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Social Scientists
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Reprinted from the
Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1992-93 Edition
U.S. Department of Labor
Bureau of Labor Statistics
Bulletin 2400-5


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Social Scientists and Urban Planners
Nature of the Work
Social scientists study all aspects of human society—from the distri­
bution of products and services to newly formed religious groups or
plans for modern mass transportation systems. Social science
research provides insights that help us understand the many different
ways in which individuals and groups make decisions, exercise
power, or respond to change. Through their studies and analyses,
social scientists and urban planners assist educators, government offi­
cials, business leaders, and others in solving social, economic, and
environmental problems.
Research is a basic activity for many social scientists. They use
established or newly discovered methods to assemble facts and theo­
ry that contribute to human knowledge. Applied research usually is
designed to produce information that will enable people to make bet­
ter decisions or manage their affairs more effectively. Interviews and
surveys are widely used to collect facts, opinions, or other informa­
tion. Data collection takes many other forms, however, including liv­
ing and working among the people studied; archaeological and other
field investigations; the analysis of historical records and documents;
experiments with human subjects or animals in a psychological labo­
ratory; the administration of standardized tests and questionnaires;
and the preparation and interpretation of maps and graphic materials.
Social sciences are interdisciplinary in nature. Specialists in one
field often find that the research they are performing overlaps work
that is being conducted in another social science discipline. Regard­
less of their field of specialization, social scientists are concerned
with some aspect of society, culture, or personality.
Anthropologists seek to discover principles of human behavior that
are applicable to all communities. They study the way of life,
remains, language, and physical characteristics of people in all parts
of the world; they compare the customs, values, and social patterns of
different cultures. Anthropologists generally concentrate in one of
four subfields: Sociocultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics,
or biological-physical anthropology. Most anthropologists specialize
in sociocultural anthropology, studying the customs, cultures, and
social lives of groups in a wide range of settings from nonindustrialized societies to modern urban cultures. Archaeologists study the
remains and artifacts of earlier cultures to determine their history,
customs, and living habits. Linguistic anthropologists study the role
of language in various cultures. Biological-physical anthropologists
study the evolution of the human body and look for the earliest evi­
dences of human life.
Economists and marketing research analysts, who account for
nearly 1 out of 6 social scientists, study the way we allocate our
resources to produce a wide variety of goods and services. They con­
duct surveys and analyze data to determine public preferences for
these goods and services. Most economists are concerned with the
practical applications of economic policy in a particular area, such as
finance, labor, agriculture, transportation, energy, or health. Others
develop theories to explain economic phenomena such as unemploy­
ment or inflation.
Geographers study the distribution of both physical and cultural
phenomena at local, regional, continental, and global scales. Geogra­
phers specialize, as a rule. Economic geographers study the areal dis­
tribution of resources and economic activities. Political geographers
are concerned with the relationship of geography to political phenom­
ena—local, national, and international. Physical geographers study
the distribution of climates, vegetation, soil, and land forms. Urban
and transportation geographers study cities and metropolitan areas,
while regional geographers study the physical, climatic, economic,
political, and cultural characteristics of regions, ranging in size from
a congressional district, to a State, country, continent, or the entire
world. Medical geographers study health care delivery systems, epi­
demiology, and the effect of the environment on health. Geographic

2

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Information Systems (GIS)—a relatively new specialty—combines
computer graphics, artificial intelligence, and high-speed communi­
cation to store, retrieve, manipulate, analyze, and map geographic
data. GIS is used in many specialties, including weather forecasting,
emergency management, and resource analysis and management.
(Some occupational classification systems include geographers under
physical scientists rather than social scientists.)
Historians research and analyze the past. Historians usually spe­
cialize in a specific country or region; in a particular time period; or
in a particular field, such as social, intellectual, political, or diplomat­
ic history. Biographers collect detailed information on individuals.
Genealogists trace family histories. Other historians help study and
preserve archives, artifacts, and historic buildings and sites.
Political scientists investigate the ways in which political power is
organized, distributed, and used. They study a wide range of subjects
such as Soviet-American relations, the beliefs and institutions of
nations in Asia and Africa, the politics of a New England town or a
major metropolis, and the decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court.
Studying topics such as public opinion, political decisionmaking, and
ideology, they analyze the structure and operation of governments as
well as informal political entities. Depending on the topic under
study, a political scientist might conduct a public opinion survey, ana­
lyze election results, or analyze public documents.
Psychologists, who constitute over half of all social scientists,
study human behavior and use their expertise to counsel or advise
individuals or groups. Their research also assists advertisers, politi­
cians, and others interested in influencing or motivating people.
While clinical psychology is the largest specialty, psychologists spe­
cialize in many other fields such as counseling, experimental, social,
or industrial psychology.
Sociologists analyze the behavior of groups or social systems such
as families, neighborhoods, or clubs. Sociologists may specialize in a
particular field such as criminology, rural sociology, or medical soci­
ology.
Urban and regional planners develop comprehensive plans and
programs for the use of land for industrial and public sites. Planners
prepare for situations that are likely to develop as a result of popula­
tion growth or social and economic change.
Working Conditions
Most social scientists have regular hours. While working alone
behind a desk, they read and write research reports. Many experience
the pressures of deadlines and tight schedules, and sometimes must
work overtime. Social scientists often work as an intergral part of a
research team. Their routine may be interrupted by telephone calls,
letters to answer, special requests for information, meetings, or con­
ferences. Travel may be necessary to collect information or attend
meetings. Social scientists on foreign assignment must adjust to unfa­
miliar cultures and climates.
Some social scientists do fieldwork. For example, anthropologists,
archaeologists, and geographers often must travel to remote areas to
live among the people they study or stay for long periods at the site of
their investigations. They may work under primitive conditions, and
their work may involve digging, lifting, and carrying heavy objects.
Employment
Social scientists held about 224,000 jobs in 1990. They worked for a
wide range of employers, including government agencies; research
organizations and consulting firms; international organizations; asso­
ciations; museums; historical societies; securities and commodities
dealers; social service agencies; hospitals and other health facilities;
and business firms.
About 3 out of 10 social scientists are self-employed and involved
in counseling, consulting, research, and related activities. In addition,

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many persons with graduate training, usually a doctoral degree, in a
social science discipline are employed by colleges and universities,
where they characteristically combine teaching with research and
consulting. (For more information, see the Handbook statement on
college and university faculty.) As a source of employment, the aca­
demic world is more important for graduates in anthropology, sociol­
ogy, or political science than for graduates in urban and regional
planning or psychology.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
Educational attainment among social scientists is significantly higher
than for most other occupations. The Ph.D. or equivalent degree is a
minimum requirement for most positions in colleges and universities
and is important for advancement to many top-level nonacademic
research and administrative posts. Graduates with master’s degrees
generally have better professional opportunities outside of colleges
and universities, although the situation varies by field. For example,
job prospects for master’s degree holders in urban and regional plan­
ning are brighter than for master’s degree holders in sociology. Grad­
uates with a master’s degree in a social science discipline qualify for
teaching positions in junior colleges. Bachelor’s degree holders have
very limited opportunities and in most social science occupations do
not qualify for “professional” positions. The bachelor’s degree does,
however, provide a suitable background for many different kinds of
“junior professional” jobs, such as research assistant, administrative
aide, or management trainee.
Training in statistics and mathematics is essential for most social
scientists. Mathematical and other quantitative research methods are
increasingly used in economics, geography, political science, experi­
mental psychology, and other fields. The ability to use computers for
research purposes is a “must” in many disciplines.
Depending on their jobs, social scientists and urban planners may
need a wide range of personal characteristics. Because they constant­
ly seek new information about people, things, and ideas, intellectual
curiosity and creativity are two fundamental personal traits. The abili­
ty to think logically and methodically is important to a political scien­
tist comparing the merits of various forms of government. The ability
to analyze data is important to an economist studying proposals to
reduce Federal budget deficits. Objectivity, openmindedness, and sys­
tematic work habits are important in all kinds of social science
research. Perseverance is essential for an anthropologist, who might
spend years accumulating artifacts from an ancient civilization. Emo­
tional stability and sensitivity are vital to a clinical psychologist
working with mental patients. And, of course, written and oral com­
munication skills are essential to all these workers.
Job Outlook
Employment of social scientists is expected to grow much faster than
the average for all occupations through the year 2005, spurred pri­
marily by rapid growth among psychologists —the largest social sci­
ence occupation. Economists and marketing research analysts and
urban and regional planners should experience average growth, while
all other social scientists combined, including anthropologists, geog­
raphers, historians, political scientists, and sociologists, will experi­
ence slower than average growth. Most job openings will result from
the need to replace social scientists who transfer to other occupations
or stop working altogether.
Opportunities are best for those with advanced degrees. Social sci­
entists currently face competition for academic positions. However,
competition may ease in the future due to the wave of retirements
expected among college and university faculty.
Prospects are generally better in disciplines such as economics,
psychology, and urban and regional planning, which offer many
opportunities in nonacademic settings. However, graduates in all
other social science fields are expected to find enhanced job opportu­
nities in applied fields due to the excellent research, organizational,
and quantitative skills they develop in school. Many graduates find
employment in associations, financial instititions, health organiza­
tions, research firms, and government agencies. The growing number
of historical societies has renewed demand for historians as curators,
directors, and archivists. Rising concern over environmental and eco­


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logical issues is spurring demand for geographers, anthropologists,
archaeologists, and other social scientists. Increasing emphasis on
international competition is creating demand for anthropolgists and
archaeologists to study and evaluate cultural diversities. Rising
importance of social science subjects in secondary schools is
strengthening the demand for social science teachers at this level.
(For additional information, see the statement on secondary school
teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Other considerations that affect employment opportunities in these
occupations include specific skills and technical expertise; desired
work setting; salary requirements; and geographic mobility. In addi­
tion, experience acquired through internships can prove invaluable
later in obtaining a full-time position in a social science field.
Earnings
Median annual earnings of all social scientists were about $31,400 in
1990. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,000 and $51,800
annually. The lowest 10 percent earned under $16,200, while the
highest 10 percent earned over $67,800.
According to the College Placement Council, persons with a bach­
elor’s degree in a social science field received starting offers averag­
ing about $24,200 a year in 1990.
According to a 1989 National Science Foundation survey, the medi­
an annual salary of doctoral social scientists was $50,400.
In the Federal Government, social scientists with a bachelor’s
degree and no experience could start at $17,000 or $21,000 a year in
1991, depending on their college records. Those with a master’s
degree could start at $25,700, and those having a Ph.D. degree could
begin at $31,100, while some individuals could start at $37,300. The
average salary of all social scientists working for the Federal Govern­
ment in 1991 was about $46,200.
Like many professional occupations, social scientists often receive
a fringe benefit package which includes vacation and sick leave,
health and life insurance, and pension plans. For those entering aca­
demic careers, benefits may include summer research money, com­
puter access, housing, and secretarial support.
Related Occupations
A number of fields that require training and personal qualities similar
to those of the various social science fields are covered elsewhere in
the Handbook. These include lawyers, statisticians, mathematicians,
computer programmers, computer systems analysts, reporters and
correspondents, social workers, religious workers, college and uni­
versity faculty, and counselors.
Sources of Additional Information
More detailed information about economists and marketing research
analysts, psychologists, sociologists, and urban and regional planners
is presented in the Handbook statements that follow this introductory
statement.
Anthropology
For information about careers, job openings, grants and fellowships,
and schools that offer training in anthropology, and for a copy of Get­
ting a Job Outside the Academy (special publication no. 14), contact:
The American Anthropological Association, 1703 New Hampshire Ave.
NW., Washington, DC 20009.

Archaeology
For information about careers in archaeology, contact:
«■ Society for American Archaeology, 808 17th St. NW., Suite 200, Washing­
ton, DC 20006.
» Archaeological Institute of America, 675 Commonwealth Ave., Boston,
MA 02215.

Geography
Two pamphlets that provide information on careers and job open­
ings for geographers—Geography-Today's Career for Tomorrow and
Careers in Geography—and the annual publication listing schools
offering various programs in geography—A Guide to Programs of
Geography in the U.S. and Canada—may be obtained from:
«■ Association of American Geographers, 1710 16th St. NW., Washington,
DC 20009.

History
Information on careers and job openings for historians is available
from:

3

*■ American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE., Washington, DC 20003.

General information on careers for historians is available from:
•" Organization of American Historians, 112 North Bryan St., Blooming­
ton, IN 47408.

For additional information on careers for historians, send a selfaddressed, stamped envelope to:
•* American Association for State and Local History, 172 Second Ave. N.,
Suite 200, Nashville, TN 37201.

Political Science
Information on careers and job openings, including Careers and
the Study of Political Science: A Guide for Undergraduates,
which is available for $2, with bulk rates for multiple copies, may
be purchased from:
•• American Political Science Association, 1527 New Hampshire Ave.
NW„ Washington, DC 20036.

Programs in Public Affairs and Administration, a biennial
directory that contains data on the academic content of programs,
the student body, the format of instruction, and other information,
may be purchased from:
»■ National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration,
1120 G St. NW„ Suite 520, Washington, DC 20005.

Economists and Marketing Research
Analysts
(D.O.T. 050.067)

Nature of the Work
Economists. Economists study the ways a society uses scarce
resources such as land, labor, raw materials, and machinery to
produce goods and services. They analyze the costs and benefits
of distributing and consuming these goods and services.
Economists conduct research, collect and analyze data, monitor
economic trends, and develop forecasts. Their research might
focus on topics such as energy costs, inflation, interest rates, farm
prices, rents, imports, or employment.
Most economists are concerned with practical applications of
economic policy in a particular area, such as finance, labor, agri­
culture, transportation, real estate, energy, or health. They use
their understanding of economic relationships to advise business
firms, insurance companies, banks, securities firms, industry asso­
ciations, labor unions, government agencies, and others. On the
other hand, economists who are primarily theoreticians may use
mathematical models to develop theories on the causes of busi­
ness cycles and inflation or the effects of unemployment and tax
policy.
Depending on the topic under study, economists devise meth­
ods and procedures for obtaining the data they need. For example,
sampling techniques may be used to conduct a survey, and econo­
metric modeling techniques may be used to develop projections.
Preparing reports usually is an important part of the economist’s
job. He or she may be called upon to review and analyze all the
relevant data, prepare tables and charts, and write up the results in
clear, concise language. Being able to present economic and sta­
tistical concepts in a meaningful way is particularly important for
economists whose research is policy directed.
Economists who work for government agencies assess econom­
ic conditions in the United States and abroad and estimate the eco­
nomic impact of specific changes in legislation or public policy.
For example, they may study how the dollar’s fluctuation against
foreign currencies affects import and export markets. Most gov­
ernment economists are in the fields of agriculture, business,
finance, labor, transportation, utilities, urban economics, or inter­
national trade. Economists in the U.S. Department of Commerce
study domestic production, distribution, and consumption of com­
modities or services; those in the Federal Trade Commission pre­
pare industry analyses to assist in enforcing Federal statutes
designed to eliminate unfair, deceptive, or monopolistic practices


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in interstate commerce; and those in the Bureau of Labor Statistics
analyze data on prices, wages, employment, productivity, and safety
and health, among other things.
Marketing Research Analysts. Marketing research analysts are con­
cerned with the design, promotion, price, and distribution of a prod­
uct or service. They provide information which is used to identify and
define marketing opportunities; generate, refine, and evaluate market­
ing actions; and monitor marketing performance. Like economists,
marketing research analysts devise methods and procedures for
obtaining data they need. Marketing research analysts often design
surveys and questionnaires; conduct telephone, personal, or mail
interviews; and sometimes offer product samples to assess consumer
preferences and indicate current trends. Once the data are compiled,
marketing research analysts code, tabulate, and evaluate the data.
They then make recommendations to management based upon their
findings and suggest a course of action. They may provide manage­
ment with information to make decisions on the promotion, distribu­
tion, design, and pricing of company products or services; or to
determine the advisability of adding new lines of merchandise, open­
ing new branches, or diversifying the company’s operations.
Marketing research analysts employed by large organizations often
work with statisticians who help them select a group of people to be
interviewed who will accurately represent the prospective customers.
Under an experienced marketing research analyst’s direction, trained
interviewers conduct surveys and office workers tabulate the results.
Working Conditions
Economists and marketing research analysts working for government
agencies and private firms have structured work schedules. They may
work alone writing reports, preparing statistical charts, and using
computers and calculators. Or they may be an integral part of a
research team. Most work under pressure of deadlines and tight
schedules, and sometimes must work overtime. Their routine may be
interrupted by special requests for data, letters, meetings, or confer­
ences. Travel may be necessary to collect data or attend conferences.
Economics and marketing faculty have flexible work schedules,
dividing their time among teaching, research, consulting, and admin­
istrative responsibilities.
Employment
Economists and marketing research analysts held about 37,000 jobs
in 1990. Private industry—particularly economic and marketing
research firms, management consulting firms, banks, and securities,
investment, and insurance companies—employed over half of all
salaried workers. The remainder, primarily economists, were
employed by a wide range of government agencies, primarily in the
Federal Government. The Departments of State, Labor, Agriculture,
and Commerce are the largest Federal employers of economists. A

Economists and marketing research analysts use sampling and
econometric modeling techniques.

number of economists and marketing research analysts combine a
full-time job in government or business with part-time or consulting
work in another setting.
Employment of economists and marketing research analysts is con­
centrated in large cities—for example, New York City, Washington,
D.C., and Chicago. Some economists work abroad for companies
with major international operations; for the Department of State and
other U.S. Government agencies; and for international organizations,
including the World Bank and the United Nations.
Besides the jobs described above, many economists and marketing
research analysts held economics and marketing faculty positions in
colleges and universities. (For information about this occupation, see
the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the
Handbook.)
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
A bachelor’s degree with a major in economics or marketing is suffi­
cient for many beginning research, administrative, management
trainee, and sales jobs. A strong economics background is recom­
mended. Students can choose from a variety of economics courses,
ranging from microeconomics and macroeconomics, to history of
economic thought or mathematical economics. For marketing majors,
courses in business, marketing, and consumer behavior are recom­
mended. Courses in related disciplines, such as political science, psy­
chology, organizational behavior, sociology, finance, business law,
and international relations, are suggested. Because of the importance
of quantitative skills to economists and marketing researchers, cours­
es in calculus, linear algebra, statistics, sampling theory and survey
design, and computer science are highly recommended.
Aspiring marketing research analysts should gain experience con­
ducting interviews or surveys while in college. This experience can
prove invaluable later in obtaining a full-time position in the field
since much of their work in the beginning centers around conducting
interviews and writing reports on findings. Beginning analysts also
do considerable clerical work such as copying data, editing and cod­
ing questions, and tabulating survey results. With further experience,
marketing research analysts are eventually assigned their own
research projects.
Graduate training increasingly is required for most economist and
some marketing research analyst jobs and for advancement to more
responsible positions. There are many areas of specialization at the
graduate level for economists, including advanced economic theory,
mathematical economics, econometrics, history of economic thought,
international economics, and comparative economic systems and
planning. Students should select graduate schools strong in special­
ties in which they are interested. Marketing research analysts may
earn a master’s degree in business administration, marketing, statis­
tics, or some related discipline. Some schools help graduate students
find internships or part-time employment in government agencies,
economic consulting firms, financial institutions, or marketing
research firms. Work experience and contacts can be useful in testing
career preferences and learning about the job market for economists
and marketing research analysts.
In the Federal Government, candidates for beginning economist
positions generally need a college degree with a minimum of 21
semester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, accounting, or
calculus. However, because competition is keen, additional education
or experience may be required.
For a job as a college instructor in many junior colleges and small
4-year schools, a master’s degree generally is the minimum require­
ment. In some colleges and universities, however, a Ph D. is neces­
sary for appointment as an instructor. The Ph.D. and extensive
publication are required for a professorship and for tenure.
In government, industry, research organizations, and consulting
firms, economists and marketing research analysts who have a gradu­
ate degree usually can qualify for more responsible research and
administrative positions. A Ph.D. is necessary for top positions in
many organizations. Many corporation and government executives
have a strong background in economics or marketing.
Persons considering careers as economists or marketing research
analysts should be able to work accurately with detail since much

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time is spent on data analysis. Patience and persistence are necessary
qualities for economists and marketing research analysts since they
may spend long hours on independent study and problem solving. At
the same time, they must be able to work well with others.
Economists and marketing research analysts must be objective and
systematic in their work and be able to present their findings, both
orally and in writing, in a clear, meaningful way. Creativity and intel­
lectual curiosity are essential for success in these fields, just as they
are in other areas of scientific endeavor.
Job Outlook
Employment of economists and marketing research analysts is
expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations
through the year 2005. Most job openings, however, will result from
the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occu­
pations, or retire or leave the labor force for other reasons.
Opportunities for economists should be best in financial services,
research organizations, and consulting firms, reflecting the com­
plexity of the domestic and international economies and increased
reliance on quantitative methods of analyzing business trends, fore­
casting sales, and planning of purchasing and production. The con­
tinued need for economic analyses by lawyers, accountants,
engineers, health services administrators, urban and regional plan­
ners, environmental scientists, and others also will increase the
number of jobs for economists. Other employment opportunities for
economists exist in nonprofit organizations and trade associations.
Little or no change is expected in the employment of economists in
the Federal Government—in line with the rate of growth projected
for the Federal workforce as a whole. Employment of economists in
State and local government is expected to grow about as fast as the
average.
A strong background in economic theory, calculus, statistics,
and econometrics provides the tools for acquiring any specialty
within the field. Those skilled in quantitative techniques and their
application to economic modeling and forecasting and marketing
research, including the use of computers, should have the best job
opportunities.
Persons who graduate with a bachelor’s degree in economics
through the year 2005 should face very keen competition for the lim­
ited number of economist positions for which they qualify. Related
work experience—conducting research, developing surveys, or ana­
lyzing data, for example—while in school is a major asset in this
competitive job market. Many graduates will find employment in
government, industry, and business as management or sales trainees,
or as research or administrative assistants. Those with strong back­
grounds in mathematics, statistics, survey design, and computer sci­
ence may be hired by private firms for marketing research work.
Those who meet State certification requirements may become high
school economics teachers. The demand for secondary school eco­
nomics teachers is expected to grow as more States make economics
a required course. (For additional information, see the statement on
secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Candidates who hold a master’s degree in economics have better
employment prospects than bachelor’s degree holders. They face com­
petition for teaching positions in colleges and universities; however,
some may gain positions in junior and community colleges. Those
with a strong background in marketing and finance may have the best
prospects in business, banking, and management consulting firms.
Opportunities will be best for Ph.D.’s. Employment prospects for
economists in colleges and universities should improve due to an
expected wave of retirements among college faculty. Ph.D. graduates
should also have favorable opportunities to work as economists in
government, industry, educational and research organizations, and
consulting firms.
Demand for marketing research analysts should be strong due to
increasing competition in business and industry. Marketing research
provides organizations valuable feedback from purchasers, allowing
companies to evaluate consumer satisfaction and more effectively
plan for the future. As companies seek to expand their market and
consumers become better informed, the need for marketing profes­
sionals is increasing. Opportunities for marketing research analysts

5

should be good in a wide range of employment settings, particularly
in marketing research firms, as companies find it more profitable to
contract out for marketing research services rather than having their
own marketing department. Other employment opportunities exist in
financial organizations, health care institutions, and insurance compa­
nies. Like economists, graduates with related work experience or an
advanced degree in marketing or a closely related business field
should have the best job opportunities.
Earnings
Median annual earnings of full-time economists and marketing
research analysts were about $35,800 in 1990. The middle 50 percent
earned between $26,200 and $51,800. The lowest 10 percent earned
under $18,800, while the top 10 percent earned over $67,800.
According to a 1990 salary survey by the College Placement Coun­
cil, persons with a bachelor’s degree in economics received offers
averaging $25,200 a year; in marketing, $23,500.
The median base salary of business economists in 1990 was
$60,000, according to a survey by the National Association of Busi­
ness Economists. Ninety percent of the respondents held advanced
degrees. The highest salaries were reported by those who had a
Ph.D., with a median salary of $67,500. Master’s degree holders
earned a median salary of $54,000, while bachelor's degree holders
earned $41,700. Over half of those responding also had income from
secondary employment. The highest paid business economists were
in the securities and investment, nondurable manufacturing, banking,
real estate, and consulting industries. The lowest paid were in
academia and government.
The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in
certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the entrance
salary for economists having a bachelor’s degree averaged about
$17,000 a year in 1991; however, those with superior academic
records could begin at $21,000. Those having a master’s degree could
qualify for positions at an annual salary of $25,700. Those with a
Ph.D. could begin at $31,100, while some individuals with experi­
ence could start at $37,300. Economists in the Federal Government
averaged around $50,100 a year in 1991.
As in many other professional occupations, economists and mar­
keting research analysts often receive a basic benefit package which
includes vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and a pen­
sion plan. For those entering academic careers, benefits may include
summer research money, computer access, housing, and secretarial
support.
Related Occupations
Economists are concerned with understanding and interpreting
financial matters, among other subjects. Others with jobs in this area
include financial managers, financial analysts, accountants and
auditors, underwriters, actuaries, securities and financial services
sales workers, credit analysts, loan officers, and budget officers.
Marketing research analysts are involved in social research,
including the planning, implementation, and analysis of surveys
to determine people’s needs and preferences. Other jobs using
these skills include social welfare research workers, employment
research and planning directors, sociologists, and urban and regional
planners.
Sources of Additional Information
For information on careers in business economics, contact:
National Association of Business Economists, 28790 Chagrin Blvd., Suite
300, Cleveland, OH 44122.

For information about careers and salaries in marketing research,
contact:
«■ American Marketing Association, 250 South Wacker Dr., Suite 200, Chica­
go, IL 60606.
Marketing Research Association, 2189 Silas Deane Hwy., Suite 5, Rocky
Hill, CT 06067.

For information about careers in noncollegiate academic institu­
tions, contact:
Joint Council on Economic Education, 432 Park Ave. South, New York,
NY 10016.

6

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Psychologists
(D.O.T. 045.061, .067, .107-022, -026, -030, -034, and -046)

Nature of the Work
Psychologists study human behavior and mental processes to under­
stand, explain, and change people’s behavior. They may study the
way a person thinks, feels, or behaves. Research psychologists inves­
tigate the physical, cognitive, emotional, or social aspects of human
behavior. Pychologists in applied fields counsel and conduct training
programs; do market research; or provide mental health services in
hospitals, clinics, or private settings.
Like other social scientists, psychologists formulate hypotheses
and collect data to test their validity. Research methods depend on the
topic under study. Psychologists may gather information through con­
trolled laboratory experiments; personality, performance, aptitude,
and intelligence tests; observation, interviews, and questionnaires;
clinical studies; or surveys. Computers are widely used to record and
analyze this information.
Since psychology deals with human behavior, psychologists apply
their knowledge and techniques to a wide range of endeavors includ­
ing human services, management, education, law, and sports. In addi­
tion to the variety of work settings, psychologists specialize in many
different areas. Clinical psychologists—who constitute the largest
specialty—generally work in hospitals or clinics, or maintain their
own practices. They may help the mentally or emotionally disturbed
adjust to life. Others help people deal with life stresses such as
divorce or aging. Clinical psychologists interview patients; give diag­
nostic tests; provide individual, family, and group psychotherapy; and
design and implement behavior modification programs. They may
collaborate with physicians and other specialists in developing treat­
ment programs. Some clinical psychologists work in universities,
where they train graduate students in the delivery of mental health
services. Others administer community mental health programs.
Counseling psychologists use several techniques, including inter­
viewing and testing, to advise people on how to deal with problems
of everyday living—personal, social, educational, or vocational.
(Also see the statements on counselors and social workers elsewhere
in the Handbook.)
Developmental psychologists study the patterns and causes of
behavioral change as people progress through life from infancy to
adulthood. Some concern themselves with behavior during infancy,
childhood, and adolescence, while others study changes that take place
during maturity and old age. Educational psychologists design, devel­
op, and evaluate educational programs. Experimental psychologists
study behavior processes and work with human beings and animals
such as rats, monkeys, and pigeons. Prominent areas of experimental
research include motivation, thinking, attention, learning and retention,
sensory and perceptual processes, effects of substance use and abuse,
and genetic and neurological factors in behavior.
Industrial and organizational psychologists apply psychological
techniques to personnel administration, management, and marketing
problems. They are involved in policy planning, applicant screening,
training and development, psychological test research, counseling,
and organizational development and analysis, among other activities.
For example, an industrial psychologist may work with management
to develop better training programs and to reorganize the work setting
to improve worker productivity or quality of worklife. School psy­
chologists work with teachers, parents, and administrators to resolve
students’ learning and behavior problems. Social psychologists exam­
ine people’s interactions with others and with the social environment.
Prominent areas of study include group behavior, leadership, atti­
tudes, and interpersonal perception.
Some relatively new specialties include cognitive psychology,
health psychology, and neuropsychology. Cognitive psychologists
deal with the brain’s role in memory, thinking, and perceptions; some
are involved with research related to computer programming and arti­
ficial intelligence. Health psychologists promote good health through

health maintenance counseling programs that are designed, for exam­
ple, to help people stop smoking or lose weight. Neuropsychologists
study the relation between human physical systems and behavior. The
emergence and growth of these specialties reflects the increasing par­
ticipation of psychologists in providing direct services to special
patient populations. For example, these psychologists work in stroke
and head injury programs, oncology programs, and medical practices
specializing in neurology.
Other areas of specialization include community psychology, com­
parative psychology, consumer psychology, engineering psychology,
environmental psychology, family psychology, forensic psychology,
psychometrics, population psychology, psychology and the arts, his­
tory of psychology, psychopharmacology, and military and rehabilita­
tion psychology.
Working Conditions
A psychologist’s specialty and place of employment determine work­
ing conditions. For example, clinical, school, and counseling psychol­
ogists in private practice have pleasant, comfortable offices and set
their own hours. However, they often have evening hours to accom­
modate their clients. Some employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and
other health facilities often work evenings and weekends, while oth­
ers in schools and clinics work regular hours. Psychologists
employed by academic institutions divide their time among teaching,
research, and administrative responsibilities. Some maintain part-time
consulting practices as well. In contrast to the many psychologists
who have flexible work schedules, some in government and private
industry have more structured schedules. Reading and writing
research reports, they often work alone. Many experience the pres­
sures of deadlines, tight schedules, and overtime work. Their routine
may be interrupted frequently. Travel may be required to attend con­
ferences or conduct research.
Employment
Psychologists held about 125,000 jobs in 1990. Educational institu­
tions—primarily elementary and secondary schools—employed more
than one-third of all salaried psychologists in positions involving
counseling, testing, special education, research, and administration;
hospitals, clinics, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, and other
health facilities employed one-third; while government agencies at
the Federal, State, and local levels employed one-sixth. The Veterans
Administration, the Department of Defense, and the Public Health
Service employ the overwhelming majority of psychologists
employed by Federal agencies. State and local governments employ
psychologists in health agencies, correctional facilities, and other set­
tings. Psychologists also work in social service organizations,
research organizations, management consulting firms, market
research firms, and other businesses.
After several years of experience, some psychologists enter private
practice or set up their own research or consulting firms. About twofifths of all psychologists are self-employed.

iifflSi

Over two-fifths of all psychologists are self-employed.

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Besides the jobs described above, many persons held psychology
faculty positions at colleges and universities. (For information about
this occupation, see the statement on college and university faculty
elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
A doctoral degree is generally required for employment as a psychol­
ogist. Psychologists with doctorates (Ph.D or Psy.D.—Doctor of Psy­
chology) qualify for a wide range of responsible research, clinical,
and counseling positions in universities, private industry, school set­
tings, and government.
Persons with a master’s degree in psychology can administer and
interpret tests as psychological assistants. Under the supervision of
psychologists, they can conduct research in laboratories, conduct psy­
chological evaluations, counsel patients, or perform administrative
duties. They may teach in 2-year colleges or work as school psychol­
ogists or counselors.
A bachelor’s degree in psychology qualifies a person to assist psy­
chologists and other professionals in community mental health cen­
ters, vocational rehabilitation offices, and correctional programs; to
work as research or administrative assistants; and to take jobs as
trainees in government or business. However, without additional aca­
demic training, their advancement opportunities are limited.
In the Federal Government, candidates having at least 24 semester
hours in psychology and one course in statistics qualify for entry
level positions. Competition for these jobs is keen, however. Clinical
psychologists generally must have completed the Ph.D. or Psy.D.
requirements and have served an internship; vocational and guidance
counselors usually need 2 years of graduate study in counseling and 1
year of counseling experience.
At least 1 year of full-time graduate study is needed to earn a mas­
ter’s degree in psychology. Requirements usually include practical
experience in an applied setting or a master’s thesis based on a
research project. For example, a master’s degree in school psycholo­
gy requires 2 years of course work and a 1-year internship.
Three to 5 years of graduate work usually are required for a doctor­
al degree. The Ph.D. degree culminates in a dissertation based on
original research. Courses in quantitative research methods, which
include the use of computers, are an integral part of graduate study
and usually necessary to complete the dissertation. The Psy.D., based
on practical work and examinations rather than a dissertation, pre­
pares students for clinical and other applied positions. In clinical or
counseling psychology, the requirements for the doctoral degree gen­
erally include an additional year or more of internship or supervised
experience.
Competition for admission into graduate programs is keen. Some
universities require an undergraduate major in psychology. Others
prefer only basic psychology with courses in the biological, physical,
and social sciences, statistics, and mathematics.
Over 3,000 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree pro­
gram in psychology; about 400, a master’s; about 300, a Ph.D. In
addition, about 30 professional schools of psychology—some affiliat­
ed with colleges or universities—usually offer the Psy.D. The Ameri­
can Psychological Association (APA) presently accredits doctoral
training programs in clinical, counseling, and school psychology. The
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, with the
assistance of the National Association of School Psychologists, is
also involved in the accreditation of advanced degree programs in
school psychology. APA also accredits institutions that provide
internships for doctoral students in school, clinical, and counseling
psychology.
Although financial aid is difficult to obtain, some universities
award fellowships or scholarships or arrange for part-time employ­
ment. The Veterans Administration (VA) offers predoctoral trainee­
ships to interns in VA hospitals, clinics, and related training agencies.
The National Science Foundation, the Department of Health and
Human Services, and many other organizations also provide financial
aid.
Psychologists in independent practice or who offer any type of
patient care, including those in clinical, counseling, and school psy­
chology, must meet certification or licensing requirements. All States

7

and the District of Columbia have such requirements. Licensing laws
vary by State, but generally require a doctorate in psychology and 1
to 2 years of professional experience. In addition, most States require
that applicants pass an examination. Most State boards administer a
standardized test and, in many instances, additional oral or essay
examinations. Very few States certify those with a master’s degree as
psychological assistants or associates. Some States require continuing
education for relicensure.
Most States require that licensed or certified psychologists limit
their practice to those areas in which they have developed profession­
al competence through training and experience.
The American Board of Professional Psychology recognizes pro­
fessional achievement by awarding diplomas primarily in clinical
psychology, clinical neuropsychology, and counseling, forensic,
industrial and organizational, and school psychology. Candidates
need a doctorate in psychology, 5 years of experience, and profes­
sional endorsements; they also must pass an examination.

Table 1. Percent of doctoral degrees awarded in psychology,
by subfield, 1990
Subfield

Percent

Total..............................................................................................

100

Clinical.............................................................................................
Counseling........................................................................................
General.............................................................................................
Developmental.................................................................................
Experimental....................................................................................
Industrial/organizational..................................................................
Social................................................................................................
Educational.......................................................................................
Cognitive..........................................................................................
School...............................................................................................
Other.................................................................................................

41
14
14
5
4
4
4
3
2
2
10

Source: National Research Council

Even more so than in other occupations, persons pursuing a career
in psychology must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal
effectively with people. Sensitivity, compassion, and the ability to
lead and inspire others are particularly important for clinical work
and counseling. Research psychologists should be able to do detailed
work independently and as part of a team. Verbal and writing skills
are necessary to communicate treatment and research findings.
Patience and perseverance are vital qualities because results from
psychological treatment of patients or research often are long in
coming.
Job Outlook
Employment of psychologists is expected to grow much faster than
the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Largely
because of the substantial investment in training required to enter this
specialized field, psychologists have a strong attachment to their
occupation—only a relatively small proportion leave the profession
each year. Nevertheless, most job openings are expected to result
from replacement needs.
Stimulating the demand for psychologists are programs to combat
the increase in alcohol abuse, drug dependency, marital strife, family
violence, and other problems plaguing society. Other factors spurring
demand for psychologists include: increased emphasis on mental
health maintenance in conjunction with the treatment of physical ill­
ness; public concern for the development of human resources, includ­
ing the growing elderly population; and increased testing and
counseling of children. Changes in the level of government funding
for these kinds of services could affect the demand for psychologists.
Employment prospects for psychologists in colleges and universi­
ties should improve due to an expected wave of retirements among
college faculty. Opportunities also will become more plentiful in

8


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other settings such as businesses, nonprofit organizations, and
research and computer firms. Companies will use psychologists’
expertise in survey design, analysis, and research to provide person­
nel testing, program evaluation, and statistical analysis. Job opportu­
nities in health care should remain strong—for example, in health
maintenance organizations, nursing homes, and alcohol and drug
abuse rehabilitation programs.
Other openings are likely to occur as psychologists study the effec­
tiveness of changes in health, education, military, law enforcement,
and consumer protection programs. Psychologists also are increasing­
ly studying the effects on people of technological advances in areas
such as agriculture, energy, the conservation and use of natural
resources, and industrial and office automation.
Opportunities are best for candidates with a doctoral degree. Persons
holding doctorates from leading universities in applied areas such as
school, clinical, counseling, health, industrial, and educational psychol­
ogy should have particularly good prospects. Psychologists with exten­
sive training in quantitative research methods and computer science
will have a competitive edge over applicants without this background.
Most graduates with a master’s degree in psychology may
encounter competition for the limited number of jobs for which they
qualify. Graduates of master’s degree programs in school psychology
should have the best job prospects, as schools are expected to
increase student counseling and mental health services. Some mas­
ter’s degree holders may find jobs as psychological assistants in com­
munity mental health centers. These positions often require direct
supervision by a licensed psychologist. Others may find jobs involv­
ing research and data collection and analysis in universities, govern­
ment, or private companies.
Bachelor’s degree holders can expect very few opportunities in this
field. Some may find jobs as assistants in rehabilitation centers or in
other jobs involving data collection and analysis. Those who meet
State certification requirements may become high school psychology
teachers. (For more information, see the statement on secondary
school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Earnings
According to a 1989 survey by the American Psychological Associa­
tion, the median annual salary of psychologists with a doctoral degree
was about $55,000. In academic institutions, the median was about
$41,000; in research positions, about $50,000; and in business and
industry (including self-employed), about $67,000. Ph.D. or Psy.D.
psychologists in private practice and in applied specialties generally
have higher eamings than other psychologists.
The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in
certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the average
starting salary for psychologists having a bachelor’s degree was about
$17,000 a year in 1991; those with superior academic records could
begin at $21,000. Counseling and school psychologists with a mas­
ter’s degree and 1 year of counseling experience could start at
$25,700. Clinical psychologists having a Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree and
1 year of internship could start at $31,100; some individuals could
start at $37,300. The average salary for psychologists in the Federal
Government was about $49,900 a year in 1991.
Psychologists receive a variety of fringe benefits including paid
vacations, sick leave, health insurance, and pensions. In addition,
many employers also offer tuition reimbursement.
Related Occupations
Psychologists are trained to evaluate, counsel, and advise individuals
and groups. Others who do this kind of work are psychiatrists, social
workers, clergy, special education teachers, and counselors.
Sources of Additional Information
For information on careers, educational requirements, financial assis­
tance, and licensing in all fields of psychology, contact:
•“ American Psychological Association, Educational Programs, Office, 1200
17th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036.

For information on careers, educational requirements, and licens­
ing of school psychologists, contact:
»■ National Association of School Psychologists, 8455 Colesville Rd., Suite
1000, Silver Spring, MD 20910.

Information about State licensing requirements is available from:
The American Association of State Psychology Boards, P.O. Box 4389,
Montgomery, AL 36103.

Information on traineeships and fellowships also is available from
colleges and universities that have graduate departments of psychology.

Sociologists
(D.O.T. 054)

Nature of the Work
Sociologists study human society and social behavior by examining
the groups and social institutions that people form. These include
families, tribes, communities, and governments, as well as a variety
of social, religious, political, business, and other organizations. Soci­
ologists study the behavior and interaction of groups, trace their ori­
gin and growth, and analyze the influence of group activities on
individual members. Some sociologists are concerned primarily with
the characteristics of social groups, organizations, and institutions.
Others are more interested in the ways individuals are affected by
each other and by the groups to which they belong. Still others focus
on social traits such as gender, age, or race, that make an important
difference in how a person experiences life on a daily basis.
As a rule, sociologists work in one or more special fields, such as
criminology; racial and ethnic relations; urban studies; group forma­
tion; social organization, stratification, and mobility; education;
social psychology; urban, rural, political, industrial, and comparative
sociology; gender roles and relations; sociological practice; and the
family. Household and family matters have always been areas of
interest for sociologists; however, these subjects recently have been
attracting more attention due to the increase in the number of
divorces and changes in living arrangements.
Other specialties include medical sociology—the study of social
factors that affect mental and public health; gerontology—the study
of aging and the special problems of aged persons; environmental
sociology—the study of the effects of the physical environment and
technology on people; clinical sociology—therapy and intervention
in social systems for assessment and change; demography—the study
of the size, characteristics, and movement of populations; criminolo­
gy—the study of factors producing deviance from accepted legal and
cultural norms; and industrial sociology—the study of work and
organizations. For example, an industrial sociologist may work as an
arbitrator helping settle disputes arising in the workplace.
Other sociologists specialize in research design and data analysis.
Sociologists usually conduct surveys or engage in direct observation
to gather data. For example, after providing for controlled conditions,
an organizational sociologist might test the effects of different styles
of leadership on individuals in a small work group. A medical sociol­
ogist might study the effects of terminal illness on family interaction.
Sociological researchers also evaluate the efficacy of different kinds
of social programs. They might examine and evaluate particular pro­
grams of income assistance, job training, or remedial education.
Increasingly, sociologists use statistical and computer techniques in
their research.
The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers,
administrators, and others interested in resolving social problems and
formulating public policy. For example, in recent years sociologists
have devoted more time to studying issues related to abortion rights,
AIDS disease, high school dropouts, homeless, and latch-key chil­
dren. Sociologists often work closely with community groups and
members of other professions, including psychologists, physicians,
economists, statisticians, urban and regional planners, political scien­
tists, anthropologists, law enforcement and criminal administration
officials, and social workers.
Some sociologists are primarily administrators. They apply their
professional knowledge in areas as diverse as intergroup relations,
family counseling, public opinion analysis, law enforcement, educa­
tion, personnel administration, public relations, regional and commu­

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nity planning, and health services planning. They may, for example,
administer social service programs in family and child welfare agen­
cies or develop social policies and programs for government, commu­
nity, youth, or religious organizations.
A number of sociologists are employed as consultants. Using their
expertise and research skills, they advise on such diverse problems as
halfway houses and foster care for the mentally ill; ways of counsel­
ing ex-offenders; or how to improve efficiency and flexibility in large
corporations. Sociologists in business consult on the management of
complex organizations and conduct market research for advertisers
and manufacturers. Increasingly, sociologists are involved in the eval­
uation of social and welfare programs.
Sociologists are often confused with social workers, and in fact
they do contribute to one another’s disciplines. However, while soci­
ologists conduct research on organizations, groups, and individuals,
social workers directly help people who are unable to cope with their
circumstances. (For more information, see the statement on social
workers elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Working Conditions
The work of sociologists generally includes much reading, research,
and writing. Sociologists working in government agencies and pri­
vate firms have structured work schedules, and many experience the
pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, heavy workloads, and over­
time. They often work as an integral part of a team. Their routine
may be interrupted by numerous telephone calls, letters, requests for
information, and meetings. Travel may be required to collect data for
research projects or to attend professional conferences. Sociologists
in private practice have varied hours, and may work evenings and
weekends to accommodate clients or complete a project.

i

:

;

.

■■

'■

ikjf

Sociologists study human society and social behavior.

9

Sociology faculty have more flexible work schedules, dividing
their time between teaching, research, consulting, and administrative
responsibilities.
Employment
Sociologists held several thousand jobs in 1990. Government agen­
cies employ a significant proportion of them to deal with such sub­
jects as poverty, crime, public assistance, population growth,
education, social rehabilitation, community development, mental
health, racial and ethnic relations, drug abuse, school droputs, and
environmental impact studies. Sociologists in the Federal Govern­
ment work primarily for the Departments of Health and Human Ser­
vices, Agriculture, Interior, and Defense. Those specializing in
demography, international development, or health may work for
international organizations such as the World Bank, the United
Nations, the World Health Organization, and Federal agencies such as
the Bureau of the Census. Sociologists specializing in criminology
work primarily for law enforcement agencies in State and local gov­
ernment. Sociologists also hold managerial, research, personnel, and
planning positions in research firms, consulting firms, educational
institutions, corporations, professional and trade associations, hospi­
tals, and welfare or other nonprofit organizations. Some sociologists
have private practices in counseling, research, or consulting. Others
held sociology faculty positions in colleges and universities. (For
more information about this occupation, see the statement on college
and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
A master’s degree in sociology is usually the minimum requirement
for employment in applied research or community college teaching.
The Ph.D. degree is essential for many senior level positions in
research institutes, consulting firms, corporations, and government
agencies, and is required for appointment to permanent teaching and
research positions in colleges and universities.
Sociologists with master’s degrees can qualify for administrative
and research positions in public agencies and private businesses.
Training in research, statistical, and computer methods is an advan­
tage in obtaining such positions.
Bachelor’s degree holders in sociology often get jobs in related
fields. Their training in research, statistics, and human behavior qual­
ifies them for entry-level positions in social services, management,
sales, personnel, and marketing. Many work in social service agen­
cies as counselors or child care, juvenile, or recreation workers. Oth­
ers are employed as interviewers or as administrative or research
assistants. Sociology majors with sufficient training in statistical and
survey methods may qualify for positions as junior analysts or statis­
ticians in business or research firms or government agencies. Regard­
less of a sociologist’s level of educational attainment, completion of
an internship while in school can prove invaluable in finding a posi­
tion in this field.
In the Federal Government, candidates generally need a college
degree with 24 semester hours in sociology, including course work in
theory and methods of social research. However, since competition
for the limited number of positions is keen, advanced study in the
field is highly recommended.
Over 180 colleges and universities offer doctoral degree programs
in sociology; most of these also offer a master’s degree. In over 160
schools, the master’s is the highest degree offered; about 850 schools
have bachelor’s degree programs. Sociology departments offer a wide
variety of courses, including aging, criminal justice, delinquency,
deviance and social control, family and society, field methods, gender
roles, sociological theory, social statistics and quantitative methods,
social psychology, rural sociology, organizational behavior and analy­
sis, mental health, and science and technology. Students are encour­
aged to combine a strong quantitative background with an area of
study that interests them.
Some departments of sociology have highly structured programs,
while others are relatively unstructured and leave most course selec­
tion up to the individual student. Departments have different require­
ments regarding foreign language skills, courses in statistics,
internships, and completion of a thesis for the master’s degree.

10


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The choice of a graduate school is important for people who want
to become sociologists. Students should select a school that has ade­
quate research facilities and offers appropriate areas of specialization
such as theory, demography, clinical sociology, or quantitative meth­
ods. Opportunities to gain practical experience also may be available,
and sociology departments may help place students in business or
research firms and government agencies.
The American Sociological Association sponsors a master’s level
certification program in applied social research. Certification by the
Sociological Practice Association (SPA) is necessary for some clini­
cal and applied sociology positions, especially at the doctoral level.
Certification requirements generally include at least 1 year of experi­
ence that demonstrates competence in clinical sociology, a doctorate
or a master’s degree from an accredited school, and successful
demonstration of competency at SPA-sponsored training workshops
or conferences.
The ability to work independently is important for sociologists.
Intellectual curiosity is an essential trait; researchers must have an
inquiring mind and a desire to find explanations for the phenomena
they observe. Like other social scientists, sociologists must be objec­
tive in gathering information about social institutions and behavior;
they need analytical skills in order to organize data effectively and
reach valid conclusions; and they must be careful and systematic in
their work. They should be able to get along well with people, and
should have good oral and writing skills.
Job Outlook
Demand for sociologists should be spurred by research in various
fields such as demography, criminology, gerontology, and medical
sociology, and by the need to evaluate and administer programs
designed to cope with social and welfare problems. Most job open­
ings, however, are expected to result from the need to replace sociol­
ogists who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor
force for other reasons.
Opportunities should be best for Ph.D. graduates. Employment
prospects for college and university positions should improve due to
an expected wave of retirements among college faculty.
An increasing proportion of Ph.D.’s are finding job opportunities
outside colleges and universities. Some may take research and
administrative positions in government, research organizations, and
business firms. Those well-trained in quantitative research methods—
including survey techniques, advanced statistics, and computer sci­
ence—will have the widest choice of jobs. For example, private firms
that contract with the government to evaluate social programs and
conduct other research increasingly seek sociologists with strong
quantitative skills.
Demand is expected to be much stronger for sociologists with
training in practice areas—such as clinical sociology, criminology,
environmental sociology, medical sociology, gerontology, evaluation
research, and demography—than for specialists in sociological theo­
ry. For example, additional demographers may be sought to help
businesses plan marketing and advertising programs and to help
developing countries analyze censuses, prepare population projec­
tions, and formulate long-range public planning programs. More
criminologists may be sought to help reduce deviance from legally
and socially accepted behavior in our society. More gerontologists
may be needed to help formulate programs for our expanding elderly
population.
Persons with a master’s degree will find positions in junior and
community colleges. Others may find employment in Federal, State,
and local governments as planners, demographers, or social
researchers. Some may find research and administrative jobs in
research firms, business, and government. For example, sociologists
with backgrounds in business and quantitative research methods may
find opportunities as management analysts or marketing researchers.
Bachelor’s degree holders will find fewer opportunities for jobs as
professional sociologists. As in the past, many graduates will take
positions as trainees and assistants in business, industry, and govern­
ment. As with advanced degree holders, extensive training in quanti­
tative research methods provides these graduates with the most
marketable skills. Some may find positions in social welfare agen­

cies. For those planning careers in law, journalism, business, social
work, recreation, counseling, and other related disciplines, sociology
provides an excellent background. Those who meet State certification
requirements may become high school sociology teachers. (For more
information, see the statement on secondary school teachers else­
where in the Handbook.)
Earnings
According to the American Sociological Association, the median
salary of sociologists in business and industry was $41,200 in 1990.
Sociologists working for nonprofit agencies averaged $34,800
annually.
The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in
certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the average
entrance salary for sociologists with a bachelor’s degree was about
$17,000 or $21,000 a year in 1991, depending upon the applicant’s
academic record. The starting salary for those with a master’s degree
was about $25,700 a year, and for those with a Ph.D., about $31,100,
while some individuals could start at $37,300. Sociologists in the
Federal Government averaged around $49,600 a year in 1991.
In general, sociologists with the Ph.D. degree earn substantially
higher salaries than those without the doctoral degree. Some sociolo­
gists supplement their regular salaries with earnings from other
sources, such as consulting, counseling work, or publishing articles
and books.
Like other professional workers, sociologists receive a variety of
fringe benefits including paid vacations, sick leave, health insurance,
and a pension plan.
Related Occupations
Sociologists are not the only people whose jobs require an under­
standing of social processes and institutions. Others whose work
demands such expertise include anthropologists, economists, geogra­
phers, historians, political scientists, psychologists, urban and region­
al planners, reporters and correspondents, and social workers.
Sources of Additional Information
Additional information on careers, certification, and graduate depart­
ments of sociology is available from:
»■ The American Sociological Association, 1722 N St. NW., Washington, DC
20036.

For information about careers in demography, contact:
<*" Population Association of America, 1722 N St. NW., Washington, DC
20036.

For information about careers and certification in clinical and
applied sociology, contact:
Sociological Practice Association, College of Arts and Sciences, South
Eastern Louisiana University, Hammond, LA 70402.

For information about careers in rural sociology, contact:
Rural Sociology Society, Department of Sociology, Montana State Univer­
sity, Bozeman, MT 59715.

Urban and Regional Planners
(D.O.T. 188.167-110 and 199.167-014)

Nature of the Work
Urban and regional planners, often called community or city planners,
develop programs to provide for growth and revitalization of urban, sub­
urban, and rural communities and their regions. Planners help local offi­
cials make decisions on social, economic, and environmental problems.
Planners usually devise plans outlining the best use of a community’s
land—where residential, commercial, recreational, and other human ser­
vices should take place. Planners also are involved in various other plan­
ning activities, including social services, transportation, and resource
development. They address such issues as central city redevelopment,
traffic congestion, and the impact of growth and change on an area.
They formulate capital improvement plans to construct new school
buildings, public housing, and sewage systems. Planners are involved in

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environmental issues including pollution control, wetland preservation,
and landfills. Planners are also confronting social issues such as shelter­
ing the homeless, premises for drug treatment centers, and needs of an
aging population.
Planners examine community facilities such as health clinics and
schools to be sure these facilities can meet the demands placed upon
them. They keep abreast of the economic and legal issues involved in
community development or redevelopment and changes in housing and
building codes or environmental regulations. Because suburban growth
has increased the need for traveling between suburbs and the urban cen­
ter, the planner’s job often includes designing new transportation sys­
tems and parking facilities. As an alternative, planners may develop
transportation management plans which are designed to control the traf­
fic, not accommodate it. For example, developers may be required to
provide public transportation facilities or cities may be required to set up
van pool transportation systems.
Urban and regional planners prepare for situations that are likely to
develop as a result of population growth or social and economic change.
They estimate, for example, the community’s long-range needs for hous­
ing, transportation, and business and industrial sites. Working within a
framework set by the community government, they analyze and propose
alternative ways to achieve more efficient and attractive urban areas.
Before preparing plans for long-range community development,
urban and regional planners prepare detailed studies that show the cur­
rent use of land for residential, business, and community purposes.
These reports include such information as the location of streets, high­
ways, water and sewer lines, schools, libraries, and cultural and recre­
ational sites. They also provide information on the types of industries
in the community, characteristics of the population, and employment
and economic trends. With this information, urban and regional plan­
ners propose ways of using undeveloped or underutilized land and
design the layout of recommended buildings and other facilities such
as subway lines and stations. They also prepare materials that show
how their programs can be carried out and what they will cost. As in
many other fields, planners increasingly use computers to record and
analyze information. For example, computers are used for determining
program costs and forecasting future trends in employment, housing,
or population.
Urban and regional planners often confer with land developers, civic
leaders, and other public planning officials. They often function as
mediators in community disputes by presenting alternatives that are
acceptable to opposing parties. Planners may prepare materials for com­
munity relations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before
legislative committees to explain their proposals.
In large organizations, planners usually specialize in areas such as
physical design, public transportation, community relations, historic
preservation, environmental issues, and the renovation or reconstruction
of rundown business districts. In small organizations, planners must be
able to do various kinds of work.
Working Conditions
Urban and regional planners spend most of their time in offices. To be
familiar with areas that they are developing, however, they occasionally
spend time outdoors examining the features of the land under considera­
tion for development, its current use, and the types of structures on it.
Although most planners have a scheduled 40-hour workweek, they fre­
quently attend evening or weekend meetings or public hearings with cit­
izens’ groups. Planners may experience the pressure of deadlines and
tight work schedules.
Employment
Urban and regional planners held about 23,000 jobs in 1990. Local gov­
ernment planning agencies—city, county, or regional—employed 3 out
of 4. An increasing proportion of public agency planners work in small
jurisdictions with fewer than 50,000 inhabitants. Many are employed in
State agencies that deal with housing, transportation, or environmental
protection. Federal employers include the Departments of Defense,
Housing and Urban Development, and Transportation.
Many planners do consulting work, either part time in addition to a
regular job, or full time for a firm that provides services to private devel­
opers or government agencies. Other employers include architectural

11

and surveying firms, educational institutions, banks and mortgage com­
panies, large land developers, and law firms specializing in land use.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
Employers often seek workers who have advanced training in urban or
regional planning. Most entry jobs in Federal, State, and local govern­
ment agencies require 2 years of graduate study in urban or regional
planning, or the equivalent in work experience. A master’s degree from
an accredited planning program is the usual requirement at the entry
level. Although graduates having a bachelor’s degree in planning, archi­
tecture, or engineering may qualify for beginning positions, their
advancement opportunities may be limited without a master’s degree.
Courses in related disciplines such as demography, economics, finance,
health administration, location theory, and management are highly rec­
ommended. In addition, familiarity with statistical techniques and com­
puter usage is highly desirable.
In 1991, about 80 colleges and universities offered a master’s degree
program in urban or regional planning. Most of these programs have
been accredited by the Planning
Accreditation Board, which consists of representatives of the Ameri­
can Planning Association (APA), the American Institute of Certified
Planners, and the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning. Most
graduate programs in planning require 2 years. Graduate students spend
considerable time in studios, workshops, or laboratory courses learning
to analyze and solve urban and regional planning problems and often are
required to work in a planning office part time or during the summer.
Local government planning offices offer students internships that pro­
vide experience that often proves invaluable in obtaining a full-time
planning position after graduation.
The American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP), a branch of
APA, grants certification to individuals with the appropriate combina­
tion of education and professional experience who pass an examination.
Data on AICP membership indicate that certified urban planners tend to
hold the more responsible, better paying positions in their field.
Planners must be able to think in terms of spatial relationships and
visualize the effects of their plans and designs. Planners should be flexi­
ble and able to reconcile different viewpoints to make constructive poli­
cy recommendations. The ability to communicate effectively both orally
and in writing also is necessary for anyone interested in this field.
After a few years’ experience, urban and regional planners may
advance to assignments requiring a high degree of independent judg­
ment such as designing the physical layout of a large development or
recommending policy, program, and budget options. Some are promoted
to jobs as planning directors and spend a great deal of time meeting with
officials in other organizations, speaking to civic groups, and supervis­
ing other professionals. Further advancement occurs through a transfer
to a large city with more complex problems and greater responsibilities.
Job Outlook
Employment of urban and regional planners is expected to grow about
as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Most
job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced planners
who transfer to other occupations, or retire or leave the labor force for
other reasons.
Demand will be spurred primarily by the continuing importance of
environmental, economic, transportation, and energy production plan­
ning. Other factors contributing to the demand for urban and regional
planners include interest in zoning and land-use planning in undevel­
oped and nonmetropolitan areas, including coastal areas; the need to
replace old public facilities such as bridges, highways, and sewers; his­
toric preservation and rehabilitation activities; central city redevelop­
ment; and commercial development to support suburban areas with
rapidly growing populations.
Demand for urban and regional planners varies by region. Opportuni­
ties should be best in rapidly growing communities and in States which
have mandated planning, such as Florida and Maine. Local governments
need planners to address problems associated with population growth.
For example, new housing developments require roads, sewer systems,
fire stations, schools, libraries, and recreation facilities that must be
planned while considering budgetary constraints. Job growth also is
expected to occur in smaller cities and towns in older areas—for exam­

12

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ple, in the Northeast—undergoing preservation and redevelopment.
Changes in the level of government funding for planning services could
affect demand for these workers.
Graduates of leading institutions with accredited planning programs
should have very good job prospects. For other jobseekers, geographic
mobility and the willingness to work in small towns or rural areas may
be necessary.
Earnings
Salaries of planners vary by degree, type of employer, experience, size
of community in which they work, and geographic location. According
to a 1989 survey by APA, urban and regional planners earned a median
annual salary of $39,500. Planners with a Ph.D. earned a median salary
of $50,000; those with a master’s degree earned $40,000; and bachelor’s
degree holders earned $36,000.
The median annual salary of planners in city governments was
$38,000; in county governments, $34,700; in joint city/county govern­
ments, $32,400; in State governments, $40,000; in private consulting
firms, $45,000; and in nonprofit foundations, $39,500. For planners with
over 10 years’ experience, county and joint city/county agencies paid
about $44,400 annually, while private businesses and consulting firms
paid about $55,000. Directors of public planning agencies earned as
much as $13,000 more than staff members at comparable levels of expe­
rience. Salaries of planners in large jurisdictions may be as much as
$5,000 a year higher than their counterparts in small jurisdictions.
Planners with a master’s degree were hired by the Federal Govern­
ment at a starting average salary of $25,700 a year in 1991. In some
cases, persons having less than 2 years of graduate work could enter
Federal service as interns at yearly salaries of about $17,000 or $21,000.
Salaries of urban and regional planners employed by the Federal Gov­
ernment averaged $48,000 a year in 1991.
Like many professional occupations, urban and regional planners
receive a basic fringe benefit package which includes vacation and sick
leave, health and life insurance, and a pension plan.
Related Occupations
Urban and regional planners develop plans for the orderly growth of
urban and rural communities. Others whose work is related to the work
of planners include architects, landscape architects, city managers, civil
engineers, environmental engineers, and geographers.
Sources of Additional Information
Additional information on careers, salaries, and certification in urban
and regional planning, as well as job referrals are available from:
American Planning Association, 1776 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington,
DC 20036.

Information on schools offering training in urban and regional plan­
ning is available from:
American Planning Association, Planners’ Bookstore, 1313 East 60th St.,
Chicago, IL 60637.

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Local government planning agencies employ 3 out of 4 urban and
regional planners.

Lawyers and Judges
(D.O.T. 110; 111; 119.107, .117, .167-010, .267-014; 169.267-010)

Laws affect every aspect of our society. They regulate the entire spec­
trum of relationships among individuals, groups, businesses, and gov­
ernments. They define rights as well as restrictions, covering such
diverse activities as judging and punishing criminals, granting
patents, drawing up business contracts, paying taxes, settling labor
disputes, constructing buildings, and administering wills.
Because social needs and attitudes are continually changing, the
legal system that regulates our social, political, and economic rela­
tionships also changes. Lawyers and judges link the legal system and
society. To perform this role, they must understand the world around
them and be sensitive to the numerous aspects of society that the law
touches. They must comprehend not only the words of a particular
statute, but the human circumstances it addresses as well.
As our laws grow more complex, the work of lawyers and judges
takes on broader significance. Laws affect our lives in a variety of
ways as the legal system performs regulatory tasks in areas such as
transportation, commerce, consumer protection, the environment, and
social welfare. Lawyers interpret these laws, rulings, and regulations
for individuals and businesses, and serve as their advocates in resolv­
ing disputes. When disputes must be settled in court, judges hear each
side of the disputes and administer resolutions. Through their deci­
sions, judges play an important role in the development of common
law by interpreting how particular laws apply to specific circum­
stances.
Nature of the Work
Lawyers. Lawyers, also called attorneys, act as both advocates and
advisors in our society. As advocates, they represent one of the
opposing parties in criminal and civil trials by presenting arguments
that support their client in court. As advisors, lawyers counsel their
clients as to their legal rights and obligations and suggest particular
courses of action in business and personal matters.
Whether acting as advocates or advisors, nearly all attorneys have
certain activities in common. Probably the most fundamental activi­
ties are the interpretation of the law and its application to a specific
situation. This requires in-depth research into the purposes behind the
applicable laws and into judicial decisions that have been applied to
those laws under circumstances similar to those currently faced by
the client. Based on this research, attorneys advise clients what
actions would best serve their interests.
A growing number of lawyers are using computers in legal
research. While all lawyers continue to make use of law libraries to
prepare cases, some supplement their search of the conventional
printed sources with computer software packages that automatically
search the legal literature and identify legal texts that may be relevant
to a specific subject. In litigation that involves many supporting doc­
uments, lawyers may also use computers to organize and index the
material. Tax lawyers are also increasingly using computers to make
tax computations and explore alternative tax strategies for clients.
Lawyers must deal with people in a courteous, efficient manner
and not disclose matters discussed in confidence with clients. They
hold positions of great responsibility, and are obligated to adhere to
strict rules of ethics.
Finally, most lawyers write reports or briefs which must communi­
cate clearly and precisely. The more detailed aspects of a lawyer’s job
depend upon his or her field of specialization and position.
While all lawyers are allowed to represent parties in court, some
appear in court more frequently than others. Some lawyers specialize
in trial work. These lawyers need an exceptional ability to think
quickly and speak with ease and authority, and must be thoroughly
familiar with courtroom rules and strategy. Trial lawyers still spend
most of their time outside the courtroom conducting research, inter­

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viewing clients and witnesses, and handling other details in prepara­
tion for trial.
Although most lawyers deal with many different areas of the law, a
significant number concentrate on one branch of law, such as admi­
ralty, probate, or international law. Communications lawyers, for
example, may represent radio and television stations in court and in
their dealings with the Federal Communications Commission. They
help established stations prepare and file license renewal applica­
tions, employment reports, and other documents required by the FCC
on a regular basis. They also keep their clients informed of changes
in FCC regulations. Communications lawyers help individuals or cor­
porations buy or sell a station or establish a new one.
Lawyers who represent public utilities before the Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission and other Federal and State regulatory agen­
cies handle matters involving utility rates. They develop strategy,
arguments, and testimony; prepare cases for presentation; and argue
the case. These lawyers also inform clients about changes in regula­
tions and give advice about the legality of their actions.
Still other lawyers advise insurance companies about the legality
of insurance transactions. They write insurance policies to conform
with the law and to protect companies from unwarranted claims.
They review claims filed against insurance companies and represent
the companies in court.
The largest single group of lawyers are in private practice where
they may concentrate on civil law, areas such as litigation, wills,
trusts, contracts, mortgages, titles, and leases. Some manage a per­
son’s property as trustee or, as executor, see that provisions of a
client’s will are carried out. Others handle only public interest
cases—civil or criminal—which have a potential impact extending
well beyond the individual client.
A lawyer may be employed full time by a single client. If the client
is a corporation, the lawyer is known as house counsel and usually
advises a company about legal questions that arise from its business
activities. These questions might involve patents, government regula­
tions, a business contract with another company, a property interest,
or a collective bargaining agreement with a union.
Attorneys employed at the various levels of government constitute
still another category. These lawyers are an important part of the
criminal justice system and may work for a State attorney general, a
prosecutor or public defender, or a court. At the Federal level, attor­
neys may investigate cases for the Department of Justice or other
agencies. Also, lawyers at every government level help develop laws
and programs, draft and interpret legislation, establish enforcement
procedures, and argue cases.
Other lawyers work for legal aid societies—private, nonprofit cor­
porations established to serve disadvantaged people. These lawyers
generally handle civil rather than criminal cases.
A relatively small number of trained attorneys work in law
schools. Most are faculty members who specialize in one or more
subjects, while others serve as administrators. Some work full time in
nonacademic settings and teach part time. (For additional informa­
tion, see the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in
the Handbook.) Some lawyers become judges, although not all judges
have practiced law.
Judges. Judges oversee the legal process that in courts of law
resolves civil disputes and determines guilt in criminal cases accord­
ing to Federal and State laws and those of local jurisdictions. They
preside over cases touching on virtually every aspect of society, from
traffic offenses to disputes over management of professional sports,
from the rights of huge corporations to questions of disconnecting life
support equipment for terminally ill persons. They are responsible for
insuring that trials and hearings are conducted fairly and that justice
is administered in a manner that safeguards the legal rights of all par­
ties involved. Judges preside over trials or hearings and listen as
attorneys representing the parties present and argue their cases. They

13

rule on the admissibility of evidence and methods of conducting testi­
mony, and settle disputes between the opposing attorneys. They
insure that rules and procedures are followed, and if unusual circum­
stances arise for which standard procedures have not been estab­
lished, judges direct how the trial will proceed based on their
knowledge of the law.
Judges often hold pretrial hearings for cases. They listen to allega­
tions and, based on the evidence presented, determine whether they
have enough merit for a trial to be held. In criminal cases, judges may
decide that persons charged with crimes should be held in jail pend­
ing their trial, or may set conditions for release through the trial. In
civil cases, judges may impose restrictions upon the parties until a
trial is held.
When trials are held, juries are often selected to decide cases.
However, judges decide cases when the law does not require a jury
trial, or when the parties waive their right to a jury. Judges instruct
juries on applicable laws, direct them to deduce the facts from the
evidence presented, and hear their verdict. Judges sentence those con­
victed in criminal cases in many States. They also award relief to liti­
gants including, where appropriate, compensation for damages in
civil cases.
Judges’ duties vary according to the extent of their jurisdictions
and powers. General trial court judges of the Federal and State court
systems have jurisdiction over any case in their system. They gener­
ally try civil cases that transcend the jurisdiction of lower courts, and
all cases involving felony offenses. Federal and State appellate court
judges, although few in number, have the power to overrule decisions
made by trial court or administrative law judges if they determine
that errors were made in a case, or if legal precedent does not support
the judgement of the lower court. They rule on fewer cases and rarely
have direct contacts with the people involved.
The majority of State court judges preside in courts whose jurisdic­
tion is limited by law to certain types of cases. A variety of titles are
assigned to these judges, but among the most common are municipal
court judge, county court judge, magistrate, or justice of the peace.
Traffic violations, misdemeanors, small claims cases, and pretrial
hearings constitute the bulk of the work of these judges, but some
States allow them to handle cases involving domestic relations, pro­
bate, contracts, and selected other areas of the law.
Administrative law judges or hearing officers are employed by
government agencies to rule on appeals of agency administrative
decisions regarding such things as a person’s eligibility for various
social insurance benefits or worker’s compensation, protection of the
environment, enforcement of health and safety regulations, and com­
pliance with economic regulatory requirements.
Working Conditions
Lawyers and judges do most of their work in offices, law libraries,
and courtrooms. Lawyers sometimes meet in clients’ homes or places
of business and, when necessary, in hospitals or prisons. They fre­
quently travel to attend meetings; to gather evidence; and to appear
before courts, legislative bodies, and other authorities.
Salaried lawyers in government and private corporations generally
have structured work schedules. Lawyers in private practice may
work irregular hours while conducting research, conferring with
clients, or preparing briefs during nonoffice hours. Lawyers often
work long hours, and about half regularly work 50 hours or more per
week. They are under particularly heavy pressure, for example, when
a case is being tried. Preparation for court includes keeping abreast of
the latest laws and judicial decisions.
Many judges work a standard 40-hour week, but the caseload of
some judges requires that they work over 50 hours per week. In addi­
tion, many judges spend as many hours outside of court preparing for
trials, researching points of law, and preparing rulings and judge­
ments as they do on the bench. Some judges with limited jurisdiction
are employed part time and divide their time between their judicial
responsibilities and other careers.
Although work generally is not seasonal, the work of tax lawyers
and other specialists may be an exception. Since lawyers in private
practice can often determine their own workload and when they will
retire, many stay in practice well beyond the usual retirement age.

14


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Employment
Lawyers and judges held about 633,000 jobs in 1990. About fourfifths of the 587,000 lawyers practiced privately, either in law firms
or in solo practices. Most of the remaining lawyers held positions in
government, the greatest number at the local level. In the Federal
Government, lawyers are concentrated in the Departments of Justice,
Treasury, and Defense, but they work for other Federal agencies as
well. Other lawyers are employed as house counsel by public utilities,
banks, insurance companies, real estate agencies, manufacturing
firms, welfare and religious organizations, and other business firms
and nonprofit organizations. Some salaried lawyers also have part­
time independent practices; others work as lawyers part time while
working full time in another occupation.
Judges held 46,000 jobs in 1990. All worked for Federal, State, or
local governments, with about half holding positions in State govern­
ment. Most of the remainder were employed at the local level.
Many people trained as lawyers are not employed as lawyers or
judges; they work as law clerks, law school professors, managers and
administrators, and in a variety of other occupations.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
To practice law in the courts of any State or other jurisdiction, a per­
son must be licensed, or admitted to its bar, under rules established
by the jurisdiction’s highest court. Nearly all require that applicants
for admission to the bar pass a written bar examination. Most juris­
dictions also require applicants to pass a separate written ethics
examination. Lawyers who have been admitted to the bar in one juris­
diction occasionally may be admitted to the bar in another without
taking an examination if they meet that jurisdiction’s standards of
good moral character and have a specified period of legal experience.
Federal courts and agencies set their own qualifications for those
practicing before them.
To qualify for the bar examination in most States, an applicant
must complete at least 3 years of college and graduate from a law
school approved by the American Bar Association (ABA) or the
proper State authorities. (ABA approval signifies that the law
school—particularly its library and faculty—meets certain standards
developed by the Association to promote quality legal education.) In
1990, the American Bar Association approved 175 law schools. Oth­
ers were approved by State authorities only. With certain exceptions,
graduates of schools not approved by the ABA generally are restrict-

Attorneys spend many hours researching applicable laws and past
judicial decisions.

ed to taking the bar examination and practicing in the State or other
jurisdiction in which the school is located; most of these schools are
in California. Seven States accept the study of law in a law office or
in combination with study in a law school; only California accepts
the study of law by correspondence as qualifying for taking the bar
examination. Several States require registration and approval of stu­
dents by the State Board of Law Examiners, either before they enter
law school or during the early years of legal study.
Although there is no nationwide bar examination, 46 States, the
District of Columbia, Guam, Saipan, and the Virgin Islands require
the 6-hour Multistate Bar Examination (MBE) as part of the bar
examination; the MBE is not required in Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana,
and Washington. The MBE, covering issues of broad interest, is given
in addition to a locally prepared 6-hour State bar examination. The 3hour Multistate Essay Examination (MSEE) is used as part of the
State bar examination in eight States, and additional States are con­
sidering adding it as a requirement. States vary in their use of MBE
and MSEE scores.
The required college and law school education usually takes 7
years of full-time study after high school—4 years of undergraduate
study followed by 3 years in law school. Although some law schools
accept a very small number of students after 3 years of college, most
require applicants to have a bachelor’s degree. To meet the needs of
students who can attend only part time, a number of law schools have
night or part-time divisions which usually require 4 years of study. In
1990, about one 1 of 6 graduates of ABA-approved schools were
part-time students.
Preparation for a career as a lawyer really begins in college.
Although there is no recommended “prelaw” major, the choice of an
undergraduate program is important. Certain courses and activities
are desirable because they give the student the skills needed to suc­
ceed both in law school and in the profession. Essential skills—profi­
ciency in writing, reading and analyzing, thinking logically, and
communicating verbally—are learned during high school and college.
An undergraduate program that cultivates these skills while broaden­
ing the student’s view of the world is desirable. Majors in the social
sciences, natural sciences, and humanities all are suitable, although a
student should not specialize too narrowly. Regardless of one’s major,
courses in English, a foreign language, public speaking, government,
philosophy, history, economics, mathematics, and computer science,
among others, are useful.
Students interested in a particular aspect of law may find related
courses helpful; for example, engineering and science courses for the
prospective patent attorney, and accounting for the future tax lawyer.
In addition, word processing is advisable simply for convenience in
law school and on the job.
Acceptance by most law schools depends on the applicant’s ability
to demonstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through good
undergraduate grades, the Law School Admission Test (LSAT), the
quality of the applicant’s undergraduate school, any prior work expe­
rience, and sometimes a personal interview. However, law schools
vary in the weight that they place on each of these factors.
Nearly all law schools require that applicants take the LSAT and
that they have certified transcripts sent to the Law School Data
Assembly Service. This service then sends applicants’ LSAT scores
and their standardized records of college grades to the law schools of
their choice. Both this service and the LSAT are administered by the
Law School Admission Services.
Competition for admission to many law schools is intense. Enroll­
ments rose very rapidly during the 1970’s, with applicants far outnum­
bering available seats. Since then, law school enrollments have
remained relatively unchanged and the number of applicants has fluctu­
ated, however, the number of applicants to most law schools still greatly
exceeds the number that can be admitted. Enrollments are expected to
remain at about their present level through the year 2005, and competi­
tion for admission to the more prestigious law schools will remain keen.
During the first year or year and a half of law school, students gen­
erally study fundamental courses such as constitutional law, con­
tracts, property law, torts, judicial procedures, and legal writing. In
the remaining time, they may elect specialized courses in fields such
as tax, labor, or corporation law. Practical experience often is

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acquired by participation in school sponsored legal aid or legal clinic
activities, in the school’s moot court competitions in which students
conduct appellate arguments, in practice trials under the supervision
of experienced lawyers and judges, and through research and writing
on legal issues for the school’s law journal.
In 1990, law students in 38 States and other jurisdiction were
required to pass the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examina­
tion (MPRE), which tests their knowledge of the ABA codes on pro­
fessional responsibility and judicial conduct. In some States, the
MPRE may be taken during law school, usually after completing a
course on legal ethics.
A number of law schools have clinical programs where students
gain legal experience through practice trials and law school projects
under the supervision of practicing lawyers and law school faculty.
Law school clinical programs might include work in legal aid clinics,
for example, or on the staff of legislative committees. Part-time or
summer clerkships in law firms, government agencies, and corporate
legal departments also provide experience that can be extremely valu­
able later on. Such training can provide references or lead directly to
a job after graduation, and can help students decide what kind of
practice best suits them. Clerkships also may be an important source
of financial aid.
Graduates receive the degree of juris doctor (J.D.) or bachelor of
law (LL.B.) as the first professional degree. Advanced law degrees
may be desirable for those planning to specialize, do research, or
teach. Some law students pursue joint degree programs, which gener­
ally require an additional year. Joint degree programs are offered in a
number of areas, including law and business administration and law
and public administration.
After graduation, lawyers must keep informed about legal and nonlegal developments that affect their practice. An attorney representing
electronics manufacturers, for example, must follow trade journals
and the latest Federal regulations. Attorneys in the Department of
State must remain well versed in current events and international law,
while divorce lawyers read about the changing role of the family in
modern society. Many law schools and State and local bar associa­
tions provide continuing education courses that help lawyers stay
abreast of recent developments.
The practice of law involves a great deal of responsibility. Persons
planning careers in law should like to work with people and be able
to win the respect and confidence of their clients, associates, and the
public. Integrity and honesty are vital personal qualities. Persever­
ance and reasoning ability are essential to analyze complex cases and
reach sound conclusions. Lawyers also need creativity when handling
new and unique legal problems.
Most beginning lawyers start in salaried positions. Newly hired
salaried attorneys usually act as research assistants to experienced
lawyers or judges. After several years of progressively more respon­
sible salaried employment, some lawyers are admitted to partnership
in their firm, or go into practice for themselves. Some lawyers, after
years of practice, become full-time law school faculty or administra­
tors; a growing number have advanced degrees in other fields as well.
Some persons use their legal training in administrative or manage­
rial positions in various departments of large corporations. A transfer
from a corporation’s legal department to another department often is
viewed as a way to gain administrative experience and rise in the
ranks of management.
Experience in the practice of law is required, or at least strongly
preferred, for most judgeships. All Federal judges and State trial and
appellate court judges are required to be lawyers or “learned in law.”
Some judges with limited jurisdiction are not required to be lawyers,
but nonlawyers are being phased out in many States, or the positions
are being eliminated. Federal administrative law judges must be
lawyers and pass a competitive examination administered by the U.S.
Office of Personnel Management. Many State administrative law
judges and other hearing officials are not required to be lawyers, but
law degrees are preferred for most positions.
Federal judges are appointed for life by the President, with the con­
sent of the Senate. Federal administrative law judges are appointed
by the various Federal agencies with virtually lifetime tenure. About
half of all State judges are appointed, while the remainder are elected

15

in partisan or nonpartisan State elections. Most State and local judges
serve fixed terms, which range from 4 or 6 years for most limited
jurisdiction judgeships to as long as 14 years for some appellate court
judges. Judicial nominating commissions, composed of members of
the bar and the public, are used to screen candidates for judgeships in
many States, as well as for Federal judgeships.
Job Outlook
Persons seeking positions as lawyers or judges should encounter
competition through the year 2005, although for lawyer positions it is
expected to gradually lessen as employment grows. The prestige
associated with serving as a judge should insure continued intense
competition for openings on the bench. Public concerns about crime,
safety, and efficient administration of justice should cause employ­
ment of judges to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa­
tions through the year 2005.
Employment of lawyers has grown very rapidly since the early
1970’s, and is expected to continue to grow faster than the average
for all occupations through the year 2005. Increased population and
growing business activity will help sustain the strong growth in
demand for lawyers. This demand also will be spurred by growth of
legal action in such areas as employee benefits, consumer protection,
criminal prosecution, the environment, and finance, and an anticipat­
ed increase in the use of legal services by middle-income groups
through legal clinics and prepaid legal service programs.
Rapid growth in the Nation’s requirements for lawyers is expected
to bring job openings into rough balance with the relatively stable
number of law school graduates each year, which will gradually ease
competition for jobs through the year 2005. During the 1970’s, the
annual number of law school graduates more than doubled, even out­
pacing the rapid growth of jobs. Growth in the yearly number of law
school graduates tapered off during the 1980’s, but, nevertheless, the
number remains at a level high enough to strain the economy’s
capacity to absorb them. Although graduates with superior academic
records from well-regarded law schools will continue to enjoy excel­
lent opportunities, most graduates will encounter competition for
jobs.
Turnover among lawyers and judges is low because they are gener­
ally well paid, enjoy considerable social status, and have made a sub­
stantial educational investment for entry into the field. Nevertheless,
the majority of job openings will stem from the need to replace
lawyers and judges who transfer to other occupations or retire or stop
working for other reasons.
Employment growth of lawyers will continue to be concentrated in
salaried jobs, as businesses and all levels of government employ a
growing number of staff attorneys, and as employment in the legal
services industry is increasingly concentrated in larger law firms. The
number of self-employed lawyers is expected to continue to increase
slowly, reflecting the difficulty of establishing a profitable new prac­
tice in the face of competition from larger, established law firms.
Also, the growing complexity of law—which encourages specializa­
tion—and the cost of maintaining up-to-date legal research materials
both favor larger firms.
Large national and regional law firms will continue to be selective
in hiring new lawyers for associate positions that offer the potential
for partnership status. Graduates of prestigious law schools and those
who rank high in their classes should have the best opportunities for
such positions. Graduates of less prominent schools and those with
lower scholastic ratings may experience difficulty in securing associ­
ate positions with partnership potential but should experience an eas­
ing of competition for positions with smaller law firms, and for
salaried jobs on the legal staffs of corporations and government agen­
cies. As in the past, some graduates may continue to be forced to
accept positions for which they are overqualifed or in areas outside
their field of interest. They may have to enter fields where legal train­
ing is an asset but not normally a requirement. For example, banks,
insurance firms, real estate companies, government agencies, and
other organizations seek law graduates to fill many administrative,
managerial, and business positions.
Due to the competition for jobs, a law graduate’s geographic
mobility and work experience assume greater importance. The will­

16

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ingness to relocate may be an advantage in getting a job, but to be
licensed in a new State, a lawyer may have to take an additional State
bar examination. In addition, employers increasingly seek graduates
who have advanced law degrees and experience in a particular field
such as tax, patent, or admiralty law.
Establishing a new practice probably will continue to be easiest in
small towns and expanding suburban areas, as long as an active mar­
ket for legal services already exists. In such communities, competi­
tion from larger established law firms is likely to be less than in big
cities, and new lawyers may find it easier to become known to poten­
tial clients; also, rent and other business costs are somewhat lower.
Nevertheless, starting a new practice will remain an expensive and
risky undertaking that should be weighed carefully. Most salaried
positions will remain in urban areas where government agencies, law
firms, and big corporations are concentrated.
Some lawyers are adversely affected by cyclical swings in the
economy. During recessions, the demand for some discretionary legal
services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real
estate transactions, declines. Also, corporations are less likely to liti­
gate cases when declining sales and profits result in budgetary restric­
tions. Although few lawyers actually lose their jobs during these
times, earnings may decline for many. Some corporations and law
firms will not hire new attorneys until business improves. Several
factors, however, mitigate the overall impact of recessions on
lawyers. During recessions, individuals and corporations face other
legal problems, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces, that
require legal action. Furthermore, new laws and legal interpretations
will create new opportunities for lawyers.
Earnings
Annual salaries of beginning lawyers in private industry averaged
about $47,000 in 1990, but top graduates from the Nation’s best law
schools started in some cases at over $80,000 a year. In the Federal
Government, annual starting salaries for attorneys in 1990 were about
$25,000 or $31,000, depending upon academic and personal qualifi­
cations. Factors affecting the salaries offered to new graduates
include: Academic record; type, size, and location of employer; and
the desired specialized educational background. The field of law
makes a difference, too. Patent lawyers, for example, generally are
among the highest paid attorneys.
Salaries of experienced attorneys also vary widely according to the
type, size, and location of their employer. The average salary of the
most experienced lawyers in private industry in 1990 was over
$120,000, but some senior lawyers who were partners in the Nation’s
top law firms earned over $1 million. General attorneys in the Federal
Government averaged around $53,300 a year in 1990; the relatively
small number of patent attorneys in the Federal Government aver­
aged around $62,700.
Lawyers on salary receive increases as they assume greater respon­
sibility. Lawyers starting their own practice may need to work part
time in other occupations during the first years to supplement their
income. Their incomes usually grow as their practices develop.
Lawyers who are partners in law firms generally earn more than
those who practice alone.
Federal trial court judges had salaries of $125,100 in 1991, while
appellate court judges earned $132,700 a year. Federal judges with
limited jurisdiction, such as magistrates and bankruptcy court judges,
had salaries of $115,100 in 1991. Full-time Federal administrative
law judges had average salaries of $72,300 in 1990.
Annual salaries of State trial court judges averaged nearly $77,500
in 1991, according to a survey by the National Center for State
Courts, and ranged from about $55,200 to $100,000. Salaries of State
appellate court judges averaged nearly $85,300, but ranged from
$67,500 to $113,400. Salaries of State judges with limited jurisdic­
tion varied widely; some part-time judges were paid as little as $500
a year in 1991, while some who worked full-time earned as much as
$98,000 annually.
Most salaried lawyers and judges were provided health and life
insurance, and contributions were made on their behalf to retirement
plans. Lawyers who practiced independently were only covered by
such benefits if they arranged and paid for them themselves.

Related Occupations
Legal training is useful in many other occupations. Some of these are
paralegal, arbitrator, journalist, patent agent, title examiner, legisla­
tive assistant, lobbyist, FBI special agent, political office holder, and
corporate executive.
Sources of Additional Information
The American Bar Association annually publishes A Review of Legal
Education in the United States, which provides detailed information
on each of the 175 law schools approved by the ABA, State require­
ments for admission to legal practice, a directory of State bar exami­
nation administrators, and other information on legal education.
Single copies are free from the ABA, but there is a fee for multiple
copies. Free information on the bar examination, financial aid for law
students, and law as a career may also be obtained from:
Information Services, American Bar Association, 750 North Lake Shore
Dr., Chicago, IL 60611.

Information on legal education and applying to law school is avail­
able from:
<•“ Association of American Law Schools, 1201 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite
800, Washington, DC 20036.

Information on the LSAT, the Law School Data Assembly Service,
and financial aid for law students may be obtained from:
Law School Admission Services, Box 2000, Newtown, PA 18940.

The specific requirements for admission to the bar in a particular
State or other jurisdiction may also be obtained at the State capital
from the clerk of the Supreme Court or the administrator of the State
Board of Bar Examiners.

Paralegals

review government regulations to make sure that the corporation
operates within the law.
The duties of paralegals who work in government vary depending
on the type of agency that employs them. Generally, paralegals in
government analyze legal material for internal use, maintain refer­
ence files, conduct research for attorneys, collect and analyze evi­
dence for agency hearings, and prepare informative or explanatory
material on the law, agency regulations, and agency policy for gener­
al use by the agency and the public.
Paralegals employed in community legal service projects help the
poor, the aged, and other persons in need of legal aid. They file
forms, conduct research, and prepare documents. When authorized by
law, they may represent clients at administrative hearings.
Some paralegals, usually those in small and medium-sized law
firms, have varied duties. One day the paralegal may do research on
judicial decisions on improper police arrests and the next day may
help prepare a mortgage contract. This requires a general knowledge
of many areas of the law.
Some paralegals work for large, departmentalized law firms, gov­
ernment agencies, and corporations and specialize in one area of the
law. Some specialties are real estate, estate planning, family law,
labor law, litigation, and corporate law. Even within specialties, func­
tions often are broken down further so that a paralegal deals with one
narrow area of the specialty. For example, paralegals who specialize
in labor law may deal exclusively with employee benefits.
A growing number of paralegals are using computers in their work.
Computer software packages are increasingly used to search legal lit­
erature stored in the computer and identify legal texts relevant to a
specific subject. In litigation that involves many supporting docu­
ments, paralegals may use computers to organize and index the mate­
rial. Paralegals may also use computer software packages to perform
tax computations and explore the consequences of possible tax strate­
gies for clients.

(D.O.T. 119.267-022 and -026)

Nature of the Work
Not all legal work requires a law degree. Lawyers are often assisted
in their work by paralegals—also called “legal assistants”—who per­
form many of the same tasks as lawyers, except for those tasks con­
sidered to be the practice of law.
Paralegals work directly under the supervision of a lawyer. While
the lawyer assumes responsibility for the paralegal’s work, a parale­
gal is often allowed to perform all the functions of a lawyer other
than accepting clients, setting legal fees, giving legal advice, or pre­
senting a case in court.
Paralegals generally do background work for lawyers. To help pre­
pare a case for trial, a paralegal investigates the facts of the case to
make sure that all relevant information is uncovered. The paralegal
may conduct research to identify the appropriate laws, judicial deci­
sions, legal articles, and other material that will be used to determine
whether or not the client has a good case. After analyzing all the
information, the paralegal may prepare a written report that is used by
the attorney to decide how the case should be handled. Should the
attorney decide to file a lawsuit on behalf of the client, the paralegal
may assist in the preparation of legal arguments, draft pleadings to be
filed with the court, obtain affidavits, and assist the attorney during
the trial. The paralegal also may keep files of all documents and cor­
respondence important to the case.
Besides litigation, paralegals may also work in areas such as
bankruptcy, corporate law, criminal law, employee benefits, patent
and copyright law, and real estate. They help draft documents such as
contracts, mortgages, separation agreements, and trust instruments.
They may help prepare tax returns and plan estates. Some paralegals
coordinate the activities of the law office employees and keep the
financial records for the office.
Paralegals who work for corporations help attorneys with such
matters as employee contracts, shareholder agreements, stock option
plans, and employee benefit plans. They may help prepare and file
annual financial reports, maintain corporate minute books and resolu­
tions, and help secure loans for the corporation. Paralegals may also

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Working Conditions
Paralegals do most of their work at desks in offices and law libraries.
Occasionally, they travel to gather information and perform other
duties.
Paralegals employed by corporations and government work a stan­
dard 40-hour week. Although most paralegals work year round, some
are temporarily employed during busy times of the year then released
when work diminishes. Paralegals who work for law firms sometimes
work very long hours when they are under pressure to meet dead­
lines. Some law firms reward such loyalty with bonuses and addition­
al time off.
Paralegals handle many routine assignments, particularly when
they are inexperienced. Some find that these assignments offer little
challenge and become frustrated with their duties. However, parale­
gals usually assume more responsible and varied tasks as they gain
experience. Furthermore, as new laws and judicial interpretations
emerge, paralegals are exposed to many new legal problems that
make their work more interesting and challenging.
Employment
Paralegals held about 90,000 jobs in 1990. Private law firms
employed the vast majority; most of the remainder worked for vari­
ous levels of government. Paralegals are found in nearly every Feder­
al Government agency; the Departments of Justice, Treasury, Interior,
and Health and Human Services, and the General Services Adminis­
tration are the largest employers. State and local governments and
publicly funded legal service projects employ paralegals as well.
Banks, real estate development companies, and insurance companies
also employ small numbers of paralegals.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
There are several ways to enter the paralegal profession. Employers
generally require formal paralegal training; several types of training
programs are acceptable. However, some employers prefer to train
their paralegals on the job, promoting experienced legal secretaries
or hiring persons with college education but no legal experience.
Other entrants have experience in a technical field that is useful

17

research and litigation support is increasingly important. Paralegals
must always stay abreast of new developments in the law that affect
their area of practice.
Because paralegals often deal with the public, they must be courte­
ous and uphold the high ethical standards of the legal profession. A
few States have established ethical guidelines that paralegals in the
State must follow.
Experienced paralegals usually are given progressively more
responsible duties and less supervision. In large law firms, corporate
legal departments, and government agencies, experienced paralegals
may supervise other paralegals and clerical staff and delegate work
assigned by the attorneys. Advancement opportunities include pro­
motion to managerial and other law-related positions within the firm
or corporate legal department. However, some paralegals find it easi­
er to move to another law firm when seeking increased responsibility
or advancement.
Paralegals do legal research and investigate facts to help lawyers
prepare cases for trial.
to law firms, such as a background in tax preparation for tax and
estate practice or nursing or health administration for personal injury
practice.
Over 600 formal paralegal training programs are offered by 4-year
colleges and universities, law schools, community and junior col­
leges, business schools, and proprietary schools. In 1991, over 150
programs had been approved by the American Bar Association
(ABA). Although this approval is neither required nor sought by
many programs, graduation from an ABA-approved program can
enhance one’s employment opportunities. The requirements for
admission to formal training programs vary widely. Some require
some college courses or a bachelor’s degree. Others accept high
school graduates or persons with legal experience. A few schools
require standardized tests and personal interviews.
Most paralegal programs are completed in 2 years, although some
take as long as 4 years and award a bachelor’s degree upon comple­
tion. Other programs take only a few months to complete, but require
a bachelor’s degree for admission. Programs typically include a com­
bination of general courses on subjects such as the law and legal
research techniques, and courses that cover specialized areas of the
law, such as real estate, estate planning and probate, litigation, family
law, contracts, and criminal law. Many employers prefer applicants
with training in a specialized area of the law. Programs also increas­
ingly include courses that introduce students to the legal applications
of computers. Many paralegal training programs include an intern­
ship in which students gain practical experience by working for sev­
eral months in a law office, corporate legal department, or
government agency. Experience gained in internships is an asset
when seeking a job after graduation. Depending on the program,
graduates may receive a certificate, an associate degree, or, in some
cases, a bachelor’s degree.
The quality of paralegal training programs varies; the better pro­
grams generally emphasize job placement. Prospective students
should examine the experiences of recent graduates of programs in
which they are considering enrolling.
Paralegals need not be certified, but the National Association of
Legal Assistants has established standards for voluntary certification
which require various combinations of education and experience.
Paralegals who meet these standards are eligible to take a 2-day
examination given each year at several regional testing centers by the
Certifying Board of Legal Assistants of the National Association of
Legal Assistants. Persons who pass this examination may use the des­
ignation Certified Legal Assistant (CLA). This designation is a sign
of competence in the field and may enhance employment and
advancement opportunities.
Paralegals must be able to handle legal problems logically and
effectively communicate, both orally and in writing, their findings
and opinions to their supervising attorney. They must understand
legal terminology and have good research and investigative skills.
Familiarity with the operation and applications of computers in legal

18

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Job Outlook
The number of job openings for paralegals is expected to increase
significantly through the year 2005, but so will the number of per­
sons pursuing this career. Thus, keen competition for jobs should
continue as the growing number of graduates from paralegal training
programs keeps pace with employment growth. Still, job prospects
are generally expected to be good for graduates of highly regarded
formal programs.
Employment of paralegals has grown tremendously since the
emergence of this occupation in the late 1960’s. Employment is
expected to continue to grow much faster than the average for all
occupations through the year 2005. The emphasis on hiring parale­
gals should continue in both legal and law-related fields so that the
cost, availability, and efficiency of legal services can be improved.
Besides jobs arising from growth in demand for paralegals, numer­
ous job openings are expected to arise as persons leave the occupa­
tion for various reasons.
Private law firms will continue to be the largest employers of par­
alegals as a growing population sustains the need for legal services.
The growth of prepaid legal plans also should contribute to the
demand for the services of law firms. A growing array of other orga­
nizations, such as corporate legal departments, insurance companies,
real estate and title insurance firms, and banks will also hire parale­
gals. Job opportunities are expected to expand throughout the private
sector as more companies become aware that paralegals are able to
do many legal tasks for lower salaries than lawyers.
Job opportunities for paralegals will expand even in the public sec­
tor. Community legal service programs—which provide assistance to
the poor, the aged, minorities, and middle-income families—operate
on limited budgets and will employ more paralegals to keep expenses
down and serve the most people. Federal, State, and local govern­
ment agencies, consumer organizations, and the courts also should
continue to hire paralegals in increasing numbers.
To a limited extent, paralegal jobs are affected by the business
cycle. During recessions, the demand for some discretionary legal
services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real
estate transactions, declines. Corporations are less inclined to initiate
litigation when falling sales and profits lead to fiscal belt tightening.
As a result, full time paralegals employed in offices adversely affect­
ed by a recession may be laid off or have their work hours reduced.
On the other hand, during recessions, corporations and individuals
are more likely to face other legal problems, such as bankruptcies,
foreclosures, and divorces, that require legal solutions. Furthermore,
the continuous emergence of new laws and judicial interpretations of
existing laws creates new business for lawyers and paralegals without
regard to the business cycle.
Earnings
Earnings of paralegals vary greatly. Salaries depend on the education,
training, and experience the paralegal brings to the job, the type and
size of employer, and the geographic location of the job. Generally,
paralegals who work for large law firms or in large metropolitan
areas earn more than those who work for smaller firms or in less pop­
ulated regions.

Paralegals had an average annual salary of about $24,900 in 1991,
according to a utilization and compensation survey by the National
Association of Legal Assistants; the middle 50 percent earned
between $20,000 and $29,000 a year. Starting salaries of paralegals
averaged $20,900, while paralegals with from 3 to 5 years of experi­
ence averaged $24,200 a year. Salaries of paralegals with over 10
years of experience averaged $28,500 annually, according to the
same survey. In addition to a salary, many paralegals received an
annual bonus, which averaged $1,100 in 1991. Employers of the
majority of paralegals provided life and health insurance benefits and
contributed to a retirement plan on their behalf.
Paralegal Specialists hired by the Federal Government in 1991
started at about $17,000 or $21,000 a year, depending on their train­
ing and experience. The average annual salary of paralegals who
worked for the Federal Government in 1990 was about $32,164.
Related Occupations
Several other occupations also call for a specialized understanding of
the law and the legal system but do not require the extensive training
of a lawyer. Some of these are abstractors, claim examiners, compli­
ance and enforcement inspectors, occupational safety and health
workers, patent agents, police officers, and title examiners.


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Sources of Additional Information
General information on a career as a paralegal and a list of paralegal
training programs approved by the American Bar Association may be
purchased for a $5 fee from:
*■ Standing Committee on Legal Assistants, American Bar Association, 750
North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611.

For information on certification of paralegals, schools that offer
training programs in a specific State, and standards and guidelines for
paralegals, contact:
*■ National Association of Legal Assistants, Inc., 1601 South Main St Suite
300, Tulsa, OK 74119.

Information on a career as a paralegal, schools that offer training
programs, and local paralegal associations can be obtained from:
National Federation of Paralegal Associations, Suite 201, 104 Wilmot Rd„
Deerfield, IL 60015-5195.
National Paralegal Association, P.O. Box 406, Solebury, PA 18963.

Information on paralegal training programs may be obtained from:
"■ American Association for Paralegal Education, P.O. Box 40244, Overland
Park, KS 66204.

General information about a career as a legal assistant manager is
available from:
Legal Assistant Management Association, P.O. Box 40129, Overland Park
KS 66204.

19

New from BLS

cien

Do you want to know
more about work in
industries?
• Number of jobs
• Geographic areas having the most jobs
• Size of establishments
• Goods and services produced
• Kinds of workers employed—what types of
work is done
• Common working conditions and hazards
• Jobs that can be entered from high school;
from college
• Jobs that do not require specialized
education or training
• Opportunities for acquiring skills

Then, don’t miss this
new publication!

Career
Guide to
Industries
Career Guide to Industries, BLS Bulletin
2403, was produced by the same staff that
prepares the Occupational Outlook
Handbook—the Federal Goverment’s premier
career guidance publication. This new book is
a must for guidance counselors, individuals
planning their careers, job seekers, and others
who want the latest word on career information
from an industry perspective.

• Prospects for upward mobility
• Long-term employment outlook
• Reasons for changing staffing patterns
Digitized•forEarnings
FRASER of key occupations
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Note: At press time, the price for this publication was not
available. Contact any of the Bureau of Labor Statistics
Regional Offices listed on the inside front cover, or the
Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor
Statistics, Washington, DC 20212.