3
362.2
402.0
465.8
520.2

231.7
243.6
270.5
321.4
361.7

137.3
145.3
165.7
205.5
236.7

95.3
99.1
105.0
115.8
124.9

106.1
120.3
133.4
145.0
158.7

140.5
134.6
141.9
170.2
189.9

485.2
526.1
558.2
580.2
603.0

385.9
425.5
445.2
463.2
482.7

244.1
266.7
278.5
290.1
302.6

142.0
158.8
166.8
173.2
180.1

99.7
100.2
113.1
117.1
120.2

116.8
120.9
133.0
157.1
176.7

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................
.........................................

564.4
599.9
639.4
660.6
715.1

391.6
419.2
448.7
464.5
511.4

260.0
279.6
300.9
318.3
357.9

131.6
139.6
147.8
146.2
153.8

173.1
180.8
190.7
196.2
204.1

190.6
161.1
137.9
136.5
152.4

626.3
622.2
669.0
735.0
823.3

497.3
497.1
544.9
602.5
684.0

310.9
312.7
346.4
389.9
455.7

186.4
184.4
198.4
212.5
228.1

129.4
125.3
124.1
132.5
139.4

170.2
145.7
126.8
126.6
159.9

1990: I .......................................
II .....................................
III ....................................
IV ....................................

555.2
566.8
561.8
573.9

386.8
394.8
388.0
397.0

256.1
264.2
258.6
261.2

130.6
130.6
129.4
135.8

168.6
172.2
174.3
177.3

189.5
187.1
185.1
200.9

622.3
633.5
633.0
616.4

494.2
504.0
503.2
487.9

303.1
313.3
315.4
312.0

191.1
190.7
187.7
175.9

128.5
129.8
130.2
129.0

169.5
171.0
171.7
168.7

1991: I .......................................
II .....................................
III ....................................
IV ....................................

572.3
600.3
603.6
623.5

403.3
419.8
420.0
433.7

263.1
282.8
281.9
290.5

140.1
137.1
138.1
143.3

168.9
180.6
183.8
189.8

181.4
161.5
152.0
149.4

596.6
617.4
633.4
641.4

472.2
490.8
509.4
515.9

298.9
304.8
320.2
326.8

173.3
186.0
189.2
189.1

124.8
126.8
124.1
125.6

154.7
149.9
143.0
135.2

1992: I .......................................
II .....................................
III ....................................
IV ....................................

633.0
635.8
639.7
649.1

440.3
445.1
448.3
461.0

294.5
298.4
299.5
311.1

145.8
146.6
148.8
149.9

192.8
190.7
191.3
188.2

141.9
143.5
133.4
132.7

647.8
668.3
670.5
689.1

521.2
543.6
552.8
561.8

331.2
344.6
351.0
359.0

190.0
199.0
201.8
202.8

126.7
124.7
117.7
127.4

125.6
132.6
123.9
125.2

1993: I .......................................
II .....................................
III ....................................
IV ....................................

649.8
662.3
648.9
681.4

454.3
465.8
453.3
484.5

308.5
319.0
310.6
335.1

145.8
146.8
142.7
149.5

195.5
196.5
195.6
197.0

133.0
138.2
136.7
138.2

705.1
729.4
738.1
767.6

577.3
598.6
605.1
629.1

371.9
384.2
391.4
412.3

205.3
214.4
213.7
216.7

127.8
130.8
133.0
138.5

117.3
128.9
123.1
137.1

1994: I .......................................
II .....................................
III ....................................
IV ....................................

680.4
704.3
724.8
751.0

481.5
501.8
518.3
543.9

336.8
352.9
361.7
380.1

144.9
149.3
156.7
164.1

199.0
202.7
206.8
207.7

139.5
145.0
158.0
167.1

781.7
816.5
838.1
856.8

643.0
676.4
698.1
718.6

422.9
449.0
463.9
486.8

219.8
227.2
233.9
231.3

138.8
140.2
140.2
138.5

138.0
152.6
166.3
182.9

1995: I .......................................
II .....................................
III ....................................

755.8
764.3
779.7

548.9
557.8
571.1

386.1
396.7
406.3

163.2
161.8
165.5

207.6
207.4
209.6

186.3
193.6
191.7

874.9
891.2
893.9

732.8
750.5
752.4

497.9
511.3
512.1

234.4
238.6
239.7

142.4
141.1
141.8

191.9
201.5
205.1

1 Certain

goods, primarily military equipment purchased and sold by the Federal Government, are included in services.
receipts by U.S. residents of interest and dividends and reinvested earnings of foreign affiliates of U.S. corporations.
payments to foreign residents of interest and dividends and reinvested earnings of U.S. affiliates of foreign corporations.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.

2 Mainly
3 Mainly




303

TABLE B–22.—Relation of gross domestic product, gross national product, net national product, and
national income, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Plus: Re- Less:
ceipts of
Payfactor ments of Equals:
Gross
income
factor
Gross
domestic
from
income national
product rest
of
to rest product
the
of the
world 1
world 2

Year or
quarter

Less: Consumption of
fixed capital

Total

Less:

Equals: Indirect
Net
businaness
tional tax
Private Governand
ment product nontax
liability

Business
transfer
payments

Plus:
Subsidies
less
Statis- rent cursur- Equals:
tical
plus of National
disincome
governcrepanment
cy
enterprises

1959 ...........

507.2

4.3

1.5

510.1

58.6

44.5

14.1

451.5

41.9

1.4

−2.1

0.1

410.4

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

526.6
544.8
585.2
617.4
663.0

5.0
5.4
6.1
6.6
7.4

1.8
1.8
1.8
2.1
2.4

529.8
548.4
589.4
621.9
668.0

60.7
62.2
64.7
67.2
70.4

46.1
47.2
48.9
50.5
53.1

14.5
15.0
15.8
16.7
17.4

469.1
486.2
524.8
554.7
597.6

45.5
48.1
51.7
54.7
58.8

1.4
1.5
1.6
1.8
2.0

−3.7
−3.3
−2.4
−3.5
−2.1

.3
1.3
1.5
.9
1.4

426.2
441.2
475.3
502.6
540.2

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

719.1
787.8
833.6
910.6
982.2

8.1
8.3
8.9
10.3
11.9

2.7
3.1
3.4
4.1
5.8

724.5
793.0
839.1
916.7
988.4

74.9
81.1
87.8
95.4
103.6

56.7
61.8
67.0
73.0
79.5

18.2
19.3
20.8
22.4
24.1

649.6
711.9
751.3
821.3
884.8

62.7
65.4
70.4
79.0
86.6

2.2
2.3
2.5
2.8
3.1

−1.4
2.7
.6
.2
−2.2

1.7
3.0
2.9
3.1
3.6

587.8
644.4
680.7
742.4
800.9

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

1,035.6
1,125.4
1,237.3
1,382.6
1,496.9

13.0
14.1
16.4
23.8
30.3

6.6
6.4
7.7
11.1
14.6

1,042.0
1,133.1
1,246.0
1,395.4
1,512.6

111.9
122.0
134.8
148.0
171.7

86.1
94.4
104.9
115.1
133.7

25.8
27.6
29.9
32.9
38.0

930.1
1,011.0
1,111.2
1,247.3
1,340.9

94.3
103.6
111.4
121.0
129.3

3.2
3.4
3.9
4.5
5.0

1.0
5.1
3.2
2.4
4.5

4.9
5.1
6.4
5.9
4.5

836.6
904.0
999.2
1,125.3
1,206.7

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

1,630.6
1,819.0
2,026.9
2,291.4
2,557.5
2,784.2
3,115.9
3,242.1
3,514.5
3,902.4

28.2
32.9
37.9
47.4
70.4
81.8
95.6
96.9
97.6
118.7

14.9
15.7
17.2
25.3
37.5
46.5
60.9
65.8
65.6
87.6

1,643.9
1,836.1
2,047.5
2,313.5
2,590.4
2,819.5
3,150.6
3,273.2
3,546.5
3,933.5

200.1
218.9
251.1
281.8
322.3
368.0
419.9
456.3
477.9
494.0

157.7
174.1
203.5
230.4
265.5
304.6
349.5
378.3
397.8
410.9

42.4
44.7
47.6
51.5
56.8
63.4
70.4
78.1
80.1
83.1

1,443.8
1,617.2
1,796.4
2,031.6
2,268.1
2,451.5
2,730.7
2,816.9
3,068.7
3,439.5

140.0
151.6
165.5
177.8
188.7
212.0
249.3
256.4
280.1
309.5

5.2
6.5
7.3
8.2
9.9
11.2
13.4
15.2
16.2
18.6

11.2
18.9
17.5
17.6
27.8
27.4
14.6
−2.9
36.5
4.2

8.1
7.4
10.1
11.1
11.7
15.2
16.9
21.1
25.6
25.5

1,295.5
1,447.5
1,616.3
1,839.2
2,053.3
2,216.1
2,470.2
2,569.2
2,761.4
3,132.7

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

4,180.7
4,422.2
4,692.3
5,049.6
5,438.7

108.1
106.5
116.0
144.7
169.0

87.7
93.6
107.1
131.7
154.8

4,201.0
4,435.1
4,701.3
5,062.6
5,452.8

519.5
552.8
581.9
620.2
662.2

432.4
459.4
483.2
516.0
551.9

87.1
93.5
98.7
104.2
110.3

3,681.5
3,882.2
4,119.4
4,442.5
4,790.6

329.6
344.7
364.8
385.5
414.7

20.9
23.9
24.2
25.4
26.3

1.4
22.1
−16.6
−48.6
11.4

21.9
25.1
31.0
28.5
24.0

3,351.5
3,516.5
3,778.1
4,108.6
4,362.1

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

5,743.8
5,916.7
6,244.4
6,550.2
6,931.4

177.5
156.2
137.9
139.7
159.2

156.4
140.5
126.8
129.9
168.1

5,764.9
5,932.4
6,255.5
6,560.0
6,922.4

693.1
723.1
754.2
773.8
818.8

575.8
599.6
626.1
640.0
678.7

117.3
123.5
128.2
133.8
140.1

5,071.9
5,209.3
5,501.3
5,786.2
6,103.7

442.6
478.1
505.6
540.0
572.5

26.5
26.3
28.4
28.3
29.9

16.1
8.7
43.7
55.1
31.3

25.3
23.6
27.1
31.7
25.1

4,611.9
4,719.7
4,950.8
5,194.4
5,495.1

1990: I ........
II .......
III ......
IV ......

5,660.4
5,751.0
5,782.4
5,781.5

173.6
173.3
173.1
190.0

152.5
156.4
158.7
157.9

5,681.4
5,767.8
5,796.8
5,813.6

680.1
689.0
698.6
704.6

565.6
573.2
580.6
583.9

114.5
115.8
118.0
120.7

5,001.3
5,078.9
5,098.2
5,109.0

432.1
436.1
447.3
455.0

26.1
26.8
26.9
26.4

43.0
17.4
16.3
−12.3

23.8
24.5
25.7
27.3

4,523.9
4,623.1
4,633.4
4,667.2

1991: I ........
II .......
III ......
IV ......

5,822.1
5,892.3
5,950.0
6,002.3

174.0
156.0
148.1
146.6

147.1
143.8
138.7
132.2

5,849.0
5,904.5
5,959.4
6,016.6

713.6
719.6
725.7
733.5

592.5
596.4
601.4
608.1

121.1
123.2
124.3
125.4

5,135.3
5,184.9
5,233.7
5,283.2

464.7
472.9
483.7
491.2

26.0
26.3
26.0
26.8

−6.5
5.6
17.2
18.8

24.4
22.7
23.5
23.6

4,675.6
4,702.8
4,730.4
4,770.0

1992: I ........
II .......
III ......
IV ......

6,121.8
6,201.2
6,271.7
6,383.0

140.7
143.3
133.8
133.9

124.2
132.3
124.3
126.4

6,138.3
6,212.2
6,281.1
6,390.5

727.6
734.1
809.2
746.1

601.3
606.4
680.5
616.2

126.3
127.7
128.6
130.0

5,410.7
5,478.1
5,471.9
5,644.3

495.7
497.9
507.1
521.7

27.6
28.5
28.6
28.8

23.3
36.2
51.6
63.6

24.6
25.4
26.9
31.5

4,888.7
4,941.0
4,911.6
5,061.7

1993: I ........
II .......
III ......
IV ......

6,442.8
6,503.2
6,571.3
6,683.7

135.3
141.2
140.1
142.1

119.7
132.1
126.6
141.3

6,458.4
6,512.3
6,584.8
6,684.5

765.6
767.6
783.1
779.1

633.8
634.6
648.4
643.3

131.7
133.0
134.6
135.8

5,692.9
5,744.7
5,801.7
5,905.4

524.7
535.1
541.7
558.5

27.8
28.3
28.3
29.0

80.7
55.0
48.6
36.0

35.2
33.7
29.9
28.0

5,094.9
5,159.9
5,213.0
5,309.9

1994: I ........
II .......
III ......
IV .....

6,772.8
6,885.0
6,987.6
7,080.0

144.4
151.1
165.6
175.7

143.6
159.9
175.6
193.4

6,773.6
6,876.3
6,977.6
7,062.2

887.4
791.2
796.7
799.7

748.7
652.7
656.7
656.6

138.7
138.5
140.0
143.1

5,886.1
6,085.1
6,180.8
6,262.5

562.1
568.0
576.4
583.5

29.6
29.9
29.9
30.3

21.1
17.5
46.7
39.7

27.2
24.0
23.4
25.9

5,300.5
5,493.7
5,551.2
5,635.0

1995: I ........
II .......
III ......

7,147.8
7,196.5
7,297.2

196.9
205.6
203.9

204.1
215.0
219.8

7,140.5
7,187.0
7,281.3

809.5
820.1
829.0

664.6
673.6
681.8

144.9 6,331.1
146.5 6,366.9
147.2 6,452.3

586.0
594.8
596.8

30.3
30.4
30.5

36.2
21.6
−2.3

19.2
18.7
17.9

5,697.7
5,738.9
5,845.1

1 Mainly
2 Mainly

receipts by U.S. residents of interest and dividends and reinvested earnings of foreign affiliates of U.S. corporations.
payments to foreign residents of interest and dividends and reinvested earnings of U.S. affiliates of foreign corporations.

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




304

TABLE B–23.—Relation of national income and personal income, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Less:

Year or quarter

National
income

Plus:

Corporate
profits
with
inventory
valuation
and
capital
consumption
adjustments 1

Net
interest

Contributions for
social
insurance

Wage
accruals
less
disbursements

Personal
interest
income

Personal
dividend
income

Equals:

Government
transfer
payments
to
persons

Business
transfer
payments
to
persons

Personal
income

1959 .............................

410.4

50.2

10.2

18.8

0.0

22.7

12.7

25.7

1.3

393.5

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

426.2
441.2
475.3
502.6
540.2

48.8
49.8
57.7
63.5
70.4

11.2
13.1
14.6
16.1
18.2

21.9
22.9
25.4
28.5
30.1

.0
.0
.0
.0
.0

25.0
26.9
29.3
32.4
36.1

13.4
14.0
15.0
16.1
18.0

27.5
31.5
32.6
34.5
36.0

1.3
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.8

411.7
429.1
456.1
479.1
513.5

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

587.8
644.4
680.7
742.4
800.9

80.9
86.3
83.6
90.3
87.5

21.1
24.3
28.1
30.4
33.6

31.6
40.6
45.5
50.4
57.8

.0
.0
.0
.0
.0

40.3
44.9
49.5
54.6
60.8

20.2
20.9
22.1
24.5
25.1

39.1
43.6
52.3
60.6
67.5

2.0
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.8

555.8
604.7
649.7
713.5
778.2

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

836.6
904.0
999.2
1,125.3
1,206.7

75.7
88.8
102.2
115.1
103.7

40.0
45.4
49.3
56.5
71.8

62.0
69.6
79.5
97.9
111.7

.0
.6
.0
−.1
−.5

69.2
75.7
81.8
94.1
112.4

23.5
23.5
25.5
27.7
29.6

81.8
97.0
108.4
124.1
147.4

2.8
3.0
3.4
3.8
4.0

836.1
898.9
987.3
1,105.6
1,213.3

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

1,295.5
1,447.5
1,616.3
1,839.2
2,053.3

121.1
147.0
167.3
191.6
194.0

80.0
85.1
100.7
120.5
150.3

121.1
137.7
155.4
177.0
204.2

.1
.1
.1
.3
−.2

123.0
134.6
155.7
184.5
223.6

29.2
35.0
39.5
44.3
50.5

185.7
202.8
217.5
234.8
262.8

4.5
5.5
5.9
6.8
7.9

1,315.6
1,455.4
1,611.4
1,820.2
2,049.7

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

2,216.1
2,470.2
2,569.2
2,761.4
3,132.7

167.1
183.9
159.2
212.3
268.2

191.9
234.5
264.9
275.9
318.5

225.0
261.6
280.6
301.9
345.5

.0
.1
.0
−.4
.2

274.7
337.2
379.2
403.2
472.3

57.5
67.2
66.9
77.4
79.4

312.6
355.7
396.3
426.6
438.5

8.8
10.2
11.8
12.8
15.1

2,285.7
2,560.4
2,718.7
2,891.7
3,205.5

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

3,351.5
3,516.5
3,778.1
4,108.6
4,362.1

282.2
271.0
309.7
357.2
356.4

337.2
363.1
372.2
398.9
456.6

375.9
402.0
423.3
462.8
491.2

−.2
.0
.0
.0
.0

508.4
543.3
560.0
595.5
674.5

88.3
105.1
101.1
109.9
130.9

468.7
498.0
522.5
556.8
604.9

17.8
20.7
20.8
20.8
21.1

3,439.6
3,647.5
3,877.3
4,172.8
4,489.3

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

4,611.9
4,719.7
4,950.8
5,194.4
5,495.1

369.5
382.5
401.4
464.5
526.5

467.3
448.0
414.3
398.1
392.8

518.5
543.5
571.4
592.9
628.3

.1
−.1
−15.8
4.6
14.8

704.4
699.2
667.2
647.3
661.6

142.9
153.6
159.4
186.8
199.6

666.5
749.1
835.7
888.6
933.8

21.3
20.8
22.5
22.1
22.6

4,791.6
4,968.5
5,264.2
5,479.2
5,750.2

1990: I ..........................
II .........................
III ........................
IV ........................

4,523.9
4,623.1
4,633.4
4,667.2

369.3
392.8
350.4
365.5

458.9
465.0
467.7
477.5

511.1
516.2
522.4
524.3

.0
.0
.0
.2

690.6
701.1
711.6
714.2

142.0
143.4
143.3
142.7

649.2
656.5
669.3
691.0

21.3
21.5
21.3
21.1

4,687.8
4,771.5
4,838.4
4,868.6

1991: I ..........................
II .........................
III ........................
IV ........................

4,675.6
4,702.8
4,730.4
4,770.0

393.7
380.0
376.8
379.6

460.4
450.6
446.6
434.3

536.8
540.9
546.0
550.3

.2
−.4
.0
.0

705.4
702.2
697.0
692.3

149.3
153.1
156.4
155.7

725.6
742.5
754.1
774.0

20.8
20.7
20.8
21.1

4,885.6
4,950.2
4,989.3
5,048.9

1992: I ..........................
II .........................
III ........................
IV ........................

4,888.7
4,941.0
4,911.6
5,061.7

417.3
409.3
351.3
427.7

419.2
417.5
408.1
412.4

565.1
570.1
574.8
575.7

.0
.0
.0
−63.0

674.1
673.0
661.2
660.4

152.3
154.5
160.8
170.1

816.4
831.0
842.5
853.0

21.9
22.5
22.8
22.9

5,151.9
5,225.1
5,264.6
5,415.3

1993: I ..........................
II .........................
III ........................
IV ........................

5,094.9
5,159.9
5,213.0
5,309.9

426.4
449.0
469.6
512.8

412.6
402.6
390.4
386.7

578.3
592.8
597.5
603.1

64.0
1.0
1.0
−47.4

659.0
651.6
640.0
638.6

180.0
185.4
189.7
192.1

873.6
884.8
894.3
901.6

22.3
22.1
22.0
22.1

5,348.7
5,458.4
5,500.5
5,609.1

1994: I ..........................
II .........................
III ........................
IV ........................

5,300.5
5,493.7
5,551.2
5,635.0

455.9
531.5
549.8
568.9

388.7
393.5
397.8
391.1

614.2
627.5
632.2
639.3

51.4
3.0
3.0
1.6

639.4
657.6
671.0
678.4

193.2
197.5
201.0
206.7

917.1
927.3
938.7
952.0

22.4
22.5
22.6
22.7

5,562.4
5,743.0
5,801.7
5,893.9

1995: I ..........................
II .........................
III ........................

5,697.7
5,738.9
5,845.1

559.6
561.1
614.4

403.9
402.6
399.8

651.0
656.2
664.0

1.4
.0
.0

701.9
713.9
719.3

209.5
212.2
215.8

979.8
994.2
1,007.3

22.6
22.6
22.6

5,995.5
6,061.9
6,131.9

1 Includes

rest of world.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




305

TABLE B–24.—National income by type of income, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Compensation of employees

Year or
quarter

National
income 1

Proprietors’ income with inventory valuation
and capital consumption adjustments

Wages and salaries

Supplements to wages and
salaries

Government

Other
labor
income

Total

Total

Employer
contributions for
social
insurance

Total
Total

Other

Farm

Nonfarm

Total

Proprietors’
income 2

Total

Proprietors’
income 3

1959 ........

410.4

281.2

259.8

46.0

213.8

21.4

10.9

10.6

50.5

10.9

11.8

39.6

40.2

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

........
........
........
........
........

426.2
441.2
475.3
502.6
540.2

296.7
305.6
327.4
345.5
371.0

272.8
280.5
299.3
314.8
337.7

49.2
52.4
56.3
60.0
64.9

223.7
228.0
243.0
254.8
272.9

23.8
25.1
28.1
30.7
33.2

12.6
13.3
15.1
16.7
17.5

11.2
11.8
13.0
14.0
15.7

50.5
53.0
55.0
56.3
59.0

11.5
12.1
12.1
12.0
10.8

12.3
12.9
12.9
12.7
11.5

39.1
40.9
42.9
44.3
48.3

39.8
41.8
43.9
45.2
49.2

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

........
........
........
........
........

587.8
644.4
680.7
742.4
800.9

399.8
443.0
475.5
524.7
578.3

363.7
400.3
428.9
471.9
518.3

69.9
78.3
86.4
96.6
105.5

293.8
321.9
342.5
375.3
412.7

36.1
42.7
46.6
52.8
60.0

18.3
22.8
24.9
27.6
31.5

17.8
19.9
21.7
25.2
28.5

63.5
67.6
69.1
73.3
77.1

13,0
14.1
12.7
12.8
14.6

13.8
14.9
13.7
13.8
15.8

50.4
53.5
56.4
60.5
62.5

51.9
55.4
58.3
63.0
65.0

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

........
........
........
........
........

836.6
904.0
999.2
1,125.3
1,206.7

618.1
660.1
726.8
813.1
892.4

551.5
584.5
638.7
708.6
772.2

117.1
126.7
137.8
148.7
160.4

434.3
457.8
500.9
560.0
611.8

66.6
75.6
88.1
104.4
120.3

34.1
38.9
45.1
55.3
63.7

32.5
36.7
43.0
49.2
56.5

78.0
83.9
95.2
113.3
111.3

14.8
15.5
19.5
32.6
25.9

16.1
16.9
21.2
34.6
28.5

63.2
68.3
75.8
80.7
85.4

66.0
72.0
79.3
85.9
93.4

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

........
........
........
........
........

1,295.5
1,447.5
1,616.3
1,839.2
2,053.3

951.3
1,061.5
1,182.9
1,338.5
1,503.3

814.7
899.6
994.0
1,121.1
1,255.7

176.1
188.7
202.4
219.8
236.9

638.6
710.8
791.6
901.2
1,018.8

136.6
162.0
188.9
217.4
247.5

70.6
82.2
94.1
107.3
123.2

65.9
79.7
94.7
110.1
124.3

116.5
127.5
140.8
162.2
177.3

24.2
18.7
17.9
22.9
26.6

27.7
22.8
22.3
27.7
32.2

92.3
108.8
122.9
139.2
150.8

99.2
116.3
131.0
148.7
160.9

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

........
........
........
........
........

2,216.1
2,470.2
2,569.2
2,761.4
3,132.7

1,653.9
1,827.8
1,927.6
2,044.2
2,257.0

1,377.6
1,517.6
1,593.9
1,684.8
1,855.3

261.2
285.6
307.3
324.5
347.8

1,116.4
1,232.0
1,286.7
1,360.3
1,507.5

276.3
310.2
333.7
359.4
401.7

136.4
157.1
168.3
182.2
212.8

139.8
153.0
165.4
177.2
188.9

167.9
178.3
169.9
181.7
237.9

13.8
23.7
16.4
6.0
24.8

20.7
31.6
24.8
14.1
32.7

154.1
154.6
153.5
175.8
213.1

165.2
160.7
158.2
172.2
199.7

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

........
........
........
........
........

3,351.5
3,516.5
3,778.1
4,108.6
4,362.1

2,425.7
2,572.4
2,757.7
2,973.9
3,151.6

1,995.7
2,116.5
2,272.7
2,453.6
2,598.1

373.5
396.6
423.1
450.4
479.4

1,622.1
1,720.0
1,849.5
2,003.2
2,118.7

430.0
455.9
485.0
520.3
553.5

226.9
239.9
249.7
268.6
280.4

203.1
216.0
235.4
251.7
273.1

257.4
267.8
292.9
322.9
345.0

24.9
25.2
32.3
28.2
36.8

32.4
32.6
39.6
35.4
44.3

232.5
242.6
260.6
294.7
308.2

210.5
215.9
238.2
272.0
284.8

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

........
........
........
........
........

4,611.9
4,719.7
4,950.8
5,194.4
5,495.1

3,352.8
3,457.9
3,644.9
3,809.4
4,008.3

2,757.5
2,827.6
2,970.6
3,095.2
3,255.9

517.2
546.0
567.8
584.2
602.5

2,240.3
2,281.5
2,402.9
2,511.0
2,653.4

595.2
630.4
674.3
714.2
752.4

294.6
307.7
323.0
333.3
350.2

300.6
322.7
351.3
380.9
402.2

361.0
362.9
409.5
420.0
450.9

36.3
30.2
38.0
32.0
35.0

43.8
37.7
45.7
39.5
42.5

324.6
332.7
371.5
388.1
415.9

312.7
325.0
363.1
381.0
411.5

1990: I ......
II ....
III ...
IV ...

4,523.9
4,623.1
4,633.4
4,667.2

3,285.5
3,344.7
3,384.9
3,395.9

2,704.0
2,753.0
2,784.5
2,788.8

504.3
514.3
520.8
529.4

2,199.6
2,238.6
2,263.6
2,259.3

581.5
591.7
600.5
607.1

290.1
294.0
296.4
297.9

291.4
297.8
304.0
309.2

354.7
362.7
365.6
360.9

36.1
39.4
36.0
33.9

43.5
46.7
43.5
41.3

318.6
323.3
329.6
327.1

302.2
309.4
319.7
319.6

1991: I ......
II ....
III ...
IV ...

4,675.6
4,702.8
4,730.4
4,770.0

3,405.7
3,440.7
3,474.2
3,511.0

2,789.5
2,814.7
2,838.8
2,867.1

541.5
544.9
546.9
550.8

2,248.0
2,269.8
2,292.0
2,316.3

616.2
626.0
635.4
643.8

303.8
306.3
309.1
311.4

312.4
319.7
326.3
332.4

349.2
365.1
365.2
372.1

27.6
34.2
28.0
31.0

35.1
41.6
35.5
38.5

321.6
331.0
337.1
341.1

313.0
323.3
329.9
333.7

1992: I ......
II ....
III ...
IV ...

4,888.7
4,941.0
4,911.6
5,061.7

3,577.1
3,626.5
3,669.2
3,707.0

2,916.5
2,956.2
2,988.2
3,021.7

561.4
567.2
569.8
572.5

2,355.1
2,389.0
2,418.3
2,449.2

660.7
670.3
681.0
685.3

319.9
322.7
325.1
324.2

340.8
347.6
355.9
361.1

396.5
406.9
412.1
422.4

36.7
37.9
39.9
37.3

44.2
45.4
48.3
44.8

359.8
368.9
372.3
385.1

350.8
360.7
364.4
376.3

1993: I ......
II ....
III ...
IV ...

5,094.9
5,159.9
5,213.0
5,309.9

3,744.1
3,787.8
3,834.8
3,871.0

3,045.9
3,075.1
3,114.9
3,144.9

580.9
581.4
586.3
588.3

2,465.0
2,493.8
2,528.6
2,556.5

698.2
712.6
719.9
726.2

325.9
333.5
335.6
338.1

372.2
379.1
384.3
388.0

413.5
417.6
414.2
434.9

31.5
35.8
26.1
34.4

39.0
43.3
33.8
41.9

382.0
381.8
388.1
400.5

375.5
375.7
380.0
392.7

1994: I ......
II ....
III ...
IV ...

5,300.5
5,493.7
5,551.2
5,635.0

3,933.6
3,993.3
4,022.7
4,083.7

3,195.2
3,242.8
3,265.5
3,320.2

596.5
601.7
603.7
608.3

2,598.7
2,641.1
2,661.7
2,711.9

738.5
750.5
757.2
763.5

342.9
350.0
352.3
355.8

395.6
400.5
404.9
407.8

421.1
454.4
458.7
469.4

40.8
35.1
31.9
32.3

48.2
42.5
39.4
39.8

380.3
419,3
426.8
437.1

399.3
409.1
415.1
422.5

1995: I ......
II ....
III ...

5,697.7
5,738.9
5,845.1

4,141.6
4,178.9
4,232.9

3,363.0
3,393.3
3,439.3

616.3
619.6
624.1

2,746.6
2,773.6
2,815.2

778.6
785.6
793.7

360.8
363.6
367.8

417.7
422.0
425.9

472.0
474.7
479.7

28.5
27.6
27.4

36.1
35.1
34.9

443.5
447.1
452.3

429.6
433.1
436.4

1 National income is the total net income earned in production. It differs from gross domestic product mainly in that it excludes depreciation charges and other allowances for business and institutional consumption of durable capital goods and indirect business taxes. See Table
B–22.
See next page for continuation of table.




306

TABLE B–24.—National income by type of income, 1959–95—Continued
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Rental income of persons
with capital consumption
adjustment
Year or
quarter
Total

Rental
income
of
persons

Capital
consumption
adjustment

Corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments
Profits with inventory valuation adjustment and without
capital consumption adjustment
Profits
Profits
before
tax

Profits
tax
liability

Total

Dividends

Undistributed
profits

Inventory
valuation
adjustment

Total

Profits after tax
Total

Capital
Net
consumption interest
adjustment

1959 ...............

18.2

19.7

−1.5

50.2

53.1

53.4

23.6

29.7

12.7

17.0

−0.3

−2.9

10.2

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

19.1
19.8
20.6
21.3
21.7

20.6
21.2
22.0
22.6
23.0

−1.5
−1.4
−1.4
−1.3
−1.3

48.8
49.8
57.7
63.5
70.4

51.0
51.3
56.4
61.2
67.5

51.1
51.0
56.4
61.2
68.0

22.7
22.8
24.0
26.2
28.0

28.4
28.2
32.4
34.9
40.0

13.4
14.0
15.0
16.1
18.0

15.0
14.3
17.4
18.8
22.0

−.2
.3
.0
.1
−.5

−2.2
−1.5
1.3
2.3
2.8

11.2
13.1
14.6
16.1
18.2

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

22.5
23.2
24.4
23.7
24.4

24.0
24.9
26.3
26.0
27.3

−1.5
−1.7
−1.9
−2.3
−2.8

80.9
86.3
83.6
90.3
87.5

77.6
83.0
80.3
86.9
83.2

78.8
85.1
81.8
90.6
89.0

30.9
33.7
32.7
39.4
39.7

47.9
51.4
49.2
51.2
49.4

20.2
20.9
22.1
24.6
25.2

27.8
30.5
27.1
26.6
24.1

−1.2
−2.1
−1.6
−3.7
−5.9

3.4
3.3
3.3
3.4
4.4

21.1
24.3
28.1
30.4
33.6

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

24.7
25.8
25.7
27.4
27.5

27.8
29.5
30.3
32.8
34.4

−3.1
−3.7
−4.6
−5.4
−6.9

75.7
88.8
102.2
115.1
103.7

71.8
85.5
97.9
110.9
103.4

78.4
90.1
104.5
130.9
142.8

34.4
37.7
41.9
49.3
51.8

44.0
52.4
62.6
81.6
91.0

23.7
23.7
25.8
28.1
30.4

20.3
28.6
36.9
53.5
60.6

−6.6
−4.6
−6.6
−20.0
−39.5

3.9
3.3
4.3
4.1
.3

40.0
45.4
49.3
56.5
71.8

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

26.6
26.3
24.7
26.5
28.4

34.9
35.7
36.4
41.2
46.7

−8.4
−9.5
−11.7
−14.7
−18.3

121.1
147.0
167.3
191.6
194.0

129.4
158.9
186.8
213.1
220.2

140.4
173.8
203.5
238.1
261.8

50.9
64.2
73.0
83.5
88.0

89.5
109.6
130.4
154.6
173.8

30.1
35.9
40.8
46.0
52.5

59.4
73.7
89.6
108.6
121.3

−11.0
−14.9
−16.6
−25.0
−41.6

−8.3
−11.8
−19.6
−21.5
−26.2

80.0
85.1
100.7
120.5
150.3

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

35.3
45.7
47.6
47.2
51.0

57.3
70.7
74.7
74.8
79.2

−22.0
−25.1
−27.1
−27.6
−28.2

167.1
183.9
159.2
212.3
268.2

198.3
204.1
166.8
203.7
238.5

241.4
229.8
176.7
212.8
244.2

84.8
81.1
63.1
77.2
94.0

156.6
148.6
113.6
135.5
150.1

59.3
69.5
69.8
80.8
83.2

97.3
79.1
43.8
54.8
66.9

−43.0
−25.7
−9.9
−9.1
−5.6

−31.2
−20.1
−7.6
8.6
29.7

191.9
234.5
264.9
275.9
318.5

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

49.1
42.3
45.5
55.7
52.4

79.0
72.6
77.6
89.7
91.0

−29.9
−30.4
−32.1
−33.9
−38.5

282.2
271.0
309.7
357.2
356.4

230.5
234.0
272.9
325.0
330.6

229.9
222.6
293.6
354.3
348.1

96.5
106.5
127.1
137.0
141.3

133.4
116.1
166.5
217.3
206.8

92.8
110.2
107.0
116.8
138.9

40.6
5.8
59.5
100.5
67.9

.5
11.4
−20.7
−29.3
−17.5

51.8
37.0
36.8
32.2
25.8

337.2
363.1
372.2
398.9
456.6

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

61.4
68.4
80.6
102.5
116.6

98.6
107.0
126.9
144.3
159.4

−37.2
−38.6
−46.2
−41.8
−42.8

369.5
382.5
401.4
464.5
526.5

358.2
378.2
398.9
457.7
514.9

371.7
374.2
406.4
464.3
528.2

140.5
133.4
143.0
163.8
195.3

231.2
240.8
263.4
300.5
332.9

151.9
163.1
169.5
197.3
211.0

79.4
77.7
93.9
103.3
121.9

−13.5
4.0
−7.5
−6.6
−13.3

11.3
4.3
2.5
6.7
11.6

467.3
448.0
414.3
398.1
392.8

1990: I ............
II ...........
III ..........
IV ..........

55.5
57.9
64.8
67.3

92.3
94.9
102.3
104.9

−36.8
−37.1
−37.5
−37.5

369.3
392.8
350.4
365.5

353.4
381.1
341.9
356.5

354.7
373.4
381.9
376.7

133.0
141.2
148.0
139.7

221.7
232.2
233.9
237.1

150.7
152.4
152.4
152.0

71.1
79.8
81.6
85.0

−1.3
7.7
−40.0
−20.3

15.9
11.7
8.5
9.0

458.9
465.0
467.7
477.5

1991: I ............
II ...........
III ..........
IV ..........

66.6
66.3
67.6
73.0

104.1
103.9
105.3
114.6

−37.5
−37.5
−37.7
−41.6

393.7
380.0
376.8
379.6

388.3
375.5
373.8
375.2

370.7
368.7
374.6
382.8

130.1
132.3
136.0
135.2

240.7
236.4
238.6
247.6

158.6
162.6
165.9
165.3

82.0
73.8
72.7
82.2

17.6
6.8
−.8
−7.6

5.4
4.6
3.0
4.5

460.4
450.6
446.6
434.3

1992: I ............
II ...........
III ..........
IV ..........

78.6
80.9
70.8
92.3

114.8
117.5
144.8
130.4

−36.2
−36.6
−73.9
−38.1

417.3
409.3
351.3
427.7

411.4
404.3
359.4
420.5

411.1
426.2
368.0
420.3

143.9
150.9
127.6
149.7

267.2
275.2
240.4
270.6

162.1
164.6
170.9
180.4

105.2
110.6
69.5
90.3

.3
−21.9
−8.6
.2

5.9
5.0
−8.1
7.2

419.2
417.5
408.1
412.4

1993: I ............
II ...........
III ..........
IV ..........

98.4
102.9
104.1
104.5

142.6
143.4
146.5
144.6

−44.2
−40.5
−42.5
−40.1

426.4
449.0
469.6
512.8

421.4
443.2
465.9
500.4

436.0
458.8
458.0
504.5

151.5
162.6
159.3
181.7

284.6
296.2
298.6
322.7

190.2
195.8
200.2
202.9

94.4
100.4
98.4
119.8

−14.6
−15.6
7.9
−4.0

5.0
5.8
3.8
12.3

412.6
402.6
390.4
386.7

1994: I ............
II ...........
III ..........
IV ..........

101.1
121.0
122.2
121.9

162.2
159.0
159.2
157.2

−61.0
−37.9
−37.0
−35.3

455.9
531.5
549.8
568.9

467.8
513.4
531.0
547.6

471.7
523.2
547.5
570.4

171.4
192.8
203.4
213.5

300.3
330.4
344.1
356.8

204.4
208.8
212.5
218.5

95.9
121.7
131.6
138.3

−3.9
−9.8
−16.5
−22.8

−11.8
18.1
18.8
21.3

388.7
393.5
397.8
391.1

1995: I ............
II ...........
III ..........

120.6
121.6
118.3

156.3
157.2
154.2

−35.7
−35.6
−35.8

559.6
561.1
614.4

542.2
546.1
599.8

594.1
588.4
609.6

217.3
214.2
224.5

376.8
374.1
385.1

221.7
224.6
228.5

155.1
149.6
156.6

−51.9
−42.3
−9.8

17.4
15.0
14.6

403.9
402.6
399.8

2 Without
3 Without

capital consumption adjustment.
inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments.

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




307

TABLE B–25.—Sources of personal income, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Wage and salary disbursements 1
Private Industry
Year or
quarter

Personal
income

Total
Total

Commodityproducing
industries
Total

Manufacturing

Distributive
industries

Service
industries

Government

Other
labor
income 1

Proprietors’ income
with inventory
valuation and
capital
consumption
adjustments
Farm

Nonfarm

1959 .............

393.5

259.8

213.8

109.9

86.9

65.1

38.8

46.0

10.6

10.9

39.6

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

411.7
429.1
456.1
479.1
513.5

272.8
280.5
299.3
314.8
337.7

223.7
228.0
243.0
254.8
272.9

113.4
114.0
122.2
127.4
136.0

89.8
89.9
96.8
100.7
107.3

68.6
69.6
73.3
76.8
82.0

41.7
44.4
47.6
50.7
54.9

49.2
52.4
56.3
60.0
64.9

11.2
11.8
13.0
14.0
15.7

11.5
12.1
12.1
12.0
10.8

39.1
40.9
42.9
44.3
48.3

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

555.8
604.7
649.7
713.5
778.2

363.7
400.3
428.9
471.9
518.3

293.8
321.9
342.5
375.3
412.7

146.6
161.6
169.0
184.1
200.4

115.7
128.2
134.3
146.0
157.7

87.9
95.1
101.6
110.8
121.7

59.4
65.3
72.0
80.4
90.6

69.9
78.3
86.4
96.6
105.5

17.8
19.9
21.7
25.2
28.5

13.0
14.1
12.7
12.8
14.6

50.4
53.5
56.4
60.5
62.5

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

836.1
898.9
987.3
1,105.6
1,213.3

551.5
583.9
638.7
708.7
772.6

434.3
457.4
501.2
560.0
611.8

203.7
209.1
228.2
255.9
276.5

158.4
160.5
175.6
196.6
211.8

131.2
140.4
153.3
170.3
186.8

99.4
107.9
119.7
133.9
148.6

117.1
126.5
137.4
148.7
160.9

32.5
36.7
43.0
49.2
56.5

14.8
15.5
19.5
32.6
25.9

63.2
68.3
75.8
80.7
85.4

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

1,315.6
1,455.4
1,611.4
1,820.2
2,049.7

814.6
899.5
993.9
1,120.8
1,255.9

638.6
710.8
791.6
901.2
1,018.8

277.1
309.7
346.1
392.6
442.5

211.6
238.0
266.7
300.1
335.3

198.1
219.5
242.7
274.9
308.5

163.4
181.6
202.8
233.7
267.8

176.0
188.6
202.3
219.6
237.1

65.9
79.7
94.7
110.1
124.3

24.2
18.7
17.9
22.9
26.6

92.3
108.8
122.9
139.2
150.8

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

2,285.7
2,560.4
2,718.7
2,891.7
3,205.5

1,377.7
1,517.6
1,593.9
1,685.3
1,855.1

1,116.4
1,232.0
1,286.7
1,360.3
1,507.5

472.5
514.9
515.1
528.2
586.6

356.4
388.0
386.2
401.2
445.9

336.7
368.5
385.9
405.7
445.2

307.2
348.6
385.7
426.4
475.6

261.3
285.6
307.3
325.0
347.6

139.8
153.0
165.4
177.2
188.9

13.8
23.7
16.4
6.0
24.8

154.1
154.6
153.5
175.8
213.1

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

3,439.6
3,647.5
3,877.3
4,172.8
4,489.3

1,995.9
2,116.5
2,272.7
2,453.6
2,598.1

1,622.1
1,720.0
1,849.5
2,003.2
2,118.7

620.7
637.3
660.4
707.0
732.4

468.9
481.2
497.2
530.1
548.1

476.5
501.6
535.4
575.3
606.8

525.0
581.0
653.7
720.9
779.5

373.8
396.6
423.1
450.4
479.4

203.1
216.0
235.4
251.7
273.1

24.9
25.2
32.3
28.2
36.8

232.5
242.6
260.6
294.7
308.2

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............

4,791.6
4,968.5
5,264.2
5,479.2
5,750.2

2,757.5
2,827.6
2,986.4
3,090.6
3,241.1

2,240.3
2,281.5
2,418.6
2,506.3
2,638.6

754.2
746.3
765.7
781.3
825.0

561.2
562.5
583.5
593.1
621.3

634.1
646.6
680.3
698.4
739.3

852.1
888.6
972.6
1,026.6
1,074.3

517.2
546.1
567.8
584.2
602.5

300.6
322.7
351.3
380.9
402.2

36.3
30.2
38.0
32.0
35.0

324.6
332.7
371.5
388.1
415.9

1990: I ..........
II .........
III .......
IV ........

4,687.8
4,771.5
4,838.4
4,868.6

2,704.0
2,753.0
2,784.4
2,788.6

2,199.6
2,238.6
2,263.6
2,259.3

748.7
757.7
758.5
751.8

554.8
563.9
564.9
561.2

624.4
633.9
638.9
639.1

826.5
847.1
866.2
868.4

504.3
514.3
520.8
529.3

291.4
297.8
304.0
309.2

36.1
39.4
36.0
33.9

318.6
323.3
329.6
327.1

1991: I ..........
II .........
III .......
IV ........

4,885.6
4,950.2
4,989.3
5,048.9

2,789.3
2,815.1
2,838.8
2,867.1

2,248.0
2,269.8
2,292.0
2,316.3

742.5
742.8
749.4
750.6

555.5
558.4
566.3
569.7

636.7
644.6
649.7
655.3

868.8
882.5
892.8
910.5

541.3
545.3
546.9
550.8

312.4
319.7
326.3
332.4

27.6
34.2
28.0
31.0

321.6
331.0
337.1
341.1

1992: I ..........
II .........
III .......
IV ........

5,151.9
5,225.1
5,264.6
5,415.3

2,916.5
2,956.2
2,988.2
3,084.7

2,355.1
2,389.0
2,418.3
2,512.2

752.7
761.9
764.6
783.6

571.5
579.6
583.0
599.7

666.2
673.6
681.5
699.9

936.2
953.4
972.2
1,028.6

561.4
567.2
569.8
572.5

340.8
347.6
355.9
361.1

36.7
37.9
39.9
37.3

359.8
368.9
372.3
385.1

1993: I ..........
II .........
III .......
IV ........

5,348.7
5,458.4
5,500.5
5,609.1

2,981.9
3,074.2
3,113.9
3,192.3

2,401.0
2,492.8
2,527.6
2,603.9

757.1
778.5
785.5
804.2

573.8
591.5
596.0
611.0

674.7
696.2
704.0
718.7

969.2
1,018.1
1,038.1
1,081.1

580.9
581.4
586.3
588.3

372.2
379.1
384.3
388.0

31.5
35.8
26.1
34.4

382.0
381.8
388.1
400.5

1994: I ..........
II .........
III .......
IV ........

5,562.4
5,743.0
5,801.7
5,893.9

3,143.7
3,239.8
3,262.4
3,318.5

2,547.3
2,638.1
2,658.7
2,710.3

801.2
820.7
832.0
846.0

604.3
618.8
626.1
636.0

714.5
738.8
741.5
762.7

1,031.6
1,078.6
1,085.2
1,101.6

596.5
601.7
603.7
608.3

395.6
400.5
404.9
407.8

40.8
35.1
31.9
32.3

380.3
419.3
426.8
437.1

1995: I ..........
II .........
III .......

5,995.5
6,061.9
6,131.9

3,361.6
3,393.3
3,439.3

2,745.2
2,773.6
2,815.2

856.2
855.0
859.9

643.4
640.5
642.9

768.8
778.6
792.4

1,120.2
1,140.0
1,162.8

616.3
619.6
624.1

417.7
422.0
425.9

28.5
27.6
27.4

443.5
447.1
452.3

1 The total of wage and salary disbursements and other labor income differs from compensation of employees in Table B–24 in that it excludes employer contributions for social insurance and the excess of wage accruals over wage disbursements.

See next page for continuation of table.




308

TABLE B–25.—Sources of personal income, 1959–95—Continued
[Billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]

Year
or
quarter

Rental
income
of
persons
with
capital
consumption
adjustment

Transfer payments to persons

Personal
dividend
income

Personal
interest
income

Total

Old-age,
survivors,
disability,
and
health
insurance
benefits

Government
unemployment
insurance
benefits

Veterans
benefits

Government
employees
retirement
benefits

Aid to
families
with
dependent
children
(AFDC)

Other

Less:
Personal
contributions for
social
insurance

1959 ..................

18.2

12.7

22.7

27.0

10.2

2.8

4.6

2.8

0.9

5.7

7.9

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

19.1
19.8
20.6
21.3
21.7

13.4
14.0
15.0
16.1
18.0

25.0
26.9
29.3
32.4
36.1

28.8
32.8
34.1
36.2
37.9

11.1
12.6
14.3
15.2
16.0

3.0
4.3
3.1
3.0
2.7

4.6
5.0
4.7
4.8
4.7

3.1
3.4
3.7
4.2
4.7

1.0
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.5

6.1
6.5
7.0
7.6
8.2

9.3
9.7
10.3
11.8
12.6

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

22.5
23.2
24.4
23.7
24.4

20.2
20.9
22.1
24.5
25.1

40.3
44.9
49.5
54.6
60.8

41.1
45.7
54.6
63.2
70.3

18.1
20.8
25.5
30.2
32.9

2.3
1.9
2.2
2.1
2.2

4.9
4.9
5.6
5.9
6.7

5.2
6.1
6.9
7.6
8.7

1.7
1.9
2.3
2.8
3.5

9.0
10.3
12.2
14.5
16.2

13.3
17.8
20.6
22.9
26.2

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

24.7
25.8
25.7
27.4
27.5

23.5
23.5
25.5
27.7
29.6

69.2
75.7
81.8
94.1
112.4

84.6
100.1
111.8
127.9
151.3

38.5
44.5
49.6
60.4
70.1

4.0
5.8
5.7
4.4
6.8

7.7
8.8
9.7
10.4
11.8

10.2
11.8
13.8
16.0
19.0

4.8
6.2
6.9
7.2
7.9

19.4
23.0
26.1
29.5
35.7

27.9
30.7
34.5
42.6
47.9

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

26.6
26.3
24.7
26.5
28.4

29.2
35.0
39.5
44.3
50.5

123.0
134.6
155.7
184.5
223.6

190.2
208.3
223.3
241.6
270.7

81.4
92.9
104.9
116.2
131.8

17.6
15.8
12.7
9.7
9.8

14.5
14.4
13.8
13.9
14.4

22.7
26.1
29.0
32.7
36.9

9.2
10.1
10.6
10.7
11.0

44.7
49.1
52.4
58.4
66.8

50.4
55.5
61.2
69.8
81.0

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

35.3
45.7
47.6
47.2
51.0

57.5
67.2
66.9
77.4
79.4

274.7
337.2
379.2
403.2
472.3

321.5
365.9
408.1
439.4
453.6

154.2
182.0
204.5
221.7
235.7

16.1
15.9
25.2
26.3
15.9

15.0
16.1
16.4
16.6
16.4

43.0
49.4
54.6
58.0
60.9

12.4
13.0
13.3
14.2
14.8

80.8
89.7
94.1
102.6
109.9

88.6
104.5
112.3
119.7
132.7

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

49.1
42.3
45.5
55.7
52.4

88.3
105.1
101.1
109.9
130.9

508.4
543.3
560.0
595.5
674.5

486.5
518.6
543.3
577.6
626.0

253.4
269.2
282.9
300.4
325.1

15.7
16.3
14.5
13.3
14.4

16.7
16.7
16.6
16.9
17.3

66.6
70.7
76.0
82.2
87.6

15.4
16.4
16.7
17.3
18.0

118.7
129.3
136.6
147.6
163.6

149.0
162.1
173.7
194.2
210.8

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

..................
..................
..................
..................
..................

61.4
68.4
80.6
102.5
116.6

142.9
153.6
159.4
186.8
199.6

704.4
699.2
667.2
647.3
661.6

687.8
769.9
858.2
910.7
956.3

352.0
382.3
414.0
444.4
472.9

18.1
26.8
38.9
34.0
23.7

17.8
18.3
19.3
20.1
20.2

94.5
102.2
109.0
116.4
125.8

19.8
22.0
23.3
23.9
24.2

185.6
218.2
253.8
271.8
289.5

223.9
235.8
248.4
259.6
278.1

1990: I ...............
II ..............
III .............
IV .............

55.5
57.9
64.8
67.3

142.0
143.4
143.3
142.7

690.6
701.1
711.6
714.2

670.5
678.1
690.6
712.0

348.1
348.6
352.6
358.7

16.4
17.1
18.2
20.9

18.0
17.8
17.7
17.8

93.0
93.7
94.9
96.4

19.1
19.5
20.0
20.5

175.9
181.4
187.2
197.6

221.0
222.3
225.9
226.4

1991: I ...............
II ..............
III .............
IV .............

66.6
66.3
67.6
73.0

149.3
153.1
156.4
155.7

705.4
702.2
697.0
692.3

746.4
763.2
774.9
795.1

374.6
380.0
384.7
389.9

24.5
27.7
26.0
29.2

18.1
18.7
18.3
18.2

102.2
101.6
102.3
102.9

21.1
21.8
22.2
22.7

205.9
213.5
221.4
232.2

233.0
234.6
236.9
238.9

1992: I ...............
II ..............
III .............
IV .............

78.6
80.9
70.8
92.3

152.3
154.5
160.8
170.1

674.1
673.0
661.2
660.4

838.3
853.5
865.3
875.8

405.4
412.2
416.9
421.5

39.2
40.4
38.7
37.1

20.4
18.9
18.8
19.1

107.8
108.6
109.0
110.5

23.0
23.1
23.4
23.5

242.5
250.2
258.5
264.2

245.2
247.4
249.7
251.4

1993: I ...............
II ..............
III .............
IV .............

98.4
102.9
104.1
104.5

180.0
185.4
189.7
192.1

659.0
651.6
640.0
638.6

895.9
906.9
916.4
923.6

436.8
441.9
446.7
452.1

34.4
34.3
34.7
32.6

20.1
20.3
20.2
20.0

114.2
115.8
117.2
118.5

23.7
24.0
24.0
24.1

266.7
270.6
273.6
276.3

252.3
259.3
261.9
265.0

1994: I ...............
II ..............
III .............
IV .............

101.1
121.0
122.2
121.9

193.2
197.5
201.0
206.7

639.4
657.6
671.0
678.4

939.5
949.8
961.4
974.7

463.6
470.4
475.6
482.1

27.9
23.9
21.8
21.2

20.0
20.0
20.4
20.3

120.2
124.6
128.1
130.4

24.2
24.2
24.2
24.1

283.6
286.7
291.3
296.5

271.4
277.6
279.9
283.5

1995: I ...............
II ..............
III .............

120.6
121.6
118.3

209.5
212.2
215.8

701.9 1,002.4
713.9 1,016.8
719.3 1,029.9

497.6
505.1
510.7

21.2
21.0
22.0

20.8
20.7
21.1

132.9
135.5
136.4

23.8
23.5
23.1

306.1
311.1
316.6

290.2
292.7
296.2

Note.—The industry classification of wage and salary disbursements and proprietors’ income is on an establishment basis and is based on
the 1987 Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) beginning 1987 and on the 1972 SIC for earlier years shown.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




309

TABLE B–26.—Disposition of personal income, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars, except as noted; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Less: Personal outlays

Year or quarter

Personal
income

Less:
Personal
tax and
nontax
payments

Equals:
Disposable
personal
income

Total

Percent of disposable
personal income 1

Personal
Personal
transfer
conInterest paysumption paid by ments
expendi- persons to rest
tures
of the
world
(net)

Personal outlays
Equals:
Personal
saving
Total

Personal
consump- Personal
saving
tion
expenditures

1959 .....................

393.5

44.5

349.0

324.7

318.1

6.1

0.4

24.3

93.0

91.1

7.0

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................

411.7
429.1
456.1
479.1
513.5

48.7
50.3
54.8
58.0
56.0

362.9
378.8
401.3
421.1
457.6

339.6
350.5
371.8
392.5
422.1

332.2
342.6
363.4
383.0
411.4

7.0
7.3
7.8
8.9
10.0

.5
.5
.5
.6
.7

23.3
28.3
29.5
28.6
35.5

93.6
92.5
92.6
93.2
92.2

91.5
90.5
90.6
90.9
89.9

6.4
7.5
7.4
6.8
7.7

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................

555.8
604.7
649.7
713.5
778.2

61.9
71.0
77.9
92.1
109.9

493.9
533.7
571.9
621.4
668.4

456.2
494.7
523.0
574.6
621.4

444.3
481.9
509.5
559.8
604.7

11.1
12.0
12.5
13.8
15.7

.8
.8
1.0
1.0
1.1

37.8
39.1
48.9
46.8
46.9

92.4
92.7
91.4
92.5
93.0

89.9
90.3
89.1
90.1
90.5

7.6
7.3
8.5
7.5
7.0

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................

836.1
898.9
987.3
1,105.6
1,213.3

109.0
108.7
132.0
140.6
159.1

727.1
790.2
855.3
965.0
1,054.2

666.1
721.6
791.6
875.4
956.6

648.1
702.5
770.7
851.6
931.2

16.8
17.8
19.6
22.4
24.2

1.2
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.2

61.0
68.6
63.6
89.6
97.6

91.6
91.3
92.6
90.7
90.7

89.1
88.9
90.1
88.2
88.3

8.4
8.7
7.4
9.3
9.3

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................

1,315.6
1,455.4
1,611.4
1,820.2
2,049.7

156.4
182.3
210.0
240.1
280.2

1,159.2
1,273.0
1,401.4
1,580.1
1,769.5

1,054.8
1,176.7
1,308.9
1,467.6
1,639.5

1,029.1
1,148.8
1,277.1
1,428.8
1,593.5

24.5
26.7
30.7
37.5
44.5

1.2
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.4

104.4
96.4
92.5
112.6
130.1

91.0
92.4
93.4
92.9
92.7

88.8
90.2
91.1
90.4
90.1

9.0
7.6
6.6
7.1
7.4

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................

2,285.7
2,560.4
2,718.7
2,891.7
3,205.5

312.4
360.2
371.4
369.3
395.5

1,973.3
2,200.2
2,347.3
2.522.4
2,810.0

1,811.5
2,001.1
2,141.8
2,355.5
2,574.4

1,760.4
1,941.3
2,076.8
2,283.4
2,492.3

49.4
54.6
58.8
65.5
74.7

1.6
5.2
6.2
6.5
7.4

161.8
199.1
205.5
167.0
235.7

91.8
90.9
91.2
93.4
91.6

89.2
88.2
88.5
90.5
88.7

8.2
9.1
8.8
6.6
8.4

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................

3,439.6
3,647.5
3,877.3
4,172.8
4,489.3

437.7
459.9
514.2
532.0
594.9

3,002.0
3,187.6
3,363.1
3,640.8
3,894.5

2,795.8
2,991.1
3,194.7
3,451.7
3,706.7

2,704.8
2,892.7
3,094.5
3,349.7
3,594.8

83.2
90.3
91.5
92.9
102.4

7.8
8.1
8.7
9.1
9.6

206.2
196.5
168.4
189.1
187.8

93.1
93.8
95.0
94.8
95.2

90.1
90.7
92.0
92.0
92.3

6.9
6.2
5.0
5.2
4.8

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................

4,791.6
4,968.5
5,264.2
5,479.2
5,750.2

624.8
624.8
650.5
689.9
731.4

4,166.8
4,343.7
4,613.7
4,789.3
5,018.8

3,958.1
4,097.4
4,341.0
4,572.9
4,826.5

3,839.3
3,975.1
4,219.8
4,454.1
4,698.7

108.9
111.9
111.7
108.9
117.2

9.9
10.4
9.6
9.9
10.6

208.7
246.4
272.6
216.4
192.3

95.0
94.3
94.1
95.5
96.2

92.1
91.5
91.5
93.0
93.6

5.0
5.7
5.9
4.5
3.8

1990: I ..................
II .................
III ................
IV ................

4,687.8
4,771.5
4,838.4
4,868.6

613.0
628.2
630.8
627.1

4,074.8
4,143.3
4,207.6
4,241.5

3,875.8
3,929.4
3,999.3
4,027.9

3,759.2
3,811.8
3,879.2
3,907.0

106.7
108.0
109.8
110.9

9.9
9.5
10.2
10.1

199.0
213.9
208.3
213.5

95.1
94.8
95.0
95.0

92.3
92.0
92.2
92.1

4.9
5.2
5.0
5.0

1991: I ..................
II .................
III ................
IV ................

4,885.6
4,950.2
4,989.3
5,048.9

622.3
620.5
623.7
632.5

4,263.3
4,329.6
4,365.6
4,416.4

4,032.5
4,083.3
4,123.9
4,149.8

3,910.7
3,961.0
4,001.6
4,027.1

111.4
112.0
112.0
112.1

10.4
10.3
10.2
10.6

230.8
246.3
241.7
266.6

94.6
94.3
94.5
94.0

91.7
91.5
91.7
91.2

5.4
5.7
5.5
6.0

1992: I ..................
II .................
III ................
IV ................

5,151.9
5,225.1
5,264.6
5,415.3

636.7
640.0
650.6
674.8

4,515.2
4,585.1
4,613.9
4,740.5

4,250.0
4,304.8
4,359.5
4,450.0

4,127.6
4,183.0
4,238.9
4,329.6

112.9
112.1
111.4
110.4

9.4
9.7
9.2
9.9

265.2
280.3
254.5
290.5

94.1
93.9
94.5
93.9

91.4
91.2
91.9
91.3

5.9
6.1
5.5
6.1

1993: I ..................
II .................
III ................
IV ................

5,348.7
5,458.4
5,500.5
5,609.1

662.4
686.9
696.4
713.8

4,686.3
4,771.6
4,804.1
4,895.3

4,486.6
4,542.6
4,599.3
4,663.2

4,367.8
4,424.7
4,481.0
4,543.0

109.0
108.0
108.5
110.0

9.9
9.9
9.8
10.1

199.6
228.9
204.9
232.1

95.7
95.2
95.7
95.3

93.2
92.7
93.3
92.8

4.3
4.8
4.3
4.7

1994: I ..................
II .................
III ................
IV ................

5,562.4
5,743.0
5,801.7
5,893.9

705.5
740.8
731.3
748.1

4,856.9
5,002.2
5,070.4
5,145.7

4,723.0
4,791.9
4,863.0
4,927.9

4,599.2
4,665.1
4,734.4
4,796.0

113.0
115.8
118.4
121.5

10.8
11.0
10.3
10.5

133.9
210.3
207.4
217.8

97.2
95.8
95.9
95.8

94.7
93.3
93.4
93.2

2.8
4.2
4.1
4.2

1995: I ..................
II .................
III ................

5,995.5
6,061.9
6,131.9

770.0
801.5
801.3

5,225.5
5,260.4
5,330.6

4,972.2
5,049.0
5,109.7

4,836.3
4,908.7
4,965.1

125.3
129.8
134.0

10.5
10.5
10.6

253.3
211.4
220.9

95.2
96.0
95.9

92.6
93.3
93.1

4.8
4.0
4.1

1 Percents

based on data in millions of dollars.

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.




310

TABLE B–27.—Total and per capita disposable personal income and personal consumption expenditures
in current and real dollars, 1959–95
[Quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates, except as noted]
Disposable personal income
Year
or
quarter

Total (billions of
dollars)

Personal consumption expenditures

Per capita
(dollars)

Total (billions of
dollars)

Per capita
(dollars)

Gross domestic
product
per capita
(dollars)

Population
(thousands) 1

Current
dollars

Chained
(1992)
dollars

Current
dollars

Chained
(1992)
dollars

Current
dollars

Chained
(1992)
dollars

Current
dollars

Chained
(1992)
dollars

Current
dollars

Chained
(1992)
dollars

1959 ............

349.0

1,530.1

1,971

8,641

318.1

1,394.6

1,796

7,876

2,865

12,494

177,073

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

............
............
............
............
............

362.9
378.8
401.3
421.1
457.6

1,565.4
1,615.8
1,693.7
1,755.5
1,881.9

2,008
2,062
2,151
2,225
2,384

8,660
8,794
9,077
9,274
9,805

332.2
342.6
363.4
383.0
411.4

1,432.6
1,461.5
1,533.8
1,596.6
1,692.3

1,838
1,865
1,948
2,023
2,144

7,926
7,954
8,220
8,434
8,817

2,913
2,965
3,136
3,261
3,455

12,512
12,571
13,125
13,492
14,083

180,760
183,742
186,590
189,300
191,927

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

............
............
............
............
............

493.9
533.7
571.9
621.4
668.4

2,000.2
2,106.6
2,198.4
2,298.2
2,373.6

2,541
2,715
2,877
3,096
3,297

10,292
10,715
11,061
11,448
11,708

444.3
481.9
509.5
559.8
604.7

1,799.1
1,902.0
1,958.6
2,070.2
2,147.5

2,286
2,451
2,563
2,789
2,982

9,257
9,674
9,854
10,313
10,593

3,700
4,007
4,194
4,536
4,845

14,792
15,565
15,800
16,382
16,712

194,347
196,599
198,752
200,745
202,736

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

............
............
............
............
............

727.1
790.2
855.3
965.0
1,054.2

2,465.6
2,564.0
2,680.8
2,869.4
2,847.0

3,545
3,805
4,074
4,553
4,928

12,022
12,345
12,770
13,539
13,310

648.1
702.5
770.7
851.6
931.2

2,197.8
2,279.5
2,415.9
2,532.6
2,514.7

3,160
3,383
3,671
4,018
4,353

10,717
10,975
11,508
11,950
11,756

5,050
5,419
5,894
6,524
6,998

16,520
16,853
17,579
18,412
18,178

205,089
207,692
209,924
211,939
213,898

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

............
............
............
............
............

1,159.2
1,273.0
1,401.4
1,580.1
1,769.5

2,895.0
3,008.0
3,105.1
3,264.2
3,353.9

5,367
5,837
6,362
7,097
7,861

13,404
13,793
14,095
14,662
14,899

1,029.1
1,148.8
1,277.1
1,428.8
1,593.5

2,570.0
2,714.3
2,829.8
2,951.6
3,020.2

4,765
5,268
5,797
6,418
7,079

11,899
12,446
12,846
13,258
13,417

7,550
8,341
9,201
10,292
11,361

17,896
18,713
19,426
20,185
20,541

215,981
218,086
220,289
222,629
225,106

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

............
............
............
............
............

1,973.3
2,200.2
2,347.3
2,522.4
2,810.0

3,373.3
3,452.3
3,483.0
3,579.9
3,841.9

8,665
9,566
10,108
10,764
11,887

14,813
15,009
14,999
15,277
16,252

1,760.4
1,941.3
2,076.8
2,283.4
2,492.3

3,009.7
3,046.4
3,081.5
3,240.6
3,407.6

7,730
8,440
8,943
9,744
10,543

13,216
13,245
13,270
13,829
14,415

12,226
13,547
13,961
14,998
16,508

20,252
20,542
19,911
20,527
21,736

227,726
230,008
232,218
234,332
236,394

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

............
............
............
............
............

3,002.0
3,187.6
3,363.1
3,640.8
3,894.5

3,958.6
4,087.0
4,154.1
4,318.1
4,403.7

12,587
13,244
13,849
14,857
15,742

16,597
16,981
17,106
17,621
17,801

2,704.8
2,892.7
3,094.5
3,349.7
3,594.8

3,566.5
3,708.7
3,822.3
3,972.7
4,064.6

11,341
12,019
12,743
13,669
14,531

14,954
15,409
15,740
16,211
16,430

17,529
18,374
19,323
20,605
21,984

22,345
22,810
23,260
23,924
24,497

238,506
240,682
242,842
245,061
247,387

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

............
............
............
............
............

4,166.8
4,343.7
4,613.7
4,789.3
5,018.8

4,484.6
4,486.4
4,613.7
4,666.2
4,775.6

16,670
17,191
18,062
18,552
19,253

17,942
17,755
18,062
18,075
18,320

3,839.3
3,975.1
4,219.8
4,454.1
4,698.7

4,132.2
4,105.8
4,219.8
4,339.7
4,471.1

15,360
15,732
16,520
17,253
18,025

16,532
16,249
16,520
16,810
17,152

22,979
23,416
24,447
25,373
26,589

24,559
24,058
24,447
24,728
25,335

249,956
252,680
255,432
258,159
260,681

1990: I .........
II ........
III .......
IV .......

4,074.8
4,143.3
4,207.6
4,241.5

4,475.5
4,494.3
4,499.7
4,468.8

16,369
16,602
16,810
16,896

17,979
18,008
17,977
17,802

3,759.2
3,811.8
3,879.2
3,907.0

4,128.9
4,134.7
4,148.5
4,116.4

15,102
15,274
15,498
15,564

16,587
16,568
16,574
16,398

22,739
23,044
23,102
23,031

24,722
24,741
24,551
24,224

248,928
249,564
250,299
251,031

1991: I .........
II ........
III .......
IV .......

4,263.3
4,329.6
4,365.6
4,416.4

4,452.7
4,492.6
4,494.2
4,506.3

16,941
17,161
17,253
17,405

17,694
17,807
17,761
17,759

3,910.7
3,961.0
4,001.6
4,027.1

4,084.5
4,110.0
4,119.5
4,109.1

15,540
15,700
15,815
15,871

16,231
16,291
16,280
16,194

23,136
23,355
23,515
23,655

24,033
24,075
24,065
24,058

251,650
252,295
253,033
253,743

1992: I .........
II ........
III .......
IV .......

4,515.2
4,585.1
4,613.9
4,740.5

4,565.6
4,599.8
4,600.6
4,688.7

17,753
17,979
18,036
18,478

17,951
18,036
17,984
18,277

4,127.6
4,183.0
4,238.9
4,329.6

4,173.8
4,196.4
4,226.7
4,282.3

16,229
16,402
16,570
16,877

16,410
16,454
16,522
16,692

24,070
24,316
24,516
24,881

24,280
24,366
24,474
24,664

254,338
255,032
255,815
256,543

1993: I .........
II ........
III .......
IV .......

4,686.3
4,771.6
4,804.1
4,895.3

4,602.8
4,657.6
4,674.0
4,730.4

18,223
18,510
18,585
18,887

17,899
18,068
18,081
18,251

4,367.8
4,424.7
4,481.0
4,543.0

4,290.0
4,319.0
4,359.7
4,390.0

16,985
17,164
17,335
17,528

16,682
16,754
16,865
16,937

25,054
25,227
25,421
25,787

24,604
24,647
24,721
24,939

257,155
257,787
258,501
259,192

1994: I .........
II ........
III .......
IV .......

4,856.9
5,002.2
5,070.4
5,145.7

4,666.4
4,779.8
4,804.2
4,852.0

18,699
19,215
19,427
19,666

17,966
18,361
18,407
18,544

4,599.2
4,665.1
4,734.4
4,796.0

4,418.8
4,457.7
4,485.8
4,522.3

17,707
17,920
18,139
18,330

17,013
17,123
17,187
17,283

26,076
26,448
26,772
27,059

25,043
25,282
25,438
25,573

259,738
260,327
261,004
261,653

1995: I .........
II ........
III .......

5,225.5
5,260.4
5,330.6

4,895.5
4,896.1
4,939.8

19,931
20,021
20,238

18,672
18,634
18,754

4,836.3
4,908.7
4,965.1

4,530.9
4,568.8
4,601.1

18,447
18,682
18,850

17,282
17,388
17,468

27,263
27,389
27,704

25,561
25,536
25,677

262,181
262,748
263,395

1 Population of the United States including Armed Forces overseas; includes Alaska and Hawaii beginning 1960. Annual data are averages
of quarterly data. Quarterly data are averages for the period.
Source: Department of Commerce (Bureau of Economic Analysis and Bureau of the Census).




311

TABLE B–28.—Gross saving and investment, 1959–95
[Billions of dollars, except as noted; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Gross saving
Gross private saving

Gross government saving

Gross business saving
Year or
quarter

Total

Total Personal
saving Total 1

Undis- Corporate
and nontribcorporate
uted- consumpcorpotion of
rate
fixed
profits 2 capital

Federal

Total
Total

Capital
grants
Con- Current received
sump- surplus by the
tion
or
United
of
deficit
States
fixed
(¥)
(net) 3
capital (NIPA)

State and local

Consumption
of
fixed
capital

Current
surplus
or
deficit
(¥)
(NIPA)

Total

1959 ........

109.0

82.8

24.3

58.4

13.9

44.5

26.2

12.8

10.2

2.6

13.5

3.9

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

........
........
........
........
........

113.9
116.8
127.4
135.4
145.8

82.1
88.6
97.1
100.3
112.9

23.3
28.3
29.5
28.6
35.5

58.8
60.2
67.6
71.7
77.4

12.7
13.0
18.7
21.2
24.4

46.1
47.2
48.9
50.5
53.1

31.8
28.3
30.3
35.1
32.9

17.8
13.6
14.0
17.2
13.0

10.5
10.7
11.2
11.8
12.1

7.4
2.9
2.8
5.4
.9

14.0
14.7
16.3
17.9
19.9

4.0
4.3
4.6
4.9
5.2

9.6 ................
9.9
10.4
11.7
13.0
14.7

................
................
................
................
................

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

........
........
........
........
........

161.0
171.7
174.4
185.8
202.9

124.4
132.6
144.7
146.1
149.0

37.8
39.1
48.9
46.8
46.9

86.6
93.5
95.9
99.3
102.1

29.9
31.7
28.9
26.3
22.6

56.7
61.8
67.0
73.0
79.5

36.6
39.2
29.7
39.7
53.9

15.9
15.6
5.6
12.0
24.3

12.5
13.0
13.9
14.9
15.6

3.4
2.6
−8.3
−2.8
8.7

20.8
23.5
24.1
27.6
29.6

5.7
6.3
6.8
7.6
8.5

15.1
17.3
17.3
20.0
21.1

................
................
................
................
................

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

........
........
........
........
........

198.2
215.3
244.9
297.5
302.3

164.7
190.7
202.7
242.3
252.7

61.0
68.6
63.6
89.6
97.6

103.8
122.1
139.1
152.7
155.2

17.7
27.3
34.5
37.6
21.5

86.1
94.4
104.9
115.1
133.7

32.6
23.9
41.5
55.1
51.5

2.2
−8.5
−2.4
8.7
5.1

16.2
16.9
18.2
19.9
22.0

−14.1
−25.3
−20.5
−11.1
−16.9

30.4
32.4
43.9
46.4
46.5

9.6
10.7
11.7
13.0
16.0

20.8
21.7
32.2
33.4
30.5

0.9
.7
.7
0
6−2.0

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

........
........
........
........
........

298.3
340.9
395.5
477.4
540.9

302.2
317.5
349.4
405.0
449.1

104.4
96.4
92.5
112.6
130.1

197.8
221.1
256.9
292.4
319.0

40.1
47.0
53.4
62.0
53.5

157.7
174.1
203.5
230.4
265.5

−3.9
23.5
46.1
72.4
90.7

−49.9
−31.9
−19.3
−2.8
13.0

24.0
25.4
27.0
28.9
31.5

−73.9
−57.2
−46.3
−31.7
−18.4

46.0
55.3
65.4
75.1
77.7

18.4
19.4
20.7
22.5
25.4

27.6
35.9
44.7
52.6
52.3

0
0
0
0
1.1

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

........
........
........
........
........

547.4
651.1
604.7
589.6
751.5

489.5
581.9
610.1
619.1
737.5

161.8
199.1
205.5
167.0
235.7

327.6
382.8
404.6
452.1
501.9

23.0
33.3
26.3
54.3
91.0

304.6
349.5
378.3
397.8
410.9

56.8
68.1
−5.3
−29.4
14.0

−26.8
−20.6
−92.8
−131.8
−111.9

34.1
37.1
41.9
42.6
44.1

−61.0
−57.8
−134.7
−174.4
−156.0

83.6
88.7
87.5
102.4
125.9

29.2
33.3
36.2
37.5
39.0

54.4
55.4
51.3
64.9
86.9

1.2
1.1
0
0
0

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

........
........
........
........
........

746.7
721.0
780.9
877.2
907.9

731.5
710.1
727.2
808.4
815.9

206.2
196.5
168.4
189.1
187.8

525.3
513.6
558.8
619.3
628.1

92.9
54.2
75.7
103.3
76.2

432.4
459.4
483.2
516.0
551.9

15.2
10.8
53.6
68.8
92.0

−116.9
−127.9
−77.2
−67.0
−56.4

46.1
49.6
51.7
54.3
57.0

−162.9
−177.5
−128.9
−121.3
−113.4

132.0
138.8
130.8
135.8
148.4

41.0
43.9
47.1
49.9
53.3

91.0
94.9
83.8
85.9
95.1

0
0
0
0
0

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

........ 904.4 861.7
........ 935.3 931.9
........ 905.4 971.9
........ 938.4 964.5
........ 1,055.9 1,006.0

208.7
246.4
272.6
216.4
192.4

653.0
685.6
699.2
748.1
813.7

77.2
86.0
88.9
103.4
120.2

575.8
599.6
626.1
640.0
678.7

42.7
3.3
−66.5
−26.0
49.9

−94.0
−132.2
−215.0
−186.5
−119.3

60.7
63.9
65.9
68.2
70.6

−154.7
−196.0
−280.9
−254.7
−189.9

136.7
135.5
148.6
160.5
169.2

56.6
59.6
62.3
65.6
69.4

80.1
75.8
86.3
94.9
99.7

0
0
0
0
0

1990: I ......
II ....
III ...
IV ...

896.1
940.7
895.0
885.7

850.2
886.3
838.9
871.2

199.0
213.9
208.3
213.5

651.2
672.4
630.6
657.7

85.6
99.2
50.0
73.8

565.6
573.2
580.6
583.9

45.9
54.5
56.1
14.5

−94.8
−84.4
−81.9
−115.0

59.3
59.7
60.8
62.8

−154.1
−144.1
−142.6
−177.7

140.7
138.9
137.9
129.4

55.2
56.1
57.2
57.9

85.5
82.8
80.7
71.5

0
0
0
0

1991: I ......
II ....
III ...
IV ...

983.5
928.1
905.4
924.0

928.2
927.8
918.0
953.7

230.8
246.3
241.7
266.6

697.4
681.5
676.3
687.2

105.0
85.1
74.9
79.1

592.5
596.4
601.4
608.1

55.3
.2
−12.6
−29.7

−72.0
−132.9
−149.7
−174.0

62.6
63.9
64.3
64.8

−134.6
−196.7
−214.0
−238.8

127.3
133.1
137.1
144.4

58.6
59.4
60.0
60.6

68.8
73.7
77.1
83.8

0
0
0
0

1992: I ......
II ....
III ...
IV ...

921.5
915.1
901.0
884.0

977.8
980.5
987.8
941.3

265.2
280.3
254.5
290.5

712.6
700.1
733.4
650.8

111.3
93.7
52.9
97.7

601.3
606.4
680.5
616.2

−56.3
−65.3
−86.9
−57.3

−202.2
−213.9
−231.5
−212.5

65.2
65.8
66.0
66.5

−267.4
−279.6
−297.5
−279.0

145.9
148.5
144.6
155.2

61.1
62.0
62.7
63.5

84.8
86.6
82.0
91.7

0
0
0
0

1993: I ......
II ....
III ...
IV ...

910.7
928.0
940.4
974.6

982.2
955.1
964.3
956.2

199.6
228.9
204.9
232.1

782.5
726.2
759.5
724.1

84.7
90.6
110.1
128.1

633.8
634.6
648.4
643.3

−71.5
−27.1
−24.0
18.4

−216.4
−181.6
−184.8
−163.3

67.3
67.7
68.6
69.1

−283.7
−249.2
−253.5
−232.4

144.9
154.5
160.9
181.7

64.4
65.3
66.0
66.7

80.5
89.1
94.9
115.0

0
0
0
0

1,034.8 1,014.2
1,069.8 996.0
1,054.4 1,001.1
1,064.9 1,012.8

133.9
210.3
207.4
217.8

880.3
785.7
793.7
795.0

80.1
129.9
133.9
136.8

748.7
652.7
656.7
656.6

20.6
73.8
53.3
52.0

−143.4
−99.9
−115.9
−117.8

69.5
70.0
70.4
72.7

−212.9
−169.9
−186.3
−190.4

164.0
173.7
169.2
169.8

69.2
68.5
69.6
70.5

94.8
105.2
99.6
99.3

0
0
0
0

1995: I ...... 1,110.5 1,039.9
II .... 1,092.3 1,007.3
III ... 1,145.7 1,064.0

253.3
211.4
220.9

786.6
795.9
843.1

120.6
122.3
161.4

664.6
673.6
681.8

70.5
85.0
81.6

−99.9
−86.3
−84.6

73.5
74.2
73.8

−173.3
−160.5
−158.4

170.4
171.3
166.2

71.4
72.3
73.4

99.0
99.0
92.8

0
0
0

1994: I ......
II ....
III ...
IV ...

1 Includes
2 With

private wage accruals less disbursements not shown separately.
inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments.
mainly of allocations of special drawing rights (SDRs).

3 Consists

See next page for continuation of table.



312

TABLE B–28.—Gross saving and investment, 1959–95—Continued
[Billions of dollars except as noted; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates]
Gross investment

Year or quarter
Total

Gross
private
domestic
investment

Gross
government
investment 4

Addenda:

Net
foreign
investment 5

Statistical
discrepancy

Gross
saving
as a
percent
of
gross
national
product

Personal
saving
as a
percent
of
disposable
personal
income

1959 ..............................................................................................

106.9

78.8

29.3

−1.2

−2.1

21.4

7.0

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

110.2
113.5
125.0
131.9
143.8

78.8
77.9
87.9
93.4
101.7

28.2
31.3
33.2
33.5
34.5

3.2
4.3
3.9
5.0
7.5

−3.7
−3.3
−2.4
−3.5
−2.1

21.5
21.3
21.6
21.8
21.8

6.4
7.5
7.4
6.8
7.7

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

159.6
174.4
175.1
186.0
200.7

118.0
130.4
128.0
139.9
155.0

35.4
40.1
43.5
44.3
43.9

6.2
3.9
3.5
1.7
1.8

−1.4
2.7
.6
.2
−2.2

22.2
21.7
20.8
20.3
20.5

7.6
7.3
8.5
7.5
7.0

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

199.1
220.4
248.1
299.9
306.7

150.2
176.0
205.6
242.9
245.6

44.0
43.1
45.4
48.3
56.0

4.9
1.3
−2.9
8.7
5.1

1.0
5.1
3.2
2.4
4.5

19.0
19.0
19.7
21.3
20.0

8.4
8.7
7.4
9.3
9.3

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

309.5
359.9
413.0
494.9
568.7

225.4
286.6
356.6
430.8
480.9

62.7
64.4
65.4
74.6
85.3

21.4
8.9
−9.0
−10.4
2.6

11.2
18.9
17.5
17.6
27.8

18.1
18.6
19.3
20.6
20.9

9.0
7.6
6.6
7.1
7.4

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

574.8
665.7
601.8
626.2
755.7

465.9
556.2
501.1
547.1
715.6

96.4
102.1
106.9
116.5
131.7

12.5
7.4
−6.1
−37.3
−91.5

27.4
14.6
−2.9
36.5
4.2

19.4
20.7
18.5
16.6
19.1

8.2
9.1
8.8
6.6
8.4

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

748.0
743.1
764.2
828.7
919.5

715.1
722.5
747.2
773.9
829.2

149.9
163.5
173.5
172.9
182.7

−116.9
−142.9
−156.4
−118.1
−92.4

1.3
22.1
−16.6
−48.6
11.6

17.8
16.3
16.6
17.3
16.6

6.9
6.2
5.0
5.2
4.8

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

920.5
944.0
949.1
993.5
1,087.2

799.7
736.2
790.4
871.1
1,014.4

199.4
200.5
209.1
210.6
212.3

−78.6
7.3
−50.5
−88.2
−139.6

16.1
8.8
43.7
55.1
31.3

15.7
15.8
14.5
14.3
15.3

5.0
5.7
5.9
4.5
3.8

1990: I ...........................................................................................
II ..........................................................................................
III .........................................................................................
IV .........................................................................................

939.2
958.1
911.3
873.4

822.5
835.2
804.9
736.1

196.0
196.7
199.7
205.4

−79.4
−73.8
−93.3
−68.1

43.0
17.4
16.3
−12.3

15.8
16.3
15.4
15.2

4.9
5.2
5.0
5.0

1991: I ...........................................................................................
II ..........................................................................................
III .........................................................................................
IV .........................................................................................

977.0
933.7
922.6
942.8

723.6
716.2
743.9
760.9

198.1
201.5
201.3
201.4

55.3
16.0
−22.6
−19.4

−6.5
5.6
17.2
18.8

16.8
15.7
15.2
15.4

5.4
5.7
5.5
6.0

1992: I ...........................................................................................
II ..........................................................................................
III .........................................................................................
IV .........................................................................................

944.7
951.4
952.6
947.6

755.2
790.8
799.7
816.1

209.5
209.3
208.9
208.8

−19.9
−48.7
−56.0
−77.2

23.3
36.2
51.6
63.6

15.0
14.7
14.3
13.8

5.9
6.1
5.5
6.1

1993: I ...........................................................................................
II ..........................................................................................
III .........................................................................................
IV .........................................................................................

991.4
983.1
988.9
1,010.7

843.6
855.9
873.8
911.2

207.1
210.6
209.8
214.7

−59.4
−83.4
−94.7
−115.2

80.7
55.0
48.6
36.0

14.1
14.3
14.3
14.6

4.3
4.8
4.3
4.7

1994: I ...........................................................................................
II ..........................................................................................
III .........................................................................................
IV .........................................................................................

1,055.9
1,087.3
1,101.1
1,104.5

957.6
1,016.5
1,033.6
1,050.1

207.3
208.5
217.2
216.3

−109.0
−137.7
−149.6
−161.9

21.1
17.5
46.7
39.7

15.3
15.6
15.1
15.1

2.8
4.2
4.1
4.2

1995: I ...........................................................................................
II ..........................................................................................
III .........................................................................................

1,146.7
1,113.9
1,143.3

1,072.0
1,050.3
1,067.1

219.1
223.7
224.9

−144.4
−160.1
−148.7

36.2
21.6
−2.3

15.6
15.2
15.7

4.8
4.0
4.1

4 For
5 Net

details on government investment, see Table B–16.
exports of goods and services plus net receipts of factor income from rest of the world less net transfers plus net capital grants

by the United States. See also Table B–20.
Digitizedreceived
for FRASER
6 Consists of a U.S. payment to India under the Agricultural
http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/
grants received by the United States, net.
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Trade Development and Assistance Act. This payment is included in capital

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.

313

TABLE B–29.—Median money income (in 1994 dollars) and poverty status of families and persons,
by race, selected years, 1976–94
Families 1

Persons
below
poverty level

Below poverty level
Year

ALL RACES
1976 ............................
1977 ............................
1978 ............................
1979 4 ..........................
1980 ............................
1981 ............................
1982 ............................
1983 5 ..........................
1984 ............................
1985 ............................
1986 ............................
1987 6 ..........................
1988 ............................
1989 ............................
1990 ............................
1991 ............................
1992 7 ..........................
1993 ............................
1994 ............................
WHITE
1976 ............................
1977 ............................
1978 ............................
1979 4 ..........................
1980 ............................
1981 ............................
1982 ............................
1983 5 ..........................
1984 ............................
1985 ............................
1986 ............................
1987 6 ..........................
1988 ............................
1989 ............................
1990 ............................
1991 ............................
1992 7 ..........................
1993 ............................
1994 ............................
BLACK
1976 ............................
1977 ............................
1978 ............................
1979 4 ..........................
1980 ............................
1981 ............................
1982 ............................
1983 5 ..........................
1984 ............................
1985 ............................
1986 ............................
1987 6 ..........................
1988 ............................
1989 ............................
1990 ............................
1991 ............................
1992 7 ..........................
1993 ............................
1994 ............................

Number
(millions)

Median
money
income
(in
1994
dollars) 2

Female
householder

Total
Number
(millions)

Percent

Number
(millions)

Percent

Median money income (in 1994 dollars)
of persons 15 years old and over with
income 2 3
Males

Number
(millions)

Percent

Females

All
persons

Yearround
full-time
workers

All
persons

Yearround
full-time
workers

56.7
57.2
57.8
59.6
60.3
61.0
61.4
62.0
62.7
63.6
64.5
65.2
65.8
66.1
66.3
67.2
68.2
68.5
69.3

$37,319
37,540
38,730
39,227
37,857
36,825
36,326
36,714
37,703
38,200
39,833
40,403
40,327
40,890
40,087
39,105
38,632
37,905
38,782

5.3
5.3
5.3
5.5
6.2
6.9
7.5
7.6
7.3
7.2
7.0
7.0
6.9
6.8
7.1
7.7
8.1
8.4
8.1

9.4
9.3
9.1
9.2
10.3
11.2
12.2
12.3
11.6
11.4
10.9
10.7
10.4
10.3
10.7
11.5
11.9
12.3
11.6

2.5
2.6
2.7
2.6
3.0
3.3
3.4
3.6
3.5
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.8
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.2

33.0
31.7
31.4
30.4
32.7
34.6
36.3
36.0
34.5
34.0
34.6
34.2
33.4
32.2
33.4
35.6
35.4
35.6
34.6

25.0
24.7
24.5
26.1
29.3
31.8
34.4
35.3
33.7
33.1
32.4
32.2
31.7
31.5
33.6
35.7
38.0
39.3
38.1

11.8
11.6
11.4
11.7
13.0
14.0
15.0
15.2
14.4
14.0
13.6
13.4
13.0
12.8
13.5
14.2
14.8
15.1
14.5

$23,517
23,738
24,008
23,590
22,563
22,161
21,625
21,815
22,251
22,466
23,141
23,203
23,687
23,775
23,010
22,272
21,607
21,642
21,720

$34,577
35,338
35,265
35,005
34,525
34,035
33,570
33,454
34,239
34,432
35,014
34,807
34,253
33,965
32,859
33,003
32,568
31,873
31,612

$8,922
9,241
8,932
8,716
8,860
8,978
9,126
9,530
9,796
9,940
10,290
10,821
11,129
11,502
11,418
11,399
11,317
11,329
11,466

$20,738
20,668
21,167
21,090
20,872
20,490
21,181
21,525
21,998
22,384
22,775
22,914
23,232
23,471
23,348
23,117
23,337
23,044
23,265

50.1
50.5
50.9
52.2
52.7
53.3
53.4
53.9
54.4
55.0
55.7
56.1
56.5
56.6
56.8
57.2
57.7
57.9
58.4

38,764
39,254
40,328
40,933
39,443
38,682
38,140
38,444
39,491
40,152
41,660
42,249
42,487
42,996
41,858
41,112
40,847
40,306
40,884

3.6
3.5
3.5
3.6
4.2
4.7
5.1
5.2
4.9
5.0
4.8
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.6
5.0
5.3
5.5
5.3

7.1
7.0
6.9
6.9
8.0
8.8
9.6
9.7
9.1
9.1
8.6
8.1
7.9
7.8
8.1
8.8
9.1
9.4
9.1

1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.6
1.8
1.8
1.9
1.9
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.2
2.4
2.3

25.2
24.0
23.5
22.3
25.7
27.4
27.9
28.3
27.1
27.4
28.2
26.9
26.5
25.4
26.8
28.4
28.5
29.2
29.0

16.7
16.4
16.3
17.2
19.7
21.6
23.5
24.0
23.0
22.9
22.2
21.2
20.7
20.8
22.3
23.7
25.3
26.2
25.4

9.1
8.9
8.7
9.0
10.2
11.1
12.0
12.1
11.5
11.4
11.0
10.4
10.1
10.0
10.7
11.3
11.9
12.2
11.7

24,792
24,863
25,146
24,643
24,000
23,515
22,862
22,950
23,488
23,567
24,421
24,663
25,004
24,935
24,005
23,280
22,611
22,544
22,669

35,608
36,060
35,919
36,017
35,510
34,834
34,464
34,343
35,411
35,388
35,991
35,619
35,405
35,463
34,109
33,680
33,342
32,647
32,440

8,997
9,382
9,039
8,798
8,908
9,078
9,250
9,697
9,912
10,133
10,493
11,098
11,404
11,727
11,698
11,666
11,580
11,554
11,630

20,898
20,800
21,367
21,275
21,074
20,832
21,466
21,812
22,216
22,701
23,124
23,338
23,580
23,749
23,629
23,454
23,607
23,567
23,894

5.8
5.8
5.9
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.7
6.8
6.9
7.1
7.2
7.4
7.5
7.5
7.7
8.0
8.0
8.1

23,058
22,425
23,885
23,179
22,822
21,820
21,080
21,666
22,010
23,120
23,804
24,012
24,214
24,153
24,291
23,447
22,291
22,094
24,698

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.2
2.1
2.0
2.0
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.5
2.5
2.2

27.9
28.2
27.5
27.8
28.9
30.8
33.0
32.3
30.9
28.7
28.0
29.4
28.2
27.8
29.3
30.4
31.1
31.3
27.3

1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.6
1.8
1.9
1.9
1.7

52.2
51.0
50.6
49.4
49.4
52.9
56.2
53.7
51.7
50.5
50.1
51.1
49.0
46.5
48.1
51.2
50.2
49.9
46.2

7.6
7.7
7.6
8.1
8.6
9.2
9.7
9.9
9.5
8.9
9.0
9.5
9.4
9.3
9.8
10.2
10.8
10.9
10.2

31.1
31.3
30.6
31.0
32.5
34.2
35.6
35.7
33.8
31.3
31.1
32.4
31.3
30.7
31.9
32.7
33.4
33.1
30.6

14,927
14,754
15,064
15,255
14,422
13,983
13,701
13,421
13,476
14,831
14,633
14,631
15,088
15,070
14,591
14,104
13,800
14,979
14,982

25,503
24,861
27,510
25,957
24,985
24,646
24,478
24,502
24,167
24,752
25,375
25,468
25,952
24,745
24,357
24,622
24,286
24,169
24,405

8,478
8,102
8,139
8,007
8,247
8,065
8,159
8,286
8,792
8,645
8,878
9,066
9,206
9,412
9,443
9,593
9,387
9,751
10,544

19,538
19,440
19,804
19,494
19,655
18,814
19,185
19,361
20,021
20,095
20,234
20,845
21,130
21,359
21,027
20,820
21,399
20,835
20,628

1 The term ‘‘family’’ refers to a group of two or more persons related by birth, marriage, or adoption and residing together. Every family
must include a reference person. Beginning 1979, based on householder concept and restricted to primary families.
2 Current dollar median money income deflated by CPI–U–X1.
3 Prior to 1979, data are for persons 14 years and over.
4 Based on 1980 census population controls; comparable with succeeding years.
5 Reflects implementation of Hispanic population controls; comparable with succeeding years.
6 Based on revised methodology; comparable with succeeding years.
7 Based on 1990 census population controls; comparable with succeeding years.

Note.—Poverty rates (percent of persons below poverty level) for all races for years not shown above are: 1959, 22.4; 1960, 22.2; 1961,
21.9; 1962, 21.0; 1963, 19.5; 1964, 19.0; 1965, 17.3; 1966, 14.7; 1967, 14.2; 1968, 12.8; 1969, 12.1; 1970, 12.6; 1971, 12.5; 1972, 11.9;
1973, 11.1; 1974, 11.2; and 1975, 12.3.
Poverty
thresholds are updated each year to reflect changes in the consumer price index (CPI–U).

For details see ‘‘Current Population Reports,’’ Series P–60.

http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
Federal Reserve
Bank of St. Louis

314

POPULATION, EMPLOYMENT, WAGES, AND PRODUCTIVITY
TABLE B–30.—Population by age group, 1929–95
[Thousands of persons]
Age (years)
July 1

Total
Under 5

5–15

16–19

20–24

25–44

45–64

65 and
over

1929 .............................

121,767

11,734

26,800

9,127

10,694

35,862

21,076

6,474

1933 .............................

125,579

10,612

26,897

9,302

11,152

37,319

22,933

7,363

1939 .............................

130,880

10,418

25,179

9,822

11,519

39,354

25,823

8,764

1940
1941
1942
1943
1944

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

132,122
133,402
134,860
136,739
138,397

10,579
10,850
11,301
12,016
12,524

24,811
24,516
24,231
24,093
23,949

9,895
9,840
9,730
9,607
9,561

11,690
11,807
11,955
12,064
12,062

39,868
40,383
40,861
41,420
42,016

26,249
26,718
27,196
27,671
28,138

9,031
9,288
9,584
9,867
10,147

1945
1946
1947
1948
1949

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

139,928
141,389
144,126
146,631
149,188

12,979
13,244
14,406
14,919
15,607

23,907
24,103
24,468
25,209
25,852

9,361
9,119
9,097
8,952
8,788

12,036
12,004
11,814
11,794
11,700

42,521
43,027
43,657
44,288
44,916

28,630
29,064
29,498
29,931
30,405

10,494
10,828
11,185
11,538
11,921

1950
1951
1952
1953
1954

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

152,271
154,878
157,553
160,184
163,026

16,410
17,333
17,312
17,638
18,057

26,721
27,279
28,894
30,227
31,480

8,542
8,446
8,414
8,460
8,637

11,680
11,552
11,350
11,062
10,832

45,672
46,103
46,495
46,786
47,001

30,849
31,362
31,884
32,394
32,942

12,397
12,803
13,203
13,617
14,076

1955
1956
1957
1958
1959

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

165,931
168,903
171,984
174,882
177,830

18,566
19,003
19,494
19,887
20,175

32,682
33,994
35,272
36,445
37,368

8,744
8,916
9,195
9,543
10,215

10,714
10,616
10,603
10,756
10,969

47,194
47,379
47,440
47,337
47,192

33,506
34,057
34,591
35,109
35,663

14,525
14,938
15,388
15,806
16,248

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

180,671
183,691
186,538
189,242
191,889

20,341
20,522
20,469
20,342
20,165

38,494
39,765
41,205
41,626
42,297

10,683
11,025
11,180
12,007
12,736

11,134
11,483
11,959
12,714
13,269

47,140
47,084
47,013
46,994
46,958

36,203
36,722
37,255
37,782
38,338

16,675
17,089
17,457
17,778
18,127

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

194,303
196,560
198,712
200,706
202,677

19,824
19,208
18,563
17,913
17,376

42,938
43,702
44,244
44,622
44,840

13,516
14,311
14,200
14,452
14,800

13,746
14,050
15,248
15,786
16,480

46,912
47,001
47,194
47,721
48,064

38,916
39,534
40,193
40,846
41,437

18,451
18,755
19,071
19,365
19,680

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

205,052
207,661
209,896
211,909
213,854

17,166
17,244
17,101
16,851
16,487

44,816
44,591
44,203
43,582
42,989

15,289
15,688
16,039
16,446
16,769

17,202
18,159
18,153
18,521
18,975

48,473
48,936
50,482
51,749
53,051

41,999
42,482
42,898
43,235
43,522

20,107
20,561
21,020
21,525
22,061

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

215,973
218,035
220,239
222,585
225,055

16,121
15,617
15,564
15,735
16,063

42,508
42,099
41,298
40,428
39,552

17,017
17,194
17,276
17,288
17,242

19,527
19,986
20,499
20,946
21,297

54,302
55,852
57,561
59,400
61,379

43,801
44,008
44,150
44,286
44,390

22,696
23,278
23,892
24,502
25,134

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

227,726
229,966
232,188
234,307
236,348

16,451
16,893
17,228
17,547
17,695

38,838
38,144
37,784
37,526
37,461

17,167
16,812
16,332
15,823
15,295

21,590
21,869
21,902
21,844
21,737

63,470
65,528
67,692
69,733
71,735

44,504
44,500
44,462
44,474
44,547

25,707
26,221
26,787
27,361
27,878

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

238,466
240,651
242,804
245,021
247,342

17,842
17,963
18,052
18,195
18,508

37,450
37,404
37,333
37,593
37,972

15,005
15,024
15,215
15,198
14,913

21,478
20,942
20,385
19,846
19,442

73,673
75,651
77,338
78,595
79,943

44,602
44,660
44,854
45,471
45,882

28,416
29,008
29,626
30,124
30,682

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

249,913
252,650
255,419
258,137
260,660

18,849
19,198
19,506
19,689
19,734

38,588
39,197
39,905
40,546
41,223

14,449
13,929
13,671
13,798
14,032

19,307
19,356
19,192
18,895
18,451

81,196
82,449
82,530
82,849
83,180

46,288
46,758
48,345
49,583
50,887

31,235
31,763
32,270
32,777
33,152

1995 .............................

263,034

19,591

41,924

14,287

17,972

83,511

52,216

33,532

Note.—Includes Armed Forces overseas beginning 1940. Includes Alaska and Hawaii beginning 1950.
All estimates are consistent with decennial census enumerations.
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.




315

TABLE B–31.—Civilian population and labor force, 1929–95
[Monthly data seasonally adjusted, except as noted]
Civilian labor force

Year or month

Civilian
noninstitutional
population 1

Employment
Total
Total

Agricultural

Nonagricultural

Unemployment

Not in
labor
force

Civilian
labor
force
participation
rate 2

Thousands of persons 14 years of age and over
1929 ................................................................
1933 ................................................................
1939 ................................................................

Civil- Unemian
ployemploy- ment
rate,
ment/ civilpopian
ula- worktion
4
ers
3
ratio
Percent

...............
...............
...............

49,180
51,590
55,230

47,630 10,450
38,760 10,090
45,750 9,610

37,180
28,670
36,140

................................................................
................................................................
................................................................
................................................................
................................................................

99,840
99,900
98,640
94,640
93,220

55,640
55,910
56,410
55,540
54,630

47,520
50,350
53,750
54,470
53,960

9,540
9,100
9,250
9,080
8,950

37,980
41,250
44,500
45,390
45,010

8,120
5,560
2,660
1,070
670

44,200
43,990
42,230
39,100
38,590

55.7
56.0
57.2
58.7
58.6

47.6
50.4
54.5
57.6
57.9

14.6
9.9
4.7
1.9
1.2

1945 ................................................................
1946 ................................................................
1947 ................................................................

94,090
103,070
106,018

53,860
57,520
60,168

52,820
55,250
57,812

8,580
8,320
8,256

44,240
46,930
49,557

1,040 40,230
2,270 45,550
2,356 45,850

57.2
55.8
56.8

56.1
53.6
54.5

1.9
3.9
3.9

1940
1941
1942
1943
1944

1,550 ............
12,830 ............
9,480 ............

.......... ..........
.......... ..........
.......... ..........

3.2
24.9
17.2

Thousands of persons 16 years of age and over
1947 ................................................................
1948 ................................................................
1949 ................................................................

101,827
103,068
103,994

59,350
60,621
61,286

57,038
58,343
57,651

7,890
7,629
7,658

49,148
50,714
49,993

2,311 42,477
2,276 42,447
3,637 42,708

58.3
58.8
58.9

56.0
56.6
55.4

3.9
3.8
5.9

1950 ................................................................
1951 ................................................................
1952 ................................................................
1953 5 ..............................................................
1954 ................................................................
1955 ................................................................
1956 ................................................................
1957 ................................................................
1958 ................................................................
1959 ................................................................

104,995
104,621
105,231
107,056
108,321
109,683
110,954
112,265
113,727
115,329

62,208
62,017
62,138
63,015
63,643
65,023
66,552
66,929
67,639
68,369

58,918
59,961
60,250
61,179
60,109
62,170
63,799
64,071
63,036
64,630

7,160
6,726
6,500
6,260
6,205
6,450
6,283
5,947
5,586
5,565

51,758
53,235
53,749
54,919
53,904
55,722
57,514
58,123
57,450
59,065

3,288
2,055
1,883
1,834
3,532
2,852
2,750
2,859
4,602
3,740

42,787
42,604
43,093
44,041
44,678
44,660
44,402
45,336
46,088
46,960

59.2
59.2
59.0
58.9
58.8
59.3
60.0
59.6
59.5
59.3

56.1
57.3
57.3
57.1
55.5
56.7
57.5
57.1
55.4
56.0

5.3
3.3
3.0
2.9
5.5
4.4
4.1
4.3
6.8
5.5

1960 5 ..............................................................
1961 ................................................................
1962 5 ..............................................................
1963 ................................................................
1964 ................................................................
1965 ................................................................
1966 ................................................................
1967 ................................................................
1968 ................................................................
1969 ................................................................

117,245
118,771
120,153
122,416
124,485
126,513
128,058
129,874
132,028
134,335

69,628
70,459
70,614
71,833
73,091
74,455
75,770
77,347
78,737
80,734

65,778
65,746
66,702
67,762
69,305
71,088
72,895
74,372
75,920
77,902

5,458
5,200
4,944
4,687
4,523
4,361
3,979
3,844
3,817
3,606

60,318
60,546
61,759
63,076
64,782
66,726
68,915
70,527
72,103
74,296

3,852
4,714
3,911
4,070
3,786
3,366
2,875
2,975
2,817
2,832

47,617
48,312
49,539
50,583
51,394
52,058
52,288
52,527
53,291
53,602

59.4
59.3
58.8
58.7
58.7
58.9
59.2
59.6
59.6
60.1

56.1
55.4
55.5
55.4
55.7
56.2
56.9
57.3
57.5
58.0

5.5
6.7
5.5
5.7
5.2
4.5
3.8
3.8
3.6
3.5

1970 ................................................................
1971 ................................................................
1972 5 ..............................................................
1973 5 ..............................................................
1974 ................................................................
1975 ................................................................
1976 ................................................................
1977 ................................................................
1978 5 ..............................................................
1979 ................................................................

137,085 82,771
140,216 84,382
144,126 87,034
147,096 89,429
150,120 91,949
153,153 93,775
156,150 96,158
159,033 99,009
161,910 102,251
164,863 104,962

78,678
79,367
82,153
85,064
86,794
85,846
88,752
92,017
96,048
98,824

3,463
3,394
3,484
3,470
3,515
3,408
3,331
3,283
3,387
3,347

75,215
75,972
78,669
81,594
83,279
82,438
85,421
88,734
92,661
95,477

4,093
5,016
4,882
4,365
5,156
7,929
7,406
6,991
6,202
6,137

54,315
55,834
57,091
57,667
58,171
59,377
59,991
60,025
59,659
59,900

60.4
60.2
60.4
60.8
61.3
61.2
61.6
62.3
63.2
63.7

57.4
56.6
57.0
57.8
57.8
56.1
56.8
57.9
59.3
59.9

4.9
5.9
5.6
4.9
5.6
8.5
7.7
7.1
6.1
5.8

1980 ................................................................
1981 ................................................................
1982 ................................................................
1983 ................................................................
1984 ................................................................
1985 ................................................................
1986 5 ..............................................................
1987 ................................................................
1988 ................................................................
1989 ................................................................

167,745
170,130
172,271
174,215
176,383
178,206
180,587
182,753
184,613
186,393

106,940
108,670
110,204
111,550
113,544
115,461
117,834
119,865
121,669
123,869

99,303
100,397
99,526
100,834
105,005
107,150
109,597
112,440
114,968
117,342

3,364
3,368
3,401
3,383
3,321
3,179
3,163
3,208
3,169
3,199

95,938
97,030
96,125
97,450
101,685
103,971
106,434
109,232
111,800
114,142

7,637
8,273
10,678
10,717
8,539
8,312
8,237
7,425
6,701
6,528

60,806
61,460
62,067
62,665
62,839
62,744
62,752
62,888
62,944
62,523

63.8
63.9
64.0
64.0
64.4
64.8
65.3
65.6
65.9
66.5

59.2
59.0
57.8
57.9
59.5
60.1
60.7
61.5
62.3
63.0

7.1
7.6
9.7
9.6
7.5
7.2
7.0
6.2
5.5
5.3

1990 ................................................................
1991 ................................................................
1992 ................................................................
1993 ................................................................
1994 5 ..............................................................
1995 ................................................................

188,049
189,765
191,576
193,550
196,814
198,584

124,787
125,303
126,982
128,040
131,056
132,304

117,914
116,877
117,598
119,306
123,060
124,900

3,186
3,233
3,207
3,074
3,409
3,440

114,728
113,644
114,391
116,232
119,651
121,460

6,874
8,426
9,384
8,734
7,996
7,404

63,262
64,462
64,593
65,509
65,758
66,280

66.4
66.0
66.3
66.2
66.6
66.6

62.7
61.6
61.4
61.6
62.5
62.9

5.5
6.7
7.4
6.8
6.1
5.6

1 Not

seasonally adjusted.
labor force as percent of civilian noninstitutional population.
employment as percent of civilian noninstitutional population.
4 Unemployed as percent of civilian labor force.
2 Civilian
3 Civilian

See next page for continuation of table.




316

TABLE B–31.—Civilian population and labor force, 1929–95—Continued
[Monthly data seasonally adjusted, except as noted]
Civilian labor force

Year or month

Civilian
noninstitutional
population 1

Not in
labor
force

Civilian
labor
force
participation
rate 2

Employment
Total
Total

Agricultural

Nonagricultural

Unemployment

Thousands of persons 16 years of age and over

Civil- Unemian
ployemploy- ment
rate,
ment/ civilpopian
ula- worktion
4
ers
3
ratio
Percent

1992: Jan .........................................................
Feb .........................................................
Mar ........................................................
Apr .........................................................
May ........................................................
June .......................................................

190,759
190,884
191,022
191,168
191,307
191,455

126,149
126,209
126,545
126,917
127,036
127,269

117,130
116,919
117,255
117,670
117,534
117,498

3,136
3,218
3,208
3,220
3,192
3,248

113,994
113,701
114,047
114,450
114,342
114,250

9,019
9,290
9,290
9,247
9,502
9,771

64,610
64,675
64,477
64,251
64,271
64,186

66.1
66.1
66.2
66.4
66.4
66.5

61.4
61.3
61.4
61.6
61.4
61.4

7.1
7.4
7.3
7.3
7.5
7.7

July ........................................................
Aug ........................................................
Sept .......................................................
Oct .........................................................
Nov .........................................................
Dec .........................................................

191,622
191,790
191,947
192,131
192,316
192,509

127,358
127,339
127,306
126,933
127,287
127,469

117,763
117,749
117,772
117,723
117,974
118,155

3,217
3,237
3,211
3,188
3,170
3,222

114,546
114,512
114,561
114,535
114,804
114,933

9,595
9,590
9,534
9,210
9,313
9,314

64,264
64,451
64,641
65,198
65,029
65,040

66.5
66.4
66.3
66.1
66.2
66.2

61.5
61.4
61.4
61.3
61.3
61.4

7.5
7.5
7.5
7.3
7.3
7.3

1993: Jan .........................................................
Feb .........................................................
Mar ........................................................
Apr .........................................................
May ........................................................
June .......................................................

192,644
192,786
192,959
193,126
193,283
193,456

127,224
127,400
127,440
127,539
128,075
128,056

118,178
118,442
118,562
118,585
119,180
119,187

3,182
3,116
3,099
3,071
3,074
3,031

114,996
115,326
115,463
115,514
116,106
116,156

9,046
8,958
8,878
8,954
8,895
8,869

65,420
65,386
65,519
65,587
65,208
65,400

66.0
66.1
66.0
66.0
66.3
66.2

61.3
61.4
61.4
61.4
61.7
61.6

7.1
7.0
7.0
7.0
6.9
6.9

July ........................................................
Aug ........................................................
Sept .......................................................
Oct .........................................................
Nov .........................................................
Dec .........................................................

193,633
193,793
193,971
194,151
194,321
194,472

128,102
128,334
128,108
128,580
128,662
128,898

119,370
119,692
119,568
119,941
120,332
120,661

3,043
3,005
3,093
3,021
3,114
3,096

116,327
116,687
116,475
116,920
117,218
117,565

8,732
8,642
8,540
8,639
8,330
8,237

65,531
65,459
65,863
65,571
65,659
65,574

66.2
66.2
66.0
66.2
66.2
66.3

61.6
61.8
61.6
61.8
61.9
62.0

6.8
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.5
6.4

1994: Jan 5 .......................................................
Feb .........................................................
Mar ........................................................
Apr .........................................................
May ........................................................
June .......................................................

195,953
196,090
196,213
196,363
196,510
196,693

130,643
130,784
130,706
130,787
130,699
130,538

121,903
122,208
122,160
122,402
122,703
122,635

3,328
3,368
3,396
3,438
3,413
3,294

118,575
118,840
118,764
118,964
119,290
119,341

8,740
8,576
8,546
8,385
7,996
7,903

65,310
65,306
65,507
65,576
65,811
66,155

66.7
66.7
66.6
66.6
66.5
66.4

62.2
62.3
62.3
62.3
62.4
62.3

6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.1
6.1

July ........................................................
Aug ........................................................
Sept .......................................................
Oct .........................................................
Nov .........................................................
Dec .........................................................

196,859
197,043
197,248
197,430
197,607
197,765

130,774
131,086
131,291
131,646
131,718
131,725

122,781
123,197
123,644
124,141
124,403
124,570

3,333
3,436
3,411
3,494
3,500
3,532

119,448
119,761
120,233
120,647
120,903
121,038

7,993
7,889
7,647
7,505
7,315
7,155

66,085
65,957
65,957
65,784
65,889
66,040

66.4
66.5
66.6
66.7
66.7
66.6

62.4
62.5
62.7
62.9
63.0
63.0

6.1
6.0
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.4

1995: Jan .........................................................
Feb .........................................................
Mar ........................................................
Apr .........................................................
May ........................................................
June .......................................................

197,753
197,886
198,007
198,148
198,286
198,453

132,136
132,308
132,511
132,737
131,811
131,869

124,639
125,125
125,274
125,072
124,319
124,485

3,575
3,656
3,698
3,594
3,357
3,451

121,064
121,469
121,576
121,478
120,962
121,034

7,498
7,183
7,237
7,665
7,492
7,384

65,617
65,578
65,496
65,412
66,476
66,583

66.8
66.9
66.9
67.0
66.5
66.4

63.0
63.2
63.3
63.1
62.7
62.7

5.7
5.4
5.5
5.8
5.7
5.6

July ........................................................
Aug ........................................................
Sept .......................................................
Oct .........................................................
Nov .........................................................
Dec .........................................................

198,615
198,801
199,005
199,192
199,355
199,508

132,519
132,211
132,591
132,648
132,442
132,284

124,959
124,779
125,140
125,399
125,010
124,904

3,409
3,362
3,273
3,455
3,276
3,306

121,550
121,417
121,867
121,944
121,734
121,598

7,559
7,431
7,451
7,249
7,432
7,380

66,096
66,590
66,414
66,544
66,913
67,224

66.7
66.5
66.6
66.6
66.4
66.3

62.9
62.8
62.9
63.0
62.7
62.6

5.7
5.6
5.6
5.5
5.6
5.6

5 Not strictly comparable with earlier data due to population adjustments as follows: Beginning 1953, introduction of 1950 census data
added about 600,000 to population and 350,000 to labor force, total employment, and agricultural employment. Beginning 1960, inclusion of
Alaska and Hawaii added about 500,000 to population, 300,000 to labor force, and 240,000 to nonagricultural employment. Beginning 1962,
introduction of 1960 census data reduced population by about 50,000 and labor force and employment by 200,000. Beginning 1972, introduction of 1970 census data added about 800,000 to civilian noninstitutional population and 333,000 to labor force and employment. A subsequent adjustment based on 1970 census in March 1973 added 60,000 to labor force and to employment. Beginning 1978, changes in sampling and estimation procedures introduced into the household survey added about 250,000 to labor force and to employment. Unemployment
levels and rates were not significantly affected. Beginning 1986, the introduction of revised population controls added about 400,000 to the
civilian population and labor force and 350,000 to civilian employment. Unemployment levels and rates were not significantly affected.
Beginning 1994, introduction of adjusted 1990 census-based population controls added about 1.3 million to civilian population, 1.1 million
to civilian labor force, 950,000 to civilian employment, and 200,000 to unemployment. Unemployment rates were not significantly affected.

Note.—Labor force data in Tables B–31 through B–40 are based on household interviews and relate to the calendar week including the
12th of the month. For definitions of terms, area samples used, historical comparability of the data, comparability with other series, etc., see
‘‘Employment and Earnings.’’
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.




317

TABLE B–32.—Civilian employment and unemployment by sex and age, 1947–95
[Thousands of persons 16 years of age and over; monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Civilian employment
Males
Year or month
Total
Total

16–19
years

Unemployment
Females

20
years
and
over

Total

16–19
years

20
years
and
over

Total

Males

Females

20
years
Total 16–19
years and
over

20
years
Total 16–19
years and
over

1947 ....................
1948 ....................
1949 ....................

57,038 40,995
58,343 41,725
57,651 40,925

2,218 38,776 16,045
2,344 39,382 16,617
2,124 38,803 16,723

1,691 14,354
1,682 14,936
1,588 15,137

2,311 1,692
2,276 1,559
3,637 2,572

270 1,422
619
256 1,305
717
353 2,219 1,065

144
153
223

1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959

....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................

58,918
59,961
60,250
61,179
60,109
62,170
63,799
64,071
63,036
64,630

41,578
41,780
41,682
42,430
41,619
42,621
43,379
43,357
42,423
43,466

2,186
2,156
2,107
2,136
1,985
2,095
2,164
2,115
2,012
2,198

39,394
39,626
39,578
40,296
39,634
40,526
41,216
41,239
40,411
41,267

17,340
18,181
18,568
18,749
18,490
19,551
20,419
20,714
20,613
21,164

1,517
1,611
1,612
1,584
1,490
1,547
1,654
1,663
1,570
1,640

15,824
16,570
16,958
17,164
17,000
18,002
18,767
19,052
19,043
19,524

3,288
2,055
1,883
1,834
3,532
2,852
2,750
2,859
4,602
3,740

2,239
1,221
1,185
1,202
2,344
1,854
1,711
1,841
3,098
2,420

318
191
205
184
310
274
269
300
416
398

1,922
1,029
980
1,019
2,035
1,580
1,442
1,541
2,681
2,022

1,049
834
698
632
1,188
998
1,039
1,018
1,504
1,320

195
854
145
689
140
559
123
510
191
997
176
823
209
832
197
821
262 1,242
256 1,063

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................

65,778
65,746
66,702
67,762
69,305
71,088
72,895
74,372
75,920
77,902

43,904
43,656
44,177
44,657
45,474
46,340
46,919
47,479
48,114
48,818

2,361
2,315
2,362
2,406
2,587
2,918
3,253
3,186
3,255
3,430

41,543
41,342
41,815
42,251
42,886
43,422
43,668
44,294
44,859
45,388

21,874
22,090
22,525
23,105
23,831
24,748
25,976
26,893
27,807
29,084

1,768
1,793
1,833
1,849
1,929
2,118
2,468
2,496
2,526
2,687

20,105
20,296
20,693
21,257
21,903
22,630
23,510
24,397
25,281
26,397

3,852
4,714
3,911
4,070
3,786
3,366
2,875
2,975
2,817
2,832

2,486
2,997
2,423
2,472
2,205
1,914
1,551
1,508
1,419
1,403

426
479
408
501
487
479
432
448
426
440

2,060
2,518
2,016
1,971
1,718
1,435
1,120
1,060
993
963

1,366
1,717
1,488
1,598
1,581
1,452
1,324
1,468
1,397
1,429

286
349
313
383
385
395
405
391
412
413

1,080
1,368
1,175
1,216
1,195
1,056
921
1,078
985
1,015

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................

78,678
79,367
82,153
85,064
86,794
85,846
88,752
92,017
96,048
98,824

48,990
49,390
50,896
52,349
53,024
51,857
53,138
54,728
56,479
57,607

3,409
3,478
3,765
4,039
4,103
3,839
3,947
4,174
4,336
4,300

45,581
45,912
47,130
48,310
48,922
48,018
49,190
50,555
52,143
53,308

29,688
29,976
31,257
32,715
33,769
33,989
35,615
37,289
39,569
41,217

2,735
2,730
2,980
3,231
3,345
3,263
3,389
3,514
3,734
3,783

26,952
27,246
28,276
29,484
30,424
30,726
32,226
33,775
35,836
37,434

4,093
5,016
4,882
4,365
5,156
7,929
7,406
6,991
6,202
6,137

2,238
2,789
2,659
2,275
2,714
4,442
4,036
3,667
3,142
3,120

599
693
711
653
757
966
939
874
813
811

1,638
2,097
1,948
1,624
1,957
3,476
3,098
2,794
2,328
2,308

1,855
2,227
2,222
2,089
2,441
3,486
3,369
3,324
3,061
3,018

506
568
598
583
665
802
780
789
769
743

1,349
1,658
1,625
1,507
1,777
2,684
2,588
2,535
2,292
2,276

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................

99,303
100,397
99,526
100,834
105,005
107,150
109,597
112,440
114,968
117,342

57,186
57,397
56,271
56,787
59,091
59,891
60,892
62,107
63,273
64,315

4,085
3,815
3,379
3,300
3,322
3,328
3,323
3,381
3,492
3,477

53,101
53,582
52,891
53,487
55,769
56,562
57,569
58,726
59,781
60,837

42,117
43,000
43,256
44,047
45,915
47,259
48,706
50,334
51,696
53,027

3,625
3,411
3,170
3,043
3,122
3,105
3,149
3,260
3,313
3,282

38,492 7,637 4,267
913 3,353 3,370
39,590 8,273 4,577
962 3,615 3,696
40,086 10,678 6,179 1,090 5,089 4,499
41,004 10,717 6,260 1,003 5,257 4,457
42,793 8,539 4,744
812 3,932 3,794
44,154 8,312 4,521
806 3,715 3,791
45,556 8,237 4,530
779 3,751 3,707
47,074 7,425 4,101
732 3,369 3,324
48,383 6,701 3,655
667 2,987 3,046
49,745 6,528 3,525
658 2,867 3,003

755
800
886
825
687
661
675
616
558
536

2,615
2,895
3,613
3,632
3,107
3,129
3,032
2,709
2,487
2,467

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

....................
....................
....................
....................
....................
....................

117,914
116,877
117,598
119,306
123,060
124,900

64,435
63,593
63,805
64,700
66,450
67,377

3,237
2,879
2,786
2,836
3,156
3,292

61,198
60,714
61,019
61,865
63,294
64,085

53,479
53,284
53,793
54,606
56,610
57,523

3,024
2,749
2,613
2,694
3,005
3,127

50,455
50,535
51,181
51,912
53,606
54,396

6,874
8,426
9,384
8,734
7,996
7,404

3,799
4,817
5,380
4,932
4,367
3,983

629
709
761
728
740
744

3,170
4,109
4,619
4,204
3,627
3,239

3,075
3,609
4,005
3,801
3,629
3,421

519
581
591
568
580
602

2,555
3,028
3,413
3,234
3,049
2,819

1994: Jan ............
Feb ............
Mar ...........
Apr ............
May ...........
June ..........

121,903
122,208
122,160
122,402
122,703
122,635

65,846
65,887
65,981
66,058
66,197
66,255

3,101
3,120
3,104
3,099
3,117
3,212

62,745
62,767
62,877
62,959
63,080
63,043

56,057
56,321
56,179
56,344
56,506
56,380

2,990
2,966
3,003
3,026
3,025
3,052

53,067
53,355
53,176
53,318
53,481
53,328

8,740
8,576
8,546
8,385
7,996
7,903

4,863
4,752
4,626
4,567
4,348
4,266

808
766
755
785
776
707

4,055
3,986
3,871
3,782
3,572
3,559

3,877
3,824
3,920
3,818
3,648
3,637

571
587
585
670
584
581

3,306
3,237
3,335
3,148
3,064
3,056

July ...........
Aug ...........
Sept ..........
Oct ............
Nov ............
Dec ............

122,781
123,197
123,644
124,141
124,403
124,570

66,226
66,458
66,682
67,059
67,244
67,483

3,150
3,187
3,165
3,239
3,193
3,202

63,076
63,271
63,517
63,820
64,051
64,281

56,555
56,739
56,962
57,082
57,159
57,087

3,014
3,017
2,918
2,992
3,030
3,050

53,541
53,722
54,044
54,090
54,129
54,037

7,993
7,889
7,647
7,505
7,315
7,155

4,429
4,283
4,109
4,074
3,924
3,896

758
737
717
717
630
727

3,671
3,546
3,392
3,357
3,294
3,169

3,564
3,606
3,538
3,431
3,391
3,259

569
581
551
570
536
571

2,995
3,025
2,987
2,861
2,855
2,688

1995: Jan ............
Feb ............
Mar ...........
Apr ............
May ...........
June ..........

124,639
125,125
125,274
125,072
124,319
124,485

67,386
67,709
67,811
67,588
67,110
67,390

3,254
3,231
3,346
3,364
3,270
3,396

64,133
64,478
64,465
64,224
63,841
63,994

57,252
57,416
57,462
57,484
57,208
57,095

3,118
3,082
3,220
3,082
3,112
3,180

54,134
54,334
54,242
54,403
54,097
53,915

7,498
7,183
7,237
7,665
7,492
7,384

4,090
3,849
3,862
4,067
4,145
3,955

684
775
684
728
735
716

3,406
3,074
3,178
3,339
3,410
3,238

3,408
3,334
3,375
3,598
3,347
3,429

591
571
575
641
625
572

2,817
2,763
2,800
2,957
2,722
2,857

124,959
124,779
125,140
125,399
125,010
124,904

67,383
67,108
67,408
67,494
67,090
67,155

3,317
3,236
3,347
3,252
3,254
3,267

64,066
63,871
64,061
64,243
63,837
63,888

57,576
57,672
57,732
57,905
57,920
57,749

3,058
3,174
3,132
3,195
3,130
3,078

54,519
54,498
54,600
54,710
54,790
54,671

7,559
7,431
7,451
7,249
7,432
7,380

3,955
4,001
4,029
3,797
4,065
4,073

763
796
747
788
764
770

3,192
3,206
3,282
3,008
3,301
3.302

3,604
3,430
3,422
3,452
3,367
3,308

652
581
630
544
630
649

2,952
2,849
2,792
2,908
2,737
2,658

July ...........
Aug ...........
Sept ..........
Oct ............
Nov ............
FRASER
Dec
............

Digitized for
http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/
Note.—See footnote 5 and Note, Table B–31.
Federal Reserve
Bank of
Source: Department
of St.
Labor,Louis
Bureau of Labor Statistics.

318

475
564
841

TABLE B–33.—Civilian employment by demographic characteristic, 1954–95
[Thousands of persons 16 years of age and over; monthly data seasonally adjusted]
White
Year or
month

All
civilian
workers

Black and other

Total

Males

Females

Both
sexes
16–19

Total

Black

Males

Females

Both
sexes
16–19

Total

Males

Females

Both
sexes
16–19

1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

60,109
62,170
63,799
64,071
63,036
64,630

53,957
55,833
57,269
57,465
56,613
58,006

37,846
38,719
39,368
39,349
38,591
39,494

16,111
17,114
17,901
18,116
18,022
18,512

3,078
3,225
3,389
3,374
3,216
3,475

6,152
6,341
6,534
6,604
6,423
6,623

3,773
3,904
4,013
4,006
3,833
3,971

2,379
2,437
2,521
2,598
2,590
2,652

396
418
430
407
365
362

............
............
............
............
............
............

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

65,778
65,746
66,702
67,762
69,305
71,088
72,895
74,372
75,920
77,902

58,850
58,913
59,698
60,622
61,922
63,446
65,021
66,361
67,750
69,518

39,755
39,588
40,016
40,428
41,115
41,844
42,331
42,833
43,411
44,048

19,095
19,325
19,682
20,194
20,807
21,602
22,690
23,528
24,339
25,470

3,700
3,693
3,774
3,851
4,076
4,562
5,176
5,114
5,195
5,508

6,928
6,833
7,003
7,140
7,383
7,643
7,877
8,011
8,169
8,384

4,149
4,068
4,160
4,229
4,359
4,496
4,588
4,646
4,702
4,770

2,779
2,765
2,843
2,911
3,024
3,147
3,289
3,365
3,467
3,614

430
414
420
404
440
474
545
568
584
609

............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

78,678
79,367
82,153
85,064
86,794
85,846
88,752
92,017
96,048
98,824

70,217
70,878
73,370
75,708
77,184
76,411
78,853
81,700
84,936
87,259

44,178
44,595
45,944
47,085
47,674
46,697
47,775
49,150
50,544
51,452

26,039
26,283
27,426
28,623
29,511
29,714
31,078
32,550
34,392
35,807

5,571
5,670
6,173
6,623
6,796
6,487
6,724
7,068
7,367
7,356

8,464
8,488
8,783
9,356
9,610
9,435
9,899
10,317
11,112
11,565

4,813
4,796
4,952
5,265
5,352
5,161
5,363
5,579
5,936
6,156

3,650
3,692
3,832
4,092
4,258
4,275
4,536
4,739
5,177
5,409

574
538
573
647
652
615
611
619
703
727

............
............
7,802
8,128
8,203
7,894
8,227
8,540
9,102
9,359

..........
..........
4,368
4,527
4,527
4,275
4,404
4,565
4,796
4,923

..........
..........
3,433
3,601
3,677
3,618
3,823
3,975
4,307
4,436

..........
..........
509
570
554
507
508
508
571
579

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

99,303
100,397
99,526
100,834
105,005
107,150
109,597
112,440
114,968
117,342

87,715
88,709
87,903
88,893
92,120
93,736
95,660
97,789
99,812
101,584

51,127
51,315
50,287
50,621
52,462
53,046
53,785
54,647
55,550
56,352

36,587
37,394
37,615
38,272
39,659
40,690
41,876
43,142
44,262
45,232

7,021
6,588
5,984
5,799
5,836
5,768
5,792
5,898
6,030
5,946

11,588
11,688
11,624
11,941
12,885
13,414
13,937
14,652
15,156
15,757

6,059
6,083
5,983
6,166
6,629
6,845
7,107
7,459
7,722
7,963

5,529
5,606
5,641
5,775
6,256
6,569
6,830
7,192
7,434
7,795

689
637
565
543
607
666
681
742
774
813

9,313
9,355
9,189
9,375
10,119
10,501
10,814
11,309
11,658
11,953

4,798
4,794
4,637
4,753
5,124
5,270
5,428
5,661
5,824
5,928

4,515
4,561
4,552
4,622
4,995
5,231
5,386
5,648
5,834
6,025

547
505
428
416
474
532
536
587
601
625

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

117,914
116,877
117,598
119,306
123,060
124,900

102,087
101,039
101,479
102,812
105,190
106,490

56,432
55,557
55,709
56,397
57,452
58,146

45,654
45,482
45,770
46,415
47,738
48,344

5,518
4,989
4,761
4,887
5,398
5,593

15,827
15,838
16,119
16,494
17,870
18,409

8,003
8,036
8,096
8,303
8,998
9,231

7,825
7,802
8,023
8,191
8,872
9,179

743
639
637
642
763
826

11,966
11,863
11,933
12,146
12,835
13,279

5,915
5,880
5,846
5,957
6,241
6,422

6,051
5,983
6,087
6,189
6,595
6,857

573
474
474
474
552
586

1994: Jan .......
Feb .......
Mar ......
Apr .......
May ......
June .....

121,903
122,208
122,160
122,402
122,703
122,635

104,268
104,612
104,412
104,591
104,978
104,687

57,043
57,053
57,042
57,113
57,213
57,273

47,225
47,559
47,370
47,478
47,765
47,414

5,305
5,336
5,355
5,398
5,427
5,477

17,603
17,637
17,689
17,778
17,811
17,850

8,818
8,881
8,921
8,948
9,009
8,944

8,785
8,756
8,768
8,830
8,802
8,906

809
747
740
742
718
774

12,544
12,624
12,718
12,775
12,810
12,838

6,044
6,124
6,186
6,199
6,271
6,214

6,500
6,500
6,532
6,576
6,539
6,624

597
537
547
546
497
552

July .......
Aug .......
Sept ......
Oct .......
Nov .......
Dec .......

122,781
123,197
123,644
124,141
124,403
124,570

105,006
105,401
105,740
106,010
106,242
106,352

57,352
57,558
57,650
57,877
58,028
58,185

47,654
47,843
48,090
48,133
48,214
48,167

5,424
5,463
5,254
5,414
5,431
5,493

17,731
17,826
17,997
18,131
18,161
18,202

8,856
8,911
9,053
9,167
9,192
9,260

8,875
8,915
8,944
8,964
8,969
8,942

759
757
801
778
778
744

12,767
12,795
12,927
13,022
13,054
13,119

6,150
6,168
6,286
6,369
6,393
6,458

6,617
6,627
6,641
6,653
6,661
6,661

542
541
570
569
579
534

1995: Jan .......
Feb .......
Mar ......
Apr .......
May ......
June .....

124,639
125,125
125,274
125,072
124,319
124,485

106,366
106,604
106,698
106,500
105,935
106,145

58,165
58,348
58,396
58,187
57,863
58,139

48,201
48,256
48,301
48,312
48,072
48,006

5,658
5,515
5,734
5,653
5,575
5,797

18,219
18,490
18,512
18,546
18,482
18,264

9,212
9,374
9,384
9,403
9,259
9,223

9,007
9,116
9,128
9,143
9,223
9,041

713
803
827
796
817
805

13,192
13,362
13,370
13,337
13,336
13,142

6,435
6,558
6,571
6,514
6,420
6,399

6,757
6,804
6,799
6,823
6,916
6,742

499
570
591
584
585
571

July .......
Aug .......
Sept ......
Oct .......
Nov .......
Dec .......

124,959
124,779
125,140
125,399
125,010
124,904

106,770
106,567
106,851
106,815
106,331
106,296

58,245
58,005
58,190
58,217
57,889
58,074

48,525
48,562
48,661
48,598
48,442
48,222

5,634
5,617
5,544
5,549
5,453
5,481

18,184
18,307
18,324
18,522
18,697
18,562

9,144
9,192
9,245
9,210
9,179
9,043

9,040
9,115
9,080
9,312
9,518
9,519

797
814
905
867
920
865

13,033
13,049
13,147
13,413
13,662
13,481

6,326
6,293
6,397
6,450
6,461
6,326

6,707
6,756
6,750
6,963
7,201
7,155

552
542
622
610
687
623

Note.—See footnote 5 and Note, Table B–31.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.




319

TABLE B–34.—Unemployment by demographic characteristic, 1954–95
[Thousands of persons 16 years of age and over; monthly data seasonally adjusted]
White
Year or
month

All
civilian
workers

Total

Males

Black and other

Females

Both
sexes
16–19

Total

Black

Males

Females

Both
sexes
16–19

Total

Males

Females

Both
sexes
16–19

1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959

..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............

3,532
2,852
2,750
2,859
4,602
3,740

2,859
2,252
2,159
2,289
3,680
2,946

1,913
1,478
1,366
1,477
2,489
1,903

946
774
793
812
1,191
1,043

423
373
382
401
541
525

673
601
591
570
923
793

431
376
345
364
610
517

242
225
246
206
313
276

79
77
95
96
138
128

............
............
............
............
............
............

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............

3,852
4,714
3,911
4,070
3,786
3,366
2,875
2,975
2,817
2,832

3,065
3,743
3,052
3,208
2,999
2,691
2,255
2,338
2,226
2,260

1,988
2,398
1,915
1,976
1,779
1,556
1,241
1,208
1,142
1,137

1,077
1,345
1,137
1,232
1,220
1,135
1,014
1,130
1,084
1,123

575
669
580
708
708
705
651
635
644
660

788
971
861
863
787
678
622
638
590
571

498
599
509
496
426
360
310
300
277
267

290
372
352
367
361
318
312
338
313
304

138
159
142
176
165
171
186
203
194
193

............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............

4,093
5,016
4,882
4,365
5,156
7,929
7,406
6,991
6,202
6,137

3,339
4,085
3,906
3,442
4,097
6,421
5,914
5,441
4,698
4,664

1,857
2,309
2,173
1,836
2,169
3,627
3,258
2,883
2,411
2,405

1,482
1,777
1,733
1,606
1,927
2,794
2,656
2,558
2,287
2,260

871
1,011
1,021
955
1,104
1,413
1,364
1,284
1,189
1,193

754
930
977
924
1,058
1,507
1,492
1,550
1,505
1,473

380
481
486
440
544
815
779
784
731
714

374
450
491
484
514
692
713
766
774
759

235
249
288
280
318
355
355
379
394
362

............
............
906
846
965
1,369
1,334
1,393
1,330
1,319

...........
...........
448
395
494
741
698
698
641
636

...........
...........
458
451
470
629
637
695
690
683

..........
..........
279
262
297
330
330
354
360
333

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............

7,637
8,273
10,678
10,717
8,539
8,312
8,237
7,425
6,701
6,528

5,884
6,343
8,241
8,128
6,372
6,191
6,140
5,501
4,944
4,770

3,345
3,580
4,846
4,859
3,600
3,426
3,433
3,132
2,766
2,636

2,540
2,762
3,395
3,270
2,772
2,765
2,708
2,369
2,177
2,135

1,291
1,374
1,534
1,387
1,116
1,074
1,070
995
910
863

1,752
1,930
2,437
2,588
2,167
2,121
2,097
1,924
1,757
1,757

922
997
1,334
1,401
1,144
1,095
1,097
969
888
889

830
933
1,104
1,187
1,022
1,026
999
955
869
868

377
388
443
441
384
394
383
353
316
331

1,553
1,731
2,142
2,272
1,914
1,864
1,840
1,684
1,547
1,544

815
891
1,167
1,213
1,003
951
946
826
771
773

738
840
975
1,059
911
913
894
858
776
772

343
357
396
392
353
357
347
312
288
300

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............

6,874
8,426
9,384
8,734
7,996
7,404

5,091
6,447
7,047
6,547
5,892
5,459

2,866
3,775
4,121
3,753
3,275
2,999

2,225
2,672
2,926
2,793
2,617
2,460

856
977
983
943
960
952

1,783
1,979
2,337
2,187
2,104
1,945

933
1,043
1,259
1,179
1,092
984

850
936
1,079
1,008
1,011
961

292
313
369
353
360
394

1,527
1,679
1,958
1,796
1,666
1,538

793
874
1,046
954
848
762

734
805
912
842
818
777

258
270
313
302
300
325

1994: Jan .......
Feb ......
Mar ......
Apr .......
May .....
June .....

8,740
8,576
8,546
8,385
7,996
7,903

6,401
6,284
6,229
6,218
5,851
5,836

3,607
3,540
3,479
3,489
3,244
3,191

2,794
2,744
2,750
2,729
2,607
2,645

1,023
996
986
1,116
992
917

2,274
2,250
2,258
2,159
2,113
2,063

1,207
1,183
1,116
1,086
1,075
1,074

1,067
1,067
1,142
1,073
1,038
989

338
342
347
361
362
372

1,879
1,838
1,807
1,732
1,700
1,643

976
954
856
868
868
839

903
884
951
864
832
804

292
291
289
300
307
312

July ......
Aug ......
Sept .....
Oct .......
Nov ......
Dec ......

7,993
7,889
7,647
7,505
7,315
7,155

5,905
5,785
5,641
5,545
5,395
5,363

3,295
3,168
3,077
3,059
2,950
2,987

2,610
2,617
2,564
2,486
2,445
2,376

934
933
912
912
849
946

2,044
2,107
2,034
2,095
1,967
1,846

1,120
1,119
1,053
1,070
1,007
953

924
988
981
1,025
960
893

385
378
342
404
339
349

1,613
1,634
1,550
1,627
1,524
1,422

872
851
780
805
762
710

741
783
770
822
762
712

323
306
269
341
285
283

1995: Jan .......
Feb ......
Mar ......
Apr .......
May .....
June .....

7,498
7,183
7,237
7,665
7,492
7,384

5,510
5,226
5,301
5,653
5,633
5,396

3,068
2,878
2,930
3,079
3,158
2,968

2,442
2,348
2,372
2,574
2,475
2,428

928
949
903
966
967
877

1,910
1,911
1,873
2,004
1,847
1,983

962
940
899
992
972
987

947
971
973
1,012
876
996

333
386
346
421
386
415

1,505
1,505
1,448
1,601
1,467
1,565

760
721
658
766
766
782

745
784
790
835
701
783

275
317
268
323
317
347

July ......
Aug ......
Sept .....
Oct .......
Nov ......
Dec ......

7,559
7,431
7,451
7,249
7,432
7,380

5,427
5,404
5,396
5,417
5,648
5,551

2,866
2,970
3,017
2,913
3,152
3,041

2,561
2,435
2,379
2,503
2,496
2,511

980
914
955
973
1,031
1,021

2,051
2,090
2,087
1,919
1,817
1,897

1,038
1,089
1,033
918
932
1,073

1,013
1,002
1,054
1,001
886
824

430
458
411
376
380
396

1,623
1,666
1,676
1,470
1,409
1,536

798
846
799
678
705
854

825
820
877
792
704
681

353
403
356
301
307
341

Note.—See footnote 5 and Note, Table B–31.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.




320

TABLE B–35.—Civilian labor force participation rate and employment/population ratio, 1948–95
[Percent;1 monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Labor force participation rate
Year or month

1948 .................................
1949 .................................
1950 .................................
1951 .................................
1952 .................................
1953 .................................
1954 .................................
1955 .................................
1956 .................................
1957 .................................
1958 .................................
1959 .................................
1960 .................................
1961 .................................
1962 .................................
1963 .................................
1964 .................................
1965 .................................
1966 .................................
1967 .................................
1968 .................................
1969 .................................
1970 .................................
1971 .................................
1972 .................................
1973 .................................
1974 .................................
1975 .................................
1976 .................................
1977 .................................
1978 .................................
1979 .................................
1980 .................................
1981 .................................
1982 .................................
1983 .................................
1984 .................................
1985 .................................
1986 .................................
1987 .................................
1988 .................................
1989 .................................
1990 .................................
1991 .................................
1992 .................................
1993 .................................
1994 .................................
1995 .................................
1994: Jan .........................
Feb .........................
Mar ........................
Apr .........................
May ........................
June .......................
July .........................
Aug .........................
Sept ........................
Oct .........................
Nov .........................
Dec .........................
1995: Jan .........................
Feb .........................
Mar ........................
Apr .........................
May ........................
June .......................
July .........................
Aug .........................
Sept ........................
Oct .........................
Nov .........................
Dec .........................
1 Civilian

All
civilian Males Feworkmales
ers
58.8
58.9
59.2
59.2
59.0
58.9
58.8
59.3
60.0
59.6
59.5
59.3
59.4
59.3
58.8
58.7
58.7
58.9
59.2
59.6
59.6
60.1
60.4
60.2
60.4
60.8
61.3
61.2
61.6
62.3
63.2
63.7
63.8
63.9
64.0
64.0
64.4
64.8
65.3
65.6
65.9
66.5
66.4
66.0
66.3
66.2
66.6
66.6
66.7
66.7
66.6
66.6
66.5
66.4
66.4
66.5
66.6
66.7
66.7
66.6
66.8
66.9
66.9
67.0
66.5
66.4
66.7
66.5
66.6
66.6
66.4
66.3

86.6
86.4
86.4
86.3
86.3
86.0
85.5
85.4
85.5
84.8
84.2
83.7
83.3
82.9
82.0
81.4
81.0
80.7
80.4
80.4
80.1
79.8
79.7
79.1
78.9
78.8
78.7
77.9
77.5
77.7
77.9
77.8
77.4
77.0
76.6
76.4
76.4
76.3
76.3
76.2
76.2
76.4
76.1
75.5
75.6
75.2
75.1
75.0
75.3
75.2
75.1
75.0
74.9
74.8
74.9
74.9
74.9
75.1
75.1
75.3
75.4
75.5
75.5
75.5
75.0
75.0
74.9
74.6
74.9
74.7
74.4
74.5

32.7
33.1
33.9
34.6
34.7
34.4
34.6
35.7
36.9
36.9
37.1
37.1
37.7
38.1
37.9
38.3
38.7
39.3
40.3
41.1
41.6
42.7
43.3
43.4
43.9
44.7
45.7
46.3
47.3
48.4
50.0
50.9
51.5
52.1
52.6
52.9
53.6
54.5
55.3
56.0
56.6
57.4
57.5
57.3
57.8
57.9
58.8
58.9
58.7
58.9
58.8
58.8
58.8
58.6
58.7
58.8
58.9
58.9
58.9
58.6
58.9
58.9
59.0
59.2
58.6
58.6
59.2
59.0
59.0
59.2
59.1
58.8

Both
sexes
16–19
years
52.5
52.2
51.8
52.2
51.3
50.2
48.3
48.9
50.9
49.6
47.4
46.7
47.5
46.9
46.1
45.2
44.5
45.7
48.2
48.4
48.3
49.4
49.9
49.7
51.9
53.7
54.8
54.0
54.5
56.0
57.8
57.9
56.7
55.4
54.1
53.5
53.9
54.5
54.7
54.7
55.3
55.9
53.7
51.7
51.3
51.5
52.7
53.5
53.1
52.7
52.9
53.6
52.9
53.2
52.5
52.8
51.5
52.7
51.8
52.9
53.6
53.6
54.5
54.3
53.6
54.2
53.6
53.5
53.6
53.0
52.7
52.8

Employment/population ratio

Black
White and
other

Black

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
58.2
58.7
59.4
59.1
58.9
58.7
58.8
58.8
58.3
58.2
58.2
58.4
58.7
59.2
59.3
59.9
60.2
60.1
60.4
60.8
61.4
61.5
61.8
62.5
63.3
63.9
64.1
64.3
64.3
64.3
64.6
65.0
65.5
65.8
66.2
66.7
66.8
66.6
66.7
66.7
67.1
67.1
67.1
67.2
67.0
67.1
67.0
66.8
67.0
67.1
67.2
67.2
67.2
67.2
67.2
67.2
67.3
67.3
66.9
66.9
67.2
67.0
67.1
67.1
66.9
66.8

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
59.9
60.2
59.8
58.8
59.0
59.8
61.5
61.4
61.0
60.8
61.0
61.5
62.2
62.9
63.3
63.8
63.8
64.2
63.3
62.6
63.3
62.4
63.4
63.7
63.5
63.6
63.8
63.6
63.6
63.4
62.8
63.0
63.1
63.7
63.3
63.1
63.7
64.3
64.0
64.5
63.8
63.3
63.0
63.2
63.6
63.7
64.4
64.1

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
64.0
64.2
64.9
64.4
64.8
64.3
64.5
64.1
63.2
63.0
63.1
62.9
63.0
62.8
62.2
62.1
61.8
60.9
60.2
60.5
60.3
59.6
59.8
60.4
62.2
62.2
61.7
61.3
61.6
62.1
62.6
63.3
63.7
64.3
64.0
64.7
63.7
63.1
63.8
63.1
63.9
64.3
64.2
64.2
64.3
64.1
63.9
63.8
63.2
63.6
63.8
64.3
63.8
63.5
64.1
64.9
64.7
65.2
64.4
64.0
63.9
64.3
64.2
64.1
64.3
64.0

All
civilian Males Feworkmales
ers
56.6
55.4
56.1
57.3
57.3
57.1
55.5
56.7
57.5
57.1
55.4
56.0
56.1
55.4
55.5
55.4
55.7
56.2
56.9
57.3
57.5
58.0
57.4
56.6
57.0
57.8
57.8
56.1
56.8
57.9
59.3
59.9
59.2
59.0
57.8
57.9
59.5
60.1
60.7
61.5
62.3
63.0
62.7
61.6
61.4
61.6
62.5
62.9
62.2
62.3
62.3
62.3
62.4
62.3
62.4
62.5
62.7
62.9
63.0
63.0
63.0
63.2
63.3
63.1
62.7
62.7
62.9
62.8
62.9
63.0
62.7
62.6

83.5
81.3
82.0
84.0
83.9
83.6
81.0
81.8
82.3
81.3
78.5
79.3
78.9
77.6
77.7
77.1
77.3
77.5
77.9
78.0
77.8
77.6
76.2
74.9
75.0
75.5
74.9
71.7
72.0
72.8
73.8
73.8
72.0
71.3
69.0
68.8
70.7
70.9
71.0
71.5
72.0
72.5
71.9
70.2
69.7
69.9
70.4
70.8
70.1
70.1
70.2
70.2
70.3
70.3
70.2
70.3
70.5
70.8
71.0
71.1
71.1
71.4
71.5
71.2
70.6
70.9
70.8
70.4
70.7
70.7
70.2
70.2

31.3
31.2
32.0
33.1
33.4
33.3
32.5
34.0
35.1
35.1
34.5
35.0
35.5
35.4
35.6
35.8
36.3
37.1
38.3
39.0
39.6
40.7
40.8
40.4
41.0
42.0
42.6
42.0
43.2
44.5
46.4
47.5
47.7
48.0
47.7
48.0
49.5
50.4
51.4
52.5
53.4
54.3
54.3
53.7
53.8
54.1
55.3
55.6
54.9
55.2
55.0
55.1
55.2
55.1
55.2
55.3
55.5
55.5
55.6
55.5
55.6
55.7
55.7
55.7
55.4
55.2
55.7
55.7
55.7
55.8
55.8
55.6

Both
sexes
16–19
years

White

Black
and
other

47.7
45.2
45.5
47.9
46.9
46.4
42.3
43.5
45.3
43.9
39.9
39.9
40.5
39.1
39.4
37.4
37.3
38.9
42.1
42.2
42.2
43.4
42.3
41.3
43.5
45.9
46.0
43.3
44.2
46.1
48.3
48.5
46.6
44.6
41.5
41.5
43.7
44.4
44.6
45.5
46.8
47.5
45.4
42.1
41.0
41.7
43.4
44.2
43.3
43.1
43.4
43.3
43.3
44.1
43.2
43.5
42.6
43.7
43.6
43.8
44.7
44.2
45.8
44.8
44.1
45.4
43.9
44.0
44.2
43.9
43.3
43.2

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
55.2
56.5
57.3
56.8
55.3
55.9
55.9
55.3
55.4
55.3
55.5
56.0
56.8
57.2
57.4
58.0
57.5
56.8
57.4
58.2
58.3
56.7
57.5
58.6
60.0
60.6
60.0
60.0
58.8
58.9
60.5
61.0
61.5
62.3
63.1
63.8
63.6
62.6
62.4
62.7
63.5
63.8
63.2
63.4
63.2
63.3
63.5
63.3
63.4
63.6
63.8
63.9
64.0
64.0
63.9
64.0
64.1
63.9
63.5
63.6
64.0
63.8
63.9
63.8
63.5
63.4

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
58.0
58.7
59.5
59.3
56.7
57.5
57.9
56.2
56.3
56.2
57.0
57.8
58.4
58.2
58.0
58.1
56.8
54.9
54.1
55.0
54.3
51.4
52.0
52.5
54.7
55.2
53.6
52.6
50.9
51.0
53.6
54.7
55.4
56.8
57.4
58.2
57.3
56.1
55.7
55.7
57.2
58.1
56.9
56.9
57.0
57.2
57.2
57.2
56.7
56.9
57.3
57.6
57.6
57.6
58.0
58.8
58.8
58.8
58.5
57.7
57.4
57.7
57.6
58.1
58.6
58.1

labor force or civilian employment as percent of civilian noninstitutional population in group specified.

Note.—Data relate to persons 16 years of age and over.
for
See FRASER
footnote 5 and Note, Table B–31.

Digitized
http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

321

Black

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
53.7
54.5
53.5
50.1
50.8
51.4
53.6
53.8
52.3
51.3
49.4
49.5
52.3
53.4
54.1
55.6
56.3
56.9
56.2
54.9
54.3
54.4
56.1
57.1
55.2
55.5
55.8
56.0
56.1
56.2
55.8
55.8
56.3
56.6
56.7
56.9
57.1
57.8
57.8
57.6
57.5
56.6
56.1
56.0
56.4
57.4
58.4
57.6

TABLE B–36.—Civilian labor force participation rate by demographic characteristic, 1954–95
[Percent;1 monthly data seasonally adjusted]
White

Year or month

All
civilian
workers

Black and other or black

Males

Females

Total

16–19
years

20
years
and
over

Total

Total

Males

16–19
years

20
years
and
over

Total
Total

16–19
years

Females
20
years
and
over

16–19
years

20
years
and
over

46.1
46.1
47.3
47.1
48.0
47.7
48.2
48.3
48.0
48.1
48.6
48.6
49.4
49.5
49.3
49.8
49.5
49.2
48.8

31.0
32.7
36.3
33.2
31.9
28.2
32.9
32.8
33.1
32.6
31.7
29.5
33.5
35.2
34.8
34.6
34.1
31.2
32.3

47.7
47.5
48.4
48.6
49.8
49.8
49.9
50.1
49.6
49.9
50.7
51.1
51.6
51.6
51.4
52.0
51.8
51.8
51.2

48.7
49.3
49.0
48.8
49.8
50.8
53.1
53.1
53.1
53.5
53.7
54.2
55.2
56.5
56.9
58.0
58.0
58.7
57.8
57.0
58.0
57.4
58.7
59.5
59.0
58.8
59.5
59.1
58.5
58.9
58.3
58.6
58.5
59.0
58.5
58.0
58.8
59.4
59.4
59.8
59.5
58.7
58.7
58.9
59.2
60.1
61.2
60.6

32.2
34.2
33.4
34.2
32.9
32.9
37.3
36.8
34.9
34.0
33.5
33.0
35.0
37.9
39.1
39.6
37.9
40.4
36.7
33.5
35.2
34.5
36.3
39.8
40.6
36.1
36.3
36.6
33.4
36.6
35.9
35.3
36.3
39.1
36.3
32.7
32.9
36.7
40.0
39.4
40.4
39.8
38.7
40.8
44.1
40.5
42.1
42.8

51.2
51.6
51.4
51.1
52.5
53.6
55.5
55.4
55.6
56.0
56.2
56.8
57.6
58.6
58.9
60.0
60.1
60.6
60.0
59.3
60.1
59.5
60.9
61.4
60.8
61.0
61.8
61.3
61.0
61.1
60.5
60.9
60.7
60.9
60.7
60.5
61.4
61.7
61.3
61.9
61.4
60.6
60.6
60.7
60.7
62.1
63.1
62.4

Total

Black and other
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................

58.8
59.3
60.0
59.6
59.5
59.3
59.4
59.3
58.8
58.7
58.7
58.9
59.2
59.6
59.6
60.1
60.4
60.2
60.4

58.2
58.7
59.4
59.1
58.9
58.7
58.8
58.8
58.3
58.2
58.2
58.4
58.7
59.2
59.3
59.9
60.2
60.1
60.4

85.6
85.4
85.6
84.8
84.3
83.8
83.4
83.0
82.1
81.5
81.1
80.8
80.6
80.6
80.4
80.2
80.0
79.6
79.6

57.6
58.6
60.4
59.2
56.5
55.9
55.9
54.5
53.8
53.1
52.7
54.1
55.9
56.3
55.9
56.8
57.5
57.9
60.1

87.8
87.5
87.6
86.9
86.6
86.3
86.0
85.7
84.9
84.4
84.2
83.9
83.6
83.5
83.2
83.0
82.8
82.3
82.0

33.3
34.5
35.7
35.7
35.8
36.0
36.5
36.9
36.7
37.2
37.5
38.1
39.2
40.1
40.7
41.8
42.6
42.6
43.2

40.6
40.7
43.1
42.2
40.1
39.6
40.3
40.6
39.8
38.7
37.8
39.2
42.6
42.5
43.0
44.6
45.6
45.4
48.1

32.7
34.0
35.1
35.2
35.5
35.6
36.2
36.6
36.5
37.0
37.5
38.0
38.8
39.8
40.4
41.5
42.2
42.3
42.7

64.0
64.2
64.9
64.4
64.8
64.3
64.5
64.1
63.2
63.0
63.1
62.9
63.0
62.8
62.2
62.1
61.8
60.9
60.2

85.2
85.1
85.1
84.2
84.1
83.4
83.0
82.2
80.8
80.2
80.1
79.6
79.0
78.5
77.7
76.9
76.5
74.9
73.9

61.2
60.8
61.5
58.8
57.3
55.5
57.6
55.8
53.5
51.5
49.9
51.3
51.4
51.1
49.7
49.6
47.4
44.7
46.0

1972 .................
1973 .................
1974 .................
1975 .................
1976 .................
1977 .................
1978 .................
1979 .................
1980 .................
1981 .................
1982 .................
1983 .................
1984 .................
1985 .................
1986 .................
1987 .................
1988 .................
1989 .................
1990 .................
1991 .................
1992 .................
1993 .................
1994 .................
1995 .................
1994: Jan ..........
Feb ..........
Mar .........
Apr ..........
May .........
June ........
July .........
Aug .........
Sept ........
Oct ..........
Nov .........
Dec .........
1995: Jan ..........
Feb ..........
Mar .........
Apr ..........
May .........
June ........
July .........
Aug .........
Sept ........
Oct ..........
Nov .........
Dec .........

60.4
60.8
61.3
61.2
61.6
62.3
63.2
63.7
63.8
63.9
64.0
64.0
64.4
64.8
65.3
65.6
65.9
66.5
66.4
66.0
66.3
66.2
66.6
66.6
66.7
66.7
66.6
66.6
66.5
66.4
66.4
66.5
66.6
66.7
66.7
66.6
66.8
66.9
66.9
67.0
66.5
66.4
66.7
66.5
66.6
66.6
66.4
66.3

60.4
60.8
61.4
61.5
61.8
62.5
63.3
63.9
64.1
64.3
64.3
64.3
64.6
65.0
65.5
65.8
66.2
66.7
66.8
66.6
66.7
66.7
67.1
67.1
67.1
67.2
67.0
67.1
67.0
66.8
67.0
67.1
67.2
67.2
67.2
67.2
67.2
67.2
67.3
67.3
66.9
66.9
67.2
67.0
67.1
67.1
66.9
66.8

79.6
79.4
79.4
78.7
78.4
78.5
78.6
78.6
78.2
77.9
77.4
77.1
77.1
77.0
76.9
76.8
76.9
77.1
76.9
76.4
76.4
76.1
75.9
75.7
76.0
75.9
75.8
75.9
75.6
75.6
75.7
75.8
75.7
75.9
75.9
76.1
76.1
76.1
76.2
76.0
75.7
75.7
75.7
75.5
75.7
75.5
75.3
75.4

60.1
62.0
62.9
61.9
62.3
64.0
65.0
64.8
63.7
62.4
60.0
59.4
59.0
59.7
59.3
59.0
60.0
61.0
59.4
57.2
56.7
56.5
57.7
58.5
58.5
58.1
57.6
58.9
58.1
57.5
57.6
57.9
56.3
57.6
56.3
57.7
58.5
58.4
59.5
60.0
58.7
60.1
59.6
58.2
58.1
58.1
57.0
57.8

82.0
81.6
81.4
80.7
80.3
80.2
80.1
80.1
79.8
79.5
79.2
78.9
78.7
78.5
78.5
78.4
78.3
78.5
78.3
77.8
77.8
77.5
77.3
77.1
77.4
77.3
77.2
77.2
77.0
77.0
77.1
77.2
77.2
77.3
77.4
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.3
77.0
77.0
76.9
76.8
77.0
76.9
76.8
76.8

43.2
44.1
45.2
45.9
46.9
48.0
49.4
50.5
51.2
51.9
52.4
52.7
53.3
54.1
55.0
55.7
56.4
57.2
57.5
57.4
57.8
58.0
58.9
59.0
58.7
59.0
58.7
58.8
59.0
58.6
58.8
59.0
59.2
59.1
59.1
58.9
58.9
58.9
58.9
59.1
58.7
58.6
59.3
59.1
59.1
59.2
58.9
58.7

48.1
50.1
51.7
51.5
52.8
54.5
56.7
57.4
56.2
55.4
55.0
54.5
55.4
55.2
56.3
56.5
57.2
57.1
55.4
54.3
52.6
53.7
55.1
55.5
54.6
54.9
55.4
57.0
56.0
56.0
55.0
55.3
52.7
54.3
54.7
56.0
57.6
55.3
57.0
55.9
55.7
56.3
55.6
55.4
54.6
54.8
55.0
54.2

42.7
43.5
44.4
45.3
46.2
47.3
48.7
49.8
50.6
51.5
52.2
52.5
53.1
54.0
54.9
55.6
56.3
57.2
57.6
57.7
58.1
58.3
59.2
59.2
59.0
59.3
59.0
58.9
59.2
58.8
59.0
59.2
59.6
59.4
59.4
59.1
59.0
59.1
59.1
59.4
58.9
58.7
59.5
59.4
59.4
59.5
59.2
59.0

59.9
60.2
59.8
58.8
59.0
59.8
61.5
61.4
61.0
60.8
61.0
61.5
62.2
62.9
63.3
63.8
63.8
64.2
63.3
62.6
63.3
62.4
63.4
63.7
63.5
63.6
63.8
63.6
63.6
63.4
62.8
63.0
63.1
63.7
63.3
63.1
63.7
64.3
64.0
64.5
63.8
63.3
63.0
63.2
63.6
63.7
64.4
64.1

73.6
73.4
72.9
70.9
70.0
70.6
71.5
71.3
70.3
70.0
70.1
70.6
70.8
70.8
71.2
71.1
71.0
71.0
70.1
69.5
69.7
68.6
69.1
69.0
68.9
69.4
69.0
69.2
69.8
68.8
68.4
68.3
68.6
69.6
69.3
69.3
69.6
70.3
69.8
70.2
69.2
69.1
68.4
68.5
68.9
68.1
68.4
68.4

46.3
45.7
46.7
42.6
41.3
43.2
44.9
43.6
43.2
41.6
39.8
39.9
41.7
44.6
43.7
43.6
43.8
44.6
40.6
37.4
40.7
39.5
40.8
40.1
40.4
39.4
39.9
40.4
39.8
41.8
41.6
41.4
39.4
42.9
41.4
40.7
36.3
42.4
36.3
41.0
38.4
41.0
40.9
42.2
40.6
38.3
41.9
40.4

87.1
87.8
87.8
87.0
87.1
86.7
86.2
85.5
84.2
83.9
84.1
83.7
83.3
82.9
82.2
81.4
81.4
80.0
78.6
Black

1 Civilian

labor force as percent of civilian noninstitutional population in group specified.


Note.—Data
relate to persons 16 years of age and over.
See footnote 5 and Note, Table B–31.
http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/
Source:
Department
of St.
Labor,Louis
Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Federal Reserve Bank of

322

78.5
78.4
77.6
76.0
75.4
75.6
76.2
76.3
75.1
74.5
74.7
75.2
74.8
74.4
74.8
74.7
74.6
74.4
73.8
73.4
73.1
72.0
72.5
72.5
72.3
73.0
72.4
72.6
73.3
72.0
71.7
71.5
72.1
72.7
72.6
72.7
73.6
73.7
73.8
73.7
73.0
72.5
71.7
71.6
72.4
71.8
71.8
71.9

TABLE B–37.—Civilian employment/population ratio by demographic characteristic, 1954–95
[Percent;1 monthly data seasonally adjusted]
White

Year or month

All
civilian
workers

Black and other or black

Males

Females

Total

16–19
years

20
years
and
over

Total

Total

Males

16–19
years

20
years
and
over

Total
Total

16–19
years

Females
20
years
and
over

16–19
years

20
years
and
over

41.9
42.2
43.0
43.7
42.8
43.2
43.6
42.6
42.7
42.7
43.4
44.1
45.1
45.0
45.2
45.9
44.9
43.9
43.3

24.7
26.4
28.0
26.5
22.8
20.3
24.8
23.2
23.1
21.3
21.8
20.2
23.1
24.8
24.7
25.1
22.4
20.2
19.9

43.7
43.9
44.7
45.5
45.0
45.7
45.8
44.8
44.9
45.2
46.1
47.3
48.2
47.9
48.2
48.9
48.2
47.3
46.7

43.0
43.8
43.5
41.6
42.8
43.3
45.8
46.0
45.7
45.1
44.2
44.1
46.7
48.1
48.8
50.3
51.2
52.0
51.6
50.3
50.4
50.5
52.3
53.4
51.8
51.8
52.0
52.3
51.9
52.5
52.4
52.4
52.5
52.5
52.5
52.4
53.0
53.3
53.2
53.3
54.0
52.6
52.2
52.6
52.4
54.0
55.8
55.4

19.2
22.0
20.9
20.2
19.2
18.5
22.1
22.4
21.0
19.7
17.7
17.0
20.1
23.1
23.8
25.8
25.8
27.1
25.7
21.4
22.1
21.6
24.5
26.1
29.8
25.2
25.3
25.3
21.7
24.7
24.2
24.0
24.2
23.8
23.9
21.2
20.7
24.8
27.7
25.3
28.1
25.1
24.7
24.9
26.6
27.3
29.6
29.7

46.5
47.2
46.9
44.9
46.4
47.0
49.3
49.3
49.1
48.5
47.5
47.4
49.8
50.9
51.6
53.0
53.9
54.6
54.2
53.1
53.1
53.2
55.0
56.1
54.0
54.4
54.6
54.9
54.9
55.3
55.2
55.2
55.2
55.3
55.3
55.5
56.2
56.1
55.7
56.1
56.6
55.3
55.0
55.3
55.0
56.6
58.4
57.9

Total

Black and other
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................

55.5
56.7
57.5
57.1
55.4
56.0
56.1
55.4
55.5
55.4
55.7
56.2
56.9
57.3
57.5
58.0
57.4
56.6
57.0

55.2
56.5
57.3
56.8
55.3
55.9
55.9
55.3
55.4
55.3
55.5
56.0
56.8
57.2
57.4
58.0
57.5
56.8
57.4

81.5
82.2
82.7
81.8
79.2
79.9
79.4
78.2
78.4
77.7
77.8
77.9
78.3
78.4
78.3
78.2
76.8
75.7
76.0

49.9
52.0
54.1
52.4
47.6
48.1
48.1
45.9
46.4
44.7
45.0
47.1
50.1
50.2
50.3
51.1
49.6
49.2
51.5

84.0
84.7
85.0
84.1
81.8
82.8
82.4
81.4
81.5
81.1
81.3
81.5
81.7
81.7
81.6
81.4
80.1
79.0
79.0

31.4
33.0
34.2
34.2
33.6
34.0
34.6
34.5
34.7
35.0
35.5
36.2
37.5
38.3
38.9
40.1
40.3
39.9
40.7

36.4
37.0
38.9
38.2
35.0
34.8
35.1
34.6
34.8
32.9
32.2
33.7
37.5
37.7
37.8
39.5
39.5
38.6
41.3

31.1
32.7
33.8
33.9
33.5
34.0
34.5
34.5
34.7
35.2
35.8
36.5
37.5
38.3
39.1
40.1
40.4
40.1
40.6

58.0
58.7
59.5
59.3
56.7
57.5
57.9
56.2
56.3
56.2
57.0
57.8
58.4
58.2
58.0
58.1
56.8
54.9
54.1

76.5
77.6
78.4
77.2
72.5
73.8
74.1
71.7
72.0
71.8
72.9
73.7
74.0
73.8
73.3
72.8
70.9
68.1
67.3

52.4
52.7
52.2
48.0
42.0
41.4
43.8
41.0
41.7
37.4
37.8
39.4
40.5
38.8
38.7
39.0
35.5
31.8
32.4

1972 .................
1973 .................
1974 .................
1975 .................
1976 .................
1977 .................
1978 .................
1979 .................
1980 .................
1981 .................
1982 .................
1983 .................
1984 .................
1985 .................
1986 .................
1987 .................
1988 .................
1989 .................
1990 .................
1991 .................
1992 .................
1993 .................
1994 .................
1995 .................
1994: Jan ..........
Feb ..........
Mar .........
Apr ..........
May .........
June ........
July .........
Aug .........
Sept ........
Oct ..........
Nov .........
Dec .........
1995: Jan ..........
Feb ..........
Mar .........
Apr ..........
May .........
June ........
July .........
Aug .........
Sept ........
Oct ..........
Nov .........
Dec .........

57.0
57.8
57.8
56.1
56.8
57.9
59.3
59.9
59.2
59.0
57.8
57.9
59.5
60.1
60.7
61.5
62.3
63.0
62.7
61.6
61.4
61.6
62.5
62.9
62.2
62.3
62.3
62.3
62.4
62.3
62.4
62.5
62.7
62.9
63.0
63.0
63.0
63.2
63.3
63.1
62.7
62.7
62.9
62.8
62.9
63.0
62.7
62.6

57.4
58.2
58.3
56.7
57.5
58.6
60.0
60.6
60.0
60.0
58.8
58.9
60.5
61.0
61.5
62.3
63.1
63.8
63.6
62.6
62.4
62.7
63.5
63.8
63.2
63.4
63.2
63.3
63.5
63.3
63.4
63.6
63.8
63.9
64.0
64.0
63.9
64.0
64.1
63.9
63.5
63.6
64.0
63.8
63.9
63.8
63.5
63.4

76.0
76.5
75.9
73.0
73.4
74.1
75.0
75.1
73.4
72.8
70.6
70.4
72.1
72.3
72.3
72.7
73.2
73.7
73.2
71.5
71.1
71.3
71.8
72.0
71.5
71.5
71.4
71.5
71.6
71.6
71.6
71.8
71.9
72.1
72.2
72.4
72.3
72.5
72.5
72.2
71.8
72.1
72.1
71.8
71.9
71.9
71.4
71.6

51.5
54.3
54.4
50.6
51.5
54.4
56.3
55.7
53.4
51.3
47.0
47.4
49.1
49.9
49.6
49.9
51.7
52.6
51.0
47.2
46.3
46.6
48.3
49.4
48.0
48.3
47.9
48.1
48.2
48.9
48.3
49.0
47.2
48.8
48.3
48.5
49.7
49.0
50.7
50.9
49.8
51.4
50.9
49.0
48.8
47.9
47.5
48.5

79.0
79.2
78.6
75.7
76.0
76.5
77.2
77.3
75.6
75.1
73.0
72.6
74.3
74.3
74.3
74.7
75.1
75.4
75.0
73.3
72.9
73.1
73.6
73.8
73.3
73.3
73.3
73.3
73.4
73.3
73.4
73.6
73.8
73.9
74.1
74.2
74.1
74.3
74.2
73.9
73.5
73.7
73.8
73.6
73.8
73.8
73.3
73.4

40.7
41.8
42.4
42.0
43.2
44.5
46.3
47.5
47.8
48.3
48.1
48.5
49.8
50.7
51.7
52.8
53.8
54.6
54.8
54.3
54.3
54.7
55.8
56.1
55.4
55.8
55.5
55.6
55.9
55.5
55.7
55.9
56.2
56.2
56.2
56.2
56.1
56.1
56.2
56.1
55.8
55.7
56.3
56.3
56.4
56.3
56.1
55.8

41.3
43.6
44.3
42.5
44.2
45.9
48.5
49.4
47.9
46.2
44.6
44.5
47.0
47.1
47.9
49.0
50.2
50.5
48.5
46.1
44.3
45.8
47.5
48.1
46.9
46.9
47.6
48.0
48.3
48.4
47.8
47.7
45.7
46.9
47.8
48.6
50.1
48.1
50.0
48.1
47.7
49.8
47.2
48.6
47.4
48.2
46.8
45.9

40.6
41.6
42.2
41.9
43.1
44.4
46.1
47.3
47.8
48.5
48.4
48.9
50.0
51.0
52.0
53.1
54.0
54.9
55.2
54.8
54.9
55.3
56.4
56.7
56.0
56.4
56.1
56.1
56.5
56.0
56.3
56.5
56.9
56.8
56.8
56.7
56.5
56.7
56.6
56.7
56.4
56.1
56.9
56.8
57.0
56.8
56.7
56.5

53.7
54.5
53.5
50.1
50.8
51.4
53.6
53.8
52.3
51.3
49.4
49.5
52.3
53.4
54.1
55.6
56.3
56.9
56.2
54.9
54.3
54.4
56.1
57.1
55.2
55.5
55.8
56.0
56.1
56.2
55.8
55.8
56.3
56.6
56.7
56.9
57.1
57.8
57.8
57.6
57.5
56.6
56.1
56.0
56.4
57.4
58.4
57.6

66.8
67.5
65.8
60.6
60.6
61.4
63.3
63.4
60.4
59.1
56.0
56.3
59.2
60.0
60.6
62.0
62.7
62.8
61.8
60.5
59.1
59.1
60.8
61.7
59.4
60.1
60.6
60.7
61.3
60.6
59.9
60.0
61.1
61.8
61.9
62.4
62.3
63.4
63.4
62.8
61.8
61.5
60.8
60.3
61.2
61.6
61.7
60.3

31.6
32.8
31.4
26.3
25.8
26.4
28.5
28.7
27.0
24.6
20.3
20.4
23.9
26.3
26.5
28.5
29.4
30.4
27.6
23.8
23.6
23.6
25.4
25.2
24.5
23.7
24.5
24.4
23.5
25.4
24.4
24.9
27.3
27.5
28.2
26.7
23.9
26.0
24.8
26.5
23.0
25.1
23.9
22.7
27.3
25.5
28.5
24.0

79.2
80.4
81.3
80.5
76.0
77.6
77.9
75.5
75.7
76.2
77.7
78.7
79.2
79.4
78.9
78.4
76.8
74.2
73.2
Black

1 Civilian

employment as percent of civilian noninstitutional population in group specified.


Note.—Data
relate to persons 16 years of age and over.
See footnote 5 and Note, Table B–31.
http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/
Source:
Department
of St.
Labor,Louis
Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Federal Reserve Bank of

323

73.0
73.7
71.9
66.5
66.8
67.5
69.1
69.1
65.8
64.5
61.4
61.6
64.1
64.6
65.1
66.4
67.1
67.0
66.1
64.9
63.3
63.2
65.0
66.1
63.5
64.4
64.9
65.0
65.8
64.8
64.2
64.2
65.1
65.8
65.9
66.7
66.8
67.8
68.0
67.1
66.6
66.0
65.2
64.9
65.4
66.1
66.0
64.7

TABLE B–38.—Civilian unemployment rate, 1948–95
[Percent;1 monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Males
Year or month

All
civilian
workers Total

16–
19
years

Females
20
years
and
over

Total

16–
19
years

20
years
and
over

Both
sexes
16–19
years

White

Black
and
other

Black

Married
men,
spouse
present 2

Women
who
maintain
families

1948 ...............
1949 ...............

3.8
5.9

3.6
5.9

9.8
14.3

3.2
5.4

4.1
6.0

8.3
12.3

3.6
5.3

9.2
13.4

3.5
5.6

1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

5.3
3.3
3.0
2.9
5.5
4.4
4.1
4.3
6.8
5.5

5.1
2.8
2.8
2.8
5.3
4.2
3.8
4.1
6.8
5.2

12.7
8.1
8.9
7.9
13.5
11.6
11.1
12.4
17.1
15.3

4.7
2.5
2.4
2.5
4.9
3.8
3.4
3.6
6.2
4.7

5.7
4.4
3.6
3.3
6.0
4.9
4.8
4.7
6.8
5.9

11.4
8.3
8.0
7.2
11.4
10.2
11.2
10.6
14.3
13.5

5.1
4.0
3.2
2.9
5.5
4.4
4.2
4.1
6.1
5.2

12.2
8.2
8.5
7.6
12.6
11.0
11.1
11.6
15.9
14.6

4.9
3.1
2.8
2.7
5.0
3.9
3.6
3.8
6.1
4.8

9.0
5.3
5.4
4.5
9.9
8.7
8.3
7.9
12.6
10.7

............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............

6.0
3.7
3.4
3.2
6.2
4.8
4.4
4.6
7.3
5.7

4.6
1.5
1.4
1.7
4.0
2.6
2.3
2.8
5.1
3.6

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

5.5
6.7
5.5
5.7
5.2
4.5
3.8
3.8
3.6
3.5

5.4
6.4
5.2
5.2
4.6
4.0
3.2
3.1
2.9
2.8

15.3
17.1
14.7
17.2
15.8
14.1
11.7
12.3
11.6
11.4

4.7
5.7
4.6
4.5
3.9
3.2
2.5
2.3
2.2
2.1

5.9
7.2
6.2
6.5
6.2
5.5
4.8
5.2
4.8
4.7

13.9
16.3
14.6
17.2
16.6
15.7
14.1
13.5
14.0
13.3

5.1
6.3
5.4
5.4
5.2
4.5
3.8
4.2
3.8
3.7

14.7
16.8
14.7
17.2
16.2
14.8
12.8
12.9
12.7
12.2

5.0
6.0
4.9
5.0
4.6
4.1
3.4
3.4
3.2
3.1

10.2
12.4
10.9
10.8
9.6
8.1
7.3
7.4
6.7
6.4

............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............

5.7
6.8
5.6
5.6
5.0
4.3
3.5
3.6
3.4
3.3

3.7
4.6
3.6
3.4
2.8
2.4
1.9
1.8
1.6
1.5

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
4.9
4.4
4.4

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

4.9
5.9
5.6
4.9
5.6
8.5
7.7
7.1
6.1
5.8

4.4
5.3
5.0
4.2
4.9
7.9
7.1
6.3
5.3
5.1

15.0
16.6
15.9
13.9
15.6
20.1
19.2
17.3
15.8
15.9

3.5
4.4
4.0
3.3
3.8
6.8
5.9
5.2
4.3
4.2

5.9
6.9
6.6
6.0
6.7
9.3
8.6
8.2
7.2
6.8

15.6
17.2
16.7
15.3
16.6
19.7
18.7
18.3
17.1
16.4

4.8
5.7
5.4
4.9
5.5
8.0
7.4
7.0
6.0
5.7

15.3
16.9
16.2
14.5
16.0
19.9
19.0
17.8
16.4
16.1

4.5
5.4
5.1
4.3
5.0
7.8
7.0
6.2
5.2
5.1

8.2 ............
9.9 ............
10.0
10.4
9.0
9.4
9.9
10.5
13.8
14.8
13.1
14.0
13.1
14.0
11.9
12.8
11.3
12.3

4.8
5.7
5.3
4.5
5.3
8.2
7.3
6.6
5.6
5.5

2.6
3.2
2.8
2.3
2.7
5.1
4.2
3.6
2.8
2.8

5.4
7.3
7.2
7.1
7.0
10.0
10.1
9.4
8.5
8.3

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

7.1
7.6
9.7
9.6
7.5
7.2
7.0
6.2
5.5
5.3

6.9
7.4
9.9
9.9
7.4
7.0
6.9
6.2
5.5
5.2

18.3
20.1
24.4
23.3
19.6
19.5
19.0
17.8
16.0
15.9

5.9
6.3
8.8
8.9
6.6
6.2
6.1
5.4
4.8
4.5

7.4
7.9
9.4
9.2
7.6
7.4
7.1
6.2
5.6
5.4

17.2
19.0
21.9
21.3
18.0
17.6
17.6
15.9
14.4
14.0

6.4
6.8
8.3
8.1
6.8
6.6
6.2
5.4
4.9
4.7

17.8
19.6
23.2
22.4
18.9
18.6
18.3
16.9
15.3
15.0

6.3
6.7
8.6
8.4
6.5
6.2
6.0
5.3
4.7
4.5

13.1
14.2
17.3
17.8
14.4
13.7
13.1
11.6
10.4
10.0

14.3
15.6
18.9
19.5
15.9
15.1
14.5
13.0
11.7
11.4

6.9
7.3
9.3
9.2
7.1
6.8
6.6
5.8
5.2
5.0

4.2
4.3
6.5
6.5
4.6
4.3
4.4
3.9
3.3
3.0

9.2
10.4
11.7
12.2
10.3
10.4
9.8
9.2
8.1
8.1

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............

5.5
6.7
7.4
6.8
6.1
5.6

5.6
7.0
7.8
7.1
6.2
5.6

16.3
19.8
21.5
20.4
19.0
18.4

4.9
6.3
7.0
6.4
5.4
4.8

5.4
6.3
6.9
6.5
6.0
5.6

14.7
17.4
18.5
17.4
16.2
16.1

4.8
5.7
6.3
5.9
5.4
4.9

15.5
18.6
20.0
19.0
17.6
17.3

4.7
6.0
6.5
6.0
5.3
4.9

10.1
11.1
12.7
11.7
10.5
9.6

11.3
12.4
14.1
12.9
11.5
10.4

5.3
6.5
7.1
6.5
5.9
5.4

3.4
4.4
5.0
4.4
3.7
3.3

8.2
9.1
9.9
9.5
8.9
8.0

1994: Jan ........
Feb ........
Mar .......
Apr ........
May .......
June ......

6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.1
6.1

6.9
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.2
6.0

20.7
19.7
19.6
20.2
19.9
18.0

6.1
6.0
5.8
5.7
5.4
5.3

6.5
6.4
6.5
6.3
6.1
6.1

16.0
16.5
16.3
18.1
16.2
16.0

5.9
5.7
5.9
5.6
5.4
5.4

18.5
18.2
18.0
19.2
18.1
17.1

5.8
5.7
5.6
5.6
5.3
5.3

11.4
11.3
11.3
10.8
10.6
10.4

13.0
12.7
12.4
11.9
11.7
11.3

6.6
6.4
6.4
6.2
5.9
5.9

4.2
4.3
4.1
3.9
3.7
3.6

9.3
9.5
9.4
9.1
8.9
8.8

July .......
Aug .......
Sept ......
Oct ........
Nov .......
Dec ........

6.1
6.0
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.4

6.3
6.1
5.8
5.7
5.5
5.5

19.4
18.8
18.5
18.1
16.5
18.5

5.5
5.3
5.1
5.0
4.9
4.7

5.9
6.0
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.4

15.9
16.1
15.9
16.0
15.0
15.8

5.3
5.3
5.2
5.0
5.0
4.7

17.7
17.5
17.2
17.1
15.8
17.2

5.3
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.8
4.8

10.3
10.6
10.2
10.4
9.8
9.2

11.2
11.3
10.7
11.1
10.5
9.8

6.0
5.8
5.7
5.5
5.4
5.3

3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.2

7.9
8.8
8.9
8.9
8.7
8.8

1995: Jan ........
Feb ........
Mar .......
Apr ........
May .......
June ......

5.7
5.4
5.5
5.8
5.7
5.6

5.7
5.4
5.4
5.7
5.8
5.5

17.4
19.4
17.0
17.8
18.4
17.4

5.0
4.6
4.7
4.9
5.1
4.8

5.6
5.5
5.5
5.9
5.5
5.7

15.9
15.6
15.2
17.2
16.7
15.2

4.9
4.8
4.9
5.2
4.8
5.0

16.7
17.6
16.1
17.5
17.6
16.4

4.9
4.7
4.7
5.0
5.0
4.8

9.5
9.4
9.2
9.8
9.1
9.8

10.2
10.1
9.8
10.7
9.9
10.6

5.4
5.1
5.2
5.6
5.6
5.4

3.4
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.4
3.4

8.9
8.1
7.6
9.0
8.0
8.4

July .......
Aug .......
Sept ......
Oct ........
Nov .......
Dec ........

5.7
5.6
5.6
5.5
5.6
5.6

5.5
5.6
5.6
5.3
5.7
5.7

18.7
19.7
18.3
19.5
19.0
19.1

4.7
4.8
4.9
4.5
4.9
4.9

5.9
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.5
5.4

17.6
15.5
16.8
14.5
16.8
17.4

5.1
5.0
4.9
5.0
4.8
4.6

18.2
17.7
17.5
17.1
17.9
18.3

4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
5.0
5.0

10.1
10.2
10.2
9.4
8.9
9.3

11.1
11.3
11.3
9.9
9.4
10.2

5.5
5.4
5.5
5.4
5.4
5.5

3.4
3.3
3.5
3.1
3.3
3.1

8.5
7.0
8.0
7.9
7.7
6.6

1 Unemployed

as percent of civilian labor force in group specified.

2 Data

for 1949 and 1951–54 are for April; 1950, for March.
Note.—Data relate to persons 16 years of age and over.
http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/
See footnote 5 and Note, Table B–31.
Federal Reserve
Bank of St. Louis
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.

324

5.9 ............
8.9 ............

Experienced
wage
and
salary
workers

4.3 ................. ...............
6.8
3.5 ...............

TABLE B–39.—Civilian unemployment rate by demographic characteristic, 1954–95
[Percent; 1 monthly data seasonally adjusted]
White

Year or month

All
civilian
workers

Black and other or black

Males

Females

Total

16–19
years

20
years
and
over

4.8
3.7
3.4
3.6
6.1
4.6
4.8
5.7
4.6
4.7
4.1
3.6
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.5
4.0
4.9
4.5

13.4
11.3
10.5
11.5
15.7
14.0
14.0
15.7
13.7
15.9
14.7
12.9
10.5
10.7
10.1
10.0
13.7
15.1
14.2

4.4
3.3
3.0
3.2
5.5
4.1
4.2
5.1
4.0
3.9
3.4
2.9
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
3.2
4.0
3.6

Total

Total

5.5
4.3
4.2
4.3
6.2
5.3
5.3
6.5
5.5
5.8
5.5
5.0
4.3
4.6
4.3
4.2
5.4
6.3
5.9

Males

16–19
years

20
years
and
over

Total

10.4
9.1
9.7
9.5
12.7
12.0
12.7
14.8
12.8
15.1
14.9
14.0
12.1
11.5
12.1
11.5
13.4
15.1
14.2

5.1
3.9
3.7
3.8
5.6
4.7
4.6
5.7
4.7
4.8
4.6
4.0
3.3
3.8
3.4
3.4
4.4
5.3
4.9

9.9
8.7
8.3
7.9
12.6
10.7
10.2
12.4
10.9
10.8
9.6
8.1
7.3
7.4
6.7
6.4
8.2
9.9
10.0

Total

16–19
years

10.3
8.8
7.9
8.3
13.7
11.5
10.7
12.8
10.9
10.5
8.9
7.4
6.3
6.0
5.6
5.3
7.3
9.1
8.9

14.4
13.4
15.0
18.4
26.8
25.2
24.0
26.8
22.0
27.3
24.3
23.3
21.3
23.9
22.1
21.4
25.0
28.8
29.7

Females
20
years
and
over

16–19
years

20
years
and
over

9.2
8.5
8.9
7.3
10.8
9.4
9.4
11.9
11.0
11.2
10.7
9.2
8.7
9.1
8.3
7.8
9.3
10.9
11.4

20.6
19.2
22.8
20.2
28.4
27.7
24.8
29.2
30.2
34.7
31.6
31.7
31.3
29.6
28.7
27.6
34.5
35.4
38.4

8.4
7.7
7.8
6.4
9.5
8.3
8.3
10.6
9.6
9.4
9.0
7.5
6.6
7.1
6.3
5.8
6.9
8.7
8.8

11.8
11.1
11.3
14.8
14.3
14.9
13.8
13.3
14.0
15.6
17.6
18.6
15.4
14.9
14.2
13.2
11.7
11.4
10.8
11.9
13.0
12.0
11.0
10.2
12.2
12.0
12.7
11.6
11.3
10.8
10.1
10.6
10.4
11.0
10.3
9.7
9.9
10.3
10.4
10.9
9.2
10.4
11.0
10.8
11.5
10.2
8.9
8.7

40.5
36.1
37.4
41.0
41.6
43.4
40.8
39.1
39.8
42.2
47.1
48.2
42.6
39.2
39.2
34.9
32.0
33.0
30.0
36.1
37.2
37.5
32.6
34.3
26.7
30.2
30.3
31.0
35.0
32.6
32.7
31.9
33.4
39.1
34.1
35.0
37.1
32.4
30.7
35.8
30.5
36.8
36.3
38.9
39.7
32.6
29.8
30.4

9.0
8.6
8.8
12.2
11.7
12.3
11.2
10.9
11.9
13.4
15.4
16.5
13.5
13.1
12.4
11.6
10.4
9.8
9.6
10.5
11.7
10.6
9.8
8.6
11.3
10.9
11.7
10.5
10.0
9.5
8.8
9.4
9.0
9.2
8.9
8.3
8.5
9.0
9.1
9.3
7.8
8.7
9.4
9.0
9.5
8.8
7.5
7.2

Total

Black and other
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................

5.5
4.4
4.1
4.3
6.8
5.5
5.5
6.7
5.5
5.7
5.2
4.5
3.8
3.8
3.6
3.5
4.9
5.9
5.6

5.0
3.9
3.6
3.8
6.1
4.8
5.0
6.0
4.9
5.0
4.6
4.1
3.4
3.4
3.2
3.1
4.5
5.4
5.1

9.9
8.4
7.4
7.6
12.7
10.5
9.6
11.7
10.0
9.2
7.7
6.0
4.9
4.3
3.9
3.7
5.6
7.3
6.9
Black

1972 .........................
1973 .........................
1974 .........................
1975 .........................
1976 .........................
1977 .........................
1978 .........................
1979 .........................
1980 .........................
1981 .........................
1982 .........................
1983 .........................
1984 .........................
1985 .........................
1986 .........................
1987 .........................
1988 .........................
1989 .........................
1990 .........................
1991 .........................
1992 .........................
1993 .........................
1994 .........................
1995 .........................
1994: Jan ..................
Feb ..................
Mar .................
Apr ..................
May .................
June ................
July .................
Aug .................
Sept ................
Oct ..................
Nov ..................
Dec ..................
1995: Jan ..................
Feb ..................
Mar .................
Apr ..................
May .................
June ................
July .................
Aug .................
Sept ................
Oct ..................
Nov ..................
Dec ..................

5.6
4.9
5.6
8.5
7.7
7.1
6.1
5.8
7.1
7.6
9.7
9.6
7.5
7.2
7.0
6.2
5.5
5.3
5.5
6.7
7.4
6.8
6.1
5.6
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.0
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.4
5.7
5.4
5.5
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.7
5.6
5.6
5.5
5.6
5.6

5.1
4.3
5.0
7.8
7.0
6.2
5.2
5.1
6.3
6.7
8.6
8.4
6.5
6.2
6.0
5.3
4.7
4.5
4.7
6.0
6.5
6.0
5.3
4.9
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.6
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.8
4.8
4.9
4.7
4.7
5.0
5.0
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
5.0
5.0

4.5
3.8
4.4
7.2
6.4
5.5
4.6
4.5
6.1
6.5
8.8
8.8
6.4
6.1
6.0
5.4
4.7
4.5
4.8
6.4
6.9
6.2
5.4
4.9
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.8
5.4
5.3
5.4
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.8
4.9
5.0
4.7
4.8
5.0
5.2
4.9
4.7
4.9
4.9
4.8
5.2
5.0

14.2
12.3
13.5
18.3
17.3
15.0
13.5
13.9
16.2
17.9
21.7
20.2
16.8
16.5
16.3
15.5
13.9
13.7
14.2
17.5
18.4
17.6
16.3
15.6
18.0
16.9
16.8
18.3
17.0
15.1
16.1
15.4
16.2
15.2
14.3
16.0
15.0
16.1
14.7
15.3
15.2
14.5
14.6
15.7
16.0
17.6
16.8
16.0

3.6
3.0
3.5
6.2
5.4
4.7
3.7
3.6
5.3
5.6
7.8
7.9
5.7
5.4
5.3
4.8
4.1
3.9
4.3
5.7
6.3
5.6
4.8
4.3
5.2
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.7
4.7
4.8
4.6
4.4
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.4
4.0
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.3
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.0
4.5
4.3

5.9
5.3
6.1
8.6
7.9
7.3
6.2
5.9
6.5
6.9
8.3
7.9
6.5
6.4
6.1
5.2
4.7
4.5
4.6
5.5
6.0
5.7
5.2
4.8
5.6
5.5
5.5
5.4
5.2
5.3
5.2
5.2
5.1
4.9
4.8
4.7
4.8
4.6
4.7
5.1
4.9
4.8
5.0
4.8
4.7
4.9
4.9
4.9


1 Unemployed
as percent of civilian labor force in group specified.
http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/
Note.—See Note, Table B–38.
Source: Department
of St.
Labor,Louis
Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Federal Reserve
Bank of

14.2
13.0
14.5
17.4
16.4
15.9
14.4
14.0
14.8
16.6
19.0
18.3
15.2
14.8
14.9
13.4
12.3
11.5
12.6
15.2
15.7
14.6
13.8
13.4
14.1
14.4
14.2
15.9
13.7
13.6
13.1
13.7
13.3
13.5
12.6
13.2
13.1
13.1
12.4
13.8
14.3
11.6
15.0
12.1
13.3
12.0
15.0
15.4

325

4.9
4.3
5.1
7.5
6.8
6.2
5.2
5.0
5.6
5.9
7.3
6.9
5.8
5.7
5.4
4.6
4.1
4.0
4.1
4.9
5.4
5.1
4.6
4.3
5.0
4.9
4.9
4.7
4.6
4.7
4.7
4.6
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.1
4.3
4.1
4.2
4.5
4.3
4.4
4.4
4.3
4.1
4.4
4.2
4.3

10.4
9.4
10.5
14.8
14.0
14.0
12.8
12.3
14.3
15.6
18.9
19.5
15.9
15.1
14.5
13.0
11.7
11.4
11.3
12.4
14.1
12.9
11.5
10.4
13.0
12.7
12.4
11.9
11.7
11.3
11.2
11.3
10.7
11.1
10.5
9.8
10.2
10.1
9.8
10.7
9.9
10.6
11.1
11.3
11.3
9.9
9.4
10.2

9.3
8.0
9.8
14.8
13.7
13.3
11.8
11.4
14.5
15.7
20.1
20.3
16.4
15.3
14.8
12.7
11.7
11.5
11.8
12.9
15.2
13.8
12.0
10.6
13.9
13.5
12.2
12.3
12.2
11.9
12.4
12.1
11.0
11.2
10.6
9.9
10.6
9.9
9.1
10.5
10.7
10.9
11.2
11.9
11.1
9.5
9.8
11.9

31.7
27.8
33.1
38.1
37.5
39.2
36.7
34.2
37.5
40.7
48.9
48.8
42.7
41.0
39.3
34.4
32.7
31.9
32.1
36.5
42.0
40.1
37.6
37.1
39.3
39.9
38.6
39.7
40.9
39.3
41.4
39.9
30.8
35.9
32.0
34.3
34.0
38.7
31.7
35.4
40.0
38.7
41.6
46.3
32.7
33.6
32.0
40.6

7.0
6.0
7.4
12.5
11.4
10.7
9.3
9.3
12.4
13.5
17.8
18.1
14.3
13.2
12.9
11.1
10.1
10.0
10.4
11.5
13.4
12.1
10.3
8.8
12.2
11.8
10.4
10.5
10.3
10.0
10.4
10.2
9.8
9.5
9.2
8.3
9.2
7.9
7.8
8.9
8.8
9.0
9.1
9.4
9.6
7.9
8.2
9.9

TABLE B–40.—Unemployment by duration and reason, 1950–95
[ Thousands of persons, except as noted; monthly data seasonally adjusted 1 ]
Duration of unemployment
Year or month

1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959

Unemployment

Less
than
5
weeks

5–14
weeks

Reason for unemployment
Job losers 3

15–26
weeks

27
weeks
and
over

Average
(mean)
duration
(weeks)

Median
duration
(weeks)

Total

On
layoff

Other

Job
leavers

Reentrants

New
entrants

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

3,288
2,055
1,883
1,834
3,532
2,852
2,750
2,859
4,602
3,740

1,450
1,177
1,135
1,142
1,605
1,335
1,412
1,408
1,753
1,585

1,055
574
516
482
1,116
815
805
891
1,396
1,114

425
166
148
132
495
366
301
321
785
469

357
137
84
78
317
336
232
239
667
571

12.1
9.7
8.4
8.0
11.8
13.0
11.3
10.5
13.9
14.4

............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

1960 .............................
1961 .............................
1962 .............................
1963 .............................
1964 .............................
1965 .............................
1966 .............................
1967 2 ..........................
1968 .............................
1969 .............................

3,852
4,714
3,911
4,070
3,786
3,366
2,875
2,975
2,817
2,832

1,719
1,806
1,663
1,751
1,697
1,628
1,573
1,634
1,594
1,629

1,176
1,376
1,134
1,231
1,117
983
779
893
810
827

503
728
534
535
491
404
287
271
256
242

454
804
585
553
482
351
239
177
156
133

12.8
15.6
14.7
14.0
13.3
11.8
10.4
8.7
8.4
7.8

............
............
............
............
............
............
............
2.3
4.5
4.4

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
1,229
1,070
1,017

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
394
334
339

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
836
736
678

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
438
431
436

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
945
909
965

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
396
407
413

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

4,093
5,016
4,882
4,365
5,156
7,929
7,406
6,991
6,202
6,137

2,139
2,245
2,242
2,224
2,604
2,940
2,844
2,919
2,865
2,950

1,290
1,585
1,472
1,314
1,597
2,484
2,196
2,132
1,923
1,946

428
668
601
483
574
1,303
1,018
913
766
706

235
519
566
343
381
1,203
1,348
1,028
648
535

8.6
11.3
12.0
10.0
9.8
14.2
15.8
14.3
11.9
10.8

4.9
6.3
6.2
5.2
5.2
8.4
8.2
7.0
5.9
5.4

1,811
2,323
2,108
1,694
2,242
4,386
3,679
3,166
2,585
2,635

675
735
582
472
746
1,671
1,050
865
712
851

1,137
1,588
1,526
1,221
1,495
2,714
2,628
2,300
1,873
1,784

550
590
641
683
768
827
903
909
874
880

1,228
1,472
1,456
1,340
1,463
1,892
1,928
1,963
1,857
1,806

504
630
677
649
681
823
895
953
885
817

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

7,637
8,273
10,678
10,717
8,539
8,312
8,237
7,425
6,701
6,528

3,295
3,449
3,883
3,570
3,350
3,498
3,448
3,246
3,084
3,174

2,470
2,539
3,311
2,937
2,451
2,509
2,557
2,196
2,007
1,978

1,052
1,122
1,708
1,652
1,104
1,025
1,045
943
801
730

820
1,162
1,776
2,559
1,634
1,280
1,187
1,040
809
646

11.9
13.7
15.6
20.0
18.2
15.6
15.0
14.5
13.5
11.9

6.5
6.9
8.7
10.1
7.9
6.8
6.9
6.5
5.9
4.8

3,947
4,267
6,268
6,258
4,421
4,139
4,033
3,566
3,092
2,983

1,488
1,430
2,127
1,780
1,171
1,157
1,090
943
851
850

2,459
2,837
4,141
4,478
3,250
2,982
2,943
2,623
2,241
2,133

891
923
840
830
823
877
1,015
965
983
1,024

1,927
2,102
2,384
2,412
2,184
2,256
2,160
1,974
1,809
1,843

872
981
1,185
1,216
1,110
1,039
1,029
920
816
677

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................

6,874
8,426
9,384
8,734
7,996
7,404

3,169
3,380
3,270
3,160
2,728
2,700

2,201
2,724
2,760
2,522
2,408
2,342

809
1,225
1,424
1,274
1,237
1,085

695
1,098
1,930
1,778
1,623
1,278

12.1
13.8
17.9
18.1
18.8
16.6

5.4
6.9
8.8
8.4
9.2
8.3

3,322
4,608
5,291
4,769
3,815
3,476

1,018
1,279
1,246
1,104
977
1,030

2,305
3,329
4,045
3,664
2,838
2,446

1,014
979
975
946
791
824

1,883
2,087
2,228
2,145
2,786
2,525

654
753
890
874
604
579

1994: Jan .....................
Feb .....................
Mar ....................
Apr .....................
May ....................
June ...................

8,740
8,576
8,546
8,385
7,996
7,903

3,319
2,677
2,749
2,772
2,651
2,754

2,351
2,670
2,574
2,482
2,461
2,452

1,308
1,318
1,264
1,237
1,160
1,193

1,738
1,748
1,792
1,735
1,693
1,547

18.4
18.8
19.2
19.1
19.4
18.4

8.5
8.9
9.1
9.2
9.2
9.1

4,395
4,163
4,068
3,880
3,640
3,734

1,149
1,091
1,011
979
811
931

3,246
3,072
3,057
2,901
2,829
2,803

817
852
823
810
796
788

2,824
2,936
2,989
3,164
2,863
2,785

644
636
630
679
611
498

July .....................
Aug .....................
Sept ...................
Oct .....................
Nov .....................
Dec .....................

7,993
7,889
7,647
7,505
7,315
7,155

2,768
2,655
2,675
2,434
2,599
2,587

2,365
2,572
2,294
2,256
2,163
2,149

1,234
1,198
1,213
1,344
1,187
1,088

1,589
1,575
1,555
1,590
1,474
1,368

19.0
18.9
18.8
19.3
18.2
17.8

9.2
9.2
9.5
10.1
9.1
8.7

3,863
3,706
3,574
3,513
3,495
3,442

1,031
1,012
824
848
881
930

2,832
2,694
2,750
2,665
2,614
2,512

770
786
874
755
710
704

2,766
2,758
2,620
2,626
2,575
2,525

594
621
600
614
578
555

1995: Jan .....................
Feb .....................
Mar ....................
Apr .....................
May ....................
June ...................

7,498
7,183
7,237
7,665
7,492
7,384

2,937
2,600
2,523
2,629
2,598
2,742

2,122
2,165
2,319
2,430
2,304
2,348

1,033
1,090
920
1,115
1,282
1,096

1,353
1,207
1,347
1,390
1,303
1,203

16.7
16.9
17.5
17.7
16.9
15.6

7.9
7.8
7.9
8.5
9.0
7.5

3,658
3,339
3,352
3,532
3,614
3,423

1,061
1,025
1,032
1,145
958
1,066

2,598
2,314
2,320
2,387
2,657
2,357

694
773
811
817
870
834

2,488
2,474
2,430
2,779
2,458
2,526

597
582
604
637
522
540

July .....................
Aug .....................
Sept ...................
Oct .....................
Nov .....................
Dec .....................

7,559
7,431
7,451
7,249
7,432
7,380

2,600
2,713
2,868
2,740
2,812
2,712

2,621
2,434
2,272
2,348
2,376
2,434

1,023
1,150
1,071
1,068
1,048
1,082

1,297
1,230
1,281
1,228
1,249
1,224

16.5
16.3
16.3
16.2
16.5
16.2

9.1
8.7
8.0
8.1
7.9
8.2

3,615
3,426
3,367
3,452
3,516
3,495

1,184
1,036
874
972
1,062
1,001

2,431
2,390
2,492
2,480
2,455
2,494

832
871
887
753
856
937

2,593
2,537
2,578
2,502
2,509
2,431

571
574
614
550
573
609

1 Because

of independent seasonal adjustment of the various series, detail will not add to totals.
for 1967 by reason for unemployment are not equal to total unemployment.
January 1994, job losers and persons who completed temporary jobs.

Note.—Data relate to persons 16 years of age and over.
http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/
See footnote 5 and Note, Table B–31.
Source: Department
of St.
Labor,Louis
Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Federal Reserve
Bank of
2 Data

3 Beginning

326

TABLE B–41.—Unemployment insurance programs, selected data, 1963–95
All programs
Insured
unemployment
(weekly
average) 2 3

State programs
Total
benefits
paid
(millions
of
dollars) 2 4

Year or month

Covered
employment 1

1963 ..................................
1964 ..................................
1965 ..................................
1966 ..................................
1967 ..................................
1968 ..................................
1969 ..................................
1970 ..................................
1971 ..................................
1972 ..................................
1973 ..................................
1974 ..................................
1975 ..................................
1976 ..................................
1977 ..................................
1978 ..................................
1979 ..................................
1980 ..................................
1981 ..................................
1982 ..................................
1983 ..................................
1984 ..................................
1985 ..................................
1986 ..................................
1987 ..................................
1988 ..................................
1989 ..................................
1990 ..................................
1991 ..................................
1992 ..................................
1993 ..................................
1994 ..................................
1995 p ...............................

48,434
49,637
51,580
54,739
56,342
57,977
59,999
59,526
59,375
66,458
69,897
72,451
71,037
73,459
76,419
88,804
92,062
92,659
93,300
91,628
91,898
96,474
99,186
101,099
103,936
107,157
109,925
111,498
109,613
110,167
112,147
8 115,255
.................

7 1,973

1,753
1,450
1,129
1,270
1,187
1,177
2,070
2,608
2,192
1,793
2,558
4,937
3,846
3,308
2,645
2,592
3,837
3,410
4,592
3,774
2,560
2,699
2,739
2,369
2,135
2,205
2,575
3,406
3,348
2,845
2,746
2,641

3,026
2,749
2,360
1,891
2,222
2,191
2,299
4,209
6,154
5,491
4,517
6,934
16,802
12,345
10,999
9,007
9,401
16,175
15,287
24,491
21,000
13,838
15,283
16,670
14,929
13,694
14,948
18,721
26,717
9 26,460
9 22,950
22,844
21,909

1994: Jan ..........................
Feb ..........................
Mar .........................
Apr ..........................
May .........................
June ........................
July ..........................
Aug ..........................
Sept .........................
Oct ..........................
Nov ..........................
Dec ..........................
1995: Jan ..........................
Feb ..........................
Mar .........................
Apr ..........................
May .........................
June ........................
July ..........................
Aug ..........................
Sept .........................
Oct ..........................
Nov ..........................
Dec p .......................

.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................
.................

3,521
3,517
3,406
2,880
2,631
2,638
2,581
2,579
2,185
2,205
2,344
2,515
3,283
3,182
2,957
2,728
2,481
2,402
2,638
2,465
2,201
2,297
2,427
2,674

2,281.1
2,292.7
2,547.5
1,961.8
1,811.5
1,856.1
1,691.0
1,849.0
1,522.6
1,427.2
1,585.3
1,768.3
2,220.9
2,098.0
2,317.2
1,788.4
1,815.7
1,718.3
1,723.0
1,807.5
1,483.5
1,567.1
1,670.6
1,822.0

Thousands

Insured
unemployment

Initial
claims

Exhaustions 5

Insured
unemployment as
percent
of
covered
employment

Benefits paid
Total
(millions
of
dollars) 4

Average
weekly
check
(dollars) 6

4.3
3.8
3.0
2.3
2.5
2.2
2.1
3.4
4.1
3.5
2.7
3.5
6.0
4.6
3.9
3.3
2.9
3.9
3.5
4.6
3.9
2.8
2.9
2.8
2.4
2.0
2.1
2.4
3.2
3.1
2.6
2.5
2.3

2,775
2,522
2,166
1,771
2,092
2,032
2,128
3,849
4,957
4,471
4,008
5,975
11,755
8,975
8,357
7,717
8,613
13,761
13,262
20,649
17,787
12,610
14,131
15,329
13,607
12,565
13,760
17,356
24,526
23,869
20,539
20,401
19,700

35.27
35.92
37.19
39.75
41.25
43.43
46.17
50.34
54.02
56.76
59.00
64.25
70.23
75.16
78.79
83.67
89.67
98.95
106.70
119.34
123.59
123.47
128.14
135.65
140.55
144.97
151.73
161.56
169.88
173.64
179.62
182.16
187.30

2.6
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4

2,170.7
2,195.4
2,458.9
1,891.6
1,743.9
1,770.7
1,610.8
1,757.1
1,459.8
1,366.0
1,517.6
1,700.8
2,146.9
2,030.4
2,244.1
1,730.0
1,753.0
1,660.4
1,668.0
1,745.9
1,430.5
1,508.1
1,604.3
1,756.8

181.46
183.95
183.72
183.68
182.45
181.44
179.80
178.61
181.76
182.40
181.70
183.91
186.19
189.50
189.92
188.46
187.64
186.74
184.92
183.31
186.58
187.48
187.07
188.95

Weekly average; thousands
7 1,806

7 298

1,605
1,328
1,061
1,205
1,111
1,101
1,805
2,150
1,848
1,632
2,262
3,986
2,991
2,655
2,359
2,434
3,350
3,047
4,059
3,395
2,475
2,617
2,643
2,300
2,081
2,158
2,522
3,342
3,245
2,751
2,670
2,575
**
2,737
2,794
2,739
2,713
2,743
2,745
2,717
2,667
2,614
2,569
2,531
2,533
2,515
2,518
2,498
2,488
2,552
2,633
2,685
2,626
2,613
2,658
2,634
2,665

268
232
203
226
201
200
296
295
261
247
363
478
386
375
346
388
488
460
583
438
377
397
378
328
310
330
388
447
408
341
340
356
**
368
351
340
349
365
350
348
328
323
328
329
326
335
338
342
352
374
377
375
342
351
362
374
365

30
26
21
15
17
16
16
25
39
35
29
37
81
63
55
39
39
59
57
80
80
50
49
52
46
38
37
45
67
74
62
57
51
**
64
60
61
64
60
59
60
57
49
51
51
50
57
52
52
57
52
49
54
50
45
48
48
50

** Monthly data are seasonally adjusted.
1 Includes persons under the State, UCFE (Federal employee, effective January 1955), RRB (Railroad Retirement Board) programs, and UCX
(unemployment compensation for ex-servicemembers, effective October 1958) programs.
2 Includes State, UCFE, RR, UCX, UCV (unemployment compensation for veterans, October 1952–January 1960), and SRA (Servicemen’s Readjustment Act, September 1944–September 1951) programs. Also includes Federal and State extended benefit programs. Does not include
FSB (Federal supplemental benefits), SUA (special unemployment assistance), Federal Supplemental Compensation, and Emergency Unemployment Compensation programs, except as noted in footnote 9.
3 Covered workers who have completed at least 1 week of unemployment.
4 Annual data are net amounts and monthly data are gross amounts.
5 Individuals receiving final payments in benefit year.
6 For total unemployment only.
7 Programs include Puerto Rican sugarcane workers for initial claims and insured unemployment beginning July 1963.
8 Latest data available for all programs combined. Workers covered by State programs account for about 97 percent of wage and salary
earners.
9 Including

Emergency Unemployment Compensation and Federal Supplemental Compensation, total benefits paid for 1992 and 1993 would
be approximately (in millions of dollars): for 1992, 39,990 and for 1993, 34,876.
http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/
Source: Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration.

Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

327

TABLE B–42.—Employees on nonagricultural payrolls, by major industry, 1946–95
[Thousands of persons; monthly data seasonally adjusted]
Goods-producing industries
Year or month

Manufacturing

Total
Total

Mining

Construction

Total

Durable
goods

Nondurable goods

1946
1947
1948
1949

...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................

41,652
43,857
44,866
43,754

17,248
18,509
18,774
17,565

862
955
994
930

1,683
2,009
2,198
2,194

14,703
15,545
15,582
14,441

7,785
8,358
8,298
7,462

6,918
7,187
7,285
6,979

1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959

...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................

45,197
47,819
48,793
50,202
48,990
50,641
52,369
52,855
51,322
53,270

18,506
19,959
20,198
21,074
19,751
20,513
21,104
20,967
19,513
20,411

901
929
898
866
791
792
822
828
751
732

2,364
2,637
2,668
2,659
2,646
2,839
3,039
2,962
2,817
3,004

15,241
16,393
16,632
17,549
16,314
16,882
17,243
17,176
15,945
16,675

8,066
9,059
9,320
10,080
9,101
9,511
9,802
9,825
8,801
9,342

7,175
7,334
7,313
7,468
7,213
7,370
7,442
7,351
7,144
7,333

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................

54,189
53,999
55,549
56,653
58,283
60,763
63,901
65,803
67,897
70,384

20,434
19,857
20,451
20,640
21,005
21,926
23,158
23,308
23,737
24,361

712
672
650
635
634
632
627
613
606
619

2,926
2,859
2,948
3,010
3,097
3,232
3,317
3,248
3,350
3,575

16,796
16,326
16,853
16,995
17,274
18,062
19,214
19,447
19,781
20,167

9,429
9,041
9,450
9,586
9,785
10,374
11,250
11,408
11,594
11,862

7,367
7,285
7,403
7,410
7,489
7,688
7,963
8,039
8,187
8,304

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................

70,880
71,211
73,675
76,790
78,265
76,945
79,382
82,471
86,697
89,823

23,578
22,935
23,668
24,893
24,794
22,600
23,352
24,346
25,585
26,461

623
609
628
642
697
752
779
813
851
958

3,588
3,704
3,889
4,097
4,020
3,525
3,576
3,851
4,229
4,463

19,367
18,623
19,151
20,154
20,077
18,323
1